The business communication handbook [11 ed.] 9780170287531, 017028753X

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Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202

THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK 1 1E

JUDITH DWYER Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202

The Business Communication Handbook

© Judith Dwyer

11th Edition Judith Dwyer

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BRIEF CONTENTS PART ONE

COMMUNICATION FOUNDATIONS IN THE DIGITAL ERA

1

Chapter 1

Understand communication practices

3

Chapter 2

Develop emotional intelligence and interpersonal intelligence

30

Chapter 3

Adapt to change in the digital era

63

Chapter 4

Develop communication skills for employment

85

COMMUNICATION STRATEGIES IN THE WORKPLACE

116

PART TWO Chapter 5

Organise workplace information

118

Chapter 6

Manage work priorities and professional development

137

Chapter 7

Deliver presentations and speeches

167

Chapter 8

Develop negotiation and conflict management skills

190

Chapter 9

Implement and monitor a safe workplace

210

PART THREE COMMUNICATION WITH CUSTOMERS

240

Chapter 10

Deliver and monitor service to address customer needs

242

Chapter 11

Manage customer engagement

267

COMMUNICATION THROUGH DOCUMENTS

294

Chapter 12

Analyse and present research information

296

Chapter 13

Communicate using graphics and visual aids

322

Chapter 14

Effective business writing

351

Chapter 15

Writing business letters

388

Chapter 16

Write short reports

420

Chapter 17

Write long reports

441

Chapter 18

Write technical documents and proposals

477

Chapter 19

Record keeping

498

COMMUNICATION ACROSS THE ORGANISATION

519

Chapter 20

Develop effective workplace relationships

521

Chapter 21

Manage team effectiveness

559

Chapter 22

Lead and develop teams and individuals

593

Chapter 23

Organise and manage meetings

625

PART FOUR

PART FIVE

MINDTAP ONLY CHAPTER

ONLINE

Implement and monitor environmentally sustainable work practices See Guide to the Digital Resources on pxii for more information on this premium purchasable eLearning tool.

iii Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202

CONTENTS Guide to the text

viii

Guide to the online resources

x

CHAPTER 4 Develop communication skills for employment

85

xii

4.1 Searching for a job

86

Acknowledgements

xvi

4.2 Types of resume

91

About the authors

xvii

Learning map

xviii

Preface

4.3 Optimise resumes for keyword searches 4.4 Job interviews

99 103

Learning activities

112

Case study: Amar and Rochelle – keywords

114

PART ONE COMMUNICATION FOUNDATIONS IN THE DIGITAL ERA

1

SPOTLIGHT ON: COMMUNICATION

2

PART TWO COMMUNICATION STRATEGIES IN THE WORKPLACE

CHAPTER 1 Understand communication practices

3

SPOTLIGHT ON: WORKPLACE COMMUNICATION

117

1.1 Forms and functions of communication

4

1.2 The communication process

8

CHAPTER 5 Organise workplace information

118

5.1 Apply relevant legislation

119

5.2 Collect information

123

1.3 Ethics in communication

13

1.4 Factors impacting business communication

15

1.5 Intercultural communication

20

Learning activities

25

Case study: Feedback matters

28

CHAPTER 2 Develop emotional intelligence and interpersonal intelligence

30

2.1 What is emotional intelligence?

31

116

5.3 Organise information

127

5.4 Use and share information

131

5.5 Review information needs

133

Learning activities

134

Case study: Information and privacy issues

135

CHAPTER 6 Manage work priorities and professional development

137 138

2.2 What are the benefits of emotional intelligence?

34

6.1 Workgroup goals and plans

2.3 What is emotional labour?

38

6.2 Plan and complete own work schedule

144

2.4 Nonverbal communication

40

6.3 Use a time-management plan

146

2.5 The process of listening and providing feedback

45

2.6 Assertiveness

53

Learning activities

163

Learning activities

58

Case study: Flower Home Improvements

165

Case study: Is emotional intelligence important?

60

6.4 Assess skills against benchmarks

153

6.5 Coordinate professional development

160

CHAPTER 7 Deliver presentations and speeches

167

63

7.1 Types of public speaking

168

3.1 What is adaptability?

64

7.2 Plan the presentation or speech

173

3.2 Barriers to being adaptable

69

7.3 Write the presentation or speech

175

3.3 Why is digital literacy important?

71

3.4 Digital channels improve communication

77

7.4 Choose your aids, materials and presentation techniques

179

Learning activities

81

7.5 Deliver the presentation or speech

181

Case study: Nina’s adaptation to a new role

83

7.6 Handle difficult members of an audience

183

CHAPTER 3 Adapt to change in the digital era

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CONTENTS

7.7 Review the presentation or speech

186

10.4 Communicate effectively on the telephone

255

Learning activities

187

10.5 Monitor and report on service delivery

259

Case study: FASDEL Transport Company

188

Learning activities

263

Case study: Customer service blunder: kitchen delivery

265

CHAPTER 8 Develop negotiation and conflict management skills

190

8.1 What is negotiation?

191

CHAPTER 11 Manage customer engagement

8.2 Negotiating options

195

11.1 What is customer engagement?

268

8.3 Interest-based negotiation

197

11.2 Methods for engagement

271

8.4 What is conflict?

199

11.3 Build and maintain networks

279

8.5 Constructive behaviours

202

11.4 Social media

282

8.6 Map the conflict

204

11.5 Corrective actions

285

Learning activities

207

Learning activities

289

Case study: Michael and Cathy’s response to conflict

209

Case study: TMP Airlines’ management of Facebook and Twitter

291

267

CHAPTER 9 Implement and monitor a safe workplace

210

9.1 Communicate and facilitate workplace health and safety

PART FOUR COMMUNICATION THROUGH DOCUMENTS

211

9.2 Implement and monitor participative arrangements

SPOTLIGHT ON: COMMUNICATION THROUGH DOCUMENTS 295

217

9.3 Monitor procedures for providing WHS training

219

9.4 Implement and monitor procedures for identifying hazards and assessing risks

223

9.5 Implement and monitor procedures for controlling risks

226

9.6 Implement procedures for maintaining WHS records

232

294

CHAPTER 12 Analyse and present research information

296

12.1 Workplace research

297

12.2 Sources of information

302

12.3 Working with qualitative and quantitative data 308

Learning activities

235

Case study: Neil’s approach to safety performance

237

PART THREE COMMUNICATION WITH CUSTOMERS

240

SPOTLIGHT ON: COMMUNICATION WITH CUSTOMERS

241

CHAPTER 10 Deliver and monitor service to address customer needs 242

12.4 Reference sources of information

312

Learning activities

318

Case study: Ergonomic tips to improve our workspaces

320

CHAPTER 13 Communicate using graphics and visual aids

322

13.1 What is visual communication?

323

13.2 Different types of graphics

327

13.3 Selecting and presenting graphics

344

13.4 Ensuring quality and ethics

346

Learning activities

347

Case study: North Hospital Pty Ltd

349

243

CHAPTER 14 Effective business writing

351

10.2 Address customer needs

247

14.1 What is business writing?

352

10.3 Deal with customer complaints

251

14.2 The seven components of writing style

354

10.1 Customer responsive communication

v Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202

CONTENTS

14.3 Ethical business writing

366

18.5 Review and edit

493

14.4 Writing email

369

Learning activities

495

14.5 Writing screen-based content

379

Case study: Jargon and technical definitions

496

Learning activities

382

Case study: The virtual bookkeeping service

385

CHAPTER 19 Record keeping

388

19.1 The importance, function and life cycle of records

499

19.2 Identifying and gathering records

503

389

19.3 Access rules and procedures

510

15.2 Formatting a business letter

392

15.3 Writing good-news or neutral letters

398

19.4 Providing records within reasonable timeframes

513

15.4 Writing a bad-news letter

403

Learning activities

515

15.5 Writing persuasive letters

407

Case study: Capture of records

517

15.6 Writing and responding to written complaints

412

CHAPTER 15 Writing business letters 15.1 Applying the three-step writing process to business letters

498

Learning activities

416

Case study: Anna’s recommendation: debtor collection/reminder letters

PART FIVE COMMUNICATION ACROSS THE ORGANISATION

418

SPOTLIGHT ON: COMMUNICATION ACROSS THE ORGANISATION

520

CHAPTER 20 Develop effective workplace relationships

521

20.1 Collect and communicate information and ideas and engage in joint decision making

522

CHAPTER 16 Write short reports

420

16.1 Write short reports

421

16.2 Short report formats

423

16.3 Six types of short reports

425

Learning activities

437

Case study: How can a company benefit from dashboard reporting?

439

CHAPTER 17 Write long reports

441

17.1 Plan a long report

442

17.2 Writing a long report

447

17.3 Formatting a long report

452

17.4 Edit and review a long report

471

Learning activities Case study: Hazell Engineering: northern expansion

473 476

519

20.2 Give and receive instructions at work

529

20.3 Develop trust and confidence

533

20.4 Interpersonal communication styles

539

20.5 Manage poor work performance

543

20.6 Develop and maintain networks and relationships

552

Learning activities

554

Case study: Managing performance

556

CHAPTER 21 Manage team effectiveness

559

21.1 What is a team?

560

21.2 Team communication

565

21.3 Work-team enablers

574

477

21.4 Facilitate teamwork

576

478

21.5 Liaise with management and other stakeholders

585

CHAPTER 18 Write technical documents and proposals 18.1 The purpose of technical writing 18.2 Main features of technical writing

479

18.3 Common types of technical documents

483

18.4 Proposals and tenders

486

Learning activities

589

Case study: Fairlight Media Company

591

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CONTENTS

CHAPTER 22 Lead and develop teams and individuals

593

22.1 What does a leader do?

594

22.2 Sources of influence and power

599

22.3 Team-based leadership

604

22.4 Working with diversity

611

22.5 Develop teams and individuals

613

Learning activities

620

Case study: Rumblings in the team ranks

622

MINDTAP ONLY CHAPTER IMPLEMENT AND MONITOR ENVIRONMENTALLY SUSTAINABLE WORK PRACTICES MT.1 People, planet and profit: the triple bottom line MT.2 Investigate current practices MT.3 Set targets and develop improvement plans MT.4 Implement performance improvement strategies MT.5 Monitor and review resource use and improvements for environmental performance

CHAPTER 23 Organise and manage meetings

625

Learning activities

23.1 Determine the purpose

626

Case study: Preeminent Limited

23.2 Meeting roles and responsibilities

633

23.3 Communicate to achieve results

642

23.4 Decision making and problem solving in a meeting

646

23.5 Follow up and keep records

650

Glossary

655

Learning activities

651

Index

669

Case study: HAHN Food Group meetings

653

See Guide to the Digital Resources on pxii for more information on this premium purchasable eLearning tool.

vii Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202

viii Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202

GUIDE TO THE TEXT

ix Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202

x Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202

GUIDE TO THE ONLINE RESOURCES

xi Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202

PREFACE The importance of using good communication practices in written communication, face-to-face interactions and through digital channels is a central theme of the 11th edition. Employers seek job candidates with employability skills and the abilities to communicate and work independently and within teams, think clearly, problem solve and make decisions without direction. Employability skills such as communication skills, self-management, flexibility and adaptability to respond well to change and emerging technologies are skills and attributes that can be transferred across occupations and workplaces in any industry. Employability skills are considered by many employers as important as technical skills.

The book’s approach The title of The Business Communication Handbook 11th edition explains its purpose – to build and enhance knowledge of the communication principles, skills and tools critical to success for both organisations and individuals in today’s dynamic workplace. The innovations incorporated into The Business Communication Handbook 11th edition apply communication theory and principles into real-world practice. The balanced approach to both communication knowledge and practice enables you to enhance the quality of your interpersonal and workplace communication. Among the book’s features are: • learning objectives at the beginning of each chapter • concept map at the beginning of each chapter to create a pathway for student learning through the chapter • numerous exhibits to illustrate concepts clearly and concisely • summary of the chapter aligned to the learning objectives to provide a concise overview of the main points in the chapter and a tool for study and revision • key terms listed after the summary of each chapter to provide a quick review of important terms • checkpoint questions to test knowledge • updated learning activities and group assignments to consolidate knowledge and build skills • 23 case studies including nine new case studies to promote critical thinking and an understanding of situations arising in the workplace • spotlight on communication located at the beginning of each Part to focus students’ thinking on the skills employers seek from job candidates • access to new online learning tasks for each chapter to help students consolidate learning and achievement. Communication knowledge and skills are essential to career success. Employers not only seek staff with the technical knowledge and skills specific to an occupation. They also search for staff with the ability to communicate through traditional and the new digital communication channels and the capacity to contribute to harmonious relations between colleagues, customers and other stakeholders.

New to this edition The 11th edition of The Business Communication Handbook is a comprehensive revision of the 10th edition. The chapters in the book have been reorganised into five parts: Part One Communication foundations in the digital era; Part Two Communication in the workplace; Part Three Communication with customers; Part Four Communication through documents; Part Five Communication across an organisation, to provide a clear overview of communication theory and principles. The spotlight feature at the beginning of each part of the book aims to get students thinking about the concepts within the chapters and how they can apply them in their everyday and workplace communication. The new concept map at the beginning of each chapter showcases the student journey of learning throughout each chapter. Chapter 2 Develop emotional intelligence and interpersonal intelligence has a new section on emotional intelligence. Chapter 3 Adapt to change in the digital era is a new chapter to familiarise students with the skills of adaptability and the xii Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202

PREFACE

business uses of digital communication channels. Chapter 14 Effective business writing merges two chapters into one. Chapter 16 Write short reports introduces new content about dashboard reports.

P1

PART ONE – COMMUNICATION FOUNDATIONS IN THE DIGITAL ERA • Chapter 1 Understand communication practices has a new case study and additional content on the forms and functions of business communication, adaptability, ethics, channel richness, communication in digital channels and cultural sensitivity in intercultural communication. • Chapter 2 Developing emotional intelligence and interpersonal intelligence has a new case study and merges two chapters into one, incorporating new information on emotional intelligence, to explain how personal competence and social competence enhance adaptability and the capacity to work with a diversity of colleagues, offering techniques to sustain emotional labour, and added coverage of nonverbal communication, the process of listening, questioning, feedback and assertiveness. • Chapter 3 Adapt to change in the digital era is a new chapter addressing the attributes of adaptability, barriers to being adaptable, the skills of digital literacy, their growing importance in the workplace and organisational needs fulfilled by digital channels of communication. • Chapter 4 Develop communication skills for employment has a new case study and discusses how to search for a position, construct a job application, job interview skills and highlights the increasing importance of online applications, digital resumes, networking and social media in the job-search process.

P2

PART TWO – COMMUNICATION IN THE WORKPLACE • Chapter 5 Organise workplace information covers the information life cycle, organising information, information retrieval, using and sharing information, confidentiality, privacy, security and information disposal. • Chapter 6 Manage work priorities and professional development covers workgroup goals and objectives, setting goals, prioritising, managing time, completing own work schedule, determining development needs and priorities and the importance of professional development. • Chapter 7 Deliver presentations and speeches offers strategies to plan and structure a speech or presentation with a connecting theme, to write a speech or presentation with supporting visual material, to deliver a speech or presentation confidently, to handle difficult audience members and highlights ethics and the reasons for a ‘Welcome to country’ featuring in public speaking and events. • Chapter 8 Develop negotiation and conflict management skills has a new case study and is now a stand-alone chapter with coverage of negotiation strategies, personal styles, negotiating options and their consequences, the ‘fair go’ approach of interest-based negotiation, conflict management strategies and how to chart common interests and concerns in a conflict map. • Chapter 9 Implement and monitor a safe workplace includes overview of the Australian WHS framework, duty of care, WHS management plans, WHS consultation procedures, hazard identification, risk assessment, reporting, corrective action, WHS training, hierarchy of control, risk ranking, office ergonomics, reporting incidents and accidents and compliance with the legislative framework.

P3

PART THREE – COMMUNICATION WITH CUSTOMERS • Chapter 10 Deliver and monitor service to address customer needs has a new case study, strategies to address customer needs, deal with complaints, problem solve, telephone skills, reporting threatening or suspicious calls, monitor and report on service delivery and customer satisfaction and dissatisfaction, recommend improvements and maintain records. • Chapter 11 Manage customer engagement is a new chapter that identifies the stages of customer engagement and strategies that build rapport and satisfaction as the customer journeys through the stages to engagement with

xiii Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202

PREFACE

the organisation through social media, through self-service apps, browsing through online promotions and interactions, face-to-face and online networking strategies and the reasons for reviewing customer service, implementing corrective actions and reporting outcomes.

P4

PART FOUR – COMMUNICATION THROUGH DOCUMENTS • Chapter 12 Analyse and present research information identifies the steps in the research process, outlines reasons for researching, analysing and collecting information in the work environment from primary and secondary sources, presenting quantitative and qualitative data to support findings, conclusions and recommendations with evidence and the need to reference sources of information accurately. • Chapter 13 Communicating using graphics and visual aids includes a new section on infographics plus the basic principles of visual design, strategies to construct different types of graphics, select and use ethical presentation to produce a graphic appropriate to the message. • Chapter 14 Effective business writing merges two chapters into one, comprising business writing style, writing emails, writing screen-based content for social media, text messaging, Twitter blogs and how these communication channels function in the workplace plus a new section on ethical business writing. • Chapter 15 Writing business letters applies the three-step writing process to business letters, discusses formatting and function of the parts, differentiates the order of information for good-news or neutral letters, bad-news letters, persuasive letters and explains how to write and respond to a letter of complaint. • Chapter 16 Write short reports introduces new content and a case study about dashboard reports which provide a snapshot of key performance indicators, addresses typical formats for short reports, explains justification, progress, periodic, incident and form reports and analytical reports. • Chapter 17 Write long reports has a new case study and incorporates planning a long report, defining the reports’ purpose and issues, gathering, organising and ordering the information, writing a long report using formal report writing style and the features of technology to format the parts of a long report, using the six-step approach to edit, review and present a professional business report. • Chapter 18 Write technical documents and proposals addresses the purpose and main features of a technical writing style and format, explains how to write technical definitions, technical descriptions, technical instructions, proposals and tenders, work requests, responses to requests for tender (RFT) and examines common writing errors. • Chapter 19 Record keeping addresses the life cycle of records, the purpose of legislation, standards and accountability, how to identify user requirements, classify records, use finding aids to assist with locating and accessing records, apply version control, ensure duty of care and confidentiality, provide records to the user within reasonable timeframes and disposal of records.

P5

PART FIVE – COMMUNICATION ACROSS THE ORGANISATION • Chapter 20 Develop effective workplace relationships has a new case study and addresses the skills and knowledge to use leadership to promote team cohesion, the collection, analysis and communication of information and ideas; the development of trust and confidence, networks and relationships; and the constructive management of difficulties and poor performance. • Chapter 21 Manage team effectiveness addresses the skills and knowledge required to lead teams, promote ethics, values and norms, fair treatment and inclusion, engage with management, plan team performance, communication skills to facilitate team cohesion and team work, and facilitate liaison with stakeholders. • Chapter 22 Lead and develop teams and individuals outlines three theories of leadership (transformational leadership, transactional leadership and authentic leadership), sources of influence, challenges of team-based

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PREFACE

•

leadership, working with diversity, how to develop teams and individuals, determine development needs, support team and individual learning and development, and monitor and evaluate learning. Chapter 23 Organise and manage meetings discusses the purpose of different types, how to plan for face-to-face and virtual meetings, the duties of the chair, secretary and members, protocols and procedures, meeting etiquette and respectful interactions, task-related, maintenance-related, defensive and dysfunctional roles, communication barriers caused by hot-headed, dominating and distracting participants, decision making and problem solving techniques, following up and record keeping.

ONLINE CHAPTER • MindTap: Implement and monitor environmentally sustainable work practices is an additional chapter online that incorporates the triple bottom line, environmental performance, environmentally sustainable work practices, methods to investigate and audit current practices for compliance requirements, strategies to implement and monitor performance improvement, provide feedback and report outcomes.

Employability skills Employers today seek staff with the ability to communicate effectively, gather information, apply knowledge, create innovative ideas, develop rapport, think critically and build relationships with colleagues, customers and others. They look for the employability skills that enable employees to: • adapt to new situations, act independently and translate new options into action. • communicate, problem solve and make decisions • acquire new knowledge and skills through study, on-the-job learning and other ways • self-manage and apply learning to technical issues, operations and interpersonal relationships • contribute to ongoing improvement and expansion in employee and company operations and outcomes • use technology and digital channels of communication to carry out tasks proficiently and apply information technology as a management tool. Employability skills are the non-technical skills and attributes that are transferable across occupations and workplaces in any industry. Employability skills developed in one workplace can be transferred and further developed in different roles and across different workplaces. Employers also identify loyalty, commitment, sense of humour, common sense, ability to deal with pressure, motivation, adaptability, positive self-esteem, reliability and personal presentation as the personal attributes valued by employers.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I extend my thanks to contributing author Nicole Hopwood for the chapters and advice she has provided throughout the planning and writing of this 11th edition. Her work has been vital in bringing to life the many aspects of writing emails, memos and short reports, record keeping and communicating visually. Her contribution was invaluable in bringing the book to completion. I am especially grateful to Kyall Coulton for his invaluable contribution to the work involved in researching and writing a new edition, for three of the new case studies in the book and for the formatting and preparation of the new online Assessor Guide for the 11th edition. I also thank Gregory Punshon for his reading, support and suggestions regarding changes to business communication due to changing digital technology that have made this a better book. I wish to extend our appreciation to the people at Cengage for their continuing help and guidance. They include Senior Development Editor Jessica Brennan, Project Editors Natalie Orr and Lauren McGregor, Publisher Ng Chee, Greg Alford for his careful editing of the text, Jess and the Cengage sales representatives. Special thanks to the following reviewers whose detailed and perceptive comments resulted in extensive refinements to the book: • Melanie Dare Box Hill Institute • John Arthur TAFE NSW • Merran Renton Bedford College • Corina Murphy Canberra Institute of Technology • Sally Bradfield TAFE NSW – Ultimo • Anne Butler TMG College • Katherine Firth Melbourne Business School, University of Melbourne • Mingsheng Li Massey University • Odette Van Der Berg CQUniversity, Australia • Marissa Edwards The University of Queensland • Rebecca Redfern Monash Training and Professional Development • Louise Handley TAFE SA • Rosita Thomas Whitireia Polytechnic, Auckland • Rosemary Kerr Curtin University I am especially grateful to my husband John Burns for his invaluable input, ongoing support, interest and enthusiasm throughout the 11 editions of the book. Judith Dwyer October 2018

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ABOUT THE AUTHORS Judith Dwyer, M Mgt, B Ec, Dip Ed, IML member, has worked in education and training for many years. Judith’s specialisation is in cross-industry management and communication studies. In her early career she taught business students Communication Studies within Technical and Further Education for a period of 20 years. Through her TAFE experiences as a teacher and senior manager she has gained valuable experience in the needs of adult learners. Through her involvement with industry and as Managing Director of a nationally recognised Registered Training Organisation (RTO) she has observed the need for individuals, teams and organisations with the skills and knowledge to communicate effectively in order to achieve results. She promotes positive interactive communication as one of the essential components in any successful organisation. In recent years she has become a leading vocational education and training author of textbooks and learning materials. The practical approach taken in her writing and the application of proven educational and business principles provides value to students, teachers and lecturers. It also provides opportunities throughout the book for students to practise and further develop the employability skills of communication, teamwork, problem solving, initiative and enterprise, planning and organising, self-management, learning and use of technology and social media. People are able to put their learning into practice in their studies and workplace. Judith earned her degree in Economics from the University of New England, her Diploma of Education from the University of Newcastle and her Master of Management (Public) from the University of Technology Sydney. She is a member of the Institute of Managers and Leaders.

About the contributing author Nicole Hopwood holds a Graduate Diploma of Management, a Bachelor of Economics (Accounting Major) and is a Certified Practising Accountant (CPA). Her professional experience includes working in various industries including professional services, banking and telecommunications. She has specialised in business reconstruction and insolvency in the professional services industry. She has communicated the results of detailed analysis to decision makers in both investment and retail banking in the United Kingdom and Australia, respectively. Nicole has set up and maintained monitoring tools for use in analysing whether customers are credit worthy in the telecommunications industry. From Nicole’s extensive professional experience in Australia and the United Kingdom she has gained the realisation that each member within an organisation has a responsibility for continual improvement both within themself and the organisation. Her philosophy, reflected in this book, is that continual improvement and learning are integral to improvement in every aspect of an organisation’s activities. Linked to continual improvement is ongoing organisational change and that deep insights can be gained from systematic collection and analysis of data. She believes the best decisions are based on the correct analysis of quality data. Continual improvement and effective management of change leads to customer satisfaction, new customers, premium pricing, profitability, brand reputation, employee satisfaction and morale. The organised, systematic application of the knowledge, tools and resources of change management provides organisations with a key process to involve stakeholders and achieve change successfully. Nicole earned her Bachelor degree in Economics from the University of Sydney and her Graduate Diploma of Management from the Australian Graduate School of Management (AGSM). She is a member of CPA Australia.

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PART ONE

self-aware ne

ulation -reg elf

Your Learning Map

+ ss s

CH 3 ADAPT TO CHANGE IN THE DIGITAL ERA

CH 2 DEVELOP EMOTIONAL INTELLEGENCE + INTERPERSONAL INTELLIGENCE

CH 1 UNDERSTAND COMMUNICATION PRACTICES

Communication foundations in the digital era

WELL DONE! You’ve reached the end of this learning journey

CH 22 LEAD + DEVELOP TEAMS + INDIVIDUALS

CH 21 MANAGE TEAM EFFECTIVENESS

CH 20 DEVELOP EFFECTIVE WORKPLACE RELATIONSHIPS

PART FIVE CH 23 ORGANISE + MANAGE MEETINGS

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MINDTAP ONL Y CHAPTER IMPLEMENT + MONITOR ENVIRONMEN TALLY SUSTAINABL E WORK PRAC

TICES

CH 4 DEVELOP COMMUNICATION SKILLS FOR EMPLOYMENT

PART TWO

CH 7

CH 8

DELIVER PRESENTATIONS + SPEECHES

DEVELOP NEGOTIATION + CONFLICT MANAGEMENT SKILLS

CH 6 MANAGE WORK PRIORITIES + PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT

CH 5 ORGANISE WORKPLACE INFORMATION

Communication strategies in the workplace

CH 9 IMPLEMENT + MONITOR A SAFE WORKPLACE

THIS WAY FOR PART THREE

CH 10 DELIVER + MONITOR SERVICE TO ADDRESS CUSTOMER NEEDS

Communication with customers CH 11 MANAGE CUSTOMER ENGAGEMENT

PART FOUR

Where to now?

CH 12 ANALYSE + PRESENT RESEARCH INFORMATION

Communication through documents CH 19 RECORD KEEPING

CH 13

CH 16 WRITE SHORT REPORTS

CH 18 WRITE TECHNICAL DOCUMENTS + PROPOSALS

COMMUNICATE USING GRAPHICS + VISUAL AIDS

CH 17 WRITE LONG REPORTS

CH 15 WRITE BUSINESS LETTERS

CH 14 EFFECTIVE BUSINESS WRITING

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Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202

PART

CHAPTER 1

UNDERSTAND COMMUNICATION PRACTICES

CHAPTER 2

DEVELOP EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE AND INTERPERSONAL INTELLIGENCE

CHAPTER 3

ADAPT TO CHANGE IN THE DIGITAL ERA

CHAPTER 4

DEVELOP COMMUNICATION SKILLS FOR EMPLOYMENT

1

COMMUNICATION FOUNDATIONS IN THE DIGITAL ERA

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Spotlight on: Communication

Communication – the human connection – is the key to personal and career success. Paul J. Meyer

In the modern workplace, communication skills are highly regarded. The importance of understanding self and others and having the interpersonal skills to build positive relationships while working towards productive outcomes means employers are seeking candidates with the emotional intelligence and interpersonal skills to build positive relationships and accomplish work tasks and objectives. The rapid evolution of digital channels of communication requires employers and employees to adapt and respond flexibly. A willingness to learn and apply new skills to new technologies improves interactions, relationships and work performance. Some of the most important skills employers say they look for are communication, openness to experience, adaptability in response to change, flexibility, ability to learn, self-management, relationship management and ability to work independently as well as with others. These skills are transferable between occupations and enhance interpersonal interactions, relationship building and performance through any of the face-to-face, written, graphic and digital channels of communication.

What do you think? In the digital age, do you think employers care about communication? Do you use different styles of communication when you communicate and interact in the digital media; for example, Twitter, email, voicemail, Facebook, Instagram? Why are emotional intelligence and interpersonal skills relevant? •

Can you think of a time when you felt your emotions impacted the way that you communicated?

•

Why should employers care about employees’ adaptability?

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UNDERSTAND COMMUNICATION PRACTICES

CHAPTER

1

YOUR

FORMS

LEARNING

verbal nonverbal graphic

JOURNEY

C

1 er t p ha

+

FUNCTIONS informing persuading implementing

1.1

of Business Communication

1.4

Looks at FACTORS that IMPACT BUSINESS COMMUNICATION

EXPLORE the INTERACTIVE COMMUNICATION process of INFORMATION FLOW

 globalisation  workforce diversity  technology  organisation change  knowledge

1.2

Where to now?

How can I be sensitive and inclusive? 1.5

Next DEVELOP EMOTIONAL INTELLEGENCE + INTERPERSONAL INTELLIGENCE

How can I communicate ethically? CH2

encoding clear messages choosing the right channel

1.3 decoding messages to share understanding overcoming barriers to communication communicating clearly in formal and informal settings

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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK

LEARNING OBJECTIVES After studying this chapter, you should be able to: 1.1 discuss the main forms and functions of business communication 1.2 outline each element of the communication process 1.3 identify the characteristics of an ethical business communicator 1.4 outline factors impacting communication in business 1.5 discuss the role of cultural sensitivity and inclusive communication techniques in overcoming cultural differences.

1.1 FORMS AND FUNCTIONS OF COMMUNICATION Employers within any type of enterprise realise effective communication creates connections that build and foster relationships and enhance productivity. The term ‘communication’ implies verbal interaction, but it can mean other things as well. In any industry, profession or occupation, communication includes: • the written word as conveyed in letters, emails, online reports, internet transactions and social media • nonverbal signs such as body language and tone of voice, and recognising the appropriate way to interact in various situations • graphic communication such as in signs and video clips. We tend to take these non-spoken forms for granted because we rarely consider them. Since employers are looking for a broad range of communication skills as well as technical and related skills, it is worth learning and improving your communication capabilities.

FORMS: VERBAL, NONVERBAL AND GRAPHIC Differentiate three forms of workplace communication.

Choose the form of communication with the channel richness appropriate for your message.

There are three forms of communication: 1. verbal communication, either spoken or written 2. nonverbal communication 3. graphic communication. Skills in verbal communication (spoken and written), nonverbal and graphic communication are all essential in the workplace. At work, verbal communication takes place between a variety of individuals and groups, such as managers, team members, colleagues and customers. Examples of verbal communication include written reports, emails and blogs, announcements, providing advice, asking for clarification, assistance and feedback, acknowledging customer requests and complaints. Nonverbal communication is sent by any means other than words or graphics. Nonverbal components occur in oral, written and graphic communication. In oral communication, for example, facial expressions, body movement, posture, dress and other nonverbal cues affect the message. Format and layout are two of the nonverbal components of written and graphic communication. Graphic communication represents ideas, relationships or connections visually with shapes, diagrams and lines. It can have both verbal and nonverbal components – for example, signs such as ‘no smoking’, drawings, colour, illustrations, typography, graphic designs, and electronic and digital resources. Verbal (spoken and written), nonverbal and graphic communication have different strengths and weaknesses. Spoken communication is a useful way to convey feelings and receive feedback, while written

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CHAPTER 1 / Understand communication practices communication is a better way of conveying facts, particularly those that are complicated and need to be held as records. Graphic communication is able to complement spoken and written communication. Channel richness refers to the amount of information and understanding that can be transmitted by a particular communication channel. For example, face-to-face conversations, Skype or FaceTime calls and videoconferencing have high levels of information richness because as well as hearing the words the sender and receiver can see the other person’s facial expressions and body language and sense their tone of voice. Additional meaning flows from the other person’s body language, vocal intonation and feedback. Medium-rich channels include emails, written letters, memos, blogs and other documents conveyed by hand-held and desktop devices because they convey words and graphics such as pictures, graphs and photos, but lack the immediate feedback and body language cues of the rich channels. The rigid and standardised format of formal written reports, legal documents, spreadsheets and policies and procedures manuals are the least rich because they depend on the written words with the accompanying graphs and figures to convey meaning. The opportunity for immediate feedback is not available.

FUNCTIONS OF COMMUNICATION The main functions of communication in any business enterprise are to inform and persuade internal and external stakeholders and to make and implement decisions. Refer to Exhibit 1.1.

Informing The primary purpose of informing within any organisation is to provide data and information so employees can carry out their jobs. Information allows employees to understand what needs to be done, increases productivity and minimises job uncertainty. Information about policies communicates standards: for example, ‘Smoking and drinking are strictly prohibited within the company offices and grounds’. Procedures support policies by describing who, what, how, when and why a process or task should be done. Refer to Chapters 5, 9 and 11 for discussion of the role of information for those external to the enterprise.

EXHIBIT 1.1 Main functions of business communication COMMUNICATE INTERNALLY WITH: • Managers • Supervisors • Team leaders • Coworkers

• • • •

COMMUNICATE EXTERNALLY WITH: Customers Suppliers Government agencies The public

FUNCTIONS: 1. Inform 2. Persuade 3. Make and implement decisions

Persuading The purpose of persuasion is to change the attitude or behaviour of employees, colleagues, customers, suppliers and others. The essential components of persuasion are the credibility of the source, emotional appeal (based on factual and emotional arguments) and a message conveyed along the right channel(s) to reach the intended receiver. Information and persuasion help to build and maintain effective workplace relationships. A positive communication climate builds a culture of trust and motivates individuals and work teams to work towards common goals. The result is individuals and teams that value performance, improve productivity and deliver high levels of customer service.

Use persuasion to motivate others to change attitudes or behaviour.

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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK

Implementing decisions Another essential function of communication is the making and implementation of decisions. Decisions are the courses of action deliberately chosen from a range of alternatives to achieve an organisation’s objectives. Decision making sustains the activities of all organisations and plays a crucial role in the ongoing success of any organisation. Communication is a necessary component for making decisions in any business interaction. It conveys information about the decision-making process: why, by whom, what it involves, and how and when the decision will be implemented.

SUCCESSFUL BUSINESS COMMUNICATION Successful business communicators are open, approachable and supportive of others. They are adaptable and focus on what needs to be done in any situation. Openness to new ideas and adaptation to changed situations, strategy, policies and procedures lead to enhanced productivity and growth of the organisation. Employees at every level in an organisation need the communication skills to understand and respond to the formal and informal communication from their leaders, managers and supervisors. An organisation’s culture and the way people behave at work are influenced by their formal and informal interactions. Effective communicators are able to interact well in both formal and informal organisational settings. Formal, informal or unofficial messages will be conveyed along different channels. The choice of channel will be influenced by the nature of the message, the channel’s richness or leanness and the sensitivity and emotional content of the subject. Different communication channels are dealt with in more detail later in this chapter in Section 1.2, The communication process.

Formal business communication Formal communication deals with the information that flows through different lines and channels, from management to employees, from employees to management and between peers. Formal small-group communication occurs in project team meetings, working parties, committee meetings and any other small group that meets and interacts in the workplace. Small groups meet faceto-face or remotely via digital technology such as text, screen or voice.

Informal business communication Informal communication flows in any direction and can occur across all levels and areas of an organisation. In their informal interactions, effective interpersonal communicators match their body language, facial expression, posture, movement and tone of voice to their words. For example, when a colleague says, ‘That’s a great idea’ with a big smile on his face and a rising tone, you know that he is happy with the idea. Without this interpersonal awareness of the person who is communicating, a great deal of what the person is trying to communicate is missed. In addition to listening to words, people watch and listen to all of the nonverbal communication (body language, tone of voice, facial expression) parts of the message.

The importance of communication method Successful communicators choose the appropriate method or channel to send a message. The wrong communication channel is being used, for example, when an employee opens an email and reads she is

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CHAPTER 1 / Understand communication practices being transferred to another state. A face-to-face meeting is a better channel because of the opportunity for questions and answers and reading of the other person’s body language, facial expressions and vocal characteristics. Successful communicators know oral communication is suited to two situations. The first is emotionally charged messages requiring a richer channel than written communication. The second is simple, routine messages that are concise and clear and require a quick response. Written communication such as emails, letters, reports and online messages conveys more complex information that may be forwarded to one or more receivers. The written communication can be read at any time and kept for future reference. Furthermore, email and online written messages are available through smartphones, tablets and laptops at the office, at home, while travelling or at remote work locations. Many more simple, routine messages can be sent using written communication rather than face-to-face communication.

Effective communication outcomes The outcome of effective formal and informal communication is more cohesive and effective relationships and teams. Open communication ensures understanding of the organisation’s direction and vision. Well-informed team members and other colleagues know how their achievements contribute to the growth and success of the organisation. They are motivated to work productively towards common goals. Effective informing and persuading results in job satisfaction, increased motivation and productivity, less absenteeism and fewer accidents. (McGregor 1960, Rajhans 2012) Successful business communication promotes positive attitudes and behaviours towards an organisation from its internal and external stakeholders. The benefits are customer loyalty and an increasing number of return customers. A successful business communicator has the ability to analyse the process of communication and understand how to use it effectively. They apply this understanding when they use each of the three forms of communication (verbal, nonverbal and graphic) and apply the functions identified in Exhibit 1.1. A successful business communicator provides information, offers constructive feedback and connects positively with others. Feedback is dealt with in detail later in this chapter. Successful business communication also requires managers, team members and colleagues to apply emotional intelligence and interpersonal skills, as detailed in Chapter 2.

ADAPTABILITY AND FLEXIBILITY Communication adaptability refers to a person’s readiness and ability to adjust their communication based on the specific needs of the situation or relationship. As our experience widens, new learning about ways to adapt in different situations and changing circumstances takes place. Adaptability enables individuals to adjust their behaviour to make others feel more at ease with the situation. Relationships are respectful, understanding, non-judgemental and cultivated in a way that allows everyone to win. Trust and credibility increase when a person has the flexibility to adapt their emotions, thoughts and behaviours to unfamiliar and varying circumstances or ideas. Adaptability in spoken and nonverbal responses to changing or tense situations means interactions are more likely to be productive, because the adjustments to communication are suited to the situation. For example, when a colleague tells you at 5.30 pm the night before tomorrow’s joint presentation that they haven’t finished their part of the presentation, the ability to adapt from a ‘knee-jerk’ reaction of irritation or anger to a calm response that focuses on positive ways to deal with the situation avoids misunderstanding and conflict. Adaptable communication connects with others in a way that meets the needs of both and the needs of the situation.

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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK In the case of changed circumstances, adaptability allows a person to deal with changing priorities and workloads, take on new challenges and improvise at short notice. Adaptability enhances persistence and calmness in response to unexpected demands or difficulties, promotes an open mind and considers the overall situation positively. The ability to communicate and adapt is acquired by learning skills from others, from training and professional development programs and from experience. The communication styles of individuals and organisations develop through using and adapting new techniques.

CHECKPOINT 1.1

1. Communication: a. Describe three forms of communication. b. List the main functions of business communication. c. What are the essential components of persuasion? d. What does channel richness mean? 2. Name three ways in which communication flows in an organisation. 3. Communication adaptability: a. Define the term ‘communication adaptability’. b. How would you describe a person who has the flexibility to adapt to changing circumstances?

1.2 THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS

Interact in the communication process.

Communication is an intricate and interactive process. The interactions of several elements affect the people who are communicating. Someone sends, someone receives, and the outcome is a message. As information flows, people perceive meaning and structure in the messages received from others. However, perception – the way individuals understand or give meaning to the same message – varies according to how each individual is influenced by experience, attitudes and beliefs, and a range of acquired skills or expectations. One person may, for example, perceive the colour blue as cool, peaceful and comforting, while another person may see blue as old-fashioned or formal. The specific meaning is influenced by past experience. Even the context or setting of the communication can affect perception. The communication process takes place in various contexts and situations, for different reasons and with the potential for many interpretations. It has seven main elements: 1. sender 2. receiver 3. message 4. channel 5. feedback 6. context or setting 7. noise or interference. There are many models of the communication process. Exhibit 1.2 is a representation of how communication works. It cannot be used as a complete guide; it simply places the most significant elements of the process in a meaningful sequence.

A MODEL OF COMMUNICATION Transfer meaning through effective communication.

The main action, as communication occurs, is that the sender and receiver interact by sending (encoding) and receiving (decoding) messages. Exhibit 1.2 shows seven elements of the communication process, which begins with the sender.

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CHAPTER 1 / Understand communication practices

EXHIBIT 1.2 The communication process Receive

SENDER

Perception of sender Self-concept Family Culture Skills Feelings Attitudes Values Gender Expectations Physical and emotional state

5. Receiver provides Feedback

Send

RECEIVER

7. Noise or interference

1. Sender has a concept

4. Receiver decodes and responds to message

6. Context 2. Encodes (produces) concept into a Message

7. Noise or interference

Send

3. Communication channel

Perception of receiver Self-concept Family Culture Skills Feelings Attitudes Values Gender Expectations Physical and emotional state

Receive

Sender Senders are individuals who respond to situations from a unique vantage point, interpreting ideas and filtering experiences through their own perception. Unique to individual senders, and integral to all the communication they engage in, is a background of accumulated attitudes, experiences, skills, cultural conditioning and differences that influence how they communicate. The sender encodes a concept or a feeling in words or signs that the receiver will recognise and sends this message to the receiver. However, the way the message is intended by the sender may be quite different from the way the receiver perceives the message.

Encode messages clearly to enhance the receiver’s understanding.

Receiver The receiver decodes or interprets the message to achieve understanding. In doing this, the receiver is also acting as an individual with a unique vantage point, interpreting the idea according to a particular personal perception of the message. Perception can be described as a pair of spectacles through which the receiver processes all the signals received from others. The lenses place a particular focus on what is seen, heard and understood and they influence the way the receiver reacts to the message. Perception is the result of the receiver’s unique background of experiences, beliefs, concerns and many other factors. Communication is successful when the sender and receiver share understanding. The shared understanding motivates and influences behaviour. Communication is more than sending information. As the receiver interprets the message, it may not be received with the interpretation the sender had hoped for.

Message The message is the concept or feeling transmitted from the sender to the receiver to achieve understanding. It makes a connection between sender and receiver.

Consider how perception influences communication. Decode the message in preparation for feedback.

Connect the sender to the receiver with a clear message conveyed along the appropriate channel.

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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK The message is the verbal, nonverbal or graphic content sent from sender to receiver. For example, as you leave your doctor’s surgery you say, ‘Thank you’. The doctor receives the message and decodes it as a courteous farewell. Any message has content (verbal, nonverbal or graphic) that the sender transmits to the receiver. The receiver decodes the message and responds or gives feedback to the sender. A business message should be well structured and use a form of communication and channel appropriate to the needs of the sender and receiver. A message that is understood and prompts the receiver to take the intended action or to think in new ways is effective.

Communication channel

Choose a channel appropriate to your communication purpose and the needs of the receiver.

A communication channel is the means or technique used to signal or convey a message: for example, a conversation, letter, telephone call, internet, email, media release, social media or radio/television program. The Australian Tax Office, for example, is a proactive user of social media channels. As well as using face-to-face, phone, paper and online channels, it engages with its stakeholders through different social media including blogs, Facebook, Twitter, YouTube and LinkedIn. The rise of digital communication and social media has seen the focus of business shift from written to oral communication and from text to visual communication. The shift to richer channels allows greater amounts of information and understanding between senders and receivers. For example, the proliferation of mobile devices enables easy connectivity along a variety of channels with those inside and outside the physical workplace. Employees have easy access to workplace policies, procedures, processes and other information. Digital streaming of information stored in virtual clouds and on hard drives enables almost instant access. Software built into mobile phones, touch tablets, e-readers and laptops provides seamless channels to information and entertainments. Each channel is different, and understanding the way people interact in each channel enhances engagement and understanding. Choose a channel that suits your communication purpose, your needs as the sender of the message, the needs of the receiver and time constraints. Emotionally charged messages require a rich channel, while simple, routine messages simply require a short, clear-cut message. For example, while a quick email is sufficient to advise your team of tomorrow’s lunch in acknowledgement and appreciation of reaching this month’s goals, it is not suitable for telling someone their contract has been cancelled. The flow of communication moves through the organisation along different lines or channels. Horizontal channels operate between colleagues at the same level of the organisation’s structure, while vertical channels move communication up and down between different levels.

Feedback A constant feeding back of information occurs as people interact. As well as encouraging the speaker to continue, listeners respond in a way that shows their comprehension and acceptance or non-acceptance of the message. Without feedback, there is uncertainty as to whether or not the message has been understood. Asking a question, listening carefully and observing body language gives clues to the effectiveness of communication. The facial expressions, tone of voice and gestures of the other person help you to work out if they understand and are interested in the interaction. Feedback, particularly the nonverbal component, lets you know if the receivers are being defensive, confident, truthful or evasive. Feedback and interpreting the receiver’s body language allows the sender to ask questions, and to adjust and expand their message. Feedback also works to allow the receiver to check their understanding of the message. 10 Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202

CHAPTER 1 / Understand communication practices Feedback is a two-way process that is an essential part of successful communication. It is the receiver’s response to the sender’s message, and can be intentional or unintentional. Feedback: • gives the communication continuity • indicates understanding or misunderstanding of the message • stimulates further communication and discussion. Both sender and receiver need feedback. As you communicate, check with your receivers to establish that their understanding of the message is correct. Ask the receiver to rephrase what has been said and acknowledge your agreement or disagreement. Feedback is important to determine how the message is being received and helps receivers understand how their behaviour affects others. Feedback can help or hinder your communication and the climate you create. In the workplace, most people communicate face-to-face with their leaders, supervisors and colleagues, so providing appropriate feedback can assist the development of good working relationships and the productivity of the business or organisation.

Respond to messages through feedback.

Context Context consists of the situation, circumstances or setting within which communication takes place. Context plays an important part in how a message is encoded and decoded. The same message can carry a completely different meaning depending on the situation, since emotions and reactions to ideas and events vary in different situations – for example, communication at a conference, in the lunchroom or at a formal meeting is taking place in different settings. It may use different language, and operate on a different set of relationships and authority to achieve the communication purpose of each situation.

Acknowledge the impact of context on the message.

Noise or interference The message received is not necessarily the same as the message sent. Something other than the intended meaning may be received because of noise or interference, which interrupts and distorts the intended message. Noise or interference creates a barrier that interrupts smooth communication flow between sender and receiver and is likely to lead to misunderstanding, or to confused or ambiguous communication. Communication barriers or noise can be caused by the sender, the receiver, lack of feedback, a poor choice of channel, the wrong context or any other element in the communication model. Even when communication barriers occur, something is communicated to the receiver, but the noise or interference distorts the intended message. Some of the factors that cause communication barriers are inappropriate choice of words, inappropriate channel, inappropriate message and receiver inattention. Lack of courtesy by the sender or the receiver, nonverbal communication that does not support the words and different cultural backgrounds may distort the message. Poor layout and presentation, inappropriate timing and inadequate feedback may also cause problems. Recognising the causes of poor communication is an important step towards avoiding them. Consider the possibilities shown in Exhibit 1.3. To reduce the chance of communication barriers and associated problems, communicate with empathy – a feeling for and awareness of your receivers and their points of view. Also, be willing to provide appropriate and sufficient feedback to achieve understanding. At any stage of the communication process – sender, message, channel, receiver, feedback or context – there is the potential for misunderstanding and confusion. Effective communicators commit to overcoming obstacles that may arise in any stage of the communication process.

Avoid or minimise noise (barriers) that interrupt the communication.

Remove barriers to communication.

Use empathy to break down communication barriers.

Demonstrate awareness of the other person, their feelings and point of view.

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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK

EXHIBIT 1.3 Communication barriers Cause of barrier

CHECKPOINT 1.2

FROM THEORY TO PRACTICE

Outcome

Strategies to avoid barrier

Differences in perception

People often see and interpret the same event or action in a different way

• Listen carefully • Speak clearly and directly to the other person • Ask questions • Give feedback

Different attitudes and values

People often form different interpretations

• Listen carefully • Speak clearly and directly to the other person • Ask questions • Give feedback

Inconsistency between spoken and nonverbal communication

Poor communication and confusion due to an ambiguous message

• Match the verbal and nonverbal parts of the total message

Withholding information

Others operate with only part of the message, so mistakes are more likely to occur

• Plan and structure the message to include all necessary information

Passing judgement by telling people their reaction is foolish

The receiver can become angry and retaliate

• Listen actively • Ask questions • Give feedback

Dismissing others’ concerns or points of view

The receiver may withdraw

• Listen carefully • Show you are aware of the other’s point of view • Ask questions

Misinterpreting complex language

The receiver may misunderstand

• Use visual images and graphics on equipment • Post signs in employees’ first language

1. List and briefly explain the seven elements in the communication model. 2. Recall a situation in which you believe communication was successful. Give three reasons why the communication worked well. 3. Identify six communication barriers that can arise in a workplace.

Introductions: How do you communicate who you are and what you do? In the business environment, introductions are how people communicate who they are and what they do. They can be a shorthand for your role and contribution as well as a great opportunity to set the foundations for future working relationships. So, if an introduction can be all these things, what can you do to ensure it is? According to Lisa B. Marshall, from The Public Speaker, there are three things to keep in mind when introducing yourself in the business environment.

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CHAPTER 1 / Understand communication practices

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1. Communicate your contribution – that is, let people know not just what it is that you do but also where your strengths and skills lie. For example: My name’s Mimi Lee, I have extensive experience working in the digital communication and content development fields. I’ve worked in publishing, state government and education. What I do well is communication. My role in this team is to enable communication and understanding between stakeholders. If you need to communicate something to a stakeholder, I’m here to help you. I take information and make sure it’s communicated in an understandable and relatable way, in the appropriate channel, for each stakeholder. This introduction not only explains Mimi’s experience and role but also tells people what they can expect from her. 2. Be memorable – introductions can easily blur into each other for the listener, especially in a situation where many people are introducing themselves. Keep in mind that what people remember is often how what you do relates to them and their role. In Mimi’s example, what would be memorable is what she does for the team. If someone needs to communicate something to, or decode information from, a stakeholder, Mimi is the person to help them. 3. Be culturally aware – this covers local as well as international culture. Be aware of the culture of the workplace. Just as dress codes vary from place to place, so too do codes of conduct. Be aware of what is considered appropriate to the people you are addressing. Is it a more formal workplace? Would making a joke be appropriate? Is there a risk that making a joke could offend? Always know your audience. Source: https://www.quickanddirtytips.com/business-career/public-speaking/how-to-introduce-yourself-in-ameeting?page¼1, viewed 2 November 2018.

ASK YOURSELF: Think about when you last introduced yourself to a fellow student. Compare this to how you introduced yourself to a teacher or in a job interview. Did you use any of the three elements discussed? How might you have changed your introduction if you had?

1.3 ETHICS IN COMMUNICATION Business decisions are made and actions taken by individuals or groups who are influenced by their view of what is right and wrong and by the culture of their organisation. Ethical behaviour enables employees to act with equity, fairness, impartiality and respect for the rights of others. The culture within an ethical company expects individuals and groups to work in accordance with ethical principles such as respect, honesty, transparency, objectivity, integrity, openness and inclusiveness. Business communication is an integral part of any organisation’s activities. Ethical business communication is legal, consistent, responsible and transparent. Ethical business communicators make choices that enable them to: • follow the organisation’s policies, procedures, guidelines and code of ethics • communicate factual information objectively • avoid using distortions of fact and misleading information • respect the dignity of each person, irrespective of ethnic background, religion or gender.

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CODE OF ETHICS Most organisations have a code of ethics, which is a statement of their primary values and the ethical rules they expect their employees to follow. An ethical organisation requires its employees to fulfil their duties in accordance with its code of ethics, contracts, laws and regulations. The ethical rules become the norms of conduct that differentiate behaviour that is acceptable from behaviour that is not acceptable. A code of ethics benefits the company and the individual by: • reinforcing the organisation’s standard of conduct • reminding staff that management wants ethical issues considered in all decisions made • identifying practices that are and are not permissible • allowing leaders, managers and others to share experiences and ideas about what is and is not an ethical position • developing a shared culture based on ethics and accountability. In a company without a code of ethics, people may be uncertain about how to deal with an issue or problem. Organisations with high ethical standards treat customers, staff and other stakeholders honestly and fairly. Employees are expected to maintain confidentiality of information by using it carefully to ensure it is not used without authorisation. High-quality products and services are delivered to customers and any faults or poor service are corrected as soon as possible. Ethical behaviour builds a positive organisational image and reputation, as well as good relationships.

Conflict of interest Recognise a situation as a conflict of interest when you sense a clash between different interests, points of view or loyalties.

A conflict of interest occurs when a situation that benefits an employee disadvantages their organisation. Situations that could lead to a conflict of interest due to personal, financial or commercial benefit must be avoided. For example, a purchasing officer accepts trips and gifts from a supplier and then selects the supplier’s products for purchase, or a manager employs a relative or close friend and then supervises the relative’s job responsibilities, salary and promotions. Conflicts of interest weaken an organisation’s, group’s or individual’s reputation and call into question the manager and other employee’s integrity because other managers and colleagues will criticise and doubt that the actions are in the best interests of the organisation. Methods organisations use to deal with conflicts of interest are to: • create a code of ethics • establish clear company policies • explain the code of ethics and policies when hiring and inducting employees • communicate a code of ethics and policies in the employee handbook and collect signed and dated acknowledgement forms • have employees sign a noncompete and confidentiality agreement when they are employed • decide if action needs to be taken when a conflict arises: for example, give a warning to the employee, have a meeting with Human Resources or, in an extreme case, terminate an employee. Conduct business with honesty and impartiality and work in accordance with professional and organisational codes of conduct and ethics. Honest and impartial communicators avoid exaggeration, false information, lies and deception that may mislead their receivers. They realise the importance of knowing about and working in accordance with copyright, trademark, contract and liability laws relevant to their industry and field of work.

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CHAPTER 1 / Understand communication practices

1. 2. 3. 4.

How does ethical behaviour benefit an organisation? What is the purpose of a code of ethics? Provide two examples of a conflict of interest at work. How can organisations deal with conflicts of interest?

1.4 FACTORS IMPACTING BUSINESS COMMUNICATION Communication in any type of work environment, such as the finance, health, transport, services, hospitality, manufacturing or any other industry, is about connecting with others. While the situations in which people communicate in different industries can vary, some of the factors that impact communication are common to most work environments. These factors are shown in Exhibit 1.4. Many of the changes in the world of work make communication skills the key to your success. These changes include the opportunities and challenges arising from globalisation and workforce diversity, evolving social networks, the constant cycle of change and the growing importance of knowledge management and intellectual ‘know-how’.

GLOBALISATION

CHECKPOINT 1.3

EXHIBIT 1.4 Factors impacting business communication

Globalisation

Workforce diversity

Factors impacting on business communication

Organisational change and sustainability

Digital technology and social media

Knowledge management

Globalisation means that people around the world are more connected to each other than ever before. The abundance of information technology enables business transactions across borders. Goods, services and knowledge created in one economy are exchanged with other economies around the world. More and more outsourcing of some functions – for example, telemarketing and finance – requires employees to collaborate across national boundaries via online and digital technology. Continuing globalisation has led to larger markets, more technologies and a broader and deeper knowledge base. The resulting increase in international competition is forcing organisations to interact and collaborate with one another and across national boundaries. Successful global communicators realise that differences in values, attitudes and expectations mean collaborating across cultures is not always easy. However, they make the effort to learn about the different ways of greeting, farewelling and interacting in business meetings and other situations. Knowing about the culture and habits of other countries, and being willing to adapt and respond flexibly, means less emotionalism and reaction and more reliance on facts and responses appropriate to the issue or situation. Organisations are increasingly searching for emotionally competent leaders, managers and other employees with the emotional competence to connect within teams and with others across and between organisations and national borders. They realise that awareness and control of one’s own emotions, as well as the ability to sense the feelings and perspectives of those from other cultures, builds strong relationships. Cultural sensitivity and an active interest in the concerns of others creates a culture of cooperation, trust, team commitment and a sense of purpose.

Meet the challenges of globalisation.

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Use big data: that is, the dynamic, large and disparate volumes of data being created by people, tools and machines, as appropriate to the situation.

Build an inclusive culture by acknowledging and managing diversity in the workplace.

Emotionally competent leaders, senior managers and team members are able to adapt or even change to match changed circumstances. Adaptable and flexible responses to challenges and new opportunities empower and motivate employees to achieve mutually agreed outcomes. Successful global organisations apply a reality check using data and information to evaluate proposed solutions against workplace parameters such as legal and organisational requirements, budget restraints, resource capability and time constraints. Traditional organisational information combined with the volumes of big data collected on social media, data from internet-enabled devices (including smartphones and tablets), machine data, video and voice recordings afford opportunities to improve ‘customer and product profitability, customer acquisition and retention strategies, customer satisfaction strategies, marketing segmentation, operations and performance management, supply chain and delivery channel strategy’ (EY 2014, p. 4). A global organisation promotes good business interactions and relationships by sharing and modelling standards for business interactions, social etiquette, and customs and rituals between organisations and across cultures and national boundaries. Intercultural differences are respected and people work together to fulfil responsibilities and accountabilities. In 2017, Johnson & Johnson was recognised as one of the top five by DiversityInc Top 50 Companies for Diversity. Key factors cited in the improvement included the diversity of our board of directors, which is 38.4% more diverse than the average among top-50 companies, as well as our best-in-class mentoring programs, which features cross-gender, cross-functional, cross-segment, cross-generational and crossregional mentoring. Source: Johnson & Johnson, 2018.

WORKFORCE DIVERSITY The strategies organisations use to recruit, supervise, promote, reward and use the skills of all employees reflect a company’s approach to diversity and inclusiveness. Successful organisations are able to embrace the differences in gender, age, language, sexual orientation, religious belief, family responsibilities, ethnicity and cultural background within their workforce. An inclusive organisational culture is built on leadership that promotes diversity as well as conditions, systems and procedures that enable employees from different backgrounds to work together harmoniously. The organisation’s management recognises the value of individual differences, manages them constructively and removes barriers to opportunity. The reasons for companies to address workforce diversity are detailed in Exhibit 1.5. Dealing with differences is a key requirement for any sustainable organisation. Given that it is now common to find four or five generations, multiple languages, many ethnicities and races, and differences in gender, sexual orientation, religion, personalities and values in the workplace, it is imperative that organisations are geared to work with and benefit from diversity. Intentional and unintentional messages may lead to misunderstanding because of a message that is poorly constructed by the sender, or due to the receiver’s perception and cultural background. By bringing together many different perspectives, positive management of diversity provides an opportunity to build an organisational culture that allows people to interact and communicate effectively and learn from each other about how to better achieve their work tasks. Conversely, stereotyping and discrimination lead to inequalities in access to education, training and promotion. The need to offer any diverse population equality of access to opportunities in education, jobs and promotion makes communication strategies such as Plain English and inclusive communication an essential part of workplace communication. These two strategies are presented more fully in Chapter 14, Effective business writing. 16 Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202

CHAPTER 1 / Understand communication practices

EXHIBIT 1.5 Reasons for working with diversity Outcomes

Purpose Business communication strategy

• Holds managers accountable for managing employees of the organisation ethically and fairly • Enables the organisation to demonstrate compliance with harassment, anti-discrimination and other legislative requirements • Communicates effectively with the diverse range of suppliers, customers and other stakeholders • Fosters an attitude of openness and encourages employees to express their ideas and opinions

Capacity-building strategy

• Enhances the organisation’s employee profile at all levels within the organisation • Allows employees seeking flexible working arrangements to contribute to an organisation • Builds an inclusive culture to capture and retain talented employees

Resource imperative

• Enables the company to select employees from a wider pool • Allows consistent selection, advancement and treatment of employees according to the principles of equal opportunity employment • Retains and maintains talent within an organisation (e.g. people returning from maternity and paternity leave)

Marketing strategy

• Increases market share because a diverse workforce has knowledge of the different rules and patterns of behaviour across cultures served by the organisation • Helps an organisation to match its customer base • Obtains a competitive advantage over organisations that have a homogeneous view of the world in which they operate

Social responsibility

• Provides the opportunity for people with appropriate qualifications to enter the workforce regardless of race, gender, religious background and other factors • Treats employees with respect and dignity • Avoids marginalising and excluding groups from opportunities

Legal requirement

• Avoids direct or indirect discrimination • Complies with legislation such as anti-discrimination and equal employment opportunity legislation

DIGITAL TECHNOLOGY Progressive organisations provide employees with a set of easy-to-use, productive and efficient digital platforms and channels on which to perform work tasks. Four of the business functions supported by digital and social media are: • internal communication • communication with customers and clients • training and development • internal process improvements. Communication, data and processes are shared between operations in different locations in virtual meeting spaces, on electronic whiteboards, through videoconference and telepresence, podcasts, 17 Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202

THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK instant messaging and Facebook. Brainstorming sessions via digital channels allow a diverse range of staff to contribute and share understanding. Online meetings facilitate the review of projects, plans and business processes across all stakeholders in real time. Collaboration along these channels speeds up interactions within the organisation and enables departments such as customer support and research and development to benefit from a closer relationship. Communication with customers and clients along the richer social media channels makes possible more effective marketing campaigns, more interactive sales presentations to customers, extra online customer support and additional interactions with suppliers and business partners. Social media, for example, is now used extensively by the tourism industry to take bookings, answer queries and exchange information with customers. Facebook and Twitter enable customers to interact immediately and directly. Customers ask questions on Facebook and Twitter and expect a quick answer or fast resolution of a problem. Media-rich websites, online video sharing and live streaming of major organisation announcements provide customers with information and product support. Instead of simply trying to sell more and more products and services, successful organisations now focus on creating mutual value as often as possible. Training and development takes place through wikis, blogs, podcasts, Really Simple Syndication (RSS) feeds, discussion forums, video clips, videoconferences, virtual meeting spaces and webinars. Benefits from these channels include interacting with employees to manage knowledge, determining training gaps and establishing the best method of delivery. An additional benefit is the opportunity for senior, experienced managers to interact with junior team members at different locations. Digital channels provide instant access to updated news headlines, blog posts or selected website content to both in-house and remote workers. Process improvements flow, for example, from global positioning systems (GPS), and location and tracking technologies allow remote monitoring of trucking fleets. Supply management and warehousing software support the reporting of stock levels and movements and help to forecast peak periods. Administrative efficiencies include speech recognition technology for dictation and conversion into text that can then be converted into a document purely by speaking. Efficiencies flowing from digital communication improve operations and customer experiences. Digital and social media channels enable users to develop productive business relationships outside of their workgroup or team, encourage knowledge sharing across the organisation and allow employees to contribute to long-term strategies and perform day-to-day operations in shared digital workspaces. Digital technology and social media tools foster collaboration, alliances and partnerships within and outside the organisation.

ORGANISATIONAL CHANGE AND SUSTAINABILITY

Communicate at all levels within an organisation to allow stakeholder involvement, confidence in the process and commitment.

An organisation needs to be able to communicate at all levels to effectively manage and adapt to change. Change is a continuing process or cycle within any successful organisation. A sustainable organisation responds to change by planning for the long term, as well as managing day-to-day operations. For an organisation to achieve sustainability, its leaders and senior management must communicate a clear vision and purpose, enable strategies to meet objectives and be able to adapt flexibly to disruptions in the market such as the entry of new competitors or creation of new competing products due to innovation. Sustaining an organisation over the long term takes time and requires good management, good planning and good communication along a variety of communication channels. The pressures for organisational change may be internal or external. Internal sources of change lead to new or modified activities within the organisation. External sources outside the control of the organisation – for example, a change in environmental protection regulations – may disrupt normal operations and force change. Some of these changes are shown in Exhibit 1.6.

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EXHIBIT 1.6 Sources of change Internal source of change • new product lines • end-of-product lines replaced • changes in the organisation’s vision or strategy and management decisions • changes in senior staff and new appointments • introduction of new processes and procedures • mergers or takeovers that change the organisation’s structure and way it is run

External source of change • changes in customer demands • changes by an existing supplier or entry of a new competitor in the market • different customer demands or customer requirements • community demand for environmental care • technological advancements • new or changed legislation and regulations

Organisations must adapt to changing circumstances or face becoming irrelevant. Changing circumstances can include external changes, such as changes to the markets an organisation aims to reach, and also internal changes, such as a change in the range of products or services it offers or how the company distributes its products or services. For example, if McCleish Real Estate Agency decided to merge with Jamieson Agency, identical departments would be merged, employees from both companies shifted to new positions or let go, duplicate management positions would be eliminated, old policies and procedures replaced and job functions realigned to fit the new company structure. Communicating how the change will occur, how the implementation will happen and why the change is required would enable people within the real estate agencies to understand the implications for them, the organisation and other stakeholders. The current focus on an organisation’s long-term sustainability or viability requires organisations to adapt and change to keep pace with the evolving business environment. Verbal, nonverbal and graphic communication are used to explain the reasons for change. Effective communication and sharing of the reasons for change enable the organisation to improve productivity and demonstrate accountability to stakeholders such as government authorities, shareholders, customers and suppliers. As they plan and organise work tasks and activities, managers, supervisors, team leaders and members must comply with organisational policies and practices and relevant legislation and regulations.

KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT The ‘knowledge age’ is the age of information and of the knowledge worker who specialises in acquiring and transforming data into intellectual capital. Intellectual capital includes the skills and knowledge that an organisation has developed about how to make its products or services. It also includes the individual knowledge of employees or groups of employees and the documents about policies, processes, the results of surveys and research, customers and other information of value. Intellectual capital is intangible, covering an organisation’s employees, its relationships and information used to improve its operations, create new products, and engage ongoing and new customers. Knowledge workers have a responsibility to communicate how, why, what and who will use the intellectual capital in their workplace tasks. Knowledge work is information-based rather than materials-based. The culture of a knowledge management organisation recognises the efforts of its knowledge workers, empowers employees to make decisions relating to work activities, and values and applies knowledge to all its activities. Knowledge communication is key to knowledge management in an organisation. ‘Knowledge communication is defined as the (deliberate) activity of interactively conveying and co-constructing insights, assessments, experiences, or skills through verbal and nonverbal means.’ (Eppler 2006, p. 2). Knowledge communication is successful when an insight, experience or skill is transferred effectively to

Access and apply intellectual capital – that is the collective knowledge (whether documented or not) of the individuals in an organisation or society.

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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK those who need to apply the knowledge in the performance of their job. Knowledge is transferred along a combination of channels, including face-to-face, written reports, meetings, video clips and virtual interactions. Organisations with a knowledge-management culture utilise knowledge to build long-term value into their operations. Knowledge is widely shared and applied across the organisation through strong networks of relationships and collaboration. Knowledge of the organisation’s vision, code of conduct and ethical standards enables good corporate governance. Effective management of long- and short-term business objectives, planning for contingencies and avoiding conflicts of interest flow from knowledge. Knowledge of procedures, checks and balances enhances the detection and prevention of fraud and corrupt practices. Knowledge about factors in the external environment such as stakeholders, competing businesses, social, regulatory, cultural, competitive, financial and political factors enables an organisation to manage external risks and opportunities. Senior, middle and first-line managers’ ability to ensure accountability, fairness and transparency in the organisation’s relationships with its stakeholders – shareholders, institutions, customers, management, employees, government and the community – is enhanced through the strategic transfer of knowledge across the organisation. Refer to Chapter 5, Organise workplace information, for a more detailed discussion of knowledge management.

CHECKPOINT 1.4

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Briefly describe the characteristics of a successful global communicator. What is an inclusive organisational culture built on? Provide three reasons for working with diversity. What are the benefits for an organisation of using digital and social media channels? Internal and external sources of change: a. List three internal sources of change. b. List three external sources of change. 6. Knowledge communication and management: a. Define the term ‘knowledge communication’. b. List six types of knowledge managed within an organisation.

1.5 INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION Acknowledge different cultural expectations and build shared understanding and respect.

Be willing to acknowledge and understand cultural difference and differences in perception.

Culture is learned and expressed in language and symbols, and over time develops distinctive national patterns of communication and social behaviour. These patterns are the customs and conventions regarded as the characteristics of a particular culture. Customs and habits affect the way people communicate and act as individuals or in groups. Cultures have different rules for who will communicate the message, and to whom it will be communicated, dependent on the hierarchy and status within a family, organisation or society. Both culture and individual experience shape each person’s perception, style of communication and interpretation of others’ intentional messages and unintentional messages. Some of the many aspects of nonverbal communication influenced by culture are tone of voice, inflection, rate of speech, facial expressions, touching and body movement. Intercultural communication is the interpersonal interactions between individuals from varying backgrounds, cultures and experience. It occurs as people communicate across cultures and time zones via face-to-face meetings (to cement relationships), podcasts (to convey information), web-based meetings (to interact with others in remote locations) and a variety of other communication channels.

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EXHIBIT 1.7 Levels of culture in a society Visible

Comprises the patterns and behaviour visible in the culture, including technology, buildings, artefacts and behaviour patterns

Less visible

Comprises cultural communication and describes how people communicate verbally and nonverbally as a society or group

Almost visible

Comprises the ideas, basic assumptions, values and beliefs that have evolved from the shared experiences of the members of a society

THREE LEVELS OF CULTURE Culture derives from the interconnected assumptions, beliefs, values, attitudes, norms and rules shared by a society or group. Culture is learnt social behaviours that develop over time. Within any society there are three levels of culture, as shown in Exhibit 1.7. Culture is transmitted and maintained through learning and group interaction. The interaction of a country’s social structure, religion, political system, economic philosophy, language and education system influence its norms and values. The way we speak and give nonverbal messages is learned from family, friends, education and work colleagues.

CULTURAL ORIENTATION Hofstede (1984, 1991, 2001) identified four main dimensions on which national cultures differ in terms of their values: 1. Power distance describes the extent to which less-powerful members of a society accept inequality in power and status as normal. High-power-distance cultures tolerate inequality to a much greater degree than low-power-distance cultures. 2. Individualism/collectivism describes cultures that are individualistic or collective in their approach. Individualistic societies focus on the ‘I’, while collectivist societies focus on the ‘we’. People from the ‘I’ societies look after their own interests and the immediate family, while the ‘we’ societies focus on the group or extended family, organisation and nation. 3. Masculinity/femininity refers to the extent to which a society adopts male- or female-oriented work values. High masculine values show a preference for assertiveness, achievement, ambition, material acquisition and competition. Feminine cultures are more flexible, with a preference for nurturing, caring for others, non-material values and quality of life. 4. Uncertainty avoidance defines the extent to which members of a culture feel threatened by ambiguous, unclear or unstructured situations. Countries with high levels of uncertainty avoidance are risk averse and have strict codes of behaviour and formal rules. Low-uncertainty cultures are willing to accept change and require fewer structures and rules. Hofstede’s four cultural dimensions provide insights into different cultural expectations. The increasing diversity in the workplace and ongoing globalisation of Australian business highlights the importance of recognising and understanding differing cultural expectations in our multicultural society. Acknowledging these differences enables us to move beyond our cultural conditioning to improve business communication and our understanding of others.

Consider the four cultural dimensions to gain insight into different cultural expectations.

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ETHNOCENTRISM Avoid ethnocentrism – the belief that one’s cultural norms are superior to those of other social groups – and promote intercultural communication. Recognise and apply the symbols of the other culture and be willing to adapt to a new environment.

Ethnocentrism is the use of one’s own culture to interpret all other cultures. Ethnocentric people tend to interpret the actions, customs, values, religion, codes and behaviours of other people using their own culture as a guide. They view their own culture as the ‘central’ culture and, in interacting and communicating with members of different cultures, use their own cultural norms as the central point of reference. An ethnocentric person tends to see their own group, country and culture as the best. Awareness and knowledge of the cultural norms of other racial, ethnic or social groups underpins effective intercultural communication. Without awareness, an ethnocentric person may travel the world making no effort to look beyond their own culture or try to understand other cultures. Ignorance prevents interaction with another culture. Rather than interpreting the customs and behaviour of other people by using our own culture as a benchmark, organisations and people have to recognise and apply the symbols of the other culture and be willing to adapt to a new environment. Ethnocentrism is a major barrier to intercultural communication and understanding.

CULTURAL DIFFERENCES Cultural rules determine what message is communicated, by which channels of communication and in which context. When and why the message is sent are also affected by cultural rules. Some messages are universal to all cultures. For example, an emergency warning about fire in the building will be immediately conveyed by all concerned in any culture. On the other hand, notification about the appointment of a new Chief Executive Officer will follow the specific culture’s rules for formal announcements. Exhibit 1.8 gives examples of some of the ways in which cultures differ from one another.

RULES AND PATTERNS OF BEHAVIOUR Develop awareness of the different customs, rules and social behaviour in different cultures to minimise the barriers caused by prejudice, stereotypes and discrimination.

The common rules and patterns of behaviour of one country may be very different from those of another. Cultural sensitivity leads to effective intercultural communication. As part of our socialisation, or enculturation, we internalise the rules of interaction within our culture. This is the third, almost invisible, level of culture. Our perception of what is being said in our conversations is affected by our background experience, values, attitudes, life concerns, cultural conditioning, skills and other factors. In Australia, people whose culture involves rigid rules on who speaks first or last in conversations, or the belief that to look down as someone speaks to you is courteous, would seem discourteous. This impression might lead to their exclusion from the conversation without their knowing why. What we assume and how we expect others to behave are affected by our cultural filter. Our cultural filter influences our perceptions, according to our cultural background. Some of these internalised rules relate to: • courtesies in speech, such as when to say ‘please’, ‘thank you’ or ‘excuse me’ • the meaning of ‘yes’ and ‘no’ • rules of politeness – who can speak to whom, and who can begin a conversation • humour and irony • dress • use of time • deference to others • drinking alcohol • appropriate use of space in terms of proximity.

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EXHIBIT 1.8 Key cultural differences Difference

Description

Example

Language

Differences in the: • nature of discourse, i.e. main point first, followed by justification or justification first, followed by main point • degree of ambiguity or precision conveyed by the words • use of first or surnames – Americans use first names during business hours, whereas some European countries use title and surname.

In Western culture, ‘yes’ means ‘agreement’. In other cultures, ‘yes’ can simply mean an acknowledgement that the message was heard.

Time

Differences in time taken to: • build friendships • build business relationships • make business decisions • complete business transactions.

In traditional cultures, trust and friendship are more important than time.

Space

Differences in space send messages about: • status, as shown in the size of an office or location of a company’s head office • type of relationship, shown in use of personal space, i.e. the use of intimate, personal and social space varies between cultures • insiders and outsiders, i.e. members of a profession, religion or education group.

In Western societies intimate space is 0 to 45 cm, personal is 45 cm to 1 m and social is 1 to 2 m.

Business customs

Differences in: • attitudes to gifts, i.e. what is the difference between gifts and bribery? • degree of formality or informality, i.e. use of first names, relaxed postures, use of personal space, opening offices with or without knocking • attitudes towards alcohol • appropriateness of gifts.

In a Hindu country, gifts such as wallets or belts made of cow hide would be inappropriate because the cow is a sacred animal.

Business clothing

Differences in perceptions of appropriateness: • formal or casual • modest and loose-fitting • stylish and high quality • custom tailoring or mass produced • men’s ties, bright or subdued colours • suits in black, grey or dark blue • women in business suits with skirts or slacks

In China red is a lucky colour and white is the colour of mourning – wear a red rather than white tie to make a positive first impression.

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Communicate with openness towards those from other cultural backgrounds.

Although people may live in the same country, their various cultural backgrounds and rules may mean that they see the same event differently and place different interpretations on it. We are limited by the ‘baggage’ of background experience that we carry. Our perception is determined by a background consisting of values, attitudes, life concerns, cultural conditioning, skills and other factors.

DISCRIMINATORY LANGUAGE Apply inclusive communication techniques and learn new ways to communicate across cultures.

The language people employ to communicate can be used as a vehicle of discrimination or a vehicle of inclusion. Effective communicators do more than acknowledge differences in perception. They also use communication strategies that avoid the communication barriers caused by the ineffective intercultural communication techniques shown in Exhibit 1.9.

EXHIBIT 1.9 Strategies for effective intercultural communication Discriminatory communication technique

Purpose

Inclusive communication technique

Derogatory labelling of another culture or group

To put down people from another culture or group

Refuse to use derogatory labels

Stereotyping people belonging to a particular group

To isolate or exaggerate certain factors and apply them to all people in that group

Recognise and avoid the use of language that stereotypes groups of people

Invisibility

To subsume one group into another by label, name or term

Use inclusive language and language preferred by the minority group

Imposed labelling

To reinforce the majority group’s view because the minority lacks the power to define themselves

Avoid the use of a single generic name for a number of different groups of people

Extra visibility

To emphasise a difference such as sex, race or ethnic background

Avoid emphasis on differences such as sex, race and ethnic background

If we are aware of our background and its impact on our perception, then we can choose more appropriate messages or responses. Consequently, we can perform better in the workplace and become more willing to adapt and learn new ways to communicate with people from different cultural backgrounds.

CHECKPOINT 1.5

1. Cultural differences: a. How does an understanding of Hofstede’s four cultural differences help to improve business communication? b. What is ethnocentrism? 2. Briefly describe and provide examples of five key cultural differences. 3. Spoken factors and internalised rules: a. Identify four factors that affect what is being said in our conversations. b. List four internalised rules that affect our cultural filter. 4. Identify five techniques you can use to avoid communication barriers caused by ineffective intercultural communication. 5. Quick quiz: Check your cross-cultural awareness by completing the True/False questions.

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CHAPTER 1 / Understand communication practices

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Cultural beliefs: Naming systems and general etiquette True

False

The naming system in China places the surname first. The Arabic naming system places the surname last. In China, descent is traced through the female line. In Vietnam, the naming system places the surname first. Direct eye contact is a sign of discourtesy in Australia. People in Asian cultures find it easy to say ‘No’. Muslim people do not use the left hand to pass things to each other. Sharing the cost of an outing is not accepted custom in Thailand. In Asia, avoiding eye contact is a sign of respect. To touch South-East Asians on the head is an act of extreme discourtesy.

LEARNING ACTIVITIES SUMMARY 1.1 Discuss the different forms of communication. Communication is any behaviour, verbal or nonverbal, that is perceived by another. Nonverbal communication consists of the parts of a message that are not encoded in words – for example, tone of voice, facial expression or gestures and movement. Successful communication sends or transmits ideas, values and attitudes to others through three different forms of communication: verbal, nonverbal and graphic. Meaning is derived from the message as the receiver perceives, structures and interprets it. Effective communicators take responsibility for their actions, and are factually correct and accurate. They are sensitive to the receiver of the message and able to utilise traditional tools, such as written reports, as well as digital tools such as social media. In today’s workplace the communication channels have broadened due to the advancement of information technology. 1.2 Outline each element of the communication process. The seven elements of the communication process are the sender, message, channel, receiver, feedback, context and noise (or interference). Effective communication often passes unnoticed, while poor communication is obvious – the message and its meaning are distorted or interrupted. Barriers interfere with the message. Too

much information, withholding information or delivering the information through an inappropriate channel all result in barriers. 1.3 Apply ethics to your workplace communication. Ethical communicators give honest and accurate information. They let others know about matters or information that affect them and maintain the confidentiality of private information. They avoid spreading malicious gossip, putting others down or taking the credit for someone else’s work. They communicate openly to achieve mutual understanding. 1.4 Outline factors impacting communication in business. Factors currently impacting business communication are globalisation, workforce diversity, digital technology and social media tools, organisational change and sustainability work practices and the growing importance of knowledge management and intellectual ‘know-how’ to any organisation. Understanding the impact and implications of these factors on business communication enables effective sharing and connections across organisations and national boundaries. 1.5 Discuss the role of cultural sensitivity and inclusive communication techniques in overcoming cultural differences. Intercultural communication is impacted by 25

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different cultural expectations and perceptions. A willingness to acknowledge and understand cultural difference enhances the flow of communication across national boundaries and between culture groups. Aim to

achieve successful intercultural communication by avoiding an ethnocentric view and being willing to adapt your communication to accommodate different cultural rules and patterns of behaviour.

KEY TERMS big data channel richness communication barriers communication channel conflict of interest context cultural sensitivity discrimination empathy

enculturation ethics ethnocentrism feedback globalisation graphic communication horizontal channel inclusion intellectual capital

intentional message intercultural communication knowledge communication message multicultural society noise nonverbal communication organisational culture perception

persuasion receiver sender social media sustainability unintentional message verbal communication vertical channel

LEARNING ACTIVITIES 1. Introduce yourself to the group To help introduce group members to each other, take turns to tell the whole group the following information: a. your name b. your job and position, and/or the course you are enrolled in c. what springs to your mind when you think about communication. This can be a brief explanation of, for example, good experiences or bad experiences (written, verbal or other); what you have learned (the hard way) about communication; or who you admire (such as a politician, colleague, manager or media personality) for their communication skills, with an explanation of why. 2. Work in pairs for this exercise a. Stand face-to-face, a comfortable distance apart for conversation. b. Take turns to give a one-minute spiel about any topic to your partner. Your partner must stand in front of you and not react in any way to what you are saying. No facial expressions, no body movement, no speaking. c. When you have both had a turn, return to the whole group. d. Discuss how it felt to talk to someone and get no response at all. Which elements of the communication process were missing?

3. Verbal communication Work in small groups to discuss this statement. ‘Verbal communication is part of the job and cannot be separated from it.’ a. List as many verbal communication tasks performed at work as you can think of. b. Think about your job and decide approximately what proportion of work hours would be spent on verbal communication. c. Brainstorm a list of the communication channels members of your group have used in the past week. 4. Communication and adaptability Work in small groups Reflect on the statement: ‘Australian employers are looking for job candidates with the employability skills of communication – presentation skills, teamwork, building effective relationships – as well as adaptability to change, especially digital change.’ a. Brainstorm and list the characteristics of an adaptable person. b. Identify the reasons for employers to seek job candidates with the employability skill of adaptability. c. Discuss and list on a flip chart the benefits adaptable employees offer employers. d. Present your findings to the larger group.

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CHAPTER 1 / Understand communication practices

5. Miscommunication a. Identify the seven elements in the communication process. b. Consider your own experience as a message receiver in a situation where you misunderstood the message. What caused the misunderstanding? Was it related to your perception as the receiver, the communication channel, the context or interference? c. Suggest ways the communication process could have been improved to prevent the misunderstanding. 6. Ethical communication a. Create a profile of an ethical business communicator. b. How can you recognise a situation as a conflict of interest? 7. Functions supported by digital communication In a short information report: • identify four business functions supported by digital and social media channels of communication • discuss factors in the external environment an organisation needs knowledge of to facilitate management of risks and opportunities. 8. National cultures In a short written answer: a. Identify four dimensions on which national cultures differ in terms of their values.

b. Decide if Australia has high masculine or feminine values. Give reasons for your answer. c. Decide if Australia is an individualistic or collectivist society. Give reasons for your answer. d. List two factors that are essential for effective communication in a multicultural workplace. 9. Complete the communication quiz a. Scoring Visit the MindTools site https://www.mindtools.com/ pages/article/newCS_99.htm to score your ability as a communicator. The score shows your overall ability to communicate effectively. b. Reflection On completion of the quiz, reflect on your ability to: • plan and encode the messages you send • choose the appropriate channel • decode and interpret messages • receive, decode and give feedback. c. Planning Develop an action plan you can use over the next week to improve any identified area(s) of weakness to improve your overall ability to communicate effectively.

GROUP ACTIVITY Part A: Communication and workplace success As a trainee in a large national organisation, assume you are part of a communication training program. Work in your group to prepare a list of communication skills that you think are important to workplace success and should be part of the training program. What skills are important for teamwork? What skills are important for customer service? Is it essential to deliver some communication skills off the job? Give reasons for your response. Think about how these skills can be taught on the job. Summarise your group’s conclusions and appoint one representative to report to the whole class. Part B: Cultural diversity Explore the types of cultural diversity that exist in your community. Emphasise how culture can relate to the customs or conventions regarded as characteristic of any specific group

in society. For example, customs and conventions help to define various sporting cultures (e.g. cricket or lawn bowls), educational institutions, geographic locations (e.g. city or country), gender-based or generational cultures, and ethnicity. a. Imagine you are making a movie and want to represent five different cultures that exist in your community. How will movie-goers know which cultural groups are being portrayed? In other words, what characteristics will help them to identify each cultural group? b. For each of the five groups being featured in the movie, discuss the values that are perceived to be important to each group (e.g. success, companionship, making money, power or recognition). c. How might these values affect communication: i. within the group? ii. by the group with others? iii. by others with the group?

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CASE STUDY FEEDBACK MATTERS Melanie is the owner of All About Food, a speciality food store supplying retail customers with kitchenware, delicatessen items and speciality foods. All About Food also has a commercial section that supplies equipment and bulk food to restaurants, cafes and coffee houses. As well as retail and walk-in customers, the business has a constant number of regular commercial customers who require professional advice about specialty kitchen equipment. Melanie works in the business and manages its day-today running. All About Food employs 10 staff and, for the first time in the six years since Melanie established the business, she is struggling to sort out sales and staff issues. The current economic downturn is easy to blame for a decline in All About Food’s delicatessen and retail kitchenware sales; however, Melanie decides to work harder and longer hours and hopes staff will follow her example. The longer hours mean she is unable to hold staff meetings or discussions with staff, and when she does engage with them it is usually in a very direct and hurried way. Rather than consulting about her plans and talking about issues with her staff, Melanie decides that she will explain the changes to all when she has more time.

Business and sales continue to decline and Melanie notices that her regular commercial customers are becoming irregular. She decides to bring in a business consultant to assess the situation and make recommendations for possible changes. The consultant interviews Melanie’s staff and observes interaction between Melanie, the customer service team, administrative team and customers. The consultant concludes that the staff feel they are not being told anything except that there will be changes. Staff are unsure of the business approach as they have not been consulted about the changes and All About Food’s future plans. Consequently, insecurity is increasing, staff are underperforming and absenteeism is increasing.

Questions 1. What advice do you think the consultant should give to Melanie? 2. What forms of communication should the consultant recommend Melanie use to inform and persuade her staff to accept and adapt to changes? 3. Why is it important for Melanie to seek feedback as she works with All About Food’s staff?

BIBLIOGRAPHY Beebe, S.A., Beebe, S.J. & Redmond, M.V. 2016. Interpersonal Communication Relating to Others, 8th edn, Pearson, Upper Saddle River, NJ. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). 2011. ‘The Health Communicator’s Social Media Toolkit’, http://www.cdc.gov/healthcommunication/toolstemplates/ socialmediatoolkit_bm.pdf, viewed 10 January 2015. DeVito, J.A. 2016. Essentials of Human Communication, 9th edn, Pearson, Upper Saddle River, NJ. Eppler, Martin. J. 2006. ‘The Concept of Knowledge Communication and Its Relevance to Management’, USI Research Note Version 2.2, http://www.knowledgecommunication.org/pdf/research-note-knowledgecommunication.pdf, viewed 27 January 2018.

EY. 2014. ‘Big data: Changing the way businesses compete and operate’, EYGM Limited, https://www.ey.com/ Publication/vwLUAssets/EY_-_Big_data:_changing_the_ way_businesses_operate/$FILE/EY-Insights-on-GRC-Bigdata.pdf, viewed 28 November 2018. Hofstede, G. 1984. Culture’s Consequences: International Differences in Work-Related Values, Sage Publications, Newbury Park, CA. Hofstede, G. 1991. Cultures and Organisations: Software of the Mind, McGraw-Hill, London. Hofstede, G. 2001. Culture’s Consequences: Comparing Values, Behaviours, Institutions, and Organisations across Nations, Sage Publications, Newbury Park, CA.

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CHAPTER 1 / Understand communication practices

Hootsuite and We Are Social. ‘2018 Global Digital Report’, http://www.campaignbrief.com/2018/01/latest-globaldigital-in-2018.html, viewed 1 February 2018. International Association of Business Communicators. 2018. ‘IABC Code of Ethics for Professional Communicators’, https://www.iabc.com/about-us/governance/code-of-ethics/, viewed 27 January 2018. Johnson & Johnson. 2018. ‘What Makes Johnson & Johnson a Global Leader in Diversity & Inclusion?’, http://www.careers.jnj.com/careers/what-makes-johnsonjohnson-a-global-leader-in-diversity-inclusion, viewed 3 September 2018. Klososky, S. 2010. Manager’s Guide to Social Media, McGrawHill, Australia. McGregor, D. 1960. The human side of enterprise, McGraw Hill, Boston, MA.

MindTools. 2018. ‘How Good Are Your Communication Skills? Speaking, Listening, Writing, and Reading Effectively’, https://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/ newCS_99.htm, viewed 5 February 2018. National Association of Colleges and Employers (NACE). 2018. ‘Job Outlook 2018’, http://www.naceweb.org/ store/2017/job-outlook-2018/, viewed 14 February 2018. Rajhans, Kirti. 2012. ‘Effective Organizational Communication: a Key to Employee Motivation and Performance’, Interscience Management Review (IMR), Volume 2, Issue 2, 2012, pp. 81–85. Samovar, L.A., Porter, R.E. & McDaniel, E.R. 2012. Intercultural Communication: A Reader, 13th edn, Wadsworth Cengage Learning, Boston, MA.

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DEVELOP EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE AND INTERPERSONAL INTELLIGENCE

CHAPTER

2

What is Emotional Intelligence

Your Learning Journey

self-aware ne

2.1

+ ss s

Cha pter 2 personal competence

How does it relate to

EMOTIONAL LABOUR + INTERPERSONAL SKILLS 2.3

2.4

nonverbal communication

2.5

listening and feedback

2.6

assertiveness

CH3

enhanced job satisfaction

adapting to diversity

The BENEFITS of EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE 2.2 handling stress

social awareness + relationship management

social competence

Next ADAPT TO CHANGE IN THE DIGITAL ERA

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ulation -reg elf

?

CHAPTER 2 / Develop emotional intelligence and interpersonal intelligence

LEARNING OBJECTIVES After studying this chapter, you should be able to: 2.1 discuss the four skills of emotional intelligence and provide examples of how each skill may be applied in the workplace 2.2 discuss the benefits of using emotional intelligence skills at work 2.3 outline the features and purpose of emotional labour 2.4 identify seven ways nonverbal communication can influence the total message 2.5 describe the active listening and feedback processes and explain how these processes help the listener and speaker to understand one another 2.6 explain why assertiveness is essential for positive, productive workplace relationships and outcomes.

2.1 WHAT IS EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE? Emotional intelligence is the ability to be aware of, recognise, use and manage your emotions in positive ways. Emotionally intelligent people are able to read emotional cues and signals such as body language, facial expressions, types of words and tone. Reading and paying attention to emotional cues provides valuable data about how the other person feels. Goleman (1998), an early proponent of emotional intelligence, argues that emotional intelligence is ‘a different way of being smart’, and involves: • knowing what your feelings are and using your feelings to make decisions • being able to manage distressing moods and control impulses • being motivated and remaining optimistic when you have setbacks • having empathy and knowing what the people around you are feeling • having social skills that allow you to get along well with other people, manage emotions in relationships and being able to persuade or lead others. Emotionally intelligent people modify their responses to meet the requirements of the situation. They respond with empathy and understand the concerns of others. Communication is open and feedback is constructive and empowering. For example, to meet a tender deadline Alyssa has to post the final document tomorrow morning by 11 am. However, the Accounts Department hasn’t delivered the final costings for the project. Rather than panicking and demanding others in the team stop what they are doing and help out, Alyssa phones Accounts, who reply, ‘It won’t be ready until 8 pm tonight.’ She replies, ‘Not satisfactory but I’ll manage’. Alyssa stays calm and then suggests to her supervisor that she will leave work at 3 pm today and come in at 7 am tomorrow morning to include the costings and finish compiling, binding and posting the tender. Her supervisor replies, ‘Good idea. Alyssa, thanks for solving the problem.’ Employers are looking for employees who are emotionally as well as technically competent. They need staff who are able to establish good relationships within teams and network with others throughout the organisation. ‘EI is now considered fundamental for getting along in the workplace and is a primary leadership and managerial competency.’ (Freshman & Rubino 2002, p. 1). Emotionally intelligent employees are also interpersonally intelligent because as well as being selfaware and socially aware they have developed the nonverbal communication, listening, feedback, questioning and assertiveness skills to read the mood, feelings and intentions of those around them. Interpersonally intelligent people communicate with warmth and complement their spoken words with open, nonverbal signals such as a nod, a smile or gesture to show others that they are attentive to their

Emotional intelligence is the combination of selfawareness, selfregulation, social awareness and relationship management skills that help you to identify and manage your own emotions as well as the emotions of others.

Interpersonal intelligence the ability to interact with understanding of the motives, emotions, perspectives and feelings of those around you.

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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK concerns. They give and receive feedback, interact and work with others on tasks and projects and manage relationships across all phases of a project. These skills will be discussed later in the chapter. Improving emotional intelligence requires a person to think about their reactions and to think about the reactions of others, weigh up the pros and cons of a situation and possible responses, and then to respond appropriately. Emotional intelligence enables informed decisions and helps to turn aims and plans into action. For example, a Hay Group study found that ‘technical programmers demonstrating the top 10 percent of emotional intelligence competency were developing software three times faster than those with lower competency’ (Poskey 2018). Emotionally intelligent people have good interpersonal intelligence and the interpersonal skills to recognise negative emotions in self and others and refocus on what is required to reach productive outcomes. They see difficult situations as a challenge and focus on the positives to reach productive outcomes.

EXHIBIT 2.1 Broad categories and skills of emotional intelligence Personal competence

Social competence

Self-awareness

Social awareness

Self-regulation

Relationship management

TWO BROAD CATEGORIES OF EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE Emotional intelligence can be broken down into two broad categories and the four skills shown in Exhibit 2.1. A workplace free of emotion is unlikely so learning to manage and handle emotions effectively is crucial for success at work. In stressful situations, emotionally intelligent people have the ability to identify a problem and work with others to find a solution. Accurate assessment of their personal and social competence lets them know their strengths and limits and builds self-confidence through the realisation of self-worth and capabilities. Emotionally intelligent people are able to accept constructive criticism and use it to improve their performance.

Personal competence Develop personal competence – the skills of selfawareness and selfmanagement.

Intrapersonal intelligence is about understanding who you are and how you feel, as well as knowing your own limits, strengths and abilities.

Personal competence allows leaders and team members to understand their own emotions and realise their impact on others (self-awareness), and then direct their behaviour to achieve positive outcomes (self-management). People with personal competence act on opportunities, innovate and engage with others, respond flexibly to obstacles and setbacks and commit to the goals of the team or organisation. Personally competent staff think before they act and regulate their own behaviour to work effectively towards shared goals. Self-awareness is more than knowing what is happening around you. It is knowing what you are experiencing as well as recognising and assessing your emotional responses and their effects. Selfawareness allows you to monitor and take in the meaning of what is happening rather than behaving on the basis of past thoughts, beliefs, biases and actions. Self-awareness underpins intrapersonal intelligence: that is, awareness of your emotions, motivations, fears, beliefs and aspirations. Intrapersonal intelligence assists personally competent people to take responsibility for their actions, follow through on commitments, be open to new ideas and information and adapt positively to change. Self-regulation is the ability to use awareness of your emotions to stay flexible and positively direct your behaviour. It is the capacity to control disruptive emotions and impulses and to think before responding. Self-regulation allows greater acknowledgement and regard for the views and opinions of others. The result is more cooperation and less tension in the workplace.

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CHAPTER 2 / Develop emotional intelligence and interpersonal intelligence Self-regulators rely less on emotionalism and reaction and more on facts and responses appropriate to the issue or situation. They are able to calm themselves down when angry or upset and encourage positive thoughts when they feel down or disappointed. For example, Aldo is disappointed and angry because he has just been passed over for a promotion to team leader. He is so angry that rather than concentrating on his work he is thinking nasty thoughts about his supervisor. At lunch he goes for a walk and starts thinking positively about the situation: ‘Another promotion will come along’, ‘It’s nothing personal’. Positive thoughts help to calm him down, think clearly again and manage the situation. As well as the control of impulsive feelings, disruptive emotions and behaviours, self-regulation builds Aldo’s confidence.

Social competence People with social competence understand other people’s moods, behaviour and motives (social awareness) and use this understanding to improve the quality of relationships in workplace and social settings (relationship management). Socially competent employees hear, understand and connect with those around them, gain quality and timely information and offer support and encouragement. Social awareness is the ability to understand the emotions, needs and concerns of other people. Empathy enables socially aware people to pick up on the emotional cues and perspectives of others. They feel at ease socially and recognise the power relationships in a group or organisation. Relationship management is the ability to develop and maintain good relationships, communicate clearly, and inspire and influence others. Relationship management requires the ability to notice and manage the effect people have on you and gain an awareness of what they are feeling and what leads them to feeling that way. Thus, it is possible to decide the best course of action, how to interact with them and what you might expect in return when you say or do something. Good managers of relationships have an awareness of the likely outcome from the communication, which can be written, face-to-face, individual or group, as well as an understanding of their own specific needs or business needs at that time. Relationship management enhances collaboration and cooperation when working with others towards shared goals. Emotional intelligence skills are as valuable in the workplace as technical skills. In social interactions, customer service interactions and office politics, emotionally competent employers and employees realise how their emotions can affect others. They know what they are feeling and what their emotions mean. Consequently, they are able to manage their own emotions and deal with the emotions of others to build positive two-way relationships built on mutual respect. Promotions to leadership roles are offered to emotionally competent as well as technically competent leaders because they are able to influence and empower as they share decision making, acknowledge achievements and reward the performance of team members. Emotionally competent leaders enhance team performance. (Refer to Chapter 22 for more information on leadership.) 1. What are the four skills that together make up emotional intelligence? 2. Define the term ‘interpersonal intelligence’. 3. Consider your own actions in a social or workplace setting and answer the following questions: a. What personal competence skills are you displaying when you put in the effort to listen and pay attention to the nonverbal cues of others? b. List the social competence skills you use when you recognise another person’s moods, behaviour and motives and use this understanding to improve communication and the quality of your relationships.

Develop social competence – the skills of social awareness and relationship management.

CHECKPOINT 2.1

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2.2 WHAT ARE THE BENEFITS OF EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE?

Apply emotional intelligence (EQ) skills to reduce stress, communicate effectively, empathise with others, overcome challenges and minimise conflict.

The pace of change in today’s workplaces due to job reorganisation, transfers, changing priorities and new technologies is challenging. Emotional intelligence is vital in this ever-changing workplace as it equips you with the skills to handle problems before they lead to physical and psychological stress and behavioural difficulties. Managers, supervisors and team leaders need to encourage and demonstrate emotional intelligence to limit the harmful effects of poor behaviour on their team and the business as a whole. Emotionally intelligent people have better mental health and social behaviour at work than those lacking emotional intelligence. They are able to: • express their own thoughts and feelings and make the effort to understand the meaning and motivations of colleagues • recognise when they are experiencing high stress or anger and process those feelings in healthy ways • assess the strengths and weaknesses of others and focus on the best solutions for issues or problems. Emotional intelligence enhances communication and workplace relationships. ‘When it comes to happiness and success in our relationships, career and personal goals, emotional intelligence (EQ) matters just as much as the more well known, intellectual ability (IQ).’ (Segal et al. 2018) For example, rather than becoming angry in stressful situations, emotionally intelligent people are able to manage their emotions. They are able to think about a problem and calmly make a decision to solve it. They accept feedback and even criticism well without becoming distressed or agitated and use it to improve their performance.

REDUCING STRESS Work and careers can be a source of positive emotions (enthusiasm, feelings of accomplishment and belonging) or a source of negative emotions (anger, fear, dislike and anxiety) and stress. Negative emotions can trigger stress and cause emotional pain. A positive culture enhances job satisfaction, commitment and job performance. A poor culture leads to poor communication, low performance, high turnover and stress. High targets, heavy workload, tight deadlines, long working hours and pressure to perform are typical sources of stress in the workplace. The stress may lead to fatigue, irritability, lower productivity, interpersonal conflicts and poor communication. Developing awareness of your feelings and the ability to discern the underlying messages in interpersonal interactions helps to reduce stress. Rather than responding impulsively and thoughtlessly, self-awareness and self-regulation combined with social awareness enable relationships to be managed harmoniously. Three types of response to stress and their symptoms are shown in Exhibit 2.2. Work-related stressors include the bullying behaviour of a supervisor, unsatisfactory relationships with managers or colleagues, unreasonable expectations, lack of support, harassment, discrimination, uncooperative colleagues and argumentative customers. The issues causing the disputes must be addressed to prevent negative behaviours such as gossip and rumour, non-cooperation, workplace bullying, harassment and absenteeism and the consequent stress. Managers, supervisors and team leaders need to encourage and demonstrate emotional intelligence to limit the harmful effects of poor behaviour on their team and the business as a whole.

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CHAPTER 2 / Develop emotional intelligence and interpersonal intelligence The skills of emotional intelligence can assist you to manage emotional triggers in a positive rather than stressful way. An emotional trigger is a behaviour or situation that goes against one of your personal values. It can make you feel very strongly because it clashes with your values. For example, if one of your core values is honesty, then an emotional trigger for you might be a feeling of deep upset if you find out that others are taking credit for your work. The skill of self-awareness lets you understand what is happening. Rather than reacting impulsively and angrily you are able to handle your own emotions. Breathing deeply helps you to relax and release the tension in your body. Deliberately detaching from the emotion helps to clear the mind as you decide how you will handle the situation.

Know your emotional triggers.

EXHIBIT 2.2 Types of stress and typical symptoms Physical Fatigue, headaches and difficulty sleeping

Psychological Depression, anxiety, feelings of being overwhelmed and unable to cope

Behavioural Mood swings and irritation, disinterest, isolation Impatience, an increase in sick days, aggression, decline in work performance

Personal competence allows the situation to be dealt with assertively. Rather than walking away and saying nothing, you may decide to talk with those who are accepting credit for your work or discuss the matter with your supervisor.

ADAPTING TO CULTURAL AND SOCIAL DIVERSITY The diversity in today’s workforce means a wide range of people of different ages, genders, sexual orientations, religions, personalities and values are working together. In this modern workplace, having an understanding of your emotions and subsequent behaviours as well as the emotions and behaviours of others is a requirement for success. When you have personal and social competence skills you can mitigate emotional responses and clashes due to differences in values before they give rise to conflict. People with self-awareness are able to respond with flexibility and adaptability to work with a diversity of colleagues. They also sense the needs of others and help them to develop team and individual capabilities. A willingness to adapt and respond flexibly to change enhances connections within the team and with others across the organisation. The culture of cooperation, trust and team commitment empowers and motivates members to achieve mutually agreed team outcomes. Emotionally intelligent workers provide clear and convincing messages, listen and respond with empathy. They provide consistent and fair feedback that avoids attacks or threats to the other person. Positive outcomes are likely and negative emotions such as anger, frustration and hurt are minimised as people are treated the same regardless of background and other diverse factors.

RESISTING THE RIPPLE EFFECT The ripple effect occurs as group members catch the mood of others, usually through their nonverbal communication. Both positive and negative emotions may be imitated and ripple through a group. Emotionally intelligent workers are able to build and maintain positive relationships and manage

Avoid emotional contagion.

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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK negative emotions swiftly before they spread to the rest of the group. Body language such as lifting your shoulders back, breathing deeply and easily, and facial expressions such as a smile convey a positive mood and help to raise your mood and the mood of those around you. The skills of emotional intelligence heighten the ripple effect of positive emotions and minimise the ripple effect of negative emotions. Dealing with uncomfortable emotional situations swiftly through a combination of self-awareness, self-regulation, social awareness and relationship management enhances performance and relationships. Ignoring negative emotions may cause a ripple effect or emotional contagion. Emotional contagion is the transfer of moods through imitation.

Improving emotional intelligence People without emotional competence find it difficult to handle change, work in a team and disengage from others. In a difficult situation they may feel angry, helpless, fearful, envious or guilty and engage in explosive outbursts, threats or other irrational behaviours. They show lack of emotional control. The ability to recognise these emotions, understand them and apply strategies to manage them builds the skills of emotional intelligence. Emotionally competent people rely less on emotionalism and reaction and more on facts and responses appropriate to the issue or situation. Four strategies to reduce the ripple effect and improve emotional intelligence and the benefits of emotional intelligence in the workplace are identified in Exhibit 2.3.

EXHIBIT 2.3 Benefits of using emotional intelligence at work Strategy

Benefits

1. Identify the impact of own emotions on others in the workplace

• Greater understanding of your own emotions at work • Better management of self and relationships • Improved channelling of emotions to help interactions and task achievement • More constructive ways of handling anger and stress • Fewer automatic responses based on past habits • Less frustration, stress and worry • Greater sense of control and effectiveness at work • Better grasp of your feelings (are they correct or incorrect based on the event or action rather than on assumption?) • Greater insight into interactions or relationships • Less anxiety when dealing with uncomfortable workplace situations • Greater acknowledgement of and respect for the viewpoint of others • More self-confidence and ability to direct negative emotions into positive actions • Greater capacity to respond assertively to rudeness, making it clear that you refuse to be treated that way as you calmly leave the situation • Enhanced ability to make choices that are realistic rather than out of reach • Better cooperation and fewer complaints from others.

2. Defuse negative feelings to prevent escalation

3. Pay attention to your perceptions

4. Choose how you react to a situation

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CHAPTER 2 / Develop emotional intelligence and interpersonal intelligence

MANAGING INAPPROPRIATE BEHAVIOUR Anger, anxiety and resentment may cause emotional outbursts and inappropriate behaviour. A six-step technique to use when the emotions of others are high and difficult to handle is shown in Exhibit 2.4.

EXHIBIT 2.4 Dealing with difficult emotions in others

Receive

• Listen to understand the feelings of the other person • Try not to become defensive

Notice

• Observe and acknowledge your own feelings and reactions

Centre

• Breathe deeply and tune into yourself • Avoid blocking your responsiveness to the other person

Refocus and respond

• Listen again using active listening skills • Acknowledge and reflect both feelings and facts

Clarify and connect

• • • •

Move forward

• Think about the next step • Develop options that are mutually agreeable (if possible)

Look at what is behind the other person’s words Shift the focus from inflamed feelings to the issue Deal with both feelings and facts Acknowledge your contribution (if any) to their problem

If managers, team leaders and team members handle issues such as friction, stress, bullying, harassment and the routine of daily work correctly, the mood of individuals and teams within the work environment is likely to be positive because of the minimisation of the risk of workplace stress and emotional pain. When employees are encouraged to suppress their emotions and allowed to treat their

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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK coworkers badly, the work environment can become hostile. The likely result is emotional pain, excessive stress, poor job performance, low morale and a high turnover of employees. Emotional intelligence requires realisation of how our emotions affect self and others and a perception and understanding of the feelings of others. Emotional intelligence also requires the realisation of how the emotions of others affect us and others and the skills to handle difficult emotions in others. The outcome is better work and social relationships.

CHECKPOINT 2.2

Apply emotional labour to reflect workplace norms. Feeling rules provide the framework for the type of feelings a person employed in a particular occupation should display. Feeling rules stipulate the correct emotional responses when interacting with clients or customers. Surface acting involves employees showing emotions without necessarily feeling them, for example, outward emotional expressions such as smiles or frowns. Deep acting requires individuals to express the right emotions and feel emotions needed for the job.

1. Consider the quote here. ‘Emotions are important pieces of information that tell us about ourselves and others.’ a. Identify three positive workplace emotions. b. Identify three negative workplace emotions. 2. Emotional competence: a. What emotional competence skill helps you to manage stress when a workplace situation takes you out of your comfort zone? b. What are the benefits of applying this skill? c. What are the likely consequences if you are unable to apply this skill? 3. Identify three types of stress and provide an example of each. 4. Briefly explain the term ‘emotional contagion’.

2.3 WHAT IS EMOTIONAL LABOUR? Emotional labour is the practice of controlling your own behaviour to display the expected emotions (feeling rules) required to perform the interpersonal aspects of a job efficiently and effectively. Emotional labour occurs whenever a person alters their outward behaviour (emotions, words and nonverbal communication) to conform to a workplace norm. Emotional labour reflects the type of emotional response required of a role in order to meet the expectations of the organisation. Most management roles involve emotional labour: for example, not showing anger at a staff member when they have done something wrong. Healthcare, hospitality and customer service occupations require workers to perform emotional labour. Successful job performance depends on effective management and expression of emotions. The emotional labour requirements and feeling rules of many occupations are high. Feeling rules are typically written down as policies or guidelines and taught as part of the training for positions requiring emotional labour. They are scripts that enable employees to choose the appropriate emotional response to a situation. Psychologists, for example, are taught to act neutrally, restaurant workers are taught to act positively, solicitors are taught to act objectively and nurses are taught to act with empathy.

TYPES OF EMOTIONAL LABOUR Surface acting and deep acting are two types of emotional labour. A significant part of the role of employees in occupations requiring emotional labour is surface acting. When surface acting during service interactions, individuals put on an appearance to hide

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CHAPTER 2 / Develop emotional intelligence and interpersonal intelligence genuine emotions. Surface acting is a skill or learnt response required of employees engaged in emotional labour. They have the ability to evoke ‘appropriate emotions’ by hiding their own emotions and projecting those emotions determined appropriate by the organisation’s culture, feeling rules, norms and the obligations of the job role. The service orientation and feeling rules of positions in patient care, legal assistance, teaching and lecturing, customer service and call-centre operations require the person in the position to appear friendly, caring and helpful. For example, when a resident in an aged care facility is unpleasant or rude the aged care assistant thinks, ‘I’ll be pleasant here but I’m really spitting chips’. This response is surface acting. The aged care assistant complies with the feeling rules of the position: that is, to display emotions such as warmth and empathy and to suppress inappropriate emotions such as anger or frustration when interacting with a resident. In surface acting the aged care assistant is simply applying the feeling rules related to the position. An example of deep acting is, ‘Yes, the resident is being rude, but I empathise with him and care about solving his problem’. In her deep acting the aged care assistant is still connected with her core values and beliefs. Deep acting, where the role is aligned with your values and display emotions are consistent with your own values, is more satisfying than surface acting. Finding meaning in the work allows a person to deep act and feel comfortable in a position. Employees who believe that surface acting is a genuine part of their job role are able to accept the difference between their outward emotional display and their underlying feelings. They realise their job role requires them to be objective, understand the emotions in the situation and apply the feeling rules to manage the emotions of self and the other person to reach a satisfactory outcome. However, employees who feel uncomfortable about the difference between their own emotions and the surface acting may suffer from emotional dissonance. The requirement to fake or suppress emotions in the surface acting aspect of emotional labour may cause a high level of unease between what people feel and what they show. People who are regularly exposed to the stress of surface acting may experience internal conflict, depression and anxiety, decreased job performance and burnout. Stress arises from the mismatch between an aged care assistant’s personality and what is expected from them in their role. Emotional labour is demanding and calls for the skills of emotional intelligence to not only comply with job and professional expectations but also to build confidence and positive relationships.

Emotional dissonance is the conflict between emotions experienced by the employee and those required by the organisation.

SUSTAINING EMOTIONAL LABOUR Organisations with occupations that require the use of emotional labour employ a range of strategies – buffering, coaching and training, professional development and integrating emotional labour into performance appraisals – to help their employees handle the demands of emotional labour. The intended outcome from these strategies is better service, higher productivity, improved employee morale and reduced turnover. Buffering is the use of front-line service-oriented staff to manage the challenges, demands and problem solving needed to satisfy the needs of customers. The front-line staff act as a buffer or shield for ‘behind the scenes’ employees. Buffering allows others within the organisation to concentrate on administration, production, finance, marketing, advertising and other functions. Coaching and training refreshes the feeling rules and behaviour employees are expected to display in the position. Learning from observation, instruction, feedback and scripts to use when dealing directly

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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK with customers enables employees to comply with organisational culture, norms and standards and to display rules. The sharing of success stories of ways to handle the impact of internal conflict caused by surface and deep acting assists employees in dealing with the realities of emotional labour. Coaching and training build the capabilities needed to display emotions appropriate to the performance expectations of the job role. Professional development programs designed to manage the stress of emotional labour improve the emotional intelligence of employees by enhancing their understanding and regulation of their own emotions. Building empathy and engagement with customers and colleagues improves recognition of other people’s emotions and increases the ability to respond appropriately. The intended outcome is minimisation of emotional conflict and less emotional exhaustion. Integrating emotional labour into the performance appraisal process encourages employees to accept the importance of emotional labour. Evaluation of emotional effort factors such as attitude, tolerance, cooperation, commitment to customer service and display of accepted emotions appropriate to the job role emphasises the importance of emotional labour. The capacity to deal with angry or disgruntled customers and colleagues and the ability to provide positive feedback, acknowledgement and leadership become significant factors in the performance appraisal process.

CHECKPOINT 2.3

Actions speak louder than words. Consider the four types of nonverbal communication for better communication. Sharing of cultural nonverbal communication is common by those in a particular culture. Interpret nonverbal behaviour in its context.

1. Emotional labour: a. Define the term ‘emotional labour’ and provide an example of it. b. Briefly explain why employees in service-oriented occupations must be sensitive in their emotional displays to customers. 2. Surface and deep acting: a. What is surface acting? b. What is deep acting? 3. List four strategies organisations can use to help employees handle the demands of emotional labour.

2.4 NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION Nonverbal communication consists of that part of a message not encoded in words. It is part of emotional intelligence. Personal competence (self-awareness and self-regulation) enables the matching of our nonverbal communication to the words in our messages. Social competence (social awareness and relationship management) enables the reading and understanding of the nonverbal cues of others. As we communicate, 7% of the message is conveyed in the words, 38% of the message is from the tone of the voice and 55% is conveyed through body language (Mehrabian 1972). The nonverbal part of the message tends to be unconscious and often reveals the sender’s feelings and preferences more spontaneously and honestly than the verbal part. If the verbal message does not match the nonverbal communication, people tend to believe the nonverbal message. To improve your communication, particularly in interpreting the nonverbal part of the message, it is helpful to consider the four different types of nonverbal messages shown in Exhibit 2.5.

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CHAPTER 2 / Develop emotional intelligence and interpersonal intelligence

EXHIBIT 2.5 Nonverbal messages Type

Description

Example

Personal nonverbal communication

Involves various kinds of nonverbal behaviour unique to one person. The meaning is also unique to the person sending the message

A person may laugh due to nervousness or fear, while another may cry. These responses nonverbally communicate discomfort.

Cultural nonverbal communication

Characteristic of, or common to, a group of people. It is learned unconsciously by observing others in the society or group

Generally, women tend to feel free to touch each other, whereas men are more self-conscious about this. In Aboriginal cultures, eye contact is less acceptable than it is in European culture.

Universal nonverbal communication

Behaviour that is common to humankind. It shows happiness, sadness or deep-seated feelings

A smile, frown or tears

Random nonverbal communication

Unrelated to the verbal message. While it can distract from the verbal message, it has little effect on the meaning

A sneeze

Theoretical writings and research further classify nonverbal communication into the seven main areas shown in Exhibit 2.6. However, it should be noted that to consider each of the seven aspects in isolation is artificial. In practice, what is sent as a complete message is a cluster of nonverbal cues in association with the spoken words.

EXHIBIT 2.6 Classifications of nonverbal communication Area

Description

Example

1. Body movement (kinesic behaviour)

Body posture – the way a person stands, leans forward or back, and moves the head all affect the message. Includes movements of the hands, head, feet and legs, posture, eye movements and facial expressions.

A person leaning forward, pointing and shaking a finger at someone is seen as trying to dominate the other person.

2. Physical characteristics

Physical characteristics, first impressions and images of others can be associated unconsciously with past experiences of people with similar physical characteristics. They are important parts of nonverbal communication.

People react to factors such as body shape, general attractiveness, body and breath odours, weight, hair and skin colour. These factors often determine our responses in interpersonal encounters.

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Area

Description

Example

3. Touching behaviour

Touching can console or support the other person and show feelings such as affection, sexual interest or dominance. Hand gestures demonstrate feelings and convey thoughts and words through movement. A handshake, for example, can express either dominance or equality.

Stroking, hitting, holding or guiding the movements of another person are touching behaviours that communicate nonverbally. Each adds a different meaning to a message – a pat on the arm can convey intimacy or control.

4. Vocal qualities (paralanguage)

Paralanguage is that part of language associated with, but not involving, the word system. It consists of the voice qualities and vocalisations that affect how something is said rather than what is said.

Vocal qualities include: • pitch range • pitch control • rhythm control • tempo • articulation control • resonance.

Vocalisations, the tone of voice, rate of speaking and voice inflection are an important part of the total message.

Vocalisations (such as sighing, groaning, volume, ‘um’ and ‘ah’) also give clues to the total message. A tired person, for example, will speak more slowly than usual; a disappointed person may speak with a flat tone, while the tone of voice of someone excited about a coming holiday reflects this excitement.

5. Space (proximity)

Proximity means nearness, in terms of physical space. Research has shown that Australians speaking to acquaintances or work colleagues leave about an arm’s length of space between themselves and the other person. People speaking to friends and family leave about half an arm’s length between themselves and others. People in intimate relationships allow direct and close contact when speaking to each other. The use of space reflects the way people feel about others.

Personal space varies according to gender, status, roles and culture. People can use their height and weight to convey a message. If you tower over other people in a way that intrudes on their personal space you may cause their discomfort and withdrawal. How people use their personal space and that of others communicates a message about how that person perceives and feels in that space.

6. Artefacts

Artefacts are objects used to convey nonverbal messages about self-concept, image, mood, feelings or style. Many artefacts are common to the group, but we also use artefacts, particularly clothing, as an individual form of communication. Appearance and clothing are important and highly visible parts of nonverbal communication. The choice of clothes reflects your mood and your attitude to the occasion. Other people notice and place their own interpretation on your dress.

Perfume, clothes, lipstick, glasses and hairpieces project the style or mood of the wearer. A police badge, a nurse’s uniform, a university lecturer’s gown and an Italian suit are all artefacts that can signal power or lack of power in a situation. If a plain-clothes police officer shows the police badge at an accident, others immediately perceive his or her authority.

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Area 7. Environment

Description

Example

The environment can influence the outcomes of communication – for instance, organisations give careful consideration to office space, factory layout, the sales area and conference venues. The environment should put people at ease and match their expectations; an unsuitable environment can produce ‘noise’ that causes communication barriers and interferes with the communication process.

Natural and artificial light, colour, temperature, tables, chairs, desks, lounges, plants, sound, artwork, magazines, and floor and wall coverings all have an impact on people’s perception of an organisation.

Do you show or tell your likes and dislikes? Psychologist Albert Mehrabian is best known for his theories of nonverbal communication. In particular, it is his 7%/38%/55% equation that has received the most attention. This equation is often misinterpreted as breaking down verbal and nonverbal messages into a ‘rule’ that all communicated meaning is received as: 7% from the meaning of words, 38% from tone of voice and 55% from body language, a misinterpretation that communicated messages are mainly conveyed by nonverbal cues rather than words. In reality, Mehrabian’s research was about the relative importance of verbal and nonverbal messages; he arrived at this formula following experiments on the communication of attitudes and feelings. Therefore, unless someone is talking about their feelings or attitudes – for example, talking about if they like or dislike something – this 7%, 38%, 55% equation is not applicable. This research does suggest, however, that people can strongly interpret likes and dislikes from nonverbal cues.

FROM THEORY TO PRACTICE

Source: Dr Mehrabian’s website: www.kaaj.com/psych.

ASK YOURSELF: Can you think of a situation at work where someone has expressed a like or dislike to you verbally that you have not believed based on their nonverbal cues? Have you perhaps expressed a liking for something that wasn’t true? Thinking back, do you think your nonverbal cues would have conflicted with what you said?

MATCHING THE NONVERBAL AND VERBAL Often, we conform to the rules we learned as children about nonverbal messages. These rules create a level of cultural consensus and sense of belonging. However, intercultural variations in the rules are significant. While universal and random nonverbal communication are unlikely to cause communication barriers, personal and intercultural nonverbal communication may raise barriers to understanding between people. For this reason, we need to be aware of the different ways individuals communicate nonverbally and of variations caused by cultural differences. Think about the impact of nonverbal communication: touching adds meaning to the message; paralanguage (how something is said) has an impact; space can be used to indicate status; clothes are vehicles for conveying nonverbal messages; and environmental factors influence communication. Exhibit 2.7 outlines six different ways that nonverbal communication interacts with verbal communication.

Consider the words and the nonverbal behaviour – the total message.

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EXHIBIT 2.7 Nonverbal communication combined with spoken words

Repeating e.g. pointing when giving directions

Controlling e.g. changing position to show the speaker to give you a turn

Contracting e.g. watching the clock while talking

Impact of nonverbal communication

Accenting e.g. moving your head up and down to say yes

Substituting e.g. saying you are happy while frowning

Complementing e.g. using hand gestures to emphasise

Dealing with contradictions between the verbal and nonverbal Confirm the meaning of the nonverbal part of the message.

The accurate interpretation of nonverbal messages comes from knowing people and their pattern of interpersonal communication, both verbal and nonverbal. The nonverbal communication is seldom consciously observed unless it confuses the receiver. On some occasions, it is possible to ignore nonverbal communication that is confusing. At other times, it must be acknowledged or even confronted – for example, when the verbal message conveys agreement while several nonverbal signals (such as pitch of voice, facial expression or posture) indicate lack of agreement or even ridicule, then you are in doubt, are uncomfortable with the communication or have to make a decision on the basis of the total message. The total message is understood more easily when you follow the four-step process below: 1. Hear (and listen to) the words. 2. Observe the nonverbal behaviour. 3. Confirm the meaning with the sender when the verbal and nonverbal messages conflict or confuse you. 4. Consider the context or setting.

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CHAPTER 2 / Develop emotional intelligence and interpersonal intelligence For example, suppose someone in a meeting sits back and folds their arms. If you say, ‘I see you’re in a closed posture’, you are making an assumption about the nonverbal part of the message. It is more useful to confirm the meaning by replacing your interpretation with a simple description: ‘You’ve just folded your arms’. This allows the person to reply: ‘Yes, my shoulders are aching’ or ‘Yes, I feel uncomfortable, even threatened, by the suggestion’ or ‘I’m cold’ or ‘I’m bored’. 1. Body movement and nonverbal communication: a. Identify five categories of body movement and give an example of each. b. List and briefly describe the classifications of nonverbal communication. 2. Identify six ways in which nonverbal communication adds meaning to, modifies or changes the spoken word. 3. List the four steps you can follow when you are in doubt about the meaning. 4. Body language: a. View one of the TEDx Talks from the ‘editor’s picks’ at https://www.youtube.com> tedx talks. As well as listening to the presenter’s content, focus on their body language. b. Identify how many meanings you can interpret from the presenter’s hand gestures. c. Reflect on how the presenter’s facial expressions, eye contact, tone of voice, body posture and motions energise their presentation. d. Develop a list of powerful body language tips you can use in your next formal or informal workplace verbal presentation.

CHECKPOINT 2.4

2.5 THE PROCESS OF LISTENING AND PROVIDING FEEDBACK Emotionally intelligent people realise there is a difference between hearing and listening. Hearing is a physical process. The ears receive sensations or stimuli and transmit them to the brain – for example, a loud, sudden or unfamiliar sound catches our attention. Listening refers to the interpretative process that takes place when we hear something. When we listen, we store, classify and label information, all of which involves attention, interpretation and understanding. Listening to another person takes time and effort. In the work environment, people listen in order to understand instructions, receive new information, understand changes in procedure and interact with other people. Whatever the purpose, concentration and a deliberate effort to be interested in the speaker’s message will increase listening effectiveness. If you listen well, you will understand the content, meaning and feelings of the message. If you are distracted, much of this will be lost.

Listen actively. Use the different types of listening effectively.

ATTENDING LISTENING: FOCUS ON THE SPEAKER In attending listening, you focus on the speaker by giving them your physical attention. You use your whole body, and the environment you create, to provide feedback that assures the speaker of your total attention. Some ways of offering this feedback are eye contact, posture and body movement. As well as showing interest in the speaker, the quality of your attending listening skills is improved by a quiet environment. The capacity to ignore distractions and understand how moving into or out of the personal space of others affects the interaction. Show interest in the speaker by using the behaviours listed in Exhibit 2.8.

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EXHIBIT 2.8 Attending listening Behaviour

Factor Eye contact

• Use supportive eye contact • Focus your eyes on the speaker without being intimidating • Show sensitivity – avoid staring directly at the speaker for long periods, as the speaker may feel uncomfortable

Posture

• • • •

Body movement

• Avoid moving about a lot • Avoid fiddling with objects, crossing or uncrossing legs, signalling or speaking to passers-by

Personal space

• Position yourself at a distance that is comfortable for both you and the speaker • Comfort in the use of physical distance depends on culture and personal preference

Environment

• • • •

Avoid distractions

• Face the speaker and maintain eye contact with them • Ignore distractions, rather than turn away from the speaker • Stop what you are doing and focus your attention on the other person

Use your posture to show you are attending to the other person Lean slightly forward towards the speaker in a relaxed way Face the person squarely Maintain an open position with arms and legs uncrossed

Avoid moving into the speaker’s personal space Create an environment without distractions or interruptions Remove any physical barriers between you and the speaker Establish an environment where you can both feel relaxed

ENCOURAGING LISTENING: INVITE THE SPEAKER TO CONTINUE Offer feedback.

Encouraging listening indicates that the listener is willing to do more than listen. It provides feedback that invites speakers to say more and to disclose their thoughts and feelings. The strategies in Exhibit 2.9 will encourage the speaker to continue.

EXHIBIT 2.9 Encourage the speaker to continue Strategy Invitation to disclose

Description • Invite speakers to continue, but without pressuring them to disclose their feelings or thoughts. They may be feeling ambivalent about whether to discuss their feelings or keep them private. • Continue to give attention by using eye contact and an open posture, and let them choose whether or not to disclose.

Example If the speaker seems upset or annoyed, you might say something like, ‘You seem to be upset about the discussion with that last client. Would you care to talk about it?’

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CHAPTER 2 / Develop emotional intelligence and interpersonal intelligence

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Strategy

Description

Example

Minimal and brief responses

• Minimal and brief spoken responses let speakers know you are listening and encourage them to continue. • Nonverbal cues such as nodding and facial expressions also convey your interest.

Some of these responses are ‘mmm’, ‘hmm’, ‘yes’ and ‘I see’, along with an attentive posture.

Pause

• A pause, or brief silence, allows the speaker time to consider, reflect and decide whether to continue the conversation. • As a listener, use this time to watch the speaker’s body movement. This can give you clues to the total message – its content and the speaker’s feelings.

Allow silences. Let the speaker have time to think.

Use encouraging questions

• Asking open questions will encourage the other person to share more personal feelings and thoughts. Open questions encourage the speaker to answer at greater length and in more detail, whereas closed questions usually lead to a ‘yes’ or ‘no’ answer. • Avoid ‘why’ questions because they can make the other person defensive. A ‘why’ question urges them to justify their actions and can also sound disapproving. • By asking open questions about what, when, where, how and who, you can help the speaker to be more specific and revealing.

An example of an open question is: ‘How did you go about collecting the files?’ An example of a closed question is: ‘Did you collect the files?’

Avoid ‘why’ questions because they can make the other person defensive. A ‘why’ question urges them to justify their actions and can also sound disapproving. The listening funnel in Exhibit 2.10 shows the progression from open questions to probing questions, to narrow the listener’s range of responses, to closed questions, inviting specific answers, to paraphrasing questions, to check your understanding that the message matches the sender’s meaning. Questioning skills are covered in more detail in the feedback section of this chapter.

REFLECTIVE LISTENING: MIRROR THE CONTENT AND FEELINGS IN THE MESSAGE

EXHIBIT 2.10 Listening funnel Open questions

Probing questions

Closed questions Paraphrasing questions

Reflective listening restates both the feeling and content of the speaker’s message, to show that you understand. There are several techniques you can use to provide this kind of feedback. Asking open questions about what, when, where, how and who helps the speaker to be more specific and revealing.

Show the other person you understand.

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Clarify to give feedback about your understanding of the other person’s message.

Understand the issue from the other person’s point of view.

Paraphrasing helps to achieve a full understanding of the content. It rephrases the essential part of the message concisely in your own words. Listen for the main ideas and direction of the message and rephrase it for the speaker without making judgements that may interrupt or distract. The speaker either agrees with your summary or disagrees and can then rephrase the message – for example, phrases such as, ‘You’re saying that …’ or ‘I see, you would say that …’ help you to paraphrase the message. Avoid repeating the other person’s statements word for word. Paraphrasing is useful at work to confirm instructions or information before you take action. Reflective listeners are able to use mirror statements that clarify and summarise the other person’s communication without interrupting the flow of words or thoughts of the essential feelings received from the message. For example, to reflect feelings from the message, ‘I thought I would have got that last promotion. Seems like I miss out every time’, the listener replies, ‘It’s really discouraging’ or ‘You seem discouraged’. This lets the speaker know that you understand their feelings. Clarifying the meaning establishes with the speaker that your understanding is correct. Make clarifying remarks in terms of describing your feelings, rather than as criticisms of the speaker – for example, if you feel confused by what the speaker has said, you might say something like, ‘Could you repeat that? I don’t think I understood’ or ‘Could you give me an example of …? I’m not sure I followed what you said’. If you have misunderstood, the speaker can then rephrase the message. Clarification of the message gives the speaker feedback and shows what the listener understands. It takes the guesswork out of communication. Summarising is used to gather up and condense the most important points made in a long conversation, to conclude it and give it shape or direction. As you summarise, use statements such as ‘So far we’ve covered …’ or ‘Your main concerns seem to be …’. Summarising lets the other person know you understand what is most relevant, and their thoughts and feelings. Such feedback results in clear communication. Both sender and receiver understand the message.

ACTIVE LISTENING: SHOW EMPATHY WITH THE SPEAKER

While reflective listening restates the feelings and content of the message, active listening goes one step further. It also communicates to other people that you understand the problem from their point of view. An active listener has empathy with the speaker. EXHIBIT 2.11 The active listening process Active listening is an interactive process of responding verbally and nonverbally to the other person’s message. By Pay close listening well you are better able to resolve conflict before it attention reaches a higher level. Applying the active listening process to a conflict is illustrated by Exhibit 2.11. Active listeners are able to: • Pay close attention to the other person: use eye contact, Encourage the LISTEN Reflect their face them, be aware of personal space, adopt an open other person ACTIVELY message to continue position, keep still, let them speak, be enthusiastic and/or encouraging and use an appropriate tone of voice. • Encourage the other person by using conversation openers, inviting them to speak, making brief minimal responses without asking too many questions, and pausing.

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CHAPTER 2 / Develop emotional intelligence and interpersonal intelligence •

Reflect or mirror the message by paraphrasing, clarifying or exploring, reflecting feelings, reflecting meanings and summarising. • Listen actively to the whole message to allow them to relay the total message (content and feelings) back to the speaker: The speaker can then confirm or correct the listener’s feedback. The process of active listening involves actively participating in the conversation with the other person. It requires a conscious attempt to empathise with the speaker in terms of the content and feelings, and to enable them to express and recognise those feelings – for example, a response by the listener such as ‘You seem to be feeling down about this …’ lets the speaker either agree or disagree with that response. Listening responses that help you to participate actively are shown in Exhibit 2.12.

Give the other person all your attention.

EXHIBIT 2.12 Examples of listening responses Type of response

Examples

Attending

• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Encouraging questions

Mirror statements

Clarifying questions

Active listening: empathy

I hear you … I see … Oh … Uh, hmm … I’d like to hear how you feel. Would you like to talk about it? You’d like to talk further? Perhaps you’d like to tell me? You really dislike some … Sounds as if you’re really … It’s really exciting … You feel it is a good idea … You seem to be feeling discouraged … I think you’re saying … Could you give an example …? I feel a bit confused. Could you repeat that? I understand how you feel. You seem to be feeling upset about this. I see. It really means that … On another occasion you’d like …

When you use active listening, you are giving the other person all your attention in order to understand their perspective, and to communicate your understanding. Active listening also lets speakers find their own understanding and insights. The process of active listening is shown in Exhibit 2.13. Sometimes you will use only part of the listening process: for example, attending listening when you are receiving instructions from your team leader about a new task. On another occasion you might use all in combination: that is, actively listen, for example, when making a conscious effort to not only hear the words that another person is saying about the new work schedule but also their feelings and concerns. Each part of the active listening process involves a set of behaviours that help you to focus on the speaker, invite the speaker to continue, give feedback without judging and show empathy with the speaker.

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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK Attending, encouraging and reflecting listening are separate listening skills that we combine as we listen actively. As well as using these skills, an active listener understands the situation from the other person’s point of view. Speakers who are given the opportunity to talk with active listeners are more likely to find their own satisfactory resolution to the problem or issue of concern.

EXHIBIT 2.13 Active listening process

Attending listening To focus on the speaker

BARRIERS TO LISTENING Active listening To show empathy with the speaker

Encouraging listening To invite the speaker to continue

Listening is made easier when the speaker can send a clear, unambiguous message. It is also made easier when the listener avoids barriers. Barriers may be due to the listeners themselves when some aspect of their own background interferes with their perception of the speaker or of the spoken message; for Reflecting listening example, boredom or lack of interest and the listener’s dislike To mirror the feelings of the speaker’s personality or physical appearance. The and content intrusion of the listener’s own values or attitudes and the desire in the message to change rather than accept the speaker raise barriers. Barriers may also be due to any one of the elements in the communication process – sender, receiver, message, channel, environment or ineffective feedback. An unclear message caused by static or interference on the telephone is an obvious example of a communication barrier caused by the channel. Neither the listener nor the sender can prevent such a barrier. You will recognise some of these barriers, and perhaps be able to add to them from your own experience as a listener or as an observer of another listener. As a sender, no matter how skilled you are at speaking or communicating the message, communication will fail if the receiver does not listen. It is important to be aware that ineffective verbal responses by the listener can also contribute to communication barriers. Exhibit 2.14 provides examples. Active listening

EXHIBIT 2.14 The impact of a listener’s ineffective verbal response Listener’s ineffective response to the speaker

Example of barrier

Speaker’s response to the barrier

Ordering, directing or commanding

Stop it or else … You must do this.

Resentment

Warning and threatening

You’d better do this or else …

Anger

Lecturing or preaching

It’s in your own best interest to do this.

Resistance

Judging, criticising

I think you’ve gone too far this time.

Offence

Disagreeing

I think you’re totally wrong.

Put-down

Blaming

It’s all your fault.

Defensiveness

Name calling

You’re stupid.

Distress

Interrogating

Why did you …?

Defensiveness

Using ridicule or sarcasm

Someone like you is not expected to know …

Hurt

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CHAPTER 2 / Develop emotional intelligence and interpersonal intelligence By listening well, you can avoid directing or leading, blaming, judging or evaluating the other person. Rather than feeling the need to be responsible for others or to confront them, a good listener accepts different views and is accepted by others. Skill in listening lets you enjoy the company of others as you listen for pleasure, to get information, to help others or to interact in a work team.

FEEDBACK Effective feedback creates trust and an open relationship between sender and receiver. It is the receiver’s response to a sender’s message and is one of the main ways to assess how accurately our message has been received, how we affect others and how others perceive us. Four different types of feedback used in organisations and businesses are shown in Exhibit 2.15. They include informative feedback, immediate and specific feedback, and negative and positive feedback from leaders or managers, coworkers, customers and others. People may evaluate their own work and their interactions with other people.

Use feedback as the connecting, continuing or completing link. Give and receive constructive feedback to improve understanding and performance. Share perceptions to increase understanding.

EXHIBIT 2.15 Types of feedback Type

Purpose

Techniques

Informative feedback

To show understanding and to reinforce positive behaviour or results

Immediate and specific feedback

To describe what has been done or needs to be done, rather than judging or threatening the other person

Negative constructive feedback

To correct and change unsatisfactory behaviour or results

Positive feedback

To acknowledge the role and contribution of the other person – positive feedback encourages the repetition of behaviour

• Provide factual information about the situation and use effective listening skills. • Focus on the content of the message; identify the other person’s purpose and main ideas by rephrasing or summarising. • Withhold judgement and empathise with any unexpressed feelings. • Share perceptions and feelings about the message. • Keep feedback clear, specific and tied to actual behaviour; e.g. ‘This file could do with a tidy-up’ instead of ‘Your files are always untidy’. • Avoid abstract, vague and sweeping statements. • Respect the other person’s right to respond. • Take the time to listen, and acknowledge their response. • Provide definitive, responsive feedback. • Orient the feedback on the task; don’t criticise the personal characteristics of the other person. • Give feedback at an appropriate time and place. • Only include behaviour that the receiver is able to change, and only what the receiver can handle at the time. • Provide timely feedback in an appropriate context. • Be specific about the behaviour and listen to the other person’s response. • Invite feedback from the other person: ‘What do you think about my suggestions?’ The feedback flow becomes an openended, two-way process.

Constructive feedback is timely. Negative feedback is not necessarily detrimental to the receiver; the result depends on how it is provided. Positive feedback from managers and peers encourages the repetition of that behaviour and acknowledges a person’s role in and contribution to the organisation.

Offer immediate and specific feedback to provide useful information.

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Questioning skills Asking the right question in the right situation helps you collect information, learn more, build sound relationships and manage people more effectively. For example, when you want clarification and understanding from a person who is trying to avoid telling you something, you can ask a probing question to draw out information. By consciously asking the right kind of question, you can gain the information, response or outcome you want and encourage the other person to share their expertise, feelings and thoughts. Examples of five different types of questions are shown in Exhibit 2.16. The types of questions to avoid are shown in Exhibit 2.17. Questions are an integral part of the feedback process.

EXHIBIT 2.16 Types of questions used to give feedback Type

Example

Open questions invite the other person to talk

What do you think about bringing the sales force in for a half-day training session?

Closed questions invite the other person to give a ‘yes’ or ‘no’ response

Do you have concerns about the time spent on training the sales force?

Probing questions are used to gain more details

Could you help by giving an example?

Mirror questions show interest in what the other person has said

I guess it sounds like you want to be involved?

Empowering questions are open-ended questions that invite new insights

What can we learn from this experience?

EXHIBIT 2.17 Types of questions to avoid as you give feedback Type

Example

Multiple questions that cover a number of issues

Do you think you can complete by the deadline and how will you ensure the consultants complete the specifications?

Leading questions to get the answer you want

We expect sales to increase by 10% over the next six months. By how much do you think they will increase?

Implied value questions that reflect your values

Do you agree that employing another consultant on the project will break the budget?

Ambiguous or vague questions that confuse

How can we improve our use of cloud computing tools and are they appropriate for our company?

Asking open, closed and probing questions lets you learn about the other person’s perceptions, ideas and commitment to what is happening. Positive open questions such as ‘Tell me what you like best about the project’ help you to build and maintain an open, ongoing conversation. By asking open questions about what, when, where, how and who, the listener is able to help the speaker to be more specific, precise and revealing. Probing questions are used to seek clarification and avoid misunderstandings. For example, the question ‘What exactly did you mean by …?’ lets you check the other person is giving an accurate and full account by probing for more detail.

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CHAPTER 2 / Develop emotional intelligence and interpersonal intelligence Although encouraging questions let the other person know the listener is interested in talking with them, encouraging questions do not necessarily show the listener understands. To show understanding, change encouraging questions into mirror statements that will help clarify and summarise the other person’s words without interrupting the flow of words or thoughts. Empowering questions invite people to notice, consider, wonder about, discover and awaken to new ideas. They are open-ended questions that lead to discovery, insights or ‘ah-ha’ moments and opportunities. Empowering questions allow the other person to ponder a new perspective, help the other person see the issue in a different light and ask something new to draw out feedback and engagement. Empowering questions usually begin with ‘what’ or ‘how’. Avoid why questions because they can be interpreted as interrogative and personal. Instead of encouraging the speaker to explore their actions, a why question encourages them to justify their actions. The speaker may feel threatened because the why question sounds as if the listener disapproves of their actions. Workplace relationships built on good communication work well. Those built on poor communication do not work so well. Some of the particular communication strategies that manage the interaction and achieve a balance that satisfies both parties are assertiveness, ‘I’ statements and feedback. 1. Briefly describe the active listening process. 2. List two barriers to listening. 3. Empathy: a. Why is displaying empathy such an important listening skill? b. List five ways that you as the listener can demonstrate empathy with the speaker. 4. Feedback: a. Identify four types of feedback and the purpose of each. b. List five types of questions you can use to give feedback. c. List four types of questions you should avoid as you give feedback.

Interact courteously and confidently.

CHECKPOINT 2.5

2.6 ASSERTIVENESS Emotional intelligence (personal and social competence) makes possible the use of assertion to stand up for what you think is right and explain your wants, needs and feelings to others. Being assertive means balancing on the fine line between submission, assertiveness and aggression. An assertive person achieves this balance through self-awareness, as well as the acknowledgement of the rights of others. Assertive people are interpersonally intelligent and able to form positive workplace relationships. They feel less stressed at work because they have the personal power to get things done and stand up for themselves even in difficult situations. ‘Being assertive gives you the best chance of successfully delivering your message. If you communicate in a way that’s too passive or too aggressive, your message may get lost because people are too busy reacting to your delivery.’ (Mayo Clinic Staff 2017) Acknowledgement of their own interests and the interests of others means assertive people are able to treat both self and others with fairness and respect. Assertiveness enables you to value yourself and your rights, and to understand that your rights, thoughts, feelings, needs and desires are no more or less important than the rights of others.

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Display assertive behaviour to build mutual respect. Negotiate, collaborate and say ‘no’ when appropriate without feeling uncomfortable. Be willing to acknowledge your rights and the rights of others.

Assertive people know their limits and are able to say ‘no’ when appropriate. They may suggest a possible alternative for a win–win solution. Assertive behaviour shows in your way of speaking and questioning, and in your listening and other nonverbal behaviour. This kind of behaviour is constructive and helpful when conflict arises because the needs of all parties are acknowledged and dealt with. All parties are also more likely to understand one another and the situation. Two assertive people can accept that each has a different opinion or perspective. They can also accept that when they are assertive and ask for what they want, they don’t necessarily get it. Acting assertively in a conflict, for example, means standing up for your rights and expressing what you believe, feel and want in direct, honest and appropriate ways that respect others’ rights. In any situation, assertive behaviour increases our self-esteem, develops mutual respect and helps us achieve our goals. It allows us to express our feelings in a way that is unlikely to make others feel defensive or aggressive. Assertive people avoid the mistake of accepting responsibility for how others react to their assertive statements (anger or disappointment) because they control their own emotions and know that others are responsible for their own behaviour. They are able to accept compliments and constructive feedback positively, and to ask for help on those occasions when they make a mistake.

THE ‘I’ MESSAGE

Use assertive statements when you need to make people aware of your rights.

A useful technique to develop assertiveness and show openness with others is to use an ‘I’ message. This is a way of sharing emotions and letting others know both how you perceive their behaviour and how it affects you. One of the best ways to begin assertive statements is to say, ‘I feel … when …’; for example, ‘I feel annoyed when I have not been notified that you will be late’. We can all express our needs and wants with an ‘I’ message that shows our personal involvement and our willingness to share our feelings. ‘I’ messages are assertive statements used to make people aware of your rights while you respect theirs. If their behaviour is aggressive (i.e. not respecting your rights), or dangerous to themselves or others, send clear assertive messages and listen to the message from the other party. ‘I’ messages can express our feelings about behaviour that is acceptable and pleasing, or unacceptable. Messages dealing with behaviour that is unacceptable to you are more difficult to express, so this section focuses on their construction.

Constructing an ‘I’ message An ‘I’ message can have two, three or four parts. The formulae for two-, three- and four-part ‘I’ messages are shown in Exhibit 2.18. The formula in a two-part ‘I’ message is ‘feelings þ behaviour’. In a two-part ‘I’ message, you: 1. ‘own’ the feeling 2. describe in concrete terms the behaviour that is causing the feeling. Following this formula, a two-part assertive message becomes: ‘I feel angry when the dirty clothes are left in the bathroom’. In the second part, take care simply to describe the other person’s behaviour rather than interpret, judge or evaluate it.

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EXHIBIT 2.18 Formulae for ‘I’ statements Two-part ‘I’ message

Three-part ‘I’ message

Four-part ‘I’ message

Feelings

Feelings

Feelings

+

+

+

Behaviour

Behaviour

Behaviour

+

+

Effects

Effects + Acceptable alternative behaviour

The formula in a three-part ‘I’ message is ‘feelings þ behaviour þ effects’ (the statements may occur in a different order). In a three-part ‘I’ message, you: 1. ‘own’ the feeling 2. describe precisely the behaviour that is causing the feeling 3. state what effects the behaviour has on you. Following this formula, a three-part assertive statement becomes: ‘I feel … when … because …’; for example, the message may be, ‘I feel annoyed when I have not been notified that you will be late because I am unable to reschedule my time.’ The formula in a four-part ‘I’ message is ‘feelings þ behaviour þ effects þ acceptable alternative behaviour’. In a four-part ‘I’ message, you: 1. ‘own’ the feeling: for example, I know we’re really busy … 2. describe exactly what behaviour is causing the feeling: for example, ‘But I feel stressed when everything is given equal importance … 3. state the effect of the behaviour on you: for example, I would like some way of grading the work from most important to least important … 4. offer an alternative, acceptable behaviour: for example, Perhaps we could use a priority system. Your assertive message would then say ‘I feel … when … because … I would like …’; for example, ‘I feel annoyed when I have not been notified that you will be late because I am unable to reschedule my time. I would like to be contacted if there is a reason to reschedule.’ You can use the fourth part of the message to suggest the alternative acceptable behaviour. Successful ‘I’ statements communicate how you feel in a non-threatening way that is acceptable to the other person. They produce a positive outcome. Though assertive, they do not blame or even interpret the other person’s behaviour. On the other hand, aggressive statements often start with blame: ‘You make me …’ The likely impact of an assertive ‘I’ message response to an aggressive message is shown in Exhibit 2.19.

Suggest alternative acceptable behaviour in the fourth part of an ‘I’ message.

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EXHIBIT 2.19 Possible outcomes of an assertive ‘I’ message response to an aggressive message Outcomes

Type of verbal message

Constructive response

Impact on aggressor

Aggressive

Receiver sends an ‘I’ message stating the impact of the aggressive message

Aggressive sender receives impartial message about impact of aggressive message

Aggressor can decide to de-escalate the aggression and continue on the basis of the ‘I’ statement and understanding of its meaning Aggressor may continue to be aggressive (but, hopefully, finds it harder)

Aggressor can escalate aggression

Once you become skilled at ‘I’ messages, you will frame them in your own words and may omit the words ‘feel’, ‘when’ and ‘because’. Assertive behaviour acknowledges your rights as an individual and the rights of other people. This is the ideal attitude to have at work and in our everyday lives. Assertive people tend to demonstrate open, expressive and relaxed behaviour. They are able to build honest, fulfilling relationships with others.

AGGRESSIVENESS Avoid behaving aggressively and needing to win.

An aggressive person may have to win at all costs. They take what they want regardless and they usually don’t ask. This means dominating and, on occasion, humiliating others, even to the point of ignoring a suggestion that provides the best solution simply because it is someone else’s solution. The rights of others to participate, enjoy a sense of satisfaction and receive acknowledgement for their work are ignored. An aggressive person is often in conflict with others.

SUBMISSIVENESS Avoid behaving submissively and being unable to promote a point of view.

Submissive people are unable to assert or promote a point of view. They find it difficult to lead others because their style of relating means submitting to another’s point of view, even to the extent of ignoring their own rights. When problems or unpleasant situations arise, a submissive person tends to avoid them, leaving them to someone else. Non-assertive behaviour is another term for aggressive or submissive behaviour. By behaving in this way we fail to express honest feelings, thoughts and beliefs. Aggressive people usually try to win at all costs by dominating and humiliating others. Such behaviour shows little respect for others. Submissive people, by contrast, are unable to promote their point of view and even ignore their own needs.

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DRAMA AND SUCCESS TRIANGLES The drama and success triangle were created by Steiner (1974) to contrast the behaviour of people who relate in a way that leads to conflict and the behaviour of those who behave assertively and in positive ways. Non-assertive behaviour is best illustrated by the drama triangle (Exhibit 2.20). The drama triangle explains how people who play the role of victim behave in a helpless manner. They speak and act as if everyone is against them and as if they cannot do anything for themselves. In a conflict situation they are unable to act, and give up. They are not real victims, but behave like helpless victims just to have someone else rescue or persecute them. People who play the role of persecutor offer rewards or punishment to those who play the helpless victim role. Persecutors put the other person down and bully them. In contrast, people who play the role of rescuer offer help and support, sometimes denying their own needs. They may try to protect the victim from the persecutor. (See Exhibit 2.20.) In the success triangle (see Exhibit 2.21), openness, caring and assertive responses focus on the satisfaction of each party’s needs. Assertion lets each party express their needs and concerns in a conflict. When it is used with the win–win approach, and with others who also use the win–win approach, each party can consider the needs of the other and move towards a solution that satisfies as many needs as possible. Those who keep alert for the discomfort and incident levels of conflict are able to prevent the escalation of conflict to higher levels.

EXHIBIT 2.20 Drama triangle

Conflict Rescuer

Persecutor

Victim

EXHIBIT 2.21 Success triangle

Winning Caring

Open

Assertive

1. Assertiveness: a. Define the terms ‘assertiveness’, ‘aggressiveness’ and ‘submissiveness’. b. How do assertiveness skills benefit you in the work environment? 2. ‘I’ messages: a. ‘An ‘‘I’’ message is non-evaluative.’ Explain the meaning of this statement. b. Why are ‘I’ messages used? c. Read each of the following statements aloud with what you think is the appropriate tone and inflection. Distinguish between the ‘I’ messages and the non-’I’ messages. • ‘I feel angry when my conversation is cut off.’ • ‘I find it hard to work when you stand and look over my shoulder.’ • ‘I’m unable to work with you constantly leaning over my shoulder and upsetting me.’ • ‘I feel angry when you interrupt because you’re more interested in other things.’ • ‘You’re always late and that makes it so hard for us.’ • ‘I missed you when you were late this morning.’ • ‘You keep me waiting because you don’t care about me.’ d. Now reframe the non-’I’ messages as ‘I’ messages.

CHECKPOINT 2.6

Avoid non-assertive behaviour – another term for aggressive or submissive behaviour.

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LEARNING ACTIVITIES SUMMARY 2.1 Discuss the four skills of emotional intelligence and provide examples of how each skill may be applied in the workplace. The four skills are self-awareness, selfregulation, social awareness and relationship management. In the workplace, emotionally intelligent people have the personal and social competence to accomplish organisational goals and behave effectively in business and social settings. As well as working independently they work well with others, listen to what is being said and have the ability to be in control and respond under stressful situations. 2.2 Discuss the benefits of using emotional intelligence at work. When interacting with others, self-awareness and the ability to self-regulate, combined with the skills of social awareness and relationship management, are the keys to feeling comfortable socially and maintaining good relationships. Personally and socially competent leaders, supervisors and team members recognise the power dynamics at work; communicate, inspire and influence others; manage conflict; and work well in a team. Problems, issues and inappropriate behaviour are handled before they become stressful and escalate into conflict. 2.3 Explain the purpose and features of emotional labour. Whether interacting with customers face-to-face, in voice-to-voice contacts or through social media, emotional labour requires the person to hide their true feelings and ‘put on a happy face’. The interpersonal interactions in service roles require an employee to display positive emotions and conceal any negative feelings. Surface acting and deep acting are displayed in occupations requiring emotional labour to regulate emotion, foster customer satisfaction, build goodwill and develop positive relationships with customers and clients. 2.4 Identify seven ways nonverbal communication can influence the total message. The seven aspects of nonverbal behaviour are body movement (kinesic

behaviour), physical characteristics, touching behaviour, vocal qualities (paralanguage), use of space or proximity, artefacts and the environment. The seven main aspects of nonverbal communication have been presented in isolation in this chapter. In practice, they occur in clusters and must be read and used together. 2.5 Describe the active listening and feedback processes and explain how the processes help the listener and speaker to understand one another. The four listening responses are attending listening (focusing on the speaker), encouraging listening (inviting the speaker to continue), reflective listening, (mirroring the content and feelings of the message) and active listening (showing empathy with the speaker). Good listeners provide feedback by paraphrasing, using mirror statements, clarifying and summarising, and using open questions. Open questions invite the other person to talk. Closed questions invite the other person to give a ‘yes’ or ‘no’ response. Probing questions are used to gain more details and mirror questions show interest in what the other person has said. ‘Why’ questions are avoided because they may make other people feel defensive and justify their position rather than seek new ideas or further understanding. 2.6 Explain why assertiveness is essential for positive, productive workplace relationships and outcomes. Assertive communication is respectful of others but clear and firm. It means standing up for yourself in a way that does not infringe on the rights of others and respects your own rights and feelings and the rights and feelings of others. ‘I’ messages are a useful way to let you ask assertively for what you want because they disclose how you feel about a situation and show openness with others. Good interpersonal intelligence and nonverbal, listening, feedback and questioning skills facilitate empathic and assertive interactions without alienating others.

KEY TERMS active listening artefacts assertive behaviour

assertive statement attending listening communication barriers

clarifying closed question cultural nonverbal communication

deep acting drama triangle emotional contagion

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CHAPTER 2 / Develop emotional intelligence and interpersonal intelligence

emotional dissonance emotional intelligence emotional labour emotional trigger empowering questions encouraging listening feeling rules ‘I’ message

interpersonal communication interpersonal intelligence intrapersonal intelligence mirror statement non-assertive behaviour nonverbal communication open question paralanguage

paraphrasing persecutor personal competence personal nonverbal communication probing question reflective listening rescuer social competence

submissive behaviour success triangle summarising surface acting universal nonverbal communication victim

LEARNING ACTIVITIES 1. Emotional intelligence a. What is emotional intelligence? b. Explain a technique you can use when the emotions of others are high and difficult to handle. 2. Reflecting listening skills Part A: Work individually To each of the following statements, write a response that demonstrates reflecting listening skills. Be sure to mirror the content or the feeling in each statement. a. ‘I can do it by myself. I’ve done it before, you know.’ b. ‘There’s nothing like a run after work to wind down after a busy day.’ c. ‘I’m never sure whether you really want my input or not. You say you’d like to hear other people’s opinions about the project, but when I give you my opinion you ignore it and move on to the next thing.’ d. ‘Sure, I’ve got time to type it out for you. I’ll just be here till 10 o’clock tonight. Don’t worry about me.’ Part B: Now work in small groups. a. Discuss each of your responses to the statements in Part A of this question. b. As a group decide on one alternative, improved response for each statement.

c. Discuss and make a list of the most common excuses for not listening. d. Suggest possible problems that can be caused by not listening in the workplace. e. Why is displaying empathy such an important listening skill? f. Identify five ways that you as the listener can demonstrate empathy with the speaker. 3. Nonverbal communication a. Identify four different types of nonverbal communication and provide an example of each. b. List six functions of nonverbal communication and provide an example of each. 4. Characteristics of an assertive person In a short information report: a. Discuss the differences between assertiveness, aggression and submission. b. Identify the likely outcomes from assertive, aggressive and submissive responses at work. c. Outline the characteristics of an assertive person. d. Explain at least two benefits you gain from using assertion at work.

GROUP ACTIVITY The two parts of this activity require you in Part A to discuss emotional labour and create a poster. Part B asks you to practise reflective listening. Part A Emotional labour: a service-oriented employee a. Brainstorm and list the characteristics of either an agedcare assistant, a nurse, front desk receptionist, customer service representative or community relations coordinator.

b. Decide ways in which a service-oriented employee communicates and builds rapport and goodwill with residents, patients or customers. c. From your findings, create a ‘service-oriented employee wanted poster’ to emphasise the emotional labour performed by service-oriented employees. d. Review your poster with the others in the course. e. As a large group, combine your posters into an ‘ideal service-oriented employee’.

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Part B Practise reflective listening Break into groups of four for this activity (reflective listening). The roles are: • one speaker • one listener • two observers. STEP ONE: The speaker makes the following statements, one at a time: A. ‘He’s out to get me, I swear. He always gives me the worst jobs!’ B. ‘We have had a number of complaints from customers that the advice they are given on product use is incorrect. If you’re not sure about a product or the way to use it, please ask a senior staff member rather than risk misleading the customer.’ C. ‘I’m not doing it. It’s not my job.’ D. ‘We all feel that you expect too much from us. When we get more than 50 orders a day there is no way they can be filled before 5 pm, and we don’t get paid for overtime.’ STEP TWO: The listener responds to each statement by: A. paraphrasing B. clarifying C. reflecting feeling D. reflecting meaning. STEP THREE: The observer’s tasks are to: A. Note when each listening skill has been used and complete the effective listening self-checklist 2A.

Self-checklist 2A Effective listening Yes

No

Paraphrased

h

h

Clarified

h

h

Reflected feelings

h

h

Reflected meanings

h

h

Used attentive body language

h

h

Used facial expressions that encouraged the speaker

h

h

Maintained eye contact

h

h

B. Compare results with each other by providing the listener with feedback about how well they used their nonverbal behaviour (body language, facial expression and eye contact). C. Swap roles for each new statement. STEP FOUR: Self-evaluate your listening skills. a. Recall a particular instance when each factor you marked with ‘no’ on self-checklist 2A interfered with your ability to listen effectively. In hindsight, how could the barrier have been overcome? b. Create an action plan to improve those skills you marked with ‘no’.

CASE STUDY IS EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE IMPORTANT? Adam needed to call a meeting with Julie, his administration assistant, to discuss a number of performance issues that had been ongoing since Julie commenced in the role seven months ago. The issues had been previously raised as they occurred and also at Julie’s four-month performance review, yet her performance had not improved. Rather than taking a formal warning approach Adam decided to take an informal, softer approach to managing the situation. Adam invited Julie to his office and advised her that he had scheduled a meeting tomorrow to discuss the ongoing performance issues. In consultation with Julie during the meeting, Adam wanted to develop together a performance improvement plan. In preparation for the

meeting Adam gave Julie a copy of her position description as well as a capability framework document that related directly to her position. Adam asked Julie to review these prior to the meeting. Julie’s body language and tone of voice became very defensive, but she agreed to review the documents prior to the meeting. At the meeting the next day, Julie’s attitude was very different from the day before when Adam invited Julie to the meeting. Throughout the meeting Julie was quite cooperative and calm. Adam advised her that after the meeting he would draft a record of discussion letter outlining everything that was discussed and agreed to at this meeting. He also said that Julie would be given an opportunity to go through the letter and let him know if

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>

she agreed with everything in the letter. Julie appeared to have no issues with this. Adam drafted the record of discussion letter and ran it past Human Resources for approval. Once the letter was approved Adam invited Julie to his office to go through the letter in detail after she had read it. Adam presented Julie with the letter, who was again displaying defensive body language and using an aggressive tone of voice. He asked Julie to read through the letter and advised her that he was going to step out of his office to allow her some time to read it. Julie snapped at Adam, saying, ‘I don’t have time right now. I will take it home and read it after work.’ Adam asked Julie to put her other work on hold for now and requested she read through the letter. Adam gave Julie adequate time to read through the letter, and on returning to his office noticed Julie was gone and was not at her own desk. He noted that there was an email from her in his inbox. The email stated that Julie would not be signing the letter as she did not agree with the contents, and she would be in touch next week to meet at a time suitable to her. Adam was shocked by Julie’s rudeness in refusing to discuss the letter and by

dictating to her manager when the meeting would take place. After searching the office Adam was unable to locate Julie. Julie was absent from the office for nearly an hour, and another staff member, Kiara, came to Adam and said, ‘I found Julie hiding in the training room and she was in tears and scared because she believed she was going to lose her job.’

Questions 1. When advised of the meeting with Adam, Julie just ‘lost it’. How can an understanding and application of emotional intelligence manage this situation? 2. What could Julie do to: • have a greater understanding of her emotions and reactions in an uncomfortable workplace situation? • improve her social skills and relations at work? 3. What would be the benefits for Julie and her manager if Julie had chosen to discuss the contents of the letter face-to-face rather than using email to say she would discuss the letter at a later date? Source: Kyall Coulton

BIBLIOGRAPHY Barsade, Sigal & O’Neill, Olivia. ‘Manage Your Emotional Culture’, Harvard Business Review, pp. 58–66 January– February 2016. Beebe, S.A., Beebe, S.J. & Redmond, M.V. 2016. Interpersonal Communication: Relating to Others, 8th edn, Pearson, Upper Saddle River, NJ. Bowden, M. 2010. Winning Body Language: Control the Conversation, Command Attention, and Convey the Right Message without Saying a Word, McGraw-Hill, New York. De Vito, J.A. 2016. The Interpersonal Communication Handbook, 14th edn, Pearson, Upper Saddle River, NJ. Ekman, P. 1985. Telling Lies: Clues to Deceit in the Marketplace, Politics and Marriage, Norton, New York. Ekman, P. & Friesen, W.V. 1969. ‘The Repertoire of Nonverbal Behaviour: Categories, Origins, Usage, and Coding’, Semiotica I, 1969, pp. 49–98.

Freshman, Brenda & Rubino, Louis. 2002. ‘Emotional Intelligence: A Core Competency for Health Care Administrators’, Health Care Manager, 2002, Vol. 20. Issue 4, pp. 1–9. Gardenswartz, Lee. Cherbosque, Jorge & Rowe, Anita. 2010. Emotional Intelligence for Managing Results in a Diverse World: The Hard Truth about Soft Skills in the Workplace Reprint Edition, Nicholas Brealey, CA. Gardner, Howard. 2011. Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences Kindle Edition, Basic Books, Philadephia. PA. Goleman, D. 1998. Working with emotional intelligence. Bantam Books, New York, NY. Hellreigel, D. Slocum, J.W. & Woodman, R.W. 1988. Organizational Behaviour, 4th edn, West Publishing Company, St Paul, MN.

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Knapp, M.L. 1978. Essentials of Non-verbal Communication, Holt, Rinehart & Winston, New York. Knapp, M.L. & Miller, G.B. 1985. Handbook of Interpersonal Communication, Sage Publications, Beverly Hills, CA. Knapp, M.L. & Vangelista, A.L. 1996. Interpersonal Communication and Human Relationships, Allyn & Bacon, Boston. MA. O’Neil, J. 1996. ‘On emotional intelligence: a conversation with Daniel Goleman’ from Educational Leadership, Vol. 54, issue 1. Published by Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, ª 1996. Mayo Clinic Staff. 2017. ‘Being assertive: Reduce stress, communicate better’, Healthy Lifestyle Stress Management, https://www.mayoclinic.org/healthy-lifestyle/stressmanagement/in-depth/assertive/art-20044644, viewed 4 September 2018. Mehrabian, Albert. 1972. Nonverbal communication, Transaction Publishers, New Brunswick, NJ.

Mindtools. 2018. What Are Your Values? Deciding What’s Most Important in Life. https://www.mindtools.com/pages/ article/newTED_85.htm, viewed 19 February 2018. Poskey, Mike. 2018. ‘Emotional Intelligence in the Workplace: Why It Matters More Than Personality’, International Risk Management Institute, www.irmi.com/articles/expertcommentary/emotional-intelligence-in-the-workplace, viewed 28 November 2018. Segal, Jeanne. Smith, Melinda & Shubin, Jennifer. 2018. Improving Emotional Intelligence (EQ), www.helpguide.org/articles/mental-health/emotionalintelligence-eq.htm, viewed 28 November 2018. Steiner. C.M. Scripts People Live, Grove Press, 1974. TED Talks. Ideas worth spreading. 2018. 2600þ talks to stir your curiosity, https://www.ted.com/talks, viewed 19 February 2018. Wood, Julia T. 2012, Interpersonal Communication Everyday Encounters, 7th edn, Wadsworth Cengage Learning, Boston, MA.

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ADAPT TO CHANGE IN THE DIGITAL ERA

Your Learning Journey

What does it mean to be...

  

3

Open to new ideas + changes Can handle unexpected demands Is flexible/adjustable

3.1

or in a team

Can work independently

Adaptable

Ch ap ter 3

CHAPTER

+ Flexible?

Interacting + collaborating to complete tasks

IT’S NEEDED TO extract + contribute info 3.4

build + maintain business + personal relationships

print literacy multimedia literacy

texting literacy

Identify barriers to being adaptable

Why is it important to adapt?

traditional (one-way)

mobile literacy

code literacy

Digital literacy 3.3

digital (two-way) hypertext literacy

CH4

3.2

Next DEVELOP COMMUNICATION SKILLS FOR EMPLOYMENT collaborative more can be shared and knowledge reused anywhere/any time

gaming literacy features of a digital workplace

How important is digital literacy?

Mental scripts which ignore signals of change + handle situations using past habits

Inability to manage self and relationships

Staying within comfort zone + only using old ways of doing things

Lack of accountability (due to unclear priorities/disengagement; causes low morale + unwillingness to be flexible)

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LEARNING OBJECTIVES After studying this chapter, you should be able to: 3.1 discuss what it means to be adaptable and flexible 3.2 identify barriers to being adaptable 3.3 explain the skills of digital literacy and their growing importance in the workplace 3.4 identify organisational needs fulfilled by digital channels of communication and discuss the importance of being able to adapt from traditional channels to digital channels of communication and workplace interaction.

3.1 WHAT IS ADAPTABILITY? Demonstrate adaptability in response to changes such as changing work roles, technologies and situations.

Employers are looking for employees who have adaptability and flexibility to build rapport when working with new colleagues, teams and technology. Advancing technology is shifting banking, retail, welfare, education and other services online and through mobile devices. Consequently, employers in those and many other industries require employees who can communicate, connect, transmit knowledge and ideas, and provide services through digital channels. Employees are expected to integrate face-to-face interactions with new ways of connecting through networked digital technologies. The skill of adaptability enables a person to change in response to a change in their job description, changes in customer needs, changing workplace technology and changing circumstances in the workplace environment. An adaptable person is: • open to new ideas or changes in the workplace • able to adjust to change and new situations • able to handle unexpected demands • able to work independently or in teams • able to interact and collaborate with others to carry out tasks. In many workplaces it is common to juggle competing interests and respond to unexpected events. An adaptable person has the attributes shown in Exhibit 3.1. Adaptability means openness to change and new opportunities and a willingness to develop new and existing skills. Adaptability comes naturally to people who cope with change and the unexpected. Rather than identifying why change will not work, an adaptable person looks for positive ways to make it happen. They alter their routines willingly and shift priorities in response to the demands of a situation. When setbacks occur or problems arise, adaptability allows maintenance of a positive attitude and improvement suggestions. Others who prefer to work to a schedule or ‘to do’ list may be less flexible at first and find it hard to adapt. People with planning and organising skills are likely to become adaptable and flexible as they learn through experience. Learning to be more adaptable to unexpected events or change provides opportunities for growth and development. Adaptability helps people to respond positively and appropriately to changing circumstances rather than viewing changes as upheavals. Employers need staff with the skills to take on value-added tasks such as decision making, problem solving, developing others, initiating or managing change and improving service orientation. Adaptability and flexibility allow them to transcend the changes digital and other technology are making to the way Australians work and the way businesses offer their services.

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CHAPTER 3 / Adapt to change in the digital era

EXHIBIT 3.1 Attributes of adaptability

Intellectual flexibility • An open mind • Able to integrate new information and draw conclusions • Able to switch from the detail to the big picture

Changes behaviour • Able to adjust style of working to meet the needs of a situation • Able to adjust methods in response to an emergency • Able to stay calm and ready to make a quick decision when faced with unexpected challenge

Attributes of adaptability

Receptive to change • Able to respond with a positive attitude • Willing to learn new ways to achieve targets and objectives • Able to take on new roles and responsibilities calmly and without stressing

Creativity • Willing to seek new ways of doing things • Able to improvise or experiment confidently • Able to present alternative options for discussion

As more and more routine or predetermined sets of tasks are done through automation and communication through digital channels, employees must be willing to adapt. Staying with traditional roles, skills and attitudes will lead to employees being bypassed for those with the new skills. A person willing to adapt is able to move along and across career paths.

Skills for learning and adapting Whereas in our grandparents’ generation jobs and careers were considered somewhat predictable, with expected progression and known required skill sets, in the current and future work environments work is more fluid and dynamic. New technologies, job requirements and changing populations mean workers need to be adaptable and able to not just build on existing skills but to upskill and acquire new skills.

FROM THEORY TO PRACTICE

> 65

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>

As workplaces change and become more flexible, the responsibility of acquiring new skills has moved from the employer to the employee. So, what are the skills required to thrive in the modern workforce? The Future skills and training report, by the Australian Industry and Skills Committee in 2017, identifies nine essentials for learning and adapting:

Skills essentials 2—Learning and adapting ü Perseverance

ü Experimentation

ü Resilience

ü Adaptability

ü Sociability

ü Self-confidence

ü Curiosity

ü Initiative

ü Responsiveness Australian Industry and Skills Committee. https://www.aisc.net.au/sites/aisc/files/documents/ Future%20Priority%20Skills%20Resource.pdf CC Attribution 4.0 International License https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/legalcode.

ASK YOURSELF: Reflect on your skills, particularly the skill of adaptability. How will you strengthen this skill to better enable you to respond to new technologies and job requirements?

FLEXIBILITY Flexibility at work is the ability to evaluate what is happening and adjust to the role and responsibilities: for example, a new job, changes in the current job, a transfer or promotion to a new position. Flexibility in the workplace flows from an attitude that is willing to accept changing workplace trends and is ready to implement the necessary changes. Rather than trying to rigidly adhere to past views and practices, flexibility enables adjustment to the new situation. Flexible people have a self-awareness and the self-motivation and self-regulation to: • communicate to share data, information and knowledge • listen to and acknowledge the viewpoint of others • collaborate and negotiate without creating conflict • work well under pressure and perform additional roles as required • embrace change and learn new skills to enable them to engage in new opportunities and adopt new trends • work productively with ongoing changes in technology and digital communication • accommodate and value the diversified culture of the modern workplace • innovate and be comfortable with and open to novel ideas and new information. Flexibility and optimism underpin their approach to tasks and the building and maintaining of workplace relationships. The positive outlook and willingness to respond flexibly brings forward opportunities for job rotation and job enrichment. Acting in a team leadership or supervisory role enhances skills and demonstrates capability to advance to more senior roles. Job rotation from one job to another periodically widens an employee’s skill base.

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CHAPTER 3 / Adapt to change in the digital era Flexibility enhances engagement in effective decision making and problem solving and improves workplace performance and relationship building. Employees with the attribute of flexibility are able to: • anticipate changes, respond to change and make necessary adjustments as part of their work role. • accept responsibility to make decisions, problem solve and work towards more senior positions • deal with unpredictable work situations and make and implement decisions during crises or emergencies. Adaptability and flexibility enable the management of several priorities and the capacity to respond to changes in the internal and external workplace environment.

BENEFITS OF ADAPTABILITY It is crucial for any employer and employee to be flexible in the workplace. This creates a more efficient, well-run organisation and workforce that is able to adapt to rapid changes in technology and markets. Adaptability allows innovative approaches to task accomplishment and confident adjustment to changes in the surrounding environment. During stressful situations an adaptable employee is able to stay composed and focused on tasks. The benefits of adaptability for the employee and the organisation are shown in Exhibit 3.2.

EXHIBIT 3.2 Benefits of adaptability For the individual employee

For the organisation

• Confidence to undertake new roles and tasks • Steady progress along a career path • Adjustment to changing circumstances

• Different approaches to problem solving • Increased productivity and innovation • Diminished conflict and grievance issues

• Willingness to engage with a variety of people to get the job done

• Improved reputation of the organisation in the local community

• Able to work under pressure – set priorities, and carry out unexpected tasks calmly and without stress

• Greater breadth of employee skill, knowledge, experience and creativity • Better levels of service to internal and external clients

• Know how to change a mindset and look flexibly at a problem to find a solution

Cultural fit When hiring, employers look not only for candidates’ skills and experience but also for whether or not they will blend with the culture of the company. The advantages of employing adaptable people who fit the culture of the organisation and have the technical skills identified in the job description mean that new employees are able to carry out their work productively. Values, behavioural styles, priorities and opinions impact an employee’s or job candidate’s attitudes with regard to working in a particular occupation on different tasks in different situations. Motivation for status, progression, money or need for a challenge and some control over their career path influence an individual’s job satisfaction, commitment and performance in a particular occupation. Cultural fit enables the sharing of the organisation’s existing structure, work ethic and norms such as collaborative or hierarchical goal-setting and decision making. The facilities (open plan office space,

Check your cultural fit with an organisation’s beliefs, values and behaviour to decide if you share and are able to align with the workplace norms, core values and culture.

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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK remote locations or a traditional factory or office) and the manner in which accountabilities and responsibilities are distributed affect job satisfaction and engagement. Knowing about the norms, for example, working late on Tuesdays, leaving by 4 on Fridays and how information is shared in staff meetings (daily, weekly or quarterly), permits a potential or new employee as well as existing employees to recognise if the job is satisfying and how they can fit with the organisation’s culture. In the selection process current employers evaluate in psychometric tests candidates’ personality, aptitude, reasoning skills, motivation and integrity to decide if their current work beliefs, values and practices match up with those of the organisation for which they are applying to work.

Resilience Develop resilience through learning, experience and flexible and adaptable responses to changing circumstances and unexpected events.

Your personal journey through your relationships with others, including sports, leisure activities and work experiences, has already presented many opportunities to develop your resilience, determination and ability to adapt to different situations and challenges. Resilience is the ability to recover from or adjust easily to change, stress or misfortune and view problems as opportunities to learn. Being resilient requires a willingness to learn and work out how to improve ways of doing things, and dealing with changing situations and circumstances. A flexible approach to thinking finds ways to turn adversity and uncertainty into opportunities for learning and positive self-development. In the workplace, resilience is acquired from involvement and acceptance of responsibility. Opportunities to take on and learn from projects, face challenges without giving up, support others and ask for and reflect on feedback builds and improves resilience. In your career it is about staying the course and overcoming challenges. Resilient people learn from past situations to develop a solution-oriented approach to new challenges. They accept reality, are willing to accept a challenge, have the problem-solving abilities to handle a challenge and find innovative solutions. Resilience allows them to adapt when asked to work on an unusual project or task and persist without getting frustrated. The result is a readiness to learn and develop new skills to improve task accomplishment, range of capabilities and capacity to work with a different team or respond positively to changing circumstances in the workplace.

Initiative Adaptability, resilience and self-confidence contribute to initiative. Initiative is exhibited in a workplace when a team or individual member sees an opportunity to accomplish a process or task and suggests how to do it more efficiently. Taking the initiative to learn how to use new technology improves productivity. Volunteering to learn new tasks shows initiative and facilitates adaptability to assist in emergencies or at peak periods. The foundation of initiative is self-confidence and capability. Self-confidence allows new opportunities to be explored and new skills and strengths to be built. Capability to suggest improvements and more efficient ways to complete processes and tasks and reduce costs demonstrates initiative. Thinking ahead and planning for meetings, volunteering for difficult projects and taking personal responsibility for growth and professional development are behaviours that demonstrate initiative. As well as looking for adaptability, flexibility, cultural fit, resilience and initiative employers seek employees whose workplace performance in previous positions or experiences reflects respectful and empathic interaction with others. The ability to work collaboratively to make informed decisions and engage in the work environment is increasingly sought by employers.

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CHAPTER 3 / Adapt to change in the digital era

1. Adaptability: a. Identify the attributes of an adaptable person. b. Why do employers look for adaptability when hiring? 2. In a short written answer (100 words), describe the characteristics of a person who displays flexibility. 3. Benefits of adaptability: a. Why is it essential to be flexible and adaptable in the work environment? b. Discuss the benefits of adaptability for the individual employee. c. Discuss the benefits of adaptability for an organisation. 4. Cultural fit, resilience and initiative: a. What are the benefits of a cultural fit? b. Why do recruiters and employers conduct psychometric testing? c. How is resilience developed? d. Provide an example of initiative.

CHECKPOINT 3.1

3.2 BARRIERS TO BEING ADAPTABLE Prior mental scripts, unwillingness to move out of our comfort zone or fear of being rejected may stand in the way of openness to new opportunities and experiences. Poorly chosen words or angry and dismissive tones of communication are often the source of resistance and negativity in an organisation. A respectful tone in communication via emails, SMS messages, in-person communication, interactions in meetings and phone conversations enhances engagement, adaptability and productive outcomes. When directing, helping and working collaboratively with others, think through a message and the likely response of the receiver. The objective of your communication is to encourage rather than discourage adaptable and flexible responses that get the job done.

MENTAL SCRIPTS Mental scripts created during previous experiences may dictate behaviour in new experiences. Mental scripts about, for example, using a print diary efficiently in the past to record meetings and manage activities may prevent a person from switching to the new, more efficient experience of using a digital diary on their smartphone. Rather than being open to new experiences a mental script may cause resistance to change. Mental scripts influence workplace actions that have been done so often they are completed without thinking. Mental scripts are a disadvantage when the script ignores the reality of a situation and dismisses any signals or new information because a team feels it already knows what to do. Rigidity and inflexibility are the result when the mental script results in a team leader or team member ‘doing what we have always done’ instead of adapting to the realities of a new situation. Rather than being open to new experiences and responding in new ways appropriate to the new situation, old habits apply and new learning and opportunities are missed. Being adaptable to new and changing situations involves challenging habits and preconceived ideas about how things should be done. Thinking about and understanding things from the perspectives of others as well as our own gives a broader appreciation of experiences. Rather than remaining focused on our own perspective we can learn from others and adapt to changing circumstances.

Be open and willing to change your thinking and mental script based on past experiences and behaviours for a given situation when circumstances require different responses.

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INABILITY TO MANAGE SELF AND RELATIONSHIPS Adaptability depends on the emotional intelligence competencies of self-management and relationship management. Goleman (1998) presents the skills of self-management as self-confidence, self-regulation and self-motivation, and the skills of relationship management as social awareness and social skills. Adaptability and flexibility in handling change are core skills of self-regulation, social awareness and social skill. Emotional intelligence facilitates the control and constructive filtering of emotions in response to changing circumstances. The social awareness skills of empathy, service orientation and developing others, as well as the social skills of communication, conflict management, collaboration and cooperation, working in teams and managing change, support flexible and resilient responses and interactions. An inability to manage self and relationships can lead to loss of confidence, insecurity and retreating to previous habits when faced with change. There are always opportunities for us to test our adaptability skills; however, having had few opportunities while growing up to try new things and respond to challenges may lead to resistance to change later in life. Some of us may not actively seek these opportunities through lack of confidence and inaccurate self-assessment of strengths, limitations, self-worth and capabilities. The inability to manage relationships effectively will also limit the ability to adapt. Fear of failure or rejection may cause stress and lead to rigid responses based on past circumstances rather than flexible responses based on the reality of what is happening now. Additionally, organisations, leaders or teams that insist on ‘getting it right the first time’ can stifle initiative and suggestions for improvement. Team members may become unwilling to suggest improvements to processes and ways of doing things through fear of the consequences of failure.

COMFORT ZONE Seek new opportunities to grow your comfort zone.

Adaptability is about developing and responding to change. Change challenges our comfort zone and invites us to move out of our comfort zone. Engagement in activities, tasks and experiences expands our comfort zones. The comfort zone is where everything is easy and nothing risky ever happens. Equally, nothing great or exciting happens there either. The broader our comfort zone, the more easily we adapt to changing circumstances. The size of comfort zones varies between people and over time. When we move outside our comfort zone to the ‘stretch zone’, learning and growth happen. New experiences in the stretch zone may feel uncomfortable because of the new and different ways in which things happen. Being willing to move into the stretch zone to find new ways of responding to new experiences is an effective way to improve adaptability skills.

LACK OF ACCOUNTABILITY Demonstrate accountability and accept responsibility for your own actions.

Accountability means to make choices, and to accept responsibility for and abide by those choices. It recognises the need to work in an organised and flexible manner to meet priorities and deadlines. Accountability requires a team and its individual members to know what is expected of them and what they are working towards. Avoiding a lack of accountability requires an organisation and its leaders, managers, supervisors and team members to set clear performance expectations and indicators of effective performance. Lack of accountability is caused by: • unclear priorities with too much changing of priorities without consultation • low morale, usually caused by inadequate and ineffective communication • low levels of trust, and defensive and unproductive attitudes among employees

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CHAPTER 3 / Adapt to change in the digital era •

declining engagement, disinterest in work, disconnection from teams and colleagues and no sense of purpose • high turnover due to unclear expectations, misunderstandings and tension in the workplace. Behaviours that demonstrate accountability are commitment to own role and team roles, and effective follow through on all projects, goals and objectives. When timelines are not being met an accountable employee requests support in terms of additional time or resources to maintain a high standard of work, as well as to minimise hazards to self, others and the environment due to stress and poor work caused by unachievable targets. Being punctual in arriving at work and completing all commitments made to supervisor, team and colleagues with minimal supervision demonstrate interest and engagement in work. Accountability and flexibility allow negotiation of alternatives and reaching agreement to set realistic timeframes, objectives and performance indicators. Working in accordance with standards, going beyond expectations and being adaptable to achieve quality, accuracy and completeness of work activities and tasks demonstrate accountability, flexibility and resilience. The information and digital age and its parallel need for management of knowledge means workers who can create and manipulate information, knowledge and ideas are increasingly in demand. Adapting to new technologies in the digital age has become a survival strategy for business. Employees are expected to know how to handle communication and information along digital channels. They must know how or be willing to learn how to use a variety of digital channels. 1. How can a mental script hinder an individual or team’s performance? 2. Adaptability and flexibility: a. What are the emotional intelligence skills that facilitate adaptability and flexibility? b. What factors may prevent an employee from seeking new opportunities? 3. Comfort zone and accountability: a. How can you expand your comfort zone? b. Briefly explain the factors that can lead to a lack of accountability.

CHECKPOINT 3.2

3.3 WHY IS DIGITAL LITERACY IMPORTANT? Desktop, mobile devices and other digital technologies enable organisations, groups and individuals to collaborate and share information along a variety of digital and social media communication channels. In 2018, more than 4 billion people used laptops and desktops, mobile phones, tablet and other devices to access the internet. ‘Nearly 90 percent of the Australian population are online… Australians spend 80 percent more time on the Internet than watching television … Two-thirds of Australians are using social media each month, spending almost 100 minutes on social platforms each day.’ (Kemp 2018) With the advent of the internet and the growth of Web 2.0 (the second generation of the internet) technology organisations have accepted the offer of a universally accessible network of low-cost, speedy communication tools, publication tools and resources to connect with individuals, organisations and communities across time zones and geographical boundaries. The progression from one-way communication to a much more collaborative, information-sharing mode enables users to create and distribute content, and provides the freedom to upload, download, share and reuse knowledge anywhere, at any time. Employers are seeking employees with the digital literacy as well as

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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK specific technical abilities in their occupation who are able to use digital channels of communication and adapt to changing work roles. The rapid growth in technological capabilities is changing the way organisations and their staff work. The advantages and disadvantages for individual employees of communicating and working on digital channels are shown in Exhibit 3.3.

EXHIBIT 3.3 Advantages and disadvantages of digital channels Advantages

• Share ideas, information, feedback and requests faster than by traditional methods • Fast connection, quick and easy communication and opportunity to ask questions and answer when on the move • Access to external data about the culture and processes of other organisations in social, recruiting and talent networks • Creation of new jobs for those with data science and analytics skills

Disadvantages

• Different time zones and work schedules mean colleagues may forward emails or texts at any time of the day or night • Digital workers may receive notifications from smart machines and technologies at any time of the night or day • Difficult to achieve work–life balance when work is only a mobile phone call or text away, even when on vacation • Messages that ‘ping’ and disturb while in the middle of work or a meeting

Typical barriers to the introduction of digital tools are budget restrictions, management’s fear of loss of control and insufficient numbers of employees with the knowledge to use digital channels effectively.

FEATURES OF A DIGITAL WORKPLACE Align people, technology and business processes in a digital workplace to increase efficiency.

Information technology (IT) and digital skills have a significant impact on the way professions and workplaces operate. An analysis of detailed occupation codes in Australia by the Foundation for Young Australians ‘… indicated that more than 90% of Australia’s current workforce will need to be at least a digital citizen to function in a digitally-enabled workforce over the next 2–5 years’ (2016, p.16). More and more organisations are evolving into digital workplaces. The digital workplace concept describes how technology is increasingly creating a virtual equivalent of the physical workplace. In a digital workplace technology, people and business processes are aligned to improve operational efficiency and meet business goals. The key features of a digital workplace are the: • IT devices and systems – ranging from mobile phones to productivity tools and business systems • employees with the ability to access information on mobile devices, conduct searches, manage content and collaborate with others on various platforms • activities and daily interactions from quick clicks to full business processes • insights, information and knowledge contributed and gathered from the digital workplace • digital workflows, work process efficiencies and collaboration through digital channels of communication. In order to keep up to date and remain competitive, organisations must address and manage the significant change in the range of communication channels. Flexible and adaptable organisations are benefiting from the trend towards digital workplaces through increased productivity, cost savings and a more mobile and agile workforce. The ability to connect from almost anywhere has allowed organisations to collaborate more globally and with more diverse and global employees and

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CHAPTER 3 / Adapt to change in the digital era stakeholders. Employees can share and report on work from any mobile device, and access tasks, calendars and files through digital channels. Collaboration and immediate access to information enhance the speed and quality of decision making. Employees are expected to have or to develop the skills to analyse, evaluate and apply information to complete a range of workplace tasks and activities, transmit knowledge and ideas and share skills with others. For example, companies offer employees self-service access via a Web browser or app on a laptop, tablet, smartphone or other mobile device. The typical range of digital activities an employee can then do are to create their profile, access a booking hub to view the shifts for which they are rostered on, make requests for extra shifts or to swap shifts and request leave dates. Employees’ rosters are entered on the digital calendars and shared with authorised people. In the case of those who travel as part of their job, they are able to record trip information such as costs of fuel, accommodation, meals and other expenses. The company communicates to all staff via the Web browser or app compliance documents, other company information and any alerts about performance, training or special events. A new employee, for example, can undertake induction training on their mobile, tablet or other digital device, anywhere, anytime, even on the bus, train or tram to and from work. Employers have the responsibility to ensure the devices and systems support enhance daily activities and provide staff with access and training in how to use the digital information and collaboration tools. Employees require the digital skills and knowledge to access, retrieve and report information through the company portal.

DIGITAL LITERACIES The first generation of the Web was about providing information without interaction from the user. The second-generation Web – ‘Web 2.0’ – is focused on the user and the enabling of two-way interaction. Web 2.0 allows users to make changes to webpages, links people to other users on social networking sites, lets users upload and share content, offers Really Simple Syndication (RSS) feeds to receive notifications of a webpage’s updates and expands access to the internet beyond the computer through mobile devices such as smart phones, tablets, video game consoles, television sets and other devices. Additionally, the rapid innovation and variety of new applications on the Internet of Things (IoT) will contribute to efficiency and technology. The Internet Society (2018) defines an IoT device as a physical object that connects to the internet. For example, it can be a fitness tracker, a thermostat, a lock or appliance. Organisations can use the Internet of Things to connect with and create a company presence for employees anywhere in the world. Objects designed for collaboration and transformed into smart services increase collaboration within an organisation. Ongoing rapid changes in technology require the skills of adaptability and flexibility to access the new opportunities available through the Internet of Things. Digital literacies are the individual and social skills needed to interpret, manage, share and create meaning in the growing range of digital communication channels. Digital literacies range in complexity from print literacy, texting literacy, hypertext literacy, multimedia literacy, gaming literacy, mobile literacy through to code literacy (Dudeney et al. 2014, pp. 5–6). Digitally competent employees use the new technologies to interact and participate with others to extract information, contribute information, and build and maintain business and personal relationships through digital channels.

Combine your digital and information literacies to work effectively with emerging technologies.

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EXHIBIT 3.4 The seven digital literacies Print literacy Code literacy

Mobile literacy

Gaming literacy

Texting literacy

Digital literacies

Hypertext literacy

Multimedia literacy

A competent user of digital channels combines the digital literacies with the information literacies of tagging, search, information and filtering. (see Exhibit 3.4). People competent in the major digital literacies and the information literacies are able to: • extract information, evaluate its usefulness and apply it in workplace processes and activities • contribute information and report on digital platforms and portals • build and maintain business and personal relationships through digital channels. The highest level of digital literacy is the capacity to remix digital content. Print literacy, such as annotating e-books and online articles, sharing and discussing annotations, and texting literacy, such as netspeak or textspeak language used to abbreviate and speed-up messages in online chatrooms and mobile text messaging, are invaluable assets for any student in their studies and workplace. The ability to find information from a variety of sources such as the internet, the cloud and other organisational digital sources and evaluate its usefulness, accuracy, reliability and application in the workplace is a significant skill sought by employers.

Types of occupations and their digital skill requirements The UK Digital Skills Taskforce (2014, pp. 5–6) has defined the following four types of occupations based on their requirements for digital skills and the percentage of new jobs required in each type of occupation. 1. Digital Muggle: no digital skills required 2. Digital Citizen: ability to use digital technology purposefully and confidently to communicate, find information and purchase goods/services 3. Digital Worker: ability to evaluate, configure/program, and use complex digital systems 4. Digital Maker: skills to actually build digital technology (typically software development, but including creating complex Excel macros or 3D printing data files). In 2016, the Foundation for Young Australians (2016, p. 16) explored the digital literacy needs of Australian organisations in the next 2–5 years, shown in Exhibit 3.5.

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CHAPTER 3 / Adapt to change in the digital era

Number of employed persons, Australia

EXHIBIT 3.5 Australia’s digital literacy workforce needs in the next 2–5 years

6,000,000

More than 90% of Australia’s workforce will need to operate at digital citizen level or above

5,000,000

4,456,560

4,000,000

37.7%

5,398,710 45.6%

3,000,000 2,000,000 1,000,000

973,360

999,370

8.2%

8.4%

0 Digital Muggle = No skill required

Digital Citizen = Use tech to communicate and find info

Digital Worker = Configure & use systems

Digital Maker = Build digital tech

Source: Foundation for Young Australians (FYA). 2016. The New Basics: Big data reveals the skills young people need for the New Work Order, http://www.fya.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2016/04/The-New-Basics_Web_Final.pdf, viewed 2 October 2018, p. 16.

DIGITAL COMPETENCE Digital literacy enables users to apply the features of online platforms to collaborate, participate in discussions, access existing data, information and knowledge, and create new information and knowledge fit for purpose. Participation in online conferences or discussions, contributions through social media or organised industry Tweetups and interactions in professional industry or open forums enhances: • communication, relationship building, decision making and problem solving • quick access to useful and relevant information and knowledge resources • participation in formal and informal networking to increase the flow and quality of information • collaboration, sharing and reflection on the practices in other organisations • current and future needs and handling of data and information overload in the changing environment. Effective information discovery from the range and increasing complexity of digital information improves the transfer, analysis, review and communication of knowledge. The result is enhanced workplace productivity and innovation.

Manage and participate in operations Job candidates with practical experience of software systems such as spreadsheet and database software, accounting software, cloud applications and document software commonly used in business and company-specific portals have an edge in the job market because they can input and retrieve data and information from digital sources.

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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK Accessing digital information requires more than the search and navigation skills to find the relevant information on different digital platforms. Successful searching and application of digital information also requires the thinking and reasoning skills to: • synthesise, critically analyse and evaluate data, information and knowledge • collect and use information to accomplish a specific purpose • create, and communicate meaningful new information and knowledge. • acknowledge the work of others and comply with ethical and legal requirements such as privacy, confidentiality, copyright and licensing. Decision making in the workplace uses data and turns it into useful information and knowledge. Information becomes knowledge when it is used by a person. Drucker (2003, p. 287) says, ‘Knowledge is embodied in a person; applied by a person, taught and passed on by a person; used or misused by a person … knowledge does not reside in a book, a database, or a software program – these contain only information.’ Digitally literate employees are able to use software, databases and other digital sources of information to identify critical business-related issues and logically draw conclusions. Conceptual reasoning and adaptable and lateral thinking skills, such as the ability to learn new information, identify patterns in data and integrate complex information, are combined with digital skills as work problems are solved. More people are working remotely and more services are able to be delivered remotely. Digital channels make it possible for remote workers to gather new work-related information from written workplace material such as company policies, manuals, instructions and reports, which inform decisions. Remote workers and those working locally are able to access these materials to compare patterns in data or work and assess problems and situations against organisational rules.

Collaboration and participation in the digital world Knowledge is shared in digital conversations and meetings, learning relationships, mentoring, collaboration and other activities. Effective sharing prevents people from ‘reinventing the wheel’ or repeating the same mistake. Waste and duplication are minimised. Shared problem solving and knowledge sharing along digital channels increases the speed and quality of decision making. In the digital age there is a need to focus on learning and the creation of intellectual capital to build the knowledge base of individuals, teams and the organisation. Employers expect job candidates and staff to have the skills to know what to share, who to share with, and how to keep information safe as it is generated, transformed into knowledge, transferred and shared between areas of operations. Employees are required to deliver customer satisfaction, maintain privacy and build both workplace and other relationships along digital as well as other channels. The outcome from effective management of communication and knowledge along digital and other channels of communication is increased innovation, effectiveness and performance. When seeking employees, employers are looking for applicants who can respond and adapt to a changing world and new technologies. Successful applicants demonstrate their ability to embrace and work with text, digital and visual communication.

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CHAPTER 3 / Adapt to change in the digital era

1. Digital workplaces: a. Briefly explain the reasons for the growing importance of digital literacy. b. Describe the features of a digital workplace. c. Give examples of how rapid growth in digital technologies has changed the way organisations and individuals work. d. Identify barriers to the introduction of digital tools. 2. Digital literacy: a. Identify the seven digital literacies and four information literacies that are increasingly applied in Australian workplaces. b. Provide examples of workplace activities a digital citizen is expected to undertake. c. How many digital citizens did Australian employers require in 2016? d. Search the Web to find out how many digital citizens were employed last year. 3. Digital competence: a. What more than search and navigation skills does accessing digital information require? b. Which of the digital literacies do you possess?

CHECKPOINT 3.3

3.4 DIGITAL CHANNELS IMPROVE COMMUNICATION The purpose of communication in an organisation is to drive the organisation and facilitate the contribution of its employees in long-term strategies and in day-to-day operations. Successful organisations not only have long-term strategic plans and objectives. They also capitalise on new opportunities to remain competitive and continuously undertake initiatives to address internal and external communication problems. The implementation of digital channels of communication should facilitate long-term strategies and objectives and improve communication to foster alliances and partnerships within and outside the organisation. The types of organisational needs fulfilled by a variety of digital tools are collaboration, communication with customers, suppliers and other stakeholders, training and development and work process efficiencies. Adaptable and digitally competent employees are able to access files, messages, discussions and interactions with colleagues who work locally and remotely to get projects done by communicating through a variety of channels. Interactions and workflow occur on platforms such as Workplace by Facebook to create workgroups and discussions in team chats, apps for messaging, organisational portals or other niche platforms.

Use digital tools to communicate, collaborate and connect with colleagues, customers, suppliers and other stakeholders.

COLLABORATION Collaboration occurs in face-to-face meetings as well as in digital interactions through social media, company intranets and ‘the cloud’. The expectation is that candidates who become employees will have digital and verbal reasoning skills and the ability to read and interpret numerical and graphical data accurately. The range of digital communication tools that enhance collaboration include shared electronic whiteboards, emails, videoconference, virtual meeting spaces, instant messaging, podcasts and wikis. For example, Slack, a messaging and collaboration app that is an alternative to team communication by

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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK email, is a digital workspace delivering messages, service alerts, voice or video conversations and access to an organisation and team’s collective knowledge through the app. Online meetings allow review of projects, plans and business processes and resolution of issues for all stakeholders in real time, as well as reduced approval times for management. Emails, microblogging on Twitter, instant messaging, Facebook and organisational portals enable a more diverse range of staff to interact with suppliers and business partners. When team members cannot meet in person, shared whiteboards and microblogging assist planning and interaction. Collaboration and sharing on digital channels builds a knowledge base and updates information. The benefits of collaborating along digital channels include interaction and closer relationships between departments such as customer support, research and development and marketing to improve marketing campaigns and better meet customer needs. The digital tools create richer, more interactive sales presentations to customers.

COMMUNICATION WITH CUSTOMERS AND SUPPLIERS Provide courteous integrated service to enhance customer satisfaction and consistent, positive customer experiences as they switch between omni-channels.

Minimise external threats to the organisation and improve opportunities within the organisation by managing knowledge well. Share knowledge through digital channels, and in learning relationships, mentoring, collaboration and other activities to support knowledge transfer and continual improvement.

Facebook, Instagram, Twitter, podcasts and media-rich websites exchange tailored information and allow customers to engage with the organisation. Online video sharing, live streaming of major organisational announcements, in-store kiosks and location-based advertising enrich interactions. Sales and marketing material can be delivered to a specific demographic more quickly, new products are marketed and feedback gathered through digital channels. Digital communication tools deliver the organisation’s message at one time to larger groups than print-based materials. Online customer support through omni-channels integrates the service across the different platforms so that customers can complete every step of selecting, buying and purchasing a product and switch between and communicate on their preferred channel(s). More and more customers like to have constant access to information while carrying on dialogues via voice, text, social and instant-messaging channels. Banks, for example, allow customers to use their smartphones to check their account balance, pay bills, send invoices and transfer funds via text message in a similar manner to how they perform the same tasks via the Web or an interactive voice response (IVR) service. Self-service via omni-channels enables a retail customer to start a conversation seeking help on Twitter and then shift effortlessly to text message or a phone call and pay online because all of the relevant information is held and switched between the omni-channels. The Global Digital report 2018 reported 1.77 billion people worldwide purchased consumer goods via e-commerce. (Kemp 2018) Customer-centred organisations control and join the various channels together to offer the customer a smooth, unified experience.

TRAINING AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT Instead of staff travelling over long distances for training, digital tools deliver training to remote locations. Just-in-time access to short videos, podcasts or mini-modules of information on smartphones, iPads or any other device while on the move enhances learning and professional development. Virtual meeting spaces provide an informal place to answer questions. RSS feeds provide updated news headlines, blog posts or selected website content. Digital channels assist senior experienced staff to come into contact with junior members of the organisation to determine training gaps and the best way of delivering the required training.

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CHAPTER 3 / Adapt to change in the digital era

Knowledge sharing and learning Wikis, blogs, discussion forums, videoconferences, podcasts and webinars are available for training, professional development and knowledge management. Knowledge sharing and learning are enhanced when people are able to link individual and team learning to their team’s accountabilities and the organisation’s strategic objectives. Collaboration and openness enhance teamwork, performance and results. Professional development and management of knowledge help senior managers, supervisors and team members share information and best practices to improve performance, and enhance service delivery, profits, innovation and decision making. Management and sharing of knowledge make best use of individual and team talents, and at the same time improve performance and employee satisfaction.

WORK PROCESS EFFICIENCIES The digital age requires employees to access knowledge in databases and repositories to complete accounting, customer service, marketing, human resource, production and other tasks. Workplace performance requires the skills to access information and draw logical conclusions from reports, performance figures, performance indicators and financial results. The sharing of knowledge about products, services and customers facilitates improvements, smarter solutions and customisation to the needs of clients and other stakeholders. Global positioning systems (GPS), supply-management software, and location and tracking technologies and warehousing software enhance logistics management. Stock levels and movements are reported and available across the organisation leading to improved response times to customer queries. Forecasting and reporting peak periods where more stock and resources are required enhance productivity. Remote monitoring of trucking fleets permits a range of functions, including vehicle and mileage tracking, fuel management and financing of maintenance. Records of driver location and speed inform health and safety management issues. Customer service and process improvements add value, open new markets and increase revenue. Digital tools are different from traditional channels of communication, but they do have features in common. Benefits flowing from the implementation of digital channels include timely exchange of ideas and information targeted to specific audiences to reach new customers and expand market segments. Employee engagement, collaboration, networking and knowledge management add value by connecting people to people.

PRINCIPLES OF BUSINESS ETIQUETTE STILL APPLY The principles of business etiquette used in face-to-face interactions must still be applied in digital interactions to maintain courtesy and authenticity. Problems in a digital workplace may arise from the tendency or expectation for ‘always being on’. Constant interruptions, demands and requests for information or action may cause stress and burnout, with the consequent employee disengagement and negative effects on productivity and the workplace culture. A culture of respectful communication along digital and other channels of communication allows easy, satisfying experiences that contribute to performance, and build courtesy and authentic interactions and relationships. Courteous and authentic interactions are fostered by: • knowing your platform (e.g. LinkedIn – a business site, Twitter – a more social site with a mixture of professional and personal content, company portals – for business applications and reporting) • identifying and enhancing your organisation’s reputation

Consider your communication purpose, the characteristics of your audience and the likely outcome of your message.

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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK •

customising and adapting content and activities to meet the needs of your receiver and show you value your connection with them • maintaining an accurate database with contact details, including the contact’s professional interests • being specific to make it easy for colleagues and contacts to navigate and respond to any request on digital channels • saying ‘thank you’ and following up promptly to show appreciation when someone responds and offers feedback • behaving ethically and respectfully to maintain privacy and confidentiality of information, and asking before you pass on a contact • avoiding distortions, misleading information, ethnic slurs, personal insults, obscenity or any conduct that would be unacceptable in your workplace. Good practice when communicating via any communication channel is underpinned by conventions, standards and policies.

IMPORTANCE OF POLICIES AND PROCEDURES

Use good practice – transparency, honesty and authenticity – as you use digital channels.

It is imperative for any organisation to establish structures, policies, and leadership to more effectively manage digital platforms, communication and interactions. Digital communication is part of the organisation’s larger communication effort. When developing policies for communication and activities on digital channels, policies should be integrated with communication objectives across the organisation. A policy provides essential guidelines for any small, medium or large organisation. Advancements in digital technologies allow organisations to capture and analyse large sets of data on customers, employees and suppliers. Technologies like artificial intelligence (AI), big data, cloud computing, social media and the IoT are part of the data-driven economy. Organisations, businesses and governments convert the raw data, information and knowledge to improve products and services. Organisations establish policies for digital communication because they realise that, as well as fostering two-way conversations, interactions, relationships, communication and the activities of employees, digital communication has the potential to cause: • liability for defamation, misleading or other unethical conduct • embarrassment to the company with accompanying reputational damage. Challenges arise in the areas of security and the development of a new kind of digital etiquette. Privacy concerns are raised because of the increasing amount of personal data collected. Consent to use the personal data is an issue. Breaches of privacy have serious consequences for individuals and organisations. Organisations that safeguard against ethical breaches create and communicate to all employees and contractors a privacy policy, particularly in relation to what personal data is collected, why and for how long, which ensures compliance with legal and regulatory requirements. Security policies for cloud services, internal company services and devices for work purposes are essential, as is a policy for internet browsing and use of social media at work. Policies that support ethical practice guide and protect an organisation and its employees from potential litigation and industry fines. Ethical practice on traditional and digital channels of communication improves relationships and satisfaction.

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CHAPTER 3 / Adapt to change in the digital era

1. What is the purpose of communication along any type of channel in an organisation? 2. Digital channels: a. Identify and discuss organisational needs fulfilled by digital channels of communication. b. What are the benefits of collaboration on digital channels? c. How does the sharing of knowledge benefit an organisation? d. Which digital channels do you prefer to use in your interactions with others? Why? 3. Digital channels – training and development: a. Discuss the possible advantages and disadvantages for an individual employee from the introduction of digital channels. b. Explain why organisations provide training and development on digital channels. 4. What type of policies safeguard an organisation and its staff against ethical breaches?

CHECKPOINT 3.4

LEARNING ACTIVITIES SUMMARY 3.1 Discuss what it means to be adaptable and flexible. Adaptability means openness to new ideas or changes in the workplace, and the ability to adjust to change and new situations and handle unexpected demands. Flexibility is the ability to evaluate what is happening and adjusting to factors such as a new role and responsibilities in a new job, changes in the current job, a transfer or promotion. Adaptable and flexible people are able to work independently or in teams and interact and collaborate with others to carry out tasks and activities. 3.2 Identify barriers to being adaptable. Barriers to being adaptable include mental scripts, inability to manage self and relationships, comfort zones and lack of accountability. Rigidity and inflexibility set in when mental scripts ignore the reality of a situation, dismiss any signals of change and handle the situation using past techniques or habits. Rather than stretching the comfort zone, old ways of doing things are used. Lack of accountability due to unclear priorities and disengagement causes low morale and an unwillingness to adapt flexibly to change. 3.3 Explain the skills of digital literacy and their growing importance in the workplace. Digital literacy skills

include print literacy, texting literacy, hypertext literacy, multimedia literacy, gaming literacy, mobile literacy and code literacy. Australian workplaces are increasingly requiring employees to have the skills to discover, transfer, analyse and review information, as well as the communication skills to interact and participate with others. Digital literacy is needed to extract information, contribute information, and build and maintain business and personal relationships through digital channels. 3.4 Identify organisational needs fulfilled by digital channels of communication and discuss the importance of being able to adapt from traditional channels to digital channels of communication and workplace interaction. Organisations are now using digital channels of communication to collaborate with staff, communicate with customers and suppliers, provide training and development and improve the efficiency of work processes. The progression from one-way communication to the more collaborative, informationsharing digital two-way communication enables employees to upload, download, share and reuse knowledge anywhere, at any time to collaborate, communicate with customers, undertake training and development, adapt and improve work processes.

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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK

KEY TERMS accountability adaptability

comfort zone cultural fit

digital literacies digital workplace

mental scripts resilience

LEARNING ACTIVITIES 1. Adaptability and resilience a. List the people you know who you would consider to be adaptable and resilient. b. What are the characteristics that cause them to be both adaptable and resilient? c. Do you need the qualities of adaptability and resilience to build a successful career? Justify your response in a short written answer and explain how you can develop adaptability and resilience. 2. Scenario After Hamid was injured while playing hockey, he demonstrated his determination and motivation by bouncing back quickly from the injury. He followed his doctor’s and coach’s advice and worked with a physiotherapist to learn how to improve his movement and strength despite the injury setback. His friends describe him as solution-oriented in most situations. He has a reputation for reflecting on what went well and not so well and for planning a new approach to achieve goals and overcome failures or any potential difficulties ahead. a. How would you describe Hamid’s approach? b. What are the abilities that allow him to ‘bounce back’? c. Explain how those abilities help him in his career. 3. Work in small groups a. Brainstorm and list the factors that act as barriers and hinder an individual’s adaptability. b. Identify ways in which those barriers may be lowered or overcome.

c. Explain how accountability contributes to adaptability, flexibility and initiative. d. Present your findings in a group PowerPoint or Prezi presentation. 4. Reflect on the types of digital literacy a. List the four types of organisations identified by the UK Digital Skills Taskforce. b. Search one or more of the large recruitment services’ online sites to locate at least two job advertisements for positions in each of the four types of organisations identified by the UK Digital Skills Taskforce. c. In which of the digital skills type of organisation identified by the UK Digital Skills Taskforce report are you qualified to operate? d. What sort of training or education would you require to improve your digital literacy to the level required to work in your industry of choice in the future? 5. Digital business etiquette Provide a short report in which you: • explain how courteous and authentic interactions are fostered on digital channels such as company blogs and portals, Facebook, Twitter, LinkedIn and others. • identify the benefits of collaboration through digital channels • identify the potential dangers associated with breaches of security • explain the benefits of applying the principles of business etiquette in digital interactions.

GROUP ASSIGNMENT Assume your group is a team from a recruiting agency seeking candidates for a position that requires adaptability, flexibility and initiative. a. Brainstorm and list the attributes the recruiter would be looking for when assessing a candidate’s adaptability, flexibility and initiative. b. What are the typical characteristics recruiters are looking for when they ask job candidates to complete a psychometric questionnaire or test?

c. Brainstorm and list the skills employers are looking for when they seek employees who are digitally literate. d. Develop a set of questions the recruiter could ask in an interview. e. Develop model answers for each of the questions. f. Submit as a joint presentation your group’s brainstorming lists, set of questions and model answers.

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CHAPTER 3 / Adapt to change in the digital era

CASE STUDY NINA’S ADAPTATION TO A NEW ROLE Nina has worked for the Ambulance Service for 15 years. During her time in service she has experienced and accepted changes in the use of more advanced equipment and in the increased use of digital communication on mobile devices. Over the years Nina’s supervisors have spoken well of her ability to adapt to changes in Ambulance Service protocols, changes from manual to digital reporting and record keeping and other ongoing demands. Nina enjoys and has always taken pride in her work. Nina is offered a change of position from her core paramedic role to a more educational and community engagement position. While she understands the need for educational and community engagement, Nina knows she is feeling nervous and uncomfortable about her ability to make presentations and work together with stakeholders and the community to raise awareness of safety programs. She knows the new position will increase safety awareness that results in less harm to people in the community and fewer emergency calls for help to the Ambulance Service. However, delivering presentations in schools and organisations is not one of her areas of expertise. Nina finds worrying about making the presentations and going out into the community disheartening. However, Nina appreciates that she has a choice even though she is lacking confidence and unsure. She can think about and discover opportunities that a change to the educational and community engagement role offers, or she can find and apply for another role outside of the

Ambulance Service. Nina has always felt committed to the Ambulance Service. Rather than think negatively about the role, she decides to shift her thinking to ways in which she can take the position and stay with the Ambulance Service. Nina chooses to speak about the role with her supervisor. They come up with a plan of action that requires Nina to commit to the new role for six months and complete a Presentation Skills training program as soon as possible. Over the six months Nina will engage for two hours per fortnight with a mentor within the Ambulance Service who has experienced and responded successfully to a similar change. They also agree that Nina will meet with her supervisor fortnightly to receive constructive feedback and, where possible, make changes to her approach. Nina and her supervisor hope to explore the ways in which Nina can gradually take on more of the new responsibilities and become more open to the new ways of doing things. The objective of the plan is to encourage Nina to adapt to the changed position, gain new skills, adopt new behaviour and take a positive attitude to opportunities and changing circumstances.

Questions a. Describe how Nina found ways to overcome the obstacles caused by her insecurities. b. Did Nina take a flexible approach to her thinking? Justify your answer. c. Outline the benefits for Nina and the Ambulance Service of her ability to adapt to the new role.

BIBLIOGRAPHY Australian Industry and Skills Committee. 2017. Future Skills and Training, Commonwealth of Australia, https://www.aisc.net.au/sites/aisc/files/documents/ Future%20Priority%20Skills%20Resource.pdf, viewed 1 October 2018. Buchanan, Jennifer. Kelley, Beth & Hatch, Alicia. 2016. Digital workplace and culture: How digital technologies are changing the workforce and how enterprises can adapt and

evolve, Deloitte Development, https://www2.deloitte.com/ content/dam/Deloitte/us/Documents/human-capital/uscons-digital-workplace-and-culture.pdf, viewed 20 September 2018. Drucker, P.F. 2003. The Essential Drucker, Harper Business, New York, NY. Dudeney, Gavin. Hockly, Nicky & Pegrum, Mark. 2014. Digital Literacies, Routledge, New York, NY.

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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK

Foundation for Young Australians (FYA). 2016. The New Basics: Big data reveals the skills young people need for the New Work Order, http://www.fya.org.au/wp-content/ uploads/2016/04/The-New-Basics_Web_Final.pdf, viewed 2 October 2018. Goleman, Daniel. 1998. Working with emotional intelligence, Bantam Books, New York, NY. Hanson, Rick. 2018. Resilient: 12 Tools for transforming everyday experiences into lasting happiness. Kindle Edition, Ebury Digital, USA. Internet Society. 2018. What is an IoT device?, https://www. internetsociety.org/iot/?gclid¼EAIaIQobChMIh8yY6 Mzm3QIVqZPtCh1mGAkhEAAYAiAAEgIj9fD_BwE, viewed 3 October 2018. Kemp, Simon. 2018. Global Digital in 2018: We Are Social, Hootsuite, Digital-in-2018-001-Global-Overview-Reportv1.02-1PDF, viewed 1 December 2018.

McKeown, Max. 2012. Adaptability: The Art of Winning in an Age of Uncertainty, Kogan Page, London, UK. Owen, Sue. Hagel, Pauline. Lingham, Bernie & Tyson, Daisy. ‘Digital Literacy’, Deakin University, http://www.deakin. edu.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0008/1237742/digitalliteracy.pdf, viewed 12 September 2018. PageUp. 2018. PageUp Unified Workforce Suite, https://www. pageuppeople.com/pageup-unified-workforce-suite-withento/, viewed 13 November 2018. UK Digital Skills Taskforce. 2014. Digital Skills for Tomorrow’s World, http://www.ukdigitalskills.com/, viewed 1 October 2018. Van Belleghem, Steven. 2015. Digital Becomes Human: The Transformation of Customer Relationships, Kogan Page Limited, London, UK.

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DEVELOP COMMUNICATION SKILLS FOR EMPLOYMENT

CHAPTER

4

COLLECTING INFORMATION ON EMPLOYMENT OPPORTUNITIES

Your Learning Journey

4.1

resume qualifications skills

Chapter 4

experience

4.2

social temping/ networking newspapers freelancing sites

direct mail professional campaigns publications

ctions + ke se

ATS Applicant Tracking System

rds wo

resum e

personal networks

y

CH5

Next ORGANISE WORKPLACE INFORMATION

4.4

Job interview stages + strategies to appy POST-INTERVIEW

CLOSING

OPENING

PREPARE

Evaluate

Thank interviewer

First impressions

Practice Q + A

Follow up

Asking: “When will the decision be made?”

Confidence

Dress appropriately

Eye contact

Have resume copies

Handshake

Memory jogger notes

Letter of acceptance

Sitting / no fidgeting

4.3

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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK

LEARNING OBJECTIVES After studying this chapter, you should be able to: 4.1 search for a job using a variety of job search strategies and methods 4.2 write the type of resume and cover letter that best show how your qualifications, skills and experiences match the requirements of the recruiter and the position 4.3 use standard resume sections and keywords to optimise a resume for selection by an online applicant tracking system (ATS) 4.4 identify the stages in a job interview as well as strategies to use in the different stages.

4.1 SEARCHING FOR A JOB

Try several different ways to find a job.

Today, job searching is more than applying for a position and hoping to be called for an interview. A combination of strategies such as establishing an online social presence, targeting companies and creating a resume and cover letter that showcases your qualifications, skills, experiences and strengths improves the chance of success. A successful job search depends on your ability to market yourself using networks, contacts, your own initiative and seeking advice and guidance through established employment and recruitment agencies. Whether you are looking for a first job, a change in career or a promotion, you are making a job search. Most job search websites provide a wide variety of career resources: for instance, information on job seeking, sample resumes, career networking, training and skills, company research and employment news.

EMPLOYMENT AGENCIES Apply through employment agencies as you search for a position.

Instead of advertising, many employers use the services of an employment agency that matches the skills and qualifications of people on its register with the requirements of the position. If your qualifications are suitable, the agency will arrange an interview. In this way, countless jobs are filled without being advertised in newspapers or online job search engines. Employment agencies help job seekers to find a job, and assist employers to match job seekers to the requirements of a job. When a job seeker gets work, they are usually paid by the employment agency and the agency receives a percentage of the annual salary for permanent staff or a percentage of the hourly rate paid by the employer. jobactive is the Australian Government employment services system that supports job seekers and employers. jobactive can be accessed through https://jobsearch.gov.au/, which lists a variety of services as well as all the job vacancies offered by jobactive. You can search the vacancies according to the region of Australia that you live or seek work in. Job Seeker is another large online job board that lists jobs available in the community, health, notfor-profit, welfare and government sectors across Australia. Job Seeker helps organisations find the right staff and job seekers find the right role, and also offers job seekers resources to help them write a job application and prepare for an interview. As well as matching people to jobs, Job Seeker assists young people facing barriers to get a job, disadvantaged community members to access the internet and keep in touch with others, and homeless people to find things like housing, a hot meal and health and wellbeing services.

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CHAPTER 4 / Develop communication skills for employment

RECRUITMENT AGENCIES Recruitment agencies are contacted by organisations that wish to find suitable candidates for a vacant position. Recruiters gather the employment brief, job description and specifications from the employer and then search the employment market to find a pool of candidates who ‘fit’ the position. The internet lets anyone with a desktop, tablet or mobile phone search for vacant positions listed on recruitment agency websites such as those listed below. Entering the words ‘recruitment agencies’ into a search engine will give you links to other agency websites. Among the most popular recruitment agencies are: • http://www.seek.com.au • http://www.careerone.com.au • http://www.positionsvacant.com.au • http://www.adzuna.com.au Search for vacancies by filters such as location (including international, national, state, region or capital city), occupation, industry or salary band. The jobs published in many newspapers are also available through job search websites. The use of automatic matching and scraping systems, which extract data from targeted websites and are prevalent in large agencies, results in broad but less specific candidate pools. Matching and scraping gathers and downloads online resumes, typically into the recruiter’s central database, for later retrieval and analysis. Employers looking for specialist and non-generic candidates, or employers looking to recruit locally often look to boutique (small, specialist) agencies to find suitable candidates. Boutique recruitment agencies exist by fulfilling needs not met by an organisation’s internal recruitment function or by larger external agencies. These needs include locating candidates with specialised training and experience, including those not actively looking to change employers. Often, you can register and store your profile and resume with an agency. The agency not only lists positions vacant but may also email you suitable job vacancies on a daily basis, provide potential employers with your details, and make your resume available on their website for recruiters and employers to access. However, it is the applicant’s responsibility to ensure that their resume is adapted to the different positions sought by the employer and the recruiter.

Search for positions through online job search sites to widen the range of opportunities.

SOCIAL NETWORKING SITES Joining a business-oriented social networking site such as LinkedIn or GooglePlus enables job seekers to increase their online presence. Members are able to establish their professional profile online, locate experts and ideas, stay in touch with colleagues and explore new career opportunities. In 2018, LinkedIn had over 500 million users. Recruiters and employers seek and evaluate job applicants on merits and contributions as identified in their resumes and cover letters. They may also search LinkedIn profiles, Twitter, GooglePlus and Facebook to identify potential candidates from users who have updated their bios lately or often. For a comprehensive list of social networking websites, refer to https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ List_of_social_networking_websites. Jeanne Meister reports: Big data recruiting firms … find new talent before the prospective employees even know they are in the job market. Companies such as Entelo, Gild, TalentBin and the U.K.’s thesocial CV analyze not just a job candidate’s LinkedIn profile, Twitter feed and Facebook postings, but also 87 Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202

THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK their activity on specialty sites specific to their professions, such as the open-source community forums StackOverflow and GitHub (for coders) Proformative (for accountants), and Dribbble (for designers.) This approach to recruitment is creating a new technical world order where job applicants are found and evaluated by their merits and contributions, rather than by how well they sell themselves in an interview. Source: From The Future Of Work: Why Social HR Matters by Jeanne Meister. Published by Forbes.com, ª 2014. Conduct a social media cleanse to present a positive persona for recruiters and employers, who select a resume and then search the potential candidate online.

Their goal is to find talent invisible on widely popular social platforms before their competitors. The extensive use of the internet and mobile technologies for recruitment purposes means employers now expect you to have an online presence and message. Online candidates are more accessible than ever, and things have evolved to the point at which recruiters and employers expect you to have an online profile that is up to date. Profiles with suitable and relevant keywords are easily found by online recruiters’ applicant tracking systems (ATS). Conduct a social media cleanse to ensure your online image is positive. Google yourself, and use other search engines as well to find out what an employer will uncover from a simple search of your Twitter, Facebook, and other social media. Clean up as many inappropriate photos and status updates as possible and change the privacy settings on your sites to help your private life stay private.

TEMPING AND FREELANCING Seek freelancing positions to work from your home office.

Temping is a growing part of the job market, and you can register your availability as a temp worker by contacting recruitment agencies directly or via their websites. Temporary work can range from jobs lasting a few hours up to several months, and can even lead to being offered extended contracts or full-time positions. Freelance telecommuting from home is another growing sector of the job market. People working from home save the employer floor space, equipment and overhead costs. Most of their communication is done by telephone, email, SMS, social media channels and other tools on the Web. Professional freelancing, sometimes referred to as the digital nomad lifestyle, requires a portfolio of past work, professional contacts and application through job sites such as Freelance Australia, SEEK (Freelance Jobs in All Australia), LinkedIn and Upwork Australia. If you want to freelance, as well as searching on the internet you can apply directly to an organisation either by email or by letter, offering your services and requesting an interview.

NETWORKING Let people in your network know that you are in the market for a job or change of employment.

Many vacant positions are never advertised. Employers fill the position through their own networks of professional and business contacts, or social and family contacts. Thus, it is important to create your own network of friends, neighbours, sporting and social clubs, and contacts at work. Networking assists in gaining a position. One way to do this is to ask someone to be your personal or professional referee. If they agree, tell them about the kind of work and position you are looking for. This way, people in your network can pass on this information to coworkers and associates. They may even recommend you for a position. Attend job fairs to network with employers who are hiring. As well as meeting with potential employers you are able to meet other job seekers and learn about other employment opportunities.

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CHAPTER 4 / Develop communication skills for employment Bring your resume and arrive professionally dressed and prepared to research the organisations suited to your qualifications, skills and experience. While at the fair, take the time to look up on your smartphone what organisations have recently posted on social media to give you something to discuss with the representative of an organisation. As you speak with the representatives of the organisations involved in the job fair, ask questions about possible positions and the names and contact details of the organisation’s human resources and recruiting manager.

DIRECT MAIL CAMPAIGN (COLD CANVASSING) When looking for a job, you may decide to go one step further and seek opportunities by writing directly to companies. This is known as cold canvassing, or a direct mail campaign. Applying for unadvertised positions widens your opportunities. The first step of your campaign is to determine the skills you have and the type of position suited to them. Then decide which companies might offer employment that matches your qualifications and aspirations. Start by searching for your targets online and in the index of directories such as Yellow Pages online to choose the areas of work that may interest you, and note what employment agencies are listed there. If your resume is ready, the next step is to prepare an unsolicited letter of application. Resumes and letters of application are discussed later in this chapter.

Widen your job search by using a direct mail campaign.

NEWSPAPERS One of the less common ways of finding a position now is to check the ‘Positions Vacant’ section in newspapers. The national papers advertise professional positions throughout their pages as well as in their ‘Positions Vacant’ section. Government organisations advertise as early as August or September for the general intake of employees for the next year. Some private employers advertise in newspapers and online around October or November. School leavers and TAFE and university graduates apply for many of these positions.

PUBLICATIONS Most professional associations publish journals, usually online, and many of these carry advertisements for positions. Use the computer facilities at the library to find online journals published by companies and potential employers. The library also files online government gazettes. Information about organisations – all of which are potential contacts for employment – can be found in: • the business news section of local and national newspapers • the Yellow Pages telephone directory • industry publications, which also report on current developments and trends in industry • company brochures and annual reports, which outline the company’s history, size and activities • employer directories such as The Business Who’s Who and Kompass.

SELF-INVENTORY Self-assess before your job search to create an inventory of your strengths (qualifications, skills and experiences) as well as your interests, values and attitudes towards different sorts of work.

Access advertisements for positions in journals of professional associations.

Determine your skills, interests, values and attitudes.

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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK A self-inventory reveals your major strengths and weaknesses and any talents or skills you may have overlooked or considered unimportant. People who feel they have little or no work experience relevant to an advertised position, or who have been out of the workforce for some time, may underrate their skills and abilities – for example, those returning to employment after a few years out of the workforce for parenting duties have developed skills in stock control, budget management, organisation, planning and getting along with others. Many school leavers have developed their planning skills by organising school functions or by leadership and teamwork in sporting activities. School leavers also know how to manage time, set goals and work under pressure. In voluntary social and welfare work, even though the work is unpaid, people gain valuable contacts, experience and skills that can be useful in other positions. Research yourself and create an inventory of your strengths and weaknesses, experiences and interests. Reflect on your personality traits in general, such as positive, assertive, flexible, adaptable and motivated. Also consider work-related personality traits such as being goal- and team-oriented, a good communicator, approachable, working well with others, organised and responsible. Think about the types of job you want and what an employer might be looking for in a candidate. Analyse the essential and desirable skills and qualities the job requires. Consider these as you prepare your resume and the covering letter. Summarise all relevant work experiences along with any other skills, qualities, responsibilities, initiatives and achievements. Reflect on your competence across a range of areas – for example, the personal skills necessary to work as part of a team, your skill at dealing with information, or even handling activities such as driving a car or being a first-aid officer. Consider how you can demonstrate these skills to the interviewer or the interview panel and let the interviewer know how your strengths will suit a position and benefit a potential employer.

CHECKPOINT 4.1

FROM THEORY TO PRACTICE

1. Identify six different ways you can find out about vacant positions. 2. Networks and employers: a. Identify and list your own professional, business, and social or sporting networks. b. What can you find out about prospective employers when you attend a job fair? 3. Online profile: a. Identify the benefits for a job seeker of having an online profile. b. Why should you conduct a social media cleanse? 4. Self-inventory: a. Briefly discuss three strategies you can use to create a self-inventory. b. What are the advantages gained from undertaking a self-inventory?

Is your social media content stopping you from getting a job? A survey undertaken in 2018, by Harris poll for CareerBuilder in the USA, found that 70% of employers check job candidates’ social media profiles, 48% check the social media accounts of current employees and 34% have fired or disciplined a worker because of social media content. 57% of employers found content that resulted in them not hiring someone.

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The news isn’t all bad though. 58% of employers reported looking on social media for information that supported a candidate’s job application, 50% checked to see if the candidate had a professional online presence and only 22% were looking for a reason not to hire the candidate. Source: https://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/more-than-half-of-employers-have-found-content-on-socialmedia-that-caused-them-not-to-hire-a-candidate-according-to-recent-careerbuilder-survey-300694437.html, viewed 2 November 2018.

ASK YOURSELF: What can be seen on your Facebook page that might hinder and/or help you when it comes to getting hired?

4.2 TYPES OF RESUME The written application is often the only source of information a potential employer can assess when it comes to deciding whether you should be invited to an interview. Therefore, it is important to make it as interesting, informative and persuasive as possible. A job application has two parts: 1. the resume 2. the covering letter. The covering letter introduces your qualifications for the job and sets out to persuade the employer to invite you to an interview. A resume is the summary of your personal data: education, skills, qualifications, work experience, references, hobbies and interests. It may also be referred to as a curriculum vitae or CV. The resume is the document that contains all your relevant qualifications, experience and achievements. A well-designed resume presents the information in sections with headings. Choose a structure that suits your particular qualifications and experience and makes the resume informative and interesting. The two most common types of structure for a resume are: • basic (general) • functional. Exhibit 4.1 describes these two types of resume. Remember to use white space to make your resume easier for the potential employer to read and keywords to match the requirements of the position and the recruiter. The function and layout of each part of a basic resume is shown in Exhibit 4.2. The layout of a functional resume is shown in Exhibit 4.3.

EXHIBIT 4.1 Types of resume Type

Description

Basic resume

Includes all the usual parts of a resume with appropriate headings, but is simpler and shorter than the functional resume. The basic resume suits those who have just left school, TAFE or university or have little work experience. The headings shown in Exhibit 4.2 will help you to organise it.

Functional resume

Uses a different order of presentation from the basic resume to make the most of a wide range of skills and work experience (see Exhibit 4.3). As most employers are interested in seeing how your most recent experience matches their needs, present your work experience first, starting with the most recent, and put the rest in reverse chronological order. Develop subheadings that highlight the job functions in which you have demonstrated expertise – for example, supervisory, marketing or training skills – and responsibility. Use the advertisement as a guide for highlighting specific functions and choosing keywords for use in headings and resume content.

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EXHIBIT 4.2 Layout and function of each part of a basic resume Christopher Brown 212 Seymour Street MILLSVILLE VIC XXXX (0X) XXXX XXXX [email protected] LinkedIn address (optional) Career objective Open with two to four lines that show you have something to offer the potential employer. Write with a clear and confident style. Educational qualifications

List all your certificates, the subjects they cover, the year each was completed, and the name of the institution that awarded each one. Attach copies of subject transcripts to support your application, with the most recent one on top and the rest in reverse chronological order.

Work experience

Mention all work experience, including voluntary, part-time and student vacation work. Highlight your particular strengths.

Achievements, awards or commendations

Identify any special achievements from school or other organisations – for example, school captain, prefect or local club leader. Highlight any awards and special communication skills (such as public speaking or debating), as these are essential to most positions.

Activities and interests

Present your most recent activities first, with the rest following in reverse order. The employer likes to know about your interests and special skills.

Referees

Nominate people who have agreed to recommend your skills and recent work.

EXHIBIT 4.3 Layout of a functional resume Christopher Brown 212 Seymour Street MILLSVILLE VIC XXXX (0X) XXXX XXXX [email protected] LinkedIn address (optional) Career objective Write a compelling short (two to four lines) paragraph that shows why the recruiter or employer should employ you for the position. Employment experience

Present your employment history, starting with the most recent position, proceeding in reverse order to your first position. Your most recent job functions and achievements are of the greatest interest to the employer. Give the title of each position, then briefly describe each job function, particularly those relevant to the position you are applying for. Indicate any specific achievements or initiatives you accomplished in your previous positions.

Educational qualifications

Fully identify your qualifications, the institutions where they were gained, and the details of course subjects. Again, present these in reverse chronological order, starting with the most recent. Emphasise any that are particularly important to your potential employer.

Awards or commendations

If you have three or more awards or commendations, include a separate heading; otherwise, include these with activities and interests

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Activities and interests

Offer potential employers evidence of your ability to mix with others and mention any special skills that may be relevant – for example, community involvement or sporting interests.

Professional memberships

List any memberships of professional associations as these indicate that you are keeping up with the latest developments in your industry or occupation.

Referees

Present at least one who is professional and work-related, and one who will provide a character reference. An academic reference could also be useful.

Career objective The purpose of the career objective is to catch the attention of the recruiter or employer. Rather than saying what you want from the company the career objective should tell the recruiter or employer what skills, knowledge and abilities you have that will help the company achieve its goals. An effective career objective is short (two to four lines). It should be engaging and complement your experience and skills and offer the prospective employer an indication of your work-related ambitions. The example in Exhibit 4.4 is short and to the point. A useful career objective is not vague and lacking in detail. In a resume it will be positioned after the applicant’s name and personal details.

EXHIBIT 4.4 Career objective example for an event planner I have experience interacting in high-pressure situations with vendors who supply catering, entertainment or decorations. Last year, my skills in problem solving earned me Employee of the Year for ensuring events ran to plan. When communicating with clients and colleagues my aim is to provide exceptional service.

By contrast, an employment objective is a short statement telling the recruiter or employer what you want from the company and how it will help your own career. An employment objective, for example, To obtain a position as a legal secretary within a law firm, is bland and typically focuses on what the candidate wants instead of engaging with what the employer wants. While a career objective requires more thought than an employment objective, it has the advantage of making an impact and helping your resume stand out from others in the candidate pool.

Headings The resume is organised into sections, each with a heading. The main sections could be headed as follows: • personal details – place your name at the top so it is easy to find • career objectives • education • work experience • achievements, awards or commendations • interests • referees.

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Order the headings You may want to vary the order of these headings, or change them to suit a specific application or to highlight your particular strengths. For an online application through an online resume site, use keywords in the headings and body of your resume to match the requirements of the job description and the recruiters’ ATS. In Australia, it is illegal for an employer to discriminate on the basis of marital status. Remember to include the names of referees or people prepared to recommend your professional competence and experience. Save your resume as a Word document file because there are some applicant tracking systems that discard resumes in formats they still cannot convert such as PDF, HTML, Open Office or Apple Pages. In practice, the advent of mobile computing has caused a change in the online tool design used by employers and agencies, with much less impact on end users; however, the remaining hurdles are online sites that require documents (sometimes including supporting documents) to be uploaded in Word or PDF format. Some of these sites have a ‘dropbox’ feature to make this easier for mobile device users.

RESEARCH THE POSITION

Show how your qualifications match the job requirements.

When a job advertisement provides a contact telephone number, use it to find out more about the position before you prepare your resume. Even if a contact number is not provided, you could telephone the organisation and ask for more details, or research online or in business magazines in the library. Make it easy for the selection panel or person to identify your strengths. Interviewers eliminate those people considered unsuitable on the basis of their job application. In your resume, use keywords to concentrate on the attributes that are essential and desirable for the job. It is also worth considering the length of your resume. If it is too long, it may not be read carefully. If it is too short, check to see whether you have left out any important information. Bullet points and short phrases may suit some parts of the resume better than sentences. After preparing a suitable resume, you should then write a covering letter that will persuade the reader to take particular note of your application.

COVER LETTER The letter of application is the covering letter for your job application. The letter is not the place to list your work experience. Its role is to draw attention to the qualifications and experiences listed in the resume that equip you for the job. The writing style (your ‘tone of voice’) should be courteous and confident, but not over-confident. Sound as though you are keen, have the right attributes, are willing to learn, are able to adapt to changing circumstances and are open to direction.

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CHAPTER 4 / Develop communication skills for employment The letter should be written in Plain English because clear language helps the reader to understand your letter easily and quickly. Avoid using lengthy words, praising yourself too much or being too effusive. Positive words and phrases create a positive first impression. Refer to Exhibit 4.18 for examples of useful action words. The covering letter should be brief (about one page). Exhibit 4.5 is an example of a letter of application for the Administrative Assistant position advertised in Exhibit 4.6.

Plan your covering letter carefully.

EXHIBIT 4.5 Example of a letter of application or cover letter Kim Flanagan 3 Burnside Court STOCKBRIDGE VIC XXXX 3 October 2020 Mr Cale Kapalos Kapalos MacroTech 76 Parker Street MILLSVILLE VIC XXXX [email protected] Dear Mr Kapalos, Position: Administrative Assistant I am applying for the position of Administrative Assistant advertised in the Millsville Examiner on 2 October 2020. I have a Certificate IV in Business and I am currently studying for my Certificate III in Information Technology. I am experienced in working with both Mac and PC systems, and my present position as Administrative Assistant in a software company requires excellent organisational skills, and a high level of written and verbal communication skills. The key responsibilities of my current role are answering customer inquiries, performing basic accounting functions, working closely with other staff, and providing administrative support. Over the past five years I have also developed my administrative and communication skills through two other similar positions as an office assistant. This experience is supported by the enclosed references. I am very keen to secure the advertised position with your company. The rest of my qualifications and experience are outlined in the accompanying resume. I look forward to discussing my application at an interview. I can be contacted at the above address, by email or by telephone on (0X) XXXX XXXX. Yours sincerely

Kim Flanagan Kim Flanagan

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EXHIBIT 4.6 ‘Positions Vacant’ advertisement ADMINISTRATIVE ASSISTANT FULL TIME MacroTech is a small but rapidly growing information technology company. We are seeking an enthusiastic, professional and self-motivated person to join our head office at Millsville. You will be required to perform basic accounts payable and accounts receivable functions, assist our busy sales team with administrative duties, and be the first point of contact for incoming telephone calls. Ideally, you will have experience with both Mac and PC systems, and knowledge of the IT industry. Excellent written and verbal communication skills, and good organisational skills are essential for this role. Please email your resume to Cale Kapalos at

MacroTech, 76 Parker Steet, Millsville VIC XXXX

Write your letter using the AIDA formula.

The covering letter, or letter of application, has three main parts: 1. The introduction expresses your interest in the job. 2. The body points out specific qualities, qualifications and experience mentioned in your resume, and states your interest in the organisation. 3. The conclusion indicates where and how you can be reached for interview. The AIDA formula is a helpful strategy to use for writing the application (see Exhibit 4.7). A wellplanned letter is more likely to arouse a potential employer’s interest in your application – enough to call you for an interview.

EXHIBIT 4.7 Applying the AIDA formula to a covering letter AIDA formula

Purpose

Attention (Introductory paragraph)

Introduce yourself (your name) Say why you are writing (the position). Aim to catch the reader’s attention

Interest (Paragraphs in the body)

Say, in the body of the letter, where you heard about the position (advertised or word of mouth) State why you are a good match for the company and the role (draw on relevant experience as proof)

Desire (Paragraphs in the body)

Point the reader towards your formal work or education experience document (your resume) Refer them to the specific parts of your resume that support your claim of suitability to this position and refer to any awards to back up your claims. Aim to have the reader to recognise your value, and to want to call you for an interview

Action (Concluding paragraph)

Invite the reader to take action Close by stating again that you are interested in the position and prompt the reader to contact you for an interview

The advertisement in Exhibit 4.6 is for the position of an Administrative Assistant to join the head office of an information technology company. The likely keywords in the advertisement in Exhibit 4.6 are

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CHAPTER 4 / Develop communication skills for employment in bold typeface. If you applied for this job, you could include some of the keywords in the advertisement in your covering letter, then refer the reader to your resume for more information. (Exhibit 4.5 is an example of the application letter for this position.) In a covering letter, take care to present information that is relevant to the position you want. Exhibit 4.8 lists the characteristics of a poor covering letter.

EXHIBIT 4.8 Characteristics of a poor covering letter

Incorrect spelling

Superior, discourteous or pushy tone

Incorrect punctuation

Ambiguous words or ‘buzzwords’

Unclear, rambling sentences Messy appearance

Characteristics of a poor covering letter

Poor layout Photocopy rather than a signed original letter

Exaggeration of the applicant’s abilities

Not enough details

Apologetic tone

More than one page in length

About two weeks after you have sent a job application, it is appropriate to make an inquiry about it, by letter or telephone. State again, courteously and clearly, your interest in the organisation and the fact that you are available and would like an interview.

Unsolicited letter of application When using a cold canvassing approach to search for a job, an unsolicited letter of application is the most important part of your direct mail campaign. The unsolicited letter of application is your initial contact with a potential employer. Its purpose is to find a position that has not been advertised. The covering letter for an unsolicited job application has four main parts: 1. a paragraph introducing yourself 2. an explanation of the type of position you are looking for and are qualified for – clearly state what you have to offer the employer 3. a paragraph saying why you are attracted to working for this particular organisation 4. a statement of where and how you can be contacted. In this covering letter, you should emphasise your main strengths and write no more than one page.

Inquire about an unadvertised position with an unsolicited letter of application.

Portfolio website Complementary attachments such as a portfolio website, LinkedIn profile, a specific Facebook page, blog or creative portfolio site that demonstrate accomplishments, skill sets, academic achievements, experience or talents can bring a resume to life. Attachments dedicated to promoting the skill and

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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK expertise of a candidate are suitable for specialty or niche candidates. They can be an excellent addition to present at job interview. The website can be built on a platform or service that best presents the candidate’s skills. Samples of previous work in video, audio, imagery or presentations can be made available to bolster the job application and interview.

References File work-related references written by your immediate supervisor, manager or employer for future use.

Work-related references are documents that highlight and recommend your skills and experience. A potential employer will check these references to establish your stability, loyalty, capabilities, personality and ability to accept and carry out instructions. Before you offer someone’s name as referee, or present a written reference, it is business courtesy to warn them in advance. This can also produce a more positive report from them when they receive a telephone call about you. Prospective employers rarely accept a written reference. They prefer to check by telephone with the named referees to establish the character and work history of a potential employee. You should list each reference in your resume as employers are often annoyed when a resume states ‘available on request’. Each reference should come from a credible source. Before you leave a position, think about whom you will ask to be a referee. They should be willing to recommend you and able to assess your abilities competently.

APPLICATION FORMS Complete forms carefully and accurately.

CHECKPOINT 4.2

Some employers prefer applicants to fill out a job application form, for the following reasons: 1. The form uses standard questions, which makes it easier to compare the applicants. 2. The potential employer can see whether an applicant can interpret and answer written questions. 3. The company orders the questions in a format that makes the answers easy to evaluate and collate into records. If you are asked to fill out an application form, read the whole form carefully, take time to think about your answers and answer every question. Mention your resume on the form, referring the reader to particular parts of it that support your answers. Then read back through the application form and check for any spelling mistakes or incomplete answers. Ensure you check back through the job advertisement to make sure you have addressed all requests listed in the advertisement: for example, correct job title and correct company name. If the advertisement asks for a cover letter, copies of any qualifications and a list of referees make sure you attach them to your application. Once the application has been submitted, allow time for the employer to contact you for interview because too many calls will become irritating. 1. Job application and resume: a. What are the two parts of a job application? b. Consider your own situation in life and the work experience you have had. Which of the two common types of resume should you use, and why? c. What should you concentrate on when you prepare your resume? 2. Would you choose to use a career objective or an employment objective in your resume? Briefly explain the reasons for your choice.

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3. Cover letter: a. What is the role of the cover letter? b. List the three main parts of a cover letter. 4. Job application form: a. Briefly explain why some employers prefer applicants to fill out a job application form. b. What should you check for as you check your form before forwarding it? 5. Identify the sorts of attachments that can be presented at interview to support the resumes of candidates in niche markets or specialist jobs.

4.3 OPTIMISE RESUMES FOR KEYWORD SEARCHES Many employers and recruitment agencies prefer to collect, sort and file electronic resumes in preference to hard copies. Placing your resume online is a much faster process than posting traditional hard copies by mail because the internet lets you collect the job information, application form and company information and submit the application for the position almost immediately. The factors underpinning a successful electronic resume are careful preparation, good organisation, an effective business writing style, professional layout and standard resume sections and keywords to optimise a resume for selection by an ATS. In an online resume: • content is the primary feature • uniform presentation is essential • keywords from job descriptions on employer’s websites and industry-related job portals are essential. Employers and recruiters increasingly rely on electronic resumes, online resume sites and job banks to find job candidates. When you submit your resume online to sites such as http://www.seek.com.au or http://www.careerbuilder.com, for example, your resume is electronically inputted from their portal into their databases. Recruiters then access the resume through an ATS that matches the resume to the keyword list of requirements an employer or recruiter has selected to describe the position they are seeking to fill. Companies using online recruitment agencies to advertise often set parameters around the selection criteria they ask applicants to address. If applicants do not address all of the selection criteria the ATS automatically culls the application and moves it into the unsuccessful folder in the system. An effective electronic resume has: • standard resume sections • content that is impressive and distinguishable from the other competitors for the position • keywords from job overviews and candidate specifications to secure a large number of hits and a corresponding high ranking during the ATS search • bullet points rather than paragraphs, where possible, and avoidance of tables, images and graphs • a format with simple, conservative fonts that software can recognise as it attempts to match characters from your resume with standard letter shapes. An ATS is likely to be programmed to search for information on work experience, qualifications and education, skills, contact information and social media profiles. Ensure the sections and headings in your resume are standard and keyword-rich.

Create electronic resumes suitable for placement on a database and searching by keywords.

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KEYWORDS An employer’s or recruiter’s database searches for keywords relating to: • job titles, responsibilities and descriptions • technical and computer knowledge • general and specific abilities and personality traits • educational requirements including certificates, diplomas and degrees. The software scans through thousands of resumes and identifies those that most closely match the inputted keywords. It is therefore important for applicants to ensure they address all of the criteria when applying online to prevent their application being culled. If you fail to include the right keywords or misspell them, your resume is unlikely to be selected in a search. Electronic resumes with the most hits by the software (keywords) are likely to be read by the employer or recruiter. Concrete words related to relevant, objective and measurable results get noticed. The features of an effective keyword resume are shown in Exhibit 4.9. In a keyword resume the basic features of good resume writing still apply. By including a keyword section towards the front of your resume, as well as using keywords throughout, it you are able to optimise your resume’s ranking with search engines and computer tracking systems. The keywords should be in headings, phrases or sentences that make sense rather than simply dropping them randomly into your resume. It is also worth checking that your resume and LinkedIn profile use similar keywords. As well as signalling consistency and attention to detail for recruiters, keyword consistency will help maximise the effectiveness of your job search. Help the recruiter or employer find your resume and include it among the highest ranked documents by making your resume keyword-rich. Use keywords that: • are industry or job specific • include job titles, relevant skills, industry jargon • include necessary educational and academic achievements • relate to what a recruiter or potential employer would be looking for in a suitable job applicant. Some examples of good use of keywords are: • ‘self-directed Project Officer–Urban Planner with high level project management skills and a strong work ethic’ • ‘talented Customer Service Consultant with strong coordination and communication skills applied to professional development of service teams and consultants in service delivery and quality control’ • ‘accomplished in Financial Management and compliance activities’ • ‘nominated by the National Group for the Annual Customer Service Award’. Keywords can be generated from the following resources: • job descriptions • job postings – either printed or online – for example: http://www.nnsw.com.au/regional/ jobsearch.html • industry association websites – either printed or online • Yellow Pages – either printed or online • job-related publications (which can include the Australian Positions Vacant Notices) http://www.careersonline.com.au • corporate websites (including the ones of interest to you) • other resumes posted online.

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CHAPTER 4 / Develop communication skills for employment

EXHIBIT 4.9 Features of keyword resumes

Keywords of the noun or noun phrase type (‘Program Coordinator’, ‘Office Procedures and Systems’, ‘Travel Management’) as opposed to power action verbs often found in traditional resumes (‘Managed’, ‘Negotiated’, ‘Designed’, ‘Organised’). The emphasis is on stand-alone nouns.

Keyword resumes are a little longer than traditional resumes because they usually need to include more detail and a keyword section. Rule: The more skills and facts you provide, the more opportunities or hits you will match or generate on the computer search program. The keywords are the most important element of the resume. Always check the spelling of your keywords.

Keyword resumes

An effective resume is well written. As well as needing nouns for your resume to be located by the computer search facility, the person who reads the resume needs to be impressed by your use of language, organisation and flow of ideas.

Phrases are used to describe personality traits, such as ‘good communication skills’, ‘time management’, ‘work under pressure’ and ‘attention to detail’ to describe professional experience, education and other skills. For example, an applicant asked to demonstrate a customer service perspective and focus skills could include phrases such as the following: ‘excellent interpersonal communication and negotiation skills evidenced by a 20% increase in winning contracts over a 12-month period’.

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THE SUMMARY AREA OF THE RESUME Edit your online application for detail and accuracy.

In the summary area of your electronic resume: • highlight your most important qualities, achievements and abilities with several short statements, each of which contains a keyword • tailor every word in the summary to your targeted goal • make this area of your resume keyword-rich.

ONLINE RESUME SITES Online resume sites provide online forms for you to use to input your resume into their databank. Many of these resume builders are laid out in a chronological format. When your current position title does not match the requirements of the advertised position, try using a skill heading with a keyword from the advertisement first and then your position title in parentheses – for example, Urban Planner (Project Officer). One of the disadvantages of online applications is the temptation to fill them out quickly and send them off without reading and editing for detail and accuracy. Electronic applications are usually placed straight into a database and searched for keywords to highlight those candidates who are suitable applicants. The search for keywords in the database saves time for the recruiters. Rather than sorting through a large number of applications the system picks up the keywords in a search. This highlights the importance of keywords.

QUESTIONS TO ASK Before you post a resume on an internet site, read the information and then ask the recruiter these questions: • Is a keyword resume required? • How is the resume to be used? • Who has access to it? • Is it to apply for a specific vacant position, to answer a recruiting drive, or for submission to a database in the hope of being headhunted at some later date? • How long will it be held on the database? • Can I remove it from the database? • Will it go to a local, national or global database? • If applying in a country other than Australia, are there any work restrictions?

CHECKPOINT 4.3

1. Electronic resumes: a. Outline the features of an effective electronic resume. b. What is the purpose of the introductory and concluding sections of online resumes? c. What is the advantage of including a keyword section towards the front or end of your electronic resume? d. Identify five resources you can access to generate keywords. 2. Keywords: a. Create a set of keywords for a position you would like to apply for. b. Why should your keywords match the exact term in the job description? c. What are the reasons for checking the keywords in your LinkedIn profile and other social media sites complement the keywords in your resume? 3. What are the features of a resume that is ATS-friendly?

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CHAPTER 4 / Develop communication skills for employment

4.4 JOB INTERVIEWS An interview is a planned exchange of information between two or more people of different status. It may be formal or informal, but in either case it will have a predetermined purpose – to select the most suitable candidate for the position. When you are called for an interview, try to find out as much as possible about the position and the company before the interview. Do this by telephoning the contact person identified in the advertisement for the position, ask for a copy of the job description and examine the main tasks and other duties it sets out. Think about the requirements, what the job will require you to do and the types of questions you may be asked in the interview. General information about the company – such as how many people it employs, how many divisions it has, what the main products are and what the company’s target market is – can be obtained by telephoning its department of human resources, public relations or customer services. It may even be possible to visit the company to find out more, or visit its website. The three main types of job interview are the single, the series and the panel interview. A description of each type is provided in Exhibit 4.10.

Gather and exchange information in a job interview.

EXHIBIT 4.10 Types of job interviews Type of interview

Description

The single interview

Conducted by a single interviewer who is usually responsible for interviewing all applicants and selecting the new staff member.

The series interview

Conducted by several interviewers in turn, in separate interviews. Each one evaluates each applicant on a specific area of expertise. After the series of interviews, the interviewers consult each other to make a group selection.

The panel interview

Conducted by a group of interviewers all together. Each member of the panel asks specific questions relevant to their special experience and expertise. The panel works together to assess the applicant. The panel should include at least one woman and one man, to support the principles of Equal Employment Opportunity.

GOALS OF A JOB INTERVIEW When conducting a job interview, the interviewer wants to select the most suitable candidate for the position. The interviewer’s goals are to gather information from candidates to evaluate their likely future performance, inform applicants about the job and the organisation and determine applicants’ ability to work with others and fit into the organisation’s culture.

INTERVIEW STAGES AND TYPES The interview structure generally includes five stages – pre-interview stage, opening, body, closing and post-interview stage – as shown in Exhibit 4.11.

Select the candidate with the best credentials for the position.

Undertake the five stages in the interview effectively.

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EXHIBIT 4.11 Summary of tasks completed by the interviewer at each stage Stages of the interview

Tasks

Specific examples

Pre-interview stage

• Identifies essentials and desirables • Prepares questions: open, closed, probing • Shortlists candidates

Opening

• • • • •

• Uses position description • Asks manager for any particular skills and attributes • Finds application, checks qualifications • Greets the interviewee • States the interview’s purpose • Builds the interviewee’s confidence • Listens carefully and with empathy • Uses positive nonverbal behaviour • Paraphrases • Asks interviewees if they would like to ask any questions • Encourages further questions • Thanks interviewee for attending • Uses rating scales • Discusses candidates resume and cover letter • Completes notes • Telephones the referees • Maintains confidentiality • Records result

Opens the interview Puts the interviewee at ease Answers questions Obtains specific information Asks open, closed and problem-solving questions • Summarises what has taken place • Indicates clearly that the interview is over • Closes the interview

Body

Closing

Post-interview stage

• • • • •

Evaluates each interviewee objectively Makes selection Completes records Informs successful candidates Informs unsuccessful candidates

EMPLOYING STAFF FAIRLY Equal Employment Opportunity (EEO) and special measures, policies and programs aim for the fairer representation in employment of all groups in the community. The objectives of the Equal Opportunity Act 2010 (Vic) (EO Act 2010) are to encourage the identification and elimination of discrimination, sexual harassment and victimisation and their causes, and to promote and facilitate the progressive realisation of equality. The Act sets out personal characteristics that make discrimination in employment against the law. Exhibit 4.12 identifies these characteristics. A diverse workplace benefits from the wide range of backgrounds of different experiences and talents of its employees. Equal opportunity occurs when people’s chances of employment, promotion, training or obtaining any other employment benefit or opportunity are neither reduced nor increased on the basis of the characteristics in Exhibit 4.12. Discrimination occurs when someone is treated unfavourably because of a personal characteristic that is protected by law. Discrimination in the workplace means denying people equal treatment for reasons other than those relating directly to the job. One of the purposes of EEO legislation is to ensure that the person with the skills, experience and qualifications best suited to the job gets the job. The benefits of EEO include improved recruitment allowing employers to tap into the diverse talent pool in the community. Staff retention and respect between employers and employees improves. EEO and the resultant diversity in the workforce helps organisations attract and better serve an increasingly diverse customer base.

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CHAPTER 4 / Develop communication skills for employment

EXHIBIT 4.12 Personal characteristics

Parental status Lawful sexual activity

Employment activity Physical features

Disability

Gender identity Political belief or activity

Personal association with someone who has, or is assumed to have, any of these personal characteristics

Age

Marital status

Personal characteristics

Industrial activity

Pregnancy

Breastfeeding

Race (including colour, nationality, ethnicity and ethnic origin)

Religious belief or activity Sexual orientation

Sex

Carer status

SHORTLISTING CANDIDATES Sometimes more applications for a position are received than the number of applicants the interviewer is willing to interview. In this case, a shortlist of those who best suit the position is prepared. When companies advertise they set parameters around the selection criteria they ask applicants to address. When applicants apply, the first step is to compare the information in all applications against what the job requires to determine which applicants are suitable. If an applicant has not addressed all of the selection criteria in a recruiter’s ATS, the application is likely to be culled and moved to the unsuccessful group. Then the interview shortlist of successful applicants is compiled. Next, the interviewer should, as a courtesy, inform all applicants whether or not their application is successful. Those who are successful are invited to an interview, and those who are not should be thanked for their interest in the position.

Shortlist candidates according to the essential and desirable requirements of the job.

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QUESTION PREPARATION A set of questions about the candidate’s qualifications, previous job experience, career ambitions, goals and attitudes towards the organisation’s products or policies is prepared. The interviewer’s aim is to create clear, specific questions that will adequately establish the applicant’s capacity to meet the demands of the job. Questions should also be relevant, unambiguous and free from bias, so that no group or person is favoured or disadvantaged. The interviewer should take into consideration federal and state anti-discrimination legislation. The four types of questions in Exhibit 4.13 are particularly important. They should all be asked in a well-structured interview.

Prepare clear, specific questions.

EXHIBIT 4.13 Types of interview questions Type of question

Purpose

Example

Open

These encourage interviewees to speak freely and talk about themselves. The interviewer should listen, observe and make notes. Open questions can help overcome the interviewee’s feelings of apprehension. Use them carefully as they can elicit time-consuming answers and irrelevant information.

• ‘Could you tell me more about your career path in your last organisation?’ • ‘What did you do then?’ • ‘How did that affect the way you did your job?’

Closed

These are designed to limit responses and establish facts. They can clarify answers to open questions, but usually provide very little information and discourage further explanation by the interviewee.

• ‘Have you used this software program before?’ • ‘Are you a member of the professional association?’

Mirror

These restate the interviewee’s previous answer, inviting them to add more information. They give the interviewee accurate feedback and allow the interviewer to check their understanding of the responses offered.

Interviewee: ‘I really enjoyed the mix of independent and team-based work the project required.’

These follow on from the last response by the interviewee. They are spontaneous questions rather than being planned. The aim is to ask why and gather more information.

Interviewee: ‘My last position required plenty of task juggling and prioritising.’

Probing

Identify and prepare your strengths. Research the company and its values. Manage your time well during your job search.

Interviewer: ‘You enjoyed the mix?’ Interviewee: ‘Yes, it provided variety and added to the success of the project.’

Interviewer: ‘And how did you do that successfully?’

The interview process should be fair and open to scrutiny. Below each question, in the interviewer’s notes, the type of response expected should be identified to enable the interviewer to check each applicant’s answers to the questions. Questions may cover topics such as communication skills, energy and motivation levels, creativity, ability to handle stress, career ambitions, persuasiveness, initiative, planning, controlling and analytical skills. Employers seek staff with employability skills that are transferable from one occupation to another.

USE A JOB SEARCH CONTROL SHEET When the letter inviting you to an interview arrives, immediately write the place, date and time of the interview in your diary. Then start preparing yourself for it. As the applicant, you have several different tasks ahead of you. The job search control sheet is a systematic way to organise a job search. Record your details on a sheet similar to that shown in Exhibit 4.14. The job search control sheet helps you document your ideas and impressions in one place and can also be a useful time-management tool.

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EXHIBIT 4.14 Job search control sheet Job search control sheet Name of position: How I made contact, and date: How I found out about the position: Date job application forwarded: Date and time of interview: Place of interview: Name of potential employer: Address: Telephone and email numbers: Research on the position: Comments on the interview: My particular strengths in the interview: What would I do differently next time? Material left with the employer: Follow-up action: Dates: To whom:

PRACTISE YOUR PRESENTATION In the interview, you are judged on how you act and what you say. Take time beforehand to think about the questions you may be asked and what you will say in answer to each. Even consider the sort of question that may be awkward to answer. It is easier to appear relaxed and confident during the interview when you have practised your presentation. The way you dress makes an impression at the interview. Choose clothes appropriate to the occupation and take care with your personal grooming. Take copies of your resume on good-quality paper. Also include copies of your references and any other documentation the interviewer may need. Include any relevant samples of work, and originals of qualifications such as degrees, diplomas, certificates and work qualifications. Remember to pack your pen, paper and interview memory jogger (see Exhibit 4.15). Place only the most important points that warrant special mention on the interview memory jogger. This aid is most useful if it is placed on your lap or on the table in front of you. At the end of the interview, when the interviewer asks if you have anything to ask or add, quickly scan it to check you have covered the main points.

Practice helps you to be relaxed and confident.

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EXHIBIT 4.15 Interview memory jogger Interview memory jogger Summarise your strengths:

1 2 3 4

Determine the personal and physical factors required for the job:

1 2 3

Date and time of interview:

1

Things to take to the interview:

2 3

Accomplishments relevant to this position:

1 2 3

Key points to bring out in the interview:

1 2 3 4 5

Emphasise why I am interested in this position:

1 2

A job interview is your opportunity to convince a potential employer that you are the best person for the job. Be ready to speak clearly and to ask appropriate questions. Exhibit 4.16 provides some hints to help you perform well at an interview.

AT THE BEGINNING OF THE INTERVIEW Begin the interview confidently and courteously.

Create a good first impression by entering the interview room confidently, with body upright and shoulders relaxed. Make direct eye contact, and greet the interviewer or panel with a firm handshake. Take time to organise your thoughts and your papers and seat yourself comfortably, making sure that you avoid fidgeting but are still able to use your hands for emphasis. As the interviewee, you are also assessing the company or organisation, so behave politely but assertively. Firm eye contact shows confidence. Keep your head upright and encourage the interviewers by smiling and nodding when appropriate. Voice volume and clarity, and knowing what you want to say, are important for creating a good impression. Vocal inflection adds variety and interest to your

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EXHIBIT 4.16 Hints for an impressive performance Interviewers are influenced by personalities. Be pleasant, listen carefully and respond to questions with interest. Make a good first impression by greeting the interviewer in a friendly manner. Be positive and confident when you communicate. Practise suitable responses to questions. Prepare questions to ask about career paths, professional development and future changes to the company, to indicate that you have thought about your goals.

Reply to questions with full sentences, rather than ‘yes’ or ‘no’, to show the interviewer you have prepared for the interview and are interested.

Hints for an impressive performance Role-play a job interview and video the role-play to check your nonverbal communication – movements of your head, arms, feet, legs, shoulders and your facial expression.

Show interest in specific aspects of the position. Describe what you have learned from previous positions, and how these will help you in future positions.

Focus on your most relevant skills. Give examples of how you have solved problems in previous positions.

presentation. Nonverbal communication is discussed more fully in Chapter 2, Develop emotional intelligence and interpersonal intelligence.

DURING THE BODY OF THE INTERVIEW This is the working stage of the interview where you must present yourself persuasively. Listen carefully to questions and try to answer them thoughtfully and confidently. Maintain eye contact with the person who is questioning you, but avoid making them uncomfortable. Keep your posture upright, but be relaxed and natural. A variety of questions are asked at interviews, and an expert interviewer should make you feel comfortable and encourage you to tell them about yourself. Also, be prepared to ask questions when the opportunity arises. These should indicate your genuine interest in the possibility of a career with the organisation. The examples of questions in Exhibit 4.17 will allow you to prepare and rehearse possible answers. Exhibit 4.18 provides a list of action words you can use in your responses.

Listen carefully and be confident and persuasive.

Prepare your own questions.

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EXHIBIT 4.17 Commonly asked questions By the interviewer

By the interviewee

• • • •

• • • • • • • • • •

• • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

How do you organise your day? What have you done to make your job more satisfying? What are your hobbies and interests? Have you conducted a meeting or done any group speaking? What kind of feedback did you receive? What reports or proposals do you write? Tell me about one of your documents and how it was received. Tell me about the positions you have held. In your last job, what accomplishments gave you the most satisfaction? Why did you leave your last job? Do you feel pressure in your job? How do you deal with it? What do you see as your strengths and weaknesses? Are you able to travel? What are your career goals for the next five years? Tell me about a problem you’ve solved in the last six months. Can you give an example of a good decision you made in the last six months? What were the alternatives to that decision? What do you understand about Equal Employment Opportunity? What do you consider your best abilities? Why did you apply for this position? What can you bring to this position that others can’t?

• • • • • • • • • •

How many people are employed in the organisation? Where would I be working? What projects would I be working on? Does the company intend to expand into other areas? How many others have applied for this position? When will I hear the results of my interview? When would you like the successful applicant to start work? What are the major responsibilities in the position? What additional training does the organisation provide? What qualities do you want in the person who fills this position? Does the organisation plan to deliver new products or services? What will be the main focus of this role? How does the organisation measure success in individual performance? What would be my career prospects? Who would I be working with? Can you describe a typical day in this job? Could you explain the organisational structure to me? What is the top priority of the person who accepts this position? How much travel is expected? Are there any other questions I can answer for you?

EXHIBIT 4.18 Action words for interview responses Communicating

Managing

Creating

Administration

persuade

solve

plan

arrange

mediate

produce

shape

achieve

write

adapt

design

organise

develop

analyse

prepare

prioritise

cooperate

initiate

invent

accomplish

AT THE CLOSE OF AND AFTER THE INTERVIEW Thank the interviewer. Learn from your performance at the interview.

The interviewer will indicate that the interview is over. Be ready for this, and express thanks for their time and consideration. If you are still interested in the position, let them know at this point and ask when they will make their decision. Try to leave the interview with a sense of control as well as a sense of relief!

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AFTER THE INTERVIEW Very soon after the interview, it is worth reviewing your performance. Identify everything you did well and not so well. Learn from this self-review, and decide how to improve any parts of your performance that were weak. Complete your job search control sheet (Exhibit 4.14).

Evaluate your performance If you were unhappy about any part of your interview performance, decide how you can do better on another occasion. What experiences were pleasant, unpleasant, challenging, awkward or uncomfortable? Evaluate the way you: • answered questions • presented yourself. Reflect on aspects of the interview that you handled well and those that you might have handled better.

Reflect on the positive and any negative aspects of your performance.

Follow-up Once you have attended an interview, it is appropriate to follow up with a letter of inquiry, telephone call or email, if you have not heard from the company within two weeks, or a letter of acceptance if you are offered the position. A follow-up letter should be courteous and concise – no more than a page long. It confirms again your interest in the job. The follow-up letter format follows the seven basic parts of a business letter, as presented in Chapter 15, Writing business letters, plus a subject line. A follow-up telephone call also confirms your interest in the position. If you have not heard from the organisation within seven days, call the interviewer, express your interest again and ask when you are likely to hear. The interviewer will explain the delay or let you know if you were successful or unsuccessful. Sometimes the job is offered by telephone, other times it is offered in writing. An offer in writing is preferable, and it should set out the conditions of employment, such as hours of work and salary. Once you decide to accept the job, telephone the contact person and let them know. Then write a courteous letter of acceptance, expressing how much you are looking forward to working with the company.

1. Job interview: a. Identify the five stages of a job interview. b. List three goals of an interviewer. c. List four types of questions asked in an interview and provide an example of each type of question d. EEO is a policy that promotes selection by merit. Complete this sentence: ‘An Equal Opportunity employer does not discriminate against employees or qualified job applicants on the basis of …’ 2. Plan to succeed: a. Describe the advantages of using a job search control sheet (Exhibit 4.14) and an interview memory jogger (Exhibit 4.15). b. Explain why you should practise your interview presentation and describe what you should prepare before attending an interview. c. Why is making a good first impression so important? Give examples of how can you do this. 3. Create a list of hints that will help you perform well in a job interview.

Follow up with an inquiry or a letter of acceptance.

Allow the employer time after the interview to score the applicants, complete reference and police checks. Avoid contacting the employer so often that it irritates them.

CHECKPOINT 4.4

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LEARNING ACTIVITIES SUMMARY 4.1 Search for a job using a variety of job search strategies and methods. Collect information on employment opportunities from a variety of sources such as employment agencies, recruitment agencies, social networking sites, newspapers, temping and freelancing, personal networks, direct mail campaigns and professional publications. Evaluate your preferences, skills, aptitude, qualifications and experience. This helps you to identify the type of work and career objectives that suit your abilities. 4.2 Write the type of resume and cover letter that best show how your qualifications, skills and experiences match the recruiter’s requirements and the position. A successful job application has two major components – the resume and the covering letter. Prepare either a basic or functional resume to show how your qualifications match the job requirements. Research the position you wish to apply for. Present your educational qualifications, your range of experience, achievements, attributes and any special interests suited to the position. Write a covering letter for the job application. This is a persuasive letter that aims to attract a potential employer’s attention and create enough interest that they call you for an

interview. It should be no more than one page in length. Include keywords in your resume and cover letter. 4.3 Use standard resume sections and keywords to optimise a resume for selection by an applicant tracking system (ATS). Write a resume with standard sections and headings matched to the words in the job description. The career objective and content of the body of the resume should include keywords. More and more employers and recruitment agencies use applicant tracking systems to search resumes and match against keywords based on the job description and other parameters determined by the employer. The search results create a pool of suitable candidates for interview. 4.4 Identify the stages in a job interview and strategies to use in the different stages. An interviewer should ask open, closed, mirror and probing questions that are relevant to the job requirements. Before an interview, candidates should find out more about the position and prepare. A job search control sheet will help a candidate to plan and present confidently. Make a positive first impression by dressing appropriately for the position and using your speaking, listening and nonverbal skills courteously when responding to and asking questions.

KEY TERMS applicant tracking system (ATS) application form basic resume cold canvassing covering letter

direct mail campaign electronic resume employment agency Equal Employment Opportunity (EEO) functional resume

interview memory jogger job search control sheet letter of acceptance networks panel interview post-interview stage

pre-interview stage reference resume social media cleanse unsolicited letter of application

LEARNING ACTIVITIES 1. Direct mail Work in small groups to plan a direct mail campaign to obtain a position at the end of the course. a. Determine the type of position you would like to apply for.

b. Research and create a list of firms that are likely to employ new graduates from this course in the type of position you are after. c. Determine the best time to approach each firm. d. Determine the best method of approaching each firm.

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CHAPTER 4 / Develop communication skills for employment

2. Create a resume a. Select a vacant position that interests you and that you are qualified for from a newspaper, publication or online. b. What are the attributes that the employer considers essential and desirable in the successful candidate? c. Prepare a resume that will help you secure an interview for this position. Be sure to use keywords and some of the action words listed in the table to describe your past or present responsibilities.

Useful action words • analyse

• evaluate

• liaise

• print

• communicate

• expand

• maintain

• program

• create

• interpret

• negotiate

• report

• delegate

• initiate

• obtain

• solve

• design

• install

• operate

• supervise

d. Use the AIDA formula to write the covering letter. 3. An interview about interviews Interview the human resources or employee relations officer for an organisation. The purpose of the interview is to find out: • what they view as essential components of a written job application and resume • their criteria for the culling procedure • how they check qualifications and create a shortlist • the type of interview panel they would use • how and when applicants are informed of an interview • how they ensure EEO legislation and the merit principle are incorporated into the interview procedure • what is required of the applicant in the interview. 4. Work in groups of three for this exercise a. Consider the interviewer’s verbal messages in the following table. In the second column, identify the type of nonverbal behaviour that is appropriate for each verbal message appearing in the first column. Remember, the interviewer is trying to create an open, supportive environment to encourage interviewees to talk about their skills and abilities. b. When you have completed the table, role-play the situation. One person is the interviewer and one person is the interviewee, while the third person watches and

records the interviewer’s nonverbal communication. Then compare the nonverbal messages used in the roleplay with your notes in the table below. (If you have trouble listing suitable nonverbal messages, try the roleplay first and then list the appropriate behaviours.)

Consistent verbal/nonverbal communication Verbal message

Appropriate nonverbal behaviour

Good morning! Pleased to meet you.

E.g. smiles, stands, leans forward, shakes hands

Did you find the building easily? Tell me, why are you interested in the position of Distribution Officer? You mentioned in your application that you have good organisational skills. Can you explain how you used your organisational skills in your last position? What attracts you to our company? Give me an example of a time when you successfully handled a customer complaint. How else might you have dealt with the situation? Do you have any further questions about the position? Thank you for your application and for coming to the interview.

5. Writing the job specification Place yourself in the role of an interviewer to develop an appreciation of the interview process. a. Find an advertised position vacant that appeals to you. b. Create a job specification for this position. c. Write the essential and desirable criteria for the position.

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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK

GROUP ACTIVITY Work in small groups.

•

deciding how to sign up for an email alert to keep track of new positions listed on the site that match your criteria.

Part A a. Each member of the group identifies their favourite source for finding a job. b. Explain to the other members of the group the features that make it your favourite source and how it benefits your job search.

Part C Visit the ‘Job Outlook – Explore Your Career Outlook’ site at http://joboutlook.gov.au/ to learn more about what people in the type of position you have chosen do regarding their training and development, salaries and opportunities for career progression.

Part B In your group, choose one of the online resume sites discussed in your group and search for a position by: • identifying criteria or phrases to filter your search for that position

Part D Submit a short group report outlining your findings from Part C.

CASE STUDY AMAR AND ROCHELLE – KEYWORDS Over morning tea, Amar, an assistant human resources officer, discusses with his colleague Rochelle his plans to apply for a more senior role with another company. In their discussion, Rochelle suggests, ‘Most companies are now recruiting from large recruitment companies. When companies advertise through a recruitment company’s online portal they usually set parameters around the selection criteria they want the applicants to address.’ Amar replies, ‘Yes, I realise that I will increase my chances in today’s job market by including similar keywords in my resume to those that appear in targeted job descriptions. If I do not use keywords to address all of the selection criteria the online ATS will automatically cull my application and a potential employer will not even see it.’ Rochelle says, ‘Yes, definitely. When the recruitment companies search resumes submitted to their online resume sites through desktops, tablets and mobile phones the resumes are processed by the recruiting ATS to save time and help employers find a suitable pool of candidates for their job openings.’

Amar replies, ‘I need keywords to match specific skill sets, soft skills, technology and HR competencies as well as previous employers and my relevant credentials. Perhaps over lunch we could brainstorm those keywords that match specific job requirements’. Rochelle replies, ‘Sure, let’s get together over lunch tomorrow.’

Questions 1. What kind of information could Amar find on the recruitment agencies’ websites to help him create a powerful resume? 2. Where, in addition to the big recruitment agencies, could Amar look for job advertisements and career information? 3. Which of the two types of resume (basic or functional) should Amar use? Provide reasons for your choice. 4. Outline the benefits for Amar and the potential employer of including keywords and key phrases in his resume.

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CHAPTER 4 / Develop communication skills for employment

BIBLIOGRAPHY Adzuna. Search Jobs, http://www.adzuna.com.au/, viewed 1 June 2018. Boldt, A.G. 2008. No-Nonsense Job Interviews: How to Impress Prospective Employers and Ace Any Interview, Career Press, Pompton Plains, NJ. Bolles, Richard N. 2018. What Color Is Your Parachute Job Hunter’s Guide, Ten Speed Press, Berkeley, CA. Burke, Lindsey. ‘Is Facebook Preventing You From Getting Hired?’, Select Perspectives Blog, http://www. selectinternational.com/blog/is-facebook-preventing-youfrom-getting-hired, viewed 23 May 2018. Careerbuilder.com. CareerBuilder: Find the right job. Right now, http://www.careerbuilder.com, viewed 2 June 2018. Careerone.com. Find a job you love, http://www.careerone. com.au, viewed 1 June 2018. Careers Online, Welcome to Australia’s Careers OnLine (COL), http://www.careersonline.com.au/, viewed 1 June 2018. Department of Jobs and Small Business. jobactive, www.jobs.gov.au/jobactive, viewed 18 May 2018. Department of Jobs and Small Business. Joboutlook – Explore Your Career Outlook, http://joboutlook.gov.au/, viewed 20 May 2018. Enelow, W.S. & Kursmark, M. 2010. Cover Letter Magic, 4th edn, JIST Works, Indianapolis, IN. Hudson Australia. Common interview questions and how to answer them, http://au.hudson.com/job-seekers/careeradvice/job-interview-questions, viewed 28 May 2018. Job Search Australia. Positions Vacant, http://www. positionsvacant.com.au/, viewed 2 June 2018.

Kelley, Thea. 2017. Get that Job, Guide to a Winning Interview!, Plovercrest Press, Albany, CA. LinkedIn. Join LinkedIn, http://www.linkedin.com/start/join, viewed 24 May 2018. Live Career. Resume Builder, www.livecareer.com, viewed 22 May 2018. JobSeeker. 2018. Get a job with the help of these useful job tips, https://www.jobseeker.org.au/resources-job-seekers, viewed 2 June 2018. Meister, Jeanne. 2014. The Future of Work: Why Social HR Matters, https://www.forbes.com/sites/jeannemeister/2014/ 01/06/the-future-of-work-why-social-hr-matters/ #3f3034c5d06a, viewed 23 May 2018. Mostyn, Steven. 2018. Job Search: Fundamentals of Effective Job Hunting, Resumes, and Interviews Kindle Edition, Mostyn Books, New Jersey, NJ. Northern NSW Australia. Job Seeking Sites, http://www.nnsw. com.au/regional/jobsearch.html, viewed 22 May 2018. Robbins, A.J. 2015. Resume Writing 2016: The Ultimate, Most Up-to-date Guide to Writing a Resume that Lands YOU the Job!, Leopard Publishing, Milan, MI. Seek. Job Search, https://www.seek.com.au/, viewed 22 May 2018. Victorian Government. The Equal Opportunity Act 2010 (Vic) (EO Act 2010), https://www.humanrightscommission. vic.gov.au/the-law/equal-opportunity-act, viewed 24 May 2018.

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PART

2

COMMUNICATION STRATEGIES IN THE WORKPLACE

CHAPTER 5

ORGANISE WORKPLACE INFORMATION

CHAPTER 6

MANAGE WORK PRIORITIES AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT

CHAPTER 7

DELIVER PRESENTATIONS AND SPEECHES

CHAPTER 8

DEVELOP NEGOTIATION AND CONFLICT MANAGEMENT SKILLS

CHAPTER 9

IMPLEMENT AND MONITOR A SAFE WORKPLACE IMPLEMENT AND MONITOR ENVIRONMENTALLY SUSTAINABLE WORK PRACTICES

MINDTAP

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Spotlight on: Workplace communication Compare where you are now with where you would like to end up in your career to help you identify your career goals and allow you to explore professional development and learning that will help you fill any skills gaps. As well as industry-specific skills, transferable skills such as becoming more organised, managing priorities, communicating and achieving productive workplace performance and positive workplace relationships are valued across organisations and professions. Communicating effectively up and down the organisation through face-to-face communication, voicemails, emails, text messages, in meetings, presentations and shared online and digital workspaces increases job satisfaction and productivity. Strengthening negotiation and conflict management skills helps you to build common ground as you problem solve, find successful alternatives, and build and maintain relationships. Some of the most important transferable skills recruiters and employers look for when hiring are adaptability, flexibility, dependability, ability to work well under pressure, positive attitude, confidence and the ability to work well in a team. Being able to implement and monitor a safe workplace is essential in any workplace. Communication skills and the skills to organise and prioritise work are highly regarded. Professional development activities such as face-to-face or online training courses, observation, mentoring and shadowing in the workplace, Webinars, podcasts, blogs, conferences and workshops, and networking within an online community help to strengthen your skills, talents and experiences and help you to keep up to date with changes in your industry. Turn your career goals into reality.

To succeed, you will soon learn, as I did, the importance of a solid foundation in the basics of education – literacy, both verbal and numerical, and communication skills. Alan Greenspan

What do you think? How do you prioritise competing demands to achieve personal, team and organisational goals and objectives? Can you think of a situation where you used feedback from clients and colleagues to identify and develop ways to maintain and build on your current competence? How do you feel about the use of persuasive communication techniques to secure audience interest during a presentation? Are negotiation and conflict management skills well regarded in today’s workplace? Which of the professional development activities do you prefer? 117 Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202

ORGANISE WORKPLACE INFORMATION

CHAPTER

5

Next MANAGE WORK PRIORITIES + PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT

5.5

REVIEWING INFORMATION for accuracy and relevance

Your Learning Journey

What is the relevant legislation? (e.g. Privacy Act) 5.1

 

audits  external  implementing improvements

Chapter 5

CH6

How to apply it to ORGANISING WORKPLACE INFORMATION

Using reliable data collection methods

5.3 ORGANISING + STORING (and deleting) INFORMATION

listening interpreting understanding responding giving/receiving feedback

5.4 What INTERPERSONAL SKILLS are required to ACCESS and SHARE INFORMATION in the workplace?

!

Different formats for different purposes and storage areas

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5.2

CHAPTER 5 / Organise workplace information

LEARNING OBJECTIVES After studying this chapter, you should be able to: 5.1 identify and apply relevant legislation when organising workplace information 5.2 use reliable methods to collect data and create information relevant to purpose and user needs 5.3 discuss the importance of correct organisation, storage and disposal of information 5.4 use interpersonal skills to access and share information with colleagues and others 5.5 explain how review of information assists an organisation.

5.1 APPLY RELEVANT LEGISLATION The collection and use of good-quality information is more than just finding information. It is a fourstage process: 1. collecting, creating and receiving 2. organising and storing 3. using and sharing 4. reviewing and disposing of information. Throughout this process it is essential to maintain the privacy and security of information. Information is a key business asset that informs an organisation’s code of conduct, organisational policies, guidelines and requirements. Management uses information to meet legal and accountability requirements: for example, workplace health and safety (WHS) regulation, policies, procedures and programs. Good-quality information creates the knowledge from which ideas, patterns and relationships emerge. Its use lies in its ability to inform decisions, to facilitate sound planning and to achieve successful actions in a variety of occupations.

CONFIDENTIALITY AND PRIVACY Laws and regulations created by government bodies mandate how organisations will protect the confidentiality of information. Consequently, organisations must ensure their employees work in accordance with legislation to maintain the confidentiality of a variety of information, including their customers’ personal details.

Personal information The Office of the Australian Information Commissioner (2015) identifies 10 steps to protect other people’s personal information: 1. familiarise yourself with internal privacy policies, processes and procedures 2. know who is responsible for privacy 3. consider privacy during project planning 4. only collect the personal information you need 5. use and disclosure – think about it! 6. overseas disclosure – prepare for it! 7. take care when handling sensitive information 8. access personal information on a need-to-know basis 9. keep personal information secure. 10. familiarise yourself with your data breach response plan. Refer to privacy Fact Sheet 17: Australian Privacy Principles (Office of the Australian Information Commissioner 2014) for information about how to handle personal information collected, stored and

Maintain confidentiality to prevent the disclosure of information to unauthorised individuals or systems.

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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK used by most Australian and Norfolk Island Government agencies and some private sector organisations. Regulations supported by organisational guidelines about how to collect, use, store and disclose personal information minimise the risk of breaching privacy legislation. Consider whether each piece of personal information collected is necessary for any of the activities of the organisation. Perhaps it is possible to allow individuals to interact anonymously with the organisation. When personal information is collected from individuals there are three things relating to that information that you are obliged to inform those individuals about: 1. why is it collected 2. how it will be used 3. if and to whom it will be disclosed.

Security

Comply with organisational procedures relating to distribution of workplace information, security and confidentiality.

An organisation’s information and records management systems must be kept secure to protect information from unauthorised access, disclosure and modifications. The Privacy Act 1988 (Privacy Act) contains 13 Australian Privacy Principles (APPs) that Australian and Norfolk Island Government agencies, and most private sector organisations (collectively called ‘APP entities’) must follow when they handle personal information. The Privacy Act defines personal information as, ‘… information or an opinion that identifies, or could identify, an individual. Some examples are name, address, telephone number, date of birth, medical records, bank account details, and opinions.’ The risk of identity theft is high when dealing with personal information, especially personal information such as bank account details, passport, tax file numbers, Medicare, licence or other identification details. Organisations must protect the personal details of employees, customers, suppliers and other stakeholders. Organisations must ensure their websites and online services have effective security to ensure the personal information they hold on customers, suppliers and staff is not at risk from hackers. For example, the ride-sharing company Uber informed the Privacy Commissioner in 2017 that Australian customers’ personal information had been stolen in a hack that, ‘ … exposed its customers’ names, email addresses, and mobile phone numbers, as well as the names and licence numbers of thousands of drivers that were stored with a third-party cloud service. More than 2.69 million Australians use the ride-sharing service. ‘ (News.com.au 2017) As well as protecting personal information, organisations must protect their own sensitive business data such as financial and taxation information or information about the release of new services or products. A breach of security could lead to legal issues and a loss of business to competitors. The misuse of information and the loss of records have a significant impact on an organisation’s everyday activities and longer-term sustainability. A breach of security causes the loss of information such as customer profiles or company financial data and the costs of recovering lost or deleted data. Damage to an organisation’s reputation with its customers and within industry can negatively impact on a business and its revenue. Additionally, an organisation may face a long, expensive and public classaction lawsuit by those whose personal and private information was compromised. Essential security requirements for any organisation are: • adequate IT security such as firewalls, cookie removers and anti-virus scanners • storage of hard-copy files in properly secured cabinets • regular monitoring of information-handling practices to assure security. The level of security depends on the sensitivity of the information. Employees should only be able to access personal information on a ‘need to know’ basis. Any personal information no longer needed for operational purposes or kept to meet legislative requirements or regulations should be destroyed. Regulations specify what information must be retained, whether it can be changed and for how long it must be retained. For example, it is a legal requirement for sole traders in Australia to keep records for

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CHAPTER 5 / Organise workplace information at least five years for tax purposes. Regulations often demand that electronic data is secure from unauthorised access and changes. An audit trail must show all changes to data and who made them to verify no unauthorised person has changed data. All personal information should be removed from electronic devices before your organisation sells or destroys them. Protecting confidentiality and security of information is an ethical, business and legal requirement; therefore, organisations have administrative controls – approved written policies, procedures, standards and guidelines – for the collecting, organising and review of information. A breach of these policies and administrative controls could lead to non-compliance with legal regulations and result in the organisation having to pay a heavy fine. Work in accordance with legal and organisational requirements.

POLICY, CODE OF CONDUCT AND ETHICS Information sharing between government agencies must follow the requirements of a formal policy framework. The policy should reflect the values and standards of professional conduct of the organisation. The overall aims of a formal policy are: • structured sharing of collected information • security of sensitive and confidential information • better coordination services • improved community outcomes and benefits to clients. Four broad principles commonly drive the information sharing policies of any government agency: 1. an agency must act within the limits of relevant legislation and policy 2. open and accountable processes and procedures 3. consistency with appropriate minimum privacy standards such as the National Privacy Principles 4. procedures must ensure security of confidential information. An effective code of conduct: • provides a framework to promote ethical day-to-day decisions and conduct • defines the desired behaviour against which individual and organisational performance can be measured • cannot cover every situation in a workplace and so employees are expected to use common sense in those situations. The NSW Health Code of Conduct, for example, defines ‘standards of ethical and professional conduct that are required of everyone working in NSW Health in any capacity, the outcomes we are committed to, and the behaviours which are unacceptable and will not be tolerated … All employees, contractors, volunteers, students, researchers and persons undertaking or delivering training or education in NSW Health must abide by the Code of Conduct and the core values and principles that it promotes’ (Reproduced by permission, NSW Health ª 2019). The NSW Health Code requires staff to maintain the security and confidentiality of information by adhering to the standards shown in Exhibit 5.1. Regardless of whether you work for a government agency or private sector organisation, before you begin collecting, assessing and organising information, identify any rules and regulations you must observe as you gather and share information. Consider how you will: • observe code of conduct, code of ethics and information protocols • comply with legal, ethical, confidentiality and privacy requirements. As well as organisational administrative controls, some industry sectors have standard policies, procedures, standards and guidelines: for example, the need for merchants and service providers to comply with the requirements of the Payment Card Industry Data Security Standards (PCIDSS). The Standards identify the requirements for ensuring payment account data security for any organisation that stores, processes or transmits cardholder data.

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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK

EXHIBIT 5.1 NSW Health Personal Information and Records Maintain the security of confidential and/or sensitive official information. Staff must:

4.5

4.5.1

Keep confidential all personal information and records, including not discussing or providing information on social media that could identify patients or divulge patient information

4.5.2

Not use or release official information or comment without proper authority

4.5.3

Maintain the security of confidential and/or sensitive information, including that stored on communication devices

4.5.4

Not disclose, use or take advantage of information obtained in the course of official duties, including when they cease to work in NSW Health. Reproduced by permission, NSW Health ª 2019.

CHECKPOINT 5.1

FROM THEORY TO PRACTICE

1. Personal information: a. Briefly explain what an organisation can do to protect other people’s personal information. b. List six examples of personal information that must be kept secure to prevent identity theft. 2. Why do organisations have a code of conduct? 3. What types of rules and regulations must government and private sector organisations consider before they gather and share information?

Privacy goes global: What do European privacy laws have to do with me and my workplace? In 2018, the European Union (EU) introduced the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR). This law enshrines data protection and privacy as a legal right for all individuals within the EU and the European Economic Area (EEA). This law restricts how personal data is collected, handled, stored and destroyed. There are also strict conditions about sensitive data relating to religion, sexual orientation, political beliefs and race. Companies must be transparent about how and why all personal data is collected and consent must be explicitly obtained before personal data can be collected. Consent can be revoked at any time and the law contains the right to be ‘forgotten’, which means a company must delete, on request, all information they hold on an individual. These changes move the balance of power over personal data from businesses to consumers. So, what does this have to do with Australia and New Zealand? Key to Australian and New Zealand businesses is that the GDPR protects anyone in Europe and all EU citizens, living in or out of Europe. Therefore, any Australian business, of any size, must comply with the regulation if they offer goods or services to, collect data on, or mention on a website any individuals who live in the EU or are EU citizens, at any time.

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>

CHAPTER 5 / Organise workplace information

>

According to the Australian Bureau of Statistics, Australia has more than 1.5 million citizens born in Europe. That is over 1.5 million potential dual European citizens living in Australia who are covered by the GDPR. Source: http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/[email protected]/lookup/3412.0Media%20Release12015-16.

ASK YOURSELF: How might this legislation affect your workplace? Consider basic information collected when you start a job as well as information collected about customers or clients. Do you know if this information is handled in compliance with the GDPR?

5.2 COLLECT INFORMATION Progressive organisations manage information to improve business relationships and operational performance. The result is consistent, quality outcomes, better customer experiences and competitive advantage in the market. The four stages through which a piece of information progresses from the time it is collected until it is no longer needed to support legal, business or operational requirements collectively is known as the information life cycle and is shown in Exhibit 5.2.

EXHIBIT 5.2 Information life cycle

Collect, create and receive

• • • •

define the required data and identify its source determine how the data will be collected receive and interpret the data, transforming it into information follow good practice when collecting personal or confidential information

Organise and store

• determine the format data will be represented in the information system • categorise information so that it is easy and quick for users to locate • store in paper records, email accounts, intranets, shared drives, flash drives, mobile devices, shared filing areas • store information in accordance with organisational access and security guidelines

Use and share

• send and receive information through channels and formats appropriate to the message, its purpose and user need • comply with legal and organisational requirements as you use, maintain and share • protect and restrict access to personal, confidential and classified information

Dispose

• dispose of information no longer required for legal, business or operational purposes • destroy confidential information in office shredders or in secure shredding bins • archive legal and historical information

Gather quality, useable information suitable for analysis, decision making and the development of plans, strategies and options. Use relevant information to achieve organisational goals, improve business relationships and performance. Maintain and protect information across the stages of the information lifecycle – collect and create; organise and store; use and share; and review and dispose.

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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK

Differentiate between information you need to take action on and unsolicited information on which no action is required – deal with each type of information appropriately.

When collecting workplace information or receiving it from others, decisions must be made about the format in which to represent the information and the type of action to take in response to the message. Decide whether to format, organise and hold the collected information: • as paper records at workstations • in shared filing areas (file room, registry, departmental network or shared drive) • online as email, personal network drives, intranets, portable storage devices or mobile devices. Information must be organised and presented in a format appropriate to its audience and purpose, and in accordance with legal and organisational requirements to ensure access, retrieval, protection and disposal of information. Refer to Chapter 19, Record keeping, for information about creating, organising and storing information in records. Organisations and workplaces collect information (numbers, words or images to represent facts, concepts or instructions) suitable for purpose, interpretation and use by teams and other stakeholders. Relevant and well-organised information provides a number of efficiencies and other benefits, including: • quick access to the right information • less staff time spent looking for information • reduced costs due to faster access to and retrieval of information • more information sharing across an organisation • better-informed decision making and better customer service. The purpose of collecting and organising information is to gain knowledge for use in all workplace decisions, ranging from management decisions about strategy, policy and procedures to operational decisions such as how tasks are completed. Information can be collected from external or internal sources, as shown in Exhibit 5.3.

EXHIBIT 5.3 Sources of information

Consider the impact of the environment on your research.

Internal sources

External sources

• Observation, listening and consulting • Interviews with colleagues and customers • Checking written material, including referrals and client files • Accessing previous file records

• Online and print publications from legislative and regulatory bodies • Government agencies • Industry and trade organisations and professional associations • Proprietary database companies

A methodical approach to the collection, organising and sharing of information supports effective problem solving, decision making and risk mitigation through enhanced ability to provide accurate and timely responses to legislative, regulatory and business requirements.

ACCESS INFORMATION In the work setting you gather, organise and apply information in the context of your organisation’s code of conduct, policies and processes. Access product, service and other information such as production plans, marketing plans, business, strategic and team plans, or workplace health and safety (WHS) statistics, incidents and safety management plans in accordance with legal and organisational requirements.

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CHAPTER 5 / Organise workplace information Begin your search for information by asking and answering five questions: 1. When is the information needed? 2. What sort of information is needed, and how much? 3. Can I access resources that allow me to network, develop surveys or questionnaires, convene focus groups and consult? 4. Does the technology allow access to databases, the company intranet, internet and cloud information sources? 5. What is the most useful way to collate and format the information (written list, spreadsheet, database, Word document)?

User needs Collection of useful information requires identifying user needs, gathering information to meet those needs and presenting it in an appropriate format. Consider how the format will facilitate the user to: • skim quickly for particular details • find the facts of who, what, when, where, why and how • read critically to analyse, evaluate and draw conclusions • make decisions and take action based on the information. Effective collection and organisation of information enables others to translate information into knowledge. The knowledge facilitates team and individual actions, experience and learning while working on projects and everyday tasks.

COLLECTION METHODS Workplace information is gathered from primary and secondary sources. Primary sources of information are people or organisations that present original thinking, share new information and report on discoveries. Secondary sources of information are people, groups or organisations that describe, interpret, analyse and evaluate the events, activities and evidence supplied by primary sources. Information collected from either primary or secondary sources is used in decision making. Refer to Chapter 12, Analyse and present research information, for further discussion of primary and secondary sources of information. Choose the method most appropriate to your purpose and the needs of the users. The variety of methods you can use to collect information are shown in Exhibit 5.4. Group discussions and brainstorming in focus groups, quality circles, communities of practice and stakeholder meetings are effective ways to gather and share information as well as generate new ideas. Group discussion lets you consider the reasons, attitudes and behaviours of the group. In focus groups or brainstorming sessions, tools such as a cause and effect diagram (refer to Chapter 13, Communicate using graphics and visual aids) can assist in recording what information will be gathered, how and when. Conferences are a useful way to present and collect information from interest groups. Selfcompletion questionnaires distributed to delegates can be used to gather feedback; however, the response rate may be low. Public meetings are an indicator of local feelings about issues and provide information and local knowledge. The information gathered in group discussions, conferences and public meetings is qualitative rather than quantitative. Qualitative data is information that describes things in terms of categorisations or qualities. Qualitative data seeks a wide understanding of an entire situation. However, because it is influenced by people’s perceptions, qualitative data can be subjective.

Encourage group discussion to enable people to express their view, consider the viewpoint of others and generate new ideas.

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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK

EXHIBIT 5.4 Methods to collect information Gather original information

Access written material

• Client files, referrals and recruitment applications • Written reports, files and correspondence

Collect from external sources

• Competitors • Technical advisory services • Professional associations

Access others’ research

• Client databases • Subscription databases • Catalogues on the Web and in libraries

Access internal information

Research social media

Avoid leaving personal or confidential information on a printer, unattended in a workstation, in a room after a meeting or discarding it into an unlocked recycling bin.

• Face-to-face interviews • Indirectly through surveys and questionnaires

• Cloud computing services • Planning, scheduling and project management software • Intranet and shared work spaces

• Blogs, Facebook, Twitter • Infographics online

Quantitative data is information that can be counted or expressed numerically. Quantitative information gathered from surveys and questionnaires has the advantage of being statistically sound, representative of the population as a whole and comparable with other surveys and previous findings. Written and online surveys and questionnaires enable large amounts of information to be collected from a large number of people in a short period of time. The standardised questions enhance consistency and can be quantified quickly and easily through the use of software packages. They allow immediate feedback, for example, at the end of a training session and are relatively cost effective. Disadvantages include no opportunity to explain questions to respondents who may have difficulty understanding the question, and results that may lack validity because there is no way to tell the truthfulness of the responses. Questionnaires are inappropriate for respondents with reading difficulties. Another disadvantage is that there is no opportunity for the respondent to contribute information outside of the scope of the questions.

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CHAPTER 5 / Organise workplace information

1. Information collection and confidentiality: a. Identify the reasons for only collecting relevant client information. b. What administrative controls must an organisation have in place to protect confidentiality and security of information throughout its collection, use, sharing, storage and disposal? 2. What is privacy? a. View the Fair Work page at What is Workplace Privacy, https://www.fairwork.gov.au/how-wewill-help/templates-and-guides/best-practice-guides/workplace-privacy#legal b. Reflect on how well your organisation protects personal information by completing the Checklist for best practice on workplace privacy at the end of the What is Workplace Privacy page. 3. Reflect on what is included in a best practice internet and email usage policy by referring to the Fair Work website. 4. Identify three ways in which information may be formatted and stored. 5. List six methods for collecting information and provide an example of each. 6. Surveys and questionnaires: a. What are the advantages of using surveys and questionnaires to collect information? b. What are the disadvantages of using surveys and questionnaires?

CHECKPOINT 5.2

5.3 ORGANISE INFORMATION When you have collected the information, your next challenge is to organise it in a format suitable for analysis, interpretation and dissemination to the intended audience. As you collate the information consider the factors in Exhibit 5.5.

EXHIBIT 5.5 Factors to consider Who will use the information?

What is their purpose in using it?

How will it be circulated?

CHANNELS OF COMMUNICATION Will the information be communicated in meetings, in an electronic presentation on laptops or personal digital assistants, on a wiki, in a database or spreadsheet, through social media or through a records management system that users can access on demand? Different channels will convey information for different purposes. Information collected, organised and distributed to managers, supervisors, WHS committees, teams and colleagues is analysed as they make decisions and plan strategies and tasks. Clients and suppliers access information about location, contact details, services and products and prices. Professional associations, external agencies and statutory bodies such as the Australian Competition and Consumer Commission (ACCC) access information and make decisions about an organisation’s reputation, type of activities and workplace practices. Ensure you use the appropriate channel and maintain, update and store information using the appropriate technology and systems to meet your organisation’s requirements and legal requirements.

Communicate the information to the user through the appropriate channel. Consider the management and accountability channels through which you will forward the information.

REASONS FOR ORGANISING INFORMATION Each organisation has a framework for the collection, creation, maintenance and storage of information. An effective framework enables information to be used for the reasons shown in Exhibit 5.6.

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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK

Organise information appropriate to purpose and needs of the user.

Focus on information to do your job, to take action on, to guide decisions or to retain and reuse to ensure efficient use of time and resources.

EXHIBIT 5.6 Information use Analysis

Decision making

Strategies and plans

One of the major problems in information collection is the assumption that the same set of information can be used for a wide variety of purposes. To be useful, information collected must be up to date, relevant to the individual workplace and able to be manipulated into a format suitable to the user’s needs. Common ways to organise and categorise information include by: • Function or Business Activity, for example, Supplier Management, WHS Policies and Procedures • Subject or Type, for example, Project New Recruits, Customer Complaints • Date, for example, Quarter, Fiscal or Calendar Year • Workgroup or Organisational Unit, for example, Human Resources or Payroll.

Information system An information system has many purposes. Typical purposes of a government department’s information system are shown in Exhibit 5.7.

EXHIBIT 5.7 Purpose of organised information in a government department Type

Purpose

Developmental information

• policy and planning • continuity in service delivery • avoidance of ad hoc decisions and a piecemeal approach.

Accountability requirements

• evidence of meeting accountability requirements • provision of information on program processes, impacts and outcomes to all of the relevant stakeholders • substantiation of activities, funding claims or submissions.

Historical information

• prevention of loss of knowledge of past developments • records of past entitlements, e.g. employee leave.

Corporate governance information

• policy and program management • forward planning • compliance with legislation.

Customer information

• identification of expected service levels • evaluation of capacity to meet customer service commitments • consultation and input from customers, other departments, community representatives and other stakeholders.

Community information

• community planning • community consultation • advice and expertise.

Access control organisational standards establish guidelines to facilitate consistent titles for files or folders across all formats (paper files, electronic, digital or multimedia). Consistency enables colleagues to access information in multiple storage areas and easily transfer information from personal to shared storage areas. Think about access control and how to restrict access to a specific user or group of users. For example, invoices are received electronically as email and consistently uploaded into the accounting 128 Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202

CHAPTER 5 / Organise workplace information system by clicking on the relevant icon. Those that still come by post are scanned and then uploaded into the system. Access to the invoices may be restricted to specific users such as Accounts Clerical, who are responsible for receipts and expenses. Others who may require costs and expenditure information for quotes may be given limited access. Common types of permissions for restricted files are: • read permissions • modify permissions • change owner • delete permissions. Only authorised people are able to access information in controlled folders. Follow established procedures for shared filing areas such as file cabinets in common areas, file room or registry. These include sign in/sign out of files, locking file cabinets in common areas and returning keys to the person responsible for their management.

Organise information in your paper files, email account, personal network drive and shared network drive in accordance with rules established by your organisation, department or division.

INFORMATION RETRIEVAL Skilful use of digital and other technologies enhances the efficiency and effectiveness of an organisation’s information management and record management systems. Information conveyed via email, social media, databases, websites, mobile devices, business systems or other digital channels must be managed and maintained to ensure the information remains accessible and useable over time and through periods of organisational and technological change. Effective record keeping and filing systems, security procedures and safe recording practices maintain information in accordance with the organisation’s requirements and enhance efficient retrieval of information. Refer to Chapter 19, Record keeping, for ways of retrieving information from records. Information retrieval needs to be easy and quick. Users may require the information to be summarised and presented in a particular format for a particular reason. Consider the example of a user requiring the top five customers by dollar value for a marketing exercise. The user is drawing information from a database that contains many categories including customer address, customer phone number, contact name, sale information by invoice number, total monthly sales by customer and delivery address details. The database has 26 000 customers and the user is required to drill down using the category of total monthly sales from largest to smallest. This information is then provided to the marketing department. Rather than having to refer to multiple information categories, a ¤pivot table enables the user to retrieve this data quickly and easily. A pivot table is a tool that enables a large amount of data to be summarised by category in accordance with user requirements. Effective information collection and retrieval fits within the organisation’s time frames. For example, when planning a public relations event or gathering information for a tender, being able to retrieve the information before the date of the event or the tender submission is of major importance. When organising and storing information, the following questions need to be answered: Who needs what and when? Does the information need to be detailed and complete, or can the data be provided progressively? Is the information held in a live document that is updated and reissued as required? When accessing email or online sources, reliable, trustworthy sources of information are important to avoid phishing. Phishing is the fraudulent practice of sending emails claiming to be from reputable companies to persuade individuals to reveal personal information, such as passwords, credit card numbers and other financial details online.

Use appropriate technology and systems to facilitate the collection, storage and retrieval of information. Work in accordance with the organisation’s policies and procedures relating to distribution of workplace information, and legal and ethical obligations. Use a pivot table to select information by category from a large amount of information.

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ASSESS INFORMATION AGAINST STANDARDS Remove superfluous information that is of little or no relevance and limited value.

Whenever you assess information, check its relevance and value to your particular area(s) of expertise or responsibility. Finding a pathway through the sheer volume of information available in the workplace – for example, policies, operating procedures, manufacturers’ instructions, WHS warnings, graphics, figures, computer software and paper-based information – can be overwhelming. It is essential to select useful information. Assess the quality of the information you are collecting against the standards in Exhibit 5.8.

EXHIBIT 5.8 Assess information against standards Standard

Description

Accuracy – factual and reliable

The information: • is gathered from reliable primary and secondary sources • is specific to the purpose for which it is needed • has the degree of accuracy required for its intended purposes • conforms to specifications and requirements • presents as much information as necessary for users’ purpose • is stored in a system with appropriate data protection and testing to ensure users can rely on the outputs of the system.

Timely – up-to-date and relates to current activities

The information: • adds value to current decisions, operations and tasks • is free of out-of-date information and old files • is available for users to make decisions and take action to meet deadlines (information past a decision-date is useless).

Relevant and concise – meets the needs of the users

The information: • is of value to, and used for, decision making • reduces uncertainties when planning procedures and tasks • meets users’ need for current information • is brief to avoid information overload • is supported with notes, graphics and source references.

Understandable – able to be comprehended by the user

The information: • is in a format the user can access and understand • is meaningful to an array of users • is informative and unambiguous • defines acronyms, technical jargon and words unfamiliar to the user.

Completeness – answers the questions who, what, where, when, why and how

The information: • gives a better representation of reality than incomplete information • has greater value because it has fewer unknowns • includes the categories in its scope of coverage • is sufficiently comprehensive to meet users’ needs • contains facts for sound plans and successful decisions.

Ethical – objective, without bias

The information: • can be trusted as objective and unbiased • has no ‘hidden agenda’ or attempt to influence a decision one way or another • avoids jumping to conclusions and proposing solutions before gathering and analysing sufficient objective evidence.

Comparable and consistent – has similar quantities or qualities

The information: • has a consistent format to facilitate analysis and evaluation • should allow comparison to similar records • enables the user to compare and contrast information, patterns and trends • can be validated and cross-checked for consistency.

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CHAPTER 5 / Organise workplace information

INFORMATION DISPOSAL The effective disposal of out-of-date information is essential for the efficient operation of any organisation. Redundant information is unneeded information. Holding onto it results in unnecessary and costly use of space, equipment and staff. Personal and sensitive information should be: • shredded, pulped or destroyed • disposed of in security bins • deleted permanently from computers and electronic devices. Information that must be held by law or other requirements is transferred to archives. Archives allow an organisation to conserve information and make it available to relevant stakeholders as appropriate. 1. 2. 3. 4.

Explain why organisations must have an effective framework for handling information. For what reasons do government departments collect and organise community information. Identify three standards commonly used to assess the quality of information. Identify problems caused by redundant information.

CHECKPOINT 5.3

5.4 USE AND SHARE INFORMATION The purpose of using and sharing information such as customer satisfaction levels, the organisation’s financial performance or the workgroup’s operational performance is to inform decision making, recognise stakeholders’ efforts and facilitate cost, time and quality improvement. Product research and development information builds expertise and knowledge about what is happening in the market. Information sharing enables managers and their teams to fulfil their responsibilities more efficiently.

INTERPERSONAL SKILLS Sharing information involves receiving, storing, retrieving, giving, and interpreting information. The exchange of information involves speaking, listening, questioning, writing and using graphic or visual methods. Open communication, asking for feedback and summarising facilitate interaction and the exchange of information. Refer to Chapter 8, Develop negotiation and conflict management skills, for a range of skills that promote open communication. Accessing and sharing information require collaboration, receiving, responding to and making requests, and this requires good interpersonal skills such as using emotional intelligence for effective listening, collaboration, conflict management and negotiation. Refer to Chapter 8, Develop negotiation and conflict management skills, for a range of skills that promote open communication.

RESPOND TO REQUESTS FOR INFORMATION Decide how and with whom to share the information. Information can be shared in a variety of ways, including: • meetings, team briefings and face-to-face interactions • email, reports, forms and paper-based files • electronic presentations on a laptop or personal digital assistant • virtual and Web-based meetings • wikis to promote feedback and collaboration • blogs and podcasts to enable information to be accessed at any geographic location

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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK • •

departmental shared network drives for storing, sharing and maintaining files that need to be accessed by multiple users record management systems that categorise and index the information for easy access by the user.

Good practice Good practice when responding to requests for information means: • recording who requested the information, what information was requested, the date and time of the request, when and how the information was delivered and when it is to be returned • understanding fully the type of information that is required and knowing where to access up-to-date and relevant information • recognising the urgency of the request and responding within a suitable timeframe • prioritising requests with the most urgent request being answered first • knowing levels of security and who is able to gain access to the requested information • ensuring access is restricted to the people who have the authority to access confidential information. Requested information may be delivered personally, electronically or posted; however, keep track of the information. For example, when paper files are removed from a centralised area keep a record of when the file was removed, who borrowed it and when it is to be returned.

COLLABORATE AND CONSULT Collaborate, cooperate and involve people to produce a mutually satisfactory solution. Consult, seek and provide advice, information and opinion ‘in good faith’ – that is, with a view to reaching agreement.

Collaboration is an effective method of transferring information and ‘know-how’ among individuals, and is therefore critical to collecting and sharing information. People listen and respond to one another’s ideas, and respect and use each other’s competencies and expertise. Actions that promote collaboration include clear definition of the purpose and intended use of the collected information and recognition of the value of each person’s expertise, know-how and contribution. Consultation is a process that shares ideas and provides feedback, develops shared understanding and builds a culture of confidence and trust. Some useful consultative mechanisms are: • workshops, forums, public meetings • regular meetings of representative committees or teams • suggestion boxes, surveys and questionnaires • team briefings, toolbox meetings and brainstorming sessions. Consultation with work teams and other stakeholders should take into account their perception of the information they need to assist them to complete tasks and responsibilities. The benefit is collecting and having the right knowledge in the right place at the right time. Quality, accessible information and knowledge about customers shared, for example, with the sales team can save time that can be put to better use. Enabling the sales team to access customer information from enquiries, order forms, warranty cards, customer rewards programs, customer satisfaction surveys, complaints, feedback cards, website and interactions via social media saves time. Rather than individually chasing and filing information about customer preferences, the sales team can develop a sales proposal based on analysis and evaluation of the stored customer information. Alternatively, the sales team may decide to build stronger relationships with customers, suppliers or other stakeholders through the use of forums, trade shows and other face-to-face activities.

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CHAPTER 5 / Organise workplace information

1. Sharing information: a. What are the benefits for any organisation of sharing information? b. Discuss three good-practice strategies to use when responding to requests for information. 2. List four consultative mechanisms an organisation may use to share information. 3. Identify three interpersonal skills you can use as you collect and share information.

CHECKPOINT 5.4

5.5 REVIEW INFORMATION NEEDS During the review, ask questions and seek feedback on: • clarity, accuracy and sufficiency of information • relevance of information, its format and ease of access • contribution and usefulness of information for decision making • need for changes to collection, storage, back-up and sharing processes • future information needs, including incorporating modifications to collection processes • storage needs (off-site as well as on-site) for risk management purposes.

Review information to ensure it is provided in a timely manner and in an appropriate format to share, maintain and store securely.

SEEK FEEDBACK Seeking feedback about the usefulness of the collected information is about improving the collection process. There is no point in collecting, creating, organising and storing information unless the information is useful to its purpose and audience. Responses to the questions asked in a review may lead to findings and recommendations about how to better maintain information, the need to collect more of the same type, the need to modify the type of information or how to dispose of out-of-date information.

Seek timely, appropriate and constructive feedback to improve collection, organisation and dissemination of information.

External audits Reports from external auditors will provide useful recommendations about the presentation and analysis of information and compliance with the requirements of statutory bodies. An external audit identifies any weaknesses and provides credibility because of the unbiased, expert recommendations. The review process enables modifications to activities such as coordination of information, distribution of collated information and maintenance of records. Recommendations about short-term actions and opportunities for improvements to how information is collected, filed and archived prevents non-conformance in the future. Effective management of information across the four stages of the information life cycle (Exhibit 5.2) facilitates efficient performance and operations and enables an organisation to plan for future needs. The organisation is able to have the right people, resources and processes in place at the right time. Review of information needs assists an organisation to take corrective actions to eliminate or minimise procedural errors and any non-compliance with legal requirements. Controls are applied to minimise risk caused by ineffective collection, organisation, storage, sharing and disposal of information. 1. Why do organisations review their information needs? 2. What sort of recommendations should external auditors provide about information collection, organisation, sharing and disposal? 3. What are the benefits for an organisation of effective management of information across the four stages of the information life cycle?

CHECKPOINT 5.5

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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK

LEARNING ACTIVITIES SUMMARY 5.1 Identify and apply relevant legislation when organising workplace information. Information is a valuable business asset. The confidentiality, privacy and security of information must be protected as it is collected, organised and stored, shared, used and disposed of when no longer needed. In Australia, the Privacy Act 1988 (Privacy Act) regulates how personal information is handled. 5.2 Use reliable methods to collect data and create information relevant to purpose and user needs. Collect information from internal and external sources: original research, written materials, client files and databases, interviews, technical services, professional associations and others. Collect reliable, clear, accurate, current and relevant information suited to the needs of the user and the purpose for which the information will be used. 5.3 Discuss the importance of correct organisation, storage and deletion/disposal of information. Organise information to suit the needs of the user, their purpose in using it and how it will be circulated and shared. Different formats are appropriate for different purposes and storage areas: for example, paper records used at work stations, records in shared filing rooms, shared

drives, departmental networks or on company intranets or digital workplaces. Choose a format appropriate to the needs of the user. Permanently delete information from computers and electronic devices and shred, pulp and dispose paper-based information into security bins. 5.4 Use interpersonal skills to access and share information with colleagues and others. Workplace information is used and shared in conversations, meetings, traditional paper correspondence, email, departmental shared network drives, though podcasts and mobile devices. Up-to-date, accurate and complete workplace information is a key business asset. As you collect and share information, use listening skills to gather accurate information. Give and receive feedback to help understanding and encourage the other person to continue. 5.5 Explain how review of information assists an organisation. Review information for accuracy and relevance. External audits will verify compliance with regulations. Recommendations about improvements to the way in which information is channelled across the four stages of the information life cycle should be implemented to improve compliance, productivity and customer service.

KEY TERMS audit brainstorming collaboration

confidentiality consultation hack

information life cycle ¤ pivot table qualitative

quantitative

LEARNING ACTIVITIES 1. Information needs Reflect on the information you collect in your job or as a student by answering these questions. • What type of information is it? • Who uses it and for what purpose? • How often is it required? (daily, weekly, monthly) • How do you collect it? • What standards do you use to assess its usefulness? • How do you share the information? (the medium or channel) • How is the information stored?

2. Collect useful information Choose the industry you work in or one that you would like to work in. a. Browse the Web to view workplace health and safety (WHS) information about that industry and choose six types of information relevant to your industry of choice. b. Prepare a four-column table. In column one identify each type of information, in column two identify who needs this information, in column three identify what they need to know and in column four explain how you would communicate the information and in what format.

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CHAPTER 5 / Organise workplace information

3. Information sources a. What five questions should you ask and answer before beginning a search for information? b. Where would you look to find information about the company’s project schedules and timelines? c. Where would you look to find information about the company’s payroll details? d. When would you use a focus group to gather information?

e. When would you use written online surveys and questions to collect information? 4. Advantages of using technology Write a note to members of your work team detailing the advantages of using technology to collect, create, organise and store information. The note will be posted on your work team’s online shared workgroup space.

GROUP ACTIVITY Scenario: Ahmed’s project Ahmed works in the office of an insurance company. He has been asked to help the Client Services Manager collect customer feedback and information about competitors’ products and services over the next month. In small groups, complete the following tasks: 1. Discuss the sorts of internal information Ahmed might access to collect information about the company’s customers. 2. Brainstorm the type of information Ahmed might collect about competitors’ products and services from external sources such as social media, the internet, promotional material, industry journals and magazines.

3. Prepare in a three-column table a brief plan of how Ahmed could access the information. In column one identify the type of information, in column two list the actions to collect that information and in column three indicate by when the action should be completed. 4. Explain the type of communication skills Ahmed will need to use as he collects and creates the information. 5. Write a short information report detailing your findings. The report may be presented in the form of a written report or a ‘tag team’ co-presentation (refer to Chapter 7 for co-presentations).

CASE STUDY INFORMATION AND PRIVACY ISSUES Michael, a newly appointed Administrative Officer in the local Area Health Service, had a briefing with his team leader, Janne. The briefing is about the assurance of privacy when handling personal information. Janne commenced the meeting by stating that the foundation of handling personal information ethically is the Privacy Act No. 119 of 1988, updated March 2014. She highlighted that the Privacy Act requires the Area Health Service to protect people’s personal information. Janne defined personal information as any information that identifies a person, such as name or address, medical records, bank account details, photos, videos, and even information about what a person likes, their opinions and where they work. Janne said that privacy must be protected as Area Health Service staff create, access, store and dispose of information of a personal nature. These principles apply to

all personal information held by the Area Health Service, including files and records, emails, blogs, shared work spaces on the intranet and any other documentation. Janne continued by indicating that ethical practice when handling information requires Area Health Service staff to: • validate accuracy of information and disseminate information through appropriate channels • maintain confidentiality and security of information • comply with laws, regulations, policies and ethical standards governing collection, organisation and storage of information. Michael realised that what Janne was saying was true, but that he and many of his work colleagues looked at collecting and organising information as a routine task that required little thought. Janne pointed out that managing information ethically means building expertise

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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK

>

in people and processes. It also means making sure that all employees have the opportunity to access useful and relevant information quickly. Having said all this, Janne told Michael she wanted him to produce a briefing note to staff about the characteristics of information that adds value to the Area Health Service and the reasons for ensuring the privacy of personal information.

Question Assume you are Michael and, drawing upon the information and ideas presented in this chapter, prepare the briefing note. Visit the site http://www.privacy.gov.au/ topics/health to gather additional information for Michael’s briefing paper.

BIBLIOGRAPHY ASIC 2018. For Business, http://www.asic.gov.au/for-business/, viewed 20 February 2018. Australian Government Office of the Australian Information Commissioner. 2018. Privacy business resource 9: Ten tips to protect your customers’ personal information, https:// www.oaic.gov.au/agencies-and-organisations/businessresources/privacy-business-resource-9, viewed 1 September 2018. Australian Government Privacy Act 1988, Federal Register of Legislation, https://www.legislation.gov.au/Details/ C2018C00034, viewed 4 September 2018. Commonwealth Government of Australia. Privacy Act 1988, https://www.legislation.gov.au/Details/C2014C00076, viewed 21 February 2018. Fair Work Ombudsman, 2018. Checklist for best practice on workplace privacy, https://www.fairwork.gov.au/how-wewill-help/templates-and-guides/best-practice-guides/ workplace-privacy#legal, viewed 22 February 2018. Fair Work Ombudsman. 2018. What is Workplace Privacy, https://www.fairwork.gov.au/how-we-will-help/templatesand-guides/best-practice-guides/workplace-privacy#legal, viewed 3 September 2018. News.com.au. 2017. ‘Uber hack: More than 1 in 10 Australians may be victims of Uber’s ‘‘astonishing’’ data

breach’, online hacking, https://www.news.com.au/ technology/online/hacking/uber-hack-more-than-1-in-10australians-may-be-victims-of-ubers-astonishing-databreach/news-story/d7f11d4a676801f528ce4ec42d86f73e, viewed 3 September 2018. NSW Health. 2018. ‘Code of Conduct’, Policy Directive. http://sydney.edu.au/medicine/drh/docs/ code_of_conduct.pdf, viewed 20 February 2018. Office of the Australian Information Commissioner. 2014. Privacy Fact Sheet 17: Australian Privacy Principles, http://www.oaic.gov.au/privacy/privacy-resources/privacyfact-sheets/other/privacy-fact-sheet-17-australian-privacyprinciples, viewed 20 February 2018. Office of the Australian Information Commissioner. 2015. Privacy Fact Sheet 7: Ten Steps to Protect Other People’s Personal Information, http://www.oaic.gov.au/privacy/ privacy-resources/privacy-fact-sheets/other/privacy-factsheet-7-ten-steps-to-protect-other-people-s-personalinformation, viewed 20 February 2018. Standard Business Reporting. About SBR, http://www. sbr.gov.au/about-sbr, viewed 11 February 2018. training.gov.au, BSBINM301: Organise Workplace Information, https://training.gov.au/Training/Details/ BSBINM301, viewed 28 February 2018.

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MANAGE WORK PRIORITIES AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT

CHAPTER

6

YOUR LEARNING JOURNEY

Chapter 6

DEVELOP workgroup goals + objectives + plans

SET GOALS

with measurable outcomes

Importance of PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT

To D

A

Achievable

R

Relevant

T

Time-referenced

PRIORITISE ACTIVITIES

ce

Urgent

Primary

improve access to promotion 6.3 for opportunities in future

Establish Priorities Schedule Tasks

Next DELIVER PRESENTATIONS + SPEECHES

Eliminate Anchors

6.2

an

6.4

+ IM PR O

e rf o r m Ep

ANALYSE your competence against STANDARDS + BENCHMARKS

V

Importance of MAINTAINING RECORDS

Measurable

EV OP

continuous learning

M

EL

career enhancement

Specific

6.1

opportunities for improvement 6.5

S

Secondary

+ COMPLETE WORK SCHEDULE

MANAGE TIME to achieve

WORK + PERSONAL OBJECTIVES

CH7

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LEARNING OBJECTIVES After studying this chapter, you should be able to: 6.1 develop workgroup goals, objectives and plans with measurable outcomes 6.2 prioritise activities, set goals and complete your own work schedule 6.3 describe the role of time management in the achievement of work objectives 6.4 analyse your competence against standards and benchmarks to determine development needs and priorities and decide how to adjust your own work performance in response to feedback 6.5 explain why it is important to undertake professional development and maintain records and documents relating to achievements.

6.1 WORKGROUP GOALS AND PLANS Manage time effectively to demonstrate your ability to selfmanage responsibilities.

Workgroup plans are developed for routine daily, weekly or monthly activities. They are developed by managers, supervisors, team leaders and project managers to outline the specific actions required for task achievement by a group of workers over a specified time period. A workgroup plan identifies timeframes and targets as well as human, physical and financial resources. Effective workgroup plans enable managers, supervisors, team leaders, project managers and workgroup members to monitor and track performance. Before you set workgroup goals, understand your organisation’s planning levels and the requirements of operational units or teams. Organisational planning happens at three different levels, shown in Exhibit 6.1. A realisation that organisational planning occurs at three levels enables a workgroup to set goals and objectives that contribute to the organisation’s overall long-term planning and to the business unit’s medium-term planning.

EXHIBIT 6.1 Levels of organisational planning Level

Purpose

Corporate or strategic planning

For the whole organisation – values, mission and vision – for the longer term

Business unit or department planning

For achieving the organisation’s strategies at the department or section level for the medium term Goals are aligned to the goals of the overall strategic plan Operational plans specify clearly the financial, human and physical resources that are required to meet departmental targets

Workgroup planning

For the different work groups, teams or areas of operations for the short-term Plans contain specific objectives, acknowledge realistic workloads, prioritise activities to ensure completion within identified timeframes, allow time for contingencies

Effective workgroup operational plans and goals reflect the objectives stated in the organisation’s strategic and business plans. When an organisation communicates these clearly, its people understand what they need to do to achieve the objectives. They can take action to achieve the goals and at the same time follow their organisation’s procedures, processes and requirements.

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CHAPTER 6 / Manage work priorities and professional development

ORGANISATION AND WORKGROUP GOALS Goals are statements of what an organisation wants to achieve. Examples of organisation-wide goals are to: • improve service levels • improve profitability • increase efficiency • improve the induction process • capture a larger market share • become an eco-friendly organisation. The organisation-wide nature of these goals means they are not specific enough for a workgroup to include in a workgroup plan. The goals need to be broken down into clear and measurable objectives called targets. These are the measurable outcomes that a goal sets out to achieve. For example, a pharmaceutical company might set one of the goals above: ‘To improve the induction process’. The objectives or targets of this goal might include: • to review current induction policy and procedures • to issue an induction handbook to each new employee • to standardise induction processes and checklists • to conduct a new starter survey to gather immediate feedback • to develop an induction training plan for the new starter to improve their understanding and the understanding of others involved in the training.

ORGANISATIONAL REQUIREMENTS Every organisation has plans and requirements that determine its current and future direction. Senior management, middle management and frontline managers of an organisation, in consultation with staff, determine its requirements. Industry standards and legislative requirements are externally imposed and must be complied with. Managers, supervisors, team leaders and project managers, in setting goals and determining objectives for their workgroups, must work in accordance with organisational and legal requirements. These requirements must be understood and communicated to workgroup members in plans, meetings and oneon-one discussions. Organisational and legal requirements are accessed from the following documents: • goals, objectives and plans • legal and organisational policies, guidelines and requirements • business and performance plans • defined resource parameters and procedures manuals • continuous improvement and sustainability processes and standards • quality assurance systems and processes • confidentiality and security requirements • access and equity principles and ethical standards • workplace health and safety legislation, policies, procedures and programs.

Work in accordance with organisational, industry and legislative requirements.

PREPARE AND COMMUNICATE WORKGROUP PLANS Workgroup plans which identify clearly the activities that will address the workgroup’s key performance areas are likely to achieve intended outcomes. Work schedules, sales plans, reporting plans, production plans and budgetary plans are examples of different types of workgroup plans. These plans contain workgroup objectives and organisational requirements that relate to sales targets, reporting deadlines,

Identify clearly the key performance areas – spheres of workgroup activity – that produce results.

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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK production targets, team and individual learning goals, budgetary targets, team participation and communication. Effective workgroup plans outline ‘how, when, where, why, what and who’.

CONSIDER RESOURCES, CLIENT NEEDS AND WORKGROUP TARGETS Prepare clear workgroup plans to achieve objectives and manage contingencies.

Consider client needs.

Identify targets clearly.

Any project has a beginning and an end. The workgroup plan enables you to identify what will happen before the project or task commences, identify resources, assign responsibilities, and schedule actions and intended outcomes. When planning for a workgroup, always keep in mind the availability of resources, how to monitor progress and how to identify the target(s) or outcome(s) clearly. Examples of typical resources used by a workgroup are: • labour – skilled production, service, administrative employees and contractors • overheads – electricity, rates, rent, other • materials – office supplies, raw materials, consumables, other • equipment and technology – tools, machinery, software, vehicles, other. The workgroup client may be internal or external to the organisation. Internal clients include other workgroups, teams, managers and departments. For example, the Finance department is dependent on other departments forwarding monthly reports by the due date so that Finance can prepare and submit the end-of-month financial reports on time. External clients are usually the end user of the product or service; for example, retail clients of a large department store. As you develop the workgroup plan, think about client needs and their satisfaction with the workgroup’s service by answering the following questions: • How accessible is our product or service? • How reliable is our product or service? • How timely is our product or service delivery? • How well do we communicate the product or service value? • What features of our product or service provide customer satisfaction? By creating workgroup plans with goals that identify the desired outcomes, the team’s activities are directed towards reaching these goals within the given timeframe. Targets are identified clearly and results achieved. Workgroup members understand what needs to be done, how it is to be done, what standard to achieve and by when. Once the targets are established the workgroup manager can develop the rest of the workgroup plan by: • defining the actions that are required to achieve each objective • allocating available human, physical and financial resources • developing a schedule • setting key performance indicators (KPIs) to monitor the project’s progress and success.

DEVELOP SMART WORKGROUP GOALS A realistic perception of the requirements, capabilities and time needed to complete a task can be gained when plans are developed by setting goals. Once the activities are agreed, plans are made in accordance with the organisation’s requirements. Further commitment to personal or workgroup goals is encouraged by successful results and a feeling that progress is being made. Goals give a focus, purpose and direction to activities at work. In setting goals, whether personal or for the workgroup, it is useful to keep in mind the SMART approach. SMART states that effective goals have the five characteristics shown in Exhibit 6.2, column one. An example is given in column three. 140 Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202

CHAPTER 6 / Manage work priorities and professional development

EXHIBIT 6.2 SMART workgroup goals

1. Specific

Specific personal goals, set by one person, or specific team goals, set by coworkers or by management and staff, are more likely to succeed if they are created in specific, concrete terms because it is possible to see: • what is to be done • when it is to be done • how and where it is to be done.

2. Measurable

Measurable goals identify performance standards to check, measure and acknowledge: • individual achievements • the progression of a team towards achievement of its goals.

3. Achievable

Achievable goals can be accomplished effectively within the time you give to the project because they are: • neither too hard nor too easy • challenging and reasonable • able to be implemented and completed to the desired standard.

4. Relevant

5. Timereferenced

Examples

Relevant goals – whether personal, team or management and staff goals – support planned long-term results that are: • purposeful • necessary to successful task completion.

Time-referencing the goals enables you to: • check progress against timeframes and deadlines • review and plan again when the steps to complete the task fall behind schedule. • To finalise road works within 10 working days in accordance with safety standards, the working schedule and Traffic Authority standards. • To grow market share by 12% for product line HYJ in the state of Victoria by the end of November.

Goal-setting based on the SMART formula helps to reduce or eliminate the digressions and diversions that can creep into a project. When you identify each goal, the objectives, the resources needed, the standard to be met and the time in which it should be accomplished, you can reward yourself and members of the workgroup progressively as each goal is effectively reached. To achieve your individual or workgroup goals, follow the five steps in Exhibit 6.3. Objectives are the subgoals or steps that are developed. They are the activities that need to be accomplished in order to achieve the goal. A significant part of a workgroup’s role is tied up in achieving the goals set by the workgroup itself or by others. Goals and objectives set jointly by managers, supervisors, team leaders and project managers and their team are more likely to be accepted and implemented than those imposed on the workgroup from the top down. When members of the workgroup are involved in the planning process, they can see the reason for the plan, its goals and objectives, and recognise their contribution to it. It should be acknowledged, however, that many of the plans with which individuals, team leaders and supervisors work are created by senior management and given to them to follow. In these situations, the workgroup is told the objectives.

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EXHIBIT 6.3 Five-step path to goal achievement Step 1

Have a clear goal, communicate and share it with others

Step 2

Write it down as a goal statement

Step 3

Break the task into steps or objectives

Step 4

Identify the resources needed

Step 5

Implement the actions necessary to achieve the outcomes

Advantages of goal-setting Goal-setting has the following advantages: • The individual or workgroup is focused on the end result. • The team members are focused on the end result. • Confusion is avoided and activity is productive. • All those involved have the chance to see how their individual activities contribute to results. • The workgroup manager and team are working in a systematic way that maximises productivity. Remember, when setting goals and objectives you will need to take into account other factors that may affect their achievement, such as: competing work demands; the availability of resources and materials; technology or equipment breakdown; unforeseen incidents; personnel; environmental factors such as time or weather; and budget constraints.

CREATE WORKGROUP PLANS Translate ideas into action.

After you have developed the SMART goal you can create a workgroup plan. A workgroup plan helps managers and their teams anticipate actions and what will work and what may go wrong. They can then plan how to maximise outcomes and prevent or minimise errors. Workgroup plans also help them to determine who in the workgroup will be responsible for implementing which tasks and to delegate accordingly. For effective results from goal-setting, it is essential to prepare a workgroup plan as a working document for a specific task, activity or project. The elements in a workgroup plan are: 1. overall goal 2. objectives – what is to be achieved 3. the actions (steps) and resources to achieve the plan 4. the expected results, performance criteria and standards 5. the KPIs and reporting mechanism to monitor, evaluate and report back on the plan. The workgroup plan may be limited to a specific task, such as organising a trade show display (shown in Exhibit 6.4), or prepared for a wider area of operations. A more extensive workgroup plan could be a three-month working plan for a workgroup, large division or department within an organisation. It should nominate the priorities (i.e. the most important things). Check your goals to ensure the most important tasks are prioritised.

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Identify the steps clearly The effort put into preparing a workgroup plan is more than rewarded by the opportunity to complete clearly identified steps that contribute to the achievement of the goals and objectives; time is used well. The third column in the workgroup plan in Exhibit 6.4 could also be used as the basis of a progress or completion report for the activity. Each of the key results or indicators of performance is identified clearly and they become the headings in the report. In addition, the workgroup plan is available for reflection, comment and variation, when necessary.

Communicate with team members to improve understanding and commitment.

EXHIBIT 6.4 Workgroup plan (created 17 May) organising a trade show display GOAL: TO ORGANISE OUR COMPANY DISPLAY AT THE INDUSTRY TRADE SHOW ON 15 AND 16 JULY Objectives and anticipated time of completion 1.

Activity/step

To gather together all necessary product and equipment for the trade show display before 10 July

Establish with Public Relations and Sales departments what the focus of the display should be. Contact managers who will need to supply product, equipment and staff.

Key result: Gain commitment for involvement in writing by 25 May. • Decide on signage and handouts to be produced. • Get quotes for production of signage and handout material. • Select most suitable quote and place an order with that supplier. Key result: Place order by 1 June. • Draft a shift timetable for employees involved in staffing the display. Key result: Circulate by 1 July. 2.

To transport all product and equipment to the trade hall and set up the display on 14 July

Arrange pick-up, transportation and unloading of all items at the trade hall for 14 July.

Key result: Organise transport by 1 July. • Gather all product, equipment, signage and handout material and store in loading dock overnight. Key result: Gather all items and store in loading dock overnight on 13 July. • Set up display as required. Key result: All items arrive undamaged at trade hall on 14 July. 3.

To have staff available to operate the display on 15 and 16 July

Confirm shift arrangements with employees staffing the display the day before it starts. Double-check with employees staffing the display that everything is in order on both days.

Key result: Staffing of display on 15 and 16 July runs smoothly. 4.

To transport all product and equipment from the trade hall back to the office on 17 July

Arrange pick-up and transportation of all items from the trade hall back to the office.

Key result: All items are returned undamaged to office on 17 July.

Effective workgroup plans are realistic, tangible and identify the deadlines. They enable you and the workgroup to focus on the actions to be taken and to identify what is to happen, why and how.

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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK Specific workgroup plans provide a model for action or change, as well as motivation to achieve the change – that is, to bridge the gap between what is and what could be. Plans offer a structure within which the management of time can change. As a result, poor habits are broken and success in implementing the key performance areas takes place.

CHECKPOINT 6.1

1. Briefly explain the three levels of organisational planning. 2. Workgroup plans: a. What does an effective workgroup plan do? b. What do you need to keep in mind when planning for a workgroup? 3. What are the characteristics of SMART goals?

6.2 PLAN AND COMPLETE OWN WORK SCHEDULE Planning is something you do every day. It is so important that if you fail to plan – you are planning to fail. Planning is an ongoing part of your life. Effective planning, prioritising and scheduling are about getting the most important things done. By giving you time to think and put things into perspective, setting priorities enables you to concentrate on important activities and to keep trivial matters in perspective.

PRIORITISE ACTIVITIES Decide what must be done by setting work priorities.

Prioritising helps you distinguish between primary, secondary and urgent activities (see Exhibit 6.5) and to make choices that balance short-term and long-term goals. You are thus able to allocate time to activities in proportion to their real importance.

EXHIBIT 6.5 Types of activities Type

Description

Primary activities

Primary activities are those that produce the most in terms of results. They should be done. They have high priority and should have a considerable amount of effort given to them. Primary activities are the most important elements in your timemanagement and personal planning.

Secondary activities

Secondary activities are the less important or secondary items that could be done. They receive lower priority than those that should be done (the primary activities). Some secondary activities may even be put aside until later.

Urgent activities

Remember: Urgent matters are not part of your time-management plan. They are the interruptions that must be done. They cannot be avoided. When you bunch urgent tasks together and do them in one time slot, you save time.

Primary activities are the important activities in your work schedule. They have a high priority. They should be done but are not urgent, unless you plan badly or delay them until the last minute. Think about your primary, secondary and urgent activities and distinguish clearly in your own mind those that should be done, could be done or must be done. Make the decision to do the primary activities according to the priorities on your work schedule.

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CHAPTER 6 / Manage work priorities and professional development While setting priorities is important, it is not the key to achieving work goals and objectives. The key is a time-management plan, which allows you to schedule and complete tasks according to the priorities you set. Time-management plans are presented later in the chapter. Effective time management is about focusing on the right priority task at the right time. It’s important to know what the priorities are in your job. Once they have been established, you can set goals to help achieve these priorities. In order to prioritise tasks for work, you need to be clear about the purpose of your job. If you’re going to be busy, you may as well be busy with what’s important.

EXHIBIT 6.6 Prioritising key performance areas (KPAs) 1. Write the AIM of your job

2. Decide the KPAs of your job

3. Identify activities carried out in each KPA

IDENTIFY KEY PERFORMANCE AREAS Key performance areas (KPAs) are the primary sectors of your job in which you need to deliver results. To better understand your responsibilities, follow the procedure outlined in Exhibit 6.6 to analyse your job. Being able to complete each step in Exhibit 6.6 may require going back to your job description or even writing one, if you haven’t already got one. You should constantly update your job description in the light of changing responsibilities. The six-step process here and the worksheet shown in Exhibit 6.7 will help you to analyse your job.

4. Set priority of values

5. Develop SMART goals

6. Take action

Prioritise the KPAs of your job.

EXHIBIT 6.7 Key performance area worksheet Key performance area worksheet The aim of my job is: In order to: So that: KPA

Importance

Current time %

Ideal time %

MONITOR OWN WORK PERFORMANCE To get the most important things done, you need to be able to manage time, to identify and organise different types of time, and to prioritise and set goals. However, take care to build flexibility into the program so that opportunities can be used, rather than ignored because you are over-organised. About 5–10 minutes a day is enough to give to time-management planning. In addition, you need to use the four Ds that take you from the planning stage of time management to the implementation stage: 1. Discipline to stay with the daily plan 2. Dedication and commitment to the plan 145 Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202

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Evaluate your own performance and identify areas for improvement.

CHECKPOINT 6.2

3. Desire to work through the time-management plan to accomplish the goals 4. Delegation to achieve more through trusting and training, and by communicating goals and task completion to others. Once you have decided that it is worth changing the way you work and pinpointed what you would like to change to get the best use of your time, you are ready to create a time-management plan. 1. Differentiate primary, secondary and urgent activities. 2. KPAs: a. Briefly explain the acronym KPAs. b. What are the steps to follow as you identify the KPAs of your job? 3. How do the four Ds help you move from the planning to implementation stage of time management?

6.3 USE A TIME-MANAGEMENT PLAN You can change your management of time by preparing and staying within the guidelines of a timemanagement plan. Create the time-management plan as a personal management system aimed at using your time more effectively and saving time, perhaps up to two to three hours per day. Base the plan on facts and information that show how you use your time. However, as you prepare the plan, take care to avoid following Parkinson’s Law, which says that ‘Work expands to fill the time available’. If too much time is allocated to a task, people pace themselves to finish the task in that time.

PURPOSE OF A TIME-MANAGEMENT PLAN Use a timemanagement plan as your personal tool.

A successful time-management plan identifies how time is used and managed. It also identifies what you can control or influence. Create your plan by completing the nine steps in Exhibit 6.8.

EXHIBIT 6.8 Nine-point plan for effective time management Action

Purpose

List

your goals for the day first thing in the morning or on the afternoon of the previous day, and the activities you will need to complete to achieve each of these goals

Classify

the list of activities into primary activities, secondary activities, those that can be delegated and things to do later. Focus on the primary (i.e. most important) activities

Rank

the primary activities from high to low priority; list the tasks necessary to achieve these; rank the list of tasks by order of importance and allocate time to each

Create

a set of priorities for the less important tasks (i.e. your secondary set of priorities) and list the activities necessary to achieve these tasks in order of importance

Analyse

the importance and urgency of the second set of priorities to identify what you must do, should do and will do later

Allocate

time on the basis of this analysis and delegate to others tasks that do not need your attention. Check priorities and time allocations against your deadlines

Place

your time-management plan on a desk or on your computer desktop or mobile phone and display in a prominent position. This is your time log

Mark off

on your time log each completed step to acknowledge your success in achieving your timemanagement goals

Present

your completed project on or before time

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IMPLEMENT THE PLAN Review your progress, check that you are keeping to your plan and give yourself the pleasure of acknowledging your success. An effective time-management plan lets you consider and choose between alternatives rather than rigidly defining your activities and type of experiences. Thinking about the alternatives enables you to create composite goals that best suit your needs and meet the requirements of your organisation. Build definite and realistic goals into the time-management plan. An achievable plan is one that is within your mental and physical abilities, and acknowledges the opportunities and constraints placed on you or your team by the organisation. Effective time management allows you to work both efficiently and effectively. The subsequent successful achievement of goals is highly rewarding, motivating and satisfying.

Manage time to complete tasks independently and efficiently.

IDENTIFY AND HANDLE TIME WASTERS Many time wasters are common to most people but the causes and solutions lie with each individual. The most effective way to remove the causes of time wasting is to create solutions that suit you. Identifying the cause and finding a solution is easier when you are able to recognise the three main categories of time wasters: 1. human nature 2. environmental factors 3. poor management skills. Time wasters caused by human nature are of a personal nature. Some examples are disorganisation, an inability to say ‘no’ to requests, a tendency to procrastinate and an inclination to socialise at the expense of work. Time is also wasted by environmental factors such as telephone and email interruptions, instant messaging (IM), drop-in visitors, unnecessary mail and paperwork, inefficient meetings and poor workplace procedures. Another time waster is poor management skills. An inability to establish priorities, set goals or delegate, a tendency to leave work unfinished and a failure to communicate all waste time. As a consequence of these time wasters, too little time is left to complete tasks, and whatever time is available is filled by excessive amounts of work. Exhibit 6.9 gives examples of time savers and time wasters. Time wasters prevent workgroups and individuals from achieving their specific goals. By removing time wasters, more time is available to complete priorities.

Avoid time-wasting distractions.

STRATEGIES TO IMPROVE USE OF TIME Time management helps you to use the right strategies and develop the habits that improve the way you use your time. If your present ways of organising and planning are frustrating your short- or longterm goals, then make the effort to identify how you use your time and experiment with ways to improve on it. A number of strategies can be used to monitor your use of time. Examples of practical strategies include: • sorting tasks into categories and ordering by degree of importance • preparing diaries and making lists • using response time well and using discretionary time to think and plan • goal-setting, action planning, scheduling and managing conflicting priorities • questioning the reasons for doing things and critically evaluating ways of doing things. 147 Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202

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EXHIBIT 6.9 Examples of time savers and time wasters Time savers

• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Plan task organisation to meet time lines.

Time wasters

Time-saving technologies Time-saving products Having a clear desk Keeping a time log Being able to reschedule Setting priorities Creating objectives Saying ‘no’ Completing everything on the list Being prepared to cancel and reschedule if necessary Combining tasks Having regular breaks Doing it now Doing the little tasks Using action plans Communicating clearly Delegating

• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Tyranny of the urgent Telephones and email overload Poorly designed work space Demands and interruptions Going slow and worrying Too much pressure Lack of objectives Conflicting demands Junk mail Handling paper and emails more than once Doing instead of delegating Doing something else Poor filing procedures Duplicated effort Confused lines of authority Indecision and procrastination Inability to use technology well

Choose from among the above strategies to help you get more done and to complete important activities before you deal with less important tasks. The benefit to you is increased satisfaction and achievement. Competent workers monitor and adjust their work performance to ensure the quality of their work. They take pride in the quality of their work and in the service they provide to others. They realise time is finite and irreplaceable and use it well to meet their personal and organisational requirements. Four ways to save time are shown in Exhibit 6.10.

EXHIBIT 6.10 Four ways to save time Method

Strategy

Work from a clear desk – a desk is your work space, not a storage area

• Only those items that you use every day should be on your desk. Continually clearing a space on the desk where you can work is timeconsuming and distracts you from your primary activities. • Sort paper on your desk into two piles: to keep and to throw out. File the ‘to keep’ pile and throw out the other pile. • Label each file and each drawer of the filing cabinet or each directory and file on your computer and keep them up-to-date. ‘Working files’ are those you use frequently and should be the most accessible. Files used less often are placed in less accessible places, archived or moved to ‘trash’. • Make it a rule to handle each piece of paper, email or message only once, by completing the action (e.g. responding to an email, filing or deleting it).

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Method

Strategy

Control the telephone, email and instant messaging – the decision by another person to contact you is outside your control.

• Have calls screened or diverted for a set period of time or have an answering machine installed. • Be ready to take down the details of the call. • Shorten any lengthy calls to the amount of time that suits you. Reflective answers such as ‘So, you want to meet next week?’ move the caller on to the main point. Avoid socialising on the telephone in work time. • Adopt a positive attitude as you respond to a call or an email and be willing to answer questions, include ‘thank you’, be courteous and helpful, follow through. • Prepare an agenda before you make a telephone call or write an email: decide what you want to say and the action you would like completed. • Determine your purpose before you speak or ask a question, instead of wasting time with irrelevant questions and diversions. • If you have an executive role, ensure you are prepared and are able to conduct an effective meeting. • Most importantly, if there is no need for the meeting, cancel it, rather than waste time on poorly run meetings with no business to complete. (Chapter 23, Organise and manage meetings, discusses meetings more fully.) • Break the important tasks into smaller, easier tasks. • Create a deadline for the important activities. • Give yourself a reward when you finish the activity. • With unimportant tasks, do only those that must be done.

Prepare for meetings – read the agenda and minutes before you attend a meeting

Avoid procrastination

As you use these strategies, monitor your performance and gather feedback from your team leader, mentor, coach or peers. Ask them open questions. The answers provide you with their perception of your work performance. Positive feedback encourages you to repeat effective work practices. Informative feedback about ineffective work practices gives you the opportunity to make changes and improve your work performance.

Manage time and priorities. Be open to feedback, new ideas and change.

DELEGATE EFFECTIVELY Work that can be done by others should be delegated; otherwise, you will be overtaken by the routine details of administration. When you delegate, it is essential to do it in a way that effectively communicates your intention and plan to others. You must also check progress so that the work is done on or before the deadline you set in your delegation. When both of these are achieved, there is an increased likelihood of a successful result. Steps to effective delegation are shown in Exhibit 6.11. Some of the reasons for not delegating are: • feeling inadequate because you cannot do everything yourself (when you believe you should) • not knowing how to delegate • being afraid the job will take longer if someone else does it. Eliminate unnecessary tasks and delegate to others the work that others can complete, while you get on with your primary tasks. Avoid saying ‘yes’ to requests or extra tasks when these will only add to an already overloaded work schedule.

Improve efficiency and effectiveness by avoiding time wasters.

Allocate people and other resources to tasks when appropriate.

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EXHIBIT 6.11 Steps to effective delegation Step 1

Determine your purpose.

Step 2

Identify the most suitable person.

Step 3

Prepare a clear and coherent message.

Step 4

Choose the most appropriate channel and select a suitable time and context.

Step 5

Send the message clearly, confidently and courteously.

Step 6

Allow the other person to give feedback and clarify your instructions as you delegate the task.

Step 7

Provide the necessary resources and training.

Step 8

Establish at the beginning of the project suitable ways to report on progress and a realistic time for completion.

Step 9

Give feedback and trust the delegate.

Step 10

Follow up, follow through and acknowledge completion of the task.

DIFFERENTIATE TYPES OF ORGANISATIONAL TIME In your workplace, organisational time is that time taken up with doing what the organisation expects you to do. It is the time spent meeting organisational requirements. An analysis of your job description shows where your organisation expects you to invest your time. When you allocate time to the tasks and responsibilities in your job description, you are on the way to meeting the organisation’s expectations of you. The same analysis enables you to allocate quality or discretionary time to tasks that allow you to maximise your talents and achievements. Once you identify the nature of tasks, aim to complete them in a way that matches the organisation’s needs and objectives, and your needs and objectives. These tasks are completed within the organisation’s time. There are three kinds of organisational time within any organisation: 1. boss-imposed time 2. system-imposed time 3. self-imposed time. As you learn to recognise the three types of time, as shown in Exhibit 6.12, you are better able to think about your tasks and plan how you will use time to achieve them.

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EXHIBIT 6.12 Types of organisational time Type

Description

Boss-imposed time

Boss-imposed time is hard to minimise or disregard. The boss (supervisor) makes the rules and accepts responsibility for the actions of others in the team, so they need to know what is happening. You must spend time with your boss and time completing the tasks your boss asks you to do. If you dislike what your boss wants, you may have to persuade your boss to accept an alternative.

System-imposed time

System-imposed time is time spent on tasks such as administrative paperwork, meetings and requests from others in the organisation. It involves working and interacting with others who are not your boss – for example, your peers or staff from other units. In some organisations, system-imposed time takes over. A poorly organised system, for example, may not offer you sufficient staff to delegate, so your time is wasted on administrative tasks better completed by a clerical assistant. Alternatively, an inadequate management information system (MIS) can create too much paperwork with too little clear information, and your time is wasted by searching through and filing far too much paper. As both of these time wasters are caused by the system, it is difficult for you alone to solve the problem.

Self-imposed time

Self-imposed time is that part of time over which you have control. People who are unable to delegate because they do not know how, or because they are afraid coworkers will be unable to do the task, will use this time to carry out tasks that others might do. Unfortunately, they will find that the response time caused by self, the boss and the system will become too great, moving them from the stress stage to distress and sapping efficiency and effectiveness.

MONITOR USE OF DISCRETIONARY AND RESPONSE TIME Discretionary time is used to do those things that are an integral and rewarding part of your work. Using discretionary time leads to most of the effective results, but, as it is only available for about 25% of the time, you must use it to complete your key tasks. As you organise and monitor your work performance, ensure you are using your discretionary time to do the important things. Discretionary time is under your control. Exhibit 6.13 gives strategies to use discretionary time well.

Use discretionary time to think, plan and create ideas.

EXHIBIT 6.13 Create blocks of discretionary time Strategy

Outcome

Monitor the way you use discretionary time

Gives you factual information about how you use it. You are then able to plan to minimise the interruptions that occur and disrupt work.

Create a block of discretionary time at that time of the day when you perform at your greatest efficiency

Aim to set aside that discretionary time period as private time in which you cannot be interrupted. It follows that you will achieve the highpriority, primary tasks in this block.

Let your coworkers know about your planned unavailability and when this will be

The only exception is an emergency. Arrange for telephone calls to be diverted to another line, turn email sounds off and make appointments for times outside this block of discretionary time.

The level at which you operate in the organisation impacts your ability to create your block of discretionary time. A new junior employee is unable to allocate time in this way. The more senior a person, the more power they have, including the opportunity to create a free block of time. This time can also be used to try out new methods and learn new skills. In some respects, response time is that part of your time driven by others. A significant part of your personal and work time is response time – when interruptions such as emails occur, when coworkers call 151 Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202

THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK

Use response time to respond to the demands of others.

Solve the cause of the problem. Make good use of time and resources.

CHECKPOINT 6.3

FROM THEORY TO PRACTICE

in for a chat or an unexpected crisis demands attention. Response time, then, is time spent responding to the demands of others. If most of your day and most days of your week are spent responding to these demands, you will have no time for the important activities and will start to feel the effects of stress. Your ability to reduce the number of disruptions or protect yourself from them is limited by your organisational skills and your boss’ attitude to the need for discretionary time. Another limitation is your coworkers’ acceptance of and respect for your use of time. They must be willing to accept your wishes. Aim to develop that respect. In addition, plan procedures for dealing with emergencies such as equipment breakdown. Look at problems that occur, and identify and treat the cause, rather than simply dealing with the symptoms. In this way, you save time in the future. By monitoring your own work performance well, you are able to maximise your discretionary time. Programming adequate discretionary time will allow you to achieve your primary activities (those of highest priority) first, and deal with the secondary activities later. This rationalisation of your time will reduce stress and enable you to respond to others in a way that is acceptable to you and to them. Personal work performance will reach a high standard, and this will be reflected in quality customer service, greater job satisfaction and improved morale.

1. Describe the features of an effective time-management plan. 2. Organisational time: a. Identify three types of organisational time and name two ways in which employees can improve their use of each type of time. b. Which of the three types of organisational time is the most difficult to control? Provide reasons for your answer. c. What is the purpose of creating discretionary blocks of time? 3. Delegation: a. Think of an instance when a task was delegated to you. What worked well in the way the task was delegated and what worked poorly? b. Consider the steps to effective delegation and identify those that would have helped you complete the delegated task. c. Why is it important to delegate effectively?

Balance your priorities Achieving work–life balance has become the sometimes elusive goal for modern workers. It is well recognised that being able to strike a balance between the demands of work, family and personal commitments is important for overall wellbeing. But how do we strike this balance between work priorities, professional development and family and leisure time? Open Universities Australia suggests one strategy to employ is to create a comprehensive ‘to do’ list. Record everything you would like to have accomplished by the end of the year. Include a few goals that will extend you, but make sure all are realistic in some way. Sort each into one of the following categories: • Do now • Delegate • Do later • Drop.

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Next, break down each project into a weekly or daily task list and assign (achievable) completion dates and hold yourself to them. Cross them off as you go, creating a visible record of your achievements. Source: http://www.oecdbetterlifeindex.org/topics/work-life-balance/, viewed 2 November 2018; https:// www.open.edu.au/student-blog/4-tips-allocating-time-important/, viewed 2 November 2018.

ASK YOURSELF: What is your work–life balance? Create a pie chart that depicts how much time you spend on areas such as: work, family, career progression, financial health, physical health, leisure, personal growth and fun. Reflect on your wheel of life pie chart result to decide if your priorities are balanced. Which piece(s) of the pie, if any, would you like to change? How would you make the change(s)?

6.4 ASSESS SKILLS AGAINST BENCHMARKS Part of your work role may be to determine the professional development needs of individuals or teams and facilitate their professional development. Competency standards identify the level of performance required in the workplace, so they are a useful starting point for determining the specific knowledge and skills that are needed. Individual and team development are aligned to workplace needs when learningprogram goals and outcomes match: • the knowledge and skills to perform the functions in the job description • the performance criteria in a competency standard • an organisational standard or an industry benchmark.

CONDUCT A JOB ANALYSIS AND EVALUATE A person who understands the structure and functions of their job knows what they need to do to perform well in it. A job analysis is done when there is no duty statement or position description. It identifies all the knowledge and skills necessary to perform the job competently. A job analysis also shows where time should be spent in a job and helps in decision making about salary structures and work schedules. Exhibit 6.14 shows an example of a job analysis. The job is broken into functional areas. The functional areas are the primary responsibilities of a job. A function is split further into specific tasks. From this information, the skills and knowledge necessary to perform each task are identified.

Identify the functions or primary responsibilities of your job.

ANALYSE COMPETENCE AGAINST YOUR JOB DESCRIPTION In most organisations, it is not necessary for you to carry out a job analysis. The information is usually available through duty statements or position descriptions. This means you can identify what is expected of you by referring to your job description. The job description specifies the duties, tasks and activities to be performed (what is to be done and usually the standard to which it is to be done). A job description generally lists the internal and external relationships, responsibilities, accountabilities, outcomes needed from a position and reporting relationships. Good job descriptions stretch the employees’ experience, grow their skills and develop their ability to contribute within their organisation. A typical job description is shown in Exhibit 6.15. It identifies the position by name and to whom the person in the position reports. It also documents the purpose of the job, the duties and responsibilities, what the person is authorised to do, their accountabilities and the criteria for the position.

Work in accordance with your job description.

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EXHIBIT 6.14 Example of a job analysis JOB

Product Manager

FUNCTION

Sales and distribution support

Pricing strategy

Selling

Implement and maintain company policy and guidelines

TASK Develop offers for specialist products

Sell products to pricing strategy

Plan a sales presentation

Target new offers at right segments

Manage product staff

Liaise with staff, customers and suppliers

Build consumer awareness and loyalty to core products

Update product pricing

Monitor sales targets

EXHIBIT 6.15 Example of a job description EXAMPLE OF A JOB DESCRIPTION Job function:

Product Manager

Reports to:

Marketing Manager

Liaises with:

Manager of Operations, store managers, administrative staff, customers and potential customers

Purpose:

To manage the company’s brands and build volume segments for all products within the two major brands to grow each product’s market share

Duties:

• • • • • •

develop respective offers develop pricing strategy monitor sales targets drive effective sales and distribution support identify and communicate business opportunities develop third-party alliances

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CHAPTER 6 / Manage work priorities and professional development

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EXAMPLE OF A JOB DESCRIPTION Job function:

Product Manager

Responsibilities:

• • • • •

Authorised to:

• liaise with and represent company with clients, trade and industry bodies

Accountable for:

• maintaining product, system and service development • managing brands and range • liaising with clients and other stakeholders to grow business potential

Job criteria:

• • • • •

manage product range and service development liaise with marketing manager to build consumer awareness and preference manage product budget evaluate sales and distribution outcomes with relevant stakeholders liaise with trade and industry bodies to secure business opportunities

demonstrated marketing experience including successful product management good project management skills strong team player with a record of delivering on commitments and to deadlines capacity to champion new and continuous improvement initiatives marketing qualification

The key duties, tasks and activities to be performed in your job are the primary activities. They are the KPAs that produce results. They must be done. You need technical competencies to do the KPAs well. Technical competencies are the knowledge, skills and attitudes required to perform the duties, tasks and activities in your job. Identifying these clearly will enable you to focus on them and develop and maintain your level of competence to perform them well.

Apply your technical competencies as you perform the duties, tasks and activities in your job.

ASSESS SKILLS AGAINST COMPETENCY STANDARDS To determine your development needs and the priorities of those needs, you can assess your skills against competency standards. Competency standards set out what skills are required to perform a job or task, and range from national industry standards to simple checklists developed within a department or section. An awareness of the competency standards that exist for a position helps you gain the necessary knowledge and skills for that position. Exhibit 6.16 shows two elements of competence and performance criteria for a task undertaken by an account manager. The task is to represent the company at a trade or industry function. The performance criteria identify the standard of performance expected of a competent account manager as they represent the company. Column three enables the manager to sign off on the account manager’s performance as competent.

EXHIBIT 6.16 Elements and performance criteria for the task – represent the company POSITION: ACCOUNT MANAGER TASK: REPRESENT COMPANY AT TRADE OR INDUSTRY FUNCTION Element of competency

Performance criteria

1. Build relationships with prospective clients

1.1 Develop appropriate point-of-sale material for the trade function

Manager’s signature and date

1.2 Discuss company profile and scope 1.3 Highlight product and service features 1.4 Find out latest market activity and intelligences

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POSITION: ACCOUNT MANAGER TASK: REPRESENT COMPANY AT TRADE OR INDUSTRY FUNCTION Element of competency

Performance criteria

2. Network with existing clients and industry bodies

2.1 Establish ongoing contacts and opportunities

Manager’s signature and date

2.2 Socialise as appropriate and in accordance with company guidelines 2.3 Behave professionally and in accordance with industry standards 2.4 Work in accordance with relevant legislation

Competency is the consistent application of knowledge and skill to the standard of performance required in the workplace. Competence is an observable behaviour performed to a specified level, and therefore provides a basis for the assessment of performance. A competent person has the knowledge, skills and attitude that enable them to perform their work to the standard required of those employed within an occupation or industry level.

Employability skills

Apply communication and people-related skills to enhance successful performance in the workplace. Draw on previous experiences in past positions and relate them to the current situation.

Employability skills are the skills required to gain employment and progress within an organisation so as to achieve one’s potential and contribute successfully to operations. Employability skills are the transferable skills you may learn in one workplace and take with you to another. Employability skills can be developed through study, at work and through participation in family, social and community life. The Employability Skills for the Future Report 2002 identified the following eight employability skills: communication, teamwork, problem solving, initiative and enterprise, planning and organising, selfmanagement, learning and technology. Employability skills support your ability to perform effectively and are transferable between workplaces. They are essential skills for employment and for personal development, fulfilment, community life and active citizenship. In today’s economy, knowledge, information, customer service, innovation and high performance are at a premium and generic skills are essential to gain employment and to progress in employment throughout one’s lifetime. Employability skills describe capabilities that are commonly used as key selection criteria by employers. These are the abilities that enable you to adapt to changes in technology, functional changes in your job, organisational changes within your workplace and opportunities to transfer your skills to another position or workplace. Employability skills also include the ability to communicate with and relate to people, problem solve, plan, organise, learn and respond with initiative. As you progress from being a new staff member to an experienced staff member and then on to promotion, the standard at which you are expected to perform will increase. Therefore, you need to access learning opportunities to extend not only your technical competencies but also your employability skills, adaptability and flexibility in response to change.

Carry out a skills audit An effective way to identify your development needs is to conduct an audit of your knowledge and skills. A skills audit identifies what you can do. The audit should focus on measuring your skills against what you are required to do in your position. It shows you where you are in your current position, and also lets you think about where you might like to be in the future.

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CHAPTER 6 / Manage work priorities and professional development A skills audit must occur regularly across all areas of EXHIBIT 6.17 Steps in a skills audit workplace performance, identifying any developmental needs and priorities, and finding strategies to address these needs. Step Identify the skills that you need 1 To conduct a skills audit, analyse your key work tasks and review your competency for each of these areas of responsibility. Identify the standard of performance Step Use the five-step audit process shown in Exhibit 6.17. (performance criteria) required in the position 2 Remember, any role will require you to demonstrate a mix of specific skills: such as working in accordance with the workplace Step Measure your current level of skill and performance health and safety management system; knowledge of sales and 3 against the standard of performance required distribution systems, such as understanding the order processing Measure your current skills against future Step system; and personal attributes, such as establishing positive requirements 4 relationships with colleagues and clients. Your job description will help you determine your key work functions and tasks. Step Prioritise and take action as needed The five-step audit process will help you to identify your 5 KPAs and develop strategies to lift standards and improve key processes. Consult with your clients to seek feedback on performance and suggestions for improvement. Workshop these suggestions with your colleagues and Conduct a skills develop a system to implement change if it is needed. audit to identify what you can do. A skills audit takes a systematic approach to identifying your skills, competencies and employability skills. The audit gives you an idea of how you might plan your professional development. The results of Acquire new the audit should be recorded and used to create a professional development plan. (A simple format for knowledge and skills a professional development plan is shown in Exhibit 6.19 later in the chapter.) to improve performance A critical part of any role at work is communicating with colleagues, customers and suppliers in a way standards. that will win their trust and confidence. Demonstrate your competence by: • communicating effectively Communicate with • working collaboratively in changing environments team members, colleagues and • establishing rapport and gaining support and commitment business contacts to • motivating and influencing others promote positive • dissolving or overcoming resistance interaction. • creating the positive partnerships that are critical for success.

GATHER FEEDBACK ON YOUR WORK PERFORMANCE Feedback may be gathered about your performance at work. It may be about your capacity to achieve goals and objectives in work plans. It may be about your capacity to comply with workplace health and safety policies, procedures and programs, or to implement access and equity principles in your work practices. At work, we all use work space, the telephone and technology or equipment. We also prepare for meetings and deal with disruptions, interruptions and crises. Gathering feedback on how you do these activities enables you to improve your performance and gain greater satisfaction from your work. Some examples of ways you can actively seek feedback from others are: • formal or informal performance appraisals • obtaining comments from supervisors and colleagues • obtaining comments from clients • personal reflection and self-evaluation • routine organisational methods for monitoring service delivery.

Give and receive feedback on performance.

Monitor and control performance to ensure goals are achieved and objectives are met.

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Critique or selfassess your own performance.

It is vital that consistent personal performance is maintained in varying work conditions. Appraisal methods for monitoring work performance are shown in Exhibit 6.18. These include self-assessment, peer or team assessment, appraisal according to set criteria and statistical analysis.

EXHIBIT 6.18 Methods of performance appraisal and feedback Method

Description

Example

Statistical analysis

Objective information: • is obtained from statistical data • can be used to monitor task achievement. Managers, workgroups or individuals can assess themselves based on descriptions of their work activities using: • diaries • personal records • action plans. As you provide performance feedback and assessment, build trust and confidence by: • talking constructively • identifying what is done well • following with what could be improved • giving positive reinforcement. The set criteria: • should be public knowledge so everyone knows what behaviours or tasks are expected of them • are used to conduct the appraisal according to set evaluation criteria.

• Production figures • Sales improvements

Self-assessment

Peer or workgroup assessment

Appraisal according to set criteria

• Reviewing performance over a period of time • Identifying strengths and weaknesses • Analysing the success or otherwise at achieving goals or objectives

• Formal group meeting with a clear agenda, set by a facilitator who ensures participation • A tool-box meeting to compare goals or objectives with performance of tasks and outcomes • Informal meeting to give feedback about achievement of standards and performance targets • Performance review against the competency standards • Performance appraisal against business objectives • Performance against industry standards

Through regular appraisals, any variations in the quality of performance, service or products should be identified and reported in accordance with the requirements of the organisation. These requirements may be included in defined resource guidelines and other organisational documents, such as quality assurance or quality procedures manuals, and workplace health and safety policies, procedures and programs.

Seek and give feedback on performance Receiving constructive feedback offers workgroups and individuals the chance to reflect on their actions. However, for workgroup members to be willing to give honest feedback to others they must know it is safe to do so. Feedback lets the workgroup and its members know: • more about themselves • the effect their words and behaviour can have on other people or the situation. Avoid a defensive response to feedback you have asked for by being attentive, concentrating and focusing on what the person wants you to know rather than on what you would like to hear. Listen, and consider the implications of what has been said before you respond. Awareness of your own reactions, both intellectual and emotional, helps you to either accept or ask for reframing of the feedback instead of rejecting or ignoring parts of the feedback you dislike or disagree with. Notice the reactions of the person giving the feedback and wait until after you understand the feedback. Trying to explain your position is a distraction from the message. If you feel the need to give an explanation, do so after you have attended to all that is said during the feedback session. If you ask for feedback, accept it with an open mind. 158 Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202

CHAPTER 6 / Manage work priorities and professional development When you receive feedback, thank the person giving it and take any useful actions identified by the feedback. Constructive feedback acknowledges success as well as areas for improvement. As you receive informal or formal feedback about your own performance or the performance of your workgroup, clarify the feedback by paraphrasing and repeating it without being defensive. When you give feedback to an individual or your workgroup: • be tactful and identify specific issues or actions rather than criticising the person receiving the feedback • provide the feedback in private and maintain confidentiality • build rather than damage the other person’s self-esteem • make it short, helpful and to the point. Recognition and reward are powerful motivators at work. When individuals or your workgroup have achieved well, recognise their achievements. Successful achievements may be acknowledged in written evaluations of performance, promotion, financial reward, certificates of achievement and other types of formal recognition. Managers, supervisors and colleagues provide feedback in individual and group discussions, written evaluations, results of tests and articles on the intranet or in-house journals. Effective feedback focuses on what the individual or team did well, offers suggestions for improvement, critiques the work, not the person and sandwiches any negative feedback between positive points. Self-assessment is also a powerful motivator. In the workplace, individuals, teams or groups are able to seek feedback about aspects of their performance from colleagues, discuss workplace progress with a supervisor or keep a diary or notes about what worked well and what needs further improvement. When asking for comments on actions and suggestions for improvement choose an appropriate time and place, ask questions if you do not understand the feedback and maintain confidentiality. Communication at work is both directive and non-directive. In a conversation, for example, you will use a mix of interpersonal and emotional intelligence skills. The skills of self-awareness and selfregulation empower you to ask others for constructive feedback that lets you reflect on your work performance. Feedback also gives you information you can use to improve your performance through professional development. The skills of social awareness and relationship management enable you to communicate well, read the responses of others, influence and collaborate when making decisions. High levels of interpersonal and emotional intelligence skills allow you to contribute to problem-solving, to persuade others to take action, and to introduce initiatives and continuous improvement practices, monitor attitudes and document outcomes appropriately. Relationships are positive, and career planning and development reflects what is happening now and in the future. Goals and choices are informed and relevant. 1. List at least six components of a typical job description. 2. Employability skills: a. Briefly explain why employers are looking for candidates with employability skills. b. Provide three examples of employability skills. 3. Skills audit and feedback: a. What benchmarks can you use to measure your skills in a skills audit? b. How can you seek feedback on your performance? 4. Briefly discuss the advantages and disadvantages of each of the following appraisal methods: • statistical analysis • self-assessment • peer or workgroup assessment • appraisal according to set criteria.

Evaluate your performance in terms of your individual and your workgroup’s requirements.

CHECKPOINT 6.4

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6.5 COORDINATE PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT

Undertake professional development to improve your personal and technical knowledge.

Constant changes in knowledge and technology mean that the skills, knowledge and capabilities individuals need to perform competently in their workplace are also changing. As well as organising our own work schedule, and monitoring and obtaining feedback on performance, we must find the time to undertake career planning and coordinate our professional development. Professional development enables you to acquire the personal and technical knowledge, skills and attitudes required to effectively and efficiently undertake the day-to-day tasks and duties that are KPAs in your position. The initial purpose of professional development may be to bring your expertise to a satisfactory level for effective job performance. As you continue in the job, additional training in the workplace provides opportunities to acquire more skills and knowledge and places you in a better position to qualify for advancement. You need to take responsibility for your own professional development. This means: • identifying gaps in your skills and knowledge and taking action to fill them • using feedback from others • researching and completing training and professional development activities. You can identify what you need to know by finding out exactly what is expected of you in your job. You can also ask others in a similar role, members of your workgroup, supervisor or manager. Create a professional learning and development plan to identify your training and development needs.

CREATE A PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT PLAN

Choose learning methods appropriate to the professional development need.

Professional development plans identify what an individual or team needs to learn, the intended outcomes, and the methods by which the learning will take place. Learning methods should be appropriate to the: • learning goals • learning style of participants • availability of equipment and resources. Learning methods include off-the-job training, on-the-job training, online learning, action learning, coaching, mentoring, problem solving and attendance at seminars and conferences. Some learners prefer distance learning and self-directed study. Others prefer performance appraisals of their work to help in career development and planning. A professional development plan should be prepared in consultation between individuals and their supervisor, or the team and team leader involved in the professional development. The plan will identify the learning goal, skills and knowledge that need development, how the learning will happen (learning methods), timeframes, how the learning will be measured or assessed, and how feedback will be given. Its processes and activities should be non-discriminatory. Activities should be fair and ethical and provide opportunities for success and encouragement. Consultation ensures that the ideas of the individual and the team are included and respected. Individuals should be acknowledged for their achievements. An example of a template for a professional development plan is shown in Exhibit 6.19. View examples of templates for professional development plans at http://aese.psu.edu/teachag/ workshops/diy-professional-development/diy/professional-development-plan-examples.

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EXHIBIT 6.19 Professional development plan Goal statement Skills that need further development

How will I improve the skill?

By when?

How will I measure performance against the standard required?

Any further feedback: Your signature:

Mentor’s, coach’s or supervisor’s signature:

Date:

Date:

IDENTIFY AND ACCESS TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT OPPORTUNITIES Learning occurs most effectively when learners can take responsibility for their learning. Not all learners are self-directed learners. Some will value assistance from managers and colleagues in the form of guidance, support, encouragement, direction and feedback. Your colleagues and work team can be a source of information regarding opportunities for learning and development. Technology is a fast and accessible tool for the workgroup. Internet and intranet sites in particular are a valuable resource for identifying what is available to members. Development opportunities may include those shown in Exhibit 6.20.

Contribute to the learning community at your workplace.

EXHIBIT 6.20 Professional development activities Self-paced multimedia learning Formal internal and external courses

Coaching, mentoring or supervision

Personal study

On-the-job training Professional development activities Assisted formal study

Performance appraisals

Induction and orientation Work experiences and assignments, placement at higher levels and higher duties

Conference and seminar attendance

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RECORD AND COMMUNICATE YOUR ACHIEVEMENTS AND QUALIFICATIONS

Maintain and store records relating to achievements and assessment.

Seek out and learn new skills and techniques.

CHECKPOINT 6.6

Organisations record work performance and learning achievements for a number of reasons. Some of these are to meet legal and accountability responsibilities, provide evidence for remuneration and reward, maintain historical records of the organisation’s learning activities, and maintain personnel records. Record-keeping procedures should help people to: • keep current active records separate from old records • store old records properly and decide when and how to dispose of them • maintain privacy of personal information held in records • keep confidential records safe, with controlled access • keep records safe from theft, damage and computer hacking. Records relating to achievements and assessments will have relationships. For example, the human resources records for staff will often be viewed in conjunction with their learning activities, work performance records and salary progression. Files detailing professional development, learning and assessment activities should be kept for at least five years. They are then archived. Ensure that the location of each item is properly recorded, and that the items are stored and returned to their correct place after use. Successful professional development is a two-way process. Your qualifications, knowledge, skills and experience are worthless if you cannot demonstrate and explain them in the appropriate context to the relevant people. When you engage in professional development, let your team leader, supervisor or manager know you have gained improved skills and qualifications. The diplomas, certificates, statements of attainment, assessment records and reports should be placed in your personnel file and recorded in your resume. Keep the records and resume up-to-date to communicate your achievements and qualifications. Chapter 4, Develop communication skills for employment, discusses resumes and qualifications more fully. 1. Professional development: a. Create a list of the qualities required of employees in any workplace. b. How can you take responsibility for your own professional development? 2. Job analysis, professional development and learning methods: a. Brainstorm the advantages of doing a job analysis before undertaking career or professional development. b. Discuss and list the factors to consider when choosing the most appropriate professional development activity. c. List six types of learning methods. 3. How do effective record-keeping procedures help people? 4. Develop a professional development plan for yourself. Use the format in Exhibit 6.19 or a format of your choice.

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LEARNING ACTIVITIES SUMMARY 6.1 Develop workgroup goals, objectives and plans with measurable outcomes. Create a workgroup plan to identify goals, objectives, specific actions, key results, performance indicators and reporting mechanisms for monitoring, evaluating and reporting back for any task or activity undertaken by the workgroup. An effective workgroup plan is specific, measurable, achievable, relevant and time-referenced. It describes what has to happen in concrete terms. 6.2 Prioritise activities, set goals and complete your own work schedule. Distinguish between primary, secondary and urgent activities as you prioritise your work. Primary activities have high priority. Secondary activities are less important and urgent activities are the interruptions that must be done. Assess and prioritise activities and set goals to achieve objectives. Set SMART goals that are specific, measurable, achievable, relevant and timereferenced. Goals provide focus and direction. They may be short-term, medium-term or long-term. 6.3 Describe the role of time-management in the achievement of work and personal objectives. An effective time-management plan identifies what you can control and influence. As you prepare the plan, differentiate between three causes of time wasters – human nature, environmental factors and poor management skills. Take the time to identify and avoid time wasters in order to accomplish the primary activities in your position. Choose to manage time by establishing priorities, scheduling tasks and eliminating habits that slow down performance. Monitor your use of discretionary and response time to identify time wasters and adjust performance. Avoid time wasters such as the ‘tyranny of the urgent’, lack of objectives and conflicting demands. A time-management plan helps you break old habits and control your use of time to get more done. 6.4 Analyse your competence against standards and benchmarks to determine development needs and priorities and decide how to adjust your own work performance in response to feedback. Analyse your position description and assess your competence against the key performance areas (KPAs). A skills audit is a useful strategy to identify your development needs. Then fill any

gaps you identify in your technical and employability skills by undertaking professional development. If you are working in a job without a position description, conduct a job analysis to identify the functions undertaken in a job. Once the functions are identified, they are broken into the activities needed to complete each function. Carry out a skills audit to identify what you can do. Monitor the effectiveness and efficiency of your work performance. Seek feedback from managers, colleagues, clients and others to identify and develop ways to improve your competence. Improve your performance by taking action on the basis of the feedback. Your job description specifies the duties, tasks and activities to be performed. Focus on these to ensure you are able to do them well. Feedback may be formal, such as performance appraisals, and informal, such as comments from clients or colleagues 6.5 Explain why it is important to undertake professional development and maintain records and documents relating to achievements. Changing knowledge and technology requires professional development that enables people to stay up-to-date or ahead of these changes. Coordinate professional development and access opportunities for improvement, enhancement of your career and facilitation of continuous learning. Achievements and qualifications should be recorded in your personnel files in your workplace, communicated in your resume and to relevant people at work. By aligning your own development to your job description, national or organisation-specific competency standards and other industry benchmarks, you are able to perform competently. By engaging in professional development, you are maintaining the currency of your skills and qualifications. In addition, you are developing and improving your performance and ability to access promotion and other opportunities in the future. Continual changes in modern workplaces require competent workers who are able to adapt to new ways of doing things, be multiskilled and work effectively with others. Ensure you are one of these people by accessing formal and informal learning and development opportunities.

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KEY TERMS competence competency standards delegate discretionary time goals

instant messaging (IM) job analysis job description key performance area (KPA) organisational time

professional development response time skills audit SMART approach technical competencies

time-management plan time wasters urgent activities workgroup plan

LEARNING ACTIVITIES 1. Receiving feedback a. Think of an instance when you received some positive feedback about your performance. How was it given? How did you feel about the person giving it? What was your response? b. Think of an instance when you received some negative performance feedback. How was it given? How did you feel about the person giving it? What was your response? c. Explain how to avoid a defensive response as you receive feedback you have asked for.

2. Reflect on your productivity Complete the quiz ‘How Productive Are You?’ at http:// www.mindtools.com/pages/article/productivity-quiz.htm to evaluate your productivity at work. Reflect on the results to determine what they tell you about your organising skills, your attitude, your delegation skills and your ability to identify and use information quickly. 3. Effective delegation a. Consider the steps to effective delegation and identify those that have helped you complete a delegated task. b. Explain why it is important to delegate effectively.

GROUP ACTIVITY Work in pairs to determine one another’s development needs.

Use the notes you made during each interview to discuss and summarise one another’s development needs.

Step one Take turns to interview one another to determine your individual development needs. a. The interviewer is to ask the interviewee the following questions: • What is your role in your workplace? • What are your key performance areas? • What sort of training and professional development has helped you in your position? • Are there any key performance areas in which you would like further training and development? • Where do you see your career moving from here? b. During the interview, the interviewer is to make notes about the interviewee’s current skills and possible development needs. Step two Identify and discuss one another’s development needs.

Step three Work together to research possible training courses and other development activities that will fill each person’s development needs. Consider: • how you will access the program – work release, payment by your company, attendance in your own time, selfdirected learning or other • what time commitment is required and your willingness to commit. Identify one or more courses, programs or activities appropriate to each person’s development needs. Step four Work together to write a short information report on your findings. Submit the report to your teacher or lecturer.

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CASE STUDY FLOWER HOME IMPROVEMENTS Hannah established Flower Home Improvements five years ago. Her previous role was 10 years at a large national home improvement store where she learned all there was to know about the home improvement business. Product knowledge and customer service were two skills she was proud of. Flower Home Improvements steadily grew, and three years ago Hannah employed Cameron as a full-time staff member and two casual staff for the busy periods. Cameron’s skills include marketing, stock control and product knowledge. Hannah did not realise running a business could be so difficult. Her background was oriented towards customers and customer service. She simply does not have sufficient time to build customer relationships and she hasn’t marketed her business. She has much to do and so little time to do it. This includes having no time for staff meetings and to find out how the staff are going. She is simply ‘on the go’ all the time. Cameron is aware that issues relating to suppliers, especially payment of invoices within 30 days, are not being dealt with and he has to placate them. Cameron is aware that Hannah spends much of her time communicating with her accountant and worries about cash flow and salaries. One of Cameron’s primary responsibilities is ordering and maintaining stock at the required levels. Customers are complaining because Flower Home Improvement is late filling orders because stocks are running low. Cameron feels he is doing so much of Hannah’s work that he can’t manage his own work schedule.

Cameron meets regularly for a social drink with Patrick, whom he met at TAFE when both studied marketing. Cameron discusses some of the workplace issues with Patrick. Patrick says, ‘Well, I don’t know how to solve the issues you have, but I know our boss sends some of our people to training and development courses all the time and the boss himself holds a management degree. He tells us, ‘‘To grow my business I need staff with the expertise and knowledge to perform well in their jobs.’’ He also says he has identified the KPAs for each employee so that we can benchmark our performance.’ Patrick also suggested to Cameron that it is crucial that staff and the boss meet regularly so staff understand what is expected of them. Cameron thanked Patrick for his ideas.

Questions 1. Briefly explain the value of the ‘ideas’ that Cameron thanked Patrick for. 2. Are there any particular issues Hannah should address first in order to get her business back on track? 3. Patrick’s boss stressed the need for professional development. a. What are the benefits to businesses of professional development? b. Identify Hannah’s skill gaps. Create a list of titles of training courses or professional development activities that would fill Hannah’s skill gaps. c. What professional development programs would suit Flower Home Improvement’s staff?

BIBLIOGRAPHY Blanchard, K., Oncken, W. & Burrows, H. 1990. The Oneminute Manager Meets the Monkey, Collins, London, 1990. Hargreaves, A. 2011. Recharge: Lessons to Revitalise Yourself, Your Team Or Your Business in 60 Minutes Or Less, Wiley, Australia. Innovation and Business Skills Australia. 2014. ‘Employability Skills’, BSB07: Business Services Training Package, Release

8.1, https://training.gov.au/TrainingComponentFiles/ BSB07/BSB07_R8.1.pdf, viewed 3 April 2018. Mind Tools. 2018. How Productive Are You?, http:// www.mindtools.com/pages/article/productivity-quiz.htm, viewed 1 December 2018. Morgenstern, Julie. 2009. SHED Your Stuff, Change Your Life: A Four-Step Guide to Getting Unstuck, Fireside, New York.

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Newton, Richard. 2011. Management Book: How to Manage Your Team to Deliver Outstanding Results, Prentice Hall Financial Times, Harlow, England. Open Colleges. 2018. What is professional development?, https://www.opencolleges.edu.au/careers/professionaldevelopment, viewed 2 April 2018. Open Universities Australia. 2017. ‘4 tips for allocating time for the important tasks’, Student Blog, https:// www.open.edu.au/student-blog/4-tips-allocating-timeimportant/, viewed 3 September 2018. Owen, Jo. 2013. How to Manage, 3rd edn, Pearson Education Limited, United Kingdom.

Penn State. 2018. Professional Development Plan Examples, Department Agricultural Economics, Sociology and Education, http://aese.psu.edu/teachag/workshops/diyprofessional-development/diy/professional-developmentplan-examples, viewed 2 April 2018. Scott, S.J. 2017. Habit Stacking, 127 Small Changes to Improve Your Health, Wealth, and Happiness, 2nd edn, Oldtown Publishing LLC. training.gov.au, BSBWOR404: Develop work priorities, https://training.gov.au/Training/Details/BSBWOR404, viewed 1 December 2018.

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DELIVER PRESENTATIONS AND SPEECHES

Your Learning Journey

CHAPTER

7

Different types of PUBLIC SPEAKING + PRESENTATIONS

research main points

7.1 7.2

introduction

develop body conclusion

PLANNING + PREPARING a speech/presentation with a connecting theme

appropriateness

7.5 7.4

DELIVER IT

REVIEW your PERFORMANCE - identify strengths/ weaknesses - your preparation - evaluate voice - nonverbal communication - resources - timing + rapport

7.6

Next DEVELOP NEGOTIATION + CONFLICT MANAGEMENT SKILLS

7.7

4 STEPS

confidently engaging

STRATEGIES for handling DIFFICULT AUDIENCE MEMBERS - find a point of agreement - assertive strategies - open, closed, reflective questions

4

Organise visual aids/ support materials

3

Practise + revise

7.3

Writing a speech or presentation

2

Rewrite it for the ear

1

Structure + write it

CH8

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LEARNING OBJECTIVES After studying this chapter, you should be able to: 7.1 discuss the purpose of different types of public speaking and presentations 7.2 plan and structure a speech or presentation with a connecting theme 7.3 describe four steps to follow as you write a speech or presentation 7.4 use electronic presentations, aids, materials and examples to enhance audience understanding of key concepts and central ideas 7.5 deliver a speech or presentation confidently 7.6 outline strategies for handling difficult audience members 7.7 review your performance to identify strengths and address weaknesses (if any).

7.1 TYPES OF PUBLIC SPEAKING The entire communication process (sender, receiver, message, channel, feedback, context and potential for barriers, shown in Exhibit 1.2 in Chapter 1) exists in any of the types of presentation or speech. Pay close attention to each of the factors in the communication process as you plan, deliver and review your presentation or speech. Regardless of whether you are making a few brief remarks at a social function, speaking formally at a sales conference or summarising the results of a project to the senior management team, you will need to determine from among the methods in Exhibit 7.1 the best method to communicate with your audience.

CHOOSE THE RIGHT TYPE OF PRESENTATION Several different approaches to presenting or speaking in public are possible. The appropriate approach depends on the purpose, objectives, audience and the occasion. Strategies to use in speeches designed to either inform or persuade or entertain are show in Exhibit 7.2. Adapt the content and presentation style to the audience and the specific situation. In any type of presentation or speech, ensure you define your main idea(s), limit your scope and prepare an outline with an attention-getting introduction, main body and conclusion. The three objectives in Exhibit 7.2 (or a combination of them) are common to all speeches and presentations. Presentation strategies may involve case studies, demonstration, discussion, group work, oral presentations, questioning and briefings delivered by the whole team.

Delivering with co-presenters – a ‘tag team’ approach

Take care to speak to your audience rather than talking in asides to copresenters during the presentation.

When two or more presenters co-present a speech or briefing, they work as a relay or ‘tag team’; that is, they take turns to present. The aim of the co-presentation is to deliver a unified and coherent message rather than a series of individual presentations. Together, all of the co-presenters coordinate their performance by: • considering the purpose of their presentation and the nature of the audience • designing the structure of the presentation, organising it into sections and allocating a section or sections to each speaker • preparing and practising the joint presentation so that every co-presenter understands all of the material and can also present in the absence of a co-presenter • reviewing the structure and multimedia aids together, making changes and revisions to facilitate joint ownership of the material.

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CHAPTER 7 / Deliver presentations and speeches

EXHIBIT 7.1 Types of public speaking and presentations Type

Actions

The prepared speech is planned and organised before presentation.

• Prepare an outline and notes to prompt you and your delivery will appear spontaneous and relaxed • Put important ideas, phrases, quotations and statistics in note form and try to add some extra comments when you present your speech • Avoid reading the speech word for word so you can: – maintain eye contact with your audience to hold their interest – note the audience’s response to your presentation

The impromptu speech is an unexpected special occasion or a courtesy speech such as a welcome, introduction or acknowledgement delivered without preparation.

• Think quickly and clearly to organise your information • Analyse the situation and speak briefly and to the point • Follow this order of presentation: – indicate clearly the reason for the speech – explain its relevance to the organisation or audience – conclude with some of the characteristics of the individual or organisation receiving the recognition

The manuscript speech is suited to longer, more technical and difficult situations such as business presentations at meetings or conferences, legal presentations, parliamentary addresses, press releases or speeches that will be reported or quoted.

• Research, structure and write the content • Prepare the support materials • Read the manuscript but maintain eye contact with the audience as often as possible • Use devices like wide margins, large type and double spacing of the manuscript to help you read it • Avoid reading the entire speech word for word • Speak to the audience rather than at them; this means using facial expressions and gestures

A podcast is an audio recording that can be accessed on demand through most Web browsers.

• Use podcasts to replace or supplement conference calls, training courses, briefings and other group communication activities • Organise and structure the content to make it easy for the audience to understand • Identify your purpose clearly in the introduction • Provide supporting details in the main body • Conclude by reinforcing and summarising the main idea(s) • Plan visual representations of data (graphs, illustrations and virtual objects) to support main points, and make these available to your audience • Prepare any show notes

A briefing session is a short oral summary or report of a plan, event or operation.

• Aim to inform, propose or justify solutions, or persuade your audience • Prepare the briefing, concentrating on its main purpose: – present background information – discuss alternatives – analyse advantages and disadvantages and outline their impact • Encourage audience participation, questions, suggestions and show interest in audience response • Receive feedback and analyse presentation • Manage challenging audience members

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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK

EXHIBIT 7.2 The objectives of presentations and speeches Objective To inform

Strategies An informative speech delivers factual information, clear examples and supporting material. It may also aim to develop ideas, or show how something works or can be done. Balance the content and discussion to achieve an objective presentation.

To persuade

A persuasive speech aims to influence the audience, change their attitude, convince them about a particular point or motivate them to accept your offer. Frame the message to show the audience how you can create value for them. Tell a story to stimulate the audience’s interest. At the end of your presentation, invite and prompt them to take action.

To entertain

An entertaining speech is interesting. A variety of techniques such as humour, anecdotes, examples, jokes and quotations, sometimes with a particular theme, are used to ensure the audience enjoys it. A combination of informative or persuasive elements may be used with entertainment; however, keep the language and message clear and easy to follow.

A unified and coherent message requires the co-presenters to: decide who will present the introduction develop the main body of the presentation and provide the supporting details reinforce the ideas outlined in the main body and present the conclusion. As you progress through your section of a co-presentation, define the main terms and restate the main ideas. Repetition emphasises the main points, helps understanding and reinforces the message. Transitions from one presenter to another facilitate a smooth changeover. For example, rather than saying, ‘Jack is going to talk next’ or ‘Jack, your turn next, right?’, guide the audience to the next speaker with a review and/or preview type of transition in which the first speaker summarises their part and then previews the main ideas the next speaker will present. Transfer control to the next speaker by saying, ‘Now we have Jack talking about …’ or ‘Jack is going to guide us through a demonstration of this …’. Then Jack enhances the smooth changeover by briefly recognising the previous speaker and then quickly moving onto their topic. ‘So, we learned X from Ellie, but now we are going to …’. The second and third speakers may refer to and link their content to the ideas presented by previous presenters by saying ‘Let’s revisit …’ or ‘Let’s go back to …’ to reinforce and tie ideas together across the total presentation. Co-presentations are often used for staff meetings, customer contacts, and reports to supervisors and managers on progress, results or problems. Whatever the purpose of a co-presentation it is often appropriate to give your audience a short memo or written summary. People are more likely to remember communication that combines both spoken, graphic and written forms of communication. • • •

Use transitions to bridge from one presenter’s section to the start of the next presenter’s section.

PREP formula A successful formula used by many speakers for an impromptu speech is the PREP formula, as illustrated in Exhibit 7.3.

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CHAPTER 7 / Deliver presentations and speeches

EXHIBIT 7.3 PREP formula

P

R

Stands for the main point

Stands for the reason for the speech

E Stands for the example to illustrate the main point

P Stands for repeating the main point

To follow this formula, you would start with explaining the main point – for example, your commitment to an environmental issue. Follow with an example to illustrate the main point, involve the audience and add interest. Draw examples from your own experience, a friend’s experience or an experience the audience has shared. Alternatively, you may use statistics or a relevant quotation. Conclude by restating the main point in different words. This reinforces the main point and gives your speech strength and continuity. As you follow this formula, both speaker and audience reach the main point quickly.

Face-to-face and virtual presentations Online technology allows distant groups to interact over the web in meetings, make presentations, work on shared topics and build a sense of belonging. The virtual presentation allows the speaker and audience to interact, ask questions, clarify and make social connections without the associated time and travel costs of face-to-face presentations. Online technologies such as Skype are convenient ways to deliver a presentation. They are easy to administer, and the presenter and participants are able to see one another’s facial expressions and other nonverbal communication. Effective planning of an online presentation requires: • planning and preparation of the content and the venue • a reminder to be sent out and each participant’s attendance confirmed at least a day before so that all participants are added to the contact list • a welcome message to be forwarded as well as the presentation’s title and purpose • all materials to be used in the presentation to be loaded and the Skype status to show ‘Do Not Disturb’ to prevent notifications and distractions from appearing during the presentation. Guidelines for the conduct of a successful Skype presentation include: • a note into the group chat to announce the start of the presentation • checking that participants can hear and see you • guiding participants through visuals such as websites or PowerPoint or Prezi presentations • observing and responding to body language and asking for input • asking for feedback and addressing any concerns or issues • letting participants know where to get more information • concluding and following up with a ‘thank you’ message. A presentation delivered in a virtual meeting, by podcast or Skype is different from its face-to-face counterpart. The shared experience happens in a virtual world that allows the audience to listen and view the contents when and where they want rather than in a shared physical space. However, there are some similarities. In face-to-face presentations and in the virtual world, the receiver responds to elements such as language, ideas, structure and the presenter’s nonverbal communication, voice pitch, pace, pausing and inflection. Both virtual and face-to-face presentations should have a simple structure

Use familiar, unambiguous language that moves straight to the point to make the main ideas easy to understand and retain.

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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK to provide a clear pathway for the receivers. Three clear points are more effective than 10. Any online presentation should have a strong opening to gain attention and a strong closing the receivers will remember easily. Long phrases, redundancies and fillers such as ‘half a dozen of one and six of another’, ‘um, uh, ah, mm’ and ‘what I’m trying to say is’ are used to ‘fill in time’. They show the speaker has not taken the time to think through their ideas, nor to plan and structure the virtual or face-to-face presentation. Ideas structured around a central point or main theme show the audience the progression of ideas and the relationship between them. Personal experiences, examples, illustrations, facts and statistics add interest and catch the audience’s attention. Speak well in a virtual presentation by emphasising common ground in terms of experiences, interests, values and goals between yourself and the audience.

WELCOME TO AND ACKNOWLEDGEMENT OF COUNTRY A Welcome to Country and Acknowledgement of Country are both protocols that precede a meeting, speech or formal occasion. They show respect for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples and recognise the unique position of Aboriginal and Torres Strait people in Australian culture and history. An invitation to Indigenous Australians to perform a ‘Welcome to Country’ helps non-Indigenous people recognise Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander culture and history. The ‘Acknowledgement of Country’ can be performed by either an Indigenous or non-Indigenous person. The purpose is to pay respect and acknowledge Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples as the original custodians of the land. Two examples of Acknowledgments of Country (Creative Spirits 2017) are: 1. General: ‘I’d like to begin by acknowledging the Traditional Owners of the land on which we meet today. I would also like to pay my respects to Elders past and present.’ 2. Specific: ‘I’d like to begin by acknowledging the Traditional Owners of the land on which we meet today, the [people] of the [nation] and pay my respects to Elders past and present.’ Consult with Aboriginal peoples of the community where an event takes place to make sure that the ceremony pays the appropriate level of recognition and involves the right people. ‘Welcome to Country should always occur in the opening of the event in question, preferable as the first item.’ (Creative Spirits 2017) The ceremonies promote an ongoing connection to place of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Australians and shows respect for Traditional Owners.

ETHICS IN PUBLIC SPEAKING ‘Ethical communication enhances human worth and dignity by fostering truthfulness, fairness, responsibility, personal integrity, and respect for self and others.’ (The National Communication Association 2017) Ethical speakers present truthful, honest and accurate information to avoid misleading their audience. They also show respect for their audience and for their audience’s time by planning well. Ethical public speakers’ speech delivery is accurate and honest and avoids unethical practices such as abusive language, divisive, degrading or derogatory speech and stereotypes. They tell their listeners when they are using someone else’s information and acknowledge sources of information to avoid plagiarism. Rather than speaking down to an audience, they speak courteously and confidently and promote positive values. A speaker who promotes hate, fraud or crime or misrepresents facts or discriminates against others in society is unethical. Lies, exaggeration or distortion of information are dishonest and spread misinformation that may cause others to make decisions that are harmful to self and others. An audience that recognises the inaccuracies and distortions will challenge the speaker’s credibility. An audience listening to a speaker using reasoning and logical arguments supported by facts should find the speaker to be persuasive.

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CHAPTER 7 / Deliver presentations and speeches

1. For each of the following occasions, which type of speech would you choose to present – prepared, impromptu, manuscript or a co-presentation? a. Explaining to your team members how the new booking system works b. A speech to your professional association c. A thank you at your surprise birthday party d. Introducing the next speaker at a business function e. Presenting your case at the tenancy tribunal. 2. Identify at least three characteristics of: a. an informative speech b. a persuasive speech c. an entertaining speech. 3. What are the behaviours of a credible speaker? 4. A Welcome to Country ceremony pays respect to the Traditional Custodians of land. a. Why should the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples of the community be consulted? b. When should the Welcome to Country occur? c. Provide an example of an Acknowledgement to Country.

CHECKPOINT 7.1

7.2 PLAN THE PRESENTATION OR SPEECH At the planning stage, you need to establish the context in which the speech or presentation will be given. Then you are able to design a presentation that is relevant to the specific task and audience. No matter which style of speech or presentation you choose – informative, persuasive or entertaining – you must still prepare it so that it is relevant to your audience. In this planning stage, follow these six steps: 1. Determine the purpose. 2. Analyse the audience. 3. Consider the context and setting. 4. Identify your main ideas. 5. Research supporting material. 6. Plan and structure the material around a connecting theme. Each step will help you achieve your goal – a confident, well-paced delivery that engages and holds the audience’s interest.

Design the speech or presentation to inform, entertain or persuade.

DETERMINE THE PURPOSE Achieving your purpose means first setting the objectives for your speech or presentation. Identifying your audience’s expectations and needs lets you set clear objectives. Then develop the presentation or speech to achieve your objectives and help the listener understand your message. Communicate directly to the audience to catch their attention and to help you achieve your purpose.

Consider your audience.

ANALYSE THE AUDIENCE Analyse the audience in terms of their experience, age, interests and reason for attending the presentation. It is important to know these details so that you can pitch your delivery to suit your audience’s needs, interests and level of knowledge. If you do not prepare these details, you may make the

Know your audience and target materials and methods to them.

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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK mistake of presenting material that is too difficult or too basic, or that entirely misses their needs. It is, of course, easier to talk to a group of people with similar skills or backgrounds than to a diverse group.

CONSIDER THE CONTEXT AND SETTING Take the context into account.

Acknowledge the context or situation by preparing and delivering your presentation in a manner appropriate to that situation. The context may be an informal gathering of colleagues or a very formal public presentation. It is important to take this into account.

IDENTIFY YOUR MAIN IDEAS As you plan and organise your material, focus on the main purpose of your speech. As your audience has only one chance to hear you, put your ideas into logical order in a way that is easy to understand. Check that they link together and that they cover everything your audience needs to know. Organise your speech into an outline that both highlights the main ideas and presents them clearly and logically for your audience. The success of your speech or presentation depends on two parties, the presenter and the receiver, mutually acknowledging its purpose and responding appropriately. Therefore, allow enough time to: • show why your presentation and ideas matter • expand each main point with examples, stories and images.

Develop a connecting theme The connecting theme that ties together each element in your presentation is the thoughtline. It lets the audience know where your presentation is going and makes it easy for them to follow you to your conclusion. The thoughtline becomes the connecting theme or string to which each part of your presentation is attached. Plan to make the thoughtline visible to your audience from the introduction through to the conclusion. For example, ‘On my recent vacation I learned something more about eco-tourism: when you can experience nature without destroying the environment and when you cannot. Let me share with you two very different experiences I had …’. The thoughtline sets the direction of the presentation in very few words.

FROM THEORY TO PRACTICE

Why are TED talks so engaging? Most people are familiar with the TED talk phenomenon. But what makes those talks so engaging? Chris Anderson, the curator of TED, flags one of the key elements as story framing. He suggests framing the talk as a journey. This means ensuring you know where to start and where to end. Like a journey, it’s best to make sure you know where you are going. Like any good tour guide, you should know your audience and speak to their level of expertise, avoid jargon and technical speak and use specific examples to illustrate your points. Use narrative to explain your points, take the audience on a tour of discovery: present the problem and then walk them through the search for the solution and allow them to share the ‘Aha’ moment of understanding or breakthrough. This narrative journey becomes your connecting theme or thoughtline. Anyone can present a dry list of ideas or achievements, but if you present those ideas or achievements wrapped in a narrative journey of how they solved a particular problem, then you have created something compelling. Source: https://hbr.org/2013/06/how-to-give-a-killer-presentation, viewed 2 November 2018.

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>

CHAPTER 7 / Deliver presentations and speeches

>

ASK YOURSELF: Think of a problem you have solved in you work or private life. How could you frame this in terms of a journey? What was the problem that needed to be solved? Why was it a problem? What were the steps that led to the solution? Reflect on two of the popular presentations on TED. a. Identify and write what you think is the thoughtline of each. b. How does the thoughtline help the speaker present idea(s) thoroughly and completely in the short time period?

RESEARCH SUPPORTING MATERIAL Research is necessary to find facts and supporting evidence for the main ideas of your presentation. Make sure your presentation presents an objective balance as you develop the ideas in the outline. Chapter 12, Analyse and present research information, discusses this research stage more fully, identifying both primary and secondary sources available to you. Approaches to organising and arranging facts and ideas are discussed more fully in Chapter 5, Organise workplace information.

1. After you determine the purpose of your presentation, what else should you think about in the planning stage? 2. Thoughtlines: a. Define the term thoughtline. b. How does a thoughtline enhance your presentation? c. What do you use a thoughtline for as you deliver a presentation?

Research from a variety of sources and organise main ideas into a clear and logical outline.

CHECKPOINT 7.2

7.3 WRITE THE PRESENTATION OR SPEECH After considering your audience and the context, clearly identifying your main purpose and topics, researching your material and organising it, you must write the speech. As you write your presentation or speech, there are four steps to complete: 1. Structure and write it. 2. Rewrite it for the ear. 3. Practise and revise it. 4. Organise the visual aids and other support materials. Your aim at this stage is to organise your presentation in a logical sequence and in clear, concise language. While it is important to suit the needs of your audience, you must also prepare the material in a way that suits your own particular needs as a speaker.

Follow four steps.

STRUCTURE AND WRITE Once you have made an outline of your main points, write the presentation. Each part of it should progress to and clearly connect with the next part. An oral presentation has three main parts: 1. The introduction states the topic and catches the audience’s attention. It gives the audience a preview of the presentation or speech, so it is important to stimulate their interest at this stage.

Identify the key messages.

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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK 2. The body develops the theme and supports this with information. The body is the central part in which you inform, persuade or entertain the audience. 3. The conclusion reinforces and summarises the main points. It is a brief overview that gives listeners a second chance to hear them.

Introduction Stimulate interest in the introduction and present no more than three or four main points in the body.

The introduction should be brief, as it simply prepares the audience for what you are going to say. It leads them into the body of the talk by identifying your aim or main theme. Strategies to use in your introduction are to: • pose a question • relate a short anecdote • present an interesting fact • use humour appropriate to the audience and topic.

Body Develop the theme in the body.

Acknowledge a typical listener’s span of attention by presenting no more than three or four main points. Organise these under headings and subheadings. Emphasise the main points and expand them with supporting material such as: • personal experiences • examples and illustrations • facts and statistics. Make the presentation lively and interesting by including your own or other people’s experiences. A relevant personal story or example can make all the difference between a dry presentation and a memorable one. Compile or collect examples from friends, business associates, newspapers, television and radio. Exhibit 7.4 gives examples of techniques you can use to enliven your speech or presentation. It indicates the purpose of each technique and the audience’s likely response to it.

EXHIBIT 7.4 Techniques a speaker can use to enliven a presentation Technique

Purpose

Audience response

Defining a term

To sharpen understanding

Gaining clearer understanding

Relating an experience

To arouse interest

Demonstrating interest

Asking a question

To allow audience to reconsider the speaker’s point

Thinking through the answer

Making an announcement

To catch audience’s attention

Attending

Offering an explanation

To clarify a point for the audience

Gaining clearer understanding

Presenting different views on the subject

To raise curiosity

Considering alternatives

Making a request

To receive cooperation or funding

Considering own response

Summarising

To reinforce points

Expecting end of talk

Using a visual aid

To illustrate, enhance or support

Better understanding, greater interest

Including imagery

To create an impact, enliven and strengthen

Enhance comprehension and rapport with the speaker

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CHAPTER 7 / Deliver presentations and speeches Imagery such as personal anecdotes, stories, analogies and metaphors help the audience to see what you are saying. Imagery compares what you are talking about with a real thing to help the audience comprehend and remember your message. Metaphors – for example, ‘Love is a journey’ or ‘She was drowning in paperwork’ – help the speaker explain an idea or action by describing an object or action in a way that is not factually true. An analogy compares two things by comparing similar attributes to explain and make connections; for example, ‘Drawing a comparison between living life and running a race’. Successful speakers use metaphors and analogies to craft abstractions and generalities into more concrete, understandable concepts. Personal anecdotes about past successes or frustrations connect with the listeners. For example, in a presentation about the company’s social media campaign a speaker could reveal their own lack of understanding in the initial stages of the campaign of the importance of hashtags in promoting the company’s products. Members of the audience with memories of similar frustrations will connect with the speaker. A story within a speech is a useful way to convey information because they catch the audience’s attention and help them remember what has been said. Stories about a lucky break, an obstacle overcome, a story from your youth or a customer service experience catch the audience’s attention and make a speech more memorable. The advantages of storytelling and humour are also addressed later in this chapter. Dry facts are enhanced and made more memorable when the audience can associate what is being said with the image brought to mind by the metaphor, analogy, anecdote or story. Regardless of the type of imagery chosen, be sure to choose appropriate language. When in doubt about the exact meanings of words, use a dictionary. A thesaurus can provide the best word and alternatives. Other reference books, such as an encyclopedia, will give factual information, a dictionary of quotations is useful for making introductions and conclusions more interesting, and google and other online dictionaries are useful for definitions, synonyms and antonyms.

Use imagery to build rapport and create an emotional connection between you and the audience.

Conclusion To let the audience know you are about to end the talk, use signal phrases such as: • ‘in conclusion’ • ‘to summarise’ • ‘in closing’. For a long presentation, it may be easier to review or summarise each section separately. The conclusion rounds up the arguments or information you have presented in the main body of the speech. As a rule it contains no new material. It is sometimes the most memorable part of the presentation, and should always make an impact. Use: • a relevant anecdote • a quotation • an example • a recommendation. You may also conclude by inviting your audience to take some action, or by challenging them, or by asking for their cooperation or support. Thank them for their interest.

Reinforce the main points in the conclusion.

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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK Once you have written the first draft of the speech or presentation, practise it in front of a friend or family member. You could record it on a smartphone and then replay it and decide whether it needs rewriting for the ear.

REWRITE FOR THE EAR Refine the speech to meet the needs of a live audience.

Writing for the ear prepares the speech or presentation as a spoken rather than a written channel of communication. Read it aloud and listen for: • a concise, simple structure that is easy to follow • verbs in the active voice, with simple tenses • words that are easy to hear and understand • words that sound right together • breathing spaces that give the message impact • words that help the listener to connect the introduction, body and conclusion. This technique enables you to refine the speech to suit the live audience who are listening to, not reading, your message. Stories and personal anecdotes connect with the audience; a highly effective way to achieve this is the public speaking mantra, ‘Make a point. Tell a story. Tell a story. Make a point.’ Evidence shows that even if we grasp the facts, we are more likely to remember the story that illustrates it when we go back to our desks.

PRACTISE AND REVISE

Practise and revise your speech by reading it several times to become familiar with your main points.

Practise and revise your speech and rewrite anything that sounds awkward. Allow for some audience participation, especially when preparing training sessions, seminars or instructions to staff. Be willing to answer questions from the audience – this creates an active exchange between audience and speaker. Before you begin to speak, indicate whether you will invite questions: • throughout the talk • at certain breaks • at the end of the presentation. An active audience responding to questions or becoming involved in discussions and small group exercises is more likely to remember your talk. This audience will also give you valuable feedback. By practising the presentation in front of a mirror with someone listening, or with a video camera or smartphone, you can hear what your voice sounds like and observe your nonverbal communication. As you practise, you can decide how loudly or softly you want to speak, which parts of your speech to emphasise and where to pause. You can check how long the presentation will take. You can also pick up all the ‘you knows’, the ‘ums’ and ‘ers’, and another listener may help you pick up any errors in pronunciation. You will lose credibility if you use ‘gonna’ for ‘going to’ or ‘youse’ for ‘you’. Practise with your visual material, too, and decide where it is most appropriate in the presentation or speech. Anticipate questions, prepare the answers and keep within the time limit. At your practice stage, organise aids to catch the interest of the audience and reinforce your points. Two of the most useful aids for people making a prepared speech for the first time in public are notes and PowerPoint or Prezi slide shows. Notes keep the outline and main points clearly in view and help you stay on the topic. Text slides highlight key points while graphic visuals gain attention and increase interest. Visual aids are discussed more fully in the next section.

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CHAPTER 7 / Deliver presentations and speeches

1. Writing: a. List four strategies you can use to catch the audience’s attention in your introduction. b. How can organising your ideas under headings and subheadings help your delivery? c. How can you let your audience know you are about to end the talk? 2. Briefly describe the purpose of the three main parts of an oral presentation. 3. How can you emphasise and expand the main points? 4. Technique: a. Choose three techniques you can use to enliven a presentation. b. What is the likely audience response to each? 5. Rewrite and revise: a. Why should you rewrite for the ear? b. What should be your focus as you practise and revise?

CHECKPOINT 7.3

7.4 CHOOSE YOUR AIDS, MATERIALS AND PRESENTATION TECHNIQUES Effective visual aids and materials reinforce your major points, stimulate your audience and work well in the physical setting of your presentation. Ineffective visual aids and materials will bore the audience or detract from what you are saying. Select aids and materials that provide the audience with powerful images that arouse their interest in what you are saying. Presentation aids and materials may include: • computer simulations, electronic presentations and PowerPoint or Prezi presentations • diagrams, charts and posters • paper-based materials and models • whiteboard and projector, video and audio recordings.

Prepare PowerPoint or Prezi presentations to support your prepared speech.

HIGHLIGHT CONCEPTS Visual representation of illustrations, graphs and other data must emphasise and enhance your audience’s understanding of the most important concepts in your presentation. The purpose of visual aids is to simplify complexity, build your credibility, reinforce, and help the audience remember your message. Each audiovisual item should be simple and present only one point, as too much detail can be distracting. Visual aids keep the listener and speaker active, and enhance the learning and understanding process with variety. A good visual aid: • gains attention and increases interest • supports your point and emphasises connections • clarifies and aids the listener’s memory • keeps the focus on the topic, not the speaker • helps the presenter to arrange the content in a logical order. As you choose your presentation technique(s) consider carefully the budget available, the cost of equipment, the time you have to prepare and present, your preference for and ability to use different types of equipment and the location or venue. All will affect your decision. Presentation techniques include storytelling and use of humour, animation, transitions, hyperlinks and multimedia such as live action, music sound effects and incorporation of organisational signature elements such as slogans, logotypes and packaging.

Ensure any type of aid or material is brief and contains only one message to avoid confusing the audience.

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Storytelling and use of humour Use storytelling to provide context and leave an impression in your audience’s mind.

Accomplished presenters illustrate their points with the use of stories to explain complicated ideas. Sharing a story connects the audience with the presenter; however, ensure your story underscores the point. As stories are easy for the audience to remember, add a good, short, interesting story or example to make your presentation memorable.

CREATE EFFECTIVE ELECTRONIC PRESENTATIONS Presentation software such as PowerPoint, Prezi and OpenOffice make it easy to improve the visual effect by applying movement or animations to individual items (graphics, titles or bullet points). Animations are the movements of the objects.

Animation, transitions and builds Avoid excessive use of slide transitions, animation, hyperlinks and multimedia.

A slide show can be enhanced using transitions and animations. Presentation software allows music, sounds or narration to be added to a slide show. Refer to http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl for a quick guide to designing effective PowerPoint presentations. Functional animation refers to motion that is directly related to your message; for example, a highlight arrow that moves around the screen to emphasise the major points in a technical chart. Keep the animations consistent throughout your presentation by using animation schemes and applying the same transition throughout the presentation. Transitions and builds are different from animation. Transitions control how one slide replaces another on the screen by adding motion between slides. Builds control the release of text, graphics and other elements on individual slides.

Hyperlinks Hyperlinks instruct your computer to jump from one slide to another slide in your presentation, to another program or to a website. Action buttons are pre-programmed hyperlink icons in the presentation software that enable you to link to another slide, another presentation file, any file on your computer or network or a website, or add a screen tip to the hyperlink. The screen tip indicates additional information that the viewer may need to know about the hyperlink.

Signature elements

Use thumbnails to check the overall design of your presentations.

Logos, slogans and packaging are the visual signature of an organisation. Think about the retailers in Australia and one or more images immediately come to mind. The logos, slogans, packaging, and presentation of displays and merchandise create the retailer’s brand image. Whenever you plan an electronic presentation or slide show for your organisation, include the company logo and reflect any other of the company’s signature elements (refer to Chapter 14) that are relevant to your presentation’s purpose. Consistent use builds familiarity, visibility and connections as your audience recognises the image and brand projected by the logo. The use of signature elements provides useful visual cues in a presentation. Well before your presentation, examine thumbnails of all your slides on one screen to check the overall design of your slide show for logic and consistent use of signature elements. Visual aids and materials are important signals designed to improve any presentation or speech. Since people receive messages in different ways, a delivery with a variety of presentation techniques makes a stronger impact than a delivery depending only on voice and gestures.

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CHAPTER 7 / Deliver presentations and speeches

Multimedia Multimedia includes elements such as audio files, video files, animations and video streaming. Multimedia software enables you to create business presentations, design interactive product demonstrations, tutorials, brochures, movies, cartoons, walk-through demonstrations, advertisements and other business applications. As you prepare your presentation you are able use separate software applications to design your multimedia support and then embed it into a slide presentation.

Incorporate multimedia to help the audience organise and integrate information.

Intellectual property The proliferation of digital means of presentation has seen an increase in the number of intellectual property lawyers. While this chapter does not seek to cover the legal aspects of business presentations, we do recommend you become familiar with the copyright legislation and avoid breach of copyright, slander, vilification, blasphemy, discrimination and other illegal activities. If you are using music or graphics created by someone else in a podcast, you may be responsible for paying royalties for the right to webcast that music. Podcasts consist primarily of voice. There are no copyright problems or licensing fees for your voice or someone else’s voice and delivering the original content on the podcast. If a guest agrees to speak on your podcast, they have granted you a licence to use their voice and distribute the content they speak within your podcast. For an original podcast that you create, signify that the material is copyrighted by stating at the end ‘Copyright 2019 by [Your Name or Company]’. The law entitles you to a personal copyright and it serves as a warning to someone who might be tempted to lift or steal your creation. 1. List four types of aids and materials that provide the audience with powerful images. 2. Describe the characteristics of a good visual aid. 3. Why should you become familiar with copyright legislation if you are using images owned by another person or entity?

CHECKPOINT 7.4

7.5 DELIVER THE PRESENTATION OR SPEECH When making a public presentation, there is little opportunity for the two-way give and take of conversation and group discussions, so it is harder for you to establish and maintain a relationship with the audience, and to engage their attention. Therefore, an oral presentation must combine all explanations, information, visual aids, choice of words, vocal qualities, body movement and nonverbal communication in a way that catches the audience’s attention and builds rapport. It must also, of course, be relevant and structured into the three parts shown in Exhibit 7.5.

EXHIBIT 7.5 ABC packaging technique

A

B

C

Attention-grabbing introduction

Backed-up by supportive body

Conclusion providing strong reinforcement

Establish and maintain a relationship with the audience. Vary voice pitch and character to complement and emphasise points, speaking slowly and clearly.

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AUDIENCE CENTREDNESS

Incorporate visual aids to keep the listener alert.

Presentations and speeches are designed to inform, entertain or persuade. Keep your audience focused and interested and let them see you know your material. View one of the TedX Talks at https://www.youtube.com > tedx talks for examples of techniques the speaker uses to connect with and hold the interest of their audience. The ABC packaging concept shown in Exhibit 7.5 illustrates how the three major parts of any successful presentation or speech gain interest and focus the audience. During your business presentation, focus the audience on key phrases about your topic and include only essential information. Check that your thoughtline attaches the top three or four points about the topic to your theme and make them consistently throughout the delivery. Engage your audience and maintain their attention with a few anecdotes and practical examples to illustrate a point. This will make it easier for them to understand complex issues, remember what it is that you have said and follow up your ideas to the conclusion. If you choose to use PowerPoint or Prezi slides, use only three or four bullet points per slide, and limit punctuation. Ensure the slide is easy to read by avoiding excessive use of capital letters, fancy fonts, animations and transitions. Text and background with contrasting colours with a clean, straightforward layout and consistent colour scheme are appropriate for business presentations. Keep the number of slides to a minimum to ensure that the presentation does not become too long and boring. Add variety by combining photos and graphs, and even embedding digitised videos with text to maintain audience interest. Remember, a slide show and any other materials are meant to be visual aids, not the focus of the presentation.

NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION The content of your talk and your physical and vocal behaviour all communicate something. Aim to establish and maintain a confident, wellpaced delivery that sounds natural and looks comfortable. A confident speaker appears natural and comfortable.

Engage your audience.

Speaking well requires more than careful planning and preparing. It also involves choosing a verbal and nonverbal communication style that feels natural and appropriate to the presentation. Be yourself and use nonverbal behaviour that matches your words. The first few times you give a business presentation or speech you may feel nervous or suffer stage fright. Experience and good preparation are the best strategies for overcoming this, and further advice is offered in the next section. A range of nonverbal behaviours can modify or change your spoken presentation by repeating, contradicting, substituting, complementing or accenting certain words. Some examples are: • posture • facial expressions • appearance and dress • hand, arm, shoulder and head gestures • voice quality, volume and articulation, and variation in the rate of speech. When you make a presentation, your audience has only one opportunity to take in your message. You must therefore speak clearly and at a suitable pace, and use nonverbal behaviour in a way that helps to convey your message to the audience. View one of the presentations from the TED ‘Before public speaking’ playlist at https://www.ted.com/playlists/226/before_public_speaking. Reflect on how the speaker structures the content, incorporates imagery and uses nonverbal communication to reinforce their verbal message and signals the end of the presentation.

ANXIETY OR STAGE FRIGHT Anxiety is a normal response to public speaking. It is usually worst right before and at the beginning of a speech. However, even nervousness can be useful. Replace any negative thoughts with positive ones 182 Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202

CHAPTER 7 / Deliver presentations and speeches and think about success. Consider stage fright as positive nervousness that provides the extra emotional or physical energy necessary to deliver the speech or presentation successfully. Know the topic and be aware of your audience and the situation. Avoid any surprises by checking all equipment to make sure it is available and in working order. This may include a Web conferencing system, a projection system, your laptop, electrical outlets, seating, pens, paper and anything else you might need.

Learn how to relax to remove unwanted body tension.

Breathing exercises As an exercise to improve breath control, breathe deeply, concentrating on the diaphragm rather than the lungs. Erect posture allows deep breathing (and creates a good impression, too). Movement before and during your presentation can ease muscle tension and assist breathing. Learning how to relax many parts of the body removes unwanted tension and ensures a smooth and measured delivery. As you wait to speak, squeeze your hands together and then release them or tighten and relax your leg muscles. Centred breathing, mental rehearsal and positive thinking in the planning stage are essential to a successful delivery. Relaxation can help anxiety, and it is worth finding a method you feel comfortable with. For example, some people focus on their positive and competent aspects. Others choose to breathe deeply. Nervousness is almost invisible if you act positively. Smile at your audience and someone is likely to smile back. This increases confidence and creates empathy between you and the audience. As you speak, act confident and you are likely to earn the audience’s respect.

Prepare well and practise your delivery to reduce anxiety.

Thorough preparation Thorough preparation and research reduce anxiety and stage fright, so make sure that you know the subject well. This will help you feel confident. Thorough preparation also helps you respond to any questions and challenges from the audience. Remind yourself that you have been asked to speak on the topic because of your knowledge and experience. Most people are more critical of their performance than the audience is. An audience appreciates your preparation, knowledge and willingness to address them. The key to overcoming stage fright is to know your subject well, and to practise delivering it. The more opportunities you have to practise – to speak at meetings, conduct a co-presentation or address a group of clients – the more your confidence and skill will increase. Consider joining a public speaking group, a drama society or a professional association to gain experience, confidence and skills for public speaking. 1. How can you overcome the lack of the two-way give and take of conversations and group discussions when you deliver a presentation? 2. How can you handle anxiety or stage fright? 3. Provide examples of nonverbal behaviour that can modify the meaning of the speaker’s words.

Present positively and dynamically.

CHECKPOINT 7.5

7.6 HANDLE DIFFICULT MEMBERS OF AN AUDIENCE Whenever you stand in front of an audience as a manager, trainer, specialist or guest speaker, members of that audience may ask questions to seek more information, clarify ideas or state their own views. Some of the questions may be difficult or intimidating. The person who asks the question may be one of the types shown in Exhibit 7.6. 183 Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202

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EXHIBIT 7.6 Types of people who question Questioners

Proposed solution

The hostile questioner

Rephrase the question minus the hot words and hostile tone.

Those who digress from the issue or topic

Remind them politely that you are discussing a different issue or topic.

Those who like to dominate the discussion

Draw others in the audience into the discussion by asking, ‘What do the rest of you think?’

Those with a hidden agenda

Remind them politely to stay with the context of the presentation and discussion.

Those who instead of asking a question make an extended comment

Observe the person’s speaking rate and when they take a moment for a breath interrupt with ‘Thanks for your comment … Next question?’

Those who ask a loaded question

Rephrase to defuse before answering by saying, ‘I understand your frustration with the recent changes. I believe what you are asking is …’ and then answer.

Intimidating questions Answer difficult or intimidating questions courteously and confidently.

Identify the type of questioner and respond appropriately.

Avoid panic and defensive responses.

Difficult or intimidating questions place you in a difficult situation. Irrespective of the purpose or intent of an intimidating question, you must still answer it. Diplomacy and politeness are the key words in this situation. Avoid being drawn into an irrelevant argument, discussion or side issue. Stay with the relevant issues and address the question in a constructive manner. An intimidating question might: • be critical of your research • be asked in a challenging or discourteous manner. Whenever an intimidating question is asked, take a moment to reflect on the question while considering the following: • Is the question relevant to what is being presented? • Is the question out of context? • Is the question simply a comment on what is being said? • Is the question too controversial? • Is the question simply promoting that person to the group? Think carefully about the question and the questioner. Both may provide sufficient insight to enable you to deal with the question. Some useful phrases to use as you handle difficult or intimidating questions are: • ‘Let’s deal with that question later.’ • ‘We will be dealing with that issue later, so can we keep that question until then?’ • ‘I simply do not know the answer. I will research it and get back to you.’ • ‘This question does not seem to really apply to the topic, so shall we move on?’ • ‘It sounds as though you have been through some difficulties.’ • ‘Can anybody else comment on this question?’ (This response involves the audience and provides you with a moment to ponder the question.) If you are asked a challenging question, avoid panic or defensive argument. The situation can be handled by not taking on your challenger. In a situation where you may know you are right, informing your challenger that they are wrong, or belittling them, is likely to inflame the situation.

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CHAPTER 7 / Deliver presentations and speeches It is preferable to use the strategies in Exhibit 7.6 to agree with your challenger and encourage further discussion with other audience members. You are then in the position of moderator for this particular issue, rather than being in conversation with the individual. This strategy means you are seen as being involved with the group and sharing information. Some tips for handling challenging questions are: 1. Avoid panic; take a moment to reflect on the question. 2. If you don’t know the answer, say that you will research the question and get back to the questioner. 3. When challenging questions are asked, involve the audience with a prompt along the lines of: ‘This is an excellent question. What do you think?’ 4. When a criticising question is asked, agree with the questioner on some level, no matter how small, as it helps establish rapport and shows you are open-minded. 5. Try to anticipate tricky or criticising questions – this strategy will help you come up with appropriate responses that reflect well on you as the speaker. Irrespective of how a question is asked, always be assertive, clear and polite with your answer. You may feel you are under attack. If so, remain calm and courteous at all times, as this will help to defuse what could become a volatile situation and prevent matters from deteriorating. The assertion skills described in Chapter 2, Develop emotional intelligence and interpersonal intelligence, provide a number of strategies you can use. Questioning and feedback skills are particularly useful.

Remain courteous and calm at all times.

Noisy audiences Anxiety about public speaking or presentations affects everyone at some time. In fact, a number of people are quite paranoid about speaking in public or making presentations. This is quite normal. No matter how well prepared you are, there may be occasions when you will encounter a noisy audience. The noisy audience can be very disruptive and difficult. The action plan in Exhibit 7.7 provides some useful hints in coping with this situation.

Self-evaluate or appraise before and after your presentation.

EXHIBIT 7.7 Action plan: Noisy audiences Action by the deliverer

Result

Stop talking until silence resumes

Focuses on the noisy ones and makes them aware of how noisy and disruptive they are

Move closer to those making the noise

Makes the noisy members of the audience aware of your presence

Ask the remainder of the audience to ask for silence

Encourages the audience to collaborate with you by requesting noisy members to be quiet and allow them to listen

Ask questions of the noisy ones

Brings them back to the discussion

Use the names of the noisy ones

Involves them by making a personal connection and links them to you

Use positive nonverbal communication, including smiles

Reassures your audience you are in control

1. Difficult questioners: a. Identify four types of people who ask difficult questions. b. Propose a solution for each type. 2. Create a tip list for handling challenging questions. 3. List three actions you can take when an audience is noisy.

CHECKPOINT 7.6

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7.7 REVIEW THE PRESENTATION OR SPEECH Self-evaluation or review of your presentation provides you with invaluable feedback. You can evaluate before and after your speech or presentation. Self-appraisal lets you: • learn about your current level of competence • acknowledge what you did well • identify any areas for improvement. Effective speakers set standards for their performance. They try to present to the best of their ability. Appraising your own performance enables you to build and strengthen your current level of skill in speaking or making a presentation in public. Check that your speech achieves its objective – to inform, persuade or entertain or a combination of these. Does the content suit the audience? Consider how the: • introduction establishes the reasons for listening to the speaker • body stays focused and enthusiastic • conclusion remains concise, memorable or a call to action. By seriously self-appraising your planning and performance, you are coming to understand your strengths and weaknesses. This understanding enables you to build on your strengths and improve any areas of weakness that may have been identified in the checklists.

CONSTRUCTIVE FEEDBACK

Seek constructive feedback to enable you to improve your delivery performance.

CHECKPOINT 7.7

Constructive feedback informs and encourages the presenter and allows them to make changes that build on strengths and improve any areas of weakness. Before your speech, have a practice delivery with a friend or colleague and ask them for feedback. Constructive feedback before the presentation lets you make changes. After your speech or presentation, you can evaluate your planning and the way you presented, and identify any other changes you would like to make to your delivery style. From the point of view of the presenter, an evaluation sheet filled in by the audience provides instant feedback. The presenter can then appraise their performance. Without feedback, you will have to self-evaluate. Informal feedback, such as comments from the audience, also helps you evaluate your performance. Becoming an effective public speaker requires work. Speaking skills must be refined through practice. 1. What is the purpose of constructive feedback? 2. List two reasons for seeking feedback from others about your presentation or speech. 3. What should reviewers consider as they evaluate a presentation?

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CHAPTER 7 / Deliver presentations and speeches

LEARNING ACTIVITIES SUMMARY 7.1 Discuss the purpose of different types of public speaking and presentations. In the workplace, you may sometimes have to speak on a work-related issue to a large group of people. The oral presentations you may be asked to make include introductions, instructions, team briefings, speeches of welcome or congratulation, brief oral reports and formal presentations. Usually, such presentations aim to inform, persuade or entertain the audience. To achieve these aims, you need to plan well and present your material confidently. 7.2 Plan the speech or presentation with a connecting theme. Careful planning allows you to present your main points clearly. Research your topic and arrange your main points in a logical structure. Prepare an interesting introduction, a body that develops the main points and a stimulating conclusion. Consider your audience, their age, interests and reason for being at the presentation. Select relevant information appropriate to the purpose, audience and context of your presentation or speech. Connect your main ideas with a thoughtline. The language you use should be straightforward and neither too difficult nor too easy. Ensure that your information is ethical (truthful, honest and accurate) and avoids misrepresenting and stereotyping any groups in society. 7.3 Describe four steps to follow as you write a speech or presentation. The first step is to structure and write the presentation. Then rewrite it for the ear, practise and revise it, and organise the visual aids and support materials. 7.4 Use electronic presentations, aids, materials and examples to enhance audience understanding of key concepts and central ideas. Effective electronic presentations or slide shows fully engage your audience and emphasise important concepts through visual representation of data, illustrations, narratives, videos

and virtual objects. Animation, transitions, hyperlinks and multimedia can heighten your audience’s interest in the presentation; however, too many may distract them from your message. The aim of any aid is to reinforce your main points, so choose and illustrate them effectively. 7.5 Deliver a speech or presentation confidently. As you deliver the speech or presentation, express yourself clearly and audibly. A friendly voice and a smile also help to engage your audience. Enthusiasm, humour, gestures and facial expressions attract the audience’s attention. Vary your tone and speed to avoid a monotonous delivery. Eye contact, an essential element of a good presentation or speech, engages the audience’s attention at the start of the speech and secures their interest and respect throughout. Dress appropriately, as physical appearance shapes first impressions. 7.6 Outline strategies for handling difficult audience members. There are occasions when audience members ask difficult or intimidating questions. Find an opportunity to agree with the questioner at some level or to find some point of agreement. This can be an invaluable tool as it can help to defuse a contentious situation. Assertive strategies and open, closed and reflective questions help you handle the difficult or intimidating question or a noisy audience. 7.7 Review your performance to identify strengths and address weaknesses (if any). Evaluate your own performance and how the audience viewed your presentation. Before the presentation you can evaluate the quality of your preparation. After the presentation, evaluate your voice, nonverbal communication, resources, timing and rapport with the audience. The results of the evaluation should be used to improve any weaknesses and build on your strengths.

KEY TERMS body briefing conclusion

constructive feedback impromptu speech introduction

manuscript speech nonverbal behaviours podcast

prepared speech stage fright thoughtline

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LEARNING ACTIVITIES 1. Work in groups for this exercise a. Each person in the group writes down two topics for a speech on a card or small piece of paper. Choose any appropriate subject, such as your favourite sport or pastime, a pet hate or the power of the media. b. Shuffle the cards and place them face down. Each member of the group selects a card and gives an impromptu two-minute speech on either of the two topics listed on it. As you speak, follow the PREP formula. 2. Assume you work as the manager of a medium-sized travel agency. Your agency has booked more Virgin Airlines flights over the past 12 months than any other travel agency in the world. As part of your reward for this

achievement, Richard Branson himself is coming to visit your travel agency in three weeks’ time. When you hear the news, you immediately start preparing a speech to deliver to your staff. You must inform them of when Richard Branson will arrive, what will happen during his visit, who will be responsible for the range of tasks to be completed on the day, and what pre-visit arrangements need to be made. Prepare and deliver a speech for this information session. Invent the necessary details. 3. Online presentations a. Why are podcasts and video clips replacing other types of presentations? b. How can you show the audience the progression of ideas in a podcast?

GROUP ACTIVITY Work in groups of three. Your task is to prepare and deliver a persuasive co-presentation to the larger group. Assume you are a team of inventors who have just finished work on the prototype for a new washing machine that uses half the water and half the power of the average household washing machine. In addition, it doesn’t need any laundry powders or liquids because it removes dirt by – a world first – penetrating laser beams (which do not damage the items being washed). You are pitching your invention to senior management at Whirlaway. In your briefing you will need to emphasise: 1. the product’s features 2. the advantages this washing machine has over other machines

3. the benefits Whirlaway gains by purchasing your idea 4. the benefits Whirlaway gains by being the sole global manufacturer and retailer of the washing machine. During the co-presentation your team should instruct the audience in how the machine works, provide a visual image and explain how easy it will be to sell to the public. Task Part A – Work together to plan the presentation. Part B – Before your presentation, write a short memo or written summary to leave with your audience at the end of the presentation. Part C – Deliver the co-presentation.

CASE STUDY FASDEL TRANSPORT COMPANY Ari is one of the supervisors for the Supply Chain Solutions Group of the FASDEL Transport Company. Recently, Ari gave a speech at a gathering of supervisors from all the interstate branches of FASDEL. Ari’s team was recently involved in a pilot program designed to improve customer service standards. The initiative for the program came from Ari and he was satisfied with the outcome. His

speech explained the idea behind the program, how it was being carried out and the positive results they had achieved. Ari thoroughly prepared and practised his presentation and felt satisfied with it. However, he was very disappointed with his colleagues’ reactions to his speech. He felt confronted and attacked when some

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>

CHAPTER 7 / Deliver presentations and speeches

>

members of the audience started to ask challenging questions. You are Ari’s line manager. You decide to hold a short one-on-one training session with Ari to help him better adapt to handling challenging questions. You think Ari may also appreciate some hints and tips on appraising his own performance after a presentation.

Questions 1. What hints and cues would you give Ari to appraise his own performance? Create a checklist of appropriate hints and tips. 2. Prepare a set of guidelines to help you train Ari, which he can keep for future reference.

BIBLIOGRAPHY Anderson, Chris, 2017. TED TALKS The Official TED Guide to Public Speaking, Nicholas, Brealey Publishing, London, UK. Beebe, Steven A. & Beebe, Susan J. 2017. A Concise Public Speaking Handbook, 5th edn, Pearson, Upper Saddle River, NJ. Creative Spirits. 2017. Aboriginal culture – Spirituality – Welcome to Country & Acknowledgement of Country, https://www.creativespirits.info/aboriginalculture/ spirituality/welcome-to-country-acknowledgement-ofcountry, viewed 19 November 2017. Fensholt, M.F. 2006. The Francis Effect: The Real Reason You Hate Public Speaking and How To Get Over It, Oakmont Press, Ontario, CA. Gallo, Carmine. 2014. Talk Like TED: The 9 Public-Speaking Secrets of the World’s Top Minds, St Martin’s Press, New York, NY. Hobson, Neville. 2009. How to Create Effective Podcasts to Engage Your Audience, http://www.slideshare.net/neville/ effective-podcasting, viewed 26 February 2018. Lucas, S. 2014. The Art of Public Speaking, 12th edn, McGraw-Hill, New York, NY. Maxey, C. & O’Connor, K.E. 2006. Present Like a Pro: The Field Guide to Mastering the Art of Business, Professional, and Public Speaking, St Martin’s Griffin, New York, NY.

National Communication Association. 2017. Ethics in Public Speaking, https://saylordotorg.github.io/text_stand-upspeak-out-the-practice-and-ethics-of-public-speaking/s0502-ethics-in-public-speaking.html, viewed 27 November 2017. OWL Purdue Online Writing Lab. Designing an Effective PowerPoint Presentation: Quick Guide, https://owl.english. purdue.edu/owl/resource/686/01/, viewed 4 March 2018. Reconciliation Australia. 2017. Welcome to and Acknowledgement of Country, https:// www.reconciliation.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/ Welcome-to-and-Acknowledgement-of-Country.pdf, viewed 23 November 2017. Speech Tips Page. How to Write a Speech, http:// www.speechtips.com/how-to-write-a-speech.html, viewed 7 February 2018. TED. 2017. Ideas Worth Spreading playlist, https:// www.ted.com/playlists/226/before_public_speaking, viewed 26 February 2018. TedX Talks. Ideas from Communities Around the World, https://www.youtube.com/user/TEDxTalks, viewed 12 February 2018. training.gov.au, BSBCMM401: Make a Presentation, https:// training.gov.au/Training/Details/BSBCMM401, viewed 3 September 2018.

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DEVELOP NEGOTIATION AND CONFLICT MANAGEMENT SKILLS

CHAPTER

8

Your Learning Journey

t Wha

on? otiati g e n is

STYLES

8.2 STRATEGIES

INFLUENCES

Chapter 8

8.1

NEGOTIATION options + consequences

win-win / win-lose lose-lose / lose-win

power / emotional intelligence

conflict avoidance / capitulation no compromise / compromise

Different options - different outcomes Compromise (win-win or win-lose)

8.4 MANAGING

8.5 8.6 Here is a CONFLICT MAP it really provides a clear picture of the issues/conflict

CONSTRUCTIVE BEHAVIOURS ...personal qualities can affect negotiation + strategy

Collaboration (win-win)

CONFLICT

Competition (win-lose)

...understand the cause + the levels before ‘crisis’ hits Responses can be affected by ingrained behaviours

success = emotional intelligence Listen, focus on the problem + work together

8.3

3 Stages Pre / Formal / Post negotiation Focus on mutual interests + value

Accommodation (win-lose) Withdrawal (lose-lose)

Options are influenced by? EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE

THE CONTEXT

INTEREST-BASED negotiation

CH 9

Next IMPLEMENT + MONITOR A SAFE WORKPLACE

COMMUNICATION / NEGOTIATION SKILLS

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CHAPTER 8 / Develop negotiation and conflict management skills

LEARNING OBJECTIVES After studying this chapter, you should be able to: 8.1 explain what negotiation is and the likely effect of different negotiation strategies and personal styles 8.2 discuss five basic negotiating options and their consequences 8.3 explain the ‘fair go’ approach of interest-based negotiation 8.4 explain how to manage conflict without damaging relationships 8.5 identify personal qualities and conflict management strategies that facilitate constructive response to conflict 8.6 chart common interests and concerns in a conflict map.

8.1 WHAT IS NEGOTIATION? Negotiation is a process in which two or more parties try to resolve differences, solve problems and reach agreement. Good negotiation meets as many interests as possible with an agreement that is durable. It deals with any conflict before it escalates and aims to avoid damage to relationships. As the negotiators exchange information, discuss alternatives, and make offers and counter offers, communication should be a two-way street. The outcome from an effective negotiation is a mutually acceptable agreement that achieves the best possible outcome for both parties.

NEGOTIATION STRATEGIES Although negotiation has a specific purpose – to reach agreement – it does not always achieve this aim. Before attempting to negotiate, consider the differences between the following four strategies in Exhibit 8.1.

Focus on interests rather than positions to negotiate agreements beneficial to both parties.

Engage in win–win strategies to meet the needs of both parties.

EXHIBIT 8.1 Negotiation strategies Strategy

Outcome

1. Win–win strategies aim to meet the needs of both parties, not to win positions or gain victories at one party’s expense.

Satisfies the needs and gains commitment of both parties to the settlement negotiated. Assertive communication, ‘I’ messages, good verbal and nonverbal communication and careful listening all help to achieve it.

2. Win–lose strategies result in the party who initiates the conflict being satisfied and the other dissatisfied.

Focuses on the initiator’s problem to the exclusion of the other’s. The initiator wins. Many people who adopt this strategy use a confusing presentation or a dominating style of speech and body language.

3. Lose–win strategies give a situation in which the initiator is dissatisfied and the other is satisfied.

Means the losing party usually makes too many concessions. In an extreme case, the win–lose and the lose–win styles of negotiation can lead to a deadlock followed by the lose–lose result.

4. Lose–lose strategies lead to situations where agreement cannot be reached – both parties walk away from the negotiation dissatisfied.

Occurs when the objectives of both parties are too rigid, or when both parties are unable to collaborate. A third party may mediate to help them reach a solution, or arbitrate and make the decision on behalf of both parties. Both sides may lose.

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Move towards positive outcomes through an understanding of the different negotiation strategies, your personal style in negotiations and the other party’s personal negotiation style. Respond clearly to the real message in a negotiation.

FROM THEORY TO PRACTICE

Each negotiation strategy is named after the outcome it is likely to produce: win–win, win–lose, lose–win or lose–lose. Each strategy has a different result. The first strategy lets both parties win; the second and third make one party win and one lose; the fourth strategy has both parties lose. In any negotiation, be aware of your own and the other person’s objectives and expectations. Keep your objectives reasonable and try to avoid the lose–lose outcome.

PERSONAL STYLES IN NEGOTIATION Whenever people come together to negotiate, they bring their own personal styles, and these affect the way they communicate and handle the conflict. The following classification (Hellreigel et al. 1988) shows how personal style can help or hinder a negotiation and how it can cause, prevent or resolve conflict: • Self-denying people may be difficult to negotiate with because they are introverted, hide their feelings and ideas and are reticent with information, especially feedback. • Self-protecting people use diversionary tactics, such as discussing other people or side-tracking to other issues, to hide their true feelings and their ideas. • Self-exposing people wish to be the centre of attention and may demand this attention by speaking loudly, speaking over others, using attention-seeking body language, or ignoring feedback and others’ views. • Self-bargaining people will show you their feelings and ideas if you show yours first and wait until you lead them into negotiation before they open up; they only negotiate when others initiate the process. • Self-actualising people are the ideal negotiators, as they want information and feedback from others and present information and feedback constructively to aid the negotiation process and to achieve goals and results without any conflict. If you can recognise what style someone is using in the negotiation and conflict management processes, you will become more capable of distinguishing the real message from how it is delivered. This skill will also help you to respond clearly.

Styles of conflict A conflict style is a consistent pattern that you tend to use when you negotiate a disagreement with others. It can be very helpful, when negotiating conflict, to understand the different conflict styles. According the University of Notre Dame, there are five styles of conflict resolution. 1. Conflict avoidance – This style involves the negotiator avoiding or removing themselves from the conflict. This is a ‘stick your head in the sand’ strategy, where someone pretends the conflict hasn’t happened and there’s nothing wrong, or they refuse to talk about the situation/ problem or negotiate. No consideration is given to other people involved. This strategy involves no cooperation or courage. 2. Capitulation – This strategy is about giving in to the other party. It requires a high level of cooperation but little courage. This style can end a conflict in the short term; but, as it doesn’t address the concerns of the person giving in, it can lead to resentment in the long term. 3. No compromise – This strategy is all about ‘standing your ground’. It’s a ‘win at all costs’ strategy that requires courage but shows little consideration or respect for the other people involved. While this strategy might win a conflict, it can damage relationships and create longterm issues of resentment and further conflict. 4. Compromise – This strategy is about finding common ground. It requires courage and consideration of other points of view. Bigger issues are negated but smaller issues are

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CHAPTER 8 / Develop negotiation and conflict management skills

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compromised on or let go. This involves both parties compromising on some things to find a middle-ground solution. 5. Collaboration – This style produces resolutions that give each side what they want. It requires creative thinking, attentive listening, a high level of consideration for all parties and a large amount of courage. The collaborative negotiator teases out the areas of agreement and finds common goals to help them work towards a solution that meets the needs of all parties. Source: https://www.notredameonline.com/resources/negotiations/the-five-styles-of-conflict-resolution/#. W-tmaeJoRaR, viewed 14 November 2018.

ASK YOURSELF: What type of strategy do you tend to use? Consider a conflict you have been involved with recently. Which style of negotiation did you use? How about the person you were in conflict with? Might the issues have been resolved differently if you had used a different strategy?

POWER IN NEGOTIATION When an organisation delegates work to its people to get the job done, it gives them power to act. Power may be used to influence and, in some cases, to control people. It can also be used to bring about change. Power can be exerted over one person or a group by another person or group. Used well, power achieves good communication and results. Power can be used to manipulate others. The likely result is tension and conflict. Six types of workplace power are shown in Exhibit 8.2. They operate in any workplace, either singly or in combination. Perception of what power is and how it should be used varies between people and organisations. Acknowledgement of, and deference to, power depends on peoples’ perception of power and its use.

Use power effectively to make decisions and take action.

EXHIBIT 8.2 Power at work Type

Base of power

Example

Legitimate power

Legitimate power is based on a person’s position or role in an organisation. Their authority and control over resources give them power that is acknowledged by others.

Chief Executive Officer (CEO) of a large organisation

Expertise power

People who have more skills and strengths than others have expertise power; their colleagues defer to them.

Graphic designer or computer expert

Reward power

Reward power is exerted by someone who has control over resources desired by others. Such a person can influence and manipulate others.

Employer who distributes a bonus annually

Coercive power

Coercive power is exerted by those who use their authority or any force (emotional or physical) against the interests of the other party.

Team leader who allocates duties, hours of work, overtime and holidays in ways that enforce compliance

Referent power

Referent power is held by someone who is respected, admired, liked or personally identified with by others.

Cathy Freeman, who is admired and respected for her achievements

A person who has power, particularly over the allocation and use of resources, must be willing and able to use that power to make decisions and take action. If they refuse, or are unable to do this, conflict will arise because processes that are essential to the running of the workplace do not take place. 193 Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202

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EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE IN NEGOTIATION Use emotional intelligence to communicate, listen, understand and respond effectively.

A person who is emotionally intelligent is able to acknowledge the underlying emotional factors at play, as well as the issue and people in the negotiation. The capacity to be self-aware, to control and express your own emotions and at the same time have the social awareness to acknowledge how others interact and handle the interpersonal relationships is invaluable in a negotiation. ‘Two of the most important skills that negotiators require for effective social awareness are active listening and reading nonverbal _ 2016, p. 58) cues. These skills foster empathy.’ (Kelly & Kaminskieneb The verbal and nonverbal communication of emotionally intelligent negotiators is open, confident and oriented to the needs and concerns of both parties. They are able to manage and negotiate conflict by handling difficult people and awkward situations, bringing disagreements into the open and encouraging win–win solutions. Throughout a negotiation they use: • open and non-threatening body language and vocal qualities • attending listening to focusing on the speaker(s) • encouraging listening to invite the speaker(s) to continue • reflective listening, paraphrasing and summarising to clarify and understand • active listening to show empathy with the speaker • positive informative and immediate feedback that focuses on behaviour to describe what has been done, or needs to be done. Goleman (2005) identifies the competencies associated with relationship management as ‘influence, inspirational leadership, and ability to be a change-catalyst, ability to create and maintain networks, and where appropriate the ability to build effective constituencies’. Emotionally intelligent negotiators promote a friendly and cooperative atmosphere, collaborate, share information and maintain a balance between the task and relationships. Positive feedback in a negotiation acknowledges the role and contribution of the other person and encourages the repetition of desired behaviour. Feedback that judges or threatens the other person damages the relationship. For example, when Jack, an account executive with over 10 years’ experience returned from his lunch break 15 minutes late, he was shocked to find himself being rebuked, asked why he was late and told by his manager he was not a team player in front of his colleagues. The manager’s lack of social awareness and the social skills underpinning relationship management humiliated Jack and damaged the relationship between Jack and his manager. As discussed in Chapter 2, open questions invite the other person to talk, while closed questions invite the other person to give a ‘yes’ or ‘no’ response. Probing questions are used to gain more details and mirror questions show interest in what the other person has said. ‘Why’ questions are avoided because they may make other people in the negotiation feel defensive and justify their position rather than seek new ideas or further understanding.

Barriers to negotiation When you are in a negotiation or conflict situation, psychological barriers may arise. Psychological barriers to negotiation may include fear of being taken for a ride, wanting to be liked, wanting to be ‘nice’, lack of self-confidence and fear of conflict or confrontation. Other psychological barriers include guilt about wanting to be assertive, feeling intimidated by so-called powerful people and fear of losing face with the boss or colleagues. Viewing a negotiation as a battle and trying to win at all costs rather seeing the negotiation as an opportunity to build a relationship and find and claim value from a situation is a common barrier. Another is asking too few questions or not asking the right questions to explore the thoughts and ideas of the other party. The result is misunderstanding what the party values and wants. For example, a 194 Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202

CHAPTER 8 / Develop negotiation and conflict management skills customer may value quality, service, delivery, response time and payment terms more than they value price. By focusing only on price in a negotiation without asking about other value considerations, a sales professional may lose a sale. Playing the ‘blame game’ is another barrier that makes the negotiation situation difficult. If one party blames the other it is likely to create defiance or withdrawal. The likely outcome is competition or withdrawal rather than cooperation, value creation and agreement. Barriers block empathy, lead to defensiveness and lower people’s self-esteem. When either party uses them, conflict is increased rather than resolved. In contrast, the opportunity to resolve conflict and find new opportunities for cooperation is enhanced when strategies such as active listening, ‘I’ messages (as discussed in Chapter 2) and assertive behaviour are used to increase understanding and show empathy. An emotionally intelligent negotiator has the ability to identify their emotions and apply them to thinking and problem solving as they negotiate. They avoid barriers to negotiation because they are able to manage and regulate their own emotions and have the social skills to build consensus and support as the negotiation focus on the interests of both parties. 1. Negotiation: a. What are the outcomes of a good negotiation? b. List five negotiation strategies. 2. Negotiation styles: a. Briefly discuss five personal styles that might be used in a negotiation. b. Which negotiation style is likely to be used in a win–win negotiation? 3. Power, negotiation skills and barriers to negotiation: a. List five types of workplace power. b. How would you describe the verbal and nonverbal communication skills of good negotiators? c. Identify three barriers to negotiation.

8.2 NEGOTIATING OPTIONS In the negotiating process, the parties involved may choose one of five different negotiation options. Each has a different possible outcome. A skilful negotiator is able to identify them and recognise which one is being used by the other person (see Exhibit 8.3). 1. Compromise means to settle differences through concessions made by one or both parties. A compromise usually produces a win–win or win–lose result. When the settlement meets the needs and goals of both parties (win–win), both are satisfied with the outcome. When the solution meets the needs and goals of only one party (win–lose), the other party is dissatisfied with the outcome. 2. Collaboration involves people cooperating to produce a solution satisfactory to both parties (win–win). It improves personal relationships and allows the exploration of new ideas. Permanent solutions and commitment to them can be achieved this way. On the other hand, it is time-consuming and demands good negotiating skills on each side. 3. Competition often leads to one party gaining advantage over the other, if it can negotiate at the expense of the other’s needs. Since the competitive approach usually produces a win–lose result, it is bad for personal relationships. The solution is likely to be temporary, as there is no commitment from the losing party, so the problem will occur again. It also leaves the losing side in a difficult situation. 4. Accommodation means that only one party is willing to oblige or adapt to meet the needs of the other. It produces a win–lose outcome. However, this method is useful for negotiating on minor matters.

CHECKPOINT 8.1

Recognise five different negotiating options; communicate positively and work towards agreement.

Improve relationships through collaboration.

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EXHIBIT 8.3 The probable impact of negotiation options and conflict resolution strategies on relationships and goal achievement High importance ACCOMMODATE lose–win

COLLABORATE win–win

COMPROMISE

WITHDRAW lose–lose

Low importance

COMPETE win–lose

High importance

The result can go one way or the other. It is suitable if the accommodating party does not really care about the loss. However, the negotiating parties may not bother to look for creative solutions. With this negotiation method, points of view are easily swayed. 5. Withdrawal (avoidance) is a negotiation method that makes both parties lose, because one party retracts their point of view or backs away from the situation. This means that negotiation is broken off before either party can find an acceptable solution. Such dissatisfaction may lead to conflict in the future.

THE NEGOTIATION CONTEXT Consider the context.

The choice of negotiating option will be influenced by the context in which you negotiate, your emotional intelligence and by your range of personal communication and negotiation skills. The skills of self-awareness, self-regulation, social awareness and relationship management facilitate collaboration and movement towards an ‘I win–you win’ agreement. As alternatives are suggested, effective use of speaking, nonverbal communication, listening and questioning skills help both parties to explore and make satisfying and productive offers. Rather than talking too much, not listening or failing to pay close attention to the other party’s body language, skilled negotiators pay close attention to what is said (and not said), are sensitive to nonverbal cues and have the self-control and emotional intelligence to avoid taking things personally. Refer to Exhibit 8.4 for an example of a negotiation in the win–win context and examples in other different contexts. Column two shows (in bold) the effect of a chosen negotiation option on the negotiating parties. Negotiators who choose the negotiation option of collaboration focus on a win–win solution. They aim for mutual adjustments and work towards creating value to satisfy the interests of both sides at the lowest cost to one another.

EXHIBIT 8.4 The consequence of a chosen negotiation option Option

Context

Collaboration Consequence: I win, you win

Two training companies are involved in information technology training. Both are competing for limited Commonwealth Government funding of programs. The training companies arrange a meeting and, after much deliberation and negotiation, decide to join forces and collaborate in tendering and allocating resources to meet the demand.

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CHAPTER 8 / Develop negotiation and conflict management skills

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Option

Context

Compromise Consequence: I win and lose, you win and lose

The manager of a small organisation requests ideas for a sales promotion. Two employees each make presentations to the manager. He suggests they negotiate and make a decision on which is the better proposal. During negotiations, the two employees compromise and agree to present a proposal that includes ideas from both submissions.

Competition Consequence: I win, you lose

Two divisional managers, Emily and Sam, have arranged staff meetings on the same day. Secretarial assistance is required to prepare agendas and record minutes of the meetings. It will not be possible for the secretarial staff to accommodate both. One of the meetings will have to be moved to another day. The two divisional managers confer and the competition over available resources results in Sam having to postpone his staff meeting to later in the week. Sam resolves that, should this situation happen again, he will make certain he is not the one to postpone his meeting.

Accommodation Consequence: I lose, you win

Two teachers have been given programs that result in one teacher having all senior classes and the other only junior classes. The teacher who has been given the junior classes feels there should be a more equitable distribution of classes as the senior students are more interesting to teach. After discussion, and in consultation with the head teacher, the teacher who has been given the senior classes agrees to change her program and both teachers are given a mixture of senior and junior classes.

Withdrawal or avoidance Consequence: I lose, you lose

Two business partners have agreed they need more space and more exposure to passing customers. One partner wants to rent a large office in an upmarket area at a rent considerably more than they are paying at present. The other wants to rent larger premises in the area they are presently in, stating they are known there and the small increase would be affordable. After three meetings to negotiate the move into larger premises, one partner decides it is not worth the effort and refuses to discuss the matter. Withdrawal from the negotiations means negotiations break down and they remain in the smaller premises. Neither is satisfied.

1. Negotiating options: a. Identify five negotiating options. b. What are the likely outcomes from each? 2. What is the focus for negotiators who use the collaboration negotiation option? 3. Describe the characteristics of an emotionally intelligent negotiator.

CHECKPOINT 8.2

8.3 INTEREST-BASED NEGOTIATION Interest-based negotiation allows people to listen and focus on the problem, work together to generate options and choose the solution that best meets the interests of those involved in the negotiation. An acknowledgement to work together for mutual outcomes is the essence of the interest-based approach: it acknowledges the Australian ethic of a ‘fair go’. Everyone is treated equitably.

FOCUS ON MUTUAL INTERESTS AND VALUE The interest-based approach to negotiation explains interests clearly rather than concealing them behind hidden agendas. The parties to the negotiation are willing to identify the reasoning behind the other party’s suggestions, be open minded, be reasonable and willing to reconsider a position. They focus on the solutions and not on past events. A three-stage approach – pre-negotiation, formal negotiation, post-negotiation – to interest-based negotiation is outlined in Exhibit 8.5. Nine steps are followed across the three stages. The parties to the negotiation must define specific, observable criteria on which to evaluate alternatives and select the best alternative from the alternatives generated in the negotiation. 197 Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202

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EXHIBIT 8.5 Interest-based negotiation process Step 1

Identify negotiation key stakeholders. Key stakeholders have direct influence on agreement outcomes.

Step 2

Lay out negotiation parameters. Circumstantial limitations, key stakeholder expectations and psychological barriers form parameters for negotiation outcomes.

Step 3

Choose an approach. Emphasise and focus on interests rather than positions. Everyone expects a fair go when negotiating.

Step 4

Set negotiation SMART goals (specific, measureable, achievable, realistic and time-referenced). Goals are realised in action.

Step 5

Gauge trust and confidence. Address the issues, separate the people from the problem and maintain a positive relationship. Trust and confidence ease negotiation.

Step 6

Identify negotiation strategies of parties. Apply interpersonal communication and relationship management skills to work towards win–win. Behaviour in negotiation influences outcomes.

Step 7

Evaluate negotiation interaction skills. Aim to satisfy both parties’ needs, expect each party to consider the view of the other and be open to joint explorations and interests. A skilful negotiator relates with empathy, clarity and assertiveness.

Step 8

Use objective criterion. Invent options for mutual gain and create alternatives based on win–win. Satisfy as many mutual interests as possible.

Step 9

Follow through on agreement. Trust and confidence are cultivated when parties to negotiation follow through on agreement.

PRENEGOTIATION STAGE

FORMAL NEGOTIATION STAGE

POSTNEGOTIATION STAGE

The criteria differentiate the costs, benefits and impact of the possible alternatives. They are sorted into must have criteria and like to have criteria. Together, the negotiators choose the solution by evaluating the most promising alternatives from those generated against the criteria. The chosen alternative should meet criteria or standards such as cost, ease or difficulty of implementation, availability of resources and facilities, level of risk to health 198 Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202

CHAPTER 8 / Develop negotiation and conflict management skills and safety, time, money, efficiency and capability. The chosen alternative may need to be improved and refined to ensure the agreement is sustainable. The foundation of the interest-based negotiation method is the parties’ genuine desire to collaborate to deal with the issue or problem through cooperation rather than competition and the winning of a position. 1. Why should you negotiate on interests? 2. What is the essence of the interest-based approach? 3. What interaction skills are held by a skilful negotiator?

CHECKPOINT 8.3

8.4 WHAT IS CONFLICT? Conflicts at work can arise due to many factors, including but not limited to: task allocation, personality clashes, disagreements regarding problem solving and lack of cooperation in meeting deadlines. Constructive management of conflict addresses the issue and builds a positive climate between team members. Destructive conflict often ignores the real issues between the conflicting parties and the parties may resort to personal attacks, threats and a general tone of hostility. Conflict is a part of life. At work it may arise when a team is setting rules, analysing tasks and defining problems. Constructive workplace conflict opens communication and forces important issues into the open; generates shared, productive and mutually beneficial decisions; and builds better relationships between those involved in the conflict. Destructive conflict most often produces negative results due to narrowly defined or inflexible positions or a power struggle when one party remains determined to have their way on an issue – their rigid position causes the other party to lose. Poor conflict management skills may mean conflict is unresolved. The result of ongoing, unresolved conflict is low morale, poor performance, absenteeism, high staff turnover, damage to property and company reputation, early retirement, grievances and legal expenses. Poor conflict management skills flow from feelings of inadequacy, fear of change, lack of empathy and inability to understand the views of others. You will be better prepared to negotiate workplace conflict if you are able to implement the three-stage interest-based negotiation process described earlier in Exhibit 8.5. Answer the following questions before dealing with any conflict to make sure you understand what is happening. 1. What do I know about the situation and the other parties? 2. What is causing the conflict? 3. Is the problem a difference in facts, goals, methods or values? By understanding the real cause of the conflict, you will be better equipped to choose from the range of constructive responses suited to conflict management.

Stay alert for signs of discomfort and incidents.

LEVELS OF CONFLICT Conflict moves through several levels before it reaches the crisis level. At the first level, people experience discomfort, a feeling that things are not quite right. At the next level, an incident occurs. Emotions are not running high yet, but something has come between the people concerned. People who are aware of discomfort or an incident can use their communication skills to clarify the problem at this point, before the situation escalates to the next level – misunderstanding. A misunderstanding between individuals or groups can interfere with their relationship. It can arise over facts, or it may be about the goals or intentions of the parties involved. 199 Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202

THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK Once tension arises over the misunderstanding, the situation is very close to a crisis. When people feel anxious about talking, working or coming into contact with each other, emotions run high. Negative attitudes and any negative response (an outburst of anger, or avoidance of the other party) will lead to a crisis – the fifth level of conflict. By staying alert for signs of discomfort and incidents (the first and second levels of conflict), you will be able to use the most appropriate resolution strategy before the conflict moves to higher levels. The five levels of conflict – discomfort, incident, misunderstanding, tension and crisis – are illustrated in Exhibit 8.6.

TYPES OF RESPONSE

Display assertive behaviour to build mutual respect.

Responses to conflict are learned early in our childhood. These responses become habits and reactions that we tend to use without thought in our adult life. By recognising early behaviour patterns and by learning new ways to handle conflict, we can sometimes avoid repeating the conflicts of the past and respond more appropriately. Three types of response to conflict are shown in Exhibit 8.7. However, no matter the source of conflict or what level of conflict is involved, the key to conflict resolution is the capacity to communicate well. Effective communication allows the negative emotions, pressures and frustrations to be released. Differences can be appreciated and new information, ideas and change accepted. The outcome from a conflict situation, as with all interpersonal interaction (discussed in Chapter 2), is affected by the negotiators’ emotional intelligence and the way they use words, nonverbal communication, listening and questioning skills as well as their choice of communication channel. Aggressiveness leads to loss, submissiveness leads to loss and assertiveness leads to win–win outcomes.

Assertive behaviour

Use assertive statements when you need to make people aware of your rights.

As discussed in Chapter 2, assertive behaviour is constructive and helpful when conflict arises because the needs of both parties are acknowledged and dealt with. The flow response allows people to say what they mean and acknowledge other people’s rights to express opinions and feelings. The communication is assertive. Acting assertively in a conflict means standing up for your rights and expressing what you believe, feel and want in direct, honest and appropriate ways that respect others’ rights. Both parties are also more likely to understand one another and the situation. Assertive negotiators are both confident and considerate. The flow response helps them to keep the discussion going and facilitates mutually beneficial outcomes. They share their views by starting sentences with ‘I’ rather than ‘you’. Communication is factual rather than emotional. In conflict, ‘I’ messages (previously discussed in Chapter 2) are assertive statements that help to send a clear message about what you want or how you feel. They increase other people’s understanding of your situation and your point of view. Successful ‘I’ statements communicate in a non-threatening way. In Chapter 2, you also saw that an ‘I’ message could have two, three or four parts. In a conflict situation, the ‘I’ message has three parts. It states the other person’s action or behaviour, your response to the action and your preferred outcome. action + your response + your preferred outcome The ‘I’ message clearly states how the negotiation and the suggested result affect you. The other person receives an impartial message about this effect. The ‘I’ statement does not judge or put the other person down. Communication is continued on the basis of this statement and understanding. As you identify your needs and deal with the issues, discuss one specific issue at a time. The likely impact of an assertive ‘I’ message response to an aggressive message is shown in Exhibit 2.19 in Chapter 2.

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CHAPTER 8 / Develop negotiation and conflict management skills

EXHIBIT 8.6 Levels of conflict

CRISIS

TENSION

MISUNDERSTANDING

INCIDENT

DISCOMFORT

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EXHIBIT 8.7 Responses to conflict Type

Purpose

Behaviour

Intended outcome

Fight

To be in control and defend a position

Aggressive

I win–you lose

Flight

To escape the situation and its outcome

Submissive

I lose–you win

Flow

To acknowledge the situation and respond appropriately

Assertive

I win–you win

Non-assertive behaviour Avoid non-assertive behaviour – another term for aggressive or submissive behaviour.

CHECKPOINT 8.4

Non-assertive behaviour is another term for aggressive or submissive behaviour. By behaving in this way we fail to express honest feelings, thoughts and beliefs. Aggressive people usually try to win at all costs by dominating and humiliating others. Such behaviour shows little respect for others. Submissive people, by contrast, are unable to promote their point of view and even ignore their own needs. Assertion, ‘I’ messages and non-assertive behaviour are discussed more fully in Chapter 2. 1. Conflict: a. What is the next level of conflict after a misunderstanding? b. Why should a workplace conflict be handled rather than ignored? 2. Responses to conflict: a. Identify three typical responses to conflict. b. What is the likely outcome from each type of response? 3. ‘I’ statements and assertiveness: a. What is the purpose of an assertive ‘I’ statement? b. Briefly explain the difference between assertiveness and non-assertiveness.

8.5 CONSTRUCTIVE BEHAVIOURS Identify and develop the personal qualities of a person who is able to engage effectively in negotiation and conflict situations.

Successful negotiators are emotionally intelligent. They have the self-awareness, self-regulation, social awareness and relationship management skills to negotiate with confidence. They are empathic because they can see the situation from other points of view. Positive communication allows them to collaborate with another party (or parties) to reach a mutually beneficial agreement.

PERSONAL QUALITIES Each negotiation strategy and the personal qualities of those engaged in a negotiation or conflict affect the relationships between the people involved and their chances of achieving their goals.

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CHAPTER 8 / Develop negotiation and conflict management skills Good negotiators have good communication skills, create a positive communication climate and have some of the personal qualities listed in Exhibit 8.8. Their personal qualities affect their behaviour and the way they state their case, organise information, make proposals, discuss the issues and acknowledge the interests of the other party.

EXHIBIT 8.8 Personal qualities of a good negotiator of conflict Quality

Strategy

Ability to plan

Plan before negotiating; identify your own position and that of the other party

Capacity to think clearly under stress

Be aware of your stress level and know how to deal with it

Ability to be practical

Be flexible and solution-oriented; focus on the ‘big picture’ and all interests

Capacity to communicate well

Listen, question, read nonverbal messages, give feedback and speak clearly in the negotiating process

Ability to act assertively and with integrity

Approach the issue assertively and apply the skills of positive nonverbal communication, active listening, ‘I’ messages, feedback and empathy

Ability to identify the interests of each party

Separate the people from the problem; focus on the interests of both parties to work things out

Capacity to identify standards

Ensure that the result is based on objective standards

Willingness to follow up

Check agreement and take follow-up actions

CONFLICT MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES Personal qualities also affect the choice of negotiation and conflict management strategy. The win–win strategies in Exhibit 8.9 inform and lead to open communication and acknowledgement of both parties’ interests. The win–lose strategies inflame the situation and lead to one or both parties to focus only on their own position. The interests of only one or neither party are satisfied.

EXHIBIT 8.9 Conflict management strategies Win–lose strategies

Win–win strategies

Avoidance involves flight: • refusing to talk and walking away • silencers such as crying, yelling or screaming, headaches, shortness of breath • non-negotiation by refusing to discuss or listen to the other side’s argument • giving up and responding passively as a victim

Assertion means: • stating your case clearly • assessing others’ needs properly • focusing on interests rather than positions • using ‘I’ statements to take responsibility for your own feelings and ideas • using open and mirror questions

Force and power play may involve: • emotional or physical to force a position on the other person • complaining, pointing the finger at someone else, and refusing to accept accountability and reach a resolution • controlling, bullying and manipulating

Straight talk means using: • empathy and being open to the other party’s interests and needs • active listening • positive nonverbal communication • ‘I’ statements to state thoughts and feelings objectively

Face-detracting involves: • treating the other party as untrustworthy or incompetent • embarrassing or damaging a party’s reputation • blaming and rejecting the other party’s views

Face-enhancing means: • protecting the other parties’ credibility • listening without interrupting and paraphrasing • affirming nonverbal communication – smiling, sincere voice, nodding and eye contact

>

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>

CHECKPOINT 8.5

Win–lose strategies

Win–win strategies

Verbal aggressiveness involves: • adversarial words and body language • verbally attacking and discrediting the other party • bullying, ridiculing, threatening and humiliating the other party • verbal manipulation, cynicism and arrogance

Active engagement means: • viewing disagreements as opportunities to reach agreement • presenting your point of view and showing interest in the other party’s position and point of view • preserving a positive communication climate while raising the issues

1. How would you describe the personal qualities of a person who is able to negotiate effectively in a conflict situation? 2. Win–win strategies: a. List four win–lose strategies. b. List four win–win strategies. c. What type of questioning skills would you use as you engage in a win–win conflict? 3. What characteristics of emotionally intelligent people enable them to negotiate successfully?

8.6 MAP THE CONFLICT Chart common needs and concerns in a conflict map.

A conflict map is a practical and useful way of finding the cause of the conflict. The cause may be a difference in facts, goals or values, or in methods of taking action. A map allows you to see the whole picture – your perception of the conflict, the other person’s perception and the issues involved. An example of a conflict map is shown in Exhibit 8.10; Exhibit 8.11 shows some of the points identified on a conflict map.

Steps to follow

Identify common threads and points of concern.

The first step is to prepare and read a conflict map. The purpose of the map is to: • Define the issue – to gain a clear idea of the issue/s to be mapped • Identify who is involved – to identify and group together people with shared needs and concerns • List each party’s main needs and concerns – to work out the win–win approach and generate appropriate solutions. As you read the map, draw together common threads and highlight points of special concern or importance. By preparing and reading the map together, each party in the conflict can see common threads and points of concern. Then the parties design the options and select the most appropriate one.

Design the options Various strategies can be used to design the options before taking action: • Brainstorm the options available. • Use Dewey’s reflective thinking process (refer to Chapter 23). • Use the decision-making agenda (refer to Chapter 23). • Divide, or ‘chunk’ the problem into small parts. • Use a trial-and-error approach.

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CHAPTER 8 / Develop negotiation and conflict management skills

EXHIBIT 8.10 Mapping a conflict

RESOLUTION When everyone is going in the same direction

THE ISSUE

ho

W

Wh

o Needs

Needs

rns

Conce

rns

Conce

o

Wh

Wh

o

Needs

Conce

rns

Conce

rns

Needs

For more information on brainstorming and the reflective thinking process, refer to Chapter 23, Organise and manage meetings.

Select the most appropriate option Before you can select the most appropriate option, it is important to link any similar or complementary options developed in the brainstorming session. The simplest way to do this on the map is to join similar options with a line. Then remove any options that are inappropriate. Analyse those that are left in terms of how well they will meet the main need or concern. Then list the options in the order in which they will be acted on.

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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK

EXHIBIT 8.11 Points to look for on a conflict map

Area where more information is needed

Leads worth following through

Special concerns, areas of difficulty

Common ground, similar needs and concerns

MAP SHOWS

New perspectives and insights

Hidden agendas, (hidden fears/payoffs)

Act on the chosen options Plan to take action.

CHECKPOINT 8.6

After the issue is defined, options generated and the most appropriate option chosen, take action. Set out: • what will be done • how it will be done • who will do it • when it will be completed • the expected results in an action plan. This is the working document for carrying out the chosen options. Keep the plan realistic and identify the time by which the options must be carried out. Unless you act on the options, the conflict will continue.

1. What is the purpose of mapping a conflict? 2. Identify three strategies you can use as you design the options. 3. Option actions: a. What should you look for as you choose the most appropriate option? b. Why is it important to decide what will be done, how it will be done, by whom and when together?

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CHAPTER 8 / Develop negotiation and conflict management skills

LEARNING ACTIVITIES SUMMARY 8.1 Explain what negotiation is and the likely effect of different negotiation strategies and personal styles. Negotiation is a process through which two or more parties exchange ideas, thoughts and opinions as they try to resolve differences, solve problems and reach agreement. Win–win strategies negotiate the situation in the interests of both parties and base all bargaining on these interests; however, it succeeds only if both parties concentrate on problem-solving strategies and on communicating well. Win–lose strategies mean the initiator wins. Lose–win strategies leave the person who initiated the negotiation dissatisfied. Lose–lose strategies leave both parties dissatisfied and deadlocks may occur. Personal styles can help or hinder a negotiation. Selfdenying, self-protecting and self-exposing styles make it difficult for one party to evaluate the other party’s interests and issues. On the other hand, people who use selfbargaining and self-actualising styles communicate well with the other party. Once both parties understand one another, it is easier to negotiate their mutual interests. 8.2 Discuss the five basic negotiation options and their consequences. Five options for negotiating are compromise, collaboration, competition, accommodation and withdrawal. Those who withdraw have little chance of achieving their goals or of building relationships. Those who compete may achieve their goals at the expense of the relationship with the other party. Those who compromise are less likely to achieve their goals but more likely to maintain a good relationship with the other party. Those who accommodate adapt their needs to meet the needs of the other party. Those who collaborate are most likely to achieve mutually acceptable goals and maintain a good relationship with the other negotiator(s). 8.3 Explain the ‘fair go’ approach of interest-based negotiation. In interest-based negotiation, the parties identify their individual or shared interests, rather than focusing on their positions. The intention is to find the

best value based on each party’s without disadvantaging the other. Negotiation parameters (what is acceptable or unacceptable, possible or not possible) are set out together and interpersonal and relationship management skills are used to satisfy both parties’ needs. Objective criteria are agreed and used to evaluate and choose the option(s) that satisfy as many mutual interests as possible. 8.4 Explain how to manage conflict without damaging relationships. The five levels of conflict are discomfort, incident, misunderstanding, tension and crisis. A crisis is averted when people are willing to use the flow response. They acknowledge the situation and respond assertively to address the conflict before the discomfort, incident and misunderstanding levels cause tension and then a crisis. 8.5 Identify personal qualities and conflict management strategies that facilitate constructive response to conflict. Behaviour when negotiating a conflict is underpinned by the personal qualities of those in the conflict. Personal qualities such as the ability to plan, to think clearly under stress and communicate assertively help the parties to state their case, propose alternatives and acknowledge the interests of the other party. Four conflict management strategies are win–win, lose– win, win–lose and lose–lose. Practical win–win activities such as straight talk, face-enhancing and raising issues in a positive way help the parties to create value and reach mutually agreed outcomes. 8.6 Chart common interests and concerns in a conflict map. A map is useful when you need to determine the cause of a conflict. It highlights who is involved, their needs and concerns, and the issues. Using the map, the parties in the conflict can work together to design appropriate options and act on them to solve the conflict before the conflict escalates from the discomfort level through the incidents, misunderstandings and tension level to crisis.

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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK

KEY TERMS compromise conflict map confrontation

accommodation collaboration competition

flow response negotiation options

power tension withdrawal

LEARNING ACTIVITIES 1. Work in small groups Negotiate on interests. Part A a. Create a list of recent negotiations in which you have been involved. b. For each situation, discuss your reasons for negotiating. c. Were the interests and concerns of each party taken into account? Part B a. Choose one of the negotiations from your list and decide which strategies were used for it. b. Which personal negotiation style did you use? 2. Power Write a one-page information report. In your report:

a. List five types of power and give examples of how each could be used in the workplace. b. Discuss the similarities between coercive and reward power, and list two differences between them. c. Discuss the similarities between legitimate power and expertise power and list two differences between them. 3. Typical responses to conflict Work in small groups. a. Discuss the three types of response to conflict – fight, flight and flow. b. List some examples of fight, flight and flow behaviour. c. What is the likely outcome from each of the three types of response to conflict? d. Describe the win–win approach to conflict resolution. In your opinion, what are its main benefits?

GROUP ASSIGNMENT Part A: Reflect on a conflict situation

Part B: Map the conflict

1. Think of a conflict that has been handled in a destructive way. Discuss in your group the outcome(s) from the way the conflict was handled. 2. Think of a conflict that has been handled in a constructive way. Discuss the outcome from such an approach. 3. Complete the table to compare the outcomes of handling conflict constructively with the outcomes from handling conflict destructively.

Map as a group either the constructive conflict or the destructive conflict you chose in Part A. In your map identify: • the main issue • what made it difficult to resolve • who were people in the conflict • key needs and concerns – including interests, values and hopes. You may choose to use the layout for a map in Exhibit 8.10 or a layout of your choice.

Comparison of outcomes Handling conflict in a constructive way

Handling conflict in a destructive way

1. 2. 3. 4.

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CHAPTER 8 / Develop negotiation and conflict management skills

CASE STUDY MICHAEL AND CATHY’S RESPONSE TO CONFLICT Michael’s monthly team meeting was due to commence, but before the meeting he met with Cathy to discuss an issue from the last meeting. At each meeting, a different client is invited for a Q&A session. During the previous meeting Cathy had asked the client a question, ‘When you die, are you going to leave your original artwork to the College?’ The question was poorly worded and insensitive. Before the next meeting Michael asked Cathy to think about the wording of any questions she may have for the visiting client and reminded her that the question she asked at the previous meeting had caused offence to the client. Cathy became defensive and snapped, ‘Well, I just won’t ask any questions at all, then.’ Michael said, ‘Cathy, that is not what I am asking, I am only suggesting that you be mindful of how your questions may be received by the client.’ Cathy again stated she would not be asking questions in future. Michael told Cathy that was fine and it

was completely her choice. Cathy argued that this was not her choice, but Michael’s decision. Cathy clearly wanted to argue the point, but Michael ended the conversation and Cathy stormed off. After the meeting, Cathy approached Michael and apologised for her behaviour. Michael accepted Cathy’s apology, but reminded her that he is her manager and needs to be spoken to in a respectful manner.

Questions 1. How would you describe Cathy’s response to conflict? 2. How could Cathy have responded to the feedback regarding her question during the previous meeting in a more professional manner? 3. What could Michael have done to address this issue from the previous meeting in a more timely manner? 4. What could Michael have done to de-escalate the conflict?

BIBLIOGRAPHY Albrecht, K. & Albrecht, S. 1993. Added Value Negotiation, Illinois Business, Irwin, Homewood, IIl. De Vito, J.A. 2015. The Interpersonal Communication Handbook, 14th edn, Pearson, Upper Saddle River, NJ. Fisher, R. & Brown, S. 1988. Getting Together, Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston, MA. Fisher, R. & Ury, W. 1991. Getting to Yes, Business Books, London. Fisher, R. & Ury, W. 1999. Getting to Yes: Negotiating an Agreement without Giving In, Random House Business Books, London. Fulmer, Ingrid Smithey & Barry, Bruce. 2004. ‘The smart negotiator: Cognitive ability and emotional intelligence in negotiation’, International Journal of Conflict Management, Vol. 15, Issue: 3, pp. 245–72. Goleman, Daniel. 2005. Emotional intelligence, Bantam, New York, NY. Hellriegel, D. Slocum, J.W. & Woodman, R.W. 1988. Organisational Behaviour, 4th edn, West Publishing Company, St Paul, MN.

Kelly, Edward J. & Kaminskien_eb, Natalija. 2016. ‘Importance of emotional intelligence in negotiation and mediation’, International Comparative Jurisprudence, Volume 2, Issue 1, September 2016, pp. 55–60. Lewicki, R, Barry, B. & Saunders, D. 2015. Negotiation, 7th edn, McGraw-Hill/Irwin, New York, NY. MindTools, Win-Win Negotiation Finding Solutions That Work for Everyone, https://www.mindtools.com/CommSkll/ NegotiationSkills.htm, viewed 22 February 2018. Patton, Bruce. Stone, Douglas & Heen, Sheila. 2011. Difficult Conversations: How to Discuss What Matters Most, Viking, London, UK. Steiner, C.M. 1974. Scripts People Live, Grove Press, New York. Ury, W. 1991. Getting Past No, Business Books, London. Wood, Julia. T. 2016. Interpersonal Communication Everyday Encounters, 8th edn, Wadsworth Cengage Learning, Boston, MA.

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IMPLEMENT AND MONITOR A SAFE WORKPLACE

CHAPTER

9

IMPLEMENT + MONITOR procedures for controlling risks

Substitution Isolation of the risk Engineering controls to design safer work equipment Administrative controls

MOST PREFERED - LEAST

Elimination of the risk at its source

Your Learning Journey

PROVIDE + COMMUNICATE INFORMATION

Chapter 9 TO PREVENT + MINIMISE RISK

Workplace Health + Safety legislation

Use of personal protective equipment

9.1

regulations codes of practice

9.5

policies + procedures

IMPLEMENT

PROCEDURES FOR MAINTAINING WHS RECORDS Records must be accurate - can be evidence of compliance/non-compliance with organisation’s procedures/relevant legislation

IMPLEMENT + MONITOR procedures for identifying hazards and assessing risks

+ MONITOR

participative arrangements for the management of WHS 9.2

9.4

consult with HSRs WHS committees

9.6 PRIMARY PURPOSE to provide information that will improve health and safety

CH 10

Next DELIVER + MONITOR SERVICE TO ADDRESS CUSTOMER NEEDS

Identify skills gaps and training needs

unions + associations

9.3

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CHAPTER 9 / Implement and monitor a safe workplace

LEARNING OBJECTIVES After studying this chapter, you should be able to: 9.1 provide and communicate information to the workgroup about workplace health and safety (WHS) legislation, regulations and codes of practice and organisational WHS policies and procedures 9.2 implement and monitor participative arrangements for the management of WHS 9.3 describe and monitor procedures for providing WHS training 9.4 implement and monitor procedures for identifying hazards and assessing risk 9.5 implement and monitor procedures for controlling risks 9.6 outline procedures for maintaining WHS records.

9.1 COMMUNICATE AND FACILITATE WORKPLACE HEALTH AND SAFETY Safety in the workplace is critical to the success of any organisation. Knowing and understanding workplace health and safety (WHS) legislation, regulations, codes of practice and your organisation’s WHS policies and procedures are critical workplace responsibilities. The purpose of WHS legislation, codes of practice, policies and procedures is to ensure the health, safety and welfare of employees and the health and safety of others in the workplace. Everyone in the workplace must exercise duty of care – the legal obligation to have thought or regard for those whose health and welfare may be affected by one’s acts or omissions. The WHS Act and WHS Regulations provide a framework to secure the health and safety of workers and workplaces by protecting workers and other persons against harm to their health, safety and welfare through the elimination of risks arising from work, in accordance with the principle that workers and other persons should be given the highest level of protection against harm to their health, safety and welfare from hazards and risks arising from work as is reasonably practicable. The WHS Act and WHS Regulations promote continuous improvement and progressively higher standards of work health and safety. ª Commonwealth of Australia 2018, Comcare CC BY 4.0 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

Duty holders must take reasonable care for their own health and safety in the workplace and take reasonable care that their acts or omissions do not adversely affect the health and safety of other persons. Take reasonable care of yourself and others and work in accordance with your duty of care. Employers promote health, safety and welfare by providing safe systems of work, sharing WHS information and providing employees with the opportunity to express their views about workplace safety, health and welfare. Employees have a responsibility to exercise due diligence to ensure they do not breach their duty of care in the workplace. Every officer of a business or organisation must take reasonable care for the health, safety and welfare of others in the workplace. • In July 2008, the Council of Australian Governments (COAG) made a formal commitment to harmonise work health and safety laws in Australia through the achievement of consistent approaches to compliance and enforcement for all jurisdictions by the end of 2011. ‘This was the first time all jurisdictions had made a formal commitment to harmonise work health and safety laws in Australia within a set timeframe. This commitment included the development and implementation of a complete and fully integrated package consisting of a model Act, supported by model

Comply with duty of care responsibilities identified in WHS legislation, regulations and codes of practice. Work in accordance with your organisation’s WHS policies and procedures to promote health, safety and welfare in the workplace.

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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK Regulations, model Codes of Practice and a National Compliance and Enforcement Policy’ (Safe Work Australia 2014). The aim of harmonisation was to provide a nationally consistent framework to ensure the health, safety and welfare of workers and workplaces.

FROM THEORY TO PRACTICE

WHS harmonisation In 2012, the Commonwealth and all states (except Victoria and Western Australia) introduced harmonised WHS laws. This created nationally consistent WHS laws that cover health and safety at work (Victoria already has WHS laws consistent with the WHS Regulations, and Western Australia is expected to adopted a modified version of the legislation). The main goals for the WHS harmonisation included: • minimising or eliminating risk to protect workers from harm to their health, safety and welfare • ensuring effective consultation, cooperation, issue resolution and workplace representation when it comes to WHS in workplaces • promoting WHS education, training and information • ensuring effective compliance and enforcement of the legislation • creating a framework to facilitate continuous improvement and high standards for worker health and safety. Key elements of the new WHS Act included: • changes in terminology such as: – from ‘occupational health and safety’ to ‘work health and safety’ – broadening the category of ‘employer to ‘persons conducting a business or undertaking’ (PCBUs) – broadening the definition of who is a worker to included employees and contractors. • multiple duty holders sharing the primary duty of care • duty holders must consult, coordinate and cooperate with other duty holders • workers have the right to cease unsafe work • workers are not to be prevented from being involved in WHS • a requirement that workplaces have emergency plans in place • a significant increase in penalties for breaches of the Act. Source: http://workplaceohs.com.au/legislation/model-act-regulation/whs-harmonisation-main-changes; http:// www.australianbusiness.com.au/getattachment/WHS/Resources/Introduction-to-the-Work-Health—Safety-Act/Fact-sheetWHS-Harmonisation.pdf.aspx, both viewed 14 November 2018.

ASK YOURSELF: How do harmonised work, health and safety laws protect you better as a worker? How might this also advantage businesses and organisations?

AUSTRALIAN WORK HEALTH AND SAFETY FRAMEWORK All organisations must, so far as is reasonably practical, provide and maintain a work environment that is without risks to health or safety. The legislative framework within Australia identifies clearly the legal obligations of those in the workplace and provides a coherent approach across Commonwealth, state and territory jurisdictions. The relationships within the Australian Work Health and Safety Framework are shown in Exhibit 9.1. The Work Health and Safety Act 2011 No. 137 (July 2016) determines the broad principles and legal rules to be followed by the parties to which the law applies. The WHS Regulations are subordinate legislation made by the executive branch of government (Cabinet ministers and their government agencies) and authorised by Parliament. Penalties apply for any breach of the Act or Regulations. Industry WHS codes of practice provide practical guidance on how to reach the standard required to 212 Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202

CHAPTER 9 / Implement and monitor a safe workplace

EXHIBIT 9.1 Work Health and Safety (WHS) Framework WHS Framework: WHS Act and WHS Regulations supported by WHS Codes of Practice

Parallelled by:

State-based WHS Acts, WHS Regulations, WHS Codes of Practice

Territory-based WHS Acts, WHS Regulations, WHS Codes of Practice

Commonwealth WHS Act, WHS Regulations, WHS Codes of Practice

comply with WHS law. Codes of practice are usually established in consultation with industry, employers and worker representatives and approved by the Minister. Refer to the Comcare site at http://www.comcare.gov.au > codes of practice, for examples of codes of practice in effect in the Commonwealth jurisdiction. The regulations accompanying the Acts deal with specific issues in greater detail than the WHS legislation. Other laws or regulations may also impact on your work practices depending on the nature of your industry. It is the responsibility of everyone in the workplace to be aware of such laws and the practices that support them (although this is not to say every single employee must themselves source the relevant legislation applicable to their workplace). Refer to the OHS Reps@Work site at http://www.ohsrep.org.au/ > Model OHS Law for information about the operation of WHS and OHS laws in the various Australian jurisdictions (Commonwealth, state and territory).

Fulfil your duty-ofcare obligation.

Duty of care A person conducting a business undertaking (PCBU) has the primary duty of care to ensure the health and safety of workers while they are at work. As far as is reasonably practicable a PCBU with management or control of a workplace has a legal duty to ensure that the workplace does not pose a risk to the health and safety of any person. Rather than placing the focus on workers to work safely in unsafe conditions the PCBU must provide a safe and healthy working environment. Workers have a duty to take reasonable care for their own safety and the safety of others. Workers must comply with reasonable instructions from the PCBU to facilitate them in compliance with the WHS Act and to cooperate with the business undertakings’ WHS policies and procedures. The WHS Act 2011 identifies three categories of offences against the health and safety duties. • Category 1 Reckless conduct: The duty holder’s conduct, without reasonable excuse, exposes a person to whom they owe a duty to a risk of death, serious injury or illness and are reckless as to the risk. The penalties for: – an individual are $300 000 or 5 years imprisonment or both – an individual as a PCBU are $600 000 or 5 years imprisonment or both – a body corporate are $3 000 000.

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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK •

Communicate and explain information about WHS regularly, as every officer of a business or organisation has a positive duty to exercise due diligence. Fulfil your duty of care. Promote safe working procedures and standards.

Category 2 Failure to comply with health and safety duty: Failure to comply that leads to exposing a person to a risk of death or serious injury or illness. The penalties for: – an individual are $150 000 – an individual as a PCBU are $300 000 – a body corporate are $1 500 000. • Category 3 Failure to comply with health and safety duty: Failure of a person to comply with their health and safety duty. The penalties for: – an individual are $50 000 – an individual as a PCBU are $100 000 – a body corporate are $500 000. All organisations require their staff, contractors, employers of labour hire companies, students on work experience, apprentices, trainees, volunteers and visitors to take reasonable care for the health and safety of others and to cooperate with any directions and procedures. Managers, team leaders, supervisors and staff have a legal duty to work within: • the legislation, regulations and approved codes of practice • their organisation’s policies and procedures • their organisation’s workplace health and safety management plan and standards. Every PCBU anywhere in Australia has a primary duty of care. Duty-of-care responsibility requires any organisation to provide a safe work environment, safe systems of work and safe plant and equipment. An organisation must weigh up the level of risk, and then control and manage the risk. Communication about safety requirements, information about hazards and risk controls are essential. Employees, contractors, employers of labour hire companies, students on work experience, apprentices, trainees and volunteers must have adequate information, supervision, instruction and training to protect them from risks to health and safety arising from work. Implementing the duty-of-care principle means planning and taking measures that prevent or mitigate the risk of workplace accidents, injuries and illness. Safe work systems are an indication of the commitment of management to workplace health and safety and to work in accordance with approved WHS codes of practice. Management should commence by identifying the need and purpose of systems and examining or investigating the environment in which workers exist. The investigation should include not only the type and methods of work but the way different processes interact. The safety management plan and supporting systems should then be developed based on this assessment and through consultation with those who will be affected by this system.

WHS MANAGEMENT PLAN In response to the requirement for safe work systems, organisations now work in accordance with an organisational-wide WHS management plan. A WHS management plan is prepared for the safe management of the workplace. An effective WHS management plan incorporates relevant codes of practice, developed by Safe Work Australia in consultation with industry and approved by the Minister for Workplace Relations. An approved code of practice applies to anyone who has a duty of care in the circumstances described in the code. An organisation’s WHS management plan documents codes of practice relevant to the organisation, the organisation’s WHS policies, responsibilities, systems and procedures. The plan provides direction and guidance about how to ensure, so far as is reasonably practicable, a safe and healthy workplace. The purpose of the WHS management plan is to assist employers, employees and others in the workplace to work safely and meet their duty of care. The WHS management plan also assists an

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CHAPTER 9 / Implement and monitor a safe workplace organisation to demonstrate compliance with work health and safety legislation, regulations and approved codes of practice. An effective WHS management plan is a document setting out the specific policies, responsibilities, procedures, resources and practices for implementing the safety system at a specific workplace or project. Preparing a WHS plan is management’s responsibility, in consultation with safety personnel and others in the workplace. The plan should: • be in a standard format • be clear and concise • avoid legalese and jargon • give direction and provide guidance. The information in the WHS management plan must include policy statements and assignment of responsibilities, detailed organisational structure and key staff members with responsibility for the management of safety, consultative arrangements and procedures, safety meetings and the means of resolving safety issues and the types of records that will be kept and who is to keep them. Typical headings in a WHS management plan are: 1. Project information 2. Roles and responsibilities 3. General WHS information 4. Risk management 5. High-risk construction work 6. Emergency and incident response 7. Induction and training 8. Consultation and communication 9. Site safety procedures 10. Safe work method statements. For instructions on developing a WHS management plan, refer to Access Canberra’s site at https:// www.accesscanberra.act.gov.au/app/answers/detail/a_id/3784//work-health-and-safety-management-plans. An effective WHS management plan enables the organisation to identify hazards and manage their risk so that all activities are conducted safely. The WHS management plan provides a framework for communicating and promoting a positive safety culture, minimising the likelihood of incidents or accidents, managing risk and protecting physical and mental health and welfare. Managers, supervisors, team leaders and WHS specialists must provide information about identified hazards and the outcomes of risk assessment to the workgroup and other stakeholders regularly. People need to know how to control common hazards such as plant and hazardous substances in the work environment. In construction work and mining, for example, people must have up-to-date information, be aware of any safety alerts emphasising dangers in relation to a specific risk for a particular job and be consulted about the control of specific activities and hazardous processes. Information about the certification of plant operators, the administration of licensing, permits and notification, and the obligations for all workplaces is essential. Managers and team leaders must communicate responsibilities and ensure that their workgroups understand their duty of care and relevant provisions of the legislation and codes of practice. Primary and secondary sources of information about WHS include those shown in Exhibit 9.2. Collection and sharing of information about consultative arrangements, hazard identification, WHS arrangements for on-site contractors, visitors and members of the public enables the continual improvement of safety in the workplace.

Communicate workplace safety, health and welfare effectively.

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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK

EXHIBIT 9.2 Workplace and external sources of information Workplace sources • • • • • • •

Ensure information about WHS is communicated effectively.

External sources

Material safety data sheets (MSDSs) Workplace inspections Minutes of meetings Hazard, incident and investigation reports Audit reports Material and chemical registers Legislation, standards, manufacturers’ manuals available at the workplace

• • • • • • •

Australian standards Industry bodies Employer groups and unions WHS specialists and professional bodies Websites, journals and newsletters Manuals and specifications Regulatory authorities and relevant Acts, regulations and codes of practice

The primary duty-of-care principle means employers, employees and others in the workplace must have information, understand, discuss and communicate about work safety and health. WHS codes of practice, policies, procedures and programs must be readily accessible to allow participation in risk identification, analysis, evaluation and control.

INFORMATION SHOULD PREVENT OR MINIMISE HAZARDS Provide information about hazards and the associated risk of exposure to danger.

A hazard, in a WHS context, is anything that may injure or harm the health of a person. Hazards exist when there is a risk of exposure to danger. To manage workforce hazards effectively, employers need to identify all hazards in the workplace, assess their potential harm, find ways of controlling them and evaluate and treat the risks. Employees need to work safely, take personal responsibility for their own actions and follow WHS procedures. Permanent disabilities, serious injuries and deaths are rare, but they do happen. Everyone in a workplace should do everything possible to prevent injuries and accidents to themselves and others. Know and communicate information about the sorts of hazards that might cause serious injury, and eliminate or minimise the risks. Six major classifications of workplace hazards are shown in Exhibit 9.3.

EXHIBIT 9.3 Classifications of hazards Hazard

Example

Gravitational hazards that have a direct physical effect on the body

• • • • •

Body-stressing hazards that arise from movement Psychosocial hazards that affect people in different ways and result in stress Mechanical hazards caused by equipment and vehicles Chemical and biological hazards that can result in chronic or acute effects on the body

Wet floors and slippery surfaces Stairs, steps, ladders, work platforms Falling objects and objects protruding in walkways or doorways Lifting heavy objects and twisting the body Bending, pushing, pulling and other activities that can result in strain and sprains • Boring, repetitive tasks, excessive noise and lack of attention • Discrimination, harassment, bullying, trauma and personality clashes • • • • • • •

Electricity associated with plant, machinery and equipment Forklifts, cranes, hoists and vibration Pressure vessels and dangerous goods Chemical substances such as poisons, acids, alkalis, solvents Dusts and fumes from processes such as welding Chemicals that lead to fire, explosion and radiation Infection from mould, mildew, insects, vermin, bacteria and viruses

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CHAPTER 9 / Implement and monitor a safe workplace

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Hazard

Example

Sources of energy hazards

• • • •

Electricity, heat, cold Electric welding flashes Sunburn from not wearing protective clothing Radioactive sources and high-powered light

Managers, team leaders, team members and contractors in the workplace must be diligent about workplace safety. They must understand information about hazards, explain this information and take action on the basis of the information. They must also ensure hazards are reported to the designated people in their workplace according to workplace procedures. 1. WHS management plan: a. Define the term ‘WHS management plan’. b. What does an effective WHS management plan provide a framework for? c. What features must be included in a WHS management plan to ensure workers are able to take and demonstrate in the performance of their duties reasonable care of their own health and safety; and to take and demonstrate reasonable care that their acts or omissions do not adversely affect the health and safety of other persons? 2. Workplace hazards: a. What are some common workplace hazards? b. How are hazards identified in your workplace or a workplace of your choice? c. What is it about these hazards that make them harmful? d. How are these hazards communicated to management? 3. Write a brief note for posting on your company’s intranet listing the steps in managing risk and explaining the importance of communicating and fulfilling our duty-of-care responsibilities. 4. Conduct a search on the web for the Work Health and Safety Act 2011 to find the answers to the following questions. a. What is the primary duty of care of a PCBU? b. What are the categories of offence that relate to the recklessness and seriousness of a risk or hazard in the workplace? c. What are the penalties for breaches of the primary duty of care?

CHECKPOINT 9.1

9.2 IMPLEMENT AND MONITOR PARTICIPATIVE ARRANGEMENTS A feature of a safe workplace is established consultative mechanisms. Employers, employees and workgroups are provided with the opportunity to participate and contribute to better management of WHS. Consultation acknowledges that everybody in the workplace has a duty of care and some responsibility for a safe and healthy work environment. An effective workplace health and safety management system (WHSMS) outlines when consultation is required. For example, when: • risks to health and safety that arise from work are assessed or the assessment of those risks is reviewed • decisions are made about the measures to be taken to eliminate or control those risks

Consult as required.

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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK • • • •

procedures for monitoring those risks are introduced or altered decisions are made about the adequacy of facilities for the welfare of employees changes are proposed to the work premises, where those changes may affect health, safety or welfare changes are proposed to the systems or methods of work or to the plant or substances used for work. Forums for the dissemination of information may include inductions, team briefings, tool-box talks, consultations and formal meetings. Safety responsibilities may also be identified in role descriptions and standard operating procedures. The risk management process shown in Exhibit 9.4 highlights the importance of communication and consultation at all stages of the process.

EXHIBIT 9.4 Risk management process Communicate and consult

Establish the context

Identify the risks

Analyse the risks

Evaluate the risks

Treat the risks

Monitor and review

MECHANISMS FOR WHS CONSULTATION Identify opportunities to consult and provide WHS information.

Risks and other issues are raised more readily when team members are able to consult and contribute to the management of WHS rather than when their manager or team leader works in isolation. Effective consultation and representation occur when the specific health and safety concerns of workers are recognised, dealt with promptly and the outcome reported back to workers. Mechanisms that assist an organisation meet its consultation and communication requirements are: • the election of health and safety representatives (HSR) for defined workgroups • the establishment of health and safety committees that include management representatives and elected employee representatives • regular communication with unions and associations representing employees • consultation on the job through daily communication between managers and employees • discussion, resolution and reporting back to workers of WHS issues raised through consultation • provision of WHS information through the intranet, circulars and safety alerts • liaison with contractors and subcontractors to ensure coordination of consultation and communication of WHS information on any shared sites. Managers, supervisors and team leaders should encourage and assist their team to: • participate in workplace inspections in their area of responsibility • consult with work team members • participate in general housekeeping activities in the work area and check equipment before and during work. Communication of WHS information is required during and outside of formal WHS consultation arrangements. The outcomes of WHS issues should be recorded and communicated promptly. This helps managers ensure that their workgroup and other stakeholders are provided with, and have ongoing access to, information about the:

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CHAPTER 9 / Implement and monitor a safe workplace • • • • •

hazards associated with their work risks they may be exposed to measures to eliminate or minimise that exposure procedure for reporting hazards to management workplace arrangements for the management of WHS. Every employer has a duty of care to their employees and others in the workplace and must provide as far as is possible a practical, safe and healthy workplace. Every employee and workgroup has a duty of care to themselves, other employees and the organisation to work safely. Everybody in the workplace should be able to participate in and contribute to the management of health and safety in their own work area.

Support employees, contractors and other stakeholders to contribute to workplace safety and welfare. Use effective consultative mechanisms to manage health and safety risks.

MONITOR CONSULTATIVE PROCEDURES TO FACILITATE PARTICIPATION Contribute to safe work practices and procedures and report any hazard, accident, potential accident or incident immediately. Managers, supervisors and team leaders must communicate effectively to ensure their workgroup and other stakeholders participate in the management of work area hazards and safety in the workplace by: • being aware of emergency procedures • being aware of the location of first-aid stations • knowing the location of obvious danger and workplace hazards • observing health and safety workplace responsibilities • wearing protective clothing or equipment as directed by management • participating in and contributing to WHS management • reporting incidents or accidents as deemed necessary by management • making recommendations in a report that comply with the organisation’s worksafe goals and are written within the scope of organisational procedures. Communication is the key to implementing the actions that identify work area hazards, then evaluating and treating the risks. Employees and workgroups participate in the creation and maintenance of a safe work environment through involvement in meetings that address health and safety issues, membership of health and safety consultation groups and acting as HSRs. 1. WHS consultation: a. What is the purpose of WHS consultation? b. Provide three examples of when WHS consultation is required. 2. Identify three mechanisms that assist an organisation to meet its WHS and communication requirements. 3. Who does every employee have a duty of care to?

CHECKPOINT 9.2

9.3 MONITOR PROCEDURES FOR PROVIDING WHS TRAINING The legislation and relevant regulations require that employees have enough information and training to enable them to understand the health and safety risks associated with their work and the measures necessary to control them. 219 Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202

THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK Employers must provide adequate safety training and instruction to ensure that employees understand and follow safe and correct procedures at all times. Team leaders, supervisors, frontline managers, middle managers, workplace safety representatives and WHS committee members are the employer’s representative in WHS matters.

COMMUNICATE TO IDENTIFY AND FILL TRAINING NEEDS

Ensure training needs of individuals and the workgroup are met.

Provide worker induction training and site induction training according to organisational and legal requirements.

Part of the role of team leaders, managers and supervisors is to provide advice on and organise WHS training for their workgroup. Effective WHS training is ongoing and consistent. Managers have a responsibility to ensure that training: • complies with the relevant Acts and regulations • meets the needs of their employees and others in the workplace. In fulfilling these responsibilities, managers should consult with those who may be affected by WHS issues in their workplace – for example, employer, human resources staff, unions, workers, contractors, visitors, health and safety committee members, HSRs and regulatory bodies. In an office environment, the range of factors with health and safety implications for workers include: • ergonomic issues such as workstation layout and working in a fixed posture for long periods of time • risks associated with computer use include eye strain, poor posture and repetitive strain injury • psychological hazards such as the lack of job satisfaction due to repetitive work, pressure of excessive workloads or inadequate recognition of work performed • mechanical hazards such as filing cabinets that tend to tip when heavily laden top drawers are open • physical hazards such as glare or reflections from screens and hot components of photocopiers, untidy offices with poor lighting that can cause slips, trips and falls, as well as temperature, air-quality, electrical and fire hazards. Managers, supervisors and team leaders have a duty of care to ensure team members know about and how to control the risks associated with any hazards. No manager, supervisor or team leader can assume that people know what to do. Due diligence requires them not only to take all reasonable measures, but to provide evidence that such measures have been taken in the event of an accident or unfortunate incident. Training is one of those measures.

Worker induction and site induction training Managers, supervisors, team leaders and contractors must ensure all workers are trained and competent for the work to be carried out. They must ensure workers have had relevant training required by legislation such as white card training (outlined in the following paragraph) or other appropriate training from another jurisdiction. Workers must be able to deal with any risks associated with the work and understand the control measures in place. Anyone starting work on a construction site, for example, must undergo two types of WHS induction training – construction worker induction training and site induction – and be able to provide evidence of that training. An employer in the construction industry must accept evidence that a person has done construction induction training; for example, a construction induction card issued by a TAFE College or Registered Training Organisation (RTO), a white card or a statement or card issued under similar requirements in another Australian state or territory. Before starting work on a construction or mining site, all workers must be provided with a specific site induction. The principal contractor has a responsibility to work with other contractors to ensure the site-specific induction happens. Site-specific inductions outline the expectations identified in the WHS management plan, including all policies and procedures, emergency meeting point and site rules and the facilities. Any site-specific hazards and high-risk construction work activities must be highlighted. 220 Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202

CHAPTER 9 / Implement and monitor a safe workplace Managers in any industry are responsible for ensuring on-site training and supervision is provided for those workers who are not trained or competent to perform their duties. Training may be organised externally where required. Licences for high-risk work must be maintained and recorded in a register of licences. Worker WHS training is required for the situations listed in Exhibit 9.5.

Consult as you make arrangements to meet WHS training needs of the workgroup.

EXHIBIT 9.5 WHS training needs Type of training

Situation

General WHS training

• • • • •

Refresher training for high-risk jobs

• • • •

WHS training integrated with other forms of training

• Induction training • First-aid training • Emergency procedure training – accident, fire and other on-the-job training in WHS work procedures • Team leader, supervisor and management training • Hazard and risk-management training • Skill development to increase competence in the safe performance of work tasks

When new starters begin work in your workgroup or transfer to another area When new plant, work processes or systems of work are introduced When new regulatory requirements are introduced When an incident investigation identifies a need for retraining When there is new knowledge about the risks or management of particular hazards • When there is a need to meet competency requirements for operators of plant and machinery • When an HSR is elected, or a management or employee Health and Safety committee member is appointed Work in confined spaces Plant operation Use of hazardous substances Manual handling

The employer’s duty of care requires the provision of training and development activities to ensure work practices are safe. Training may be provided on-the-job, online, one-to-one instruction, off-the-job or through computer-aided instruction. Training should cover the activities listed in Exhibit 9.6.

EXHIBIT 9.6 WHS training and development in safe work practice The employer needs to provide:

Knowledge, skills and attitudes

Instruction

Needed in how to: • use machinery safely • use personal protective equipment safely • follow workplace procedures • undertake work activities and tasks safely and competently • avoid deliberate and unintentional breaches of WHS legislation • comply with WHS legislation and cooperate with others in its implementation • identify, minimise, avoid and report hazards.

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The employer needs to provide:

Knowledge, skills and attitudes

Information

Sources of information are: • warning signs • material safety data sheets • internal policies, procedures and practices • external information from: – unions – employer associations – WHS services – appropriate government authorities.

Supervision

Required to: • fulfil responsibilities as a manager or team leader • reinforce correct and safe procedures • ensure procedures are carried out safely • improve workplace health and safety • identify, assess and control hazards. Required to: • explain and clarify WHS roles and performance expectations • align goals with team and organisational goals and gain commitment • provide feedback and encouragement, empower and counsel • problem solve and help the other person to evaluate the safety consequences of decisions and actions • enhance the other persons’ awareness of WHS and guide them to choose responsibility for the actions they will take to fulfil their duty of care. Required to: • pair a skilled and experienced WHS person with a less-skilled and lessexperienced colleague • build a long-term relationship and pass along WHS knowledge and experience to another person • guide, encourage, listen and advise a less experienced employee on workplace WHS issues, training needs and ways of working.

Coaching

Mentoring

CHECKPOINT 9.3

1. WHS lists: a. Compile a list of those who are the employer’s representatives in WHS matters. b. List the sources of WHS information typically found in any organisation. 2. Write a technical definition of the terms: • WHS induction training (about 100 words) • WHS site induction training (about 100 words). (Refer to Chapter 18, Write technical documents and proposals, for information about technical definitions.) 3. Hazards: a. List two physical hazards in an office environment and identify the risk associated with the hazards. b. List three psychological hazards in an office environment and identify the risk associated with the hazards.

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CHAPTER 9 / Implement and monitor a safe workplace

9.4 IMPLEMENT AND MONITOR PROCEDURES FOR IDENTIFYING HAZARDS AND ASSESSING RISKS WHS issues in the workplace are the responsibility of everyone who works in the organisation. Employers, contractors or visitors may raise WHS issues with team leaders, managers, HSRs, health and safety committees or other designated personnel. An organisation’s WHS policy will have at least four components: 1. what it wants to achieve – the objectives 2. why it wants to achieve it – its commitment 3. how it will achieve it – the resources needed 4. who it will affect – the responsibilities. In order to achieve its objectives, a WHS policy must be supported by general procedures and specific programs. Four steps in identifying hazards, assessing and managing WHS risk in the workplace are shown in Exhibit 9.7.

Identify and report on hazards in work area in accordance with WHS policies and procedures.

EXHIBIT 9.7 Steps in managing WHS Step 1 Identify hazards and risks

Step 2

Step 3

Step 4

Analyse the risks

Evaluate the risks

Treat the risks

CARRY OUT SAFETY INSPECTIONS One of the procedures for monitoring hazards and assessing and treating risks is a safety inspection. Plant or work area safety inspections are carried out in order to identify unsafe conditions on an ongoing basis. Corrective action is then taken to reduce the risk of work-related illness or injury. A safety inspection is a procedure carried out in all organisations. The purpose of a safety inspection is to: • determine the hazards in the workplace • identify any unsafe acts • determine the risks associated with the hazards • put in place control mechanisms to eliminate the risk (or at least reduce or minimise it). The inspection may take place because there has been an accident, an issue has been raised or a potential risk may have been identified. The findings of a safety inspection should be documented. This provides evidence that action has been taken to resolve an issue, and that duty of care has been fulfilled. Exhibit 9.8 can be used to document and assess the likelihood of injury or illness associated with each hazard identified in a safety inspection. (More specific information about determining the level of risk each hazard presents is given later in this chapter.)

Take corrective actions to reduce the risk of workrelated illness or injury.

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EXHIBIT 9.8 Workplace inspection checklist WHS workplace inspection checklist (Version 1, 1 November 2019) Inspection site: Inspection date: Workplace inspection team Name:

Name:

Name:

Name: Likelihood of injury or illness

Hazards 1 • • •

Yes

No

Very likely

Likely

Unlikely

Very unlikely

Walkways Identified clearly Free from stored material Free from trip hazards

2 Stairways • Good condition • Treads clean • Non-slip • Free of obstacles • Adequate lighting 3 • • • •

Waste and scrap Hazardous waste Combustible material Sufficient bins Disposal of waste

4 Equipment and furniture – condition and layout • Guards • Strike hazards • Wear and tear 5 • • •

Lighting Adequate Fittings Switches

6 Other

Summary of checklist items requiring action:

Action required:

Inspection team leader:

Signature: Printed name: Date:

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REPORT AND DOCUMENT HAZARDS One of the primary responsibilities of managers, supervisors and team leaders is to ensure the workplace is safe and free from risk. They should document hazards and mandatory protective measures in order to: • communicate requirements to all parties • provide evidence of fulfilling duty of care. Identifying hazards and documenting them is the first step in managing safety for a task or on a worksite. Organisations have formal processes for recording hazards through safety inspections, audits, job safety analyses and standard operating procedures. Irrespective of formal processes, the manager or team leader should work with a wide range of communication methods to identify hazards. For example, some of these methods are: • talking and consulting with contractors and equipment owners • running a hazard-identification meeting to talk and consult with peers and other workers • visiting and inspecting to look at the job site and how the job is being done • using past data such as existing job safety analysis, prior hazard identification forms and accident/incident records. If a WHS committee is established in your workplace, this provides the ideal situation for you to raise WHS issues in accordance with workplace programs and the relevant WHS legislation. Where there are fewer than 20 employees, bring WHS issues to the attention of your HSR or your supervisor. The role of HSR includes some of the tasks shown in Exhibit 9.9.

Document hazards and mandatory protective measures.

EXHIBIT 9.9 Tasks and roles performed by WHS workplace representatives Task or role

Reason

Inspect the workplace

• • • •

There has been an accident Employer has been given notice to do something about an incident Some risk is evident Employee requests a workplace inspection relative to some risk or potential risk

Request a workplace inspection

• • • •

Known high-risk areas Audit WHS management Interview witnesses to accident or incident Examine plant or equipment for any reported or known problems

Represent employees on WHS issues

• Consider employees and health and safety issues in the context of workplace performance • Investigate and familiarise themselves with employees’ WHS concerns • Represent employees on health and safety committees or meetings with management

Deal with management

• • • •

Report unsafe work practices Report workplace hazards Take employee concerns on health and safety to meetings Consult with management on any planned changes to the workplace relevant to a safe work environment

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Task or role

Reason

Meet regularly as designated

• Inspect workplace sites for any potential accident, incident or hazard • Record all minutes for protection • Make recommendations to management on health and safety issues or concerns • Keep committee informed and up-to-date on WHS issues and legislation • Consider issues referred by employees • Provide relevant information on health and safety issues to employees

Review accidents

• • • •

Recommend WHS training

• Recommend accredited WHS training for employees where necessary

Visit worksite where accident occurred Formalise a report on accident or incident Provide detailed report to management Provide detailed report of accidents or incidents to employees

TAKE CORRECTIVE ACTION

Implement corrective action promptly.

CHECKPOINT 9.4

Discuss and document hazards to prepare for risk assessment and classification.

By finding the true causes of accidents, steps can be taken to prevent them. The same type of accident will recur if corrective action is not taken. When the actual situation does not meet the desired situation, take corrective action and ensure implementation of risk controls. In some organisations the corrective action investigation is an activity carried out after the details of an incident have been recorded. The HSR, manager or team leader will lead a team to investigate, establish root causes of incidents and make recommendations to management for corrective action. 1. Identify the four components in an organisation’s WHS policy. 2. Safety inspections and WHS roles: a. Briefly discuss the purpose of a safety inspection. b. Identify four tasks or roles carried out by WHS workplace representatives. 3. Briefly discuss communication methods managers or team leaders use to identify hazards. 4. Make a list of sources of WHS information under the following headings: • legislation • codes of practice • an organisation’s WHS policies and procedures • an organisation’s WHS programs.

9.5 IMPLEMENT AND MONITOR PROCEDURES FOR CONTROLLING RISKS The first step in the elimination of hazards is to identify the hazard. The second is to rank the risk associated with the hazard. The third is to use control strategies to remove hazards.

HIERARCHY OF CONTROL MEASURES Use the hazard control hierarchy.

The hierarchy of control is a sequence of options that offer you a number of ways to approach the control of hazards. Controls following this sequence reduce the likelihood and severity of injury.

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CHAPTER 9 / Implement and monitor a safe workplace Exhibit 9.10 lists the controls (with typical examples) from most preferred (eliminate the hazard) to least preferred (use of personal protective equipment, or PPE).

EXHIBIT 9.10 Hierarchy of control Eliminate the hazard Substitute with a lesser risk

Isolate the hazard Use engineering controls Use administrative controls Use personal protective equipment

• • • • • • • • • • • •

Remove hazardous electrical plant from the workplace Cease in-house operations of hazardous work Replace leaded glazes, paints and pigments with unleaded versions Reduce the risks from body stressing by substituting 20-kg bags of cement for previously delivered 40-kg bags Locate the photocopier in a separate well-ventilated room Place hazardous electrical plant in enclosures with restricted access Place guards on moving machinery parts Use safety switches to protect socket outlets which supply electrical plant Maintain equipment regularly Implement safe work practices, instruction and training Provide hearing and eye protection Use rubber mats, insulated gloves, boots and head gear

In situations where it is impossible to completely eliminate a hazard, an organisation and its staff may have to accept that there are safe levels of exposure to a hazard. The behaviour and response of people to the risk is the difficulty in this approach. When there is a safe level of exposure to risk, staff must have knowledge of the risk and how to deal with it – for example, workers in a chemical factory must know they have to wear personal protective equipment (PPE) in conjunction with engineering and administrative controls to avoid exposure to dangerous substances. Engineering controls involve the use of equipment and tools to control a hazard: for example, fume hoods, machine guarding and trolleys and hoists to move heavy loads. Engineering controls are mechanical controls or devices that modify equipment and the environment in which a process is undertaken. When new materials, equipment or work practices are introduced engineering controls should be used wherever possible. Safer work procedures and processes such as safer tools, ergonomic keyboards, equipment and work practices improve safety and welfare. Isolation through guard rails or remote handling techniques improves work practices and safety. Examples of administrative controls are procedures such as job rotation, routine maintenance and training on hazards and work procedures. PPE is provided; however, its effectiveness is dependent on people using it correctly. In any form of hazard control, priority is placed on controlling the hazard at its source.

RANK THE RISK ASSOCIATED WITH A HAZARD A hazard may cause (or has the potential to cause) an accident that is harmful to individuals or property. Risk is the likelihood of an accident happening. The purpose of a risk assessment of a workplace hazard is to determine the priorities for the control of hazards. Hazards that kill or disable have a higher priority than those that only require first aid. Deal with the worst hazard (the hazard with the greatest danger) first. Organisations should have formal processes for evaluating the risk of a hazard and how to lessen the level of that risk. This enables managers to make informed decisions on when and where to allocate resources. Exhibit 9.11 is an example of a system that can be used to rank the risk associated with a hazard. The frequency (probability) and severity (seriousness) ratings are combined into a matrix.

Identify a hazard, rank the risk and control to mitigate or remove it.

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EXHIBIT 9.11 Rank the risk associated with a hazard Likelihood of hurting someone

Severity or consequence of a hazard

Risk class

Kill or disable

Several days off work

First aid

Very likely

1

2

3

Likely

2

3

4

Unlikely

3

4

5 acceptable

Very unlikely

4

5 acceptable

6 acceptable

The matrix gives an evaluation score, which is then marked on the priority evaluation scale shown in Exhibit 9.12.

EXHIBIT 9.12 Priority evaluation scale Mark the risk rating on the evaluation scale High-priority hazard 1

Low-priority hazard

A high-priority hazard is evaluated as a 1. A low-priority hazard is evaluated as a 6.

6

An evaluation score of 1 identifies a high-priority risk. The risk needs to be eliminated or lessened immediately because it is very likely to happen and could kill or disable a person. An evaluation score of 6 identifies a low-priority risk. It is very unlikely to happen and will require first aid, rather than days off work, disability or death.

IMPLEMENT APPROPRIATE RISK-CONTROL MEASURES

Prepare a SWMS to minimise the severity and frequency of risk.

A manager or team leader planning for a job to be carried out may identify hazards by developing a job safety analysis (JSA). The JSA in Exhibit 9.13 is a detailed plan of how a job is to be done so that the safety of those doing the work and others is assured. It is a complete record of every step in the job task, the potential hazards for each and how the hazards are addressed. A manager, supervisor, team leader or project coordinator should monitor performance against the requirements in the job safety analysis form. Any inadequacies that will affect health and safety must be treated immediately using the appropriate control from the hierarchy of controls. Risk classification and risk-control measures are the next step in the process after hazard identification. Putting them all together in one format creates a safe work method statement (SWMS). Managers, team leaders and supervisors should prepare SWMSs in consultation with others. SWMSs are crucial. They provide evidence about you and your workgroup’s forethought and planning before beginning an activity or task. As mentioned, risk is measured by two primary forces set against each other: 1. severity 2. frequency. We need to consider both the likelihood of the risk happening, and the consequences if it did happen. Refer back to Exhibit 9.13. The level of risk determines the control measures we put in place to counter the risk.

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CHAPTER 9 / Implement and monitor a safe workplace

EXHIBIT 9.13 Example of a job safety analysis (JSA) Example of a job safety analysis (JSA) Company name:

Date:

JSA No.:

Site name:

Permit to work required:

Inspection date:

Contractor:

Approved by:

Name:

Name:

Name:

Name:

Task or activity: Regenerate bush vegetation alongside R5 rail line Job step

Hazards

Action

1 Prepare area and assemble equipment

• Manual handling rail traffic

• Ensure correct lifting technique • Use minimum of two people to lift power equipment • Assemble barriers • Set warning charges • Select a sentry

2 Prune trees and shrubs, and mulch

• Moving parts of power equipment: noise

• Ensure all workers are behind operator of power equipment • Ensure guards are fitted • Use hearing protection (be aware of reduced ability to hear warnings)

3 Brush-cut on embankments

• Noise • Eye injury • Uneven terrain

• Use hearing protection • Wear safety goggles • Be sure of footing before commencing each task

4 Trim flat and verge areas

• Eye injury • Scratches and cuts • Snakes

• Wear safety goggles • Wear overalls and gloves • Avoid contact – move to other areas

5 Spray weeds with herbicide

• Inhalation of fumes • Skin contact

• Use ventilator • Use full protective overalls, PVC/rubber gloves • Read MSDS CHEM134

6 Return equipment to vehicles

• Manual handling

• Ensure correct lifting technique • Use minimum of two people to lift power equipment

Responsibility

Paper cuts may be highly frequent, but not so severe in terms of injury. The cave-in of the ceiling of an underground mineshaft is an infrequent but severe occurrence that can cause serious injury and death. Remember, there is not just the action to consider, but the environment in which it takes place, and the surrounding external influences on that environment. Safe working practices are exemplified by what is done before the task, during the task and after the task. Therefore, there are three stages of developing safe work methods.

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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK 1. Preparation stage, to determine what you know before you start. 2. Observation stage, to determine what happens during an activity, identify any hazards, and determine how to control and manage hazard(s). 3. Review stage, to check what you learned while observing work practices. An SWMS will include the features listed in Exhibit 9.14.

EXHIBIT 9.14 Features of a safe work method statement (SWMS) • • • • • • • • • •

Describe how work is to be carried out in sequenced steps Document the hazards identified within each task step Note the assessed risk level for each identified hazard Describe the measures to be implemented to control the risk Provide a list of the personnel doing the tasks Include a list of all equipment at the plant that will be used to perform the tasks List all legislation, codes of practice or standards to be complied with that are relevant to the work Provide a record of the qualifications of the personnel doing the work List all certification and competencies mandatory for carrying out the tasks List all safety checks mandatory for each task

OFFICE ERGONOMICS

Adjust work space, furniture and other equipment to meet the ergonomic requirements of the user.

Ergonomics is the study of humans and their working environment. The goal of ergonomics is to make the job fit the characteristics of the person. This means that work space, furniture and other equipment need to be adjusted in order to meet the requirements of the user. Poor office ergonomics is a workplace hazard that is unlikely to kill but can cause serious long-term injury that will impact the overall health and productivity of the affected employees. Team leaders, managers or supervisors have a responsibility to: • communicate to staff how their workstation should be set up • make sure all new workstations are set up according to the established guidelines • check periodically that workstations meet the relevant Australian standards. The typical workstation equipment and resources that should be adjusted to meet individual requirements include: • desks, chairs and footrests • computer monitors • keyboard and mouse • document holders • telephone and location of printers and photocopiers. Some of the basic office health and safety guidelines that should be communicated to all affected employees are outlined in Exhibit 9.15.

MONITOR AND EVALUATE SAFETY PROCEDURES Quality systems require that your own compliance is checked against your own system. This is sometimes known as an internal or informal audit. • A SWMS determines how a task should be done. • A quality system determines how the record keeping should be done. • An audit determines how well the record keeping was done.

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CHAPTER 9 / Implement and monitor a safe workplace If an informal audit or review is conducted, get involved. The audit is a monitoring and evaluation tool. It is crucial that such processes receive support. If no such structure exists in your workplace, conduct a self-audit, which can also serve as a checklist or a reminder of your own responsibilities or those of your workgroup.

Participate in informal review and evaluation processes.

EXHIBIT 9.15 Health and safety in an office environment • • • • • •

Office temperature should ideally be between 20 and 26C. Ventilation must be adequate and air not contaminated. Photocopiers should not be placed near individual workstations due to possible heat, light and noise discomfort. Lighting must be adequate. Equipment should be adjusted to suit the individual. The AS 3590.2–1990 series of Australian standards for screen-based workstations recommend the following:

Height of work surface (floor to top of work surface) If fixed

680 to 720 mm

Area of work surface

If adjustable

580 to 730 mm

Viewing distance to work (screen)

Width

1500 mm minimum

Minimum

350 mm

Depth

900 mm minimum

Maximum

750 mm

Bench thickness over leg

25 mm maximum span

Height of display

30 to 40 degrees below eye level

Volume of leg space

Seat pan height

Width

800 mm minimum

Surface of seat to floor

330 to 430 mm

Depth

550 mm minimum

Seat pan depth

380 to 510 mm

Height

580 mm minimum

Footrest area

300 to 375 mm

1. Severity and likelihood of hazards: a. Why is it important to think about: • the severity or consequence of a hazard on people? • the likelihood of a hazard hurting someone? b. Why must the severity and likelihood of a hazard be communicated? 2. For each of the following situations, explain how you could apply the hierarchy of control to minimise the risk of illness or injury. Develop a series of simple tables to help in your analysis. Suggested column headings for the table are Situation, Control and Communication. a. heavy lifting of residents in an aged-care facility by members of staff b. sharp edges on a workbench in a children’s long day care centre c. drums of used cooking oil stored outside the back door of a takeaway shop, beside a drain d. use of hairdryers by guests in a motel. 3. Ergonomics: a. Consider an office work situation you are familiar with. Are the workstation space, furniture and other equipment ergonomically sound? b. What improvements (if any) do you need to make?

CHECKPOINT 9.5

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9.6 IMPLEMENT PROCEDURES FOR MAINTAINING WHS RECORDS Records provide evidence required by WHS legislation. They can also provide valuable data that may be used to review historical: • statistics and the patterns they can reveal • numbers that may indicate seasonal causes • cycles that may be recurring • probabilities that can be used as lessons to educate and affect the behavioural aspect of safety. Organisations must have a WHS reporting system in place to allow anyone who is aware of a potentially unsafe activity or piece of equipment to notify their manager, supervisor or HSR. Records of unsafe acts, incidents and accidents enable anyone in the workplace to be involved in the management of their safety and the safety of others. Records contain data about: • number and type of accidents and incidents • absenteeism and the reasons why • lost time through work-related injury • equipment failure • adherence to safety procedures • employee concern for own safety • intended versus actual levels of supervision • attendees at induction and refresher training. The data is used to identify and control any weaknesses in the workplace such as the potential for harm to people, plant and equipment. Good information supports effective planning, organising, directing and controlling of work health and safety.

USE RECORDS AND INFORMATION TO IMPROVE SAFETY Keep accurate preincident, at-incident and post-incident reports.

Organisations must ensure that their record-keeping system complies with legislation and provides useful data about WHS by determining: • what records they are required to keep • what information must be passed on • whether it is stored electronically or in hard copy. Remember that records kept for safety may well be needed in the near or distant future, so accuracy is important. Record keeping usually follows the three-phase process shown in Exhibit 9.16.

EXHIBIT 9.16 Three-phase process Phase

Type of record

Where stored

1. Pre-incident

Induction

Hard copy

2. At-incident

Incident report

Electronic or hard copy

3. Post-incident

Rehabilitation

With rehabilitation representative

The legislative requirements and an organisation’s requirements mean that all managers must maintain WHS records about their participation in WHS, consultation and any corrective actions taken. The information must be accurate and accessible.

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CHAPTER 9 / Implement and monitor a safe workplace Records and information management are an essential part of any job function. They are also an essential part of an organisation’s WHSMS. Examples of records that must be maintained as part of an organisation’s WHSMS are: • permits to work • MSDSs • risk assessments where a SWMS is required • WHS training activity • inspections and monitoring data • calibration and maintenance activity • details of incidents, complaints and follow-up action • supplier and contractor information • WHS audits and reviews • hazard registers that include a list and location of hazards, their priority, the outcomes from risk analysis and evaluation and the controls used to treat risk. Refer to Chapter 19, Record keeping, for more information about the creation, use, storage and disposal of records.

Ensure records are kept to comply with at least the minimum standards of the legislative framework.

REPORT INCIDENTS AND ACCIDENTS Report and investigate any accident as soon as possible. The incident should be reconstructed using facts, an analysis of the findings from the investigation and recommendations about ways to eliminate (or at least reduce) the cause of the accident. The safety incident reporting system is called the incident/accident reporting system. An incident/accident reporting system contains: • guidelines of what must be investigated and reported • records of facts and details about the incident and who was involved • cause-and-effect analysis to determine the root cause of the incident • recommended corrective action that should be taken to address the incident • information about how management is to acknowledge and approve corrective action • details about how feedback is to be given to the person who raised the incident to accident report. Incident/accident reporting involves the filling out of a form. Serious incidents are automatically brought to the attention of high levels of management. Certain safety incidents are classified as reportable incidents and must be reported to the relevant authority. The aim of the incident/accident form is to record all facts and details about an incident. This helps later when corrective action is taken. An example of an incident/accident reporting form is shown in Exhibit 9.17.

Maintain records of incidents within your organisation’s safety management system.

REVIEW AND IMPLEMENT CHANGES TO RISK-CONTROL MEASURES Meeting statutory requirements is not a static issue. Legislation changes, work practices evolve, technology merges, and people’s roles develop to encompass greater levels of responsibility. This means that we must constantly review safety procedures and the results obtained. Continuous improvement is as relevant (if not more) to safety as it is to any other aspect of business. Efficiency can sometimes be the mortal enemy of safety. Instead, be effective by achieving the job outcomes safely.

Review safety procedures and implement any required improvements.

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EXHIBIT 9.17 Incident/Accident form Incident/Accident form 1. Basic information:

Date:

Department:

Reported by: 2. Type of incident:

3. Incident details:

Accident/Illness

Plant/Property damage

Quality

Near miss

Security/Loss

Audit

Environment

Customer complaint

Other

When did it happen? Time Where did it happen?

What happened? (details of incident)

What led up to the incident? (cause)

Who witnessed it?

4. Immediate action and comments:

5. Injured person details:

Name: Position: What was the injury/illness?:

Hospital

First aid

No treatment

Reviews of safe work systems can take the form of: audits safety committee reviews changes to safe work method statements investigations unconscious revisions (for example, the improvements we make to task approaches at work or home without even thinking about it). In many ways, review is built into our minds. It is about making a point of noticing, and acting upon what we notice. • • • • •

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CHAPTER 9 / Implement and monitor a safe workplace

ENSURE COMPLIANCE WITH THE LEGISLATIVE FRAMEWORK AS A MINIMUM STANDARD Earlier, we looked at internal and informal audits and reviews as a means of self-checking. To comply with legislation, external audits are also mandatory to check actions, events and records. Your quality systems will demand this as well. An external audit is instigated so that at least the minimum requirements are met; however, it is important not to aim to meet the minimum, but to surpass it and meet your own objectives. If an audit is to take place in your work area, be sure to support it as a means of improvement, rather than see it as a disciplinary or punitive tool. An audit is a review of processes against standards. The audit reviews the organisation’s performance against: • legislative and regulatory requirements and codes of practice • organisational policies procedures • WHS programs and program objectives. If records are found to be insufficient and action required, then such action must be taken. A due diligence check that found audit results were ignored would not be viewed lightly by a court. 1. Why does an organisation have a WHS reporting system? 2. List six types of WHS records that must be held in an organisation’s WHSMS. 3. Safety auditing: a. Identify five methods for reviewing work systems for safety. b. What are external WHS auditors likely to review an organisation’s performance against?

Participate in external audits and implement findings or results.

CHECKPOINT 9.6

LEARNING ACTIVITIES SUMMARY 9.1 Provide and communicate information to the workgroup about workplace health and safety (WHS) legislation, regulations and codes of practice and organisational WHS policies and procedures. Employees and others within an organisation need to be informed and aware of the relevant WHS legislation, regulations and codes of practice. WHS policies and programs must be readily accessible and known in order to prevent or minimise risk from mechanical, source of energy, psychosocial, body stressing, chemical, biological and gravitational hazards. Any outcomes from risk assessment must be communicated in writing and verbal presentations. 9.2 Implement and monitor participative arrangements for the management of WHS. The purpose of consultation and participation is to manage any risks to

health and safety. Consultation may take place with HSRs, health and safety committees, unions and associations through a variety of channels such as faceto-face, on the intranet, through circulars, safety alerts and team meetings. Facilitate the participation of team members, colleagues and others in the management of work area hazards. Any WHS issues raised through consultation should be dealt with promptly in accordance with your organisation’s consultation procedures. 9.3 Describe and monitor procedures for providing WHS training. Monitor the WHS training required by your workgroup and others. Communicate to identify skills gaps and training needs. On occasion, on-the-job coaching and mentoring assistance will be used instead of training. The training may be general WHS training, refresher training or learning integrated with other types of training.

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9.4 Implement and monitor procedures for identifying hazards and assessing risks. Hazards in the workplace are identified formally through safety inspections or informally by individuals who observe the hazard. Any identified hazard is analysed, evaluated and treated to eliminate or mitigate the risk to work health and safety. Corrective actions are reported and communicated in accordance with their organisation’s procedures. Everyone in the workplace has a duty-of-care responsibility to report, minimise or remove the risk from a hazard promptly. 9.5 Implement and monitor procedures for controlling risks. The hierarchy of control categorises the controls into elimination of the risk at its source, substitution, isolation of the risk, engineering controls, to design safer work equipment, administrative controls and the use of personal protective equipment. In controlling hazards, the most preferred approach is elimination. The least preferred is the use of PPE because of the risk of human

error. Assess and control risks according to the hierarchy of control and as specified in Commonwealth and state or territory WHS Acts, regulations and codes of practice. 9.6 Outline procedures for maintaining WHS records. WHS records of incidents of workplace injury and disease in the workplace are completed accurately and maintained in accordance with the organisation’s and legislative requirements. Written records must be accurate because they can be used as evidence of compliance or non-compliance with your organisation’s procedures and the relevant legislation. However, their primary purpose is to provide information that will improve health and safety. Disclaimer: This chapter is not a substitute for advice from qualified specialists. It is intended to provide information only and a general overview of WHS issues. Before taking any action related to WHS, please seek advice from qualified WHS specialists.

KEY TERMS consultative mechanisms due diligence

duty holders duty of care ergonomics

hazard hierarchy of control job safety analysis (JSA)

risk safe work method statement (SWMS) workplace health and safety (WHS)

LEARNING ACTIVITIES 1. Research task: Liability of duty of care Consider this statement: ‘The basic liability of duty of care in the law means that if it is reasonably foreseeable that what has been done or not done causes harm to anyone you will be liable.’ Conduct a search on the web for the Work Health and Safety Act 2011 to find the answers to the following questions: a. What is the primary duty of care of a person conducting a business or undertaking? b. What are the categories of offence that relate to the recklessness and seriousness of a risk or hazard in the workplace? c. What are the penalties for breaches of the primary duty of care? 2. Scenario: A near miss Finn was using a forklift to unload a full pallet from a large delivery truck parked in the loading dock. As Finn was reversing out of the loading dock to turn the forklift around

and move into the warehouse, the back of the forklift knocked John to the ground. At the time, John was bending down to access the lowest level of the shelves lining the walls of the warehouse. Luckily, John was knocked away from the forklift, not into its path. Both Finn and John were shaken but unhurt. a. Outline the reasons for reporting and investigating this incident. b. Identify the information that should be included in the incident report. c. What should Finn and John’s supervisor communicate about the follow-up actions from the incident with Finn and John, and the rest of the workgroup? 3. WHS information checklist a. Brainstorm all the information that you and your group feel should be provided to the workgroup about WHS policies, procedures and programs. (This list may be developed into a valuable checklist tool for use in the workplace.) b. How would you communicate the information?

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CHAPTER 9 / Implement and monitor a safe workplace

c. Develop the checklist into a PowerPoint presentation or Prezi slideshow. 4. WHS memo Assume you are going on leave and one of your workgroup will act in your role. Write a memo to that person outlining how to:

• •

•

provide information on the organisation’s WHS policies, procedures and programs to the workgroup provide information about identified hazards and the outcomes from analysis, evaluation and treatment of the associated risks communicate the information.

GROUP ASSIGNMENT The group assignment has two parts. Part A is a research activity. Part B examines the hierarchy of control.

how your opinion about emergency preparedness has changed (if at all). e. Reflections: I used to think … but now I think …

Part A: Research activity – finding out Work in small groups. a. Choose one of the disasters from the Plan Ahead for Disasters site at https://www.ready.gov/ b. Once you choose the disaster, find more information about the communication issues involved in emergency preparedness from the web, blogs, emergency centers and other sources. In your research, focus on the communication activities used to identify risks and communicate how to deal with those risks safely. c. Share your findings with your teacher, instructor or trainer using chosen communication methods; for example, PPT, Prezi, short presentation, short written report. d. Individually reflect on your findings and write two or three paragraphs identifying what you have learned and

Part B: Hierarchy of control Work in small groups. a. Discuss the role of the hierarchy of control in treating and controlling hazards at the source. b. Each person is to identify an engineering control in their workplace. c. Each person is to identify an administrative control in their workplace. d. Create a list of the identified engineering controls and a list of the administrative controls. e. Compare the outcomes from the engineering controls and the administrative controls. Write a shared short information paper explaining each level of the hierarchy of control. In your paper, explain why engineering controls are higher on the hierarchy than personal protective equipment.

CASE STUDY NEIL’S APPROACH TO SAFETY PERFORMANCE Neil’s work team has a reputation for excellent safety performance. Neil was asked at the team meeting how his work team achieved such an excellent result. Neil said that he involved all his team in decisions about health, safety and welfare and used the following consultation process: • Consult with his team to find out what problems and hazards they experience and how they think these can be rectified. • Deal with issues raised promptly. • Encourage and assist individuals to contribute to the WHS management system.

• • • •

•

Obtain regular feedback to identify and improve the management of WHS. Give equal access to the same information to all members of his work team. Give sufficient time and opportunity to consider the information. Explain clearly any relevant WHS information and check to see if team members have understood through discussion. Discuss information on safety performance regularly.

> 237

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>

•

Encourage everyone to contribute to suggestions for improvement. Neil was asked if there were certain occasions when he consulted. He outlined the following occasions: • when assessing health and safety issues that arise • when making decisions about eliminating or controlling risks • when introducing new work processes or when planning to change existing work processes • when making decisions about the adequacy of facilities for the welfare of the workgroup • when identifying hazards and assessing their risk

•

when deciding how to best control risks and implement risk-control measures.

Questions 1. Discuss the strategies Neil uses to enable his workgroup to participate in the management of WHS. 2. What communication and management behaviours does Neil demonstrate? Provide examples of behaviour that facilitates consultation. 3. Outline the likely benefits to Neil and his team of his approach to monitoring participative arrangements for the management of health and safety.

BIBLIOGRAPHY Access Canberra. 2018. Work health and safety management plans, https://www.accesscanberra.act.gov.au/app/answers/ detail/a_id/3784//work-health-and-safety-managementplans, viewed 2 April 2018. AS 3590.2—1990 Australian Standard. Screen-based Workstations Part 2: Workstation Furniture, Standards Australia, Australia. Australian Government. 2016. ‘Duty Holders’, Comcare, https://www.comcare.gov.au/promoting/duty_holders, viewed 4 September 2018. Australian Government. 2016. ‘Work Health and Safety Act 2011’, Federal Register of Legislation, https:// www.legislation.gov.au/Details/C2016C00887, viewed 5 September 2018. Comcare. 2012. The Management of Work Health and Safety in the Commonwealth Jurisdiction: Establishing a Work Health and Safety Management System, Australian Government, Canberra. Comcare. 2017. The WHS Act, Australian Government, https://www.comcare.gov.au/the_scheme/the_whs_act, viewed 1 December 2018. Foster, N. 2012. Workplace Health and Safety Law in Australia, LexisNexis, Chatswood, NSW. Friend, M.A. & Kohn, J.P. 2014. Fundamentals of Occupational Safety and Health, 6th edn, Berman Press, Lanham, MD.

Hopwood, D. & Thompson, S. 2006. Workplace Safety: A Guide for Small and Midsized Companies, John Wiley, Hoboken, NJ. Queensland Government. 2014. Codes of Practice, WorkCover Queensland, https://www.worksafe.qld.gov.au/laws-andcompliance/workplace-health-and-safety-laws/codes-ofpractice, viewed 2 April 2018. Quinlan, M., Bohle, P. & Lamm, F. 2010. Managing Occupational Health and Safety, 3rd edn, Palgrave Macmillan, Melbourne, Victoria. Safety at Work. Blog, https://safetyatworkblog.com/, viewed 3 April 2018. Safe Work Australia. 2014. https:// www.safeworkaustralia.gov.au/law-and-regulation/ development-model-whs-laws, viewed 10 December 2018. SafeWork NSW 2018. Consultation Arrangements, http://www.safework.nsw.gov.au/health-and-safety/ consultation-@-work/consultation-arrangements, viewed 4 April 2018. training.gov.au. BSBWHS401: Implement and Monitor WHS Policies, Procedures and Programs to Meet Legislative Requirements, https://training.gov.au/Training/Details/ BSBWHS401, viewed 2 April 2018. WorkSafe Victoria. 2018. Home Page, https:// www.worksafe.vic.gov.au/, viewed 5 April 2018.

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CHAPTER 9 / Implement and monitor a safe workplace

WorkCover Queensland. Home Page, https:// www.worksafe.qld.gov.au/, viewed 6 April 2018. WorkCover Queensland. Consultation, https://www.worksafe. qld.gov.au/laws-and-compliance/workplace-health-andsafety-laws/consultation, viewed 7 April 2018.

Workplace OHS News and information for OHS Professionals. 2018. WHS Harmonisation Main Changes, http://workplaceohs.com.au/legislation/modelact-regulation/whs-harmonisation-main-changes, viewed 5 September 2018.

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PART

3

COMMUNICATION WITH CUSTOMERS

CHAPTER 10 DELIVER AND MONITOR SERVICE TO ADDRESS CUSTOMER NEEDS CHAPTER 11

MANAGE CUSTOMER ENGAGEMENT

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Spotlight on: Communication with customers Successful customer service – face-to-face, written, online or through social media channels – identifies and addresses the customer’s needs; is attentive, focused and interested; shows care and understands the customer’s need, issue or concern; and is willing to help. Communication is the key. Greeting the customer, showing empathy, listening and providing feedback, using respectful verbal and nonverbal behaviour, problem solving, handling complaints and consulting with the customer enhance customer satisfaction and engagement. Asking the right questions, listening and adapting product and service creates satisfaction and customer engagement. Negative experiences and indifference to customer needs can lead to dissatisfaction, complaints, disputes and legal action. Regular contact and communication via social media channels build rapport with followers and enable customers to respond and engage with the organisation as well as share and recommend its services to their friends and family. Customers are able to post useful, timely feedback and engage with the organisation.

You’ve got to start with the customer experience and work back toward the technology, not the other way around. Steve Jobs

What do you think? • • • • • •

What are the keys to customer engagement? How do you help customers to articulate their needs? In what ways do you share information and support regular communication with customers? Do you think the person providing service should predict problems and take responsibility for fixing them? Can you think of a situation when the customer didn’t come first? What are aspects of successful customer service common to both face-to-face service and service on digital channels?

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DELIVER AND MONITOR SERVICE TO ADDRESS CUSTOMER NEEDS

CHAPTER

10

10.1 YOUR LEARNING

IDENTIFY + ADDRESS CUSTOMER NEEDS

JOURNEY

Chapter 10

Next MANAGE CUSTOMER ENGAGEMENT

acknowledgement

10.5

listen with empathy

REPORT OUTCOMES + RECOMMEND IMPROVEMENTS

give feedback

Be confident + professional

 high customer expectations  short + reliable delivery times  quick responses to their needs Be AWARE of and RESPOND TO age, disability, cultural or language differences

SEEK ADVICE from colleagues or superiors when you don’t have all the information

EM SOLV BL

G IN

 listen carefully  find the required information  take action promptly and courteously 10.4

use appropriate verbal + nonverbal communication

high-quality service

establish rapport

CLEAR + EFFECTIVE TELEPHONE COMMUNICATION

SEEK FEEDBACK

Use INTERPERSONAL SKILLS with customers

PR O

CH 11

10.2

handling customer complaints

sensitively

courteously

10.3

promptly

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CHAPTER 10 / Deliver and monitor service to address customer needs

LEARNING OBJECTIVES After studying this chapter, you should be able to: 10.1 apply interpersonal skills to establish rapport with the customer, clarify needs and expectations, and overcome barriers to communication 10.2 identify customers’ requirements, address needs and seek feedback to improve service delivery and maintain goodwill 10.3 use problem-solving strategies to handle customer complaints sensitively and courteously 10.4 communicate clearly and effectively on the telephone with both internal and external customers 10.5 report customer satisfaction or dissatisfaction and recommend improvements if needed.

10.1 CUSTOMER RESPONSIVE COMMUNICATION

Establish a positive communication climate to give customers a positive impression and create goodwill between them and the organisation.

A customer is any person who purchases or seeks products or services from another person or organisation. Today’s customers interact with organisations using the communication channel and device of their choosing such as a mobile phone or tablet, landline, email, chat, text, social media or Provide prompt and face-to-face. Positive customer experiences on any of these channels come from listening to what courteous service to customers are saying and fulfilling their needs and expectations. meet the customer’s need. Customers can be either internal or external to your organisation. Internal customers are those working within your organisation. External customers may be individual customers who EXHIBIT 10.1 Customer service communication skills walk in off the street or corporate customers with large accounts. They may be government or non-government agencies. The Greet the customer and Listen and provide experiences customers have in their face-to-face or online show empathy feedback interactions with an organisation form an impression. Whether someone is enquiring, purchasing, complaining or complimenting, they want to be acknowledged and heard. The first impression that your customer receives is lasting; therefore, greet the customer by using a range of communication skills that shows your interest and your ability to provide the service. Your workplace challenge is to provide service of a consistently high quality in as short a time as possible. In doing this, it is important to use the communication skills in Exhibit 10.1 Problem solve and consult Use appropriate verbal appropriately. customers and nonverbal behaviour At the first contact, a customer gets an impression of the quality of your service. Communicate effectively to create a lasting first impression. A satisfying interaction between the customer and you as the service provider is the basis of quality customer service. The role of the organisation and your role as a staff member providing that service is to focus on customer needs and expectations.

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GREET THE CUSTOMER As customers have expressed a need or interest simply by approaching your business, make them feel welcome. Greet them with a smile. Say ‘Good morning’ or ‘Good afternoon’ and address them by name if you can. Always acknowledge their presence. As you talk to customers, aim to create: • empathy to show that you not only understand what the customer is saying but also how they feel • a recognition of their needs and confirmation of how your products and services benefit them • a feeling of comfort and the impression that they are understood, appreciated and special. Communicate with positive statements that focus on the customers and their needs. Communicate in a way that shows you respect customers’ opinions, values and experience. If they have to wait, let them know how long it will be before you can attend to them. A customer’s seeking of information (usually by questioning) is defined as a customer enquiry. A positive and considerate attitude towards a customer as you respond to their enquiry goes a long way towards meeting a customer’s needs and expectations. Listen to your customer to discover their needs and confirm what you think your customer has said and meant.

IDENTIFY NEEDS

Customer needs and expectations may relate to advice or general information about purchasing your organisation’s products or services. They may need specific information about prices, delivery times or how to return a product or service. At all times they expect to be treated with courtesy and respect. Once you have established empathy with customers, use your listening and questioning skills to find out how your product or service can best meet their needs. Interact with the Repeat in your own words what you think the customer has said, beginning with something like customer. ‘What I hear you saying is …’. The customer then has the opportunity to agree or disagree and to give you further information if necessary. This is paraphrasing, as explained in earlier chapters. When you Listen and question understand each other, you can proceed with the conversation. Energise your response by looking at to meet customer the other person, leaning forward and showing interest in what they are saying. Active listening and how expectations. to use it in customer service is shown in Exhibit 10.2. However, use the technique prudently. If you keep saying: ‘What I hear you saying is …’, the customer is likely to become irritated. Ask EXHIBIT 10.2 Active listening for clarification: ‘Could you tell me a little more about what went wrong?’ Follow the customer’s response by asking a probing question – Attentive to the customer for example, when a customer says: ‘I really liked what you did last time’, you could respond with: ‘What exactly was it that you liked last time?’ Be open and honest in the interchange and be aware of the Concentrate on the issue, not the person customer’s feelings as well as the content of their spoken words. Effective listening and questioning on any customer service communication channel allow you to identify and take action to meet Target key points customer expectations, and to solve any existing problems or prevent problems happening. From a customer service perspective, listening in the automated social media space, for example, is equally as Investigate with questions important as listening in face-to-face service situations. A survey by Oracle (2012, p. 5) found that of the respondents who were asked Verify customer’s needs what was most important when visiting a company’s social media page, 43% responded that they were looking for a direct response to their question, 32% go to social media for coupons and promotions, Energise your response followed by 31% who expected direct access to customer service representatives.

A C T I

V E

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CHAPTER 10 / Deliver and monitor service to address customer needs Listening techniques that are useful in customer relations are discussed in Chapter 2, Develop emotional intelligence and interpersonal intelligence.

USE APPROPRIATE VERBAL AND NONVERBAL BEHAVIOUR When working with customers your nonverbal communication is just as important as what you say. Projecting the right nonverbal cues and interpreting your customers’ nonverbal signals and behaviours enable you to read their attitudes, better understand their needs and help them feel at ease. Examples of positive and negative nonverbal cues are shown in Exhibit 10.3.

Use a courteous tone of voice and eye contact to attend to and provide service to the customer.

EXHIBIT 10.3 Good and bad nonverbal cues Nonverbal cues

Good

Bad

Eye contact

Looking at your customer’s face and at your products

Avoiding your customer or looking past your customer

Facial expressions

Smiling or relaxed mouth, raised eyebrows, relaxed mouth

Hard or expressionless mouth, wrinkling the nose, furrowing the brow, closing or rolling the eyes

Gestures and hands

Open arms, nodding head, moving hands freely, relaxed and touching the product

Closed arms, dismissive hand gestures, folding hands to the chest or holding near the face

Posture and position

Standing upright, inclining the body forward, observing personal space to accommodate cultural differences

Slouching, shoulders turned away, moving too close and into customers’ personal space, facing away from the customer, ignoring cultural differences

Vocal qualities

Appropriate voice volume and clarity to suit your customers’ comfort and hearing needs, using a steady calm and confident tone

Shouting, speaking too slowly or too fast, speaking in a monotone, sounding unenthusiastic, disjointed rhythm and nervous tempo

Personal presentation

Choice of dress appropriate to your industry, well-groomed hair and nails

Inappropriate and untidy clothing, messy hair and dirty hands and nails

Demonstrate confidence and professionalism by showing respect for both the customer and yourself. Confidence in your own skills and abilities is demonstrated by assertive behaviour – the way you speak and your nonverbal behaviour.

OVERCOME BARRIERS TO COMMUNICATION

Strive to avoid barriers by concentrating on the customer’s needs and expectations.

Barriers to customer communication may exist in any of the stages of the communication process, shown in Chapter 1, Exhibit 1.2. In customer service situations, barriers may arise when the messages you deliver are too lengthy, disorganised or contain errors. Inappropriate use of verbal and body language may cause communication barriers. Offensive language such as sexist or racist language may insult a customer. Technical jargon and expressions or phrases that hold different meanings in other cultures

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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK may confuse the customer. Misinterpretation and communication breakdown occur when information is left open for interpretation. Clear, respectful language that is familiar to customers is an essential aspect of good customer service.

Strategies to minimise barriers

Establish rapport by treating customers with courtesy and respect.

CHECKPOINT 10.1

Even with the best of intentions, communication barriers can occur. Aim to minimise or remove any communication barriers. The following techniques are useful: • employ sufficient staff to handle customers’ needs • train staff well and keep staff and customers informed • treat customers with respect and sincerity, avoid gossip and use appropriate levels of formality or informality • display interest and warmth through appropriate nonverbal behaviour and clear and concise words as you aim to solve the customer’s problems • use summary confirmation questions to check that you understand your customer’s needs • provide the service when the customer needs it, or as soon as possible and make sure messages are passed on from customers to staff • avoid bias and stereotyping; recognise and be sensitive to cultural differences • engage in consistent, meaningful relationships through a variety of communication channels such as in person, email, customer contact forms, tweets, Facebook likes and messages and live chat • enable customers to start a conversation seeking an answer to a question in one channel and then switching easily and smoothly to another to continue the interaction. Courtesy and respect build rapport. Understand the issue from the point of view of the customer. Avoid empathy blockers such as passing judgement, only half-listening or changing the topic. Delivering consistent, responsive interactions along the channels of communication that customers prefer shows respect for customers and encourages them to engage with the organisation. 1. Brainstorm and list ways in which language can create a good first impression when developing customer relationships. 2. Nonverbal impressions: a. Create a list of good nonverbal cues that show your customers you respect them and your organisation. b. Provide an example of posture that creates a bad first impression. 3. Communication barriers: a. Identify two communication barriers that may arise when providing customer service. b. Explain how to break down those barriers. 4. For each scenario in Exhibit 10.4, identify the communication barrier.

EXHIBIT 10.4 Communication barriers Scenario: A customer who lives a long distance from the store brings back a skirt that she bought on sale to obtain a refund and buy a shirt instead. The sales assistant informs the customer that no refund is allowed on sale items. Scenario: An elderly customer complains to the credit union branch manager that the tellers treat her as if she is deaf and stupid. Scenario: The IT helpdesk assistant uses the latest IT jargon and technical language that the caller does not understand. The caller hangs up feeling confused and without having resolved their query.

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Scenario: Two young sales staff have just finished a very loud conversation about how they think religious fanatics are the cause of all the world’s problems, when one of them turns around to find a clergyman waiting to be served. Scenario: The manager explains to the customer making the complaint that he will do whatever he can to help. However, his arms are folded firmly across his chest, he is looking out the window and he is swinging on his chair.

10.2 ADDRESS CUSTOMER NEEDS Effective customer service officers know their organisation’s brand. An organisation’s brand is the promise that links the organisation with its customers and stakeholders. Brand names create loyalty and encourage buying or engagement decisions. Logos, visual imagery and key marketing messages convey the promise of a company and can become easily recognisable. Real value is delivered to your customers when you know your product or service and how to meet your customers’ expectations of the brand. Service delivery must follow through on the promise contained in its brand.

PROVIDE PRODUCT AND SERVICE INFORMATION Businesses, organisations, political parties, charities or environmental groups all have a brand which affects the way people engage with them. Their brand encompasses everything including how customers perceive their advertising and visual communication, and the experience the customer has of the quality of the products and services purchased. It also impacts on the customer’s expectations of what will happen if the customer has a problem or complaint or what will happen when the customer phones the company or logs onto its website. The brand is the promise that links the organisation with its customers and other stakeholders. At the point where a service or product is delivered, the customers’ needs are addressed by the organisation’s people, processes and physical means of delivery. Effective service matches the customers’ expectations about time, cost and quality. Effective service delivery depends on the three elements listed in Exhibit 10.5.

Provide customers with product and service information that matches and supports the brand. Meet customers’ expectations about time, quality and cost.

EXHIBIT 10.5 Elements in effective service delivery Key element

Description

People

The organisation’s personnel and other customers in the environment who play a part in service delivery.

Processes

The procedures, mechanisms and flow of activities involved in delivering the service. These are internal deliverables. All staff should know and work in accordance with the internal deliverables.

Physical evidence

The environment and tangibles that facilitate performance and communication of the service.

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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK Customers also refer to the ‘moment of truth’ in service interactions. These reflect the moment of direct contact between the customer and representatives of the organisation. At this point, the impression of the service delivery is determined by: • the initial information and service received • how well interpersonal skills are used to respond to the customer • the attitude of the person providing the service delivery. Customers of every organisation experience many of these moments every day. Taylor Jones, Senior Manager at Arise, reported key findings from an Arise survey into the maximum hold time range for customers waiting on telephone responses: ‘Nearly two-thirds selected they are only willing to wait 2 minutes or less before hanging up. Over 13% selected that no hold time is acceptable.’ (Jones 2017). Receiving a quick response to a question or problem by telephone or any other channel enhances the customer experience and increases the likelihood of purchasing a product or service.

Seek and act on feedback By building relationships with customers you are able to gather feedback about all aspects of the product and service delivery. Close relationships between the people in your organisation and their customers provide information to maintain and improve the level of service. Collect customer feedback from communication channels such as Twitter, Facebook and other social media platforms, face-to-face or telephone interviews, focus groups, email on online surveys and questionnaires, networking and trade shows. Other methods to obtain invaluable feedback from the customer’s perspective are mail-outs, instore suggestion box and guest feedback forms, staff appraisals, staff surveys and meetings, warranty cards and feedback-for-reward (for instance, free product samples). Seek information about satisfactory service as well as unsatisfactory service. Customers are quick to let you know when the product was defective or the service was inadequate and even rude. Information from internal customers enables an organisation to measure its output against standards. Customer service checklists gather services information, and employees who act as listening posts hear the message behind the words spoken by the customer. Customers want high-quality service with short, reliable delivery times and innovative policies that respond quickly to their needs. Feedback can tell you if you are achieving this. Having good skills in reflective paraphrasing, encouraging listening, questioning and networking lets you gather valuable feedback from both internal and external customers. Features of successful face-to-face service include: • pleasant environment and willing, polite assistance • friendly, well-groomed, informed staff supported by helpful supervisors • quality products or services delivered on time • customers who feel comfortable and respected • service that anticipates and meets the customer’s need for information and action efficiently and courteously. Plans should be prepared and actions taken on the basis of constructive feedback. The outcome manifests as improvements in the level of service and customer satisfaction. Value is added to the products and services.

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CHAPTER 10 / Deliver and monitor service to address customer needs

DEAL WITH DIFFICULT CUSTOMERS Aim to give a high level of service to both pleasant and difficult customers. Irrespective of the quality of service, some customers can be very hard to please and difficult situations can arise. If customer etiquette is not provided as service is given, the result will not only be loss of business, but often an increase in the number of difficult and even abusive customers. Social media platforms such as Facebook, Twitter, Yelp and other online forums enable customers to communicate their dissatisfaction very quickly. Dissatisfied and even abusive customers are difficult to cope with, but they are still customers. They have not yet been lost. Deal with them professionally to resolve rather than add to the conflict.

Identify difficult customers and respond appropriately.

Types of difficult customers It is sometimes useful to classify difficult customers into three categories: 1. Impatient, frustrated customers who demand immediate service. They may express frustration. While it may be difficult to respond to impatient customers with courtesy, you must be professional. 2. Rude customers who are never satisfied. When you are the first point of contact between the rude customer and the organisation, the responsibility to cope rests solely with you. Apologising is not sufficient – you must also take action to solve the problem. The rude, never-satisfied customer is more difficult to work with than other types. 3. Boring customers who may be over-fussy or talkative. Handling them may be a demanding task. There will always be customers who talk too much and are boring. The strategies to use with each customer type are shown in Exhibit 10.6.

EXHIBIT 10.6 Use customer etiquette for each customer type Impatient customers Treat them in the following way: • Be professional • Avoid getting personally involved • Calm them down as quickly as possible • Sort out any problems in private as a public airing may be embarrassing • Apologise for any problem • Solve the problem • Use assertive skills

Rude customers Treat them in the following way: • Always stay cool and ignore rudeness; it is not necessarily personal – these customers may be like this with everyone • Speak clearly • Solve any problem • Offer helpful suggestions and keep to the point so you are not sidetracked into an argument • Use assertive skills

Boring customers Treat them in the following way: • Try not to show your boredom • Use directive or closed questions to bring customers to the point • Wait patiently for them to come to the point • Keep them to the point so you are not sidetracked into an extended conversation • Use appropriate body language • Use assertive skills

Professionalism ensures that your behaviour demonstrates courtesy and customer etiquette appropriate for the issue. Distance your feelings and yourself to avoid personal involvement. No matter how good your service or products, sometimes you will have to deal with difficult customers. As you handle difficult customers, use your communication skills. Seek assistance when necessary from your team leader, supervisor, manager or technical expert.

Demonstrate professionalism by offering high-quality service to all customers.

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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK

CHECKPOINT 10.2

1. Identify three elements of service delivery that address customer needs effectively. 2. Customer service: a. Briefly discuss the communication skills needed to gather useful feedback from customers. b. Consider the negative customer service statements in Exhibit 10.7 and rewrite them in a more positive way.

EXHIBIT 10.7 Negative and positive statements Negative

Positive

No, not like that.

May I show you how it is normally done?

Sorry, I’m on lunch.

I’ll just get someone who can help you with that.

That’s wrong … Can’t you see I’m serving someone else? What? Come back tomorrow. You’ll have to queue at the next window for that. You’ll have to ring back.

3. Difficult customers: a. Identify three types of difficult customers. b. Briefly explain how to handle rude customers.

FROM THEORY TO PRACTICE

Sustaining a customer focus Seeking customer feedback is an essential part of sustaining a customer focus. The Australian Government Business website, http://business.gov.au, which provides information and support to Australian businesses, highlights three actions that are important when seeking out customer feedback: 1. Ensure it’s easy for customers to give you feedback and suggestions for improvement – for every customer who provides feedback, there are many others who don’t bother. Thus, it’s essential to make it as simple as possible for customers to talk about their experience, good or bad, to maximise the feedback you do receive. 2. Action the feedback – use the information to analyse, evaluate and measure your customer service. You can then use this information to improve your business. 3. Thank customers for their time and effort in providing the feedback – if you implement changes based on their suggestions, let them know. Ask for feedback on the changes you’ve made based on their suggestions. This will help you to measure if you’ve correctly addressed the issue. Source: https://www.business.gov.au/people/customers/seek-customer-feedback, viewed 14 November 2018.

ASK YOURSELF: Has there been a time when you have received particularly good or particularly bad customer service but did not complain or provide feedback? Why do you think this was? Can you identify something that stopped you from doing so? Can you think of one or two things the business could have done to make it easier for you to give feedback?

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10.3 DEAL WITH CUSTOMER COMPLAINTS Sometimes you have to deal with customer complaints. A customer complaint happens when a customer is dissatisfied with the product or service. Some complaints are justified, others unjustified. Each type of complaint must be addressed and resolved in a way that allows you to maintain the customer’s goodwill. Your intention is to turn customer complaints into goodwill and future business. Complaints made on any type of communication channel should be handled fairly, quickly and in accordance with organisational guidelines. The intended outcome is customer satisfaction and maintenance of goodwill and ongoing engagement with current and prospective customers. Social media comments in particular should be resolved quickly because they are public. An in-person complaint should be handled by one person with the authority to investigate, choose and implement the remedy. Social media feedback to complaints or bad reviews should also be assigned to one staff member who knows the correct responses and procedure to follow and which remedies to offer. Most organisations have procedures that allow all customer contact officers to handle minor complaints however more serious complaints are handled by a more senior team leader or supervisor as soon as possible. Tips for handling customer complaints are listed in Exhibit 10.8. In responses both in-person or on social media, politeness and professionalism are essential.

EXHIBIT 10.8 Tips for handling complaints In-person complaints

Social media complaints or bad reviews

Record the customer’s contact details.

Ask for contact details so you can look into the complaint. (Only delete complaints that are abusive or offensive.)

Record details of the complaint.

Read the complaint thoroughly.

Allocate authority to one person to investigate and decide what (if any) remedy is required.

Reply publicly with thanks, an apology and a promise to look into it promptly.

Know what steps to take.

Move onto a private channel such as email, telephone or Facebook Messenger to determine the cause of the problem.

Listen to the customer and attend to their complaint.

When time is needed to investigate, let the customer know and give them a timeframe for getting back to them.

Know when it is fair to give which remedies.

Decide which remedy (if any) is appropriate.

When a complaint is rejected, set out the reasons clearly.

When a complaint is rejected, set out the reasons clearly.

Use complaints data to identify wider issues that need correction and improvement.

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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK The information collected about a customer complaint is used to establish the nature of the complaint, demonstrate willingness to understand the customer’s need, and maintain the relationship with the customer by showing respect and emphasising the customer’s importance. Action should be taken to investigate the details of the complaint, process it in line with your organisation’s procedures, check that the resolution satisfies the EXHIBIT 10.9 The PAIR approval strategy customer and inform the customer of the outcome.

P

Justified customer complaints

Placate listen, empathise, respond with concern

A Attend to the complaint

I Investigate circumstances, details of the incident

R Resolve decide on action to take Acknowledge and resolve justified customer complaints promptly. Communicate with the customer about problem resolution.

Customer complaints about excessive queues, long turnaround times, service errors and insufficient staff to provide the expected service are justified. Other justified complaints include administrative errors, such as incorrect invoices or prices; delivery errors, such as damaged goods or products not delivered on time; and warehouse or storeroom errors, such as incorrect products delivered. Deal with a justified complaint by using negotiation and conflictresolution skills. Acknowledge that the complaint is justified, and do your best to solve the problem. Since the customer’s needs or expectations have not been met, there is no point in hedging or asking them to take further action on their own behalf. Your role is to solve the problem and avoid further ill-feeling. Two strategies available for resolving complaints and problems are shown in Exhibits 10.9 and 10.10.

EXHIBIT 10.10 A five-step method of resolving complaints 1. Listen

Be open-minded. Remember, this is not a personal complaint against you.

2. Respond

Show concern and empathy and apologise for any inconvenience – the customer may be embarrassed about complaining – put yourself in their position.

3. Decide on action

Which factors will influence you here – the justice of the complaint, company policy? When uncertain, seek advice from your supervisor.

4. Take action

Act promptly, courteously and confidently.

5. Follow up

Confirm that the problem has been solved and the customer is happy.

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CHAPTER 10 / Deliver and monitor service to address customer needs If the customer is already angry, use the conflict-management skills described in Chapter 2, Develop emotional intelligence and interpersonal intelligence. Note both the content and emotions expressed by the customer, but avoid reacting emotionally to the complaint yourself. You want to resolve the complaint, not escalate the situation into an argument. Obtain the facts by using listening and questioning skills. Acknowledge the customer’s position and indicate that you understand how they feel. Always check that the course of action to solve the problem suits the customer. Clearly explain each step. As you do this, ask questions to encourage feedback and make sure that the customer understands what is happening, agrees to the solution and will be happy with the results. When you take the time to consult the customer in this way, you are able to take a course of action that meets their needs and expectations. A course of action that enables you or your staff to deal with the problem immediately gives the most positive results. If solving it is going to take a little longer, explain the steps clearly to the customer and make sure that they are completed. Follow up by making a courtesy telephone call, sending an SMS or posting a card to the customer. Dealing efficiently with the justified complaint gives you a chance of maintaining the customer’s goodwill.

Use active listening and courteous negotiation to handle unjustified customer complaints.

Unjustified customer complaints Complaints are not always justified. When dealing with an unjustified complaint, use a conflictresolution or negotiation strategy, and try active listening. Other chapters in this book discuss these techniques (see Chapters 2 and 8, specifically). Active listening allows customers to air their feelings and know that you have understood them. This helps to defuse the emotional content. Acknowledge the complaint, ask the customer to explain it, and ask how it can be solved. Quite often, this is enough to make them realise the complaint is unjustified. If they cannot think of an answer, then perhaps there are no grounds for complaint. As you ask the customer to explain the facts, they might come round to your point of view. If not, you may finally have to explain that the complaint is unjustified. Customer complaints via any communication channel must be dealt with as soon as possible.

Respond effectively to customers with special needs.

RESPOND TO CUSTOMERS Customers have a variety of needs. Some may be unable to access an organisation’s premises because of disability or age. Others may be unable to understand what services an organisation offers due to language or cultural difficulties. Literacy problems may lead to an inability to complete an organisation’s forms or understand instructions. Differing beliefs and values, religious observances or culture may exist that may preclude some customers from accessing the available services. Being aware of differences allows you to respond effectively.

Accommodate cultural differences to meet needs and improve customer service.

Cultural differences Accommodating cultural differences is of particular importance. Cultural misunderstanding often leads to customer dissatisfaction. Different cultural groups respond to situations in different ways. Their perceptions and interpretations may differ considerably from your own. Their social values, roles and status, concepts of time and personal space, body language and the way in which they make decisions may be markedly different. It is important to learn the value systems of different cultures to avoid costly misunderstandings. You should realise that what is considered right and valid in one culture might be frowned upon in another.

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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK The Australian Trade and Investment Commission (2018) clarifies, ‘Chinese business people prefer to establish a strong relationship before closing a deal, and never start a discussion or meeting by getting straight to the point about business – they will expect to develop a personal connection first.’ When negotiating, the expectation is that the negotiating teams will reach consensus. In all countries with which they do business, Chinese business managers expect to continue negotiations until consensus is reached. Latin American people also prefer to spend a considerable amount of time discussing a business transaction before coming to a decision. The differences in nonverbal communication between Chinese and Australian people are highlighted by Today Translations (2018): ‘Body posture should always be formal and attentive as it demonstrates self-control and respectfulness.’ Note, if you are beckoning to someone, never beckon palm up. Motion towards yourself, palm down and point downwards. It is standard courtesy to greet men and women, whatever their age or seniority, with a handshake, and the Chinese tradition of respect for their elders means extra courtesy in the presence of an older person is appreciated. Cultures differ in their use of personal space. In general, Latin, Arab and African peoples carrying out business transactions are comfortable with only half a metre of personal distance, whereas Asian, Nordic, Anglo-Saxon and Germanic peoples require just over a metre. Similarly, there is a difference in eye-contact preferences. Westerners prefer eye-to-eye communication, in contrast with Japanese people, who believe that continued use of eye contact is disrespectful. Nonverbal communication can also differ markedly. In Japanese culture, for example, people find it offensive if you use an index finger to summon someone. Cultures may differ in the way they signal ‘no’ – some cultures do so by nodding up and down, the opposite to Western cultures. These variations in body language can cause problems. Being culturally aware will help you to communicate and deal effectively with customers culturally different from you. It will also help you create service experiences that are ‘friendly’ to customers from another culture, establish rapport that leads to positive ‘word of mouth’ promotion of your services (this is covered in more depth in Chapter 11) and meet the needs of customers from a variety of cultures. By establishing customer-friendly systems and taking care of customers you are building your organisation’s customer base, volume of work and level of profits. At the same time you are delivering value to customers. Communication in a multicultural society is discussed more fully in Chapter 1, Understand communication practices.

CHECKPOINT 10.3

1. Discuss three responses that apply for complaints both in-person or via social media. 2. Complaint handling: Identify five things to remember when dealing with a customer who has: a. a justified complaint b. an unjustified complaint. 3. Reflect on the statements here and make a note of suggested courses of action for the following situations. a. You ask a customer to write his name and address on the voucher and he replies by asking if you could write it for him. b. A person in a wheelchair cannot reach the top of the counter to read the brochure you are holding and discussing. c. Your caller has a very strong foreign accent and does not seem to be taking in the information you are trying to provide.

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d. Normal procedure is for customers to lodge their forms in person, but one elderly lady tells you that she can only get a lift into town once a month. She asks if there is another way she can lodge her form. e. One of your new clients is from another country and you find that the nonverbal communication she uses (head movements, body language, eye contact) seems to contradict her words. How can you double-check that she understands you and you understand her?

10.4 COMMUNICATE EFFECTIVELY ON THE TELEPHONE People meet each other, talk and sometimes form long-lasting business contacts over the telephone. Customers make telephone calls to seek information about products and prices, enquire about functions, reserve rooms, tours and travel. They may call to check, modify or cancel arrangements and to offer compliments or lodge complaints. Good voice skills are essential for telephone duties as the voice alone has to make the impression. In business, telephone calls are made to clarify work instructions, communicate with colleagues and other departments, order stock from suppliers and contact emergency services when required. Staff also use the phone to offer feedback to management and colleagues, make cold calls, place service or maintenance calls and ask for advice from industry bodies and government authorities.

Overcome the visual handicap by developing a clear and pleasant vocal presence and courteous telephone techniques.

ANSWER THE TELEPHONE COURTEOUSLY Answer the phone promptly, preferably by the third ring. Failure to answer the telephone promptly and courteously can result in a loss of custom, poor impression of the organisation and customers who are more difficult to handle and make complaints. Greet the customer by saying ‘Good morning’, ‘Good afternoon’ or ‘Good evening’. Immediately after this greeting, give the name of the organisation and your name. This enables the person on the other end to speak to an identity rather than an anonymous voice. Treat the caller civilly using polite language and tone of voice at all times.

Create a positive first impression.

Listen carefully Listen carefully to the speaker. If you assume what is going to be said before it is said, you may miss something else. Wait until the person finishes speaking before you reply. Don’t interrupt. The skills of attending, reflecting and encouraging listening all help speakers to explain themselves fully. These skills are discussed in Chapter 2, Develop emotional intelligence and interpersonal intelligence. Rather than assuming you know what the caller wants, ask questions and listen carefully to establish how to help or where to send the call. When in doubt about the message, repeat back to the caller what they have said and what they have asked for to give them the opportunity to clarify and add more detail. Feedback from the caller helps you to receive and fully understand all the information, particularly when complex material is being communicated on the telephone. Provide accurate information promptly and give clear feedback with a well-modulated speaking voice, at a steady rate. Imagine yourself in the caller’s situation and use a direct question to ask the

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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK

Return to a call on hold every 30 seconds.

caller what help they want and how you can assist them. Sound interested in the caller’s needs and request for service and make an offer to help. When placing a call on hold: • greet the caller and listen to their request • paraphrase their request courteously and tell them you will need to place them on hold • explain briefly the reason for putting them on hold: for example, ‘Madeleine, it seems that you are having trouble logging into your account. We can sort that out right now if you can hold while I pull up your information.’ • pause for their answer and act accordingly: ‘Thank you, I will be right back.’ • work quickly, get back to the call on hold and thank the caller for their patience.

Find the information Behave courteously and efficiently on the telephone to demonstrate your organisation’s professionalism.

If you do not have the necessary information ready, explain to the caller that you are moving away from the telephone to get it, that you have to make further enquiries and will contact them later, or that you have to transfer their call to another person. Never say, ‘Hang on a minute’ and then disappear. The other person can obtain information only from your voice, so let them know you are leaving the telephone rather than just leaving them to wait. State clearly that you have to find the information from another source or room. If you have to ask someone else for information the caller has requested, let the caller know this and suggest that it might take some time. Ask if they would prefer to wait or have you ring back. Some people dislike being kept waiting on a silent telephone. The question is a courtesy, as it lets customers make the choice in terms of their own needs. Once you make a commitment to return the call, always ring back promptly. Before you transfer a caller, give them the name of the person who should answer and the number of the direct line to that person. Then, if the call gets lost in the transfer, the caller can ring the appropriate person easily, without the frustration of delays. Throughout the call, show interest in the customer, use courtesy and satisfy their request. Check that the caller is satisfied with the service provided. It is worth checking your style of telephone communication occasionally to ensure that you offer assistance readily. Conclude pleasantly and with courtesy.

ANSWER CUSTOMER ENQUIRIES

Repeat information, particularly specific details, back to the caller to ensure accuracy.

The telephone is a direct communication link between your organisation and customers. Know your organisation’s telephone use or operation policy. Telephone calls come in – as a customer enquiry or a customer complaint – or they go out to others. The telephone links your organisation with your customers. For a customer enquiry always be honest and keep the caller informed. The following strategies enable the caller to know you are trying to be helpful. • open the call with a greeting, the organisation’s name and your name • listen to the enquiry • provide the relevant information • sound interested in the customer’s needs • explain how the organisation can help to satisfy them • use a simple statement such as ‘Where can I direct your call?’, ‘How can I help you?’, ‘I think you need to talk to Kate, she’s in charge of accounts.’ • suggest what actions customers can take to satisfy their needs, check they are satisfied with the call and conclude courteously.

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CHAPTER 10 / Deliver and monitor service to address customer needs It helps you to identify the main points if you make notes as you talk to the customer. Always record relevant details such as name, address and telephone number for future transactions. Whenever you take a message for someone else, record: • the caller’s name and phone number • the date and time • the name of the person to receive the message • the important elements of the message. Ensure that the message is passed on to that person. Conclude the call with courtesy.

Transferring calls Follow the organisation’s standard protocols for transferring calls. When a call has to be transferred, inform the caller and apologise for the need to transfer the call. Explain that you will need to transfer the call to the person best able to deal with the call and ask for permission to transfer the call; for example, ‘Mr Campbell, I’m sorry I’m unable to help you with your query, but I’d like to transfer you to our manager, Mr Dunn. I’m sure he can give you the prices you need. Would you like to be connected to him?’ Ensure the person making the enquiry has the contact details (name, title or position within the organisation) and direct number in case the line drops out during the transfer. Thank the caller for their patience, transfer and monitor the call to make sure it goes through. If it is not answered, go back to the caller, apologise and make arrangements for someone to phone the caller back.

HANDLE TELEPHONE COMPLAINTS If the complaint is justified, acknowledge this and try to solve the problem. This may mean replacing a faulty product or apologising for previous poor service even if you were not personally responsible. When the call is a complaint: • acknowledge it is a complaint • ask questions that encourage the customer to explain in detail • paraphrase the complaint back to the customer • deal with the complaint. If the complaint is unjustified, be politely assertive by following four steps: 1. Explain that the problem was not caused by your organisation. 2. Restate the customer’s answer to confirm your understanding of their problem. 3. Make any reasonable offer to the customer that is possible. 4. Let the customer know that the organisation is interested in their needs and expectations. When answering a call from a rude or aggressive caller, avoid: • unprofessional language and an annoyed or irritated tone of voice • rudeness and swearing back at a caller who swears at you • taking the call personally and responding angrily even when provoked. Demonstrate respect for the caller by using positive language and tone of voice. Each time you deal with a complaint, make sure that the problem is solved to the customer’s satisfaction and follow up with any necessary action.

Deal with a complaint promptly.

REPORT THREATENING OR SUSPICIOUS CALLS Always treat a bomb threat call as genuine. Most organisations have a way to signal to nearby colleagues that you are receiving a bomb threat by waving arms, writing a note or activating a silent

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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK alarm. Bomb threat calls are usually recorded on a form that guides you through the following questions and enables the answers to be recorded. Typical questions to ask the caller are: • ‘Where did you find the bomb?’; ‘What does it look like?’; ‘When is it due to explode?’; ‘What type of bomb is it?’; ‘Why did you plant the bomb?’; ‘What kind of substance is in it?’; ‘What is your name?’; ‘Where are you?’ When a bomb threat call is received, stay calm and keep the caller on the line as long as possible to gather information and details possible about the bomb and its location. Report the threat immediately to your organisation’s emergency contact person. Unwanted calls and calls that threaten the safety of employees, customers or others in the organisation should not be ignored. Police should be contacted immediately when harassing calls or messages that are life threatening are received. Telstra Consumer Advice identifies unwelcome calls as: • silence, hoax, abusive or obscene calls in which the caller stays silent while holding the line open or speaks in an abusive or obscene way • malicious calls threatening the receiver or disturbing the receiver in other unwanted ways • hang-up calls in which the caller puts the receiver down or disconnects as soon as the receiver answers the call. When an unwelcome call is received, stay calm and consider the following ways to deal with these types of calls. Hanging up on the unwelcome call does not necessarily clear a fixed phone service line to ring out and report the unwanted call, unless the phone is not picked up for five minutes. After five minutes, it is possible to make calls to the telephone service provider and ask them to conduct a confidential investigation. Landline providers offer a call forward service for selected callers that forward calls from a selected number(s) before the call reaches the dialled number. Unwelcome calls to a landline can be given a special ringtone. Mobiles do not have the call forward service; however, some mobiles may allow a ringtone to an unwelcome number. On a landline, one of the unwelcome calls can be left unanswered and Call Return (*10#) used to recover the number of the last unanswered call. Call return is unavailable on mobiles; however, the calling number is displayed automatically unless blocked. Calls can also be screened with MessageBank. A telephone number can be changed and kept unlisted to prevent malicious and unwanted calls. Telephone service providers offer a Malicious Call Trace service that helps the receivers of malicious calls to respond with the help of the provider and the police to record details about the source of the threatening call and identify the offender. Malicious Call Trace may incur a fee; however, it does provide records or evidence of calls that can be presented in a court of law. Telemarketing calls from unsolicited companies or sources can be averted by adding a telephone number to the Australian Communications and Media Authority’s (ACMA) Do Not Call Register. Updating your number onto the Do Not Call Register may take up to 30 days for the changes to be registered. ‘Some categories of callers such as charities or religious organisations, registered political parties, educational institutions, market researchers and companies you have an active ongoing business relationship with will still be able to call you.’ (MNF Group 2018)

CHECKPOINT 10.4

1. What are the likely negative outcomes from failure to answer incoming telephone calls promptly? 2. Answering telephone calls: a. Briefly explain how to place a call on hold. b. What do you need to say to a caller before you transfer their call? c. What should you avoid when you handle a customer complaint call? d. Why should you keep a bomb threat caller on the line for as long as possible?

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3. Scenario: Planning the call You are ringing on behalf of your employer, Mr James Hensen of APC Technology, to confirm his travel arrangements for a forthcoming overseas trip and to obtain an indication of costs. Mr Hensen has also asked you to enquire about tourist attractions his family might visit in Hawaii, Los Angeles and New York. a. Prepare a mini agenda of the points you may wish to discuss. b. Write a dialogue you could use when the phone is answered. 4. Reflect on the calls you have received in the last month from people wanting to sell you something over the phone. a. How did you respond? Why? b. Identify at least one call that you could have handled more successfully. Prepare a set of guidelines to improve your performance. 5. Threatening telephone calls: a. Identify four types of unwanted calls. b. Explain how you would deal with a bomb hoax.

10.5 MONITOR AND REPORT ON SERVICE DELIVERY Everyone providing customer service has an interest in knowing the product or service’s success. The monitoring process indicates areas of satisfaction and areas that need improvement. The data gathered becomes evidence and is used to make adjustments to the product’s or service’s inputs, processes or outputs. Verifiable evidence includes returned goods, lapsed customers, service calls and complaints, customer satisfaction questionnaires, quality assurance data, audit documentation and reports. In the monitoring process, customer service officers and others delivering customer service to internal or external customers gather data, organise it into a logical order, analyse it, draw conclusions and make recommendations on what should happen. Monitoring in this context means to check, observe or record customer service operations. Regular review of customer satisfaction with service delivery means verifying the quality of service and products meets customer requirements. Exhibit 10.11 identifies dimensions that customers use when evaluating the quality of customer service. Monitor procedural aspects of service delivery and customer service skills of staff regularly against these dimensions.

Develop reports based on objective information.

EXHIBIT 10.11 Quality service dimensions and evaluation criteria Dimension

Evaluation criteria

Customer-friendly policies and processes

Accessible and convenient services; for example, resolve query or provide service or product at first point of contact

Reliability

Consistency and dependability in performing the service; for example, airline flight departing and arriving on time

Tangibles

Physical evidence of the service; for example, the equipment used in a dental examination

Empathy

Caring and individual attention provided by staff; for example, listening and providing personalised attention

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Dimension

Evaluation criteria

Assurance

Knowledge and competence of staff; for example, accurate, clear and complete product or service knowledge

Responsiveness

Willingness or readiness of staff to provide the service; for example, prompt service provision by knowledgeable and available staff

Good value

Price and service factors; for example, fair price complemented by quality of service, information and follow-up

REPORT CUSTOMER SATISFACTION AND DISSATISFACTION

Organise the information to suit the report’s purpose and the receiver’s needs.

As well as keeping records of the data gathered, all findings, analysis, conclusions and recommendations should be presented in the form of a report. The report presents the information gathered through monitoring customer satisfaction and dissatisfaction. As well as presenting the information in a written report, you should also communicate the report’s findings at meetings, briefings and other forums. Many organisations only collect information about customer dissatisfaction. The most useful customer service reports describe what the organisation is doing successfully as well as what it is doing unsuccessfully. Plans can then be made to maintain and build on the successes as well as improve any problem areas. Understanding the customer’s perception is more than just a useful activity to gather information about customer service problems. Their perception is the problem. Whether you are providing a new product or accepting the return of a faulty product, the differences in perception about the level of service are defined by the difference between your organisation’s thinking and the customer’s. If you are to understand your customer, your organisation must put itself in the customer’s shoes. The ability to perceive the service as the customer sees it provides critical information about what to do to provide quality customer service that meets their needs and expectations.

Plan and structure the report The structure of the customer service report will depend upon its purpose, who is going to read it, the type of information to be conveyed and what might be done with the information once it is read. Chapters 16, 17, 18 and 19 discuss reports more fully. Try to remember the intended audience when you are writing a report, and cater to their needs. Think about their requirements, how much time they have to read the report, what they need to understand and the actions they need to take on the basis of the conclusions and recommendations. An example of a suitable format for a major report into customer service is shown in Exhibit 10.12. Effectiveness measures can be set up against program goals or your organisation’s codes of practice. By creating measures that show your service is achieving program goals, you are able to verify that the outcomes from customer service are successful. Efficiency can be measured against budgets. Customer service is cost-effective when the actual figures equal the budget. This shows that performance has been efficient.

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CHAPTER 10 / Deliver and monitor service to address customer needs

EXHIBIT 10.12 Suitable format for a customer service report SECTION Title Page

Report title: ........................

• Establish clearly what the report is about • Use a clear, direct title • List the contents if the report is long

Report submitted by: ........................ To: ........................ Section 1 Introduction

Date: ........................

• Identify what was monitored • State monitoring purpose • Identify who the results are for • Identify data collection methods

• Provide in the form of a summary to give the reader a complete overview of the report • Define the purpose • Identify the problem (if any)

Section 2 Findings

• Present the information and evidence • Give an objective analysis

• Identify the type of customers, products and services monitored • Identify any efficiency and effectiveness measures • Organise the information under headings • Give a concise discussion

Section 3 Results

• Give results • Evaluate findings • Present conclusions

• Draw logical conclusions from evidence obtained and presented in the findings • Base conclusions on objective information • Make recommendations (if required)

RECOMMEND IMPROVEMENTS The final section of the body of the report usually contains the conclusions and recommendations. Set these out as separate subsections. The conclusions and recommendations may be placed at the beginning of the report before the introduction to catch your reader’s attention. The conclusion analyses and evaluates the report’s main facts. It is usually short, perhaps one or two paragraphs but no more than half a page. Avoid presenting any new material in the conclusion. In Chapter 17, Figure 17.10 provides an example of conclusions and recommendations prepared for the Fairways Golf Club. The findings in the report demonstrat that it would be cost-effective to install a new watering system at Fairways Golf Club. However, there would be considerable opposition from staff members, golfers and nearby residents. The local council also had objections. The report’s findings are based on objective information. The conclusion reflects these findings. Recommendations are the writer’s attempt to provide at least some answers to questions and issues raised by the report. Recommendations must be: • based on the report’s findings • reasoned and logical • related to the conclusions, your analysis and the discussion set out in the body of the report • presented as a separate point or paragraph for each recommendation • numbered and in descending order of importance • stated clearly, identifying the action required.

Base conclusions and recommendations on accurate and objective data. Identify the proposed action in the recommendation(s).

MAINTAIN RECORDS Client service records provide a history of the interactions between the organisation and its clients. They also verify the actual customer service outcomes against the intended targets. Gather data and record information about the characteristics of service that give satisfaction to the client and meet the

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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK

Maintain accurate and timely records to evaluate customer service.

organisation’s or workgroup’s intended outcomes. Records provide the opportunity to compare changes in customer satisfaction. They also provide useful information for customer service plans. Three main types of customer service record systems are shown in Exhibit 10.13. Sales forecasts and workforce schedules are two examples of plans that can be improved by accurate, timely and reliable information presented in customer service records and reports. Any planned improvements based on objective reports and records are likely to succeed because the information is reliable. In a customer service report, you should present and discuss both efficiency and effectiveness measures.

EXHIBIT 10.13 Record systems Type

Description

Client or case records

• Client or case records document the service provided and the outcomes achieved • These records maintain a history of a customer’s dealings with the organisation • The currency, accuracy and integrity of these files must be maintained for reporting purposes • Program or service records document the performance of the service provider in delivering the prescribed level of service to clients • The records are maintained to enable outcomes to be compared against targets • The efficient and effective use of resources can also be measured System records may be in the form of policies and procedures. These records form the framework for customer service. Some examples include: • staff records (performance appraisals, employment details, training) • financial records (resource allocation, budgets, expenditures, requisitions) • quality records (conformance, reports, audits).

Program or service records

System records

CHECKPOINT 10.5

1. Barriers to good service There is a staff morning tea for someone in your office who is about to leave to take up a position in another branch of the organisation. The open-plan office is quite noisy and the speeches are about to start. Your phone rings. It is a customer who is notorious for frequent and long conversations, wanting details about a variety of products, prices and delivery times. a. What communication barriers could exist during this exchange? b. Where might these barriers originate – the customer or yourself? c. Suggest ways to avoid these barriers. 2. Deal with customer complaints Many of the customer service staff in the reception area of your organisation are young and inexperienced. Recently, a couple of face-to-face complaints have been made by particularly irate customers at times when no senior staff were available to help the customer service staff. The complaints obviously upset the younger employees. You have decided to hold a training session in how to deal with customer complaints. Describe the points you will cover in the course notes. 3. Customer service records a. List three types of customer service records and explain the purpose of each. b. Describe the advantages of recording information about customer satisfaction as well as customer dissatisfaction. c. Create a notice to be circulated to all staff. The notice is to be titled ‘Reasons for keeping customer service records’.

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CHAPTER 10 / Deliver and monitor service to address customer needs

LEARNING ACTIVITIES SUMMARY 10.1 Apply interpersonal skills to establish rapport, clarify customer needs and expectations, and overcome barriers to communication. Acknowledge the customer, listen with empathy, give feedback and use appropriate verbal and nonverbal communication so that you can offer the customer high-quality service. Barriers may be due to poor communication skills, lack of respect for (or courtesy to) the customer, inadequate customer service staff, or when staff do not know enough about the product and its features. Overcome barriers through active listening: be attentive, concentrate on the issue and not the person, target key points, investigate with questions and verify the customer’s needs by restating them. 10.2 Identify customer requirements, address customer needs and seek feedback to improve service delivery and maintain goodwill. Now more than ever, customers expect high-quality service, short and reliable delivery times and innovative policies that respond quickly to their needs and expectations. Some positive features that successful customer service offers are a pleasant environment, friendly and well-groomed staff, well-informed staff with helpful supervisors, willing assistance and courtesy. The person providing the service must know the product and explain it with courtesy. Listen carefully as you discuss the product so that you understand how much customers know about it and how much more they would like to know. Offer feedback that is appropriate to customer needs and expectations. Establish and maintain a good relationship with your customers, to persuade them to keep using your product or service. Satisfy their needs and expectations by taking responsibility, using flexibility and showing initiative as you provide a high-quality service. Age, disability or cultural and language differences may cause problems and preclude a customer from accessing available services. Use a courteous

approach and active listening to determine customers’ requirements. As you provide service you must work within your organisation’s policies, procedures and other requirements. These requirements include payment and delivery options, replacement and refund procedures, access and equity principles and practices, and WHS policies, procedures and programs. 10.3 Use problem-solving strategies to handle customer complaints sensitively and courteously. If customers express confusion or dissatisfaction, deal with the problem as promptly as possible. Two problem-solving strategies are the PAIR approval strategy and the five-step method. Use these to satisfy customer needs and expectations. On those occasions when you do not have all the information required, seek advice from your colleagues, supervisor or manager. Their assistance will help you provide service that meets the customers’ needs and expectations. 10.4 Communicate clearly and effectively on the telephone with both internal and external customers. When you use the telephone to answer enquiries and handle complaints, make sure you answer courteously and listen carefully. Once you understand what the customer wants, find the information or take action to satisfy them as quickly as you can. Courtesy and promptness are important. Project a confident and professional image. 10.5 Report customer satisfaction or dissatisfaction and recommend improvements if needed. Evidence of satisfaction and dissatisfaction is gathered from quality assurance data and audit reports and documentation. Customer satisfaction questionnaires give useful information about customers’ perception of service levels. Incorporate customer suggestions to modify and continually improve products or services, but ensure any change is in accordance with your organisation’s standards and requirements.

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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK

KEY TERMS courtesy customer

customer enquiry expectations

goodwill justified complaint

respect unjustified complaint

LEARNING ACTIVITIES 1. Poor customer service a. Identify one personal experience where you have had poor face-to-face customer service. Explain the situation to a partner and provide details about how the poor service made you feel. b. On a flipchart, list the factors that made the customer service experience such a bad one. c. In point form, summarise the effect of the experience on you, the customer. 2. Responsibilities and good customer service Part A: Customer service responsibilities Individually, consider the general customer service responsibilities of the employees in your own (or any) workplace. Make a list of the responsibilities that are common to all staff who serve customers, whether personally, over the telephone, or via mail, email or social media. Part B: Good customer service Individually, identify an organisation that you regard as successful. a. List five factors you think contribute to its image of success. b. Compare your list with the list of the person sitting next to you. Identify the similarities in your lists. c. Which factors on your lists relate directly or indirectly to good customer service? 3. Read the following scenario and answer the questions at the end. Scenario: Music store Ethan walks into a large music store and asks a store assistant where he might find a particular songbook of pop classics. The assistant points to a display aisle and strolls off in another direction, chewing gum in time with the very loud music being played in the store. Ethan can’t help but wonder whether the assistant even heard him correctly. Ethan looks for the songbook again in the direction the assistant indicated, but still can’t find it. He decides to wait at the service counter to speak to someone else. The

assistant behind the counter is on the telephone, talking trivia to someone about her social life. To start with, Ethan is the only customer waiting at the counter. More customers arrive at the store intermittently and are now requiring customer service. When the counter assistant finally gets off the phone, she ignores Ethan and attends to another customer. By this stage, Ethan is angry and leaves the store. The next day, he phones the store, asks to speak to the manager and makes a complaint. Questions Put yourself in the situation faced by the manager and answer the following questions. a. Develop a four-point plan, following the PAIR approval strategy, for handling this complaint. b. What action will you take immediately to satisfy Ethan’s needs? c. Outline how staff should respond to customers in the future. 4. Customer service report a. Brainstorm the characteristics of a successful report on customer service. b. List the reasons for basing conclusions and recommendations on verifiable evidence. c. Do you prefer to place your conclusions and recommendations at the beginning or end of your reports? Why? 5. Social media research Customers are able to make their satisfaction or dissatisfaction with an organisation’s customer experience known quickly on social media platforms such as Facebook, Instagram, Twitter and Yelp. Conduct research on the Web to answer the following questions. a. How can social media enhance a customer’s experience? Provide examples. b. Discuss two strategies organisations use to provide good customer experiences online.

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CHAPTER 10 / Deliver and monitor service to address customer needs

c. Should an organisation ignore an online complaint from a customer? Provide reasons for your answer. d. How do organisations acknowledge online customer complaints? 6. Poor telephone customer service In small groups, discuss your own experiences of poor telephone customer service. a. Draft a table of what did happen and what should have happened and present this information to another small group. b. Ask the other group if they have any further suggestions about what should have happened.

7. Customer satisfaction Work in small groups to: a. Brainstorm to create a list of the needs of the customer of a large department store. b. Discuss the expectations of service each member of your group has about the service they will receive in any large department store of your choice. c. Prepare a plan of action the department store could use to gather feedback from its customers about their satisfaction with the service received. d. Share your plan of action with other groups.

GROUP ACTIVITY Part A Do this activity with your whole group. a. Brainstorm a list of communication barriers you have experienced as a customer. b. For each communication barrier identified, discuss and make a note of ways to overcome it in the context of the experience. Part B Break into small groups for this activity. a. Each group should choose a topic from the ones listed below. b. Each group must draft a procedure related to their topic, using the information presented in this chapter. Make the

procedure directly relevant to one of your workplaces, if possible. c. Be sure to include instructions as well as reasons for required actions. d. Each group should present their procedure to the whole group. The topics to choose from are: • receiving a telephone customer enquiry • avoiding communication barriers • dealing face-to-face with difficult customers • the importance of good customer service • handling a telephone customer complaint.

CASE STUDY CUSTOMER SERVICE BLUNDER: KITCHEN DELIVERY Mel ordered a Prefab kitchen from Great Hardware, a national chain of stores. The sales assistant told Mel it would take around two weeks to order the kitchen and asked if she needed the kitchen to be delivered. Mel said, ‘Yes we need delivery to the ground floor of an apartment block in the inner city’. The sales assistant replied ‘Not a problem’. Mel confirmed the order and paid the deposit, with the full amount to be paid before delivery. After two weeks Great Hardware contacted Mel by text message to confirm the kitchen was ready and to come in and confirm the delivery date and pay in full. Mel was not

told that the delivery would be done by a contractor rather than Great Hardware. On the morning of delivery, Transport Next rang advising that delivery would be after lunch. Mel asked, ‘What delivery?’ as she did not organise a delivery from Transport Next. They replied, ‘Great Hardware has contracted us to deliver your kitchen’. Mel organised her daily routine so she could be there after lunch. After many phone calls, Tom from Transport Next turned up at approximately 3.30 pm and began unloading the kitchen into the driveway in front of the neighbour’s garage. Mel asked for the kitchen to be

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delivered to the apartment. Tom explained that his delivery requirement was to deliver to the driveway of the property. Mel explained this driveway was not her property and that the pallet of goods needed to be taken inside the apartment. Tom aggressively said, ‘It’s not my problem. I’m going away for the weekend with my girlfriend.’ Mel noticed his girlfriend was sitting in the front seat of the delivery truck. Mel said, ‘It is starting to rain and I need the kitchen inside’. Tom finished unloading the wrapped pallet and said to Mel, ‘Get the kitchen inside as quick as possible so it will not get wet and swell from the moisture’. Mel was left to carry by herself the cartons containing the kitchen into the apartment. The next day, Mel went to Great Hardware to complain about the rude and inadequate customer service that had left her with a kitchen in the driveway.

Great Hardware’s manager Linda told Mel she was unaware of the outsourced company’s customer delivery policy. Linda told Mel she would follow up and get back to her.

Questions a. Consider Tom’s approach to service delivery. In a short written answer, identify the unsatisfactory features of Tom’s delivery. b. Explain how Mel could provide feedback to Great Hardware. c. Discuss strategies Great Hardware could use to satisfy Mel. d. Explain how a customer service action plan could help Linda respond to Mel’s complaint and hopefully re-establish Mel’s goodwill towards Great Hardware.

BIBLIOGRAPHY Australian Trade and Investment Commission. 2018. China Doing Business, https://www.austrade.gov.au/Australian/ Export/Export-markets/Countries/China/Doing-business, viewed 1 December 2018. DeGroot, Robert. 2014. Telephone Etiquette for Business: Make good impressions from hello to goodbye, Kindle Edition, USA. De Silva Joyce, Helen, Zawadzki, Halina and Wilson, Liz. 2007. Getting It Right at Work: Customer Service, NSW AMES, Surry Hills, Australia. Jones, Taylor. 2017. Arise 2017 Customer Service Frustration Series: Phone Hold Times, https://www.arise.com/ resources/blog/arise-2017-customer-servicefrustration-series-phone-hold-times, viewed 27 July 2018. MNF Group. 2018. Consumer Information: Unwelcome Calls and Messages Policy, https://mnfgroup.limited/legal/ unwelcome-calls-policy, viewed 1 December 2018. Morgan, R. 2009. Calming Upset Customers: Stay in Control in Any Situation, 4th edn, AXZO Press, Fairport, NY. Oracle. 2012. Consumer Views of Live Help Online 2012: A Global Perspective, http://www.oracle.com/us/products/

applications/commerce/live-help-on-demand/oracle-livehelp-wp-aamf-1624138.pdf, viewed 5 May November 2018. Solomon, Robert. 2016. The Art of Client Service: The Classic Guide, 3rd edn, Wiley, Hoboken, NJ. Telstra Consumer Advice. 2018. Call Types, https:// www.telstra.com.au/consumer-advice/unwelcome-calls/ call-types, viewed 1 December 2018. Thompson, Harvey. 2015. Who Stole My Customer?? Winning Strategies for Creating and Sustaining Customer Loyalty, 2nd edn, Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ. Timm, Paul R. 2013. Customer Service: Career Success Through Customer Loyalty, 6th edn, Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ. Today Translations. 2018. Doing business in China, https:// www.todaytranslations.com/doing-business-in-china, viewed 1 December 2018. training.gov.au. BSBCUS301: Deliver and Monitor a Service to Customers, https://training.gov.au/Training/Details/ BSBCUS301, viewed 5 May 2018.

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MANAGE CUSTOMER ENGAGEMENT

CHAPTER

11 11.1

Your Learning Journey

11.2

These stages build RAPPORT, SATISFACTION + ENGAGEMENT with customers

Chapter 11

Strategies that maintain and improve customer experiences:

The FIVE STAGES of CUSTOMER ENGAGEMENT

unawareness

CH 12

consideration

 review of results

conversion

 willingness to improve service

growth (through value creation)

REVIEW customer service, IMPLEMENT corrective actions and REPORT outcomes

 informing customers + planning ahead to meet expectations  creation of a set of customer service standards

discovery

Next ANALYSE + PRESENT RESEARCH INFORMATION

 gathering feedback to find out what customers expect

11.3

Changes should comply with organisational policy + legislature/regulations

11.5

11.4  advertising + posts reaching customers

NETWORK-BUILDING STRATEGIES (building customer confidence + willingness to revisit the organisation)

The ROLE of SOCIAL MEDIA in CUSTOMER SATISFACTION + ENGAGEMENT:  promotes  provides  technical organisation’s responses support + fan base + in real time relationship converts a building wider audience

Open, honest communication in one-on-one interactions, focus groups, social media, surveys and advertising

Regular contact + communication Appropriate use of technology to interact with, support + service customers

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LEARNING OBJECTIVES After studying this chapter, you should be able to: 11.1 discuss the stages of customer engagement and strategies that build rapport, satisfaction and engagement 11.2 describe methods organisations use to facilitate customer engagement 11.3 identify and describe network building strategies 11.4 discuss the role of social media in enhancing customer satisfaction and engagement 11.5 review customer service, implement corrective actions and report outcomes.

11.1 WHAT IS CUSTOMER ENGAGEMENT? Facilitate positive relationships with regular and potential customers to promote loyalty and customer engagement.

Customer engagement with an organisation is driven by good communication though all channels, it is an ongoing process made up of all the interactions a customer has with the organisation. Successful customer communication – face-to-face, written, online or through social media channels – has a clear purpose, and a message with content, tone, frequency and timing that meet the needs of its audience. Knowledge of the rules about what works and what does not on the various communication channels is the key to maximising positive customer experiences and enhancing customer engagement. Ensure that the first impression regular and potential customers have of your organisation and the service you provide on all communication channels is positive, welcoming and engaging. The participation and involvement of existing customers and potential customers in positive relationships with an organisation fosters customer loyalty and enhances customer engagement. Customers’ expectations change as they experience improvements in technology. The shift towards online service caused by digital technology has meant personalised customer service, and the associated customer engagement is accessible to individual customers from anywhere. Rather than having to find and walk into a shop a customer can access fast, personalised service responsive to their needs and preferences at any time of the day. Putting customers’ needs and expectations first in both digital and human customer service interactions is the best way to establish a relationship with them and encourage them to engage with the organisation. However, a good relationship cannot be established in this way unless the organisation’s most senior management (and managers at other levels) support the rest of the staff in their efforts to provide high-quality service.

STAGES OF CUSTOMER ENGAGEMENT In order to promote customer engagement the organisation as a whole must have a clearly identified customer service vision or goal, and provide consistent customer experiences across all of its communication channels (voice, social, mobile, email, chat and face-to-face). The five stages through which a customer moves as they engage with an organisation are: 1. Unawareness: the customer does not yet know about your company 2. Discovery: the beginning stage where the customer finds out about your company 3. Consideration: the customer is still undecided about whether to choose your brand

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CHAPTER 11 / Manage customer engagement 4. Conversion: the customer makes a purchase decision and chooses your brand 5. Growth through value creation: the loyal customer revisits many times. Source: Gautam 2017.

Clear goals supported by well-defined objectives, practices and feedback from customers allow an organisation to deliver information, products and services during the unawareness and discovery stages that empower customers to understand the organisation’s offerings and make decisions that suit the customers’ lifestyle and preferences. Positive customer experiences during the discovery, consideration and conversion stages that meet expectations establish rapport and customer loyalty.

CUSTOMER JOURNEY A customer journey approach to customer service is being adopted by many organisations. This approach aims to develop customer engagement through positive customer experiences with each interaction, or touch point, with an organisation. Touch points are the many critical moments when customers interact with the organisation and its offerings on their journey from the unawareness stage through to purchase and after. Through all the five stages of engagement the customer expects each touch point or interaction to be easy, quick and satisfying. High-quality service delivery is essential to achieve customer engagement. This flows from an organisational culture, policies, practices and staff that are centred on customer engagement. A positive customer journey satisfies customers’ needs and expectations. To achieve this, an organisation must have full knowledge of its products or service and market demand, the funds and necessary resources to maintain the customer service culture, and practices that support staff in facilitating customers to engage and reach their goal quickly and easily. Hence, the organisation must: • understand and fulfil its customers’ needs and expectations • review and be willing to do things differently to improve and provide quality customer service consistently • inform customers about the improved customer service and products and the benefits to the customer. A major problem with internal customer service is lack of cooperation between people. Cooperative partnerships between internal customers create rapport and allow better-quality service at each stage of the product or service line. Customer service is well-managed when staff supply their internal customers with service that allows them to provide high-level service to external customers. Internal customers value service that gives them satisfaction and enables them to do their work well as they provide service to their own internal and external customers.

Ensure a customer journey approach by providing customers with a seamless journey across all touch points with the organisation from initial enquiry right through to post-sales support. Ensure customers receive the quality of experience they require at each of the customer touch points. Focus on the customer at every touch point on their journey.

ESTABLISH RAPPORT WITH CUSTOMERS

Effective planning, implementation, feedback and continuous improvement processes provide the customer with at least the expected level of service.

Customer rapport flows from communication and service that reveal an understanding of the customers’ point of view and connect with them. On any channel of communication, rapport is formed when the customer realises that the person providing the service is: • attentive, focused and interested in what they are saying or doing • positive and shows care and concern for their needs • able to understand their issue or concern and is willing to help.

Assist customers by making them feel comfortable and respected, and by anticipating and meeting their needs efficiently and courteously.

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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK Rapport leads to common understanding demonstrated through verbal communication and nonverbal such as voice tone and similar body Find common ground language. Exhibit 11.1 identifies behaviours that and shared experiences build rapport and enable positive interpersonal communication with clients. Greet with courtesy and Listen actively with Check that your appearance helps you to confidence genuine interest connect with customers rather than creating a barrier. Dress in a style appropriate to the expectations of your career and organisation and communicate in a way that is appropriate to the culture of your organisation and its customers. The customer’s first impression is lasting. As you Mirror and match body Use open-ended acknowledge customers, smile, relax, remember language questions their names, listen carefully and use a positive, courteous posture and body language. Rapport establishes trust and lets customers know that you are listening to them and willing to meet their needs and expectations. Refer to Chapter 2 for a range of Develop rapport to listening, questioning and body language skills. build customer trust and confidence. Finding common ground with customers calls for respectful, sincere and open communication supported by a positive and friendly attitude. Reasonable, fair and straightforward interactions concentrate on the interests of both parties. Effective customer service officers focus on the customer to prevent preoccupation and distractions. They listen actively to the customer and give them full attention. The customer realises that their perspective is listened to and their input is considered as issues and problems are solved. Both parties are able to find common ground and work towards mutually agreeable win–win solutions. Small talk about the weather, sport, pets or current news item can create a connection or common ground with a customer; however, as you use small talk, be aware that differences exist between people and situations. Avoid making assumptions about customers that may cause you to use small talk that the customer views as a slur or affront to their beliefs.

EXHIBIT 11.1 Rapport-building behaviours

MAINTAINING ENGAGEMENT DESPITE CONFLICT OR COMPLAINTS When dealing with customer complaints or difficult customers, emotionally intelligent frontline customer service officers are aware of and able to control their own emotions as they work to placate, attend to, investigate and resolve customer complaints. Emotional intelligence enables a customer service officer to recognise their own emotions, and to have the self-control and confidence to self-regulate as they listen to and respond at each stage of the customer’s interaction. They realise their job requires social awareness, empathy and service orientation to anticipate, recognise and meet customer needs. Clear and convincing assertive messages focused on customer needs and issues facilitate a frontline customer service officer to collaborate, cooperate and build relationships with customers. In instances where assertive communication fails, or where one of the parties isn’t committed to resolving the issue, it may be necessary to ask a supervisor or team leader for help to negotiate and resolve the customer’s problem. The end goal should always be greater customer satisfaction with the relationship as this enhances customer engagement and loyalty over the short and longer term. Customer complaints policy is dealt with later in this chapter.

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CHAPTER 11 / Manage customer engagement

1. Customer engagement: a. Identify the five stages of customer engagement. b. Briefly discuss three strategies organisations can use to attract and connect with customers. 2. How can you establish rapport with a customer? 3. Strategies and emotional intelligence: a. Discuss strategies frontline customer service officers can use to find common ground with a customer. b. What role does emotional intelligence play in customer service? 4. Touch points: a. List the touch points you experience at your favourite coffee bar or restaurant. b. What are the experiences that have made you a loyal customer of that coffee bar or restaurant?

The rise of customer engagement Increasingly, the world we live in is one that never sleeps. With this comes the expectation that businesses respond to customer needs with immediacy. It’s no longer just about getting a response or satisfactory outcome, for customers it has also become about being heard and creating a connection with a business or brand. This shift has blurred the boundaries between customer service and marketing and given growing importance to the concept of customer engagement. So, what is customer engagement? According to the marketing site Outbrain, well-executed customer engagement: • encourages not just brand growth but also customer loyalty. • encourages customers to share their experiences and interact with a business or brand. • focuses on value creation – i.e. rather than being a sales pitch, it attempts to engage with customers to create something meaningful: great content, interactive or responsive customer support in real time and an end-to-end customer experience that builds customer loyalty and encourages further engagement.

CHECKPOINT 11.1

FROM THEORY TO PRACTICE

Source: https://www.outbrain.com/blog/3-golden-customer-engagementstrategies-that-marketers-cant-ignore/, accessed 14 November 2018.

ASK YOURSELF: What are three factors that cause you to engage as a customer? What three factors can you think of that cause you to disengage?

11.2 METHODS FOR ENGAGEMENT The broad goals of customer engagement are to: • provide information • consult • involve and collaborate These goals encourage customers to engage and become loyal to the organisation’s products and services. Strategies that facilitate achievement of these goals are shown in Exhibit 11.2.

Build trust and loyalty by providing what the customer values.

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EXHIBIT 11.2 Strategies to support customer engagement 1

Survey and gather feedback to find out what customers need and expect.

2

Inform customers about the organisation’s activities, products and services.

3

Develop a good customer service ‘climate’ (or culture) through communication, training and development.

4

Plan ahead to meet customers’ needs and expectations.

5

Create a set of customer service performance standards.

6

Review the customer service outcomes and be willing to improve the service.

Identify customer service standards.

A satisfied customer is one whose needs have been met to a standard predetermined by the customer. Customer satisfaction is interpreted by the customer rather than the person providing the service. One of the best ways to satisfy and connect with customers is to make sure the product or service delivers the results promised by the organisation and expected by the customer. The key to customer satisfaction and loyalty is provision of what the customer values.

GATHER FEEDBACK ON PREFERENCES AND EXPECTATION

By basing service on the customers’ needs and expectations, the organisation creates more opportunities to satisfy and engage customers. Strategies to gather feedback about communication, quality, time, service conditions and cost standards to internal and external customers include: • Asking customers what they value by using surveys, listening to their comments and asking questions. • Setting customer service goals and deciding strategies to achieve the goals. • Deciding what service is needed to engage customers and deciding how to adapt to improve service. • Setting key performance indicators against critical success factors. • Deciding which communication channels to use to inform customers about improvements to the touch points along the customer journey. Obtain feedback from customers in terms of their comfort, feelings and perception of expected outcomes. Keep customers informed to build good relationships. Before or as you provide service, explain the purpose and outcomes of the procedure, the principal steps and the order in which they will take place. Where appropriate, explain your booking or service conditions to avoid unrealistic customer expectations and potential awkwardness or communication barriers. Exhibit 11.3 gives examples of service conditions presented to customers before a transaction to avoid false expectations and consequent anxiety and stress. Clarifying service conditions leads to realistic customer expectations. Ongoing customer engagement requires organisations to check that the service outcomes meet customer expectations. Requesting and acting on regular feedback earns respect from customers and helps an organisation to capture the positive comments as well as to highlight the problems. Regularity of feedback enables trends to be identified, and problems solved by improvements to the service design. It also lets an organisation know that service standards are being maintained and that customer engagement is ongoing. Gathering customer feedback is about asking questions. If the right questions are posed, then the answers will provide useful data to enable the service to be measured for customer satisfaction and your organisation’s key priorities and requirements. As you respond to customer feedback, aim to: • develop customer trust and confidence in your ability to provide the service • engage with customers in ways that reduce customer complaints and increase satisfaction • improve the effectiveness of the service by finding out what the customer expects and desires and plan to deliver at these two levels • increase staff motivation and job satisfaction by achieving improvement goals.

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CHAPTER 11 / Manage customer engagement

EXHIBIT 11.3 Examples of service conditions Retail after pay service • Must be 18 years or over and must have a debit or credit card • Only available on orders of $100 and up to $1400 • Free delivery • Pay four fortnightly instalments • Returns and refunds will be processed on the company’s Returns Card

Restaurant • 10 days notice for refund due to cancellation of a pre-paid event • Dress rules apply • BYO wine only • Children to be under direct adult supervision • Gift vouchers valid for six months from date of purchase

Promotional prizes • Six product barcodes submitted with each entry • Prizes not redeemable for cash • Prizes not transferable • Company employees or their families may not enter • Personal details provided may be used for further promotional activities

Developing some simple rules for managing customer feedback will make the process both effective and efficient. These rules should: • concentrate on customer satisfaction • focus on a limited number of indicators • be ongoing and specific • be available to all staff on a timely basis • be documented clearly and be visually appealing. Monitoring customer service allows organisations to gather feedback and make improvements on the basis of what customers say they want rather than on what the organisation believes its customers want. Customers’ expectations are better met when an organisation uses a variety of feedback methods to capture accurate and meaningful customer data in relation to its overall service. Feedback information can then be used to inform and enhance an organisation’s decision making. The outcome for customers is satisfying products, services and communication and enhanced engagement.

INFORM CUSTOMERS Most organisations have moved from the ‘push’ model of one-way communication, designed to influence and persuade customers, to two-way interactions to designed to engage and ‘pull’ customers in. The ‘pull’ model addresses customer needs and interests by asking questions, telling stories and connecting through conversations. Customers expect to be directed in both face-to-face and online interactions towards product areas and to be able to easily locate company and product brochures and price lists. Offering positive customer experiences requires an organisation’s senior managers, supervisors, team leaders and team members to know its customer service guidelines and be able to align product and service information to customer preferences. Customers value information that is useful. Leaflets, brochures, fact sheets, letters, newsletters, emails, e-newsletters or SMS are suitable for sharing small amounts of simple information by direct mail. Websites are a cost-effective way to convey more complex information to a large number of people as well as allowing customers to contact the organisation and receive timely responses. View the Nikeþ website for an example of information about the NikeþFuelBand. The site uses words and images to explain clearly the setup process, how to plugin, update and charge the FuelBand, synchronise with your smartphone and set up your daily goal. Customers appreciate video snippets that show them how to do something rather than having to read text.

Communicate and celebrate the service culture with internal and external customers.

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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK Websites clarify information via video, games and webinars, simplify complex information and clarify intricate instructions. Customers appreciate precise and accurate instructions and information. As well as receiving useful information, organisations can use games such as the ‘My Marriott Hotel’ to entertain and engage customers. Marriot International launched on Facebook the social-media game ‘My Marriot Hotel’; the intention was to raise players’ awareness of the Marriott brand. Understanding an organisation’s product and service features and presenting the benefits accurately facilitate customer discovery, consideration and choice of the organisation’s brand. For example, the Australian health insurance provider nib has introduced a new ‘Going to Hospital Tool’ self-service to allow its customers to review their options before going to hospital. The tool provides information about doctors, including which doctors use the Medigap system to cover payments, gaps in potential costs, ratings of services and other useful information. nib has also introduced artificial intelligence technology in the form of a chatbot known as ‘nibby’ to enhance customer engagement. Nibby provides customers with access to simple responses regarding their health insurance. ‘… nibby is integrated into nib’s web platform to allowing it to intelligently move customers to the right sales or claims consultant as a customer’s query becomes more complex, and to offer assistance during key customer service moments’. (nib 2017) Up-to-date product and service information can be provided to customers and staff via an online organisational knowledge library of frequently asked questions (FAQs). The FAQs should be in a format convenient for those using a tablet, smartphone or desktop computer. A library of FAQs allows staff to contribute and share knowledge, and provides customers with a quick and easy reference point to answer questions about a product or service. Organisations use social media interactive platforms such as Snapchat, Instagram, Twitter, Pinterest, Facebook and YouTube to create online communities to reach a large number of people. Online socialsharing communities allow customers to come together to share opinions and insights, ask questions and focus on current trends. With so many communication channels available for organisations to engage with, contact and provide information to customers and for customers to use as research, it is important for organisations to be visible and stand out from their competitors. As well as relying on word of mouth and advertising, organisations also depend on search engine optimisation (SEO) to enable customers to reach their websites. A social media presence is another valuable way to let customers ask questions and learn more about an organisation’s services, products and the experiences of its customers.

CUSTOMER SERVICE CULTURE OR CLIMATE For an organisation to develop a service culture that enhances customer engagement across each of the five stages, its culture must focus on customer experiences that build relations and provide satisfaction. A customer service culture evolves from a customer service vision, policies and objectives that are communicated consistently. The customer service policies and objectives are supported in formal written documents such as employee policy manuals, customer service manuals and websites. Customer service standards are included in job descriptions, employee evaluations, promotions and rewards. Training in customer-friendly policies orients and trains new employees to work in accordance with the standards and share understanding of customer experiences.

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CHAPTER 11 / Manage customer engagement A culture of open communication and information sharing allows an organisation to hear the good news and the bad news about customer experiences along the customer journey. Information is shared across the organisation to educate managers, team leaders and members about: • customer service objectives • customer feedback positives, compliments and complaints • current challenges and planned improvements to service at the various customer touch points • satisfaction measures such as reputation, customer engagement, loyalty and satisfaction • service measures such as market share, profitability, employee engagement and performance improvement. Matching and mirroring customers’ verbal and nonverbal communication helps to put people at ease, which can encourage rapport and collaboration, creating a friendly and cooperative climate. Responsive speaking, questioning and listening skills focus on the interests and concerns of customers. These skills are essential to the creation of positive relationships and the minimisation or removal of barriers as awkward situations or issues are negotiated.

CUSTOMER ENGAGEMENT/SERVICE ACTION PLANS The customer service culture, policies and procedures are supported by customer service action plans designed to establish, sustain and improve the relationship between an organisation and its customers. The overall objective identifies the target and the reason for doing it. It is supported by sub-objectives, and tasks including how, when and who will achieve the objectives and the measures of success or key performance indicators. Refer to Exhibit 11.4 to follow the steps to effective customer service action planning. Workplace procedures and processes that identify problems and improvement measures include a complaints log, customer feedback forms, team meetings or regular training to help resolution of problems causing barriers to customer engagement. Aim to resolve problems quickly and never make promises you cannot keep to either internal or external customers. If the organisation avoids the problem, it will develop further and the customer may leave with ill will. Customers who express their dissatisfaction to family and friends create poor publicity. Refer to Chapter 10, Deliver and monitor service to address customer needs, for problem-solving approaches to customer complaints. Refer to Chapter 6, Manage work priorities and professional development, for information about how to prepare workgroup plans, and see the example in Exhibit 6.4.

CUSTOMER SERVICE PERFORMANCE STANDARDS Customer service standards include timeliness, accuracy and appropriateness or relevance. The standards should be specific, concise, measurable and based on customer needs and requirements. They should also be written and communicated to all staff. The standard of timeliness for live chat and phone support, for example, requires immediate responses when possible, and always below two minutes. Customer expectations of instant service for live chat, messaging, and phone are often disappointed when they are placed on a queue. The standard for first-contact resolution of an enquiry, purchase or complaint is an expectation that may or may not be fulfilled. Insufficient staff, pointless routing and rerouting of enquiries and extended queuing waiting time lead to customer dissatisfaction. For social channels which cultivate speed, timeliness is accepted at about 60 minutes.

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EXHIBIT 11.4 Effective customer engagement/service action planning Establish objective or target

Identifies what is to be achieved with specific, measurable, achievable, realistic and time-referenced (SMART) goals. Refer to Exhibit 6.2 in Chapter 6 for examples of SMART goals

Tasks, by whom and by when

Lists, in order, activities needed to achieve the target, and identifies who has responsibility and by when

Communicate

Implement

Consults and shares information with stakeholders – knowledge of reasons for and how to implement gains cooperation

Supports the team, shares information, acknowledges suggestions for improvement and celebrates success

Monitor

Checks progress to ensure achievement of targets, timeframes and other measures of success

Corrective action

Takes corrective action (if required) to improve service level and customer satisfaction

Accurate product and service information is an underpinning standard for good customer service because customers make decisions and act upon the information they receive. Inaccurate information leads to mistakes and poor customer experiences. For example, the customer service standards for an accounting associate could include: summarise funding information accurately, verify accuracy of budgets and forms and secure appropriate internal signatures, submit to finance in an accurate and timely manner and process expenditures within five working days. Internal customers within the accounting firm depend on the accuracy of the associate’s work. Appropriate or relevant customer service standards for an aged care facility would include accurate and fair information about how to interact with other residents, staff and facilities; friendliness and a welcoming, belonging environment; empathy; and fair treatment relative to other residents when finding solutions to problems. As the residents are customers of the aged care facility their satisfaction depends on the standards of customer care.

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CHAPTER 11 / Manage customer engagement Continual research helps an organisation to stay in touch with its customers’ needs and expectations. Ask questions, send out surveys and listen to customers. Try to use the win–win approach, to determine standards from the point of view of the customer, as well as meeting organisational and legislative requirements. This will fuel customer engagement as customers will return to an organisation that provides them with high-quality product and service experiences at touch points along the customer journey that concentrate on their needs and expectations.

REVIEW OF CUSTOMER SERVICE Reviewing customer service outcomes lets an organisation know if it is meeting customer expectations and encouraging customers to engage with the organisation in the short and longer term. Techniques organisations use to review customer service outcomes from the point of view of the customer include feedback forms, suggestion or comment boxes, website forums and interactions with customers through social media platforms. Some organisations hire a mystery shopper to experience what a customer experiences and then report back. Effective reviews gather feedback about customer interactions and perceptions of the attributes defined in Exhibit 11.5. Customers tend to judge the quality of service delivery on these service attributes. Consider these attributes when assessing the quality of customer service offered by your organisation, your team members and yourself.

Maintain successful customer relations by building a reputation for reliability and responsiveness.

EXHIBIT 11.5 Customer service attributes Attribute

Definition

Reliability

The ability to provide the service that was promised and communicated dependably and accurately

Tangibles

The appearance of the physical attributes of facilities, equipment, personnel and communication materials

Responsiveness

The willingness of servers to help customers and provide a prompt service

Assurance

The knowledge and courtesy of servers and the ability to convey trust and confidence

Empathy

The provision to customers of caring, individualised attention

COACHING AND MENTORING Coaching and mentoring designed to enhance employees’ customer service knowledge, skill and attitudes improve customer focus across the organisation. Effective coaching and mentoring improve the service culture and empower employees to serve customers better. The resulting positive customer experiences lead to better customer engagement. Coaching or mentoring can also assist colleagues and team members who may have trouble meeting the specified customer service standards. One-to-one coaching and mentoring are ways of helping employees learn on the job and improve their performance to enhance customer engagement. Coaching is often a formalised training process that follows the five basic steps in Exhibit 11.6.

EXHIBIT 11.6 Steps in the coaching process Step 1

Determine the training need by identifying the problem, documenting it and stating the intended outcome.

Step 2

Explain the process in terms of what will happen, how it will happen and when.

Step 3

Demonstrate the desired behaviour or task.

Step 4

Practise by performing the task or behaviour with the colleague and then letting them do it independently.

Step 5

Provide feedback through monitoring, correcting, listening and acknowledging.

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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK Customer service coaching takes place on the job, with a good coach ensuring there are plenty of opportunities for skills guidance, practice and reflection. It is the role of the coach to not only guide but also tutor, train, empower, counsel, communicate and manage the performance of the person they are Provide opportunities for skills guidance, coaching. Coaching and mentoring are discussed more fully in Chapters 19 and 20. practice and Mentoring usually involves a long-term relationship lasting from three months up to, in some instances, reflection. five years. It is often an informal, voluntary process that requires a close relationship and guaranteed confidentiality. The purpose of mentoring is to assist someone new in a position or someone who has a Set clear goals and provide knowledge, new aspect to their existing work role. encouragement and The role of a mentor working to improve the performance of a person in a customer engagement support as you position is to model responsibilities, provide access to knowledge, situations or networks and to act as a mentor. sounding board. The objective of the mentoring process is to empower the person being mentored, enhance their skills and support them to manage their responsibilities and find EXHIBIT 11.7 Mentoring process ways to improve customer experiences and engagement. The Step focus of mentoring is on daily customer engagement Define the goals. 1 activities and the challenges in the environment, as well as the relationships with customers, management and Step colleagues. Create an action plan. 2 Mentoring is a continuous process rather than a specific training activity or event. Mentoring follows the four-step Step Determine the resources required. process in Exhibit 11.7. 3 The mentor should be encouraging and supportive. At all times, confidentiality must be maintained. Effective Step Measure the results and benefits. mentoring is based on clear and realistic goals. The mentor 4 acts as a role model for the person being mentored.

CHECKPOINT 11.2

1. Customer feedback: a. Briefly explain how an organisation can gather feedback about customer preferences. b. What should an organisation do as it responds to customer feedback? 2. Service culture: a. Identify strategies organisations use to build a customer service culture. b. Identify the types of information sharing organisations use to educate managers, team leaders and team members about the service culture. 3. Customer service: a. Outline the steps in customer service action planning. b. List three customer service standards. c. Discuss service attributes organisations review to determine customer perceptions of service. 4. Coaching and mentoring: a. What is the purpose of coaching? b. What is the purpose of mentoring?

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CHAPTER 11 / Manage customer engagement

11.3 BUILD AND MAINTAIN NETWORKS Networking creates connections with and mutually beneficial relationships between organisations and their customers. The key to networking with customers within and outside the organisation is regular communication and engagement. Effective networking listens to and focuses on what customers need and want. Information and ideas are exchanged within a range of networks such as other departments and teams within the organisation, suppliers, wholesalers, retailers and consumers of the organisation’s products and services. Promote connections between people in your organisation’s network. For example, when a customer posts a photo of your organisation’s product or service on Facebook and then another customer comments on it, this is the beginning of a connection between the organisation and those two people. Online networking connections may build stronger and wider customer engagement than traditional face-to-face customer interactions. Online forums and networks enable customers to engage directly with the organisation. Customers can ask questions and have them answered, engage in discussions and receive updated information relevant to their needs. Face-to-face networking with customers at functions and industry events also builds relationships, provides opportunities for discussion and enables referrals. Establishing an advisory board of key potential customers is another effective way to gather feedback and advice, and at the same time build and strengthen connections and engagement. Members of the advisory board also benefit from the opportunity to influence changes to the product or service and the opportunity to connect with others on the advisory board. Live chat is a strategy to network with customers. Live chat provides customers regardless of their location with an immediate channel of communication to speak directly with an organisation’s customer service officers. Harvey Norman Australia, for example, has a live chat site to enable customers to chat to a staff member online. This engagement allows customers to have their service enquiries answered immediately, learn more about specific products and find the products they are looking for. Harvey Norman also offers online ‘Click and Collect’, a free collection within two hours of a product being purchased online. Another alternative that enhances customer engagement with Harvey Norman outlets is the online shopping delivery service, which has three options: standard delivery, same-day delivery or scheduled delivery. The interactions and communication with customers about their needs and expectations enable Harvey Norman to provide information and match its offerings to its customers’ expectations. As well as improving service and customer engagement and enhancing the customer experience, the instant support on live chat creates customer loyalty. Customers can get help if and when they need it. The more personal and convenient interactions on live chat help customers to engage with the organisation and its products and services. The up-to-date information gathered from face-to-face, online and social media networks ensures procedures address customer needs, and products and services match and satisfy customer expectations.

Use networking as a tool for the exchanging of information and ideas, addressing customer needs and promoting customer engagement with the organisation.

Gather information from external customers about their perceptions, needs and expectations.

NETWORK BUILDING STRATEGIES The purpose of networking building strategies is to enhance customer loyalty, increase customer purchases of services or products and encourage customer promotion of the organisation to others. The outcome from effective network building strategies is customer engagement. Frontline customer service staff and sales professionals, in particular, are in a position to promote customer engagement. When their interactions with customers leave the customer feeling comfortable and willing to communicate on an ongoing basis, the customers are engaged with the organisation. 279 Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202

THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK However, frontline staff must be supported by management to ensure they have the appropriate resources, technology and support to meet customer expectations. Strategies to build networks are identified in Exhibit 11.8.

EXHIBIT 11.8 Network building strategies

Regular contact and communication

Use technology to service needs

Obtain and retain referrals

Market research

Regular contact and communication The range of strategies organisations use to maintain contact with customers include face-to-face, telephone, mail, call-centre and online methods. A simple strategy is to update any changes to personal details, such as contact numbers and address. Another is to share the latest relevant product or service information. Regular contact should be along the communication channels preferred by the customer. Some customers prefer traditional channels such as mail, telephone, email, printed material and advertising. Others prefer the speed of contacts through the Web and mobile technologies such as live chat, social media and online interactions. Regular communication such as links to specials or loyalty programs benefit the customer and create rapport and establish an organisational network built from trusting professional relationships. Regular honest and open customer communication: • develops and maintains a connection with customers • supports customer to engage in word of mouth advertising • strengthens the organisation’s brand identity • provides opportunities for upselling or cross-selling • creates loyalty and endorses the organisation as a supplier of choice. Aim to meet the customers’ needs and preferences because communication the customer views as irrelevant will be ignored.

Use technology to service needs Advances in technology enable organisations to collect, process, structure and present customer service information efficiently. The information helps an organisation to: • understand its customer service needs • identify trends in customer service needs • share and communicate the information across the organisation. Significant advances in telecommunications and information processing enhance connections and the way customers and businesses interact. Customer service has progressed from face-to-face, over-thecounter communication to telephone and call centre transactions, and then to online and digital interactions through websites, Web portals and social media. Desktop and mobile computer technology and the internet have changed the way businesses interact with their customers. Reliable, fast and prompt service can be delivered from multiple sites through digital technology to local and remote customers.

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CHAPTER 11 / Manage customer engagement Organisations with effective and informative websites and technology are able to interact with customers locally, nationally and internationally. Other advantages offered by technology include: • customers being able to carry out a complete transaction from their home or office, or from their smartphones • customers being able to identify the product or service they require, order, pay and register a warranty • organisations being able to access customer personal information to create and manage customer profiles • centralised product and customer databases and online customer management programs to track customer interaction and print reports on specific data • spreadsheet software to chart annual customer complaint statistics and the reasons behind the complaints • charting software to present and share visual information clearly in tables, charts or graphs.

Obtain and retain referrals Referrals may come from existing customers, friends in service or recreational clubs, professional or industry associations and manufacturers and distributors within your network. Word of mouth referrals from customers are the best form of advertising. Customer service supported by brochures, information on the Web, email and social media review sites supplies satisfied customers with information they can readily pass on to others. Referrals from a person or another company should be reciprocated, where possible, to strengthen the network and encourage future referrals. A discount, a commission, shared use of equipment or a preferred supplier status are strategies organisations use to say ‘Thank you’ for referrals. Fostering relationships and networking are essential components of good business practice.

Market research Market research enables an organisation to understand why its customers choose its products or services over the competition, how its customers use its products and who or what influences customers’ decisions to engage with the organisation. The reasons for researching and obtaining information from customers are to: • find out what customers like and dislike • adjust customer service and products to meet their needs • improve customer service strategies and processes • strengthen customer engagement with the organisation. An organisation gathers information about customer service from either primary or secondary sources. Data gathered by the organisation is primary information. Primary data is gathered through observation, focus groups, interviews and surveys of representative samples of the larger group whose opinions are required. The sorts of questions asked in primary research include ‘Who are our customers and how can the organisation reach them?’, ‘Which products and services do our customers need or want?’ and ‘What factors influence the decisions of our customers?’ Large organisations are likely to have the resources to conduct their own primary research. Smaller organisations may engage specialist companies to design and provide survey tools and techniques for the collection of primary information. Data gathered by a third party and sold to an organisation or data from government and other websites is secondary information. Secondary information is often available within and outside the organisation. Examples of internal and external data are shown in Exhibit 11.9.

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EXHIBIT 11.9 Internal and external data Sources of internal data

Sources of external data

• Company annual reports

• Government data and reports

• Sales, customer and accounting records • Technical reports

• Industry or professional association data, industry and trade reports

• Records of previous company market research

• Magazine and newspaper articles

• Photographs, drawings and posters

• Books, trade journals and professional journals • Dictionaries and encyclopaedias

Researching customer satisfaction as well as customer problems and complaints through direct questioning, telephone calls, emails, social media and other channels enables customers to give direct and open feedback. Acknowledgement and taking action to incorporate their views into future product and service improvements enhances customer engagement.

CHECKPOINT 11.3

1. Networking, live chat and feedback: a. Provide three examples of customer service networking. b. Briefly explain how live chat benefits the customer. c. Identify and discuss the benefits an organisation gains from obtaining customer feedback. 2. Customer contact and engagement: a. Discuss strategies you would use to maintain customer contact. b. Discuss methods you would use to enhance customer engagement and loyalty. 3. How has technology improved the way customers purchase products and services? 4. Identify sources of referrals and explain how organisations can acknowledge the referrer.

11.4 SOCIAL MEDIA Advances in telecommunications and information processing have expanded the range of interactions between customers and organisations. Social media not only engages with customers, it also creates customer value in the form of real-time service response, technical support and two-way relationship building communication. Social media via Web-based and mobile technologies allows customers to engage in two-way communication with an organisation. Customers are able to research products and services, request information, purchase products and ask questions about how to assemble and use them. Satisfied customers can then share their satisfaction or dissatisfaction with a company’s service with social media ‘friends’. Similarly, organisations use social media to market their products and services, target advertising at specific demographic groups and reach their audience easily in any geographic location. They also encourage customers to post comments and questions through Twitter, Yelp, Facebook, Instagram and other social media platforms. In short, communication is turned into interactive dialogue between an organisation and its customers.

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CHAPTER 11 / Manage customer engagement

PURPOSE OF SOCIAL MEDIA STRATEGY Progressive organisations realise the value of developing a social media strategy to manage the digital tasks and flow of information to their audiences. Their aim is to: • manage the volume of advertising and posts reaching the target audiences • share reliable, useful and timely information that catches the interest of the organisation’s audiences • promote the organisation’s fanbase and convert a wider audience into customers. However, goals must be realistic and identify clear results that refer back to the strategy objectives. Examples of objectives for Facebook’s marketing and connection with customers are increasing the number of likes, reach, engagement, leads and sales of the organisation. Once the objectives are set, the organisation can take action to achieve results, such as special offers, news alerts, messages, notifications, product and service information, videos, and media releases on Facebook, Twitter and other social media channels. The connections and interactions with customers through social media channels: • enhance information sharing, collaboration and promotion of products and services • enable engagement activities and relationship building through celebrity endorsements, digital advertising, running trials and promotions in real time • increase organisational insights of customer perceptions from suggestions for improvements and innovation • facilitate sharing of content and experiences and relationship building through forums, message boards, photo sharing, podcasts, search engine marketing, video sharing, wikis, micro-blogging and social networking sites.

INFORMATION SHARING Social media and mobile computing on laptops, smartphones and tablets have revolutionised how customers interact with organisations. The online self-service trend means customers gather information, at any time of the day or night, about services, menus, booking options, inventory, the best person to connect with, operating hours and how to connect with the organisation. In any of these transactions, customers expect access 24 hours a day to up-to-date, useful information and easy ways to purchase services or products. This extract from Cameron Diehl (2018) explains how the five stages of customer engagement occur on social media. Stage 1: Scrolling past and seeing your posts leads to an increased awareness of your brand and business. Stage 2: Perceiving and stopping to read, taking in the information and heightening their perception of you and your brand. Stage 3: Clicking to directly interact with your brand – not only seeing, stopping and reading your post, but clicking through to explore further. Stage 4: Liking having interacted with your content and found it valuable enough to warrant an endorsement – deepen your relationship. Stage 5: Sharing is the strongest form of client–advisor social interaction – those who ‘share’ your content from their own pages become advocates for your post and by extension your business. Source: Diehl 2018.

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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK As well as responding to the organisation’s online communication, customers can post user-generated information, ideas, pictures and videos online. Sharing and two-way interactions between customers and an organisation allow quick responses to and resolution of problems or issues and facilitate customer engagement. Existing customers remain engaged and potential customers learn about what the organisation can do for them. Video snippets, statements or statistics about the organisation’s service and customer satisfaction let customers know how their needs and expectations will be met. Advertising or promotion of specials should target both long-established and potential customers. Customer loyalty and commitment should be acknowledged and, on occasion, rewarded.

CUSTOMER SATISFACTION Positive, clear communication on social media channels builds a lasting and satisfying impression of customer service. Organisations that send out more than promotional messages, such as interesting anecdotes, customer alerts or responses to customer messages, engage with customers on a deeper level than those that engage in direct promotion only. Exhibit 11.10 identifies factors that promote customer satisfaction.

EXHIBIT 11.10 Promote customer satisfaction Connect on a personal level

Offer special deals and promotions

Improve communication

• Build rapport with customers

• Make followers feel special

• Post interesting, current information

• Put names and faces to your services and products

• Offer a time-limited special rate for followers

• Use alerts for special promotions

• Reinforce company image

• Offer seasonal or periodic discounts such as out-of-season travel bookings

Show commitment to your customers.

CHECKPOINT 11.4

• Respond quickly and courteously with relevant information

The outcome from customer satisfaction is more favourable perceptions of the organisation, as well as greater loyalty, endorsements and referrals. Social media therefore provides organisations with many ways of identifying customer needs and expectations, and of supplying the service or product to fill these needs. Skills in communicating and a preparedness and capacity to deliver face-to-face or online the kind of service the customer expects are essential for successful customer relations and thus customer engagement. 1. Benefits of social media: a. What are the benefits of social media for an organisation? b. What are the benefits of social media for the customer? 2. Social media connects: a. What sort of information do organisations share with customers through social media? b. Discuss the outcomes for an organisation of effective social media connections and interactions with customers. 3. Online self-service and FAQs: a. Explain how the online self-service trend improves customer service. Provide specific examples. b. What is the purpose of a library of FAQs?

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11.5 CORRECTIVE ACTIONS The purpose of corrective action is to achieve timely responses to product and service issues and processes. Corrective action plans are developed to address customer service dissatisfaction and issues. Customer complaints policies should be fair, acknowledge customers have the right to complain and support constructive, consistent handling of complaints. Communicate with customers and other stakeholders such as frontline customer service staff, account managers and sales staff as soon as the issue is resolved.

MAINTAIN CUSTOMER RECORDS Customer records contain information about service delivery answers from customers to staff questions through either face-to-face, telephone or written or digital channels of communication. Records typically hold the customer’s contact information and history of products purchased, location and frequency of purchase, method and reliability of payment and other relevant information. Collect relevant information and feedback by listening, asking questions and recording responses accurately. Let customers know why you keep their records and the benefits for them personally. Stress that records are confidential. Maintain the security of records. In service industries, such as dentistry or massage therapy, it is essential to keep an up-to-date record of relevant personal details and customer engagement activities. Accurate records are an important part of high-level service because they provide information about customers’ dissatisfaction or satisfaction with the manner in which their issue or problem was corrected.

Maintain the confidentiality of records. Provide evidence of service delivery successes and problems in records.

MONITOR AND ADJUST Customer service activities are monitored for customer satisfaction, efficiency and effectiveness. Efficiency measures include per unit cost to measure the amount of resources and their cost in producing a unit of service. Backlog measures determine the amount of work in queue and number of customers whose needs are not met within the expect timeframe. Examples of effectiveness measures are customer satisfaction at first contact, percentage of customers who hang up the phone or leave a queue before reaching a customer service agent, customer retention and engagement rates. Adjusting and monitoring customer service improvement actions taken in response to customer feedback should: • be in accordance with the organisation’s customer service policy and procedures • incorporate service standards and good practice techniques for dealing with customers, including customers with specific needs • identify and resolve customer dissatisfaction and complaints through problem identification and resolution • apply customer needs research, customer relationship building and ongoing product and service quality improvements to create positive customer engagement • record customer feedback, findings from monitoring processes and information gathered • refer to the records to facilitate management of customer service and for meeting the reporting requirements of outside regulatory bodies.

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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK The key to implementing corrective actions is careful planning based on factual and objective data. Any proposed changes to customer service delivery should be based on customer feedback, documented and communicated to relevant stakeholders.

CUSTOMER COMPLAINTS POLICY Respond to feedback from customers.

Organisations that actively seek out customers to find out what they need, want or do not want are able to develop a customer complaints policy that not only resolves customer complaints but also improves customer service and advances customer engagement. Nearly all customers will re-engage and recommend an organisation if their complaint is handled efficiently. Collecting data from satisfied and dissatisfied customers involves three key tasks: 1. Analysing raw data, such as customer complaints, in order to turn the data into useful information. 2. Identifying and clustering customer complaints into categories. 3. Identifying your organisation’s customer service policies, procedures and goals in order to produce outcomes that match the service goals and encourage customer engagement. An effective customer complaints policy includes the customer in the actions taken to resolve customer needs, problems or complaints and provides a variety of ways for the customer to interact with the organisation. Good and timely handling and follow-up of complaints enhances involvement in the process and increases customer engagement. Refer to Chapter 10, Deliver and monitor service to address customer needs, for a full discussion of customer complaint handling.

PURPOSE OF AN AUDIT

Find out what the customer likes and dislikes.

Once customers move from the unawareness and discovery stages of customer engagement into the consideration and conversion stages, they expect consistent, seamless communication across all the communication channels they use in their interactions with an organisation. In both digital and human customer service interaction, factors that deliver customer satisfaction are personal attention, no queues, convenience, accuracy and reliability. A customer experience audit provides an independent evaluation of customers’ satisfaction with their experiences at each stage of the customer’s journey from discovery to engagement and ongoing interactions. During an audit, data is gathered from interviewing users, surveying, looking at customer feedback or by experiencing what the customer experiences. Information and findings are evaluated against established key performance indicators and what customers expect and value. Four reasons to conduct a customer service audit are to: • understand touch points and their impact on customer experience, loyalty and engagement • identify high-priority areas and identify gaps for improvement • establish medium- to long-term strategies across departments and teams • conduct customer research to identify what is most important at each stage in the customer journey. Seeking feedback from customers as an organisation audits customer engagement allows the organisation to focus on the customers’ service priorities and match them with the organisation’s priorities. An organisation’s key priorities are usually audited against the following 4Es: • Effectiveness – is the service achieving the targeted outcomes? • Efficiency – how well is the service being provided? • Equity – does the service ensure equal access and provision to all targeted customers? • Engagement – how well do our products and services meet customer expectations?

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CHAPTER 11 / Manage customer engagement In addition to gathering customer information in detailed reports, conversation summaries and records of interactions, organisations should review the feedback. Ask the following questions to find and gain insights from patterns of satisfaction or dissatisfaction: ‘What are customers asking about the most?’, ‘What information do they have trouble finding?’, ‘What are customers most satisfied with?’, ‘What are their complaints?’ An example of a service improvement is the creation of a FAQ page with the answers to these questions, as well as the most commonly sought information, and posting the FAQ page on the organisation’s home page. The added benefit of using live chat feedback to create the FAQ page or to include information on the home page is that the organisation is answering questions before customers have to ask. The saving in time is a benefit for the customer as well as an efficiency improvement for the organisation. Check the information gathered in an audit to pinpoint problem areas and where those problems arise. Then create a recommendations report detailing improvements and their priority. The recommendations may include a variety of improvements such as quick fixes that can be implemented progressively in the short to medium term, and longer-term strategic changes to better align products and services, train staff or other major initiatives. The purpose of the audit is to align customer service and products to what the customer wants to augment customer engagement. An essential step to improvements is communication of intended results to all stakeholders. Recommended improvements and corrective actions taken to solve customer issues must be shared to enable all staff to commit to the changes and become accountable for their implementation. Once actions are implemented and an issue or concern has been resolved, let customers and other stakeholders know. Review the corrective actions to assure positive customer experiences have replaced the previous issues. If problems arise in the future, respond flexibly and adapt again to meet customer expectations.

PROPOSE CORRECTIVE ACTIONS On those occasions when corrections and modifications to customer service are major, you may have to submit a formal proposal that recommends and seeks approval for changes that encourage customer engagement. As a formal proposal is prepared for a decision maker to approve the recommendations, it should be a well-organised and persuasive document. Aim to make your customer service proposal effective to gain maximum benefit from the time, energy and costs involved in preparing it. To be successful your proposal should: • identify clearly the objectives that enhance customer engagement • identify the reasons for modifying the organisation’s customer service • present strategies for fostering customer loyalty and engagement • outline the direct benefits of these strategies and offer ways to evaluate the results. Refer to Chapter 18, Write technical documents and proposals, for more information on technical proposals.

Modify service as required.

Authorise, take action or refer Implementation of corrective policy to increase customer satisfaction and avoid customer complaints often involves all levels of the organisation. Customer service delivered by managers, supervisors, team leaders and staff must focus on the needs of the customer and take place within the guidelines in the

Action procedures to resolve customer difficulties and complaints.

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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK

Implement a customer complaints procedure and follow guidelines consistently.

organisation’s customer engagement policies and procedures. An effective customer service organisation empowers its staff to take action or refer the complaint to the person with responsibility to authorise changes to procedures. Involve team members in the customer service improvement process and you are likely to gain their cooperation. One practical way to involve team members is to encourage them to bring any research and feedback data they have collected to meetings. Another way is to assign responsibility for customer service improvements to team members on the basis of their capabilities. Encourage staff to become familiar with the customer complaints procedure and ensure they know how to work within the procedural guidelines. Mentor or coach colleagues through the customer complaints procedure, which usually follows these four steps: 1. Identify the key features, tasks and processes of your customer service and prioritise them. 2. Make a list of all the processes customers go through each time they engage with your service. Remember to consider your internal customers as well as your external customers. Analyse each process according to: • factors that lead to customer frustration • barriers that prevent customers getting what they need. 3. Review each process to ensure it is efficient, effective and equitable. 4. Implement improvements, solve problems and reset goals.

VERIFY PROPOSED CHANGES COMPLY WITH LEGAL REQUIREMENTS

Work in accordance with legal and organisational requirements.

The purpose of consumer legislation is to protect the rights of consumers when they engage with an organisation. The rights legislation includes safety, quality, durability, performance, accuracy, honesty, cost and availability of any real or personal property or tangible or intangible goods, services, and credit. Effective legislation maintains consistency of treatment towards all customers who engage with an organisation, preserves consumer choice in a competitive market, minimises unfair or deceptive trade practices and promotes truthfulness and fairness in the advertising, promotion and sale of property, credit, products and services. The Competition and Consumer Act 2010 (CCA), for example, covers most areas of the market, including the relationships between suppliers, wholesalers, retailers and consumers. The Act covers product safety and labelling, unfair market practices, price monitoring, industry codes, industry regulation of airports, electricity, gas, telecommunications, mergers and acquisitions. The Act’s purpose is to enhance the welfare of Australians by promoting fair trading and competition, and through the provision of consumer protections of legal rights and remedies. Compliance of individuals and businesses with Australian competition, fair trading, and consumer protection laws benefits consumers, businesses, organisations and the community. An example of misleading behaviour that fell below community standards was reported by Michael Janda on ABC News: ‘More than 300 000 customers across the big four banks and AMP are being refunded a combined $216 million after being charged for financial advice they never received.’ Customers paid for financial services that were not provided and companies gave false or misleading information to the Australian Securities and Investment Commission. Other legislation that impacts on how an organisation coordinates and implements customer engagement strategies are anti-discrimination legislation, privacy laws, environmental regulations and workplace health and safety (WHS) regulations. Organisational requirements are specified in codes of practice, ethical principles, and organisational customer service procedures and standards.

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CHAPTER 11 / Manage customer engagement Employees have a responsibility to behave ethically. They are required to work in accordance with legal requirements and their organisation’s code of ethics and integrate equality, truth and authenticity into their customer service activities and relationships. Awareness and avoidance of unethical behaviours such as dishonesty, racism, misleading advertisements, lying and hoax promotions minimises the risk of any damage or detriment to their organisation, customers or others. Modifications to the delivery of customer engagement processes should improve service and resolve any recurring customer complaints. Any change in policy leads to changes in the workplace. Therefore, any action plans for implementation of the modifications should clearly identify steps, resources, dates and indicators of success. Modifications to the customer service process could take place for the following reasons: • to ensure equity of access and provision to existing and potential new customers • to reduce customer complaints, increase customer satisfaction and engagement • to improve staff motivation and job satisfaction • to improve efficiency in the use of resources • to support changes in the organisation’s objectives and achievement of outcomes • to comply with legal and regulatory requirements. At the beginning of the implementation process, double-check the plan to ensure the goal(s), steps and timelines are realistic and that sufficient and competent personnel and resources have been allocated to finalise the work. Also, check that responsibilities are clearly defined.

1. Customer experience audit: a. Identify four reasons for an organisation to conduct a customer service audit. b. Identify four factors an organisation should evaluate in a customer experience audit. c. Outline the features of an effective customer service proposal. 2. Discuss four strategies organisations use to identify problems and take improvement actions. 3. Consumer protection: a. Identify the rights of consumers that are protected by consumer legislation. b. How does the Competition and Consumer Act 2010 enhance the welfare of Australians? c. What are the likely consequences for organisations that breach consumer protection legislation?

Implement changes to service standards consistently and equitably. Involve team members and empower them to take responsibility for changes to customer service.

CHECKPOINT 11.5

LEARNING ACTIVITIES SUMMARY 11.1 Discuss the stages of customer engagement and strategies that build rapport, satisfaction and engagement. The five stages of customer engagement are unawareness, discovery, consideration, conversion and growth through value creation. Customers also have expectations about the style and type of service. An organisation with a customer service culture puts customers’ needs first, builds rapport, meets

customer expectations and enhances customer engagement. 11.2 Describe strategies that maintain and improve customer experiences. Gathering feedback to find out what customers expect, informing customers and planning ahead to meet expectations supports the customer service culture. Creation of a set of customer service standards, review of results and a willingness to

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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK

improve service enhance customer experiences and facilitate customer engagement. 11.3 Identify and describe network building strategies. Effective networking creates mutually beneficial relationships and encourages customer engagement. Networking strategies include regular contact and communication, and appropriate use of technology to interact with, support and service customer needs. Open, honest communication and information in one-on-one interactions, focus groups, social media, surveys and advertising build confidence and a willingness to engage with and revisit the organisation. 11.4 Discuss the role of social media in enhancing customer satisfaction and engagement. Effective use of social media helps to manage the volume of advertising, and posts reaching customers provide useful, timely information to catch the target audience’s interest, promotes the organisation’s fan base and converts a wider

audience to engage with the organisation. Social media communication with customers provides responses in real time, technical support and two-way relationship building. 11.5 Review customer service, implement corrective actions and report outcomes. Monitor and check the results of service and communicate it to others. A written report provides evidence of what has happened, and when and how it happened. Conclusions and recommendations are made on the basis of the reported findings. Authorisation for any proposed changes to improve customer engagement should be given before the proposed changes are put into practice. Procedures to resolve customer complaints should be authorised, actioned or referred to appropriate personnel according to your organisation’s policies and procedures and verified to ensure proposed changes comply with legislative requirements and regulations.

KEY TERMS customer engagement

customer journey approach

service conditions

touch point

LEARNING ACTIVITIES 1. Customer engagement Work in small groups. a. Discuss what you value most when you are considering converting to a new brand in: i. a supermarket ii. a sports store iii. a car. b. List your answers on a flipchart or whiteboard, then compare lists with the other groups. c. Identify the similarities between lists from all groups and the elements that empower customers to engage with brands that suit their preferences and lifestyle. 2. Customer journey a. Choose a service that your organisation (or an organisation you are familiar with) provides, and create a list of the features that engage customers. b. Describe the typical journey customers follow as they engage with the organisation and its services. c. Explain what any organisation must do to support its staff to facilitate and engage with customers.

3. Social media presence Write a short information report. Your report should: a. Explain why more and more organisations are establishing a social media presence. b. Find an example of a non-profit organisation’s social media site and describe the characteristics that make it effective (or ineffective). c. Find an example of a commercial organisation’s social media site and describe the characteristics that make it effective (or ineffective). d. Conclude your report with recommendations about the type of characteristics that make a social media presence effective for any type of organisation. 4. Networking and success Create a notice to be circulated to all staff on the online shared Digital Workplace (business version of Facebook) of a large department store. This notice is to be titled ‘The Benefits of Networking with Customers’. a. Identify the benefits of keeping in regular contact with internal and external customer networks.

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CHAPTER 11 / Manage customer engagement

b. Identify how to keep track of interactions with customers from the internal and external networks. c. List reasons for following legal and organisational policies and procedures when interacting with customers. d. Explain the relevance of networks to assuring customer engagement. 5. Handle the problem Work in small groups on the following scenario.

One of your team members is having difficulties building rapport when speaking to internal and external customers on the telephone and when taking face-to-face enquiries at reception. She is lacking empathy, speaks in an abrupt manner, has little patience with customers with special needs or different backgrounds, and is slow to follow up on promised action. a. Discuss strategies you could use to handle the problem. b. Develop a coaching plan you could use to address the issues.

GROUP ASSIGNMENT Complete this exercise as a whole group or break into smaller groups. 1. Identify factors that impact on proposed change. a. Brainstorm the opposition you are likely to encounter when proposing changes to customer service delivery. Write all ideas on a flipchart or whiteboard. b. Brainstorm the support you are likely to receive when proposing changes to customer service delivery. Write all ideas on a flipchart or whiteboard. c. When proposing changes to customer service delivery, how can you minimise the likelihood of opposition to

the recommended changes, and maximise the likelihood of success? Discuss. 2. Working in small groups or pairs, draft a simple proposal that recommends a change in the way the organisation interacts with its regular customers in your own organisation or one you are familiar with. a. Choose any aspect of customer service to base your proposal on. b. Present your proposal to another team. c. The other team should then critique your proposal, commenting on its strengths and areas for improvement that could lead to increased customer engagement.

CASE STUDY TMP AIRLINES’ MANAGEMENT OF FACEBOOK AND TWITTER TMP Airlines has recently appointed Josh to the position of Social Media Manager. Josh realises that his first task is to develop a social media strategy. His overall aim is to market TMP’s flights and service schedules in a way that encourages customers to engage with TMP through special offers, news alerts, information about new routes, product and service information, videos and media releases, and general updates. As well as managing the digital tasks and flow of information to TMP’s audiences, the strategy will decide who is responsible for TMP’s posts, what type of information will be shared, what type of information will not be shared, how the accuracy and reliability of information sources will be confirmed, which social media channels will be used to convey the messages and who will be the target audiences.

In consultation with other managers, Josh identifies five broad objectives: 1. Manage the volume of advertising and posts reaching the target audiences. 2. Share reliable, useful and timely information that catches the interest of, and engages with, TMP’s audiences. 3. Reach out to TMP’s fanbase as well as to wider audiences and convert them into customers. 4. Monitor what is being said about the company. 5. Measure the results of social media activities. Josh’s primary focus is Facebook and Twitter because of their extensive reach and ability to connect with a variety of audiences. He decides the main messages conveyed by Twitter will be travel alerts, such as flight delays or cancellations due to storms or fog, reminders about baggage weight, news tweets, photos, videos,

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highlights of cities served by the airline and ‘retweets’ of followers. The main messages conveyed by Facebook will be flight updates, air travel tips and advice, travel trends, promotions, competitions, major events, special offers, interesting travel facts, and a slideshow to show off TMP’s new features. Additionally, a wall will be available for customer feedback, and polls and quizzes will be introduced to encourage customers to interact with the page. Josh decides that any customer query or complaint, day or night, will receive a responsive, helpful and timely tweet within 15 minutes. He also decides to request that staff collect feedback, increase ‘likes’ and foster engagement with any customer who asks a question by answering the question and submitting a question in return. The intention is to encourage comments and interaction.

Questions 1. Will Josh’s approach allow TMP to engage with its audience in an organised and controlled manner? Provide reasons for your answer.

2. Assume you are a customer flying with TMP. a. Create a dot-point list of the type of information you would like to receive via Facebook and Twitter. b. List three features of airline information that are useful to customers. 3. Consider the members on Josh’s team. a. How can Josh ensure TMP’s staff know how to listen, respond, ask questions and engage effectively with TMP’s customers? b. When a staff member answers a customer’s tweet and then follows the answer with a question back to the customer, what should be the focus of that question? c. Assume Josh decides to create a bank of questions staff members could ask after they have answered a customer’s question. Write three questions for TMP’s question bank. 4. In a short written answer, explain how social media and online interactions improve customer experiences and facilitate customer engagement with airlines.

BIBLIOGRAPHY Australian Government. Competition and Consumer Act 2010 Act No. 51 of 1974 as amended 1 July 2012, AttorneyGeneral’s Department, Canberra. Commonwealth of Australia. Compliance and Enforcement: How Regulators Enforce the Australian Consumer Law, 2010, Attorney-General’s Department, Canberra. Diehl, Cameron. 2018. ‘The five stages of client engagement’, Raymond James, https://www.raymondjames.com/ advisorchoice/practiceinsights/the_five_stages_of_ client_engagement, viewed 9 July 2018. Ference, Audrey. 2017. 7 Customer Engagement Strategies That Marketers Can’t Ignore, https://www.outbrain.com/ blog/3-golden-customer-engagement-strategies-thatmarketers-cant-ignore/, viewed 24 June 2018. Gautam, Nitish. 2017. Customer Engagement Model: What It Is, Why It Matters and How to Build One,

https://www.ameyo.com/blog/customer-engagementmodel, viewed 26 June 2018. Gingiss, Dan. 2017. Winning at Social Customer Care: How Top Brands Create Engaging Experiences on Social Media, Kindle Edition, CreateSpace Independent Publishing South Carolina, USA. Janda, Michael. 2018. ‘Banking royal commission: AMP says it misled ASIC over fee-for-no-service financial advice’, http://www.abc.net.au/news/2018-04-16/banking-royalcommission-financial-planners/9662166, viewed 1 December 2018. nib Media Centre. 2017. ‘nib launches Australia’s first health insurance chatbot’, https://www.nib.com.au/ nib-news/media/2017/12/nib-launches-australia-sfirst-health-insurance-chatbot, viewed 26 October 2018.

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CHAPTER 11 / Manage customer engagement

Tickle-Degnen, Linda & Rosenthal, Robert. 1990. ‘The Nature of Rapport and Its Nonverbal Correlates’, Psychological Inquiry, Vol. 1, No. 4, pp. 285–93. Timm, Paul R. 2013. Customer Service: Career Success Through Customer Loyalty, 6th edn, Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ. training.gov.au. BSBCUS402: Address customer needs, https://training.gov.au/TrainingComponentFiles/BSB/ BSBCUS402_R1.pdf, viewed 2 July 2018.

training.gov.au. BSBCUS501: Manage Quality Customer Service, https://training.gov.au/Training/Details/ BSBCUS501, viewed 2 July 2018. Van Belleghem, Steven. 2015. Digital Becomes Human: The Transformation of Customer Relationships, Kogan Page Limited, London, UK.

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PART

4

COMMUNICATION THROUGH DOCUMENTS

CHAPTER 12

ANALYSE AND PRESENT RESEARCH INFORMATION

CHAPTER 13

COMMUNICATE USING GRAPHICS AND VISUAL AIDS

CHAPTER 14

EFFECTIVE BUSINESS WRITING

CHAPTER 15

WRITING BUSINESS LETTERS

CHAPTER 16 WRITE SHORT REPORTS CHAPTER 17

WRITE LONG REPORTS

CHAPTER 18

WRITE TECHNICAL DOCUMENTS AND PROPOSALS

CHAPTER 19 RECORD KEEPING

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Spotlight on: Communication through documents Rather than leaving the reader guessing, good business writers identify the writing purpose upfront and then organise the information into paragraphs that explain the who, what, when, where, why and how. Each paragraph conveys one idea, usually identified in the first sentence, the topic sentence. A clear focus on one idea at a time enhances readability. Plain, concise words enhance understanding of the content. A business document has a purpose. A good writer ensures the document meets the needs of the reader and that the content is communicated clearly, coherently, concisely, correctly, courteously and confidently. However, good business writers do more than write. They obtain information or clarify requirements by asking questions and listening. They research and collect information and knowledge, order and structure ideas logically, and choose headings and subheadings that create a pathway through the document for the reader. They edit the first draft for accuracy, conciseness and clarity. The format of the final document conforms to the organisation’s and business writing standards. In the case of a long formal document the final version of the executive summary is written last when the writer’s thoughts are able to cover the whole of the document.

If you can’t explain something simply, you don’t understand it well enough. Albert Einstein

What do you think? • • • •

• •

•

What are the benefits of analysing information and questioning your sources? What is one thing you could do right now to further develop your business writing skills? Why should you adhere to organisational policies and procedures related to document production? Do you need to adapt the vocabulary, grammar and layout you use now to suit the purposes and different audiences for business documents? Would you feel as comfortable writing a formal long report as writing a business letter? Do colleagues, supervisors and managers care about how you question and listen when you seek advice about a document’s purpose, audience and presentation? What are the main features and functions of the digital tools you use to complete written work tasks?

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CHAPTER

12

Ch

ap

te r

12

Effective decision making Problem solving

CH 13

Innovation

Next COMMUNICATE USING GRAPHICS + VISUAL AIDS

Ongoing work task/processes

Information can be collected from:

12.4

ALL SOURCES OF INFORMATION MUST BE: Presented in line with organisational requirements

12.1

RESEARCHING and ANALYSING INFORMATION in the workplace is essential for:

Your Learning Journey

12.2

Primary Sources

Secondary Sources

Referenced accurately Supported by EVIDENCE

CONCLUSIONS + RECOMMONDATIONS

ANALYSE qualitative + quantitative data 12.3

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CHAPTER 12 / Analyse and present research information

LEARNING OBJECTIVES After studying this chapter, you should be able to: 12.1 outline the reasons for researching and analysing information in the work environment and identify the steps in the research process 12.2 collect information from primary and secondary sources 12.3 analyse quantitative and qualitative data and interpret findings, draw conclusions and make recommendations supported by evidence 12.4 reference sources of information accurately.

12.1 WORKPLACE RESEARCH Well-researched and presented data provides evidence for managers, supervisors, team leaders and others in the work environment to use in decision making. Organisations require valid conclusions and recommendations based on evidence to inform a range of organisational, business and team plans and objectives. Useful information is available in: • written material such as referrals, client files and other file records • recruitment applications and other forms • workplace health and safety (WHS) statistics, incidents and safety management plans • production plans, marketing plans, team, business and strategic plans • government websites such as the Australian Bureau of Statistics and Geoscience Australia. Research is used to identify the internal strengths and weaknesses of the organisation, and the external opportunities and threats facing the organisation serve as a similar source of information. Research also informs the organisation’s decision making and improves its resilience and sustainability. Exhibit 12.1 identifies a range of different reasons for gathering, analysing and presenting research in the work environment.

EXHIBIT 12.1 Purpose of research and analysis Type

Purpose

Comparative analysis is a comparison of performance

To compare two or more comparable alternatives, processes, products, sets of data or systems; for example, compare the mortality of women due to smoking between 2010 and 2025 and the mortality of men due to smoking between 2010 and 2025

Hypothesis testing uses sample data to evaluate the credibility of an inference about a population

To choose between two competing hypotheses about the value of a population parameter; for example, one hypothesis might claim that the general health of rural and urban Australians is equal, while the alternative might claim that the general health of rural Australians is lower than urban Australians

Identification of trends

To collect information and attempt to find a pattern or trend; for example, to detect emerging trends in a financial statement’s items over several months

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Type

Purpose

Industry pricing policies collect information about trends and actions by competitors

To gain insight into changes in the pricing policy and product or service of competitors and respond appropriately; for example, competitors may set a low price to increase market share or sell optional extras with a product to maximise turnover (e.g. the electronics industry)

Process mapping visually depicts the sequence of events in building a product or providing a service

To create a workflow diagram that streamlines work by providing a clear understanding of a process or series of parallel processes – additional information may include cycle time, inventory and other information

Situational diagnosis or SWOT analysis (strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats)

To identify external opportunities and threats facing the organisation and the internal strengths and weaknesses of the organisation

STEPS IN THE RESEARCH PROCESS Follow the process illustrated in Exhibit 12.2 to gather, analyse and draw conclusions relevant to your research objective. Follow the four steps in the process to increase your chances of developing a reliable argument and making valid conclusions and recommendations based on evidence.

EXHIBIT 12.2 The research and analysis process Define

Collect

Analyse and evaluate

Present

Step one: Define your purpose, objectives and criteria

Start by clearly defining the purpose of your research, the primary objective and the criteria against which the information you collect will be evaluated. Decide the essential questions that must be answered to achieve your objective. If there are Information from primary and secondary sources too many questions to answer in the timeframe and the project budget, redefine your objective to narrow the focus. Research objectives may relate to: • financial performance, business planning and service provision Information against defined criteria • people management, organisational values and behaviours • marketing, customer service, flexibility and sustainability • interpersonal communication, team building and workplace Findings, conclusions and recommendations diversity • work procedures, quality assurance and safety management manuals. Before you begin collecting information, check that your objective and approach will meet your audience’s needs. Will they be required to make decisions on the basis of your findings, or are they just gathering information? Will your audience read every detail of the research, or will they only read a summary, conclusions or recommendations? Research purpose, objectives and criteria

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CHAPTER 12 / Analyse and present research information

Step two: Find sources of information As you research sources of information, distinguish between facts, opinions, beliefs and prejudice. Analyse the point of view presented in any secondary source to determine whether it is based on fact or opinion. A fact can be determined to be true, whereas an opinion is a judgement, viewpoint or belief. Collect information from a variety of primary and secondary sources. Primary and secondary sources of information are discussed in the next section of this chapter.

Step three: Analyse and evaluate information The purpose of your analysis and evaluation of the collected information is to present an argument based on your findings. An effective argument is underpinned by critical thinking. Critical thinking activities include: • identifying assumptions • making connections between ideas • asking questions and challenging ideas • forming opinions and arguments • drawing inferences and making generalisations • problem solving, evaluating and weighing up • analysing and classifying, comparing and contrasting • questioning and judging the validity of the source of information. Check for evidence that verifies assertions and that reasoning and conclusions are linked to the evidence. An argument is a claim or assertion that may be believed or disbelieved. The position taken in the argument is the starting point for presenting a convincing case. A convincing argument is sound, thoughtful and coherent and appeals to the reader’s open mind and judgement. An argument has intent; that is, to convince or persuade the reader to accept its claims. A convincing argument has three identifiable parts. 1. a clear assertion or claim 2. evidence on which the claim is made 3. reasoning and conclusion(s) linked to evidence. Create a convincing argument by: • analysing and evaluating the collected information (your evidence) • developing a position based on your analysis • double-checking the evidence to verify your position • choosing a starting point for your argument • substantiating your position by developing the argument and relating your conclusion(s) clearly to your research objective. Analysis and argument based on accurate, relevant evidence supported with statistics or other verifiable data are the most credible. Link the evidence with your conclusions and the actions you are suggesting in the recommendations. Build a reputation for reliability by keeping your argument and conclusions free of unsubstantiated opinions and bias.

Collect relevant information and be willing to discard irrelevancies.

Apply critical thinking to consider possible viewpoints and results in interpretation, analysis and evaluation of evidence.

Show the relationship between the evidence and conclusion(s) as you present an argument.

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Step four: Present findings, conclusions and recommendations Look for central themes and connecting ideas that relate to your argument, conclusions and recommendations. Define and explain your criteria for evaluation clearly and concisely so that your readers can weigh up the evidence for themselves. As you present a particular issue and reason it through, keep all your arguments about it in one place. If you find that you come back to it after two or three paragraphs’ discussion of another issue, reorganise your arguments so that they are all together and coherent. Present both the advantages and disadvantages to give balance to your work and include all relevant information, even if it is unpleasant or against your point of view. Selective information can be misleading as it presents only the information that suits your point of view. Investigate all the issues involved and highlight the relationships between ideas. List any alternative solutions and show clearly and concisely why you have chosen a particular solution. Make the propositions or recommendations that you hope will lead to action. A useful order of information to present your findings is suggested in Exhibit 12.3.

EXHIBIT 12.3 Outline following the indirect order of information Begin by: Presenting the opportunity, problem or issue your research will address

Example: XYZ organisation is dissatisfied with the service delivery of DEF, the company currently supplying XYZ with stationery

Defining your research objective

Example: To determine the benefits of XYZ changing from DEF to another stationery supplier

Identifing your evaluation criteria

Example: Cost, availability, delivery times, responsiveness to queries, billing and payment periods

Main body – to include: Describing of your research methods

Example: Collection of information from six different suppliers. Information to be gathered from online survey of the six different suppliers’ webpage advertising, interviews with different suppliers, sales representatives, analysis of six suppliers’ price lists, searching records of the delivery times achieved by the existing supplier over the last 12 months, trial of delivery times from each of the six suppliers over a two-week period

Describing of your analysis and evaluation methods

Example: Analysis of online survey results of suppliers’ claims on their webpages, analysis of the responses to the questions gathered in the interview with the sales representatives from each of the six suppliers and evaluation against the identified criteria, comparison of prices on the suppliers’ price lists, calculation of the average delivery times of existing supplier over a two-week period and comparison to the trial of delivery times for each of the six suppliers over a two-week period

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CHAPTER 12 / Analyse and present research information

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Presenting an argument based on your findings

Example: Compare the data and findings from each of the six potential suppliers with the service level from DEF, the existing stationery supplier, identify strengths and weaknesses of each supplier based on the evidence, propose a course of action and objectively describe the benefits, costs and risk (if any)

Finish by: Presenting your conclusion(s) based on the evidence

Example: Relate your course of action directly to the opportunity and the objective you defined in the beginning section, explain the conclusion and alternative courses of action such as changing suppliers to the most cost-effective. Another option would be to change suppliers to the one with the fastest delivery times

Finish by: Making recommendation(s) based on your conclusions

Example: Present a course of action in the recommendations such as: 1. that XYZ change suppliers from DEF company to NEW company over the next three months 2. that by the end of the first month all standard items of stationery will be ordered from NEW company 3. that by the end of the third month all stationery materials customised to XYZ’s standards will be ordered from NEW company 4. that after six months, the benefits and costs (if any) of changing to NEW company will be evaluated by XYZ’s purchasing officer.

Refer to Chapters 15–19 and 21 for strategies on presenting information in a format, style and structure appropriate to organisational requirements. Chapter 18 provides guidance on developing effective conclusions and recommendations.

COMMON MISTAKES IN RESEARCH Common mistakes in research include researching from too few resources or from resources that have no relevance to the research project’s objectives. Failure to clarify the primary objective can lead to a lack of focus and the consequent waste of time on irrelevancies. Another mistake is not checking evidence for relevance to your research objective, findings and conclusions. Focusing on the past instead of extending your research to what can be done in the present and future is another common mistake. Avoid exaggeration to support your view. Instead present a balanced, non-biased view. Jumping to conclusions and proposing solutions before gathering and analysing sufficient objective evidence to understand the problem clearly can lead to misleading results. While research from secondary sources (covered in the next section) is less expensive than original research, it is unlikely to match the researcher’s objectives exactly. Therefore, organisations are willing to invest time, effort and money into original research. The outcome from quality research and analysis is sustainable solutions, continuous improvement to processes and improved capability. 1. Explain the four steps in the research and analysis process. 2. Identify three parts of a convincing argument. 3. List common mistakes in research.

Avoid common mistakes in research.

CHECKPOINT 12.1

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FROM THEORY TO PRACTICE

Business information sources Business information is any information that helps a business develop a deeper understanding of its environment; as such, it is one of the most important resources a business has because it adds to knowledge and is vital for decision making. As noted by the online magazine Inc., because business information can be any information that helps build a picture of the internal and external factors that impact a business, it is defined more by context than content. Therefore, it’s important to understand that there are many varied sources of business information. These can range from information from customers, stakeholders, friends and vendors through to published sources such as newspapers, magazines, government statistics, survey results, technical or scientific studies, published research paper, database, directories and much more. Source: Inc. Business Information Sources, https://www.inc.com/encyclopedia/business-information-sources.html, viewed 15 November 18.

ASK YOURSELF: When looking at a wide range of sources of information, what criteria would you use to evaluate different sources of information? How would you distinguish between opinions, beliefs, prejudices and facts?

12.2 SOURCES OF INFORMATION Workplace research gathers information from a variety of sources. For example, computer databases, client databases, subscription databases and other catalogues on the internet and in libraries contain information about past decisions and events. Files of correspondence, such as letters, memos, short reports, emails and other documents and digital materials, contain information suitable to research purposes. Other sources include: • service delivery records and sales records such as monthly forecasts, invoices from suppliers and invoices to debtors • monthly, quarterly and annual financial figures • insurance forms, membership forms, licence agreements, employment agreements, contracts for services • marketing reports, plans and budgets • production targets, maintenance figures, weekly safety checklists • personnel records (personal details, salary rates) and information on training needs. For businesses to compete they require up-to-date, accurate information to inform decision making. Coles, for example, took ownership of Australia’s oldest and biggest loyalty program, the 10-millionstrong FlyBuys Cardholder scheme. Full ownership allows Coles to research the customer data held on the FlyBuys cards. Access to data such as spending patterns and individual preferences allows Coles to better meet the preferences of its customers. Analysis of the data enables Coles to identify trends and plan to meet future customer preferences. Refer to Chapter 5, Organise workplace information, for a description of the stages of the information life cycle – collection of data and creation of information relevant to purpose and user needs, organisation and storage of information in an appropriate format, using, sharing and disposing of information. To help evaluate source materials, they can be classified in primary and secondary sources.

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CHAPTER 12 / Analyse and present research information Primary source materials provide original information for others to use in research, problem solving and decision making. Secondary sources of information are people, groups or organisations that describe, interpret, analyse and evaluate the primary sources. When using information in your research, it is essential you evaluate the credibility of each source for honesty and reliability, lack of bias, purpose of the material, credibility of the author, where the source found the information, whether the material can be verified independently, whether it is current, whether it is complete and whether the source’s claims stand up to scrutiny.

Access primary sources to present original thinking, new ideas and discoveries. Gather information from reliable secondary sources.

PRIMARY SOURCES Primary information is collected from a variety of sources: for example, interviews, diaries, artwork, poems and records that provide firsthand accounts or evidence of historical events. Published primary sources include autobiographies, documentary history books, interviews in contemporary newspapers, and government reports. Exhibit 12.4 presents a summary of four techniques you can use to gather original information – observations, experiments, files and records and professional associations. Another five techniques – focus groups, interviews and surveys, internet and intranet (webpage) surveys, product sampling and searching subscription databases are discussed in the paragraphs following. Before you comment on and present evidence collected from primary sources, check it for accuracy and objectivity.

EXHIBIT 12.4 Primary sources of information Source

Strategy

Observation to collect and evaluate information

Observe the event several times. Check that it is a typical event, not an unusual one. Interpret observations objectively to ensure your conclusions are justified.

Experiment to carry out a trial operation or test to find out how something works

Explore alternatives. For example, if you want a better office layout improve workstation design, seating, desks, workbenches and storage systems. Then ask experts such as WHS officers to assess the results. Offer these as evidence to support conclusions and recommendations.

Files and records to collect information on a particular industry or company

Research from an organisation’s internal records gathers current and background information from office files and records concerning people, equipment, procedures, customer contacts and technologies. Follow up any other sources relevant to your objectives.

Professional associations to gather professional information

Contact professional associations, their support services, trade associations or trade unions. As you interview, question, listen and record findings. Interview your own colleagues, clients and other professional contacts.

Focus groups Original data and evidence may be collected from focus groups. Focus groups gather opinions, beliefs, and attitudes about an issue, test your assumptions and encourage discussion about the topic, product or service. A focus group comprising members of other organisations, the community, colleagues, customers and other stakeholders allows you to gather information about a specific issue. A focus group should be small enough to allow each member to respond to questions and express a viewpoint. A typical focus group usually includes eight to 12 people. A focus group must have a facilitator who is able to guide the participants through a 90-minute to two-hour session. The facilitator asks open-ended questions to explore the topic of interest. The group 303 Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202

THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK members respond to each question and a discussion ensues. The focus group technique enables you to research and collect information about the members’ perceptions, opinions, beliefs and attitudes towards a product, service, concept, advertisement, packaging or the introduction of a new idea.

Interviews and surveys Interviews and surveys of employees, customers and other target groups are more structured than a focus group. Interviews allow you to collect accurate and up-to-date information through observation, listening and questioning. For example, information may be collected about the attitudes of employees to a proposed change or what the client wants from an existing or new service. Data collection may occur through a personal interview, telephone interview, mail survey, email survey or a computer-direct interview. Computer-direct interviews enable the respondent to enter their answers directly into a computer located in a mall, at a trade show or in a company’s front office. In the planning stage, determine your objectives, prepare the questions and their order of presentation. Then conduct the interview by asking questions and recording the answers. Analyse, evaluate and compile the results. Questionnaires and surveys gather facts and information for a defined objective. Plan questions that focus on your subject and objective. Create the survey to gather valid information from small groups, larger organisations or the community. Then distribute and collect the survey or questionnaire. Extract, compile and analyse the information.

Internet and intranet (webpage) surveys Surveys on the internet and intranets are popular because of their speed and low cost. Internet and intranet surveys can use colour, show pictures and play video and sound. A questionnaire posted on a popular website may receive many responses within a few hours. Webpage surveys are useful when the target group consists almost entirely of internet users – for example, business-to-business research and employee attitude surveys.

Key steps in an interview or survey The key steps in collecting data via any type of interview or survey method are to: 1. establish the goals – what you want to learn 2. decide the sample – who you want to interview or survey 3. choose the method of data collection – interview or survey or a combination of both 4. develop the questions – what you will ask 5. pre-test the questions – do the questions link to the goals? 6. conduct the interview or survey – ask questions and enter the data 7. analyse the data – report the results.

Product sampling Use product sampling to gather qualitative information about customer’s perceptions.

Any organisation needs information about changes in customer needs, competitors’ pricing policies, attitudes to WHS and other factors. One way of collecting this information is product sampling, accompanied by surveys of the sample groups. The organisation gives away products at events, in supermarkets or letter-box drops so customers can try them out. The purpose is to increase awareness of the product and to collect information about customers’ perceptions of the product’s benefits, distinctiveness and other characteristics. Good qualitative

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CHAPTER 12 / Analyse and present research information information collected from interviews and surveys about customers’ perceptions of the sampled products enables: • appropriate responses to changes in consumer tastes as demand for some products decline and others become more popular • timely planning for changes in regional, national or international economic conditions • the introduction of new products and processes, such as the introduction of online customer support.

SECONDARY SOURCES As described earlier, secondary sources of information are people, groups or organisations that describe, interpret, analyse and evaluate the primary sources. Those who review, comment on and write about the events, activities and evidence supplied by primary sources prepare the secondary sources of information. These secondary sources are published and stored after events have taken place. Libraries have special expertise in collecting and storing information on many different subjects in a form that makes it easy to find. Libraries are an invaluable source of secondary information. Their services are available to the public, though some are limited to library members. Exhibit 12.5 provides examples of library-based secondary sources of information and their purpose.

EXHIBIT 12.5 Secondary sources of information – library resources Source

Purpose

Library catalogues (databases and online computer information systems)

To provide indexing and abstracting tools to locate primary and secondary sources of information. Catalogues list all the information in a library’s reference sources (fiction and nonfiction books, reference books, periodicals, journals, newspapers and audiovisual material). Use catalogues to search by subject, author, title, or keywords in online computer information systems and on microfiche

Periodicals and journals

To find periodicals and journals relevant to your topic, use the library’s periodical index. Search by keyword the specialised Australian Public Affairs Information Service (APAIS) subject index to current literature on the humanities and social sciences to find all the current literature related to your keyword

Audiovisual and other services

To view videos and films such as the National Film and Sound Archive. Consider information stored in teletext and videotext form

Archives (historic and public information)

To research information about past events to help explain current problems or successes (for example, why a market share is declining), or to assess a situation and help predict what may happen in the future (for example, the impact of a price change)

Current information

To locate current information via newspapers, magazines, television, radio and film. Study the mass media critically. Separate and identify facts from opinions, keep notes and supply full source references in your essay, project or report to acknowledge the author, speaker, film and so on

Online searching The internet offers researchers a universally accessible network of low-cost and speedy communication and publication tools and resources. A search engine is able to find pages of information from secondary sources on any server anywhere in the world, and can index those pages. By typing in keywords you can locate a list of the pages that 305 Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202

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Use keywords to find relevant information on the Web.

contain the keywords. Any researcher who wants to find information on the Web will need to choose a search engine. It is worth trying several because each search engine’s coverage, ease of use, currency, authority, loading time and way of finding information varies. Google, for example, has detailed search information and easily modified search requirements for images, videos, maps, news, books and more. Suppose, for example, you made a general search for ‘coffee and health’. Google allows you to do an advanced search by ‘all these words’, ‘this exact word or phrasing’ ‘one or more of these words’, ‘but don’t show pages that have’ and many other parameters. All search engines do the same thing – search according to keywords – but the way each one presents information is probably a matter of personal choice. The search engine lets you refine your search to increase or decrease the number of responses to your search request. An effective search engine lets you easily modify your search and choose from a wide range of relevant topics. Exhibit 12.6 identifies some potential problems to avoid when using material from the internet.

EXHIBIT 12.6 Material on the internet – potential problems What to look for

Potential problem

Accuracy and completeness

Some internet resources may be inaccurate. While many are reliable and credible, some are not. Often, only selections of articles and documents are available on the internet, with the requirement to access the full text in published form.

Fair use rather than illegal use

Verify material is copyright protected (articles, books, film, music and other postings online) because copyrighted material cannot be incorporated into commercial-use documents without gaining permission from the copyright holder (and perhaps paying a fee). Always avoid offensive material of any kind.

Quality

Traditional magazine or journal articles are usually reviewed by either an editorial board or peer reviewers; however, this is not the case for all articles on the internet. Check the quality of the information in an online document.

Confidentiality and privacy

Access information responsibly and without interfering with the rights of others to confidentiality and privacy of personal and corporate information. Any breach of confidentiality or privacy has legal consequences.

Subscription databases are useful sources of information because the information is organised and stable with each record identifying and briefly describing the item. The database’s subject headings and descriptors allow users to search for keywords in specific fields, such as author and title. The user can also use various criteria to limit the search results. Three examples of databases are Factiva, which provides a global news database including licensed publications, influential websites, blogs, images and videos; Annual Reports Collection, containing annual reports for all companies listed on the ASX; and Passport, which contains over a million demographic, economic and marketing statistics for more than 106 countries worldwide.

Bookmarking Once researchers find their areas of interest, it is good practice to bookmark the site. The bookmark menu allows the user to easily return to the site directly. Bookmarks can be ordered into a hierarchy of folders according to your areas of interest – for example, a folder labelled ‘Folk music’ will contain all sites about folk music that have been bookmarked. This folder could then be subdivided into ‘Celtic

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CHAPTER 12 / Analyse and present research information music’, ‘Bluegrass’ and ‘Blues’, and each of those subdirectories would contain the sites of interest in that category. Google Chrome refers to bookmarking as ‘favourites’. Favourites are organised into a hierarchical order of choice.

Evaluate credibility of sources Evaluate the information gathered from secondary sources to sort the good from the bad. Critical evaluation of the source material ensures you are able to use the material with confidence. Answer the following questions to evaluate the credibility of source information: • What is the purpose of the material – to inform, explain, persuade, sell, entice or share data and facts? • Does the writer have credibility – qualifications, experience, honesty and reliability? • Is the material current, complete and without bias? • Where did the source get their information – can it be independently verified? • Are the source’s claims, conclusions and recommendations supported by evidence?

Maintain your own credibility by documenting sources, giving appropriate credit and respecting the intellectual property and digital rights of others.

AVOID PLAGIARISM Academic institutions require their students to respect the intellectual property and digital rights of others. The words, ideas or discoveries of another used in any academic essay, report or paper must be acknowledged. Plagiarism and breach of intellectual property and digital rights are two major illegitimate uses of the ideas of others. Respect the intellectual property and digital rights of others. Their rights are protected by law.

Ethical principles By working in accordance with ethical principles as you research and find information in your studies and business career, you build a reputation as someone to know and respect in your field of work. Ethical behaviour includes truthfulness, fairness and respect for the privacy of personal information. Accurate and complete attribution demonstrates respect for intellectual property and complies with copyright legislation. Refer to Chapter 14 for information on ethical business writing. In your studies, academic honesty is essential. Refer to your institution’s Student Handbook for the acceptable standards of conduct and the conduct the institute or college views as unacceptable. Attention to academic honesty improves not only your writing but also your reputation and credibility. Citations and referencing (discussed later in this chapter) show the extent of your research and your capacity to present ideas, paraphrase, develop an argument, evaluate and balance viewpoints. Pay attention to detail and avoid: • plagiarising (copying from a source without acknowledgement) • making errors in paraphrasing or citation • using the same paper for two different assignments without permission • buying, selling or borrowing someone else’s essay, project or other work • obstructing or interfering with another person’s work intentionally • cheating by submitting other people’s work as your own in assessments, group projects and work placement • breaching copyright for print and electronic materials. The process of attributing and citing sources as you analyse, evaluate, agree, disagree or modify existing knowledge is essential. Notation and the creation of a list of references or bibliography are described in Section 12.4 of this chapter.

Demonstrate intellectual honesty.

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CHECKPOINT 12.2

1. Accessing information: a. What steps can you take to ensure you gather reliable information efficiently? b. What are the characteristics of credible sources of information? c. What are the likely problems if you do not comply with your organisation’s security and confidentiality requirements as you access sources of information? 2. Describe a recent experience you have had with product sampling by: a. naming the company that gave you the product sample b. identifying their purpose in giving you the product sample c. describing how they gathered information about your perceptions of the product sampled. 3. Assume that the local council has commissioned your consultancy firm to compile a report titled ‘Beach-front amenities and developments: Council’s responsibilities’. The finished report is to be presented to local resident action groups. a. Name three organisations that could provide information for your initial researching stage. b. Are these primary or secondary sources of information?

12.3 WORKING WITH QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE DATA Present quantitative data in a format appropriate to your audience.

Look for consistent patterns in qualitative data.

The purpose of data collection and analysis is the discovery of new information. When the information is verified, it becomes accepted as new knowledge to be incorporated into decision making. Two broad types of data are qualitative data and quantitative data. Quantitative data can be measured and verified. It is often collected in experiments, manipulated and analysed statistically. Some examples of quantitative data include exact counts (for example, of traffic flows on an expressway) or measurements (for example, the temperature at a specific location at a specific time). Quantitative data can be represented visually in graphs, histograms, tables and charts. Refer to Chapter 13, Communicate using graphics and visual aids, for a variety of ways to present quantitative information visually. Qualitative data is information that describes things in terms of categorisations or qualities. Examples of quantitative data are field notes and the minutes of meetings. The information in the field notes and meeting minutes are the reported interpretations of the field officer or the meeting secretary. Qualitative methods of data collection gather information that is difficult to obtain with quantitative methods. Qualitative methods of research apply inductive reasoning to find patterns through the generation, or testing, of hypotheses. (Inductive reasoning is described later in this chapter.) The outcome from quantitative and qualitative data analysis such as data sampling, statistical analysis, feedback on results, peer review and review of previous research is reliable, verifiable evidence.

INTERPRET FINDINGS Deduce or reason from a general idea to a specific point or conclusion (cause to effect).

Research and analysis require you to use your reasoning skills. Two broad approaches to reasoning are deductive thinking and inductive thinking.

Deductive reasoning Deductive reasoning works from the more general to the more specific. The researcher begins by thinking up a theory about the research topic of interest. The topic of interest is narrowed down into specific hypotheses designed to test the credibility of the theory about the research topic. Then data is

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CHAPTER 12 / Analyse and present research information collected and analysed to test the validity of the hypotheses. The research results either confirm or dismiss the original theory. Deductive reasoning is concerned with testing or confirming hypotheses. An argument using deductive logic: • applies general principles to reach specific conclusions • enables predictions to be made about future events • leads to false conclusions when the original idea or premise is incorrect • enables fast decision making on the basis of experience and existing knowledge.

Make inferences based upon observed patterns – from specific to the more general.

Inductive reasoning Inductive reasoning works the other way, moving from the specific to the more general. The researcher begins with specific observations and measures. Then, as patterns and regularities emerge, some tentative hypotheses are formed. The researcher analyses and evaluates the hypotheses against the observed patterns and regularities (or irregularities). Then general conclusions are drawn on the basis of the evidence. Inductive reasoning is open-ended and exploratory. An argument based on inductive logic: • examines specific information to derive a general principle • creates predictive models of truth based on personal observation and experience • allows for sampling of a large target audience to save time and money • produces wrong conclusions about the target population if the sampling methodology is weak • invites over-generalisation, particularly if the data contradict the researcher’s idea or premise.

Common errors in reasoning Clear reasoning, an open mind and a logical approach to the analysis and investigation of the questions, issues and evidence lead to valid and reliable conclusions. Faulty reasoning leads to invalid and unreliable conclusions. Some examples of faulty reasoning are: • confusing opinions or assumptions with facts and making statements that depend on your own experience, values and beliefs rather than verifiable evidence • confusion of ‘some’ with ‘all’, by making too broad a generalisation that needs qualification • oversimplification by proposing very simple solutions and answers to difficult and complex issues • appeals to questionable authority by citing an authority without the required expertise to support the argument and conclusion • wishful thinking by making the faulty assumption that because we wish ‘A’ were true or false, then ‘B’ is indeed true or false • red herring by presenting an irrelevant topic that diverts attention from the original issue to help win an argument by shifting attention and the argument to another issue.

DATA SAMPLING Reliable findings from data sampling are dependent on the selection of a group that is typical or representative of the population you are researching. A representative sample is a small group of people that are varied enough to represent a larger group, such as retail customers of a specific city. Some of the factors to consider when using the data sampling method are: • the objectives of the research • how to select a random sample of the larger group • which method to use to gather and analyse the data (survey, questionnaire, interview or other).

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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK Collect unbiased data by choosing a random sample that represents the total population. While a sample will not provide the same level of accuracy as a survey of every single member of a group, a randomly selected representative sample provides data that is more manageable and easier to process. Decisions about the sample size are based on factors such as: • time available • budget • necessary degree of precision • administrative concerns such as the complexity of the survey or questionnaire design.

STATISTICAL ANALYSIS Present concise, clear and objective interpretations from statistical analysis.

Statistical analysis is a method of making decisions based on data that has been analysed for accuracy, objectivity and relevance. The purpose of statistical analysis is to increase the conciseness, clarity and objectivity with which data is collected, analysed, interpreted and presented. Statistical thinking applied to day-to-day activities leads to new knowledge and continuous improvement. Statistical analysis bases decisions on more than personal opinion or belief. Decisions are based on objective data that is transformed into verifiable facts and knowledge. The field of statistics is divided into two major areas – inferential statistics and descriptive statistics. 1. Inferential statistics uses mathematical methods such as hypothesis testing and probability theory to analyse and draw conclusions about a sample group representative of a population. Inferences are then made about the characteristics or general principles of the population from which the sample group was drawn. Inferential statistics enable the researcher to draw inferences and make predictions. 2. Descriptive statistics uses mathematical methods (such as mean, median and standard deviation) to analyse and interpret some of the properties of the sample data only without making inferences about the population from which the sample was drawn. Descriptive statistics applies measures of central tendency and measures of variability to the data sample only. Inferential statistics and descriptive statistics are concerned with the precision and reliability of the analysis, findings and conclusions. Refer to Joseph Healey’s text (2015) for further information about ‘understanding the role of statistics in research and the logic by which we attempt to answer research questions empirically’.

PEER REVIEW Use peer review to gather feedback about your research methods and findings.

Peer review is a formal process of gathering feedback about your research project from others with qualifications, experience and expertise. Feedback from peers is sought because peers can identify each other’s errors and suggest corrections quickly and easily. Peer review evaluates your research and analysis to: • verify whether the research project meets its objectives and satisfies other specific criteria • identify any deviations from the criteria and other standards • provide feedback and suggestions for improvements.

FEEDBACK ON RESULTS OF RESEARCH Validate the reliability of research methods, data analysis, findings, conclusions and recommendations.

Feedback is gathered either formally or informally from colleagues, customers, suppliers and other stakeholders to provide their various perspectives and insights into your findings. A useful informal feedback discussion focuses on: • how well the research achieved its objectives • the validity of the findings • what will be sustained or improved as a result of the research • the upcoming opportunities to flow from the research.

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CHAPTER 12 / Analyse and present research information

Informal discussion Follow this process to gather the feedback in an informal discussion: • Initiate the discussion at an appropriate time and place and use good factual information that focuses on the research’s findings. • Be prepared to discuss likely outcomes from the research and acknowledge and discuss perceived problems raised by the other person. • Explain any benefits, outline proposed actions and let the person know if you are thinking about incorporating their ideas. • Conclude by thanking the person for taking the time to discuss the research findings and their perceptions with you. Candid feedback and insights from others about research findings are critical to improved decision making and performance.

REVIEW OF PREVIOUS RESEARCH Review of previous research held in books, scholarly articles, conference proceedings, survey results, statistics, case studies, company reports or questionnaires about a particular issue provides valuable information. Similar to other methods of analysing data, a review of previous research moves through the four stages shown in Exhibit 12.7. Review of previous research seeks to identify information and ideas relevant to your objective. If others have already gathered, analysed and drawn conclusions relevant to your objective, reference to their work will save time, increase your knowledge and prevent ‘reinvention of the wheel’. Consider how the research material contributes to the understanding and development of your research project. Are the author’s arguments objective and supported by evidence? Does the material relate to your objectives and add value to your findings? Only incorporate into your discussions and findings previous research material relevant to your research objective. Feedback on results of research gathers information from stakeholders to validate the reliability of research methods, data analysis, findings, conclusions and recommendations. Candid feedback and insights from others about research findings are critical to improved decision making and performance.

EXHIBIT 12.7 Review previous research

1. Defining the objective

• What is my major research objective? • Are there any minor issues to examine?

2. Finding relevant research material

• Are the research materials and information relevant to the objective(s)? • Is the material useful?

3. Evaluating the reliability of previous research

• Does it make a significant contribution to the area I am researching?

4. Analysing and interpreting

• Does the inclusion of findings and conclusions from previous research add to my findings and conclusions?

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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK

CHECKPOINT 12.3

1. Inferential and descriptive statistics: a. Briefly describe the purpose of inferential statistics. b. Briefly describe the purpose of descriptive statistics. 2. Research data collection: a. When analysing data from questionnaires, interviews, focus groups, observations, experiments, product sampling or the internet (webpage surveys), what should be your starting point? b. On what does the level and scope of the report of your research findings depend? c. Identify common mistakes in research and briefly explain how to avoid them. 3. Data sampling: a. How can you ensure the findings from data sampling are reliable? b. How do you decide what kinds of people to interview (the target population)? c. How do you decide how many people you need to interview? d. What are the likely consequences of collecting information from a biased sample?

12.4 REFERENCE SOURCES OF INFORMATION When you have undertaken your research and evaluation, you: • reach conclusions and make recommendations (if required) about actions to take based on the evidence gathered • present your findings in a logical, readable format • avoid words that stereotype groups by sex, race, religion or any other factor • ensure spelling, sentence structure and punctuation are correct • use bullet points, tables and figures to enhance understanding • present the body of content in an unbiased, objective manner • organise the information into a logical structure with headings, sub-headings and numbered paragraphs (when required) to enhance readability. Refer to Chapter 14, Effective business writing, for further information on writing style.

ORDER OF INFORMATION Consider your research purpose, audience needs and your organisation’s requirements.

Before commencing your research, you considered your audience’s needs. Before you begin writing the research report, consider them again. If your reader is knowledgeable, supportive and likely to understand the conclusions without having to read the whole document, use the direct (or inductive) order of information – conclusions first, followed by recommendations, then the research objective and the body of your findings. When your audience needs to be informed and is not necessarily supportive until persuaded by your findings, use the indirect (or deductive) order of information – the research objective and introductory information, followed by the body of your findings and then the conclusions and recommendations. The indirect order of information encourages your audience to read the whole document and be persuaded by your findings and argument. Exhibit 12.7 provides an outline you can use to write up a workplace research project following the indirect order of information. Refer to Chapter 17, Write long reports, for information about how to write conclusions and recommendations.

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CHAPTER 12 / Analyse and present research information

ORGANISATIONAL REQUIREMENTS Different requirements an organisation may expect you to meet as you present research findings are shown in Exhibit 12.8. As you present information: • ensure you are complying with the intention of your organisation’s code of conduct, code of ethics and the goals and objectives identified in business, operational and performance plans • consider risk management, WHS and anti-discrimination policies, programs, procedures and processes • work in accordance with information protocols and procedures and within defined resource and quality assurance parameters. An essential requirement is to distribute and report research findings through the appropriate management and accountability channel. Another is to ensure the security of any confidential information. Always conform to legal and organisational requirements.

EXHIBIT 12.8 Organisational requirements Quality assurance procedures and manuals

Management and accountability channels

Anti-discrimination and related policy

Risk management policies and procedures

Information protocols and procedures

Business and performance plans

Organisational requirements

Goals, objectives, plans and processes

WHS policies, procedures and programs

Defined resource parameters

Code of conduct and code of ethics

Security and confidentiality requirements

Legal guidelines and requirements

Refer to Chapters 16, Write short reports, and Chapter 17, Write long reports, for further information on structuring and formatting reports. Refer to the Research Methods Knowledge Base at http://www.socialresearchmethods.net for further information and an example of how to write up a research report.

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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK

NOTATION IN THE DOCUMENT

Use accurate notation to acknowledge sources.

When presenting your research findings in reports, other workplace documents and assignments, you must acknowledge information you have obtained from primary and secondary sources and provide the complete reference details of each source. The source of information must be documented to avoid plagiarism. This includes sources for quotations and factual statements derived from the work(s) of another author (or group). References (or citations) acknowledging your information sources are presented by using some form of systematic notation. Notation can be inserted at three different places in the document: 1. as a citation in the text (the author–date system) 2. as a footnote at the bottom of the page 3. as an endnote placed at the end of the document but before the list of references or bibliography.

Citation in the text Exhibit 12.9 illustrates what is meant by citation in the text, i.e. the author–date (Harvard) reference system.

EXHIBIT 12.9 The author–date (Harvard) system of reference notation The author–date (or Harvard) system is widely accepted because it is easy to use and economical in terms of time and space. When you refer to someone else’s work in the body of your writing, identify it by giving the author’s name and the year of publication – for example (Healey 2015). It can also be useful to give the page numbers – for example, (Healey 2015, pp. 30–2). In the list of references at the end of the document, provide full publication details of the works cited – author’s surname and initial/s or given name/s, year of publication, title, publisher and place of publication – for example: • Healey, Joseph. F. 2015. The Essentials of Statistics: A Tool for Social Research, 4th edn, Cengage Learning, Boston, MA.

Footnotes The footnote system of reference notation is a sequentially numbered system using superscripts. Superscripts are small numbers placed in the text slightly above the line, at the end of a word or the end of a sentence. The traditional placement of a footnote is at the bottom of the page. However, it is easier to place the footnote reference at the end of the document – unless you are using a word-processing program that can insert footnotes correctly at the bottom of each page and keep the footnotes in the right place as you move the text around.

Endnotes Number your endnotes in sequence throughout your document and list the matching endnotes in the same numerical order at the end of the document, before the list of references, as shown in Exhibit 12.10. For more about notation, see the Style Manual for Authors, Printers and Editors cited in the bibliography at the end of this chapter.

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CHAPTER 12 / Analyse and present research information

EXHIBIT 12.10 The note (or traditional) system of reference notation for footnotes and endnotes For a footnote or endnote, the information required for the first reference to a work is the same as that required for the author–date system list of references, but presented in a slightly different order: the note number is followed by the author’s initials or given name and surname, title, publisher, place of publication, year of publication and page number/s. • Paul R. Timm, Customer Service: Career Success Through Customer Loyalty, 6th revised edn, Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ, 2013. Second and subsequent references to a source do not have to be as detailed as the first reference to it. The simplest way is to abbreviate them; for example: • Timm, p. 66. Because full publication details are given in the notes, a list of references at the end of the document is optional, though advisable.

Check the system of notation preferred by your instructor, employer or organisation. If no particular method is preferred, use your own judgement about how to organise your references.

A LIST OF REFERENCES OR BIBLIOGRAPHY The sources used in preparing a piece of writing should be listed at the conclusion of the work. This may be in the form of a bibliography or a list of references. A bibliography lists all sources consulted in preparing the work. A list of references details only those works cited in your writing (e.g. report or essay). These may include: • primary sources, such as focus groups, interviews or responses to surveys • secondary sources, such as books, journals, newspapers and government publications. In some cases, you may prefer (or be required) to present these listed separately – background reading and other relevant sources are sometimes presented under the heading ‘Further reading’ or a similar heading. Arrange your list of references or bibliography in alphabetical order by authors’ surnames, not by title. Be sure that all references are accurate and consistent. There are two main methods of presenting a list of references or a bibliography: one is the author– date (Harvard) reference system, the other is the note (traditional) reference system. The main difference between the two is the order in which they present information. Both methods use the same presentation for a bibliography and for a list of references. Both methods are shown in Exhibit 12.11.

EXHIBIT 12.11 Compiling a list of references or bibliography 1. The author–date (Harvard) method

2. The note (traditional) method

Information is presented in the following order: Books • Author’s surname and initials or first name • Year of publication • Title of book in italics • Name of publisher • Place of publication

Information is presented in the following order: Books • Author’s surname and initials or first name • Title of book in italics • Name of publisher • Place of publication • Year of publication

> 315

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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK

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1. The author–date (Harvard) method

2. The note (traditional) method

Examples Engleberg, Isa N. & Wynn, Dianna R. 2012. Working in Groups, 6th edn, Pearson, Upper Saddle River, N.J. Armstrong, Gary. Adam, Stewart. Denize, Sara. Volkov, Michael & Kotler, Philip. 2017. Principles of Marketing, 7th edn, Pearson Education, Melbourne.

Examples Engleberg, Isa N. & Wynn, Dianna R. Working Groups, 6th edn, Pearson, Upper Saddle River, N.J., 2012. Armstrong, Gary. Adam, Stewart. Denize, Sara. Volkov, Michael & Kotler, Philip. Principles of Marketing, 7th edn, Pearson Education, Melbourne, 2017.

Articles • Author’s surname followed by initials or first name • Year of publication • Title of article in single quotation marks • Title of journal in italics • Volume number and issue number, if applicable • Page number(s)/s Example Bailey, Michael, 2018, ‘Cuts to boost rare earth prices’, Financial Review, 30 April, p. 10.

Articles • Author’s surname followed by initial or first name • Title of article in single quotation marks • Title of journal in italics • Volume number and issue number, if applicable • Date of publication • Page number/s(s) Example Bailey, Michael, ‘Cuts to boost rare earth prices’, Financial Review, 30 April 2018, p. 10.

Note that, in both methods, references are listed in alphabetical order. Careful documentation assists your reader and adds to your credibility as a writer. The authority followed here is the Style Manual for Authors, Editors and Printers (see the bibliography at the end of this chapter).

Referencing or sourcing online information The formats and examples given here offer models for online references that are in the bibliography of a business writer’s research paper, assignment or report. For print material downloaded from the internet and online sources, most Australian students follow the traditional (note) method or Harvard method of referencing and add the uniform resource locator (URL) details. For American students, the MLA Style Guide is one of the most popular methods. It is best to ask your lecturer which style is preferred. The style shown in Exhibit 12.12 follows the note (traditional) reference method.

EXHIBIT 12.12 Example of a list of references or bibliography for online materials, using the note (traditional) reference method Books online

Journal article online

1. Author’s surname and initials or first name 2. Publication information for printed source (if available): • title of book in italics • name of publisher • place of publication • year of publication 3. Publication medium online 4. Name and repository of the electronic text, if applicable 5. URL 6. Access date

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

Author’s surname followed by initials or first name Title of article in single quotation marks Title of journal in italics Year of publication Volume number and issue number, if applicable Page number(s), if applicable Publication medium online URL Access date

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CHAPTER 12 / Analyse and present research information

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Books online

Journal article online

Example Vollaard, Ben A. Police Effectiveness Measurement and Incentives, RAND Publications, USA, 2006, online www.rand.org/pubs/ rgs_dissertations/RGSD200, viewed 1 May 2018.

Example Jing Shi, Chris Bilson, John G. Powell, & Julie Wigg, ‘Foreign direct investment and international stock market integration’, Australian Journal of Management, 2010, 35: pp. 265–90, online www.agsm.edu.au/eajm/current.html, viewed 27 February 2011.

Newspaper article online

Journal article on CD-ROM

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Example Maher, Sid, ‘Carbon tax fight turns to petrol’, The Weekend Australian, 26–27 February 2011 online. Available http:// theaustralian.newspaperdirect.com/epaper/viewer.aspx, viewed 27 February 2011.

1. Author’s surname followed by initials or first name 2. Title of article in single quotation marks 3. Title of journal in italics 4. Volume number and issue number, if applicable 5. Date of publication 6. Page number/s 7. Publication medium CD-ROM 8. Database name 9. File identifier or number, if applicable 10. Accession number, if applicable Example Zorn, Theodore E. & Violanti, Michelle T., ‘Communication abilities and individual achievement in organisations’, Management Communication Quarterly, vol. 10, no. 2, November 1996, pp. 139–67. CD-ROM Business Periodicals on Disc.

Personal electronic communication (email)

Online home page

1. Email communication from individuals should be cited as personal communication in the text only. Provide the initials as well as the surname of the communicator and supply as exact a date as possible. 2. Personal communications are not included in the reference list because they do not provide recoverable data.

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Author (if known) Article title Newspaper title Date Page (if available) Publication medium online Access date

Author/editor (if known) Title of page in single quotation marks Revision or copyright date (if available) Publication medium online Page publisher URL Access date

Example ABC Online, ‘Home Page’, , viewed 1 December 2018.

Online secondary page 1. Author/editor (if known) 2. Title of page 3. Revision or copyright date (if available) 4. Publication medium online 5. Page publisher 6. URL 7. Access date Example ABC Arts and Culture News, ‘Australia’s fanciest band camp assembles thanks to George Brandis’, http://www.abc.net.au/news/ arts-culture/, viewed 1 May 2018.

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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK

CHECKPOINT 12.4

1. Presenting information: a. What order of information would you use to present information to an audience who are knowledgeable, supportive and likely to understand your conclusions? b. What order of information would you use to present information to an uninformed and not necessarily supportive audience? 2. Educational institutions insist that a student’s work complies with the rules governing academic honesty and plagiarism. a. Why is it important to maintain your credibility as an honest and accurate writer? b. Research the site of an educational institution of your choice to find advice for students about academic honesty and plagiarism. c. Explain how you can be certain you have acknowledged sources fairly and avoided plagiarising. 3. Describe the likely penalties for breaches of the institution’s academic honesty and plagiarism policy.

LEARNING ACTIVITIES SUMMARY 12.1 Outline the reasons for researching and analysing information in the work environment and identify the steps in the research process as well as common mistakes. Effective decision making, problem solving, innovation and ongoing work tasks and processes depend on good information. Research and analysis in a work setting compares two or more comparable alternatives, chooses between two competing hypotheses, attempts to find a pattern or trend and provides insight into change. Workflows and processes are analysed to streamline work. The four steps are: define your purpose and objectives, gather information from primary and secondary sources, analyse and evaluate information against criteria, and present findings, conclusions and recommendations (if required). 12.2 Describe and identify primary and secondary sources of information. Primary sources spring from the activities of people or organisations. Primary research gathers original data to meet defined objectives. Secondary sources refer to and analyse information previously published by someone else. Information is collected from demographic data, production targets, service delivery records, financial figures, plans, budgets and reports, personnel records (personal details, salary

rates, outcomes from performance reviews), sales records and other targets and forecasts. 12.3 Analyse quantitative and qualitative data and interpret findings, draw conclusions and make recommendations supported by evidence. As you research you will collect quantitative and qualitative data by a variety of methods. Reliable methods include data sampling, statistical analysis, peer review, feedback on results of research and review of previous research. Analysis of the data may apply deductive reasoning – the act of reasoning from a general idea to a specific point or conclusion (or from cause to effect). Alternatively, analysis of the data may apply inductive reasoning – moving from the specific to the more general by making inferences based on specific observations and measures. Apply critical thinking as you analyse and evaluate the collected information. Develop your argument and conclusions on the basis of your findings. Check to ensure you include the three parts of a convincing argument. Analysis and argument based on accurate, relevant evidence supported with quantitative and qualitative verifiable data are the most credible. Valid evidence provides a logical justification for your reasoning and enables your audience to understand the

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CHAPTER 12 / Analyse and present research information

links between your claims and the action proposed in your conclusions and recommendations. 12.4 Reference sources of information accurately. Conform to organisational requirements as you structure, format and present your research findings. Acknowledge

your information sources in a list of references or bibliography. A bibliography lists all sources consulted, while a list of references only details those works cited in your report or essay.

KEY TERMS academic honesty argument author–date (Harvard) reference system belief bibliography bookmark citations critical thinking data sampling deductive reasoning digital rights

direct (or inductive) order of information endnotes fact feedback feedback on results of research focus groups footnotes indirect (or deductive) order of information inductive reasoning

intellectual property keywords list of references notation note (traditional) reference system opinion peer review plagiarism prejudice premise primary source

product sampling qualitative data quantitative data questionnaire search engine secondary source statistical analysis surveys validity

LEARNING ACTIVITIES 1. Work in groups of three a. Briefly describe the difference between primary and secondary sources of information. b. Give an example of each and describe its purpose. c. List three resources or services that libraries offer. d. Identify at least four potential problems to avoid when using material from the internet. e. Brainstorm to develop a list of causes of poor results from workplace research. f. Choose one of the causes of poor results and create a plan of action to prevent that cause in the future 2. Academic honesty is a key value of any educational institution a. What does the term ‘academic honesty’ mean? b. Find the penalties for plagiarism and other forms of academic dishonesty in your college or institution’s Student Handbook. c. Compile a list of four keywords (search terms) to find out more about how to quote, summarise or paraphrase someone else’s work. d. Using those keywords, use the library’s catalogues to source information from at least three different sources about how to avoid plagiarism. e. Where is the traditional placement of a footnote?

f. Where is an endnote placed? g. List the three items you found in part c of this question as a bibliography, using either the author–date method or the note method. h. Write a brief list of tips titled ‘Documenting sources of information correctly’ for students entering your course. Your introductory paragraph should define academic honesty. Your concluding paragraph should highlight the importance of avoiding plagiarism. 3. Write an email message to your colleague a. Prepare an email message to a colleague that outlines the steps required for conducting a search online. Use the following headings in the body of the message: • Pick the search engine • Learn how to use the search boxes on the site • Choose the keywords carefully • Widen and narrow the search • Use more than one search engine. b. Edit and forward your email. 4. Scenario: Plan your research Your manager, Melanie, asks you to research and analyse the possibility of introducing in-store Web-connected kiosks to give customers quick access to the hundreds of in-store items and many more that are available online. 319

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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK

Melanie asks you to present your research findings as a proposal she can present to the store’s Managing Director. While Melanie is knowledgeable about Web-connected kiosks, you know the Managing Director has a reputation for avoiding anything to do with the Web whenever possible. a. Draft an objective for your research. b. Identify the needs of your audience (those who will read the proposal).

c. You decide to use quantitative and qualitative data analysis. Choose two quantitative methods and two qualitative methods and briefly explain your reasons for using each method. d. You decide to gather feedback on the results of your research in an informal discussion before you present your proposal to Melanie. Outline the procedures you will follow to gather the feedback in an informal discussion.

GROUP ASSIGNMENT Work in small groups a. Discuss the purpose of the following research objectives: • comparative analysis • hypothesis testing • identification of trends • industry pricing policies • process mapping • situational diagnosis (SWOT analysis). b. Choose one of the research objectives and choose from the following research strategies the strategy or strategies suited to that research objective: • data analysis • documentation reviews

• focus groups • interviewing colleagues and clients • online searching • product sampling • subscription databases. c. Write a short briefing note explaining how to apply the research strategy or strategies you have chosen. The briefing note will become a file on your company’s Digital Workplace to be accessed anywhere, anytime by team members in head office and remote locations.

CASE STUDY ERGONOMIC TIPS TO IMPROVE OUR WORKSPACES Hannah, the local Health Area’s Occupational Therapist, has worked with many people who have damaged their body through poor ergonomic practices while working in clerical and administrative positions. The Area Health Service has requested that Hannah prepare a pamphlet titled ‘Ergonomic tips to improve our workspaces’ for distribution to all small businesses in the local community. Hannah accepts the task. Hannah begins collecting information from primary sources. She gets permission from a number of businesses to observe people in their work spaces. From her observations Hannah records these three tips in the pamphlet. 1. Rest your eyes Every 20 minutes, for 20 seconds, allow your eye muscles to rest by focusing on an object 20 feet (approximately 6 metres) away. People under normal

conditions blink 12 to 15 times a minute, while those reading on a screen blink only seven times a minute, so try to blink more. 2. Get up and move During your lunch break, take a short walk. Send your print jobs to a printer located away from your desk so that you have to get up and walk a short distance. Often change your posture to minimise fatigue. 3. Vary your position between sitting and standing Standing even occasionally, but preferably every 30 minutes, during your workday is good for your health. Stand during phone calls and vary your work activity or tasks where possible. Hannah decides to research from secondary sources online because she wants to know more about the correct

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CHAPTER 12 / Analyse and present research information

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use of office equipment such as monitors, lights, keyboards, chairs and document holders. However, Hannah realises she will need to evaluate the information gathered from secondary sources to sort the good from the bad. Critical evaluation of the source material will enable Hannah to determine the source’s credibility and thus use the material with confidence. Using credible sources to back up the tips in her pamphlet gives her professional credibility. Poor-quality information will be noticed by readers and adversely affect her reputation.

Questions 1. Write six questions for Hannah to use as she assesses the credibility of each source. 2. Research online to find the rest of the information for Hannah’s pamphlet using these six questions to ensure your information is credible. 3. Why is it essential to evaluate the information gathered? 4. Write the rest of the pamphlet for Hannah, including the ergonomic tips for the correct use of office equipment gathered from your research.

BIBLIOGRAPHY ABC Arts Online. 2018. Arts and Culture News, http:// www.abc.net.au/news/arts-culture/, viewed 1 May 2018. ABC Kids. 2018. Kids ABC, http://www.abc.net.au/abcforkids/, viewed 1 May 2018. Armstrong, Gary. Adam, Stewart. Denize, Sara. Volkov, Michael & Kotler, Philip. 2017. Principles of Marketing, 7th edn, Pearson Education, Melbourne. Australian Government Publishing Service. 2002. Style Manual for Authors, Editors and Printers, 6th edn, John Wiley and Sons, Milton, QLD. Delbridge, A. (ed.) 2009. The Macquarie Dictionary, 5th edn, Macquarie Library, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW. Flinders University. 2018. ‘Evaluating your sources’, Library Search Smart, http://flinders.libguides.com/evaluate, viewed 4 May 2018.

Healey, J.F. 2015. The Essentials of Statistics: A Tool for Social Research, 4th edn, Cengage Learning, Boston, MA. James Cook University. Library and Information Services. 2017. Primary, Secondary and Tertiary Sources, http:// libguides.jcu.edu.au/secondary, viewed 29 April 2018. training.gov.au. BSBRES401: Analyse and Present Research Information, https://training.gov.au/Training/Details/ BSBRES401, viewed 28 April 2018. Vollaard, B.A. 2006. Police Effectiveness Measurement and Incentives, RAND Publications, USA, online, http:// www.rand.org/pubs/rgs_dissertations/RGSD200, viewed 1 May 2018.

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COMMUNICATE USING GRAPHICS AND VISUAL AIDS

CHAPTER

13

How do I apply the BASIC PRINCIPLES of VISUAL DESIGN?

Your Learning Journey

Chapter 13

contrast

13.2

alignment

DESCRIBE + CONSTRUCT different types of GRAPHICS

repetition proximity simplicity

Ensure QUALITY + ETHICAL presentation of graphics

13.1

13.4

It is dishonest to present incorrect data or omit crucial information.

tables  line graphs  The graphic should be objective + disclose all relevant info.

Right graphic = reader understands

column/vertical bar graphs  dot graphs pie charts  diagrams  flow charts  cause-and-effect diagrams 

13.3

Next EFFECTIVE BUSINESS WRITING

CH 14

SELECT + PRESENT an appropriate form of graphic

infographics  photographs  maps 

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CHAPTER 13 / Communicate using graphics and visual aids

LEARNING OBJECTIVES After studying this chapter, you should be able to: 13.1 apply the basic principles of visual design 13.2 describe different types of graphics and how to construct each type 13.3 select and present an appropriate form of graphic 13.4 ensure quality and ethical presentation of graphics to an audience.

13.1 WHAT IS VISUAL COMMUNICATION? Visual communication is a powerful tool, and has the ability to communicate important concepts to an audience through graphics. Graphics help to sort, classify and group data such as percentages, numbers and rates of change. They highlight trends and relationships, clarify technical ideas and emphasise important points. Graphics are valuable for catching the reader’s attention and for conveying complex information clearly and concisely. Some audiences are able to grasp ideas more efficiently and effectively from graphics than from a large amount of text or tables of information or data. A presentation utilising graphics is often more interesting than one where information is communicated in the text. The designer of a graphic determines the most important concept(s) to communicate and decides on an appropriate graphic to illustrate the concept(s). When a graphic is to be incorporated into a body of text the graphic should be designed to reinforce the message conveyed by the text. Care should be taken in the preparation of a graphic to ensure consistency with the text and to avoid errors, which can be seen easily by the audience. Effective visual communication requires a communicator to have a clear understanding of the key points they want to be understood. It is essential that the information is presented in a manner that engages the audience and triggers thought so that they gain an understanding of the information presented. The most effective graphics present information in a straightforward manner. Refer to the infographic in the Theory to Practice box for an example of communicating a message simply. Non-essential decoration and overly complex elements in a graphic can undermine the message and should be avoided. As a general rule, display only what is relevant to the message being conveyed. The use of visual similarities or differences can achieve emphasis on important elements and draw out differences and comparisons in the data. For example, use of two different colours implies two distinct objects or two parts of the same object. A difference in texture, such as one of two items being blurry, could indicate the blurry item isn’t as important as the solid item.

Convey complex information succinctly using a graphic.

Infographics Infographics express data in a visual format that is easy to understand. The goal is to present information in a way that can be seen and understood immediately. Best practice is to use visuals that integrate text and pictures so each of these elements strengthens the other. Neil Patel suggests effective infographics are: • Targeted: Infographics should be created to meet the needs of the audience – generic infographics are less effective than ones targeted to a specific audience. Work out who the audience is and what information it is that they need.

FROM THEORY TO PRACTICE

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• Simple: Infographics work best when kept simple – don’t overload the graphic with too much detail. • Focused: infographics should be focused on a single topic – they should explain a single focused topic or point. The infographic here is from the Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources.

Sourced from the Commonwealth of Australia (Department of Agriculture and Water Resources) at http://www.agriculture.gov.au/abares/PublishingImages/ag-commodities/aust-econ-large.jpg.

ASK YOURSELF: How would you evaluate this infographic in relation to the ideas of ‘targeted, simple and focused’? Is its message conveyed effectively?

THE BASIC PRINCIPLES OF VISUAL DESIGN

Simplify complex information through the use of graphics.

The preparation of an effective graphic requires a basic understanding of visual design principles. In practice, those employed in business lack formal training in how to prepare and present an effective graphic. A basic knowledge of visual design principles, some experience of what works well in a graphic, and trial and error mean that businesspeople are equipped to be able to communicate a message effectively using a graphic. The main visual design principles are detailed in Exhibit 13.1. Exhibit 13.2 uses visual design principles to show some services provided by the Australian Red Cross. Proximity exists in the figure as services provided by the Red Cross are grouped together, as are examples of each service. The two columns distinguish ‘Services’ from ‘Examples’. Repetition is utilised by bullet points drawing the reader to the message. Alignment is symmetrical and the figure is simplistic, as colours, pictures or other information superfluous to the message have been eliminated.

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CHAPTER 13 / Communicate using graphics and visual aids

EXHIBIT 13.1 Visual design principles Principle

Explanation

Example

Contrast

• The difference in visual properties that assists in creating focus, making one object distinguishable from another. Includes colour, form, weight, structure and size. • Strong lines can connect items and indicate a relationship. • Traditional documents use symmetry and indicate a safer, more formal or more serious document. Asymmetry creates a sense of movement and can be more interesting visually. • Repeat the design elements. Audiences identify with repetition and it can create consistency and continuity, and unify a document. Make consistent elements stand out.

If graphing actual sales against budgeted sales using a bar graph, distinguish actual and budget by different-coloured bars.

Proximity

• Related items are grouped together. Conversely, create space between unrelated items.

Services and examples are grouped in Exhibit 13.2 allowing clear identification of the service and an example of that service.

Simplicity

• Less is better than more. Eliminate colours, textures, pictures or other information that is superfluous to the message.

Two-dimensional or flat bars in a single colour in a bar graph is an example of simplicity.

Alignment

Repetition

Symmetry in a presentation is created when titles are centred with blocks of text leftjustified.

The consistent use of bullet points in Exhibit 13.2 allows the reader to focus on what is being communicated in the presentation.

EXHIBIT 13.2 Effective use of visual design principles What the Red Cross does Services

Examples

• • • • • • •

• • • • • • •

Blood services Community services Disaster and emergency relief First aid Youth education and support Indigenous communities Migration support programs

Collection from donors Telecross for elderly people Floods, cyclones, bushfires Training courses Good Start breakfast club Partner with schools, medical services, government Support refugees and vulnerable migrants

Visual communication conveys information in an appealing way for a variety of purposes: to reinforce and complement written material to clarify complex material, particularly figures and statistics to show the total picture to clarify and link ideas expressed in text to catch the reader’s attention to help the reader remember information. Graphics should convey accurate, specific and up-to-date material that the reader needs or wants. When you use graphics well, your ideas and information are complemented and are more easily understood by the reader. • • • • • •

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CHECKPOINT 13.1

1. Presenting information effectively and interpreting graphics: The same information is presented in Exhibits 13.3, 13.4, below. Exhibit 13.3 is more decorative and has the added dimension of a 3-D effect. a. What information is being communicated in the graphs? b. Critically evaluate both graphs, thinking about whether the design elements used in Exhibit 13.3 assist the reader of the graph in understanding the information being communicated. c. Do the different bar colours in Exhibit 13.3 communicate a message? Are the different colours effective? d. Which graph is more effective for you in understanding the information being conveyed? Give reasons for your answer. e. Give reasons for the other graph being less effective for you in understanding information being conveyed.

EXHIBIT 13.3 Percentage of surveyed individuals enrolled in an educational course – version 1 80

26 – 35 46 – 55 15 – 25

70

Percentage

60

36 – 45 Above 55

50 40 30 20 10 0

EXHIBIT 13.4 Percentage of surveyed individuals enrolled in an educational course – version 2 80 70

Percentage

60 50 40 30 20 10 0 15–25

26–35

Above 55

36–45

46 to 55

Age group

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CHAPTER 13 / Communicate using graphics and visual aids

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2. Breaking the principles of visual design. Work in small groups. Sound visual design principles or rules assist with the presentation of content in an interesting and succinct way that appeal to the targeted audience. Application of visual design principles can command the audience’s attention as the eye is guided in an interesting way through the information. Organisations use visual design principles in many facets of their business. Websites, annual reports, reports to internal/external customers, logos etc. all incorporate visual design. a. Brainstorm the following statement: ‘Breaking the rules of visual design can set an organisation apart from its competitors’. b. In what circumstances could this statement hold true? c. Explain two instances when breaking visual design principles could be considered inappropriate.

13.2 DIFFERENT TYPES OF GRAPHICS A range of graphics are available to use in visual communication. Concepts, related data, trends, movement and changes in time, comparisons and spatial distributions can all be shown graphically. Visual communication is achieved through various graphics including tables, bar graphs (column or vertical), line graphs, Gantt charts, dot plots, pie charts, diagrams and drawings, flowcharts, cause-andeffect diagrams, photographs, illustrations, maps, pictures and cartoons and computer-generated graphics. Graphics use visual techniques to focus the reader’s attention on the main points and to clarify discussion and findings. They reinforce written or spoken words and help the reader to connect the relationships between things and ideas. The task of a communicator is to collect, analyse and present information in a way that is intelligible and interesting to the reader. Frequently, this task involves discussing data that are crucial to the document, but that are difficult to explain clearly and concisely using text. Graphics enable the writer to incorporate these data so that they demonstrate the meaning simply and clearly. Each graphic has particular strengths and weaknesses. The advantages and disadvantages of each are shown in Exhibit 13.5.

TABLES Tables present information, data, facts and figures in an ordered manner. A large amount of information or data can be presented in a simplistic manner in a table. Data in a table is often easier to understand than data presented in text form.

Order precise information or data into a table.

EXHIBIT 13.5 A comparison of different kinds of graphics Advantage

Disadvantage

Table

Allows comparisons between large amounts of data

Difficult to read and connect data quickly especially for an audience that learns visually

Bar graph (column or vertical)

Simplifies comparisons between items or periods

Size and proportions can be hard to interpret

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Advantage

Disadvantage

Line graph

Indicates movement and trends in data clearly

Inappropriate labels and scales can make it difficult to interpret

Gantt chart

Indicates time lines, critical activities, progress and major achievements clearly. Displays the status of each task or activity at a glance

Difficult to read if too many tasks and too much detail are grouped or stacked into the chart

Dot plot

Illustrates values quickly and easily

Awkward to read unless it progresses from the largest down to the smallest figure

Pie chart

Shows relative proportions and importance of each part to the whole unit

Difficult to judge differences between area and size

Diagram

Emphasises details with a simple representation; can show a cross-section

Easy to miss the main point if the diagram becomes too cluttered with detail

Flowchart

Simplifies the steps and workings of a process by using visual cues

Flowcharting can become very time consuming without an automated tool Complex processes can lead to flowcharts that are difficult to interpret and follow

Cause-and-effect diagram (Ishikawa fishbone diagram)

Helps identify specific causes of a problem. Assists when brainstorming

Not suitable for complex problems especially if there is a strong interrelationship between the problem and causes

Photograph and illustration

Shows immediate impact of subject

Difficult to see the point if too much detail appears Can be expensive Cannot show a cross-section

Map

Shows a large amount of detail in one representation

Difficult to read if highly detailed or if the scales, legends and labels are not clear

Tables present related information in parallel lists and columns – see Exhibit 13.5. In this form, relationships are shown more clearly and a table takes up much less space than a long description interspersed with figures. It is also easier to find specific figures in a table than from a string of sentences. Numerical data in tables should be right-hand justified in each column, as this makes it easy to read down the column. When tabled data are graphed, the data and their relationships are further simplified. Tables make comparisons possible, but graphs and charts explain, simplify and emphasise data and their key relationships even further. Many tables are used to present data in a systematic organised way. Exhibit 13.6 is an example of a table containing data. The financial controller at Maree’s Clothing Boutique Pty Ltd prepares a monthly table for the owner. This table shows data by date, the daily sales, the cumulative monthly sales and the cumulative yearly sales. The table also shows the daily split into clothing sales and accessory sales. 328 Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202

CHAPTER 13 / Communicate using graphics and visual aids

EXHIBIT 13.6 Daily sales in dollars – Maree’s Clothing Boutique Pty Ltd as at 28 February 2019 for the financial year commencing 1 July 2018 Clothing sales $

Date

Accessories sales $

Total sales $

Cumulative monthly sales $

Cumulative 2018/19 sales $ 1 274 520

01/02/2019

10 619

02/02/2019

4 290

1 205

03/02/2019

5 621

04/02/2019

13 516

147

13 663

35 486

1 310 006

05/02/2019

15 554

1 203

16 757

52 243

1 326 763

– 88

11 824

1 286 344

4 290

16 114

1 290 634

5 709

21 823

1 296 343

06/02/2019

–

–

52 243

1 326 763

07/02/2019

8 045

1 159

9 204

61 447

1 335 967

08/02/2019

9 815

66

9 881

71 328

1 345 848

09/02/2019

4 644

88

4 732

76 060

1 350 580

10/02/2019

5 899

1 208

7 107

83 167

1 357 687

4 368

87 535

1 362 055

13 516

101 051

1 375 571

11/02/2019

4 258

12/02/2019

13 516

–

11 824

110 –

13/02/2019

–

–

101 051

1 375 571

14/02/2019

3 486

1 093

–

4 579

105 630

1 380 150

15/02/2019

8 313

1 137

9 450

115 080

1 389 600

16/02/2019

2 617

–

2 617

117 697

1 392 217

17/02/2019

4 290

294

4 584

122 281

1 396 801

18/02/2019

2 617

1 120

3 737

126 018

1 400 538

19/02/2019

8 313

88

8 401

134 419

1 408 939

20/02/2019

–

–

134 419

1 408 939

21/02/2019

5 631

1 159

–

6 790

141 209

1 415 729

22/02/2019

3 486

1 049

4 535

145 744

1 420 264

23/02/2019

8 721

1 247

9 968

155 712

1 430 232

24/02/2019

12 507

181

12 688

168 400

1 442 920

25/02/2019

9 815

–

9 815

178 215

1 452 735

26/02/2019

12 507

–

12 507

190 722

1 465 242

27/02/2019

–

–

–

190 722

1 465 242

28/02/2019

2 413

178

2 591

193 313

1 467 833

180 493

12 820

193 313

93.4%

6.6%

100.0%

Total % of total

How is a table constructed? Plan and construct an effective table by following six steps and considering the audience’s needs and the purpose of the table. 1. Title – the title should give the reader an understanding of the information or data contained in the table. The title can also include other important information such as the date period covered by the information in the table. 329 Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202

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Apply visual design principles to construct a table.

2. Label – the rows and columns should give the reader an understanding of what information is contained in each row and column. 3. Populate – once the table format is in place, add the information into the rows and columns. If using units ensure the type of unit is clearly identified (e.g. centimetres or dollars). The unit type could be used as part of the row and column headings. Ensure all information is expressed in the appropriate unit. 4. Order – arrange the information alphabetically or numerically if this will make the table easier to read. For example, if you want to identify the main incident causing a problem by counting the number of times each incident occurs and recording the count in a table, it would assist to order the data by most occurrences to least. This will immediately illuminate the incident(s) causing the problem. 5. Spacing – ensure adequate spacing between rows and columns so information isn’t cluttered. Colours or shading can be used to highlight important information. 6. Totals – include totals or averages if this will enhance understanding. Graphics use quantitative data to illustrate information visually. Graphics can highlight trends and relationships and emphasise important points. They are valuable for catching the reader’s attention and for conveying complex information in a simplistic manner.

BAR GRAPHS Use a bar graph to compare one item with another or changes in a single item over time.

Bar graphs are a visual representation of numbers. The height or length of the bars represents the quantity. Bar graphs can be very useful to compare the size of items at a given point in time or to show changes in a single item over time. The bars can be single, grouped or stacked. Exhibit 13.7 shows a grouped horizontal bar graph. In this example, the sales revenue figures of four regions of New South Wales are displayed visually and compare actual numbers to budget. The grouping allows the reader to easily compare actual sales revenue to budgeted sales revenue by region.

EXHIBIT 13.7 Sales revenue – New South Wales by region Actual v. Budget Financial year ended 30 June 2019

West

Region

East

South

Actual Budget

North 0

5

10

15

20

25

30

Australian dollars (millions)

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CHAPTER 13 / Communicate using graphics and visual aids The vertical bar graph shown in Exhibit 13.8 is a single column graph showing daily sales at Maree’s Clothing Boutique for February 2019. The graph draws on the data from Exhibit 13.6.

EXHIBIT 13.8 Daily sales revenue – Maree’s Clothing Boutique, February 2019 18

16

14

Sales (’000s)

12

10

8

6

4

2

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 Daily sales 11.8 4.3 5.7 13.7 16.8 –

7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 9.2 9.9 4.7 7.1 4.4 13.5 – 4.6 9.5 2.6 4.6 3.7 8.4 – 6.8 4.5 10.0 12.7 9.8 12.5 – 2.6

Exhibit 13.9 shows a stacked column graph. The financial controller at Maree’s Clothing Boutique prepares a vertical bar graph that displays total monthly sales with each component (clothing sales and accessory sales) stacked. In this case, accessory sales are fairly consistent so the financial controller places those sales at the base of the stack to enhance the reader’s ability to determine the sub-group of greatest variation (clothing sales). The financial controller uses a data table to provide the reader of the graph with sales figures so the reader can not only compare bar heights month to month but also see exact figures. A data table isn’t necessary; however, some audiences may prefer the numbers to be displayed on the graphic. Exhibit 13.10 shows a bar chart that is sometimes called a candlestick chart. It is a tool used for the technical analysis of price movements. The chart displays the open price, close price, high price and low price for a security over a time period: for example, one trading day. If the bar is purple, then the stock opened at a lower price than it closed. If the bar is dark-blue, then the stock opened at a higher price than it closed. Pareto analysis has the ability to identify the vital few causes (from many causes) of a problem. Pareto analysis is sometimes referred to as the 80/20 rule because it is able to show that only a few vital causes (20%) result in a significant proportion of the problem (80%). Pareto analysis uses vertical bar graphs to plot data. The graph is then analysed to draw conclusions and make recommendations.

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EXHIBIT 13.9 Sales revenue – Maree’s Clothing Boutique, February 2019 250

200

($’000)

150

100

50

0 Clothing sales Accessory sales

July 189 623 12 686

August September October November December January 108 490 218 654 204 242 146 523 162 543 155 261 12 140 12 927 13 650 12 720 12 720 12 341

February 180 493 12 820

EXHIBIT 13.10 Stock price – Network Limited $ 6 High 5

4

Close High

High

Close

Open Close

3

Low

Open Low

2 Open 1 Low 0 30 June 2017

30 June 2018

30 June 2019

How is a bar graph constructed? To construct a bar graph, consider the following factors: 1. Title – the title should give the reader an understanding of the data contained in the graph. The title can also include other important information such as the date period the graph covers.

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CHAPTER 13 / Communicate using graphics and visual aids 2. Label – label the horizontal (x) axis and vertical (y) axis. Ensure the correct units are used, for example, dollars or litres. 3. Scale – consider the largest data point and then draw the scale from zero to just beyond the largest data point. 4. Plot the data – by drawing the bars. 5. Order the bars – depending on the information shown in a bar graph, it may be beneficial to order the bars to make the bar graph easier to read. For example, if preparing a bar graph of maximum regional temperatures in Queensland in order to identify the three hottest regions, it would be beneficial to order the bars from hottest to coolest so it is very easy to visually identify the three hottest regions. 6. Spacing – adequate spacing between the bars of the graph enhances readability. 7. Colours or shading – these can highlight important information or differences. Avoid 3-D bar graphs that are decorative as the message may be confused. 8. Gridlines – use gridlines to help the reader identify where the bars end and the approximate numerical value for each data point. Label the major gridlines. 9. Data table – include in the graph if this will help the reader.

Follow a nine-step procedure to construct a bar graph.

LINE GRAPHS Line graphs show movement through time. Their main purpose is to indicate trends. Line graphs indicate trends by showing the rate at which specific items or values change over time (see Exhibit 13.11). When a line graph presents quantities, it marks the beginning point, called the point of origin. A vertical line and a horizontal line (the axes) are drawn at right angles to one another from this point of origin. Each point on the graph shows a relationship between the variables. These points occur in the space created by the axes and are plotted wherever the two variables meet.

Display data or information that changes continuously over time in a line graph.

EXHIBIT 13.11 Australian company’s local and international sales – Financial year ended 30 June 2019 400 Local sales International sales

350 300

($’000)

250 200 150 100 50 0 Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Month

Line graphs indicate trends. A line graph with only one line is known as a simple line chart. If it has several lines it is called a multiline chart. A line graph should be easy to read and interpret. For this 333 Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202

THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK reason, it is best to limit the number of lines to three or four. On all line graphs, the data are plotted as points connected by segments of a line. A line graph can be included as part of a bar graph. Maree’s Clothing Boutique has monthly specials and items are marked down. The financial controller calculates the discount and then presents the discount as a percentage of gross sales on the stacked bar chart as shown in Exhibit 13.12.

EXHIBIT 13.12 Maree’s Clothing Boutique Pty Ltd – discount as a percentage of gross sales as at February 2019 for the financial year ended 30 June 2019 5.0%

250

4.5% 200

4.0% 3.5%

150 ($’000)

3.0% 2.5%

100

2.0% 1.5%

50

1.0% 0.5%

0

July

August

September October November December

Clothing sales

189 623

155 261

162 543

146 523

218 654

Accessory sales

12 686

12 341

12 720

12 720

12 927

Discount as a % of gross sales

1.73%

3.64%

3.13%

1.59%

4.59%

January

February

204 242

108 490

180 493

13 650

12 140

12 820

1.34%

2.84%

2.50%

0.0%

To construct a line graph: 1. Title – the title should give the reader an understanding of the data contained in the graph. The title can also include other important information such as the date period the graph covers. 2. Label – label the horizontal (x) and vertical (y) axes. Ensure the correct units are used – for example, dollars or litres. 3. Scale – consider the largest data point and then draw the scale from zero to just beyond the largest data point. Label the major gridlines. 4. Plot the data points – and join each point with a line. 5. Gridlines – label the major gridlines to help the reader identify the positioning of the data points. 6. Data table – include in the graph if it will help the reader. Present schedules of planned activities and track the actual time used against planned time in a Gantt chart.

GANTT CHARTS Gantt charts are horizontal bar graphs used for planning activities and schedules. Tasks or activities are listed vertically at the left side of the Gantt chart, and time is shown horizontally in hours, days or months. An effective Gantt chart allows you to track your work and to present it to others in graphic form. Gantt charts are commonly used in proposals and project plans.

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CHAPTER 13 / Communicate using graphics and visual aids Gantt charts are prepared either manually or electronically by using a software package. The Gantt chart in Exhibit 13.13 was constructed manually and shows activities required to complete the painting of a house in the left-hand column and time across the horizontal axis. The software packages display tasks and resources on the screen in different views designed to show different details. This feature allows you to decide on the graphic’s specific purpose and then choose data you want illustrated. A Gantt chart is then incorporated into your document to add meaning and interest.

EXHIBIT 13.13 Gantt chart Time Activity

Monday

Tuesday

Wednesday

Thursday

Friday

Scrape and sand bad spots Prime bare spots Paint house Trim house Planned

Actual

A Gantt chart may show, for example, some slack in the schedule, constraints on tasks such as lack of resources and critical activities. If you are justifying a request for additional resources, a Gantt chart focusing on resources is a useful graphic support in that section of your report or proposal. To prepare a Gantt chart: 1. Title – the title should give the reader an understanding of the data contained in the Gantt chart. The title can also include other important information such as the date period the graph covers. 2. Label – label the time unit on the horizontal axis and the activities or tasks on the vertical axis. 3. Insert – insert all information possible and update the chart at relevant time periods. 4. Vertical marker – this could be used to mark the present point in time. 5. Milestones – consider showing milestones in a project on the chart.

DOT PLOTS The dot plot is used to present six or more variables and is an alternative to a bar graph or line graph. This kind of graph makes it easy to visually connect the graphed point to its label on the vertical axis. The dot graph presented in Exhibit 13.14 shows the participation in sport and physical recreation by age and sex.

PIE CHARTS A pie chart shows how the parts or divisions of a whole unit are distributed in a circle. Its main use is to compare or emphasise the proportions of each component and it works best when only a few parts need to be shown – say no more than five or six. For a circle, these are called ‘sectors’ or ‘segments’. If there are many parts to the whole, the minor segments can be grouped together and titled ‘Other’. A pie chart presents a simple illustration that is easy to understand. It is not so clear if too many segments are presented. If a whole unit is broken into more than six, a bar graph would be a better visual to use. The first sector of the pie chart is the largest and starts at the 12 o’clock point. The remaining sectors are arranged in decreasing order of size. Exhibit 13.15 provides a visual representation of yearly revenue and how the yearly revenue was allocated. This visual communication is enhanced by a simple table (shown in Exhibit 13.16).

Use a pie chart to compare the parts of a whole unit.

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EXHIBIT 13.14 Dot graph showing participation in sport and physical recreation, by age and sex Age group (years) 15–17 18–24 25–34 35–44 45–54 55–64 65 and over

Males Females

0

20

40

60

80

100

Participation rate (%) ABS ª Commonwealth of Australia CC BY 4.0 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

EXHIBIT 13.15 Stationery Chain Pty Ltd – Revenue allocation for the financial year ended 30 June 2019 5%

3%

21% 44%

Cost of sales Wages Profit Rent and outgoings Other

27%

EXHIBIT 13.16 Stationery Chain Pty Ltd – Revenue allocation for the financial year ended 30 June 2019 Item

Revenue allocation (’000)

Percentage (%) of total

Cost of sales

2055

44%

Wages

1238

27%

Profit

987

21%

Rent and outgoings

240

5%

Other

160

3%

4680

100%

Total revenue

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CHAPTER 13 / Communicate using graphics and visual aids To construct a pie chart: 1. Title – the title should give the reader an understanding of the data contained in the graph. The title can also include other important information such as the date period the graph covers. 2. Divide – the pie should be divided into its parts or segments. 3. Sort – the segments from largest to smallest and ensure the largest segment is first and commences at 12 o’clock. 4. Label – label the segments and indicate the value and unit of each segment. This can be done on the pie, in a legend or a combination of both (as in Exhibit 13.15). 5. Colour – use different colours for each segment.

FLOWCHART A flowchart is a simple graphic tool that assists in understanding a process and the workflows within the process. It is easier to follow a process by observing steps and actions in a flowchart. The flowchart details the steps that occur in a process from the initial step to the final workflow. Exhibit 13.17 details the home loan application process from the initial step of a staff member requesting approval to the final decision on whether to grant the approval. Exhibit 13.18 summarises the meaning of the main visuals used in a flowchart.

Depict the nature and flow of the steps in a process visually in a flowchart.

EXHIBIT 13.17 Flowchart – home loan application process Customer application

Application check

Application for home loan

Application score calculated

Score >= 25?

Application review

No

Score between 20 & 24?

Yes

Yes

Manager review and accepts application

Application decision

No

Applicant informed that home loan application unsuccessful No

Yes

Home loan granted

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EXHIBIT 13.18 The meaning of the main visual cues used in flowcharting Symbol

Use or meaning

Ellipse

Used to visually communicate the start and end of a process

Arrows

Used to connect the shapes and shows the direction of the workflow

Rectangles

Used to describe a step in the process

Diamonds

Used to highlight a decision needs to be made. The diamond may have two arrows coming out of it each one being a decision such as a ‘Yes’ or ‘No’

Loop back

Indicates complexity in a process

To prepare a flowchart: 1. Decide on the process boundaries to define where your process will start and finish. 2. It may be useful to flowchart the ideal process identifying the individuals responsible for each step in the process. 3. Look at each process step and decide whether there are any complexities. 4. It is useful to have a third party review the flowchart to ensure that others believe that the process will work as flowcharted.

CAUSE-AND-EFFECT DIAGRAMS Identify, sort and display possible causes of a specific problem in a causeand-effect diagram.

Cause-and-effect diagrams (or Ishikawa fishbone diagrams) can be used as a tool to help identify the possible causes of a specific problem. A cause-and-effect diagram simplifies the process of identifying the main causes of a problem. The cause-and-effect diagram is very useful when it is clear that a problem exists but causes and subcauses aren’t easy to identify. Exhibit 13.19 is an example of a cause-and-effect diagram. To prepare a cause-and-effect diagram: 1. Start with a blank fishbone diagram. 2. Identify the problem and write the problem in the head of the fish. 3. Identify categories and label the category boxes. Categories are wide and varied. Some of the more generic categories that can be used in a cause-and-effect diagram are listed in Exhibit 13.20. 4. Identify items in each category that are likely causes of the problem. Write these on the blue cause lines. 5. Identify sub-causes of the problem and write these on the blue dotted lines. It may be useful to gain input from others via discussion or brainstorming. 6. Analyse the diagram. It should be clear what are the main causes/sub-causes of the problem.

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CHAPTER 13 / Communicate using graphics and visual aids

EXHIBIT 13.19 Cause-and-effect diagram Method

People

Key Broad category Cause Sub-cause

Problem

Procedures

Machinery

EXHIBIT 13.20 Possible problem categories for a cause-and-effect diagram M

Machinery

Method

P

Procedure

Place

S

Surroundings (environment)

Suppliers

Material

Manpower

Maintenance

Management

Measurement

People

Price

Procedure

Policies

Promotion

Skills

Systems

Further tools such as pareto analysis may be of use to clearly identify the main causes/sub-causes of the problem. A diagram or drawing is useful for showing the structure of something – its parts and their relationship to each other. The organisation chart and a flowchart are common examples of diagrams used as report graphics, although any kind of structure can be shown in a diagram. Diagrams are particularly helpful for demonstrating technical procedures and details – for example, how to assemble a model aeroplane. It is easier to assemble a model aeroplane using a diagram or set of diagrams rather than explanations in text. Drawings and diagrams can simplify and highlight special features and details that may not stand out in a photo. They can also show the interior or inner workings of something by presenting it in cross-section.

Product

Construct a diagram to visually explain how something works, illustrate structures or explain the relationship between individual parts that make up a whole.

INFOGRAPHICS The term ‘infographic’ is a blending of the words information and graphic. Infographics are a powerful tool for analysing data and explaining information. They are designed to reach a wide audience by simplifying a complex subject and presenting it in a simplistic manner, as in Exhibit 13.21.

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EXHIBIT 13.21 Infographic

ª Commonwealth of Australia 2019 CC BY 4.0 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

To prepare an infographic: 1. Gather sufficient data. The full picture often requires information and data from many sources, not a single data set. 2. Understand and interpret all the individual pieces of the data. This will assist with the integrity of the final infographic (see Exhibit 13.22).

EXHIBIT 13.22 Visual elements of an infographic Element

Use

Colour

• to show a stark contrast between two items • highlight or obscure information

Font

• highlight information

Icons

• assist with comprehension • provide universal understanding

Images

• replace text • simplicity of message

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CHAPTER 13 / Communicate using graphics and visual aids 3. Define the narrative and work out the intent of the infographic. For instance, the intent may be to explain a complex process. 4. Identify problems and collaboratively rework the narrative if required ensuring the data supports the narrative. 5. Identify which piece of data will lead the narrative. 6. Build a visual representation of the important information. 7. Choose the format of the infographic: for example, a pie chart or an illustration maybe the best way to tell the narrative. 8. Compile and refine the infographic. 9. Release the infographic via the preferred channel (most are shared online).

PHOTOGRAPHS, ILLUSTRATIONS AND MAPS A photograph is easily understood, makes an immediate impact and shows the physical appearance of a subject. A photograph can often enhance or even replace a lengthy description – for example, the site descriptions of a valuation report are more easily understood if photographs of the site are included. A description of Sydney Tower is easier to visualise if it is accompanied by a photograph of the building. A map is a specific type of diagram that uses scale, grids, symbols, lines, colours, legends, labels, figures and text to locate landforms, cities, towns, rivers, roads and so on. Maps use a wide range of graphics to transfer a large amount of detail onto the page. If you decide to use a map, ensure that it is easy to reproduce, either as an enlargement or reduction. Maps convey a large amount of detail about location in a small space. Symbols can be described as a shorthand form of writing – for example, a street directory may use a red cross to represent a hospital and a solid red dot for traffic lights. Symbols should be clear, simple, instantly recognisable and easy to reproduce. Exhibit 13.23 shows rainfall decile ranges on a map.

Find a specific location, distance and other details on a map.

COMPUTER-GENERATED GRAPHICS Presentation graphics packages are designed to paint pictures, create drawings, and manipulate or enhance scanned pictures. They are used to illustrate business presentations, lectures, oral presentations and documents such as reports. MS PowerPoint¤ is a popular presentation package. Graphics packages such as Adobe Photoshop, Microsoft Photo Editor, Picasa and iPhoto have features to enhance photos by adjusting the shading, contrast and context and to crop the photo to highlight a particular aspect. The photo packages let you touch up the graphics before you transport them into a publication package such as Adobe Pagemaker, Microsoft Publisher or Quark Express. Many image editing and graphics packages allow sharing of photos via email and publishing websites, and social networking sites including Twitter and Facebook. Adobe Illustrator can create or change logos. Newsletters, flyers, business cards and calendars are produced with publication packages because the page layout and size can be varied. Publication packages are more flexible, allowing you to manipulate a document into various types of layout. Exhibit 13.24 is a computer-generated graphic, illustrating the Plan-Do-Check-Act cycle, which is used to improve business productivity and performance. Presentation and graphics packages are available for use in the home, school or office. Many of these packages have multimedia capabilities such as sound and movement and publish direct to the Web.

Focus attention on the main points.

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EXHIBIT 13.23 Australian rainfall deciles, 2017

ª Commonwealth of Australia 2018, Australian Bureau of Meteorology CC BY 3.0 AU https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/au/.

EXHIBIT 13.24 Computer generated graphic showing the Plan-Do-Check-Act cycle

4. Act

1. Plan

3. Check

2. Do

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CHAPTER 13 / Communicate using graphics and visual aids

1. Construct a bar and line graph. Use pareto analysis to make recommendations. Photoshoot Pty Ltd (Photoshoot) is a company that on-sells consumables to others that specialise in developing photos. As technology has improved, Photoshoot’s revenues have fallen. Photoshoot is considering consolidating by discontinuing the sale of items that only contribute small amounts to overall revenue and market to increase the sales of items contributing larger amounts to revenues. Exhibit 13.25 details the items sold by Photoshoot and the associated revenues.

CHECKPOINT 13.2

EXHIBIT 13.25 Photoshoot Pty Ltd: Revenue by item for the period from 1 July 2018 to 30 June 2019 Item

Revenue

% of total revenue

Cumulative %

Photo paper

240 000

40

40

Photo albums

234 000

39

79

Film

42 000

7

86

Plastic film bags

36 000

6

92

CDs for photo storage

18 000

3

95

Photo corners and labels

12 000

2

97

CD sleeves to store CDs

12 000

2

99

6000

1

100

Photo wallets Total

600 000

The table indicates that 79% of revenue comes from two items, photo paper and photo albums. Two items represent 25% of the eight items sold. a. Use a vertical column bar chart to plot the data from Exhibit 13.25. Include ‘Item’ on the x axis and ‘Revenue’ on the y axis. b. On the graphic you constructed in part (a), use a line graph to plot cumulative percentage (using the right-hand y axis for cumulative percentage). c. Draw a horizontal line across your chart at 80%. Note where this intersects your line graph. Using pareto analysis (the 80/20 rule) provide recommendations to Photoshoot in terms of what items should be sold in the future. d. Provide reasons why Photoshoot may continue to sell all eight items. 2. Choose a graph to concisely convey information. You are required to prepare a graph to be used in a principal’s report. The graph is to report on the methods of transportation used by students to get to school. You have been given the following table (Exhibit 13.26).

EXHIBIT 13.26 Student transportation to school Method of transportation

Number of students

Parental drop-off

318

Bus

262

Walk

56

Train

295

Ferry Bicycle

27 102

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a. Choose a graphic to present this information and justify your choice. b. Construct the graphic incorporating visual design principles suitable for the audience of a principal’s report. 3. Visual design principles Work in small groups. a. Scan a recent national newspaper to identify the types of graphics used throughout the paper. b. Sort the graphics into the following categories: • tables • graphs • charts • diagrams • photos and illustrations. c. Choose one of the graphs and identify the visual design principles incorporated in its construction. d. Has the person who designed the graph applied visual design principles effectively? Give reasons for your answer.

13.3 SELECTING AND PRESENTING GRAPHICS

Keep graphics simple.

Integrate graphics and text to enhance meaning.

Some graphics are obtained from external sources – for example, photographs, maps and diagrams by planners. Others may be constructed from information you have gathered in your research – for example, tables, graphs and pie charts. Ensure any graphic you use is accurate, communicates relevant information and adds interest to the text. A graphic can be enlarged or reduced to give particular emphasis to one element. Or you may prefer to interrelate various parts of it, to compare their similarities, differences or dependencies. Simplicity in design is better than too much detail, so keep the graphic simple and easy to follow. Include plenty of space and avoid cluttering your graphics. Ensure that each part of the graphic is labelled clearly. Give each graphic an explanatory title or heading, and label all units of measurement clearly. Help the reader to identify and think about the aid’s purpose and ideas. Clear labels should be placed on each line or piece of information to identify the graphic’s purpose and its main features or concepts. To avoid cluttering a graph, consider using a key, as in Exhibit 13.15. If you use a key, place it inside the frame of the graph. It is essential to use a scale that covers the range of data. As a general rule, the width of a graph should be twice its height. Written text on either side of a graphic is distracting, so avoid placing written comments on either side of the graph. Comments relating to the graph are usually placed before the graph. When you use several graphics in a report, aim for a consistent presentation. Keep them to a similar size and use the same style for headings and labels. Always give the source of your information and state clearly whether you have reproduced or adapted someone else’s work. When you use more than one graphic for a report, number each one. Place a graphic as close as possible to the text it is illustrating – for example, if you present text about unemployment in 2019, place the graph or diagram illustrating this immediately after the text. In the report, refer to and explain the graphics. Your text should lead up to and away from each graphic to integrate them with the discussion. They should not look like optional pieces of artwork.

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CHAPTER 13 / Communicate using graphics and visual aids Select graphics that present a true and accurate picture of your written information. Otherwise, your credibility and the value of your writing is likely to be questioned. Be careful not to exaggerate similarities or differences. Graphics can demonstrate complex ideas simply and concisely and emphasise their relationships. Select your graphics with these criteria in mind. Exhibit 13.27 provides guidelines on the appropriate graphic to use in varying situations.

Choose the graphic to suit your purpose, meet the needs of the intended audience and present a true and accurate message.

EXHIBIT 13.27 When specific types of graphics are appropriate When to use Table

• To present specific pieces of information or data • When exact values are required

Bar chart

• To compare two or more data sets • To compare changes over time of a single set of data • When data can be broken down into categories and the number of times an event occurs can be counted and charted • After a cause-and-effect diagram has been produced, relevant data can be collected, analysed and charted to gather further insights • To set priorities based on data; for example, pareto analysis can identify the few vital items that cause 80% of the problems; resources can then be allocated to work on fixing those problems

Line chart

• To compare changes over time of a single set of data and highlight trends or exceptions • To measure two or more data sets to show how they change relative to each other • As a motivational tool to show progress against a goal • Instead of a bar graph if there are many data points or you want to see individual measurements

Gantt chart

• When planning or scheduling a project • When considering the order in which activities in a project are to be completed • When managing resources to complete activities that run in parallel during a project • When assessing the time period required for completion of the project and the individual activities that make up the project

Dot plot

• To highlight the distribution of data that can be measured • Instead of a bar graph if wanting a very simplistic graphic

Pie chart

• When dividing a whole into its individual parts • When the whole consists of around six parts

Diagrams and drawings

• To provide instructions on how to assemble an item • To illustrate a procedure • To explain a concept difficult to explain with text

Cause-and-effect diagram (Ishikawa fishbone diagram)

• When problem solving to understand the specific causes of a problem • When a problem is known but the causes of the problem are unknown • When brainstorming

Flowchart

• When documenting a process

Infographic

• To reach a wide audience by simplifying a complex subject and presenting it is a simplistic graphical manner

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CHECKPOINT 13.3

When to use Map

• When showing data geographically • To show a location in relation to another location

Photographs and illustrations

• To show the immediate impact of subject • To provide a realistic image of an item • To detail spatial relationships without long descriptions

Computer-generated graphics

• To illustrate business presentations, lectures, oral presentations and documents such as reports

1. Effectiveness of graphics a. Collect six different types of graphics from the any source. b. Analyse the six graphics using the principles in this chapter. 2. Characteristics of an impactful graphic a. Develop a dot-point summary of checks you need to make to ensure the quality of a graphic. b. Write a short (150 words) summary describing an eye-catching graphic.

13.4 ENSURING QUALITY AND ETHICS Quality control is important when preparing visual communication. Once a visual has been prepared, it is useful to reflect on and analyse the information and how the information is presented in terms of accuracy, presentation and ethics. Reflect on whether the visual is accurate. Look for typographical errors, chart errors and other errors. For example, if you are presenting a table and a chart together, ensure the chart reflects the data in the table. It is easy to make mistakes, especially if deadlines to produce the graphics are tight. Reflect on the presentation of the visual and consider whether the graphic is ethical. It is worthless to the receiver of the information to have a graphic that omits important data or information and therefore gives an incorrect or misleading message. Ethics is so important that many professional associations have a code, a set of rules or policies for individuals and groups to observe and follow. Ethics is very important in the preparation of graphics, and some basic principles can be observed in an attempt to avoid ethical lapses. Exhibit 13.28 details principles to be observed and followed when preparing graphics.

EXHIBIT 13.28 Graphic ethics Principle

Explanation

Honesty

• Report all data and findings accurately. • Never fabricate, eliminate or misrepresent data. • An item in a graphic that supports your message or viewpoint shouldn’t be exaggerated. Conversely, an item opposing your message or viewpoint shouldn’t be hidden. • Manipulate, group or aggregate data used in graphics in an appropriate manner that won’t distort the message. • Use a graphic and scale that communicates the message accurately.

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CHAPTER 13 / Communicate using graphics and visual aids

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Principle

Explanation

Carefulness

• Eliminate errors. • Critique your own graphic and have someone else critique it for you. • Ensure good work practices so that data is stored well and in a manner that allows it to be extracted accurately for use. • Store all reference materials and correspondence in an ordered manner.

Objectivity

• Avoid bias in any activity that is done to create the graphic. Activities may include the interpretation, analysis or presentation of data or information. • Understand how your audience will interpret the graphic and provide enough information to allow the audience to comprehend the correct message. • Disclose any interests you have that may affect the presentation of a graphic. • Disclose and reference the source of any data or information in the graphic. • Be prepared to answer with honesty and openness any question your audience may have on your graphic.

Disclosure Openness

Data manipulation and the question of ethics: Work in small groups. a. Discuss the following statement made between two colleagues over lunch: ‘It is possible to prove anything with statistics, so for our next report we should apply our data to suit our own findings.’ b. Do you agree or disagree with the statement? c. Comment on this report writer’s credibility and the likely result if someone relies on such misinformation. Think about ethical issues when answering this question. d. Report back to your whole group.

CHECKPOINT 13.4

LEARNING ACTIVITIES SUMMARY 13.1 Apply the basic principles of visual design. The preparation of an effective graphic requires a basic understanding of visual design principles. Basic design principles include contrast, alignment, repetition, proximity and simplicity. Business people rarely have formal training in these principles. However, a basic understanding of visual design principles and knowing what works and doesn’t work in a graphic is often enough to produce an effective graphic. 13.2 Describe different types of graphics and construct each type. Graphics should catch readers’ interest and encourage them to think about the main ideas presented by the graphic. Tables simplify and compare, line graphs indicate trends or movement over time. Column or

vertical bar graphs compare the size of two or more items at a given point in time or changes in a single item over time. Dot graphs are used to compare variables and could be used instead of a bar graph. Pie charts compare the parts or relative proportions of a whole unit. Diagrams illustrate structures and the relationships between their parts. Flowcharts document a process or set of procedures. Cause-and-effect diagrams identify the main causes or sub-causes of a problem. Infographics display information in a universal concise manner that can be understood by the masses. Photographs show the physical appearance of a subject or place. Maps convey a large amount of detail about areas, sites, cities, states or countries.

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Construct each type of graphic and provide appropriate lettering, numbering, text references and sources. When large amounts of data are presented in tables and charts rather than in paragraphs of writing, the visual impact of a document is improved. Appropriate references and sources are important not only for ethical reasons but to allow the receiver to gather further information. 13.3 Select and present an appropriate form of graphic. This helps to focus the reader’s attention. The right graphic makes the information more intelligible and

interesting. Make sure that the graphic emphasises or relates important points and adds meaning to the written text. Think carefully about the message and how best to convey the message when determining which graphic to use. 13.4 Ensure quality and ethical presentation of graphics to an audience. It is dishonest to present incorrect data in graphics or omit crucial information from a graphic. The graphic should be honest, prepared carefully, be objective, and disclose all relevant interests and information.

KEY TERMS bar graph cause-and-effect diagram diagram dot graph

drawing flowchart Gantt chart horizontal bar graph

Ishikawa fishbone diagram line graph map pareto analysis

photograph pie chart table vertical bar graph

LEARNING ACTIVITIES 1. Tabulation and constructing a pie chart a. Summarise the following data by placing them in a table: The Mercury Superannuation Fund’s portfolio covers a wide range of assets. The largest proportion, 30%, is in Australian shares, followed by 20% in international shares. Liquidity has to be part of the fund, so 5% of the portfolio is held in liquid assets to ensure profitability. Property shares make up another 15%. Safety is provided by placing another 15% of Mercury’s assets in Australian fixed interest deposits and 15% in international fixed interest holdings. b. Present a visual comparison of investment categories by creating a pie chart showing Mercury Superannuation Fund’s division of assets. 2. Interpreting graphical information a. Consider the pie chart you have plotted and explain your interpretation of the chart b. What other chart(s) could be used to present this information? Create one other chart to display this information visually.

3. Documenting a process using a flowchart Work in small groups. Think of any process that you have been involved with either at home or at work. Ideally, the process would include at least six steps. It may be the reimbursement of an expense claim or the process to have a home development application approved. Consider any difficulties or obstacles you had completing the process such as a delay, system or human error, sickness or documents overlooked in mailboxes. Analyse how these obstacles impacted the process. a. Create a flowchart for the process considering the major steps in the process, as well as where the process begins and ends. b. What do you observe as you look at the flowchart, and are there any improvements that could occur to the process to lessen the time from commencement to completion?

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CHAPTER 13 / Communicate using graphics and visual aids

GROUP ACTIVITY Use a team approach for this assignment. The team is required to make an oral presentation and to support the presentation with graphics. ‘Graphics are visual techniques to focus the reader’s attention on the main points and to clarify discussions and findings. A range of graphics is available to the report writer. Concepts, related data, trends, movement and changes in time, comparisons and spatial distributions can be all shown graphically.’ 1. Discuss the above quotation and the use of graphic communication in report writing by:

a. identifying what graphics do b. discussing the major types of graphics c. describing guidelines for selecting appropriate graphics d. describing how to construct graphics e. illustrating your points with examples. 2. Make an oral team presentation on your assignment titled ‘Using graphic communication in reports’. Support the oral presentation with graphic material that conveys a specific message for a specific purpose.

CASE STUDY NORTH HOSPITAL PTY LTD Emily has been employed as an analyst by North Hospital Pty Ltd. Her first task is to provide a report to management on the reasons for the large number of complaints received by North Hospital in the past 12 months. North Hospital has a unit that specialises in sporting injuries in 13- to 19-year-olds. Injuries are incurred in a wide variety of sporting activities. The types of injury range from minor fractures to the occasional spinal injury. North Hospital was established in 1988, and due to a lack of funding there have been no major upgrades to the hospital since that time. The lack of funding means the hospital looks tired and in need of some care. Emily learns that no formal training has been provided to staff over the past five years and that the staff haven’t had the opportunity to keep up to date with new advances in the medical profession. Patients arriving on a Saturday morning can wait up to four hours to be seen by a doctor due to funding issues and a shortage of qualified staff. The hospital treats around 2600 injuries each year. Recently, patients and parents of patients have made

numerous complaints. In the past 12 months, 226 complaints have been received. Emily’s investigation reveals that 80 complaints were in relation to the cleanliness and hygiene of the hospital, 102 were in relation to patient waiting times to see a doctor (especially on Saturdays), six related to there being insufficient facilities for food and beverages while waiting, 28 related to only a student doctor being available rather than a fully qualified doctor, and 10 related to health and safety issues.

Questions 1. List and explain how different visuals can be used to assist in the analysis of problems. 2. The complaints received by North Hospital Pty Ltd indicate the hospital is facing many issues. To highlight the main areas of complaint, construct two different graphics that Emily could present to management. 3. Write a short report incorporating your two visuals into the text of the report.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY Australian Bureau of Statistics. Home Page, http://www.abs.gov.au, viewed 28 October 2018. Australian Bureau of Statistics. 2011–2012, 4177.0 Participation in Sport and Physical Recreation, http://www.abs.gov.au, viewed 23 April 2015. Australian Bureau of Statistics. 2009–10 Year Book Australia 1301.0, ABS, Canberra. Department of Agriculture and Water Resources, 2018. Infographics, http://www.agriculture.gov.au/abares/ PublishingImages/ag-commodities/aust-econ-large.jpg, viewed 28 October 2018. Dwyer, J. & Hopwood, N. 2013. Management Strategies and Skills, 2nd edn, McGraw-Hill, Australia.

Few, S. 2004. Show Me the Numbers: Designing Tables and Graphs to Enlighten, Analytics Press, US. Few, S. 2006. Visual Communication, Cognos Innovation Centre, US. Harris, R.L. 2000. Information Graphics: A Comprehensive Illustrated Reference, Oxford University Press, USA. Ruppert, D. 2004. Statistics and Finance: An Introduction, Springer, USA. Tufte, E.R. 2004. Visual Display of Quantitative Information, 2nd edn, Graphics Press, US. Tufte, E.R. 2006. Beautiful Evidence, Graphics Press, US.

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EFFECTIVE BUSINESS WRITING

CHAPTER

14

Your Learning Journey

Chapter 14

Email body conveys the message in a courteous and confident tone

14.5

Identifies the receiver, sender, subject, date and time

14.4

Be effective Good business writing uses the three-step writing process:

14.3

PLAN

WRITE

COMPLETE

WRITE WITH ETHICS Convey your message truthfully, accurately, appropriately and respectfully

Short, focused posts (social media) Attention-grabbing (encourage followers and fans to read, comment and share) Professional (correct spelling, grammar and punctuation)

It conveys a clear and unambiguous message to a receiver

it also generates goodwill in that receiver

EMAIL

Clear, concise content, use of the active voice and an inverted pyramid style of writing

CH 15

Good business writing achieves two basic objectives:

EMAILS MEMOS + SCREEN-BASED CONTENT

WEB (blogging, messaging, tweeting)

Next WRITING BUSINESS LETTERS

14.1

Applying business writing skills:

14.2 layout or format

rhythm or flow

order of information

paragraphs

sentences

Write in Plain English and use the 7 components of writing style

tone

words

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LEARNING OBJECTIVES After studying this chapter, you should be able to: 14.1 understand what characterises good business writing and apply the three-step writing process 14.2 write workplace documents in Plain English using the seven components of writing style 14.3 identify guiding principles for ethical business writing 14.4 outline an effective strategy for writing routine emails 14.5 describe the characteristics of effective Web writing, blogging, messaging and tweeting.

Apply a readerfriendly writing style.

14.1 WHAT IS BUSINESS WRITING? Effective business writing gets results. It does this because it achieves two basic objectives. It conveys a clear and unambiguous message to a receiver, but it also generates goodwill in that receiver. To achieve these two objectives, the writer must write clearly, coherently, concisely, correctly, and with courtesy and confidence. As you plan any piece of business writing – email, letters, reports, pamphlets, blogs, Twitter, Facebook or other channels of written communication – take time to identify your purpose, consider your receiver, decide what you want to say and put this in a logical sequence. As you write, your tools are words, sentences, paragraphs and layout. Make these work for you to convey your meaning concisely and courteously. At the editing stage, check your work for accuracy and completeness and make sure that your writing is logical, clear and concise. The receiver of written business messages wants to understand what should happen, why it should happen and how to go about making it happen.

THE THREE-STEP WRITING PROCESS When writing a business document you should put yourself in the reader’s place. A Plain English writing style – that is, a reader-friendly writing style – is good, clear writing that considers the reader’s needs and gets the message across easily and quickly. It reduces the chances of misunderstanding and ambiguity and is particularly suited to workplace documents. Good workplace writing – either paper-based in the form of letters, EXHIBIT 14.1 Three-step writing process memos and reports, or electronic in the form of email, documents posted on the Web, blogs, messaging and tweets – is the result of Plan Write Complete thoughtful planning, writing in Plain English and careful editing. Follow the three-step writing process shown in Exhibit 14.1 for effective business writing. Busy people appreciate specific information structured coherently and expressed clearly. This type Follow three steps – of writing is effective because it enables the receiver to respond quickly. It saves them from struggling plan, write, complete – to create with a poorly constructed message hidden by unfamiliar language and unhelpful layout. Undertake the effective written actions in Exhibit 14.2 to implement the three-step writing process effectively. messages. Business writing has many purposes, including: • conveying information, as in a financial report • explaining or justifying actions already taken, as in a decision to open a branch in another city • influencing the receiver to take some action, such as to transfer to online shopping • delivering good or bad news, such as a job offer or a refusal for credit • instructing and directing, such as instructing the delivery of materials by a certain date.

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CHAPTER 14 / Effective business writing

EXHIBIT 14.2 Actions in the three-step writing process Plan In the planning step: • Define your purpose and gather information. • Develop an audience profile and determine their needs. • Match your message to the audience and your purpose. • Select the appropriate medium (paperbased or online) for your message. • Organise and structure your content into either the direct or indirect order of information.

Write In the writing step: • Convey your meaning concisely, courteously, confidently. • Use a Plain English writing style. • Use unbiased, inclusive language and a ‘you’ attitude. • Emphasise the positive and focus on what can be done rather than criticising. • Establish your credibility and build a relationship with your audience. • Use your organisation’s signature elements to create a professional layout.

Complete In the completion step: • Evaluate and revise your content. • Review the document’s readability, edit and rewrite. • Use design and signature elements to project your organisation’s preferred image. • Proofread and correct spelling and punctuation errors, typos, omitted words and layout. • Deliver your message in the appropriate medium to your intended audience.

PURPOSE AND AUDIENCE Effective business writers focus on their writing purpose and the needs of their audience. Before you start writing you should ask yourself, ‘What is my reason for writing this document? What do I want to accomplish?’ Then, as you write, focus on your purpose and adapt your message to meet the needs of your audience. The actions in column three of Exhibit 14.2 enable you to finalise a high-quality written message. Audience analysis lets you compose persuasive, user-centred written messages. Consider the audience’s objectives; that is, what they want to do after reading the document (for example, use the features of their smartphone camera). Write a user-friendly message. Identify your audience’s needs and expectations by gathering as much information as possible about them. Before you begin writing, consider audience characteristics such as: • knowledge and experience levels • level of language, literacy and numeracy • educational and professional background • economic status, political, social and religious beliefs • level of information the audience have about the subject – novice, general reader, specialist or expert • the context in which they will be reading the piece of writing (newspaper, textbook, popular magazine, specialised journal or on the internet). An audience without special or expert knowledge will need more background information and more definition and description, supported by attractive graphics or visuals, than a group of managers within your organisation. Acknowledging the knowledge level of your audience helps you determine how to write and how much information to include. 1. List two characteristics of business writing that gets results. 2. Identify three purposes of business writing. 3. Briefly outline the actions taken in the planning stage of the three-step writing process.

Focus on your writing purpose and the needs of your audience.

CHECKPOINT 14.1

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14.2 THE SEVEN COMPONENTS OF WRITING STYLE Good workplace writing uses the following seven components of writing style appropriately: 1. words (language) 2. sentences 3. paragraphs 4. rhythm or flow 5. tone 6. order of information 7. layout or format. Appropriate words, well-structured sentences and paragraphs, a logical progression of ideas and an appropriate tone all ensure a good writing style.

LANGUAGE Communicate clearly to improve understanding.

Language is the communication tool that expresses meaning and gives a form to ideas, feelings and events as you transmit them to others. Your vocabulary is your stock of words. These words have been assigned their meaning or range of meanings by use and convention. When choosing words for workplace writing, remember that it’s always good practice to use Plain English – the language that is familiar and friendly to your receiver. Keep the following guidelines in mind.

Use simple language Choose clear, unambiguous language.

Familiar, unambiguous words that move straight to the point make the reader’s task simple, and ensure that the message is immediately clear. Choose words that are appropriate to the audience and situation.

Remove unnecessary words Using more words than are necessary to convey the meaning irritates the reader, who may decide to read no further. Avoid repetition. Some examples of the use of too many words, and suitable alternatives, are given in Exhibit 14.3.

EXHIBIT 14.3 Unnecessary words Poor or incorrect use

Better use

actual fact

fact

a number of different

various

completely eliminate

eliminate

due and payable

due

end results

results

in order to

to

is able to

can

I personally

I

on the occasion of

when

overall control

control

precedes before

goes before, or just ‘precedes’

>

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CHAPTER 14 / Effective business writing

>

Poor or incorrect use

Better use

progress forward

progress

possible benefit

benefit

repeat again

repeat

reverse backward

reverse

the majority of

most

Avoid cliche´s Hackneyed expressions, or cliche´s, are overused words and phrases that have lost meaning and impact. Examples of cliche´s that are often used in official documents and sometimes creep into our own writing are given in Exhibit 14.4. Avoid them. Precise, plain language is easier to understand than general, cliche´d language.

EXHIBIT 14.4 Cliche´s Cliche´s and buzzwords

Plain English

an uphill battle

a challenge

at this point in time

now

explore every avenue

investigate

finalise

finish

green shoots of recovery

signs of recovery

occasioned

caused

optimum

best

reside

live

terminate

end

utilisation of

use

Use specific language Specific language describes details precisely. It is easier to understand and makes more impact than general or theoretical language. The receiver may interpret a general term quite differently from the way you intended. Concrete language conveys a specific image that is easy to interpret. The phrase ‘a rusted, green, late-nineties Holden Astra’ has a much clearer message for the reader than the more general phrase ‘an old vehicle’.

Use technical terms prudently Technical terms (jargon) have a precise meaning that is specific to a particular subject, procedure or process (e.g. computer terminology: motherboard, port, pixel). They are useful when you write for those who are familiar with them. Avoid them when you write for those who are not familiar with them. Readers may simply ‘turn off’ or become ‘worried’ by the difficult terms. Use technical terms only when you know they will help your reader to understand, not to show how knowledgeable you are. Avoid buzzwords – for example, the term ‘coal face’, meaning the operational end of management. Acronyms (e.g. ASEAN) are another difficulty. You may understand an acronym’s meaning but others will need it spelled out. Use an acronym only if you are sure it is known to your reader, but it is good practice to spell it out in full the first time you use it. 355 Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202

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Use the active voice Use the active voice to link the sentence’s subject to the action.

The active voice communicates simply and directly, and lets the reader know exactly who does what. In a sentence using the active voice, the subject comes first – for example, ‘The company polluted the river’. The company is the subject and the action word (the verb) is ‘polluted’. This subject-and-verb sequence links the subject directly to the action in the structure of the sentence. The sentence, ‘The river was polluted by the company’ uses the passive voice. In other words, ‘river’ is the passive receiver of the action ‘polluted’. The sentence is longer and less direct than ‘The company polluted the river’. By putting ‘river’ first, it emphasises ‘river’, rather than ‘company’, which is responsible for the action. The passive voice is less direct than the active voice. Sometimes it also leaves out important information such as who or what is performing the action – for example: ‘The river was polluted’ (see Exhibit 14.5 for examples).

EXHIBIT 14.5 Active and passive voice

Avoid overuse of the passive voice.

Active voice

Passive voice

The business reached its highest sales figures for the year this month.

Record sales figures for the year were reached by the business this month.

The committee is considering action on the request.

Action on the request is being considered by the committee.

Ling completed the assignment.

The assignment was completed by Ling.

Third-year Management students prepared the project.

The project was prepared by third-year Management students.

Barbara finished the work.

The work was finished by Barbara.

We proposed the change last week.

The change was proposed last week.

Using the passive voice too much can slow down your writing, whereas the active voice creates a sense of immediacy and energy. It also reduces formality, as in ‘I enclose a cheque’, rather than ‘A cheque is enclosed’. Using the passive voice is sometimes appropriate – for example, it conveys a more diplomatic tone to write: ‘Your payment has not been received’ rather than ‘You have not sent payment’.

Choose non-discriminatory, inclusive language Avoid discriminatory language.

Use inclusive language suited to all readers.

Language often carries hidden meaning. Some words carry sexist or racist messages that are offensive or demeaning to others. Think about your own language use. Do you use racist or sexist terms? Can you identify them? Sexist language gives one gender more prominence than the other. Three strategies for removing sexism in written language are suggested here. 1. Avoid using male-dominated terms to describe occupations or roles that are shared by both men and women – for example, instead of ‘chairman’, use ‘chair’ or ‘chairperson’. 2. Eliminate the unnecessary mention of a person’s gender, as in ‘lady doctor’ or ‘female engineer’. 3. When referring to someone whose gender is not specified, avoid using the male pronoun ‘he’ exclusively. Use ‘he or she’, or simply use the plural pronoun, even when referring to just one person – for example, ‘If a student is late, ask them to explain’. The Macquarie Student Writer’s Guide (2007) suggests this approach. You could also rewrite the sentence entirely, in the plural form – for example, ‘If students are late, ask them to explain’.

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CHAPTER 14 / Effective business writing Resentment and communication barriers occur when language reinforces stereotypes or excludes certain groups of people on the basis of their sex, race, age or disability. Non-discriminatory, inclusive language includes all your readers. Even if your occupation is currently female-dominated, as nursing is, or male-dominated, as engineering is, changing attitudes and education trends means that both women and men are working in all industries. Some words and phrases that refer to racial and ethnic groups are outdated, inaccurate and offensive. Naming a person’s country of origin is preferable to more global labels; for example, Vietnamese, Korean or Chinese rather than Asian. Maintain the integrity of individuals with disabilities or illness by using words that emphasise the person rather than the disability. Avoid language that equates people with their conditions and has superfluous or negative overtones. For example, the term ‘sexual orientation’ is now preferred to ‘sexual preference’. Examples of language that avoid bias and offence are shown in Exhibit 14.6.

EXHIBIT 14.6 Avoid bias in language Gender bias Using words containing ’man’

Sexist

Non-sexist

man in the street

ordinary person

man-made

synthetic, artificial, manufactured

mankind, man

human beings, humans, humankind, humanity, men and women, people, society, the individual

lady lawyer, male nurse, air hostess

lawyer, nurse, flight attendant

Identifying roles with gender

fireman chairman anchor man cleaning lady/girl, maid businessman

firefighter chair, chairperson anchor person housekeeper, office cleaner businessperson, executive, manager, business owner

Using the pronoun ‘he’ to refer to everyone

When a pilot leaves the cockpit he must …

When leaving the cockpit a pilot must …

When a person commences employment, he must contact Human Resources.

When a person commences employment, they must contact Human Resources.

Referring to members of both sexes with non-parallel names, titles, or descriptions

Melinda Davis, an attractive 39-year-old engineer, and her husband, Gary Davis, a noted lecturer …

Melinda Davis, an engineer, and her husband, Gary Davis, a lecturer …

men and ladies

men and women, ladies and gentlemen

Using special designations

Age bias

Ageism

Preferred

Including age when irrelevant

Jack Pollard, 62, has been appointed to the Board

Jack Pollard has been appointed to the Board

Using words that cause offence

aged, old, geriatric, the elderly, the aged

older person, senior citizen(s), older people, seniors

> 357

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>

Disability bias Putting the disability before the person

Bias

Preferred

Disabled workers face many barriers on the job

Workers with physical disabilities face many barriers on the job

An epileptic, Cynthia has no trouble doing her job

Cynthia’s epilepsy has no effect on her job performance

Disabled students …

Students with a disability …

Retarded

Person with an intellectual disability Racial and ethnic bias

Race, ethnicity, and national origin

Preferred

Assigning stereotypes

Not surprisingly, Ling excels in mathematics

Ling excels in mathematics.

Identifying people by race or ethnicity

Sandra Hepple, Greek-Australian broadcaster …

Sandra Hepple, broadcaster …

Using offensive words

native, Negro, coloured

native peoples, early inhabitants, Aboriginal peoples (but not Aborigines), black, African-American

Demeaning expression

Patronising expressions Addressing or referring to an adult man or woman in a patronising way

boy girl fair sex chick jock

Preferred man, sir woman women young woman young man

As you mix and correspond with women and men in business, use language that includes both groups. To write an engineering job description that says, ‘The best man for the job will have the following characteristics …’ ignores female engineers. To write a nursing job description that says, ‘She will have the following characteristics …’ excludes male nurses. Only include references to age, sex, religion, race and other characteristics if they are relevant. Whether you are writing for local, regional or international business readers, make sure that you use non-discriminatory, inclusive language.

Use parallel language Link related ideas with parallel language – the same parts of speech.

You can sometimes link related ideas more closely by expressing them in an equivalent grammatical form. The words ‘talking’ and ‘laughing’, for example, are parallel, but ‘talking’ and ‘laughed’ are not. Also, use words that give the same weight or emphasis to two different but equally important things or people. ‘The man and the woman’ is an example of parallelism, but ‘the man and the lady’ is not. ‘The gentleman and the lady’ are parallel terms, though outdated. A sports commentator who says, ‘The men are really holding their strength’ and then describes a female event by saying, ‘The girls are holding their strength’ is not using parallel language. ‘Men’ describes adult males, but ‘girls’ does not describe adult females and therefore can be interpreted as patronising or discriminatory. Words are your tools as a writer. Make them work well for you. Use simple, familiar language, free of jargon, repetition and cliche´s. Be prepared to work at becoming competent with language. A dictionary and a thesaurus are both useful. A quick check in the dictionary will ensure that your spelling is correct, while the thesaurus offers you a range of words suitable for your purpose.

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CHAPTER 14 / Effective business writing

SENTENCE STRUCTURE The sentence is the pattern in which your written ideas are presented. These patterns are then interpreted by your receiver. As a writer, your aim is to convey information in sentences that are easy to understand. Clarity and coherence in writing are achieved by carefully and correctly constructed sentences. Three main types of sentences are shown in Exhibit 14.7. Each uses a particular structure or pattern of words.

Construct sentences carefully to make your writing clear and coherent.

EXHIBIT 14.7 Types of sentences Type

Description

Example

A simple sentence

Has: • one clause – the main clause – which stands alone • only one idea or action, expressed in one clause • only one finite verb – that is, one verb with a subject.

The sentence ‘James carried the baby’ is a simple sentence containing one clause, one finite verb (‘carried’) and its subject (‘James’).

A compound sentence

Has: • two main clauses that could stand alone – that is, two simple sentences usually joined with a connecting word such as ‘and’ or ‘but’ • two or more main ideas or actions, expressed in two main clauses • at least two finite verbs – that is, two verbs with subjects.

‘James carried the baby and Mary pushed the stroller’ is a compound sentence containing two verbs (‘carried’ and ‘pushed’) and their subjects (‘James’ and ‘Mary’).

A complex sentence

Has: • one main clause and one or more subordinate (dependent) clauses • more than one idea contained in the main clause • at least one other idea that relates to or depends on the main clause.

‘James carried the baby, who was crying’ is a complex sentence containing the main idea – that James carried the baby – plus additional information – that the baby was crying.

The value of understanding these basic facts about sentences is that you can avoid two of the most common errors in writing sentences: writing fragments instead of whole sentences, and writing sentences that lack unity. A sentence fragment does not make complete sense on its own. An example is: ‘Writing to the clients’. Clearly, the reader needs more information – for example, ‘Writing to the clients was an important task for the manager’. The incompleteness in the sentence fragment is caused by the absence of a finite verb – that is, a verb with a subject. Beware of treating sentence fragments as whole sentences. They can confuse your reader. A second very common fault in sentence structure occurs when a sentence lacks unity because it contains two quite separate ideas that need separate sentences. Advice about ensuring sentence unity is given in the subsection ‘Sentence sprawl’ below. The correct use of grammar gives order to sentence structure and the flow of ideas, and enables the reader to understand the writer’s intention and information. It follows certain conventions to allow the expectations of writer and reader to intersect. Accordingly, the reader relies on the writer to use these conventions and the writer knows that the reader expects them. 359 Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202

THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK The Business Communication Handbook does not aim to explain and develop correct grammatical use and punctuation. However, it is suggested that you practise and check carefully the details of spelling, grammar and punctuation in all your writing.

Sentence length The general rule when writing Plain English is to keep sentences short and compact because they are easier to read. Long, involved sentences can be difficult to follow. On the other hand, too many short sentences can make the connections between each idea hard to follow. As you write, make sure that you connect your points or ideas clearly. Lead the reader through them without causing confusion. Variety in sentence length improves the flow of ideas.

Sentence sprawl Avoid sentence sprawl, which occurs when a sentence contains separate ideas.

Sprawling sentences with too many words often try to cover too much at once. For example, ‘The student display had been planned for Tuesday September 25 but there were some people who were not going to be available, so they rescheduled it for Thursday, September 27, and then all people would be able to attend’. The sentence is too wordy and may confuse the reader because there are: • too many points or ideas to grasp • too many qualifications or modifications to each point. You can make a document more readable by breaking long sentences into two or three sentences to form a paragraph. Variety in sentence length also helps to keep the reader’s interest. If a sentence looks awkward, read it aloud. If it sounds too long, or the ideas tangle together, you have a poorly constructed or perhaps an over-complex sentence. The following guidelines can help you to shorten long, complicated sentences: • Sort out your ideas or points. • Limit each sentence to one or two ideas. • Break up a long sentence into two or three shorter sentences. • Put explanations into separate sentences. If the writing sounds choppy and interrupted, your sentences may be too short. In this case, join two sentences with words like ‘or’, ‘and’, ‘but’, ‘so’, ‘because’, ‘unless’, ‘although’ and ‘otherwise’.

Readability Avoid long, involved sentences. They may confuse the reader.

The general rule in business correspondence is to keep sentences short and compact: 15–20 words each will make them easier to understand, which is what ‘readability’ means here. Exhibit 14.8 measures readability against the average number of words in sentences in a passage. A sentence with eight words or less is very easy to read. An average reader would have no trouble with a sentence of 17 words, so the 17-word sentence is defined as the standard sentence. A sentence of 29 words or more is more difficult to read. However, variety in sentence length can increase the reader’s interest.

The Fog Index The Fog Index is a readability test. It can be used to assess the density of your writing. To use the Fog Index, follow these steps: 1. Choose a piece of your writing of, say, half a page in length. Count the number of words that have three or more syllables.

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EXHIBIT 14.8 Sentence readability Number of words

Readability

8 or less

Very easy

11

Easy

14

Fairly easy

17

Standard

21

Fairly difficult

25

Difficult

29 or more

Very difficult

There are exceptions to this rule – do not count: the main topic words and proper nouns (e.g. communication, Canberra) verb tense and category endings (e.g. -ing, -ed, -ly) plural words. Count the number of sentences. 2. Divide the number of words with three or more syllables by the number of sentences to give you the Fog Score. A Fog Score of: • 2–3 is a reasonable average for business writing • 4–5 shows a rather heavy use of long words • 6þ is typical of much academic and technical writing. In general, a low Fog Score means that more people will be able to understand the document, although a low Fog Score does not guarantee good writing. A score of 5 or more warns you that your document is difficult to comprehend. To reduce a high score: • omit unnecessary words • replace long words with shorter words • divide long sentences into shorter ones. Even if your writing style is so good that you can construct complex sentences of 30 words or more correctly, think of alternatives. The average reader, who makes up the greatest part of your readership, may be able to read and understand only a simpler construction that uses about 17 words. If you always use complex sentences, many readers are likely to have problems understanding your message. • • •

Construct sentences that suit the readability level of your audience.

Punctuation Punctuation achieves for written communication what pauses and inflection do for spoken communication. Using it correctly will help to keep your points distinct and your message clear. Remember to use a capital letter to begin a sentence and a full stop to complete it. Use a comma to mark a pause, or to give one part of the sentence equal weight with the other.

Use punctuation to enhance meaning.

PARAGRAPH STRUCTURE The coherence and rhythm of your writing will depend not only on your word choice and sentence structure but also on how well you construct your paragraphs. A paragraph is a cluster of sentences built around one main idea or point. Its most important function is to group together the sentences that are dedicated to one main idea, and to separate them visually from the ideas that precede and follow them. 361 Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202

THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK To make your paragraphs work this way, you must ensure that the main point of each one stands out sharply. Some strategies that will help you with this are as follows.

Strategies to create different types of paragraphs

Put a topic sentence at the beginning or end of a paragraph.

For an opening or introductory paragraph, organise the ideas or thoughts around: • a statement of the subject • a statement of the intention of the piece of writing • background information • a question, anecdote or opinion. Because of their objective nature, the first three of these strategies are used most often in workplace documents. A topic sentence that states the main idea of a paragraph is also useful. It is usually presented at the beginning or end of the paragraph. When it occurs at the beginning, follow it with sentences that explain or discuss the paragraph’s main idea. Alternatively, you may discuss the supporting information first, and then present the main idea in the last sentence of the paragraph. Either way the topic sentence identifies for the reader the main point of that paragraph. In a closing or concluding paragraph, you may organise the content around: • a course of action • a recommendation • a summary • a quotation • a question or challenge • a restatement of the introduction.

Grouping sentences The structure of your paragraph is important. Many writers use the acronym P.E.E.L. (point, example, elaborate, link to the next paragraph), shown in Exhibit 14.9, to structure a paragraph.

EXHIBIT 14.9 P.E.E.L.

P Point

Remember that short paragraphs are usually easier to comprehend. Link paragraphs into a logical sequence.

E Example

E Elaborate

L Link

The P.E.E.L. approach organises the sentences to provide a logical progression of information. Use linking words such as ‘therefore’, ‘consequently’ or ‘however’ to tie the whole together and carry your reader comfortably from point to point. Always aim to put the sentences of each paragraph in an order that will make them easy to understand. To achieve this sort of coherence, attention to punctuation and grammar is very important.

Paragraph length In business writing, the usual rule is to have at least two sentences in a paragraph. However, a sentence can stand alone as a ‘paragraph’ to emphasise a particular point. Use this device sparingly.

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CHAPTER 14 / Effective business writing Consider varying paragraph length to give variety to your writing. Remember that paragraphs provide relief to the eye. White space is important, as it breaks up blocks of printed material that could otherwise overwhelm or discourage the reader. A good writing style presents correct, concise information. Paragraphs must also be linked together in a logical order to make your piece of writing clear and unified. Write your paragraphs so that the reader can follow the development of your idea in each one, and then progress from one paragraph to the next. By the concluding paragraph, the reader should comprehend the purpose and meaning of your entire piece.

RHYTHM As people read, they follow the writer’s rhythm – the flow of ideas and the pauses that halt the flow to emphasise a point. To vary your writing rhythm in this way, use the following: • a full stop • a new paragraph • a topic sentence • a simple sentence • a longer complex or compound sentence • repetition of key words • headings and subheadings • linking words and phrases. Read your work aloud and listen for the rhythm. First, does it flow and, second, does it provide variety? A balanced rhythm in writing is important because it helps to make your writing interesting and easy to follow.

TONE Tone is an important part of your message. The reader, like the listener, interprets meaning not only from the words but also from your choice of words, and even from the way you arrange them. A courteous, confident tone is appropriate for business writing, or for offering an opinion, stating a fact or asking a question. An aggressive or patronising tone is unacceptable. When we give a command or direction we use the imperative tense – for example: ‘Pass the ball to the left-winger’ or ‘Leave the computer turned on’. The imperative changes tone and becomes more courteous if we add: ‘Please’. The question, ‘How could you have been so silly as to post the parcel to the wrong address?’ has an angry and belittling tone. The words ‘How could you’ and ‘silly’ in the sentence would make the receiver defensive, because the tone is judgemental and unkind. Tone reflects your attitude towards the receiver and your subject. Take time to place yourself in the receiver’s position and write courteously and positively.

The ‘you’ approach The ‘you’ approach in writing speaks personally to the receiver by addressing them directly as ‘you’ from time to time in the document. ‘Thank you for your enquiry’ is an example of this approach. It projects an empathic, personal tone and includes both male and female readers – that is, all readers. Sometimes, you can add the word ‘us’ to create a rapport between the writer and the receiver. However, for workplace writing it is usually better to focus on the document’s purpose and the receiver’s needs.

Focus on the document’s purpose and use an empathic tone.

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ORDER OF INFORMATION The order of information or sequence in which you present your information must suit your communication purpose and be user-centred and logical. The introductory paragraph(s) of any business document explains the main purpose of the document and allows the reader to anticipate what the document is about, why they have received the document and what the writer wants them to do. The main body: • is broken into paragraphs and begins each paragraph with a topic sentence • proceeds in a logical and organised way, moving from general to specific information • arranges information logically and in order of importance to the reader • organises each section around only one main idea and keeps similar information together. Two broad classifications of organisational patterns for business messages are: 1. the direct pattern, where the main idea comes first, followed by details and explanation 2. the indirect pattern, where the details and explanation come first, followed by the main idea. The direct pattern is applied when the receiver is likely to be receptive to the document’s purpose, ideas and recommendations (if any). The indirect pattern is appropriate when the receiver is likely to be resistant to the document’s ideas and recommendations. To develop the content in business writing, the rule (as for any writing) is to place the important points in positions that will draw the reader’s attention to them. When you relate the content clearly to the purpose of your document, you create a balance between your information and the changes or action that should take place as a result of the communication.

LAYOUT Remember that layout creates the first impression of a document.

Layout is the arrangement or presentation of information on the page. It gives your reader their first impression of your message. Therefore, to project a professional image, set out any document to make a maximum impact, achieve your communication purpose and improve readability. Readers begin to identify a document by its physical appearance (format, size and complexity). Based on their past experience with that kind of document a reader will have preconceptions about the appropriate size and general layout of that kind of document; for example, email, business letter or proposal. Before they read the content, readers often flick through a document. They quickly recognise the type of business document and pick up structural cues and features, such as headings, styles and graphics. Any feature that is different from accepted standards will catch the reader’s attention. Consequently, business writers can use headings of different sizes, varying styles and charts or tables to emphasise elements and accentuate different kinds of information. Enable readers to find information where they expect to see it by emphasising key points through the use of: • clear and specific headings • boldface, underlining or italics • indentation, bullets or numbering systems • styles and white space to show the hierarchy and relative importance of headings. The appropriate professional layout of your communication is an integral part of it. You will achieve its purpose when you provide specific information that meets the document’s purpose, satisfies the needs of the receiver and reaches the formatting standards expected of business documents.

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CHAPTER 14 / Effective business writing

Document design Four interrelated design principles – proximity, alignment, repetition and contrast – can improve a document’s readability. At the evaluation stage, edit your document design against these four principles to verify its professionalism, unity and ability to be understood easily. Proximity and alignment are used to organise the information on a page. Checking the proximity of one item to another will help you to clarify their relationship; that is, you should ensure that related items are physically close together and unrelated items further apart. Aligning the document then serves to unify the information it contains. For paper-based or electronic documents, you would generally align the content vertically to the left-hand margin because the hard vertical edge makes a strong visual statement that is easy for the eye to follow. As you edit a document, check that the principles of proximity and alignment work together to improve its readability. Repetition, or consistency, means that some aspect of the design – for example, font style, font size or graphics – should be used throughout the entire document to act as a visual key. This unifies the contents and holds the reader’s attention. Contrast, in turn, creates a visual hierarchy. It can be created by type, textures and elements such as lines, boxes or graphics that differ from one another. However, you should avoid cluttering the document with too many variations. 1. Types of sentences: a. Define the terms ‘simple sentence’, ‘compound sentence’ and ‘complex sentence’. b. Write an example of each type of sentence. 2. Identify any faults in these sentences and correct them. a. ‘I apologise for the way our product reached you, and it seems the panels have broken through insufficient packaging.’ b. ‘Mrs Jones, the attractive wife of the manager, opened the new store.’ c. ‘We must repeat again and again, Mrs Jackson, how deeply apologetic we are that our service to you has been so very poor.’ d. ‘We beg to acknowledge receipt of your gracious letter of the 14th.’ e. ‘You have not paid this month’s account.’ f. ‘Our tardiness in replying has been due to the fact that we hoped to arrange for an account manager to call upon you.’ g. ‘West Carlingford is the only place where the substantial investment necessary for the new freeway network is justified from the financial viewpoint.’ 3. Sentence length: a. Define ‘sentence sprawl’ and briefly discuss three ways to avoid it in your writing. b. Divide the following sentence into at least three shorter sentences. You may need to change a few words to clarify the writing. My strong interest in your organisation and in the field of publishing is based on a longterm involvement with data and people and I am writing to offer multifaceted employable skills to meet your organisation’s needs. c. Combine the following two simple sentences to make one compound sentence. Marie and Jarek attended the conference. Charles decided to stay at home. d. Identify the main clause and the subordinate clause in the following complex sentence. The child who is wearing the Collingwood sports jumper is my cousin. e. Rewrite the following sentence to eliminate unnecessary words and cliche ´s. To put it simply, the winds of change are now blowing strongly on the Australian retail industry and I see the Retail Association’s proposal as a beacon and a blueprint for becoming the envy of retailers in other countries.

Use proximity and alignment to organise the information on a page.

Apply consistency and repetition to hold the reader’s attention, and contrast to add visual interest.

CHECKPOINT 14.2

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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK

14.3 ETHICAL BUSINESS WRITING Ethical business writing reflects the moral principles of honesty, fairness, diversity, equality, dignity and individual rights. The outcome of writing ethically is a message – either paper-based, electronic, digital or posted on social media – that conveys its intended message to the receiver truthfully, accurately and respectfully. The writer expresses what they set out to say, and the result is a clear and correct message appropriate to the receiver.

GUIDING PRINCIPLES The guiding principles for ethical written communication in business are: • truthfulness, honesty and fairness with colleagues and other stakeholders, internal and external to the organisation • confidentiality and respect for the privacy of the personal information of others in written documents and records • integrity in work activities to give credit where due and avoid conflicts of interest and situations that would bring discredit to self, colleagues or the organisation • inclusiveness and respect for others with courteous, well-researched and accurate information • attribution to avoid deception in research and provide accurate and complete citations to the work of others • compliance with copyright legislation and respect for intellectual property. Ethical writers are honest, open and objective. They are aware of cultural diversity and avoid any type of discrimination. Positive language avoids offensive words, jokes, negativity, rumours and gossip that may demean the organisation, their colleagues or the organisation’s customers and other stakeholders. The use of inclusive language and a courteous tone demonstrate sensitivity to the preferences and concerns of those they are writing about or the receivers to whom, they are writing. Ethical writers work within the framework of their organisation’s policies, codes of conduct and values and in accordance with the organisation’s standard formats for written communication. They present all information as accurately as possible, present both sides of an issue and resist bias that misrepresents results or issues. Full disclosure without the suppression of important details and misrepresentation of facts avoids damaging the writer’s and the organisation’s reputation.

THE ETHICS OF PLAIN ENGLISH Fair and impartial access to information that creates an understanding how it applies and the actions to take is a right for people living in a democratic society. Plain English is an ethically important style of writing as it gives people access to information and makes it easy for them to understand written forms and documents. The International Plain Language Federation (2018) states, ‘A communication is in plain language if its wording, structure and design are so clear that the intended audience can easily find what they need, understand what they find and use that information.’ (With permission of the International Plain Language Federation.) Language that is clear and easily understood empowers people while obscure writing denies them their right to know something or take action. A lack of information or misunderstanding about the meaning of laws, rules and contracts can put the receiver at a disadvantage, cause problems and even hardship. The principles of Plain English and ethical communication apply to any written business message you create. This does not mean that you must write every document in the same style. You can adapt your style to suit the context and the communication channel. Technology now enables us to communicate quickly with larger audiences through new media. 366 Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202

CHAPTER 14 / Effective business writing Once you put yourself in the place of the receiver and focus on their need to know and understand the information, your written messages will have the three major advantages shown in Exhibit 14.10.

EXHIBIT 14.10 Three advantages of Plain English

Efficiency

• is easier to read and understand • results in fewer inquiries from receivers who cannot understand the message • decrease the costs incurred from dealing with complaints from poorly written and misunderstood messages • reduces the number of incorrectly completed forms or survey responses, thus saves clerical time

Equity

• gives all receivers easy access to information and an understanding of how it applies to them, and whether it is necessary to take any action • allows fair or impartial access to information – a right for people living in a democratic society • empowers receivers to understand activities that affect their life, e.g. a contract for the purchase of a home or information on social security benefits • provides value because it gives any organisation a cultural focus on enhancing a receivers’ understanding and meeting their needs • gives the receiver easy access to information and lets them understand written forms and documents and take the necessary action – misunderstanding of laws and contracts may lead to hardship

Effectiveness

Express the document’s purpose clearly. Write in Plain English to enhance efficiency, equity and effectiveness. Avoid breaching copyright by acknowledging and crediting your sources.

• expresses the message's purpose clearly and is well organised to meet the needs of the receiver • provides tangible benefits to receivers and attracts new receivers because its message is easily understood • achieves its purpose with a clear, concise and unified message • helps readers to understand and make decisions • take actions on the basis of the information and so exercise their democratic rights as citizens

COPYRIGHT Copyright is the legal protection for people who express ideas and information in writing, visual images, music and animation. Electronic documents and blogs are permanent and searchable, so ensure the content acknowledges the work of others. Ethical business writers comply with copyright legislation and respect intellectual property. Refer to Chapter 12, Analyse and present research information, for more information on copyright.

UNETHICAL BUSINESS WRITING Unethical business writing is an unethical business practice. Once customers and other stakeholders realise the writing is untruthful, exaggerated and dishonest they lose trust in the organisation and may move their custom to other organisations. Damage to reputations may even destroy long-term relationships. Examples of unethical writing include: • altering a real quote to match what you are writing about • inventing a testimonial and falsifying experience and qualifications • deceiving by not telling the entire story: for example, advertising ‘Award-winning restaurant’ but leaving out that the award was received 10 years ago 367 Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202

THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK •

exaggerating to make something sound better than it is: for example, advertising a home for sale as having ‘Water views’ when a person has to lean out over the back veranda rail and look right to glimpse the water. Unethical writing destroys an organisation or individual’s integrity and reputation. Once exposed, a so-called ‘white lie’ in writing is there for all to see. Hyperbole, misrepresentation and blatant lying destroy reputations. Misleading, inaccurate or vitriolic comments can go viral, particularly on the Web 2.0. Posts on organisational sites must follow ethical guidelines and comply with organisational guidelines and legislative requirements. Good business writers resist the temptation to exaggerate and misrepresent. Instead, they present facts and accurate information in an organised, reader-friendly piece of writing. An objective PlainEnglish style of writing makes it easier for the receiver to understand and make the decision to take action on the basis of your message. Reader-friendly, accurate business writing – about, for example, the benefits of visiting a particular dental practice, changing from visiting the supermarket to buying and having groceries delivered from an online store or making the decision to purchase a home from a specific real estate agency – enables customers to consider the options before they make a purchase.

CHECKPOINT 14.3

FROM THEORY TO PRACTICE

1. 2. 3. 4.

Briefly discuss the principles that guide an ethical writer. Identify three core values of an ethical writer. Explain how Plain English contributes to fair and impartial writing. Unethical writing: a. Provide three examples of unethical writing. b. Briefly discuss the likely problems caused by unethical business writing.

Business ethics story of 2018 The financial services company AMP was one of Australia’s biggest business ethics stories of 2018. The attention it received sprang from two main sources. Firstly, AMP is a big, well-respected company rather than a dubious, fly-by-night organisation. Secondly, AMP did more than just engage in minor rule-bending, it deceived the Australian Securities and Investment Commission (ASIC) and misrepresented the facts about the financial services for which its customers were paying; specifically, that it charged $220 million in fees from customers for service it not only did not provide but also had no intention of providing. Rowena Orr, Senior Counsel assisting the Banking Royal Commission, stated: ‘Through AMP’s dealings with ASIC regarding the extent and nature of its fee-for-no-service conduct, AMP adopted an attitude toward the regulator that was not forthright or honest, and demonstrated a deliberate attempt to mislead.’ Ms Orr also found that AMP, under the influence of its board, had made ‘20 false statements over 12 communications with ASIC about the fees-for-no-service’. Source: https://www.abc.net.au/news/2018-04-27/asic-fronts-hayne-royal-commission/9702662; https://www.abc.net.au/news/2018-04-30/amp-scandal-shows-the-cover-up-is-oftenworse-than-the-crime/9710362, both viewed 21 November 2018.

ASK YOURSELF: This unethical writing may result in criminal penalties, but what other consequences might AMP face as a result of these unethical business communications?

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CHAPTER 14 / Effective business writing

14.4 WRITING EMAIL An email is a formal communication, just like a written memorandum or letter. Email messages have three components: 1. message envelope – addressee, sender, date and time 2. message body – text of the message 3. header information – transmission details such as date and time of sending. Apply the three-step process – planning, writing and completing – to ensure you use each of the three components effectively. When sending or responding to an email message, you can create a structure for your own message by asking the questions listed in Exhibit 14.11. As dense documents are difficult to understand, use a new paragraph for each new point. This will highlight it and leave some welcome white space between points. Two common faults when replying to an email are insufficient information to answer all questions and the inability to pre-empt any further questions. An effective reply to an email request answers all the questions in the original email. The benefit of an effective reply for the writer and the receiver is the avoidance of further emails regarding the unanswered questions. A customer, for example, sends you an email asking which credit cards your company accepts. It is easy to guess that their next question will be about how they can order, so instead of simply listing the credit cards your company accepts you can also include information about how to order and the website address of your order page. Customers appreciate the extra information. Netiquette maintains and promotes goodwill between writer and receiver. Writers who observe netiquette not only consider their own needs and writing purpose but also the receiver’s need to understand and take action. A professional email message should be courteous and confident. Avoid writing an angry email response. Features of a hostile email are no salutation, many bolded words and an excessive amount of capital letters. A hostile, angry email is rude and disrespectful to the receiver and may invite a nasty reply. Rather than promoting good will, angry emails are likely to damage relationships and your reputation. For emails originating in Australia, set the date style to display dd/mm/yy (where d ¼ day, m ¼ month, y ¼ year). For emails originating in the USA, set the date style to mm/dd/yy. Make sure your email software is set to spell-check emails automatically before they are sent. Proofread for poor expression or omitted words. Check that your language is positive, courteous and confident, and the message is easy to understand. Double-check your addressees to ensure the email is only forwarded to the relevant receiver(s). Check the email address for accuracy. Although email addresses can be in upper or lower case, the general convention is to use lower case. The message priority ‘high’ or ‘urgent’ should only be set for messages that are urgent. Before you click the ‘send’ icon check the subject line. Does it contain the following blunders?

Write clear and professional emails.

Follow netiquette.

Spell-check before the email is sent.

EXHIBIT 14.11 Creating message structure If you are responding

If you are sending

What is the writer’s relationship with me?

What is my relationship with the receiver?

What do they want?

Why am I writing to them?

Why are they writing to me?

What do I want?

How can I help?

How can they help?

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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK •

Using a vague or non-specific line; for example, ‘Health is here on ABC Cruise Line!’ Just say exactly what your email is about: ‘Announcing Physio and Pilates with ABC Cruise Lines 2020’. • Replying to an earlier existing subject line without updating it to the purpose of the reply; for example: ‘May 20th anniversary gives us a chance to celebrate,’ update the subject line to what you are writing about: ‘I can (or cannot) attend May 20th event.’ • Creating a line that is specific but too lengthy. Research suggests the optimal subject line length is between 41 characters (portrait view on an iPhone) to 70 characters for gmail (Email Marketing blog 2015) because many people are now viewing emails on smartphones. • Sending an email with a blank subject line. The subject line is like a headline. It tells the readers what to expect, helps them decide whether or not to open and read the email’s message. Think about privacy and confidentiality and consider circulating confidential or sensitive correspondence by means other than email, because the confidentiality of any email stored on a computer or transmitted through a network can be breached.

EMAIL POLICY The objectives of an email policy are to provide guidance to employees about how to send effective emails and answer them within an appropriate timeframe. An effective policy also sets out rules for the personal use of email and states clearly what is considered as inappropriate email content and use. Organisations are concerned about how employees use email because of the potential to disclose confidential information, expose the organisation’s network to security problems and liability caused by misuse of the organisation’s email systems. Another concern is email hygiene and the potential damage caused by cyber criminals through scamming and phishing. Email hygiene refers to the efforts organisations are making to keep email clean and safe. Phishing refers to a specific type of online scam in which the scammer poses as a trusted entity, such as a bank, and sends out emails or sets up fake websites requesting account information. Examples of banks and organisations that have had customer accounts accessed through phish scams include the Bank of America, eBay, PayPal and bestbuy.com. Cyber-criminals gather personal and company data, such as personal IDs, passwords, card numbers and PINs, and sell the information to others who use it for financial gain. Phishing enables these criminals to access a customer’s accounts through online banking, set up false bill payments, transfer funds from customer accounts, including credit cards, savings accounts and equity loans into the scammer’s account. As well as introducing organisation-wide processes to filter content, look for sensitive content and block criminal activities. Organisations must have email policies to guide their staff in the appropriate use of email. A policy that clearly states what is considered appropriate and inappropriate email content minimises the risk of lawsuits and the employer’s liability by showing that the company warned employees of inappropriate email use. An example of an email policy is shown in Exhibit 14.12.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES Email is a fast and efficient communication channel. The advantages and disadvantages of email are outlined in Exhibit 14.13. The rapid changes in technology and its increasing accessibility mean that more and more messages will be sent online.

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CHAPTER 14 / Effective business writing

EXHIBIT 14.12 MACH Company email policy

INTRODUCTION

Voice mail, email and Internet usage assigned to an employee’s computer or telephone extensions are solely for the purpose of conducting MACH Company business. Records contain information (and evidence of activities) including data in computer systems, created or received and maintained by MACH Company or any employee in the transaction of business. Communication and transactions sent and received on company stationery, computer systems digitally and any other medium are official records. Your email messages, like other records, are official records.

EMAIL USAGE

Email use on MACH Company time is authorised to conduct Company business only. Please note Internet use has the potential to: • breach the security of confidential Company information • contaminate our system via viruses or spyware • allow phishing and unauthorised people, outside the Company, potential access to Company passwords and other information. As an email user you should: • check your mail regularly, including replying to messages as soon as possible. • forward mail messages to another staff member if you are absent • create an orderly electronic filing system for messages you need to keep • avoid unnecessary printing out of messages • include the original text as part of your response by email when replying to create a meaningful and contextual record • conserve disk space by deleting unwanted messages regularly. • MACH Company’s email template must be used. • follow email etiquette rules – be concise and to the point, answer all questions, use proper spelling, grammar and punctuation, address the person by name, answer as soon as possible, avoid the use of CAPITALS (the equivalent of shouting) • all emails should be answered within one working day, however at least 50% of emails should be answered within four hours • only send cc: or bcc: messages as required and avoid attaching unnecessary files • only forward emails as necessary – avoid automatic forwarding to reduce email overload. • forwarding company confidential messages to external locations • using company communications systems to send chain letters • accessing copyrighted information in a way that violates copyright • breaking into the company’s or another organisation’s system or unauthorised use of a password/mailbox • broadcasting unsolicited personal views on social, political, religious or other matter not related to business • engaging in deliberate activities that waste staff time and networked resources • introducing any form of computer virus or malware into the corporate network • viewing pornography, or sending pornographic jokes or stories via email, is considered sexual harassment and will be addressed according to our sexual harassment policy • distributing or storing images, text or materials that might be considered indecent, abusive obscene or illegal • discriminating against employees by virtue of any protected classification, including race, gender, nationality, religion, and so forth, will be dealt with according to the harassment policy. Management and other authorised staff have the right to access any material in your email or on your computer at any time as MACH Company owns any communication created and sent via email that is stored on company equipment.

CORPORATE EMAIL STYLE

UNACCEPTABLE BEHAVIOUR

MACH COMPANY OWNS EMPLOYEE EMAIL

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EXHIBIT 14.13 Advantages and disadvantages of email Advantages

Disadvantages

• Is a faster and more efficient channel that can reach anywhere in the world within minutes of being sent • Can be sent at any convenient time, avoids telephone tag and can be accessed anywhere online • Can be sent to many receivers at the same time • Can send the same message to any number of people and it is easy to adapt the message • Can combine text, pictures, sound and video • Documents or other files can be attached • Easy to reference – sent and received messages and attachments can be stored safely and logically

• Can be difficult to distinguish between casual and formal messages because of their similar layout • Can have an abrupt and rude tone if the writer does not take the time to read and edit • Having to deal with spam is time wasting • Lacks nonverbal communication cues to add meaning and may be misinterpreted • Can be overused, cause information overload and waste time • Can be used to send messages unrelated to company business • Can be difficult dealing with viruses that affect an organisation’s online systems

DRAFS email management system Arnold (2002) developed the acronym DRAFS – delete, reply, act, forward, save – as an efficient strategy for managing email. Exhibit 14.14 describes the purpose of each part of the acronym.

EXHIBIT 14.14 DRAFS email strategy

D

Delete • Delete unwanted and out-of-date messages • Install filters to delete junk mail before it appears on your screen • Avoid responding to senders of junk mail

R

Reply • Reply as soon as possible • Send a brief response to let the sender know you are working on your reply when the response is complicated or you do not have the time to respond within the first working day of receiving the email • Use a subject line that identifies the message clearly or refers to previous interactions on the topic • Use the ‘out of office’ tool as a courtesy to tell those sending you emails the date when you will return

A

Act • Allocate time to the actions you must take in response to emails – high priority tasks now, less important jobs as soon as possible • Avoid procrastination and the need to open and handle emails more than once

F

Forward • Forward and cc emails only to those who need to know, to avoid overloading others with excessive email • Respect privacy by ensuring your emails do not breach confidentiality

S

Save • Organise those emails you need to keep into folders and subfolders • Archive the emails you wish to keep on your hard drive

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CHAPTER 14 / Effective business writing

SIX COMMON TYPES OF EMAILS When writing a routine email, use the order of information appropriate to the email’s purpose. There are six types of emails – instruction, request, announcement, transmittal, authorisation and confirmation emails – commonly sent to people who are internal and external to the organisation. These mirror the types of internal memos that can be sent (as detailed later in this chapter).

Use order of information appropriate to the email’s purpose.

Instruction email An instruction email is used to provide to your receivers all the information they need to carry out the instructions confidently. The example shown in Exhibit 14.15 will probably achieve this aim as its style is simple and direct. The instructions are logically arranged so that they stand out clearly: introduction, main point, secondary information and action. The tone is pleasant and it includes all the necessary details.

Organise information logically in an instruction email.

Request email The objective of the request email is to ask the receiver for certain information or action. The request email in Exhibit 14.16 tells the receiver clearly and precisely what is required. It is arranged in the following way: the main point, then the secondary idea or details, then the action required.

Ask for action or information in a request email.

Announcement email The announcement email provides information. It follows the organisation method suggested for writing good news letters. The announcement comes first, followed by the secondary details or information, and then the required action. An example of an announcement email is given in Exhibit 14.17.

Use an announcement email to inform.

Transmittal email The transmittal email is the cover note that accompanies a more formal or lengthy message. In the example in Exhibit 14.18 the email accompanies the attached report requested by the receiver. It introduces the reader to what follows: the full details and the action required.

Authorisation email The authorisation email gives someone permission or authority to do something. It presents the: • background information first • then the main point • and, finally, secondary details and action (see Exhibit 14.19).

Confirmation email The objective of the confirmation email is to offer a courteous response that helps clarify what is expected of you. An effective confirmation email confirms in writing what has been agreed between the sender and the receiver (see Exhibit 14.20). The inclusion of specific details such as goals, expectations, dates and other details avoids misunderstanding and problems. In a confirmation email, repeat the details of the agreement so your receiver can respond to any misunderstandings and clarify or amend the terms of your agreement, if necessary. Check the email for accuracy and ensure the tone is courteous and positive. In all email examples presented, the information is direct, simple and concise. Each one is brief: it clearly outlines all that is necessary, but no more. This approach encourages prompt action.

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EXHIBIT 14.15 Instruction email

All staff Schedule for updating security passes

Introduction

Main point

A new internal security system is being implemented. This requires all staff to be issued with a new security pass, one that features their photograph. Photos and issuing of new passes will take place in the ground floor meeting room next week.

Secondary information

The following schedule will ensure this happens smoothly. • Surnames starting A to K – 8.30 a.m. to 1 p.m. Tuesday 19 March • Surnames starting L to R – 1 p.m. to 5.30 p.m. Tuesday 19 March • Surnames starting S to Z – 8.30 a.m. to 1 p.m. Wednesday 20 March.

Action

Please attempt to attend at these times before contacting me for alternatives.

EXHIBIT 14.16 Request email

Ross McLean [[email protected]] Further information about your proposal

Dear Ross Thank you for meeting with Eric Wills and myself on Monday. Your proposal sounds interesting. We would like you to provide us with further information about availability and costs.

Identifies main point

Our budgets for next financial year are now being finalised, so we need to make a decision about your proposal as soon as possible.

Presents secondary idea

Please email me further details by next Wednesday, 9 December 2020. I look forward to receiving these from you.

Identifies required action

Regards Jacinta Long Administration Manager

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CHAPTER 14 / Effective business writing

EXHIBIT 14.17 Announcement email

Finance Department Appointment of Manager Finance Department Begins with the announcement Presents secondary details Identifies required action

It is my great pleasure to announce that Penny Strezlecki has been appointed the new Manager of the Finance Department, effective immediately. Penny’s previous position of Accounts Coordinator will shortly be advertised company-wide and in the regional press. Please join me in congratulating Penny, and give her your full support and cooperation. Jacinta Long Administration Manager

EXHIBIT 14.18 Transmittal email

Omar Hailie [[email protected]] Report energy efficiency in the office environment Report Energy Efficiency Bellevue Insurance

Dear Omar The report you requested into the energy saving strategies Bellevue Insurance has implemented from 1 July to 30 November 2020 is attached. The report outlines the: • short-term ‘quick wins’ (turn off your monitor, check your office equipment is off, switch off at the power point, install timers to automatically switch equipment off at designated times, think before you print and photocopy in batches) • long-term strategies (select an energy efficient computer, consider Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) screens, sell unnecessary office equipment, ensure all purchased office equipment is Energy Star compliant, reduce our carbon footprint with green energy) • cost benefits and environmental benefits of energy efficiency in the office environment.

Starts with main point Presents secondary details

The report includes recommendations about how Bellevue Insurance can decrease its energy bills by becoming energy efficient over the longer term. Please let me know your response to the report’s recommendations before our monthly manager’s meeting on Friday 18 December 2020.

Identifies required action

Regards Jacinta Long Administration Manager

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EXHIBIT 14.19 Authorisation email

Alan Dukaris [[email protected]] Acceptance of quote no. 1234

Dear Alan Provides background information

Thank you for your Quote No. 1234 (dated 4 December 2020) to print the Bellevue Insurance letterhead on plain white A4 80 gsm paper suitable for printing and photocopying.

Identifies main point

We would like to accept your quote, so please accept this email as authorisation to proceed with the job as quoted.

States the required action

1. Please contact Denise Livingstone at Design Queen to acquire the artwork for the logo that will appear on the letterhead. Her phone number is (04) 21000000. 2. Please forward a proof of the letterhead artwork to me for approval before printing the letterhead. Regards Jacinta Long Administration Manager

EXHIBIT 14.20 Confirmation email

Andy Smythe Human Resource Manager Interview confirmation – Position Training Manager Resume

Dear Mr Smythe I would like to confirm my attendance on Tuesday, 25th August 2020 at 10:00 a.m. in Room 14 on the 4th floor of the Sunkist Building for an interview. The interview is for the position of Training Manager for your company. Your email on Friday (14th August 2020) requested my attendance at an interview and asked me to confirm my attendance by sending you this email. I was also asked to forward a copy of my resume. I have attached the resume to this email. I look forward to meeting you on Tuesday. Thank you for extending the offer for an interview.

Main points

Secondary information

Action

Yours sincerely Alicia King

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CHAPTER 14 / Effective business writing Before hitting the ‘send’ command, always read your email to check spelling and remove any confusion or rudeness caused by a too-hasty response. Avoid sending unnecessary messages. Only send copies to those people who need to know what is happening. Sometimes, however, your emails will be more complex and much longer. Whatever the length or complexity, it is always important to set out your information clearly and logically and to convey it in simple, suitable language. Do this and your email writing will be successful.

Email etiquette While emails enable business messages to be sent faster than in the past, it is important to remember the social rules that accompany any form of business communication. Use a meaningful subject line to allow your receiver to identify the purpose of your email. Write a message that: • is concise and to the point • answers all questions and pre-empts further questions • uses proper spelling, grammar and punctuation • uses active instead of passive voice and gender-neutral language • avoids the overuse of abbreviations and emoticons. Efficiency is improved through the use of templates for frequently used responses. Care with formatting, structure and layout improve readability and professionalism. Three advantages gained from applying email etiquette across an organisation are shown in Exhibit 14.21. Good business writers avoid writing in CAPITALS and do not overuse exclamation points. Avoid the overuse of ‘high priority’ EXHIBIT 14.21 Advantages from email etiquette and ‘reply all’ options and the attachment of unnecessary files. Good email writers also use the cc: field sparingly; add • by using proper email language disclaimers where necessary; and proofread the email before Professionalism your company will convey a they send it. professional image Never forward emails containing libellous, defamatory, offensive, racist or obscene remarks, virus hoaxes or chain letters, and never reply to spam. If you reply you will get more spam, as spammers now know the account is in use, server location and address by using geolocation, which can be revealed from the • by writing emails that get to the Efficiency reply email. Spam is irrelevant or unsolicited messages sent over point with clear, concise language the internet, typically to a large number of users, for the purposes of advertising, phishing and spreading malware (software specifically designed to disrupt, damage, or gain unauthorised access to a computer system).

THE MEMO FORMAT

Protection from liability

• by using truthful, objective information to avoid misleading the reader • by avoiding libellous, defamatory, racist, obscene and offensive material

In the past, memos were one of the main forms of written workplace communication. They were almost always printed and distributed internally; however, as organisations move to paperless communication, memos are increasingly replaced by emails. A memo is a document typically used for communication within an organisation. Memos are used to share news, to alert staff to an ongoing issue or to announce changes. Memos are less formal than business letters because they are generally sent to coworkers and colleagues. Memos follow a similar

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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK format and have similar purposes to emails. The parts of a memo or email are fewer and simpler than those of a business letter and dispense with some of the courtesies of the letter. As the memo is an internal means of communication and less formal than a letter, there is no need to include an inside address, greeting, complimentary close or full signature. The four headings that a memo usually includes are: ‘To’, ‘From’, ‘Date’ and ‘Subject’, as set out in Exhibit 14.22. The headings ‘To’ and ‘From’ clearly identify the receiver and sender of the memo. ‘To’ usually precedes ‘From’ as a courtesy to the receiver. The subject line indicates the topic of the memo – for example: ‘Safety Glasses’. Make the title informative but brief. Memos convey basic information, bring attention to problems and may propose solutions. A memo is usually a short, concise document (two or three paragraphs) that focuses on a single purpose. A longer memo might consist of several paragraphs but should never exceed one page in length. If the information you need to communicate exceeds one page, it is better suited to a short report.

EXHIBIT 14.22 Announcement memo TO: FROM:

All staff Kevin Ranger Occupational Health and Safety Manager

DATE:

26 October 2020

SUBJECT:

Safety glasses

All employees must now wear safety glasses in the workshop, effective tomorrow morning

Introduction Main point

7.00 a.m., 27 October 2020. This applies to production staff normally located in the workshop, as well as other staff and contractors who may be visiting or passing through the workshop. It will help us comply with

Secondary information

industry WHS standards and the WHS Act. Safety glasses will be issued to all employees this afternoon. Your cooperation is appreciated.

Action

The body of the memo carries a clearly structured message, often written in short, numbered paragraphs. The body, including the subject sentence, should be blocked to the left margin. Write in Plain English to present readers with an objective, factual description of the topic.

CHECKPOINT 14.4

1. Email: a. Describe the characteristics of an effective email. b. What advantages does an organisation gain from providing guidelines about email etiquette? 2. Identify six email behaviours organisations find unacceptable. 3. Identify the typical components in an email policy. 4. Briefly describe the type of information conveyed by memos.

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CHAPTER 14 / Effective business writing

14.5 WRITING SCREEN-BASED CONTENT The effectiveness of written messages conveyed through electronic media is increased when the sender knows why they are writing; identifies the needs of their audience; writes clearly, courteously and confidently; and proofreads for correctness. Readers of screen-based content tend to read in a less linear fashion than readers of paper-based text. Paper-based readers start reading at the top-left of the page, moving horizontally across the first line to the right-hand margin. They then repeat the process, moving down the page line by line. Research into screen-based reading conducted by Ziming Liu (2005) found: The screen-based reading behavior is characterized by more time spent on browsing and scanning, keyword spotting, one-time reading, non-linear reading, and reading more selectively, while less time is spent on in-depth reading, and concentrated reading. On-screen readers tend to browse, look for keywords and skim quickly through the content. They are more likely to scan the initial viewable area on the screen rather than to read from top-left to right horizontally, or work their way line by line down the screen. The implication for writers of Web-based documents is that they must ensure they write text that is easy to scan. Scannable text incorporates: • clear, concise content written in the active voice rather than passive voice • an inverted pyramid style of writing with the most important content on the screen in the first paragraph so that readers who scan will not miss the main idea • one topic per paragraph with words and topic sentences that make sense to the audience and provide the appropriate amount of information • lists and headings wherever possible to ‘chunk’ the content and make it easier to scan • obvious and relevant navigation items with clear hypertext links of between one and five words in length. Effective Web writers: • front-load each paragraph to allow the readers to scan the content, looking for points of interest • enable readers to skim and grasp an overview of the document by reading the first sentence or two of each paragraph • use the inverted pyramid style of writing to ensure the first few sentences on the web page contain most of the relevant keywords. This will boost the search engine optimisation (SEO) of content for keyword searches in search engines such as Chrome, Google and Safari. Front-loading and the inverted pyramid style of writing are key features of scannable text.

Use the inverted pyramid style of writing for screenbased content.

WRITING FOR SOCIAL MEDIA Recent advances in Web 2.0 technology mean that, as well as uploading business documents and messages onto the internet, organisations are using social media more and more for business purposes. Writing for social media is different from more traditional forms of business writing. Written social media messages, for example, are more conversational than declarative, more friendly than formal and more sociable.

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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK Typical activities writers engage in when using social media platforms such as Facebook, Twitter, LinkedIn, YouTube, Pinterest and Instagram, as well as discussions in online forums, are blogging, messaging and tweeting. The object of writing in a conversational style with a welcoming, familiar tone is to create engagement with the reader. Organisations that follow the traditional approach of ‘we talk, you listen’ in their written communication are disadvantaged in the social media sphere. The ‘you’ approach makes the reader feel welcome and appreciated; and indeed one of the predominant words in social media messages is ‘you’: ‘How can I help you?’ and ‘What do you think about …’ Conversational writing is concise, with more doing words (verbs) than describing words (adjectives). The majority of sentences in the message are short (13 to 15 words) and active rather than passive. The content is presented in small chunks of information rather than long, rambling passages that cause the reader to lose interest. Therefore, try to keep your sentences short (aim for fewer than 13 words per sentence) and eliminate jargon and cliche´s wherever possible (e.g. ‘I admit I’m guilty as charged’).

MESSAGING AND TWITTER Avoid writing long, incoherent posts that cause the reader to stop reading.

Present information in various modes – text, pictures, graphic design, sound, video and animation – that are appealing but not so complex as to cause slow page-loading.

Messaging for business means sending, from a computer or hand-held mobile device, short messages to contacts, colleagues, suppliers, customers and other stakeholders. Twitter, for example, allows an organisation to send short messages (280 characters or fewer) directly to customers, suppliers and followers. Effective business messaging tailors the message to suit the writer’s communication purpose and meet the needs of the receiver. Business messaging should catch the attention of the receiver immediately by: • placing the main point at the beginning of the message • using clear, simple language to get the message across • avoiding confusing and unprofessional ‘txt speak’, jargon and slang • keeping the message to one simple offer, point or piece of news to make it easy for the receiver to respond. Focus on the receivers by providing a full set of instructions about what the receiver needs to do regarding phone number, email, address, social media address, and required action (if any). Organisational security guidelines must be followed at all times to keep information and technology secure. However, some organisations prohibit messaging for fear of hackers, spam or phishing, or accidental release of confidential company information. The convenience of messaging: • allows efficient conveying of requests • enhances marketing • enables quick decision making and offers solutions • avoids telephone tag and allows colleagues in different locations to communicate directly and to receive answers immediately. Twitter is used by businesses and other organisations to build recognition of their brand, engage followers, and connect with potential customers. As well as applying the guidelines for messaging outlined above, effective users of Twitter avoid constant tweeting and retweeting of advertising material to customers; instead, they acknowledge a positive tweeter by retweeting the positive comment.

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CHAPTER 14 / Effective business writing Before posting a tweet, check it for spelling and grammatical errors. Consider using trending hashtags to make it easy for other Twitter users to find you and interact with your posted material. You might also consider changing the background and colours of the Twitter account to match the organisation’s website, other social media accounts and logo colours to establish consistency throughout all written messages.

BLOGGING A blog (an abbreviation of weblog) is a website containing dated written entries from one or more contributors on a specific topic in reverse chronological order. The entries can be combined with music, audio, photographs and video. Successful blogs have a clearly defined scope, are well planned, and use the inverted pyramid order of information to improve scanning and readability. A blog’s scope should be defined clearly to maintain focus on its objectives, to hold the interest of the audience and to facilitate ongoing discussion between writer and reader. Some of the key business applications of blogging are: • public and media relations to share company news, build the organisation’s profile, and encourage audiences to engage in two-way communication • market research to gather feedback from customers and experts in the market • viewing what others are saying by monitoring other blogs, Twitter and social media • distributing company news, strategies and directions through internal restricted-access blogs • sharing information, knowledge and expertise, and keeping geographically dispersed team members up to date • maintaining immediate contact between field and office workers through mobile devices • providing customer support and information, answers, and advice about products and services.

Avoid careless use of social media such as security breaches, misinformation, abusive language and negative comments about others, as they damage the organisation’s reputation.

Blog format A blog’s format is dependent on purpose, audience needs and content. The format may include, for example, logos, headings, lists, menu bars, navigation buttons, and links to related, credible information. Make it easy for people to share your blog posts by adding sharing buttons to the bottom of your posts if this functionality is not built-in the blog. A sidebar that offers tools to navigate the history of a blog and other posts on the blog encourages more engagement from readers. A calendar/archive of posts helps those who are new to a blog to search the older posts. A consistent box or sidebar is a helpful way to let readers know which are the most popular posts.

Front-load each paragraph by placing the main point in the first one or two sentences, then explaining the point, and limiting each paragraph to one point only.

Blog content As a general rule, blog posts should be at least 400 to 500 words in order to be effective for SEO. An effective blog: • positions the points most relevant to the audience above the page fold • has a courteous, informal and conversational writing style • parallels the culture of the organisation and applies the conventions expected in business forms of communication

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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK •

contains features such as topic headers, sub-headings, bulleted lists, hyperlinks and site search functions to enable the reader to scan and find the most relevant point(s) quickly • is proofread to check readability and correct any spelling or grammatical errors. Many organisations now view a well-managed, well-written blog as a useful communication tool. Skilful business writing enhances communication through screen-based channels by facilitating interaction between the organisation and its audiences. Exchanges by way of blogs, messaging, tweeting, hashtags, infographics, newsletters and RSS newsfeeds provide the organisation’s social media community with information to meet their needs, and in return customers are able use social media to ask questions, report satisfaction or to complain.

CHECKPOINT 14.5

1. Paper v Web: a. Briefly discuss similarities between good writing for paper-based documents and for Webbased documents. b. Explain why writers of Web-based documents use scannable text. 2. Search the internet using the phrases ‘Web-based writing’, ‘scannable text’, ‘inverted pyramid style of writing’ and ‘feature of Web-based writing’. From your findings, develop a checklist for writers of Web-based documents. 3. Blogs and messaging: a. Create a three-column table. In column one, list the professional uses of blogs; in column two, list the professional uses of Twitter; and in column three, list the professional uses of messaging. b. Choose a blog that interests you. Read it carefully, study its structure and create a concise summary of the blog that you could send as a tweet.

LEARNING ACTIVITIES SUMMARY 14.1 Understand what characterises good business writing and apply the three-step writing process. Good business writing conveys its purpose and message clearly. The three-step writing process – plan, write and complete – enables you to compose a reader-friendly and professional business document. The process focuses on your writing purpose and the needs of the audience. Planning allows you to structure the information according to your purpose and the needs of your audience. In the writing stage, a Plain English writing style with appropriate information and a courteous, confident tone conveys a clear message. In the completion step, evaluate, revise, proofread and distribute the message.

14.2 Write workplace documents in Plain English using the seven components of writing style. A Plain English writing style is reader-friendly writing. It makes the information and ideas easy to understand. It suits the needs of the intended audience and will achieve results. Think about the content from the point of view of the receivers, their level of knowledge, familiarity with and approach to the topic. Base the structure of your sentences and paragraphs on one main point, in language appropriate to your industry. A courteous tone and inclusive, nondiscriminatory language are important in written (as well as spoken) communication. Consider rhythm in your

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CHAPTER 14 / Effective business writing

written presentation and the order in which you present information and ideas. Appearance makes an impact on the reader straight away. Set out your information in a clear, professional format. 14.3 Identify guiding principles for ethical business writing. Ethical business writing conveys the point without offending the receiver, creates mutual respect and positive relationships built on trust. Confidentiality is respected and information is written in objective and positive clear language. The writer’s truthfulness, honesty, fairness and Plain English writing style enable receivers to understand information, how it applies to them and whether it is necessary to take any action. Three advantages of using Plain English and etiquette in business writing are increased efficiency, equity and effectiveness in communicating in the message. 14.4 Outline an effective strategy for writing routine emails. An email identifies the receiver, sender, subject, date and time. The body of the email conveys the

message in a courteous and confident tone. Use the order of information appropriate to the email’s purpose – give an instruction, request action, make an announcement, transmit a more formal or lengthy message, give an authorisation or confirm arrangements – and the email is likely to achieve the intended outcomes. Edit and spellcheck before you send the message. 14.5 Describe the characteristics of effective Web writing, blogging, messaging and tweeting. Characteristics of effective Web writing include clear, concise content, use of the active voice and an inverted pyramid style of writing. Characteristics of effective business writing for social media include short, focused posts that match the average social media user’s attention span. Attention-grabbing content invites followers and fans to read, comment on and share with others. Correct spelling, grammar and punctuation promotes a level of professionalism that reflects the organisation’s image.

KEY TERMS active voice authorisation email blog cliche´s confirmation email concrete language email

email hygiene inclusive language inverted pyramid style of writing jargon layout netiquette

order of information paragraph parallel language passive voice phishing Plain English readability

rhythm spam stereotype tone topic sentence vocabulary ‘you’ approach

LEARNING ACTIVITIES 1. Select an essay you have written recently (or a final draft you are almost ready to submit). a. Find all examples of: • topic sentences • simple sentences • complex or compound sentences • linking phrases • repetition of keywords. b. Find any other places in your essay where these devices could have been used successfully.

c. Make any editorial changes that will add to the clarity of your writing. d. Show the original essay to your instructor, along with the changes you made, and seek comment on your effectiveness as an editor. 2. The art of writing emails a. Work in small groups to discuss this statement: ‘It has been suggested that email is reviving the art of writing.’

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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK

b. Discuss some of the strategies that email writers can use to make their messages more readable. c. Using the strategies you discussed in part (b), write an email to staff (in your organisation or an organisation of your choice) requesting them to use email appropriately. Start by identifying your main point; then, in the secondary idea section, identify the advantages and disadvantages of email; and conclude by identifying the action(s) they need to take to fulfil your request. 3. Scenario: Request memo Assume you are the manager of a large hardware store. The building is a non-smoking area, so staff who smoke generally do so outside the external door of the loading dock. Next to your loading dock is the loading dock of another company, and the owner has complained about the cigarette butts that are often on the ground near his

company’s loading dock. You have arranged for two containers to be placed near your loading dock to be used as an ashtray and garbage bin. Write a request memo to your staff requesting they use the ashtray and bin. 4. Professional no-nos When you are writing to a business contact on social media, it is very easy to ‘turn them off’ with professional ‘no-nos’. a. Construct a three-column table. Label column one ‘blogging’, column two ‘messaging’ and column three ‘tweeting’. b. In the table, list typical written communication ‘no-nos’ for each type of media. c. Develop five rules for communicating with business contacts via social media.

GROUP ACTIVITY Work in small groups. Organisations that wish to maintain a professional, positive reputation are increasingly employing public relations consultants to help them manage their ‘e-reputation’. E-reputation management is the practice of monitoring what others are saying about the organisation in articles, posts, likes and other comments posted by fans and followers on the internet and social media. A significant part of an organisation’s e-reputation stems from its written communication. Step one – brainstorm and create a list of ways in which written messages can damage an organisation. Step two – in a short written answer, outline strategies that writers of business messages for social media can use to: • connect and engage with readers • demonstrate the level of professionalism and business etiquette that reflects an organisation’s image.

Step three – as a group, choose a supermarket chain (or any large industry of your choice). Use the term ‘supermarket articles’ to search the internet for information relevant to that supermarket chain. Source enough articles to give you a sense of what people are writing about the supermarket chain. a. Discuss the trends (if any) that your group identifies from the search. b. Develop a dot-point list of your findings and conclude with a paragraph that summarises your group’s impression of how the articles portray the organisation’s reputation (positive, negative or neutral). Step four – develop a short information report of your findings. Submit the group’s answers: step one (list), two (short written answers), three (dot-point list) and four (short information report).

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CHAPTER 14 / Effective business writing

CASE STUDY THE VIRTUAL BOOKKEEPING SERVICE Imre Mason is employed by Keepbooks. Part of her job role is to provide a virtual bookkeeping service of six hours per week to CEDA Transport. The brief between Keepbooks and CEDA Transport provides for Imre to deliver the virtual bookkeeping service in two three-hour blocks on Tuesday and Thursday of each week. An ongoing problem emerges when Rebecca, CEDA Transport’s Managing Director, starts treating Imre as an

on-call member of staff by sending emails and making phone calls during and after work hours five days a week. In the first email (below), Imre raises the problem with her employer, John. In response to her email John holds a telephone discussion with Imre about the problem. Following the discussion, John writes to Rebecca, the Managing Director of CEDA Transport (see the second email below).

John Alexander

CEDA Transport Engagement

Dear John I’m having problems in relation to client expectations with my CEDA Transport engagement. Please call me today to discuss the problem. Background Rebecca Moore likes her requests to be immediately met. She has budgeted for six hours of bookkeeping services per week. My understanding of this is that services will be provided in two 3-hour blocks, one on Tuesday and the other on Thursday. A few weeks ago I mentioned to her that the arrangements were for me to log on to CEDA’s site twice a week for three hours at a time. She understood the request but stated that was not how her previous bookkeepers worked but she would be willing to try that arrangement. Rebecca continued to make around the clock demands and was unable to work in the two 3-hour slots. This week I have already worked six hours and carried three over from last week (totalling nine hours). There are sixteen emails in the inbox already today and four from Rebecca sent to my personal mail. I have discussed this with Rebecca as the constant requests have become an issue for me. Rebecca replied, it will calm down but it hasn’t (and I don’t think it will). Rebecca closely manages her costs and will not pay for more than 6 hours per week of accounting services. Solution I think CEDA Transport requires more like ten to twelve hours per week from a person who can be on call to answer Rebecca’s queries and the inbox daily. The prior bookkeeper charged an average of ten hours per week. Given my other commitments to varying clients, I am unable to provide the hours required to meet Rebecca’s needs. My replacement will also need to be able to complete the accounting for receipts/payments, complete and lodge BAS and IAS, monitor cash flow and reconcile the business credit card. Rebecca also requires the completion of ad-hoc tasks not necessary relating to the accounting function. For your information, Rebecca is travelling to the Shanghai International Trade Fair next week. Many thanks Imre Mobile 00000000

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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK

> Rebecca More Managing Director CEDA Transport

Bookkeeping services

Hello Rebecca There are a couple of issues regarding Keepbooks Bookkeeping services that we need to discuss. Imre Mason is the person currently providing our bookkeeping service to CEDA Transport. Type of service First, our service is not an on-call service. We can however provide two contact points of three hours each week for CEDA Transport and during such time Imre can respond to any email queries and perform the accounting work. Imre is with other clients through the week and cannot take time out to answer phone calls or respond to emails during this period. This applies when she is working only on our file; that is, she cannot respond to her other client requests. Allocated hours Secondly, Imre is finding six hours per week unrealistic. Imre is qualified and efficient. Imre has let me know that the historical records show that the previous bookkeeper was spending eight to ten hours per week on average. Proposed solution Imre’s current commitments prevent her from working more than six hours per week so she would like to hand this role over to one of our other staff who has more capacity. If you would like to continue with our services, I have another staff member who is: • Equally qualified and experienced • Able to commit to more than six hours per week I apologise for the timing of this as I know you are about to fly to China for the Shanghai International Trade Fair. I have a suitable replacement ready to commence immediately and thought it would be better to let you know now rather than when you return from China. Please email me your thoughts. Regards John Alexander Managing Director www.keepbooks.com.au The information in this message is intended only for the recipient and may contain information that is confidential. If you are not the intended recipient for this communication please notify us by replying to this message and deleting it from your computer.

Questions 1. The first email in the case study is written to an internal audience, Imre’s employer, John. The second email is written to an external audience, one of Keepbook’s clients, CEDA Transport. a. Do you believe Imre has matched the message in her email to her writing purpose and audience – John? Justify your answer.

b. Do you believe John has matched the message in his email to his writing purpose and audience – Rebecca? Justify your answer. 2. Identify the features in each email that demonstrate a Plain English writing style. 3. How would you describe the tone of each email? 4. Using the Fog Index, check the readability of each email. Does the Fog Score reflect a reasonable average for business writing?

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CHAPTER 14 / Effective business writing

BIBLIOGRAPHY Arnold, Kristin J. 2002. ‘Email basics: practical tips to improve communication’, in Biech, Elaine (ed.), The 2002 annual handbook, Vol. 1, Training, Jossey-Bass, San Francisco, CA. Australian Government. 2018. Understanding IP, https://www.ipaustralia.gov.au/understanding-ip, viewed 26 April 2018. Copyright Agency Limited. 2018. What we do, http://www.copyright.com.au, viewed 24 April 2018. Eagleson, R.D., Jones, G. & Hassall, S. 1997. Writing in Plain English, Australian Government Publishing Service, Canberra. Email Marketing Blog. 2015. How to Determine the Best Length for Your Email Subject Lines, https:// www.campaignmonitor.com/blog/email-marketing/2015/ 12/best-email-subject-line-length/, viewed 23 April 2018. Fawcett, S. Ten Secrets for Everyday Writing Success, Writing Help Central, http://www.writinghelp-central.com/articlesuccess-secrets.html, view 29 April 2018. Flesch, R. 1990. How to Write, Speak and Think More Effectively, Signet Books, New York, NY. Fowler, H.R. & Aaron, J.E. 2015. The Little Brown Handbook, 13th edn, Longman, New York, NY. Friedman, Jane. 2017. How to Start Blogging: A Definitive Guide for Authors, https://www.janefriedman.com/ blogging-for-writers/, viewed 29 April 2018. Garner, Bryan A. 2013. HBR Guide to Better Business Writing (Harvard Business Review Guides), Harvard Business Review Press, Boston, MA. Guffey, M.E. & Loewy, D. 2018. Business Communication: Process and Product, 9th edn, Cengage Learning, Boston, MA.

Gulyas, Richard. 2018. ‘A loss of trust puts AMP in the badlands’, Weekend Australian – Business Review, 28–29 April 2018. International Plain Language Federation. 2018. Strengthening plain language, http://www.iplfederation.org/, viewed 5 September 2018. McCoy, Julia. 2016. How to Write Content for Twitter, https:// expresswriters.com/how-to-write-content-for-twitter/, viewed 2 May 2018. Michalsons. 2017. The Benefits of Plain Legal Language, https://www.michalsons.com/blog/the-benefits-of-plainlegal-language/20, viewed 27 April 2018 Murphy, E.M. 2001. ‘Plain English – Style of Choice’, Stylewise, vol. 7, no. 1, pp. 1–2. Plain English Foundation. 2018. Understanding Plain English, https://www.plainenglishfoundation.com/documents/ 10179/78912/PEF_Understanding_plain_English.pdf, viewed 28 April 2018. Rose, J. 2012. The Mature Student’s Guide to Writing, 3rd edn, Palgrave, New York, NY. Snooks and Co. 2002. Style Manual for Authors, Editors and Printers, 6th edn, John Wiley & Sons Australia, Milton, QLD. Spencer, Laura. 2018. How to Properly Write a Formal Email (That Gets Results), https://business.tutsplus.com/articles/ how-to-write-a-formal-email–cms-29793, viewed 29 April 2018. University of Queensland. 2018. Non-discriminatory language, http://www.uq.edu.au/about/non-discriminatory-language, viewed 27 April 2018. Ziming, Liu, 2005. ‘Reading Behavior in the Digital Environment: Changes in Reading Behavior over the Past Ten Years’, Journal of Documentation, Vol. 61, No. 6, pp. 700–12.

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WRITING BUSINESS LETTERS

CHAPTER

15

15.1 Apply the three-step writing process to business letters

Your Learning Journey

PLAN

Chapter 15

organise + structure information appropriate to your purpose + audience

What are the

ESSENTIAL PARTS? WRITE

reader’s address

greeting

COMPLETE review, edit, proofread and correct errors

body of letter

What are

OPTIONAL PARTS?

15.4

complimentary close

writer’s signature + job title

Compose PERSUASIVE LETTERS using the AIDA FORMULA to influence the receiver to TAKE ACTION

direct = good news letter

15.6

date

use Plain English writing style to make the info accessible to the reader

15.5

What about for a LETTER OF COMPLAINT or a LETTER OF RESPONSE?

writer’s name, address

15.2

indirect = bad news letter

subject line attention line reference initials

How do you organise the information?

CH 16

Next WRITE SHORT REPORTS

enclosure file number sender’s phone ext

good news bad news neutral persuasive

sender’s email/website

What is your letter trying to convey?

15.3

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CHAPTER 15 / Writing business letters

LEARNING OBJECTIVES After studying this chapter, you should be able to: 15.1 apply the three-step writing process to business letters 15.2 discuss the essential and optional parts of a correctly formatted business letter 15.3 identify four types of good-news letters and explain how the direct order of information benefits the receiver 15.4 explain how to organise and structure the information in a bad news letter 15.5 compose persuasive letters using the AIDA formula to influence the receiver to take action 15.6 discuss the order of information for a letter of complaint and a letter of response to both a justified and an unjustified complaint.

15.1 APPLYING THE THREE-STEP WRITING PROCESS TO BUSINESS LETTERS At work, we write letters for many different reasons: to initiate a business contact, to reply to someone, to give directions, to make requests. Some are written to persuade a potential customer to buy something or to encourage a customer to pay an overdue account. As with all effective business writing, the three-step writing process (shown in Chapter 14, Exhibit 14.1) should be applied to the writing of business letters. The actions taken in the three steps – planning, writing and completing – make the letter writing process more efficient. A writer with a clear writing purpose, accurate analysis of their audience’s needs, a Plain English writing style and the ability to format the letter professionally is likely to achieve their writing purpose. It is your responsibility as a business letter writer to know your purpose for writing and to express this message courteously. As your letter writing becomes more skilful, you will complete the three-step process automatically.

Plan your content, organisation, style and tone.

STEP 1 PLANNING A BUSINESS LETTER In the planning step, define your writing purpose and assess your audience’s need. Gather information appropriate to your purpose and organise it to enhance your reader’s understanding and acceptance of your message. Consider your writing purpose thoroughly by asking the following questions. • Why am I writing this letter – what has led up to it? • What do I hope to get out of it (my maximum aims)? • What do I expect to get out of it (my realistic aims)? • What type of message am I delivering – good news, bad news or a persuasive message? • What information do I need to provide? For example, dates of previous letters, dates you saw advertisements, dates of appointments, addresses of shops and people, names of people involved, reference or account numbers. Analyse your audience and focus on what they need to know or do after reading your letter: for example, respond to a request or invitation, purchase a product or pay an overdue account. If you identify your audience’s needs and expectations you are able to write an appropriate user-friendly message. Define your purpose and you are able to determine the type of letter – good news, bad news or persuasive – and the appropriate order of information for each.

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STEP 2 WRITING A BUSINESS LETTER In the writing step, use a Plain English writing style to convey your meaning concisely, courteously and confidently. A Plain English writing style uses clear expressions and a courteous tone. Combine these features with a logical structure to create a letter that is easy to understand. Plain English is discussed fully in Chapter 14, Effective business writing. Some of the key elements of a good letter writing style are shown in Exhibit 15.1.

Use Plain English to improve the readability of your business letters.

EXHIBIT 15.1 The key elements of a Plain English writing style Key element

Purpose

Strategies

Clarity

Clarity of expression aids the reader’s understanding and makes your writing more convincing

Readability

Make your information accessible to an average reader

Courtesy (see Exhibit 15.2)

Polite language creates a good first impression

Active voice

The active voice tells the reader who or what is responsible for an action

The ‘you’ approach

The ‘you’ approach addresses readers directly and establishes rapport

Punctuation

Punctuation clarifies meaning

Paragraphs

Paragraphs organise information around one idea

• Present new ideas clearly, in a logical sequence • Avoid jargon and technical terms unless you are certain the reader will understand them • Avoid ambiguous and unnecessary words • Use 15–20 words per sentence • Limit each sentence to one idea • Use complex sentences of 25–35 words sparingly, as they are more demanding • Avoid slang • Project your desire to communicate with the reader • Use a courteous and tactful tone • Focus on positive wording rather than negative • Using the active voice conveys information directly and concisely – for example: ‘I report to …’, ‘I manage all the financial transactions, including …’ • The passive voice leaves out details • The active voice creates an energetic image • Speak directly to your readers and acknowledge their needs • Open the letter with a sentence that reflects your awareness of the readers’ needs • Show consideration for the readers and tell them how the content affects them • Start with a capital letter • End a sentence with a full stop • Decide whether you need to use a comma by reading the sentence aloud and noting pauses • Check that the sentences are not too long • Apply the general rule: always use more full stops than commas • Use an average paragraph length of about six lines • Avoid spreading a point or idea (a complete unit) into two or more paragraphs • Occasionally, let a sentence stand alone for emphasis

Clarity of expression aids the reader’s understanding and makes your writing more convincing. If you present new ideas clearly the reader is more likely to accept them. You should also arrange ideas in a logical sequence so that the reader can follow the flow of your thoughts.

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CHAPTER 15 / Writing business letters Try to avoid technical jargon unless you are certain that the reader will understand it. Also avoid ambiguous and unnecessary words. Limit each sentence to one idea. A positive rather than a negative, patronising tone should be maintained in any business letter. Refer to Exhibit 15.2 for examples of positive and negative language.

Organise ideas into short paragraphs of two to three sentences on average.

EXHIBIT 15.2 Positive and negative language

–

+

Negative

• Do not send the form any later than 30 November. • It is not unlikely that … • I see no reason why … • Do not use the telephone for personal calls. • I am not required to do that. • Stop doing that. • We cannot ship in lots of less than 20.

Positive

• • • •

Please send me the form by 30 November. This can possibly … It seems possible … Please use the telephone for business calls only. • I am responsible for … • Is there a reason for that? • To keep down packaging costs and to help customers save on shipping costs, we ship in lots of 20 or more.

Words, sentence forms, structure and writing style should be appropriate to your reader and purpose. Readability, courtesy, the active voice and the ‘you’ approach help maintain readers’ goodwill, encourage them to read the entire letter and identify what action, if any, they should take. Plain English is the most appropriate style for workplace correspondence. Remember to organise your information to suit the letter’s purpose, the receiver’s needs and the type of news you convey. If you take the time to do this before you write the letter, it is more likely to achieve its intended result.

STEP 3 COMPLETING A BUSINESS LETTER In the completion step, evaluate and revise the content in your business letter. Review the letter for readability, edit and correct content that contains any of the 10 common errors listed in Exhibit 15.3.

EXHIBIT 15.3 Ten common errors to avoid Obscure, unfamiliar words and highly technical jargon

6.

Cliche´d, routine openings that sound insincere

7.

Negative, pessimistic expressions

2.

Lengthy sentences and paragraphs

8.

New ideas in the closing paragraph

3.

A discourteous or too familiar tone

9.

A closing that does not state what is required

4.

Long sections of unbroken text

10. An untidy format

5.

A structure unsuited to the letter’s purpose

1.

Proofread and correct spelling and punctuation errors, typos, omitted words and layout. Check that you have used the organisation’s signature elements – logotype, logo, colour and tagline (if any) – to project your organisation’s preferred image in a professional layout.

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CHECKPOINT 15.1

FROM THEORY TO PRACTICE

1. 2. 3. 4.

What questions should you ask yourself as you plan a business letter? Outline the key elements of an effective business letter writing style. Outline the features you must review as you complete a business letter. Some examples of poor letter-writing style and cliche ´s to avoid are listed below. Correct and rewrite the sentences. a. ‘I am pleased to inform you that your attendance at the next monthly meeting is necessary.’ b. ‘For all intents and purposes, it would be better for scheduling, staff availability and resource utilisation if you could arrive at 10.30 am instead of 11 am.’ c. ‘It is my solemn duty to inform you that the product you ordered will not be available in the foreseeable future.’ d. ‘It should be duly noted that, despite the economic pressures resulting from amalgamation (not to mention the downturn in the commodities market, the introduction of new taxes and recent disastrous floods), management has ascertained that static pricing levels can be maintained with minimal impact on our current financial position and our ability to continue to service our customers.’ 5. Write a letter of inquiry to the owners of the restaurant business, called Nina’s, at your local pub. You wish to hold a family reunion luncheon for 35 people on a Saturday in October. You need to know about availability in October, menus, facilities for children (high chairs, children’s menu) and the possibility of a group booking discount. Follow the writing plan for a letter of inquiry. Start with the inquiry and explain why you are making it. Close with a courteous paragraph.

Plain English for improved productivity According to The Mandarin, Plain English not only improves productivity, but also provides economic return. The US provides us with an extreme example of this: when the Department of Revenue in Washington State wanted to get businesses to pay a sales tax that was generally not paid, they rewrote one of its tax letters in Plain English. After the letter was sent those businesses paying the tax rose by 200% and the department received $2 million more than they had aimed to raise by sending the letter. By making things easier to understand, the Department of Revenue had made it easier for businesses to comply. The Plain English Foundation, in partnership with The Mandarin, found that converting documents into Plain English reduced their size by an average of around 32% without negatively affecting the content. Key to this was that using Plain English halved the time employees and managers spent writing, reading and rewriting communications. Source: James, Neil 2016. A 9900% rate of return? The value of plain English to government, viewed https://www.themandarin.com.au/62630-value-plain-english/, 21 November 2018.

ASK YOURSELF: How might using Plain English in your business letter writing benefit you and the recipients of your letters? What steps can you take to ensure your communications are in Plain English?

15.2 FORMATTING A BUSINESS LETTER Apply the seven parts of a business letter.

The format or layout of a business letter provides the frame for the body of your letter. It consists of seven essential parts and sometimes includes other parts. The seven essential parts are listed in Exhibit 15.4, together with some of the optional parts.

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CHAPTER 15 / Writing business letters

EXHIBIT 15.4 Essential and optional parts of a layout Essential parts

• • • • • • •

Writer’s name and address Date Inside (intended reader’s) address Greeting Body of the letter Complimentary close Writer’s signature and job title or designation

Optional parts

• • • • • • •

Subject line Attention line Reference initials Enclosure File number Sender’s telephone extension Sender’s email or website details

FUNCTION OF THE PARTS Each part of a business letter serves a particular purpose. The parts and their purposes are described here by referring to the business letter from Nuplace Hotel (see Exhibit 15.5). The purpose of this letter is to accept change to a holiday booking. It is a good-news letter and, therefore, follows the good news order of information described later in this chapter.

Letterhead The letterhead identifies the writer, their address, telephone number and Web address. Most business organisations use company stationery with a letterhead that includes the company’s name, postal and email addresses, and telephone and facsimile numbers. Some companies also include a reference – ‘Our Ref.’ or ‘Your Ref.’ – and a telephone extension. The company’s Australian Business Number (ABN) is usually on the letterhead.

Date The date is placed between the letterhead and the inside address – for example, 10 July 2021. Numerals (such as 10/7/2021) can be misleading, as this format could be interpreted as the seventh or the 10th month. Spell out the month in full.

Inside address The inside address is the address of the intended reader. It is placed between the date and the salutation, two lines below the date.

Attention line Some organisations, such as local government councils, ask that all correspondence be directed to the general manager. In this case, identify in an attention line the specific person who is to attend to your letter. Place it two lines below the inside address.

Greeting The writer’s greeting to the reader (sometimes called the ‘salutation’) is placed two lines below the inside address or the attention line.

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EXHIBIT 15.5 Letter of acknowledgement in full block layout – a good-news letter

uplace Hotel u

Letterhead

13 Argyle Street, Sydney NSW 0000 135 |T Tel: 02 0000 0000 | www.nuplacehotel.com.au 14 April 2021

Date line

Mr Jackson 123 Nowhere Street ANON NSW 0000

Inside address

Dear Mr Jackson

Salutation

Change to holiday booking

Subject line

I am confirming the cancellation of your booking from 16 June 2021 to 28 June 2021. As per your request we have re-booked your accommodation for 15 July 2021 to 29 July 2021. During your previous stays with us you have opted for the Deluxe package which includes: • • • •

Acknowledgement and clear yes Details

Spacious two-bedroom apartment Fully equipped gourmet kitchen and internal laundry Access to gymnasium and rooftop pool bar Complementary massage for yourself and one guest

Please confirm these arrangements are required for your upcoming stay.

Actions to be taken

The tariffs for 2021 remain the same as your previous visit. We have waived the usual 25% cancellation fee on this occasion as you are a valued customer. We look forward to seeing you here in July and ensuring you have a pleasant stay.

Courteous close

Your sincerelyy

Complimentary close

lsabella Poulos Customer Relations Manager

Author name and identification

encl. Hotel brochure

If you know the receiver’s name, use this instead of ‘Dear Sir’ or ‘Dear Madam’. When you know the person well enough to call them by their first name, use it to make the letter more personal. Frequently, you will have to use the titles ‘Mr’, ‘Ms’, ‘Miss’ or ‘Mrs’ in your greeting, which will distinguish between people by their gender. ‘Mrs’ and ‘Miss’ identify a woman’s marital status. If you know that a particular woman prefers one or the other, then follow that preference – otherwise, use ‘Ms’.

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CHAPTER 15 / Writing business letters

Subject line The subject line identifies the letter’s subject or purpose. It should be no more than 10 words. It is placed below the greeting.

Identify your purpose clearly in the subject line.

Body The body of a letter has three parts, and each has a particular purpose (see Exhibit 15.6). A successful combination of opening and closing paragraphs in the body of the letter catches the reader’s attention and helps to prompt the response you want (see Exhibit 15.7).

EXHIBIT 15.6 The body of a letter Part

Purpose

Strategy

Beginning

The beginning has two purposes: to open courteously and, when appropriate, to link the letter to previous transactions. The first sentence of the letter in Exhibit 15.5, ‘I am confirming the cancellation of …’, clearly links the letter to previous transactions.

In the opening paragraph, aim to catch the reader’s attention and create a desire to read further. State your intentions. Explain the situation. Present the alternatives and related information. Use Plain English for your opening statement and avoid cliche´d beginnings such as, ‘Our office would like to inform you …’.

Middle

The middle part of a letter contains material appropriate to its purpose. It should prompt the reader to take the intended action (response).

The middle of the letter presents details and information. In the letter in Exhibit 15.5, the middle consists of three paragraphs. Decide on the length of your paragraphs with the aim of creating a concise message that is easy for the reader to understand.

Ending

The ending has two purposes: to indicate future action and to close courteously.

The closing paragraph states what action the reader is to take. The final sentence concludes with the same courteous tone used throughout the letter: ‘We look forward to …’. This tone maintains goodwill between writer and reader.

EXHIBIT 15.7 Examples of openings and closings Openings

Closings

• The brochure you requested is enclosed. • Thank you for your request for information. • You should receive the goods in your Purchase Order No. 6543 by 28 July. • I am happy to accept your invitation to address the new committee.

• I think the brochure will answer your questions, but if you need more information, please let me know. • If I can help in any way, please let me know. • I am pleased to be able to fill this order for you. • Please forward me a copy of the agenda and the names of the committee members.

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Complimentary close Conclude confidently and courteously.

The complimentary close should match the form of address used in the greeting. For a business letter that opens with ‘Dear Sir’ or ‘Dear Madam’, close with ‘Yours faithfully’ followed by your signature, name and job title or designation. When you write to a person you have met, to a specific person in the organisation or to someone who has corresponded with you before, use their name in the opening and ‘Yours sincerely’ at the close. The traditional rule is to use ‘Yours faithfully’ when you do not know the receiver’s name, and ‘Yours sincerely’ when you know their name and have used it in your opening (see Exhibit 15.8).

EXHIBIT 15.8 Greeting and complimentary close Greeting

Dear Sir

Dear Mr Johnson

Dear Emma

Dear Ms Jones

Dear Mrs Bean

Complimentary close

Yours faithfully

Yours sincerely

Yours sincerely

Yours sincerely

Yours sincerely

Signature block The writer’s signature and full name follow the complimentary close. Use your first name when you personally sign the letter if you are sure that it will not be confused with that of another person, but always have your full name in the official sign-off (typewritten) at the end of the letter. It may be appropriate to place the position or job title you hold under your typewritten name.

TYPES OF LAYOUT The effect of your letter will be improved by a suitable and correct layout. The parts of a business letter can be arranged in different ways. There are three main types of layout: 1. full block layout (see Exhibit 15.5) 2. full block layout with centred letterhead (see Exhibit 15.9) 3. modified block layout. The parts of all these layouts are arranged to create a good first impression.

Full block layout Full block is the most popular form of layout.

Full block layout places each part of the letter – the sender’s address, the date, the inside address and the greeting – against the left margin. Full block is the most popular form of layout. Each paragraph starts against the left margin, and so do the complimentary close and the signature block. Other parts such as identification of enclosures, file numbers and copied-to notations are also set out this way. Full block is an attractive, modern layout that is easy to read (see Exhibit 15.5).

Full block layout with centred letterhead Provide contact details in the letterhead.

In the full block layout with centred letterhead, the organisation’s name, address, telephone number and email address are centred across the top of the page (see Exhibit 15.9). The remainder of the letter follows the full block format. This form of layout is used extensively by organisations.

Modified block layout Modified block layout centres the sender’s address, or aligns it with the right-hand margin. The date is placed straight underneath and in line with the sender’s address. The inside address and the greeting 396 Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202

CHAPTER 15 / Writing business letters

EXHIBIT 15.9 A ‘thank you’ letter with centred letterhead

uplace Hotel u 135 Argyle Street, Sydney NSW 0000 Tel: 02 0000 0000 www.nuplacehotel.com.au

2 February 2021

Ms Fiona Waston Cellar Door Manager Pinnacle Winery 256 Allandale Road POKOLBIN NSW 0000

Dear Fiona Order #2567

Subject

I would like to thank you and your staff for the speedy delivery of our last order.

Good news

We were extremely pleased with the quality of the wines. In particular:

Details

• Your Cabernet Sauvignon has been very well received by our customers. • The Semillon really complemented our chef’s newest bluefin tuna dish. The sample bottle of verdelho you included with our order reflects the quality reputation of your vineyard. The price of the champagne was competitive and we will be purchasing both items in our next order.

Genuine thank you

We look forward to continuing our long association.

Good will close

Your sincerely

lsabella Poulos Customer Relations Manager

are placed against the left-hand margin, and so is each paragraph. The complimentary close and signature block are positioned in line with the sender’s address and the date. Modified block is a more conservative style of layout and used less often than the previous two layouts.

Punctuation styles Punctuation styles for business letters include the open style and the mixed style. Open style omits punctuation from all parts of the letter except the body. It does not use punctuation for the greeting or complimentary close. The mixed style places a comma after the greeting and after ‘Yours faithfully’ or ‘Yours sincerely’ at the close. The examples in Exhibits 15.5 and 15.9 use the open style. 397 Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202

THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK

CHECKPOINT 15.2

1. Describe the function of the following elements of a business letter. Provide an example of each where possible. a. letterhead b. greeting c. subject line d. body e. complimentary close f. signature block 2. Block layout and punctuation style: a. Identify the features of full block layout and modified block layout. b. What is the difference between the open punctuation style and the mixed punctuation style? 3. Attention line, opening and closing paragraphs: a. When would the use of an attention line in a business letter be appropriate? b. Why is a successful combination of opening and closing paragraphs in the body of the letter so important?

15.3 WRITING GOOD-NEWS OR NEUTRAL LETTERS Announce the news first in good news and neutral letters.

Good-news letters and neutral letters are common at work. In these types of letters, the writer and reader share favourable or neutral information. They may be written in order to, for instance, grant a loan or extend credit, make an inquiry, introduce your organisation or service to potential customers, acknowledge receipt, inform members of an organisation about its activities, extend an agreement, make a request or create goodwill.

DIRECT ORDER OF INFORMATION Plan, produce, revise and proofread good-news letters.

Seek information in an inquiry letter.

As you write a good-news letter, arrange your information in the order shown in Exhibit 15.10. This produces a structure suitable for any good-news or neutral letter and emphasises the good news. The subject line helps you to focus the reader’s attention on the letter’s content. It should be 6–10 words in length. If you choose to omit the subject line, identify the letter’s purpose and good news in the opening paragraph. This draws the reader’s attention to the information or good news immediately, and prompts them to read further. In the middle paragraphs, give details and information. A good-news or neutral letter benefits the writer and reader; there are no existing or expected problems. Provide all necessary information clearly and logically. Use the closing paragraph to state any action you would like the reader to take and close on a positive note. The letter of acknowledgement in Exhibit 15.10 is an example of a good-news letter.

FOUR TYPES OF GOOD-NEWS LETTERS The writing plan or strategy outlined in Exhibit 15.11 is suitable for preparing any good news or neutral business letter. The content of good-news and neutral letters will, of course, vary. This section offers specific guidelines for planning the following types of good-news and neutral letters. 1. An inquiry 2. A request 3. An acknowledgement 4. An introduction to someone

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CHAPTER 15 / Writing business letters

EXHIBIT 15.10 Letter of acknowledgement – good-news letter

TOWER REAL ESTATE

2 March 2021

Mr and Mrs Nagle 103 Fields End Road REDSVILLE NSW 0000 Dear Mr and Mrs Nagle Successful Application for Rental of Property

Subject

We are pleased to advise that your application for rental of property at 51/233 Hamilton Street, Redsville NSW has been successful.

Acknowledgement saying Yes clearly

Details of requirements are as follows: • • • •

Lease commences from 2 April 2021 Length of lease is 12 months from commencement date Bond of 4 weeks rent payable in advance when signing of lease Rent to be paid fortnightly commencing 16 April 2021.

Details

During the term of your lease l will be your contact and every six months will be conducting scheduled property inspections. I have enclosed a copy of your lease. Please read through this and return a signed copy to me by 8 March 2021. Courteous close

If there are any issues with the property please contact me on 02 0000 0000. I will endeavour to address any issues or concerns in a timely and satisfactory manner.

Your sincerely

Frank Morgan Property Consultant encl. Copy of lease Suite 137a, Level 6, Krueger Place, Sydney NSW 2000 T: 02 0000 0000 www.towerrealestate.com.au [email protected]

EXHIBIT 15.11 Writing plan for a good-news letter Purpose Identify the purpose in the subject line or opening paragraph

Good news

Details

Goodwill

Place the good news in the opening paragraph

State the details that support the good news in the middle paragraphs

Close with a statement of goodwill

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An inquiry A letter of inquiry asks others to supply information and/or ideas. Most inquiries are routine – for example, about a product or service. This kind of practical information will be used by someone who has to fill an order or provide a service; or they may pass it to someone else. The order for setting out information for a letter of inquiry is shown in Exhibit 15.12.

EXHIBIT 15.12 Writing plan for an inquiry Identify

Open

Identify the inquiry in the subject line

Open with the inquiry and a short background, if necessary

Indicate response Indicate how the receiver is to respond

Close courteously Close in a courteous and friendly manner

When you need specific information, open with a question. When you need to ask more than one question, open with a summary statement. Then, in the body, list and number the questions from most important to least important. Indicate what you would like the reader to do and close courteously.

A request A letter of request is different from an inquiry in that it asks for a specific action. The writing plan for a letter of request is given in Exhibit 15.13.

EXHIBIT 15.13 Writing plan for a request Identify Identify the request in the subject line

Reason and background Open with a brief reason or background for the request

Indicate response Ask for a specific response to your request

Goodwill Close courteously to maintain goodwill

A purchase order is an example of a specific request. A purchase order is made usually by ordering from the sales representative in person, by telephoning the company, or by filling out and sending off an order form. When you order by writing a letter, authorise the purchase in the first sentence. The reader then knows that the letter is an order, not simply a request for information. Make sure you include all the relevant details – order number, quantity, price and date of delivery – and describe the item in detail. State how you would like to have the product delivered: by rail, post or private transport carrier. In the conclusion, specify the method of payment.

An acknowledgement Recognise the action or quality of another in a letter of acknowledgement.

A letter of acknowledgement acknowledges requests for information, confirms orders, supplies information and thanks the reader. It also maintains goodwill. The plan for writing a letter of acknowledgement is shown in Exhibit 15.14, and an example of this kind of letter is shown in Exhibit 15.15.

EXHIBIT 15.14 Writing plan for an acknowledgment Acknowledge Start with the acknowledgement

Say ‘yes’ Say ‘yes’ clearly when relevant

Details Supply any necessary information or details

Close courteously Close courteously to maintain goodwill

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CHAPTER 15 / Writing business letters

EXHIBIT 15.15 Letter of acknowledgement – good-news letter

GPO Box 42A BRISBANE QLD 4001 Tel: (07) 2222 5656

20 July 2020

James Croftwell Cascade Country Lodge Stanley’s Creek Road GUM TREE GULLEY NSW 2999

Dear James Thank you for your order for a further fifty (50) monogrammed towels for Cascade Country Lodge.

Acknowledgement

We are pleased to be able to fill your new order according to the specifications provided by you (based on your previous Order No. 378).

Say ‘yes’ clearly

James, the number for your new Order is 524 with details as follows:

Details

Regular size luxury bath towel (Product No. 22), white, 100% cotton $30.00 each × 50 $1500.00 Three-initial embroidered monogram (CCL), design as used previously, total size 80 mm 3 140 mm, forest green polysilk thread, diagonal corner position, bottom right-hand side $7.00 per towel × 50 $350.00 Your total for this Order No. 524 comes to $1850.00. Please note that should you wish to increase your order to 75 towels, the price per towel is reduced to $27.50. For your standing order of 50 towels, delivery will be made to you by 31 August as requested. I look forward to once again supplying Cascade Country Lodge with quality towels from the Fine Linen Group. If you have any questions regarding this order or require additional Fine Linen products, please call me anytime. I have enclosed a copy of our most recent product brochure for your information.

Courteous close

Yours sincerely

Loretta Stihler Manager encl. Product Brochure 2020

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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK It is courteous and helpful to acknowledge orders immediately. If a delay in delivery is likely, send an interim acknowledgement letter thanking the customer for the order. Explain the reasons for the delay so that the customer knows what is happening and when to expect delivery. Close the letter courteously. Some letters of acknowledgement are written in response to a request for service or help. The same writing strategy applies: • Begin with an acknowledgement – for example, ‘Thank you for your invitation to address your students’. • Say yes clearly: ‘I will be delighted to do so’. • Supply necessary information – for example, ‘I have work commitments on the date you nominated, so I would prefer the later time of 8 pm’. • Close courteously: ‘Please contact my secretary to confirm these details. I look forward to seeing you.’

A letter of introduction Create a link between sender and receiver in a letter of introduction.

A well-timed letter of introduction reaches the reader when they need the type of service it offers. By using correct business letter format and all the basic parts of a business letter, your letter will make a good impression. Letters of introduction aim to establish contact, goodwill and an opportunity for future sales. Many real estate agents and car salespeople send them. Local council candidates also send letters of introduction. Personalise the letter with the reader’s name. Write in a positive, courteous tone, using the ‘you’ approach to show interest in the reader. Provide interesting details with believable information. Close by letting readers know what you can do for them. Explain how they can make contact with you. The writing plan for a letter of introduction is shown in Exhibit 15.16.

EXHIBIT 15.16 Writing plan for a letter of introduction Catch attention Use the subject line to catch the reader’s attention

Use the direct order of information in a good-news letter.

CHECKPOINT 15.3

Open Explain your reason for the introduction and aim to arouse the reader’s interest

Supply details Supply details and information in the middle paragraphs to create the desire to read further

Close with action(s) Close by saying what you can do for the reader and what you want the reader to do

A successful introduction creates a communication link between you and the potential client. Some letters of introduction combine good news with persuasive elements. Remember that this kind of letter is unrequested, so try to make it short, complete and courteous to avoid irritating the reader. Each of the four good-news letters presented so far has its own writing plan, but for each one you use the same arrangement: the direct method of organising information. The bad-news letter uses the indirect method of organising information and is discussed in the next section.

1. Describe three situations in which a letter of inquiry would be appropriate. 2. How should a letter of acknowledgement be written? 3. What are the most empathetic positions in a good-news letter?

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CHAPTER 15 / Writing business letters

15.4 WRITING A BAD-NEWS LETTER A bad-news letter is a refusal. It is, therefore, likely to disappoint the reader. It is a difficult letter to write successfully because you must convey the bad news yet maintain the receiver’s goodwill. This means you must write it so that the reader has every chance of understanding and accepting your explanation. In business, bad-news letters are written for many reasons. They are written, for instance, to refuse credit, refuse a request, decline to speak at a function, decline to donate time or money, notify an unsuccessful job applicant or explain why you are unable to fulfil an order. Most people dislike writing bad-news letters. The message may anger, disappoint, offend or antagonise the reader. It is most important to use the correct writing strategy to keep the customer’s goodwill.

INDIRECT ORDER OF INFORMATION Someone who receives bad news may read no further than the bad news unless you guide them gradually through the letter to the bad news. Then any reasons and explanation for the refusal are seen and read before the reader reaches the bad news. The writing strategy or plan in Exhibit 15.17 leads the reader from a courteous opening to relevant information and explanation, then to the bad news towards the end of the letter. Open with a sentence that acknowledges the original request, as this restates the information on which both writer and reader agree. It is a courteous, neutral opening that acts as a buffer before the refusal. If the refusal is stated before this opening, the customer may not read the rest of the letter. Examples of neutral openings are: • ‘Thank you for your order No. 535-12.’ • ‘Your inquiry for vacation employment is appreciated.’ In the middle paragraphs, explain the situation clearly and courteously. Express bad news tactfully, avoiding anything that sounds sarcastic, patronising or insulting. Write the letter so that the reader fully understands the reasons for the refusal.

Begin with a neutral yet relevant buffer. Explain courteously and confidently.

EXHIBIT 15.17 Writing plan for a bad-news letter Open with a buffer Open with a neutral statement to establish common ground with the reader

Explain Use a positive tone to explain the situation

Bad news State the bad news clearly and tactfully without trivialising it

Close on a positive note Close positively by offering alternative solutions (if any are available) and point to the future

Never place the refusal in the last sentence of the letter. Avoid referring again to the bad news, apologising repeatedly or using cliche´s. Maintain goodwill with a closing sentence or paragraph that offers a suggestion for action or points towards future actions courteously.

Conclude courteously and positively.

FOUR TYPES OF BAD-NEWS LETTERS This section offers specific guidelines for planning four types of bad-news letters: 1. order refusals 2. saying ‘no’ to a request for credit 3. refusing an adjustment 4. declining invitations and requests for favours.

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An order refusal Present a justified, logical and fair refusal.

Sometimes orders are refused because buyers have overextended their credit level, or are poor or slow payers. Alternatively, your organisation may not deal with the requested line of stock. The writing plan for an order refusal is given in Exhibit 15.18.

EXHIBIT 15.18 Writing plan for refusing orders Acknowledge the order State by acknowledging the order

Explain Explain the reasons for the refusal

State refusal State the refusal clearly and tactfully – avoid negative personal expressions

Close positively Close with a courteous expression of interest in continuing your relationship with the customer

A credit refusal Give convincing reasons in an adjustment refusal.

Credit is sometimes refused if the applicant has spent too little time at one address or in current employment, lacks assets or has too low a level of income. The most usual request for credit and, therefore, the most common credit refusal, is for a loan or credit card. The writing plan for refusing credit uses the four steps shown in Exhibit 15.19.

EXHIBIT 15.19 Writing plan for credit refusal Open Start with a neutral buffer

Explain Explain the factors considered in the decision

State refusal State the refusal clearly and courteously – avoid negative personal expressions

Close positively Close by courteously inviting the receiver to contact your organisation in the future

An adjustment refusal A genuine adjustment request is a request to change, replace or adjust a transaction that has already taken place. Examples include requests to replace damaged goods or missing parts, replace an incomplete order, or correct an error on an account. An adjustment refusal is given when the organisation believes that the adjustment request is unjustified, that it is not responsible for the problem or that a problem does not exist at all. The writing plan for refusing an adjustment follows the four steps shown in Exhibit 15.20, and an example of this kind of letter is shown in Exhibit 15.21.

EXHIBIT 15.20 Writing plan for an adjustment refusal Open Start with a buffer acknowledging the adjustment request

Explain Explain the reasons for the decision

State refusal State the refusal courteously – avoid negative personal expressions

Close positively Close positively and attempt to maintain the customer’s goodwill

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CHAPTER 15 / Writing business letters

EXHIBIT 15.21 Effective bad-news letter refusing an adjustment

FERGUSON FENCING 17 Industry Circuit, MEADOW BAY VIC 3999 Tel: 03 2553 3333 Email: [email protected]

2 May 2020

Mr H Burwood 13 Kennedy Street MEADOW BAY VIC 3999

Dear Mr Burwood Fencing Delivery

Subject

The Better Boundary fencing you purchased from Ferguson Fencing is an excellent choice for newly built homes like your own, from both a design and durability viewpoint.

Neutral buffer

Our records show that the Steel Blue colour you ordered was carefully selected by you in consultation with our colour analyst and your own builder. It was agreed that Steel Blue matched the tones on the colour swatches you provided us with, and your written approval was given for the order. While we appreciate your situation, your Steel Blue Better Boundary fencing was delivered over 6 months ago, and that particular style of fencing is now no longer available. So even though you are yet to install your fencing, we are unable to meet your request to directly exchange your fencing for the same product in the colour Glacier Green. When you install your fencing, I am confident that you will be delighted with the result. If you would like to organise installation for you, please don’t hesitate to give me a call.

Positive explanation

Refusal

Positive close

ey Yours sincerely

All F Allan Ferguson Services Manager

Refusing an invitation or request Invitations and requests often come from other businesspeople or community groups. To maintain goodwill, it is necessary to write the refusal in a manner that expresses your interest in the reader. By giving valid reasons for a refusal, you are sometimes also able to soften the bad news. The intention is to lead your reader to the conclusion before you state the refusal. A reader who has understood the reasoning is more likely to be ready for the answer (bad news) and, it is hoped, maintain focus on the issue rather than respond emotionally. The writing plan for declining invitations and requests follows the four steps listed in Exhibit 15.22, and an example of a letter declining an invitation is shown in Exhibit 15.23. 405 Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202

THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK

EXHIBIT 15.22 Writing plan for declining an invitation or request Open Start with a buffer expressing your appreciation of the invitation or request

Explain Provide reasons and explanation

State refusal State the refusal clearly and courteously

Close courteously Close by expressing interest in the other person or organisation

EXHIBIT 15.23 Effective letter declining an invitation

uplace Hotel up 135 Argyle Street, Sydney NSW 0000 Tel: 02 0000 0000 www.nuplacehotel.com.au Tel

13 June 2020

Principal S Nicholls Cooks Hill Technology High School COOKS HILL NSW 2300

Dear Principal Nicholls Thank you for your invitation to deliver a presentation at your careers seminar to senior students on Monday 1 August 2020.

Neutral buffer

Although I would be pleased to be involved in this seminar, I already have a commitment on this date.

Explanation

Regrettably, I am unable to accept your invitation.

Refusal

I wish you every success with this seminar. I would be happy to provide information to your senior students at another time.

Positive conclusion

y Yours sincerely

h Katalis l Sarah Human Resources Manager

In each of these bad-news letters, the writing strategy is the indirect order of information. To the reader the most important part of the letter is the decision – in this case, the refusal. All the contents – the reasons as well as the decisions – should be written with the aim of maintaining the reader’s goodwill.

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CHAPTER 15 / Writing business letters

1. Consider times when you have received a successful bad-news letter: a. Discuss the features that made it a well-constructed bad-news letter. b. You have been asked to share business letter writing tips on the company blog. Develop a list of tips about how to write the body of a bad-news letter. 2. Revise the following order refusal letter so that the tone is courteous and confident: With reference to your order for further stock, we are not a charity, Mr Grainger. We will not be delivering any more stock to your business until you pay your outstanding account. You will be hearing from our accounts department further on this matter. 3. Name three or more techniques that soften the delivery of bad news.

CHECKPOINT 15.4

15.5 WRITING PERSUASIVE LETTERS A persuasive letter is written to influence the reader in some way. In business, this may mean persuading the reader to buy a product, to pay an overdue account or to consider an application for work. In your private life you may have a problem with a government agency, bank, insurance company or even a health provider. Write a persuasive letter to persuade them to take action to help you and solve the problem. Clearly, the motivation to respond comes from the reader; the suggestion that prompts their response comes from the letter writer. Some examples of persuasive letters are collection letters, sales letters and job applications.

WRITING PLAN To motivate your readers to take action, aim to gain their attention, interest, desire and willingness to respond. Persuasive letters are written when you expect resistance, want to change an attitude or persuade the reader to take some action. The writing plan for a persuasive letter has the four parts shown in Exhibit 15.24. Notice that it follows the AIDA formula – Attention, Interest, Desire and Action. The writing strategy aims to catch the reader’s attention immediately, follow with the details that explain and create interest and desire, then provide any additional information in a logical way. This provides the foundation for the action you want the reader to take.

Organise persuasive messages using the AIDA formula – an indirect approach.

EXHIBIT 15.24 Writing plan for a persuasive letter (the AIDA formula) Attention Open with a sentence or paragraph that catches the reader’s attention

Interest In the next paragraph, develop an idea that might interest the reader or show how the product or service could benefit them

Desire Use the middle paragraph to build the reader’s desire for the product or service, or to encourage them to respond to your letter

Action State in the concluding paragraph what action is to be taken by the reader

At the beginning of the letter, capture attention by focusing on the reader in a positive way. Then, in the second paragraph, make your appeal in the form of direct or indirect benefits – for example, comfort, popularity, economic benefit, distinctiveness, prestige, quality of life or convenience. Next, state the main reason for your letter, explaining it fully. Restate the benefits that the reader will receive. In the concluding section, identify the action you would like the reader to take. Close positively, indicating your wish for future contact. 407 Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202

THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK The next section discusses the first two types of persuasive letters: collection and sales letters. Chapter 4, Develop communication skills for employment, discusses a third type of persuasive letter: the job application.

COLLECTION LETTERS Write persuasively in a collection letter.

A collection letter has two main objectives; to get paid and to retain customer goodwill. Collection letters usually appeal to fair play, cooperation, reputation, self-respect or self-interest. Each letter of this kind sets out to demonstrate that the desired action is reasonable and in the receiver’s best interest. Positive appeals focus on cooperation, fair play and self-respect, whereas negative appeals tend to focus on self-interest – for example, losing a credit rating. In all such communication, the writer’s aim is to develop positive relationships with others and to maintain goodwill. The positive appeal is the one that is most likely to get the desired response and establish good relationships between the organisation and the reader. Maintain a positive rather than threatening tone throughout the letter. When writing to collect money from those who are slow to pay, some organisations break the collection letter process into four stages: 1. reminder 2. strong reminder stage 3. inquiry stage 4. urgency stage. Others break the collection process into three stages by writing a single (strong) reminder. The time taken for the process to develop from a reminder to the urgency stage depends on the type of credit account, your knowledge of the debtor, and the organisation’s collection policy. All collection letters, at each stage, should specify the amount owing and the account number. The writing plan for collection letters is shown in Exhibit 15.25.

EXHIBIT 15.25 Writing plan for a collection letter Purpose Identify the letter’s purpose in the subject line or introductory paragraph

Focus attention In the introductory paragraph, focus the reader’s attention on the issues

Action In the middle paragraphs, give all relevant details and state what action the reader should take

Neutral close Close with a neutral statement that treats the reader with respect – avoid insincere clichés

The reminder Choose your words carefully.

At the first stage, the organisation gives the customer a reminder. It assumes that the customer has forgotten to pay, so the letter is a courteous reminder to pay. This stage usually takes place 30 days after the purchase.

The strong reminder At this stage, the writer still assumes that the customer has forgotten to pay. This second reminder is offered only to an established customer or someone who might have a valid reason for not paying. For other customers, move straight to the inquiry stage, which usually occurs when the account is 60 days overdue.

Inquiry By this stage, the situation is serious. The writer suspects that something is wrong. The persuasive letter becomes a direct request to the customer to explain their problem to the organisation, or to take 408 Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202

CHAPTER 15 / Writing business letters immediate action to correct it. The letter also appeals to the customer’s self-interest, reputation or sense of fair play. By this stage, the account is usually 90 days overdue. The reason for this inquiry is to ask the reader to explain why the overdue account has not been paid and to pay it if possible. If you can persuade the customer to respond with a reason for their nonpayment, there is a reasonable chance of working out a payment plan.

Present both sides of the issue and emphasise to the reader the benefits of taking action.

Urgency By this stage, the account is at least 120 days overdue. The need to collect the money is urgent and you assume there is a reason for not paying. At this stage, the writer clearly states what action the customer should take. The tone of the letter suggests that the payment must be made; it is more demanding but still courteous. See Exhibit 15.25 for an example of a collection letter, urgency stage. If your organisation is going to take some other action over the non-payment, let the customer know what will happen if they ignore the urgent request. The account may, for example, be placed in the hands of a collection agency or legal action may be initiated. In the first stages of the collection process, it is best to assume that the customer has simply forgotten to pay. In the third and fourth stages, it is easier to write courteously if you still assume that the customer wants to pay but cannot do this for some reason.

SALES LETTERS Sales letters follow the same writing plan as other persuasive letters. They aim to motivate readers to act by gaining their attention and interest and prompting their desire and action. When you write a sales letter you need to know what you want to sell, what kind of people will buy the service or product (that is, the market) and who your competitors are. Then decide what type of appeal will persuade the reader to buy. The AIDA formula is again useful for planning a sales letter, as shown in Exhibit 15.27. Attract attention by using: • an unusual opening statement • a sample, photographs or sketches • a solution to a problem or even gimmicks that may attract attention • a description that highlights the features and benefits of your product or service • offers of proof to support your claims, including samples, trial offers, statistics and guarantees. The persuasive sales letter shows readers what is in it for them. Although a product may have many features, highlight just one or two of the best. Listing too many features may confuse the reader. Instead, place all the features in an attachment such as a brochure. To motivate the reader to take action, you need to relate the benefits of the product directly to the reader – for example, an advertisement for a hotel chain might say ‘ … and kids stay free’. What you want the reader to do is then stated clearly – for example, ‘Come in and test drive today’ or ‘Telephone your order today’. Specific, objective language gives the reader a clearer image of the product than abstract language and overstatement. Show you are confident that the customer will be satisfied by offering a money-back guarantee or free samples. Keep your sales letters short (no more than one page) and include any extra information as enclosures or attachments. In the original message, identify likely objections upfront and try to address them in the letter. Objections may arise about: • price and quality • safety • financial returns • attractiveness or unattractiveness of the product.

Aim to persuade the reader in a sales letter. Appeal to the reader with one or two selling points. Create desire by emphasising the benefits. Anticipate objections.

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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK

EXHIBIT 15.26 Effective letter of collection – urgency stage

TOWER REAL ESTATE

8 September 2020

Mr Raymond Johns 22 Cathedral Drive HOLMESVALE VIC 3012

Dear Raymond Overdue account

Gain attention

Over the last 3 years you have been paying fortnightly rent for your lease of property 22 Cathedal Drive, Holmesvale VIC 3012. To date your fortnightly rental payments have always been received by the due date.

Appeal to readers self-interest

It is therefore difficult to understand why your rental payment for the past 2 fortnights has been overdue. The outstanding amount is $1230.50. Encourage reader to take action

As we have sent you an account 2 weeks ago and a reminder letter on 1 September 2020, we are now requesting your urgent attention to prevent possible eviction. The arrears mean you have breached your rental agreement. To prevent any further action of a termination notice, please pay the outstanding amount within 7 days.

Action

Yours sincerely

Jan Roberts Accounts Payable Manager

Suite 137a, Level 6, Kruegar Place, Sydney NSW 2000 T: 02 00 0000 www.towerrealestate.com.au [email protected]

EXHIBIT 15.27 Writing plan for a sales letter Attention Catch the reader’s attention in the subject line or introductory paragraph

Self-interest Use the introductory paragraph to focus on reader’s self-interest and the benefit to them

Create desire In the middle paragraphs, emphasise the central selling point, create a desire and give the price

Action Close by stating the action you want the reader to take

410 Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202

CHAPTER 15 / Writing business letters Exhibit 15.28 is an example of a sales letter that uses the AIDA formula.

EXHIBIT 15.28 A persuasive letter

TOWER REAL ESTATE 14 July 2021

Mr & Mrs Smithson 10 Psuedo Street HOLMESVALE VIC 3012

Dear Mr & Mrs Smithson Listing your home Our agency recently sold a home in your suburb at 25 Pseudo Street, Holmesvale. I am writing to let you know that there are more buyers than available right now. People want to live in your suburb.

Attention

It’s a hot market with homes selling quickly for top dollar. If you have been thinking of listing your home, now is a great time to sell in Holmesvale.

Interest

Selling your home is one of the most important financial decisions you can make in your lifetime. A home is the most valuable asset. At the present time we are experiencing record results in your suburb with homes selling fast.

Desire

We will create an individual, well-planned strategy to: • minimise the amount of time your home is on the market • minimise any disruption due to potential buyer inspections • maximise advertising of the property using digital and print materials. I would appreciate the opportunity to sit down with you and give you a quick, 10-minute price assessment to see what we could get for your home. Call me now on 0400 0000 or by email on [email protected] to set up a time for our obligation-free meeting.

Reduces resistance by highlighting direct benefits Action

y Yours sincerely

k Morgan Frank Property Consultant encl. Portfolio of recent sales Suite 137a, Level 6, Krueger Place, Sydney NSW 2000 T: 02 00 0000 www.towerrealestate.com.au [email protected]

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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK

CHECKPOINT 15.5

1. What are the four parts in a persuasive message? 2. Collection letters: a. Identify the main points in each stage of the collection letter process. b. What assumptions should be made in the first stage of the process, and in the third and fourth stages? 3. You run a small business and one of your regular customers has an outstanding account of $1800. Draft a collection letter that addresses the first stage of the collection process. Follow the writing plan for a collection letter.

15.6 WRITING AND RESPONDING TO WRITTEN COMPLAINTS A letter of complaint, for example, about the quality of service or faulty products puts the complaint on record and lets the organisation know you are serious about the complaint. The letter should include the time, date and location where the faulty goods or services were purchased, as well as reference or invoice numbers and records of previous communication with the organisation. Attach copies of relevant documents such as receipts, work orders and warranties to support the complaint.

ORDER OF INFORMATION The writing strategy or plan for a letter of complaint is shown in Exhibit 15.29. Exhibit 15.30 is an example of a letter of complaint.

EXHIBIT 15.29 Writing plan for a letter of complaint Purpose State the reasons for the complaint

Details Follow with details of the complaint

Explain Identify the steps you have taken to resolve the complaint

Outcome Identify specific actions you want the receiver to take to resolve the complaint

A letter of complaint follows the standard business letter format shown in Exhibit 15.5 on page 394. Below the receiver’s address, include a subject line to indicate the product or service that you are addressing in your complaint. The opening sentence states the complaint; for example, ‘I am writing to complain about the faulty installation of my air conditioner’. Follow the opening sentence with details of the events that have led to the complaint including exact dates, times and relevant information. In the next paragraphs, explain the steps you have taken so far to remedy the problem. Describe the consequences of the faulty product or service and include specific details such as additional costs incurred as a result of the problem. Refer to any prior communication with the organisation and, where applicable, include reference numbers. In the final paragraph state the outcome you want to resolve the matter including specific actions and deadlines: for example, ‘I would appreciate it if you could replace the missing part within 10 days’ or ‘I look forward to hearing from you within the next 14 days’. Write in a clear and concise style and avoid sarcasm, threats or an angry tone. The purpose of the letter is to persuade the receiver to attend to the letter and take action to resolve the issue. 412 Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202

CHAPTER 15 / Writing business letters

EXHIBIT 15.30 Letter of complaint

uplace Hotel u 13 Argyle Street, Sydney NSW 0000 135 |T Tel: 02 0000 0000 | www.nuplacehotel.com.au 26 September 2021

Mr Darren Franks Manager Kitchen Frantic 555 Croudace Road SYDNEY NSW 0000

Dear Darren Complaint about oven tower purchased at Kitchen Frantic on 5 September 2021 I am dissatisfied with the quality of an Oven Tower for a 600mm high oven for the kitchen of our hotel purchased from your store in September 2021. I am writing to seek a replacement tower.

Identify subject clearly Draw reader’s attention to the issue

The main problems are the: • left-hand side of the cabinet is slightly warped • two drawers under the oven in the tower do not open and shut properly The Oven Tower invoice number 6234 was delivered and installed on 25 September and a staff member noticed the problem as soon as he tried to place saucepans and other utensils into the drawer cabinets.

Clear and logical sequence

A photocopy of my receipt is attached as proof of purchase. I want to have this problem fixed as soon as possible, please. If we do not hear from you within 10 days, we will lodge a formal complaint with Consumer Affairs.

Strengthens your complaint

You can contact me on the number above or by email on [email protected] during working hours or after hours on 1234 5670 to discuss this matter further.

Uses courteous tone to encourage reply

Yours sincerely

Zoe Sampson Restaurant Manager encl. Copy of receipt for payment of Oven Tower

RESPONSES TO A LETTER OF COMPLAINT Any person who takes the time to write a letter about bad service or the poor quality of a product deserves a reply. The purpose for writing the letter of complaint is to have the writer’s concerns addressed. Customers who have their concerns addressed to their satisfaction are likely to remain engaged with the organisation. 413 Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202

THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK In an effective response to a letter of complaint the writer acknowledges and responds to what the complainant is saying. The letter of response should: • address the issues of the complaint • recognise what the complainant is seeking as an outcome • negotiate a timeframe within which the investigation and response will be completed. Effective responses address the complaint, attempt to make amends, satisfy the customer and grow value for the organisation from the customer’s repeat visits. Many organisations regard letters of complaint as essential feedback about the writer’s perception of a service or product. As you write a letter of response to a complaint think about how, as the complainant, you would feel if you received the response letter. Check for anything that could be misinterpreted or cause further distress or aggravation. Does the tone of the letter take the complaint seriously and answer all of the complainant’s questions, or is it vague? The letter of response is part of the two-way communication between the complainant and the writer of the response. Effective letters of response show that the organisation is acknowledging, listening and responding to the complaint. Consider the do’s and do not’s of complaint responses listed in Exhibit 15.31.

EXHIBIT 15.31 Dos and do nots of responses to complaints

Acknowledge a justified complaint and fix the problem.

Dos

Do Nots

• Follow organisational guidelines and principles • Advise who has investigated the issues, giving their name and position • Confirm the issues • Follow with an explanation of what happened and why • Offer an apology for a justified complaint • Provide information about what is going to be done and by when • Include contact details for the appropriate manager in case the complainant should want to discuss any issues raised in the letter

• Avoid breach of organisational guidelines • Omit to include the name and position of the person who has investigated the issue • Avoid dismissing a complaint • Avoid using any abbreviations or shortened words such as ‘e.g.’ or ‘admin’ • Avoid use of an acronym unless it is explained on the first occasion of its use • Avoid use of judgemental words • Omit the contact details for the appropriate manager in case the complainant should like to take the matter further

A good-news letter is written in response to a justified complaint. A bad-news letter is written in response to an unjustified complaint. The order of information for both situations is shown in Exhibit 15.32. The important factor in both situations is to retain the customer’s goodwill.

EXHIBIT 15.32 Order of information used in response to a justified and unjustified complaint Justified complaint

• Open with the action taken in response to the complaint • Acknowledge the complaint clearly • Give an apology and acknowledge any inconvenience caused in the middle paragraphs • Close with a goodwill statement

Unjustified complaint

• Open with a courteous, neutral buffer • Explain the situation in a positive tone – no apology is given for an unjustified complaint • State the bad news clearly and tactfully with language that shows respect for the complainant • Close positively to maintain goodwill

414 Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202

CHAPTER 15 / Writing business letters The writing plan for replying to a justified complaint follows the four steps listed in Exhibit 15.33. An example of an effective reply to a complaint is shown in Exhibit 15.34.

EXHIBIT 15.33 Writing plan for a reply to a letter of complaint Action taken Start with the action you have taken as a result of the complaint

Acknowledgement Acknowledge the complaint clearly

Apology In the middle paragraphs, give an apology and acknowledge any inconvenience caused

Goodwill Close with a goodwill statement

EXHIBIT 15.34 Effective reply to a complaint

KITCHEN FRANTIC 555 Croudace Road SYDNEY NSW 0000 / Tel: 02 5555 7777 [email protected]

29 September 2020

Ms Zoe Sampson Restaurant Manager Nuplace Hotel 135 Argyle Street SYDNEY NSW 0000

Dear Zoe Complaint about oven tower purchased 5 September 2021

Action taken

Thank you for your letter dated 26 September 2021 in relation to issues about the Oven Tower you purchased on 5 September 2021.

Acknowledge complaint

We apologise for any inconvenience that this has caused you and your staff at Nuplace Hotel.

Apology

I will have one of our service people contact you to arrange replacement of the Oven Tower and to complete the installation of the replacement. We appreciate you informing us of this issue. We value your custom and look forward to supplying your kitchen needs in the future.

Goodwill close

Yours sincerely

Darren Franks Manager

415 Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202

THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK Respond to a justified complaint by explaining what happened and why (if appropriate). Let the receiver know how you will resolve the situation and aim to overcome any damage done to the business relationship by offering additional service visits, free merchandise or future price discounts.

CHECKPOINT 15.6

1. Outline the order of information in a letter of complaint. 2. Identify three characteristics of an effective letter of response to a complaint. 3. Letter of response: a. What should you do in a letter of response? b. What should you not do in a letter of response? 4. Briefly explain the difference between a letter of response to a justified complaint and a letter of response to an unjustified complaint.

LEARNING ACTIVITIES SUMMARY 15.1 Apply the three-step writing process to business letters. The three steps are planning, writing and completing. In the planning step, define your writing purpose and assess your reader’s needs. Select, organise and structure information appropriate to your purpose and audience. In the writing step, use a Plain English writing style to make your content accessible and let the reader know who or what action to take in response to your letter. In the completion step, review and edit the letter for readability. Proofread and correct spelling and punctuation errors, typos and layout. 15.2 Discuss the essential and optional parts of a correctly formatted business letter. Each part has a purpose specific to the reader’s needs and the writer’s needs. The acceptable format has a minimum of seven parts – writer’s name and address, date, inside (intended reader’s) address, greeting, body of the letter, complimentary close and writer’s signature and job title. Optional parts include subject line, attention line, reference initials, enclosure, file number, sender’s telephone extension and sender’s email or website details. There are several layout options for workplace correspondence – full block layout, full block layout with centred letterhead and modified block layout. A uniform, professional layout makes it easier for both reader and writer. The writer can organise the information readily and the reader can quickly grasp the purpose of the letter.

15.3 Identify four types of good-news letters and explain how the direct order of information benefits the receiver. Some letters convey good news or bad news, some are neutral and some aim to persuade the reader to take action. In each type of letter, keep in mind your main objectives, treat the reader with courtesy and write in a concise, confident manner that is easy to understand. Remember to retain the goodwill of the reader. Present your information in a way that is most likely to produce the result you want. 15.4 Explain how to organise the information in a badnews letter. Each type of letter – good-news, bad-news or persuasive letters – has three sections: an introduction, a body and a conclusion. The purpose of each section is always the same: to open the letter, to give information and details, and to close the letter. However, the writing plan will vary the order of information. In a good-news letter, the writing strategy is direct order of information. In a bad-news letter, the writing strategy is indirect order of information. 15.5 Compose persuasive letters using the AIDA formula to influence the receiver to take action. The order of information for a persuasive letter is shaped by the AIDA formula. Begin with a courteous, neutral opening sentence followed by a sentence stating the point for the letter. Then in a short paragraph provide supporting details. Emphasise your need and the importance of your

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CHAPTER 15 / Writing business letters

request. In the next paragraph, raise the desire of the receiver to respond. In the closing one or two sentences, restate your request to encourage the receiver to act. The aim of the letter is to catch your receiver’s attention, interest and desire to take the action you are requesting. 15.6 Discuss the order of information for a letter of complaint and a letter of response to both a justified and an unjustified complaint. A letter of complaint

follows the persuasive order of information to encourage the receiver to take action. A reply to a letter of complaint aims to retain the customer’s goodwill. Its order of information follows four steps. Start with the action you have taken as a result of the complaint. Then acknowledge the complaint clearly. Follow with an apology and acknowledge the inconvenience caused. End the letter with a goodwill closing.

KEY TERMS adjustment refusal AIDA formula attention line bad-news letter body collection letter

complimentary close credit refusal full block good-news letter greeting (salutation) inside address

layout letter of acknowledgement letter of inquiry letter of introduction letter of request modified block

neutral letter order refusal persuasive letter sales letter signature block subject line

LEARNING ACTIVITIES 1. Successful business letters a. Use keywords such as ‘business letter’, ‘letter of recommendation’, ‘announcement letter’, ‘letter of application’, ‘acknowledgement letter’ to search the image section of a Web search engine such as Google, Bing or Yahoo. b. Write a pre´cis that evaluates how well the writer has: • identified the letter’s purpose • assessed the needs of the audience • gathered information appropriate to writing purpose and audience need • organised the information to enhance understanding and audience’s acceptance of the message • applied business letter format to present a welldesigned professional message. 2. Work in pairs for this activity You own and manage a function centre and have received a request from the vocational college in your area to accept a hospitality student for a two-week work experience placement at the end of the semester. a. Identify and discuss the differences between the writing plans for a good-news letter and a bad-news letter. b. Together, draft a letter accepting the student for work experience. Then draft a letter refusing the request.

c. Now assume that you personally know the hospitality student who is seeking a work placement. The student is reliable and capable but, unfortunately, you cannot offer them work experience as you will be away at the time. However, you have a friend with a restaurant nearby whom you think may be able to help. Again, working together, write your friend a persuasive letter to convey your request. 3. The local Adult Education twentieth-century history class has heard about your recent overseas trip to sites in Europe, where your great-grandfather fought in the First World War. The history teacher has requested that you visit their class one evening to discuss your trip with the students. The class is on a Wednesday night, which is the same night you have another weekly commitment. Therefore, you will be unable to attend. Write a letter declining the invitation. 4. Assume that you work for a small business called Aaron’s Auto Repairs. Aaron, the owner, has asked you to write a letter to Enviroil Pty Ltd in response to the leaflet received in the mail promoting their engine oil disposal service. Your task is to gather more information about the service. In particular, you wish to know how much the service costs, how often and at what times they pick up the engine oil,

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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK

the size of the containers they supply to store the engine oil until pick-up day and how the oil they collect is disposed of. Write the letter, using full block layout and the seven

basic parts of a letter. For the opening paragraph, prepare a clear, courteous request.

GROUP ACTIVITY 1. On each of four small pieces of paper, write one of the following: a. letter of request (full block layout) b. adjustment refusal (full block layout with centred letterhead) c. sales letter (modified block layout) d. reply to a letter of complaint (full block layout). Place the pieces of paper in a hat or container. 2. Break into four small groups. Each group draws one of the four pieces of paper at random. The groups are not to know what each other’s topics are.

3. Each group prepares a letter according to the topic they have drawn, then presents their letter to the larger group (visually and verbally). 4. The larger group must consider the writing plans presented in this chapter and identify the type of letter that has been presented. The type of layout should also be identified. 5. When all four groups have presented their letters, they should swap letters with another group. Each group then critiques the letter they have received, in terms of effectiveness and application of the writing plan. In addition, identify essential and optional parts of the letter.

CASE STUDY ANNA’S RECOMMENDATION: DEBTOR COLLECTION/REMINDER LETTERS It is Anna’s responsibility to ensure all accounting duties are completed within five business days of month-end. Anna then has a further five business days to analyse the accounting data and produce month-end reports. She provides the month-end reports with a summary that includes recommendations to management. This process requires the raising of sales invoices, the processing of credit notes and the processing of any relevant debtor journals for that month. Anna then reconciles each customer account to ensure the final balances are correct. Anna has completed all the accounting requirements for month-end and has commenced her analysis in order to provide her summary with recommendations to management. Anna was concerned as she analysed the Detailed Aged Debtor Report. A number of debtors were 30, 60, 90 and even 120 days overdue. Anna felt that this was a problem because the company’s cashflow depended on the prompt collection of customer accounts. As part of her recommendations to management, Anna wanted to highlight the issue of outstanding customer accounts. She decided to recommend the posting of collection letters. She was not yet overly

concerned about the 30 day past-due debtors and decided to recommend to management that the company’s standard collection letter be prepared and posted immediately to these debtors. Anna was more concerned about the 60, 90 and 120 days past-due invoices. Anna felt that customers who were 60 days overdue needed a strong reminder in writing that payment of the account was due. As the company classified a doubtful debt as one that was 90þ days overdue, Anna felt the seriousness of the 90 days and the 120 days past due required a letter requesting immediate payment. In the letters to the 90 days and 120 days past due, Anna also decided to recommend that management include a sentence to the effect that if the funds weren’t received within five business days of the date of the letter, the customer’s file would be sent to debt collectors. Anna is also aware that her collection letters will be a reflection of her company, so she wants to keep the 60, 90 and 120 days past-due collection letters positive and professional.

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>

CHAPTER 15 / Writing business letters

>

Questions 1. What are Anna’s main goals in writing the collection letters? 2. Outline the order of information Anna should use in the 60 day past-due letters. 3. Outline the order of information Anna should use in the 90 day past-due and 120 day past due letters. 4. Do you think management should accept Anna’s recommendation to use a sentence to the effect that if

the funds weren’t received within five business days of the date of the letter, the customers’ files would be referred to debt collectors? Give reasons for your answer. 5. How can Anna ensure the collection letters reflect a positive and professional image of her company? 6. Write a collection letter Anna can send to a client who is 60 days past-due.

BIBLIOGRAPHY Appleman, Jack E. 2017. 10 Steps to Successful Business Writing, ATD Press, Alexandria, VA. Baker, Heather. 2012. Successful Business Writing – How to Write Business Letters, Emails, Reports, Minutes and for Social Media - Improve Your English Writing and Grammar, Universe of Learning Ltd, UK. Bly, R.W. & Kelly, R.A. 2009. The Encyclopedia of Business Letters, Faxes, and Emails: Features Hundreds of Model Letters, Faxes, and E-mails, Career Press, Franklin Lakes, NJ. ´ Bovee, C.L. & Thill, J.V. 2017. Business Communication Today, 14th edn, Pearson Education Limited, Essex, UK. Fowler, H.R. & Aaron, J.E. 2016. The Little Brown Handbook, 13th edn, Pearson Education Limited, Essex, UK. Free Management Library. 2018. Business Writer’s Free Library, http://managementhelp.org/businesswriting/ index.htm, viewed 2 December 2018.

James, Neil 2016. A 9900% rate of return? The value of plain English to government, viewed https:// www.themandarin.com.au/62630-value-plain-english/ 9 September 2018. Lamb, Sandra E. 2011. How to Write It, Third Edition: A Complete Guide to Everything You’ll Ever Write, Ten Speed Press, New York, NY. Purdue Online Writing Lab. Business Letters: Accentuating the Positives, https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/ subject_specific_writing/professional_technical_writing/ accentuating_the_positives.html, viewed 2 December 2018. Snooks & Co. 2002. Style Manual for Authors, Editors and Printers, 6th edn, John Wiley & Sons Australia, Canberra.

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WRITE SHORT REPORTS

CHAPTER

16

Your Learning Journey

Writing SHORT FORMAL REPORTS using an APPROPRIATE FORMAT Apply a FIVE-STEP PLAN

Chapter 16

How should I order information?

 direct  indirect  routine 16.1

16.3

Consider how to ORDER YOUR INFORMATION and aim to be BALANCED

 justification  progress  periodic  incident form  analytical  dashboard

Should be appropriate to your WRITING PURPOSE + RECEIVER

easily read result in desired action

Ultimately, the reader should be able to make a DECISION, CHECK PROGRESS or PLAN FOR THE FUTURE

Each with a specific purpose to inform, advise or persuade

SHORT REPORT FORMATS 16.2 formal

CH17

Next WRITE LONG REPORTS

Choose the APPROPRIATE report type for your PURPOSE

letter

4 memo

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analytical

CHAPTER 16 / Write short reports

LEARNING OBJECTIVES After studying this chapter, you should be able to: 16.1 understand the function of a short report, as well as the importance of planning and ordering its information appropriately 16.2 be familiar with the different formats of short reports and use them appropriately 16.3 write six widely used short reports – justification, progress, periodic, incident form, analytical reports and dashboard reports.

16.1 WRITE SHORT REPORTS A report, whether long or short, presents comprehensive information on a specific subject. Its main function is to inform. Sometimes, it also offers expert opinion or advice to managers, to help them check on progress, plan for the future and make decisions. The key to success in developing an effective report that is also easy to read lies in planning carefully. The following guidelines will help you achieve this: • indicate your purpose clearly • give accurate and objective information • apply suitable headings • organise it so that it highlights the main points and leads logically to your conclusions. When faced with the task of producing a short report, the following five-step approach will assist you in planning and writing.

Plan well to ensure effectiveness.

FIVE-STEP PLAN FOR A SHORT REPORT At the investigation and planning stage of your short report, consider the five steps set out in Exhibit 16.1. Follow the five steps to improve the clarity of your report.

EXHIBIT 16.1 The five-step plan Step 1

Take time to identify your writing task clearly by defining your main idea and limiting the scope of your report.

Step 2

Consider your readers’ needs, knowledge level and familiarity with technical terms. Do this at the beginning, as these will affect both the content and language of your report.

Step 3

Identify and list your information and sourcing requirements. Create ideas by brainstorming, consulting co-workers or considering previously successful examples.

Step 4

Gather your information purposefully, and avoid being sidetracked. Sometimes you may need to research both primary and secondary sources.

Step 5

Sort your information and discard anything irrelevant. Organise your material into sections under suitable headings, in a logical sequence.

Plan to improve the readability of your report by using an order appropriate to your statement of purpose and the needs of your audience. By this stage, you have a logical outline that should allow you to work swiftly to produce a complete yet concise report.

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ORDER OF INFORMATION In deciding how to arrange your information for a short report, it is useful to consider the following three methods: 1. direct order 2. indirect order 3. routine order. The purpose of each method is given in Exhibit 16.2.

Choose the order of information appropriate to your purpose.

EXHIBIT 16.2 Purpose of each order of information Direct order of information What is it?

When would you use it?

Indirect order of information

Routine order of information

Begin with the conclusion

Begin with the purpose statement

Begin with the purpose statement

If readers are: • informed • supportive • keen to know results first

If readers: • need to be informed • need to be persuaded • may be disappointed or hostile

If readers need to: • grasp information quickly • make decisions

Some of the characteristics of poor short reports are listed in Exhibit 16.3. A systematic approach to memo and report writing – researching, planning and structuring, writing and editing – will help you to avoid these mistakes.

EXHIBIT 16.3 Characteristics of poor short reports

CHECKPOINT 16.1

No clear purpose statement

Incomplete information

No significant information

Spelling errors

Irrelevant detail

Too much detail

Illogical order of information

Too much information

Overuse of technical terms

Contains subjective opinions

Poor use of white space

Uses inappropriate headings

Inappropriate format

Irrelevant attachments

1. Outline the steps to follow as you plan a short report. 2. Discuss the benefits of a logical order of information in a short report. 3. Provide an example of a situation in which you would use each of the following in a short report: a. Direct order of information. b. Indirect order of information. c. Routine order of information.

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CHAPTER 16 / Write short reports

16.2 SHORT REPORT FORMATS A short report format places information on the page in a way that is easy to understand. Writers have developed various formats to convey certain types of information, but discussion here is limited to four typical short report formats.

Format the short report to suit your writing purpose.

TYPICAL FORMATS Four common formats that short reports follow are the: • formal format • letter format • memo format • analytical format. Exhibit 16.4 summarises the details required for each type of report format.

EXHIBIT 16.4 Details required in each type of report Formal format

Letter format

Memo format

Analytical format

1. A title page 2. An introduction 3. Sections with headings in the body 4. Conclusions 5. Recommendations (when required)

1. The writer’s address 2. The date 3. Inside or reader’s address 4. Greeting (salutation) 5. Subject 6. Body 7. Complimentary close 8. Signature block

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Reader’s name Writer’s name Date Subject line or title Body

Objective Scope Analysis – work done Results Key findings and Conclusions 6. Recommendations

Note: Attachments are included if their information is useful.

ELECTRONIC FORMAT Report writers within organisations using digital media are able to produce and distribute reports in either electronic form or a hard copy. With Adobe Acrobat, for example, any report can be converted into a PDF document that retains its format and content. Other software systems can convert reports into RTF, HTML and Excel formats. An electronic report is distributed in electronic form rather than hard copy and may contain hyperlinks and multimedia content as well as text. Hyperlinks are a useful way to minimise the visible content in your short report. The receiver must click on the hyperlink to access the information from its destination location. When they click on the link it redirects them to another location within the same document, another document, an external file or a URL or website; for example, the Australian Bureau of Statistics at http://www.abs.gov.au. The advent of YouTube videos, online TV shows and smartphones with video capability provides the opportunity to incorporate video elements into reports and other documents. As the technology improves the opportunities for short report writers to incorporate graphics, sound and video content are increasing.

Incorporate graphics, sound and video content that supports the report’s purpose and enhances the message.

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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK In the case of form reports, for example, rather than just converting a plain paper form to PDF and then having someone else print out and fill in the form manually, you can use ‘convert PDF software’ to create interactive forms. The interactive forms are then distributed via email or online for the receiver to fill in electronically. The rapid improvement in technology has led to increasing use of the electronic short report. One example is the tablet and mobile devices. Another is the personal digital assistant. Both are lightweight, hand-held devices employing a touch-sensitive screen or a keyboard, which link with other devices. Mobile devices are used in a broad range of work activities including building inspections and health inspections. Their mobility provides the inspector with a plan of work – listings of inspections to carry out, itineraries, plans, type of inspection and final appraisal. On-site, the hand-held devices allow the inspector to: • access the application for a building inspection from the place in which the inspection is being carried out • update online information about licences and results of visits • take pictures to record progress • write and print on location the minutes and/or report of the inspection visit. These devices eliminate the use of paper for note taking. The notes can be formatted as an electronic report and added to the relevant database. Instead of copying paper-based reports, electronic reports can be uploaded directly for approval by senior management. Then the reports are made available electronically to other officers, team leaders, supervisors, managers or any other authorised person for access and review. Electronic reporting streamlines and simplifies the report writing process. Electronic reports can be emailed or directly delivered to the receiver(s) through output and print queues, PC directories, FTP servers or a document management system. Faster, paperless delivery enhances decision making and reduces printing, distribution and storage costs. Electronic reports avoid the effort of manually printing, routing or mailing a report.

CHECKPOINT 16.2

1. Characteristics and impact of poor short reports: • choose five characteristics of poor short reports and describe how these characteristics create a negative impact. 2. Choosing short report format: For each of the following short reports, suggest the most appropriate format: a. informing staff of the success of a recent grant application b. reporting to your local council on outcomes of a residents’ meeting about the poor condition of the road surface in your street c. informing the general manager about the results of the year-long project you have just concluded d. letting a customer know of the progress being made on a faulty goods claim you passed on to the manufacturer e. telling the drivers in your courier company that as a result of the recent transport industry WHS conference, all drivers now need to wear reflective safety vests during work time f. reporting to the finance manager regarding the financial position of your section and the yetto-be-spent portion of your budget g. reporting WHS incidents to the relevant regulatory authority.

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CHAPTER 16 / Write short reports

16.3 SIX TYPES OF SHORT REPORTS There are six widely used short reports that usually follow the memo format, but may sometimes follow the format for a letter or formal report: • justification report • progress report (and completion report) • periodic report • incident and form report • analytical report • dashboard report. These short reports have different purposes and suit different situations.

Choose the report type appropriate to your writing purpose.

JUSTIFICATION REPORT The justification report presents an idea or proposal and follows this with evidence to support it. As this kind of report often seeks approval for some action, the justification report must explain clearly why the proposal is made. The details of any proposed changes are placed in the body of the report. A report that balances the advantages and disadvantages of the current situation with the changes outlined in the proposal allows for clear conclusions and recommendations. If it is necessary to follow up, review or check on progress, remember to recommend this. Always present facts to support your request for approval or change in a justification report. Achieve the correct emphasis by organising your information as shown in Exhibit 16.5.

Use a justification report to highlight the benefits of an opinion, suggestion or proposal.

EXHIBIT 16.5 Justification report – indirect order of information 1. Purpose statement

• Identify the report’s purpose with a subject line or purpose statement

2. Body of information

• • • • • •

3. Conclusion

Describe the current situation Describe the change Detail the cost factors Discuss the advantages or disadvantages Make a conclusion Close with the recommendation(s)

A short report suggesting change to normal procedures may meet with some resistance. In this case, use the indirect order of information suited to a progress report, as shown in Exhibit 16.5. Start with a purpose statement, and keep the writing neutral to lead the reader through the problem and the details supporting the change. It is essential to remind or persuade the reader that there is a problem, not to assume that they are familiar with it (see Exhibit 16.6). Close by pointing the way ahead, or by using a neutral statement or a goodwill statement. One of the advantages of a short report is that the information and written approval are eventually put on file for future reference. Justification reports may apply to the situations listed in Exhibit 16.7.

PROGRESS REPORT The progress report is an essential part of the organisation’s management information system. It sends objective, factual information, usually to management, on the progress of a task and on timetables for future work and completion.

Use a progress report to emphasise achievements and progress.

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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK

EXHIBIT 16.6 Justification report in memo format MEMORANDUM TO: FROM: DATE: SUBJECT:

Sam Shields, Managing Director Ben Brenner, Customer Service Manager 6 March 2019 Proposed creation of additional customer parking

Purpose statement

A recent customer survey shows the major reason 30% of our existing customers do not shop with us more regularly is the lack of convenient parking. During the six months since our main competitor, Grocery World, purchased the block next to their premises and established a small car park, our sales have declined by approximately 15%. We currently have five car spaces at the front of our store. During store operating hours these spaces are occupied over 90% of the time.

Body of information

At a recent Progress Committee meeting, it was suggested that additional parking spaces would help increase customer convenience and therefore encourage more regular patronage. It was agreed that four extra spaces could be created by reducing the size of the garden bed at the front of the store by approximately 65%, and by changing the layout of the existing parking. It is recommended that a planner be engaged to draw plans for: 1. reducing the size of the garden bed 2. reconfiguring the existing car spaces 3. creating a total of nine car spaces.

Conclusion

EXHIBIT 16.7 Justification report – possible situations A short justification report may deal with: • a change of procedure • a change of funding source • a change of accommodation • a change of operating times • a drop in sales

• a need to replace computer software with a more powerful package • a change to a department budget • a change to parking fees • a discount pricing policy

Progress reports usually move upwards through the organisation to inform management of the rate of progress according to schedule, to identify goals for subsequent periods or to provide a forecast. They are written as required rather than at regular intervals. For a progress overview, organisations often compare the latest report with previous reports on file. Present your progress report in positive language and emphasise achievements and progress. Aim to maintain a balance between successes and any problems encountered or anticipated. Exhibit 16.8 sets out the main parts of a progress report, in an appropriate sequence. Progress reports often compare the results achieved so far against the anticipated or intended results. Exhibit 16.9 lists some common situations requiring progress reports. A typical progress report is given in Exhibit 16.10.

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CHAPTER 16 / Write short reports

EXHIBIT 16.8 Progress report – indirect order of information 1. Purpose statement

• Identify the report’s purpose in the subject line (purpose statement)

2. Body of information

• • • •

3. Conclusion

Open the body of the report with the current status, work or goals completed so far Follow with details of the operation’s achievements Present any problems and state how they were resolved or will be resolved. Indicate future actions

EXHIBIT 16.9 Progress report – possible situations Checking the rate of work on a new building

Reporting progress made over the last month in fitout of a new warehouse

Updating progress on office renovations Short progress reports are required for:

Providing daily medical details on a patient’s progress

Reporting progress on a re-zoning application lodged with council

EXHIBIT 16.10 A progress report in memo format TO: FROM: DATE: SUBJECT:

Greg Laman, Services Manager Alan Maloney, Project Supervisor 21 September 2020 Progress report on renovation of third-floor bathroom facilities

Purpose statement

Unfortunately, industrial action on the wharves has delayed the delivery of the imported ceramic tiles chosen for the renovation. I am pleased to report: • installation of the new windows • finalisation of the plastering.

Body of information

If no further industrial action occurs, the tiles should be delivered by next week. Once the tiling is complete, plumbing can then be finalised, painting finished, light fittings installed, mirrors and hand driers mounted, and power and water connected. The revised completion date for this project is 5 October 2020.

Conclusion

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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK A completion report is the last report to prepare. It complements the progress reports generated during the life of a project, and is written to state that the project has been completed. It is also a courteous way of thanking management for the opportunity to work on the project.

PERIODIC REPORT Use a periodic report to supply information regularly.

A periodic report is the most common report prepared in business. Its purpose is to inform management, at regular intervals, about some aspect of the organisation’s operation over a specified period. A periodic report may be prepared and circulated daily, weekly, fortnightly or monthly. An accounts receivable clerk may, for example, prepare a monthly report on debtors, showing accounts overdue, with an explanation of the steps taken to recover the debts. Management then considers this report and decides whether to pursue the debt with a collection letter, telephone call or legal action. Or a real estate agent may prepare a monthly report for management on the percentage of listed houses sold during that time. Many periodic reports are prepared on standard printed forms that are easy to complete, read and file. They follow the same format each time so that it is easy to compare information from one period with that of another. In the body of the report, emphasise the most important points. Group related details under headings. Use tabulation, indents, lists or numbers to make it easier for your reader to find and understand information. To plan a periodic report, use the routine order of information shown in Exhibit 16.11 and refer to Exhibit 16.12 for an example. Exhibit 16.13 lists some situations that require periodic reports.

EXHIBIT 16.11 Routine order of information for a periodic report 1. Purpose statement

• Identify the report’s purpose with a subject line or purpose statement

2. Body of information

• • • •

3. Conclusion

Open the body of the report with facts and figures Present objective information on achievements and problems Summarise the findings. Close with the recommendation(s).*

*The recommendation can also be placed at the beginning of the report, if this position is more appropriate.

INCIDENT AND FORM REPORTS A form report is a cost-effective way to collect information. Its standard layout enables information from various sources to be gathered and arranged consistently. Headings and subheadings allow the writer to quickly place related information into the same section so there is no need to spend time on planning the order of information. Forms make it easy to keep accurate and up-to-date records. They also help the receiver to interpret, analyse and compile the information quickly (see Exhibit 16.14). The monthly returned goods form records the date, product, customer, reason for return and how the issue was resolved (refund, exchange or repair).

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CHAPTER 16 / Write short reports

as

t & Coun

R

EA

15 January 2020

tr y

Coast and Country Real Estate Pty Ltd 229 Hillview Drive, Mount Bellam, NSW, 2888 Telephone: (02) 2222 0000 Email: [email protected] www.ccrealestate.com

Co

EXHIBIT 16.12 A periodic report in letter format

E L ESTAT

Linemore Pty Ltd PO Box 213 MOUNT BELLAM NSW 0000 Subject line

Purpose

Facts and figures

RENTAL FIGURES Suites 1 – 4 Pollard Lane Mount Bellam The rental statement for the last quarter of 2019 shows the total monthly rental figures for the quarter ending 31 December 2019. RENTAL SUMMARY Month October November December TOTAL

Suite 1 $4 100.00 $4 100.00 $4 100.00 $12 300.00

Suite 2 $4 000.00 $4 000.00 $4 000.00 $12 000.00

Suite 3 $4 200.00 $4 200.00 $4 200.00 $12 600.00

Suite 4 $4 100.00 $4 100.00 $4 100.00 $12 300.00

Tenants are paid up to date with the exception of Suite 3. Suite 4 was vacated on 31 December. Objective information

Recommendation

MARKETING We have sent letters to accountants, solicitors and doctors, and placed signs in the foyer to encourage offers for Suite 4. We will keep you informed of progress. It may be worthwhile placing an advertisement for Suite 4 in the Bellam Bulletin Classifieds for the next two weeks. Yours faithfully COAST AND COUNTRY REAL ESTATE

Penny Smith Penny Smith Rental Agent

An incident report is a form report that gives management a clear, factual account of an incident that is non-routine. It is primarily an information report, offering the receiver objective, factual details rather than a full analysis or justification of the incident. The writing plan for an incident report is shown in Exhibit 16.15, and an example is given in Exhibit 16.16. Incident reports may be written about: • unusual delays in normal procedures • accidents and fatalities • work-caused illness • security breaches • dangerous event or special events • incidents involving client/staff interaction.

Use an incident report to supply information on a non-routine occurrence.

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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK

EXHIBIT 16.13 Periodic report – possible situations Monthly staff absenteeism

Annual figures on unauthorised leave

Outstanding accounts

Short periodic reports may deal with:

Monthly revenue reports

Weekly sales figures

Audit reports

EXHIBIT 16.14 A form report Monthly returned goods report CONTACT: Stan Redmond, Warehouse Manager email [email protected] |Telephone +61 3 9288 7432 Archer Corporation, Hannell Street, RICHMOND, VICTORIA 3121 Date: Product: Customer: Reason for return: Refund/exchange/repair:

EXHIBIT 16.15 Writing plan for an incident report Incident report writing plan

• A short general statement about the incident • A description of the circumstances that led to the incident • An outline of what happened, in appropriate detail • An indication of the outcome: the effects the incident had or is having

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CHAPTER 16 / Write short reports

EXHIBIT 16.16 An incident report INCIDENT REPORT FORM ABOUT THE INCIDENT Incident address:

Incident date: Time of incident: (please use 24-hour clock; e.g. 15:45 not 3:45 pm)

Employer’s legal name: Trading name and ABN: Main business address:

Phone: ....................... Fax: ...................... Email address:.............................

Main business activity and industry sector (e.g. agriculture, healthcare and social assistance, construction, wholesale trade, electrical installation, other – please specify):

Main business activity: Industry sector:

Name of workplace controller where incident occurred: WHAT HAPPENED (Please provide as much detail as possible)

INCIDENT OUTCOME (Please circle)

The events that led to the incident: .............................................................. ........................................................................................................................... The work being undertaken when the incident happened: ....................... ........................................................................................................................... The overall action, exposure or circumstances that caused the injury, illness or fatality: ............................................................................................ ........................................................................................................................... The object, substance or circumstance that was directly involved in inflicting the injury, illness or death: ............................................................ ........................................................................................................................... The name and type of any machinery, equipment or substance involved: ........................................................................................ ........................................................................................................................... Name of anyone else involved (attach a separate piece of paper if necessary): ........................................................................................ YES

NO

Dangerous event Dangerous electrical event Serious electrical incident Work-caused illness Serious bodily injury ABOUT THE INJURED PERSON Name: ........................................................ Contact phone number: ........................................ Male / Female (please circle) Home address: ...................................................................... Date of birth: .................................................................. Occupation:

Please circle one to identify injured person’s involvement with workplace: Employee / Contractor / Self-employed / Customer / Member of the public / Other (please specify)

ABOUT THE INJURY OR ILLNESS

Please describe the injury or illness (e.g. fracture, laceration, strain, electrical shock, burn): What part of the body was injured (e.g. left arm, neck, chest)?

> 431

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>

As a result of the incident, was the person (please circle YES or NO):

YES

NO

YES

NO

Unconscious Hospitalised Was the person (please circle YES or NO): Resuscitated Fatally injured Please provide hospital details: ABOUT THE PERSON COMPLETING THIS FORM Name: ................................................................................. Address: ............................................................................. Are you reporting this incident on behalf of (please circle):

Contact phone number: ................................................................. Work email address: ......................................................................

The employer

A self-employed person

An employee

A contractor

Privacy Statement: We respect your privacy and are committed to protecting personal information. The information provided on this form is for the purpose of advising the relevant workplace authority of a reportable incident under the relevant WHS Regulation. Document the incident accurately, clearly and objectively. Explain who, what, where, when, why and how in an incident report.

The incident report in Exhibit 16.16 documents injuries or illnesses in the workplace in a form report. Management is responsible for ensuring information is entered into the form and stored for five years following the incident. The information required on the form includes where and how the incident occurred, the circumstances surrounding the incident and the outcomes from the incident. The form contact details for the injured or ill person, the medical and other professionals involved and the manager or workplace controller at the time of the incident must also be included in the report. The name and contact details of the person filling out the form are also required. Incident reports must report who, what, where, when, why and how. They must: • be factual and accurate • provide a clear picture • be free of subjective opinion • be completed as close to the time of the incident as possible. Any incident report should explain what happened immediately before the incident, how the incident was handled and list the names of people involved, including observers and witnesses. Incident reports are records of an accident, injury or ‘near miss’. They must be written as soon as an accident, security breach or other incident occurs so that details are remembered accurately. If it is not possible to record the incident on an official report form, jot down as many notes as possible at the time of the incident. Refer to Chapter 9 for a discussion regarding the role of incident reports in documenting safety incidents and accidents. Verify the legislative requirements and your organisation’s requirements for records of incidents. They are usually stored in a central location and may be used as evidence in the future. The key to an effective incident report is accuracy, clarity and complete information about what happened and the effects of the incident.

ANALYTICAL REPORTS Analytical reports are generally written by experts and are used to examine a problem and recommend a set of actions to resolve the problem. The preparation of an analytical report involves the collection of qualitative and quantitative data. This data require processing, which may involve the analysis of numerical data and the interpretation of textual material. 432 Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202

CHAPTER 16 / Write short reports In the analysis stage it is useful to use trend analysis to identify a pattern in the data. Trends can be highlighted by tabulating data and then graphing the data. For further information on graphing data, refer to Chapter 13. An analytical report commences with an objective or problem statement. The scope is defined, analysis is performed and results are reported. Key findings are stated and finally recommendations are made. Recommendations can be made towards the beginning of the report. Exhibit 16.17 is an example of an analytical report.

Use an analytical report to examine a problem and recommend an action.

EXHIBIT 16.17 An example of an analytical report ANALYTICAL REPORT COST ANALYSIS – MICRO FABRICATION PTY LIMITED 1. OBJECTIVE To understand the cost structure of Micro Fabrication Pty Limited (MF) by analysing and dissecting gross profit and operating costs 2. SCOPE Profit and loss data were extracted from the company’s accounting system for the following financial years: • 1 July 2018 to 30 June 2019 • 1 July 2019 to 30 June 2020 • 1 July 2020 to 30 June 2021 The raw data was collated and analysed on a spreadsheet. This analysis is available on request. 3. ANALYSIS WORK DONE 1. High level analysis of operating expenses in relation to gross profit 2. Detailed analysis of specific operating expenses. 4. RESULTS HIGH LEVEL ANALYSIS Gross profit is determined by sales less the direct costs associated with those sales. It is difficult to improve profitability without a significant increase in sales. In the short-term, cost savings could be achieved by minimising operating expenses. Figure 1.1 shows gross profit and operating expenses for the period from 1 July 2018 to 30 June 2021. Both items are increasing; however, operating expenses are increasing at a greater rate than gross profit. DETAILED ANALYSIS The major operating costs were identified and are summarised in Table 1.1

Table 1.1

Operating expenses (1 July 2018 to 30 June 2021) 2018/19

% Gross Profit

2019/20

% Gross Profit

2020/21

% Gross Profit

Total

% Gross Profit

Consulting

$ 13 997

5.69%

$ 27 342

13.98%

$ 34 584

12.05%

$

75 923

10.42%

Offshore staff

$ 33 886

13.78%

$ 56 380

28.83%

$ 97 089

33.83%

$ 187 355

25.72%

Information technology

$ 35 594

14.48%

$ 76 796

39.27%

$ 80 847

28.17%

$ 193 237

26.53%

Occupancy

$ 37 626

15.30%

$ 41 905

21.43%

$ 45 911

16.00%

$ 125 442

17.22%

Local staff

$117 133

47.64%

$177 751

90.89%

$178 378

62.15%

$ 473 262

64.97%

Other

$ 91 866

37.36%

$ 94 328

48.23%

$130 842

45.59%

$ 317 036

43.52%

Total Costs

$330 102

134.25%

$474 502

242.63%

$567 651

197.79%

$1 372 255

188.38%

> 433

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>

Figure 1.1 An example of an analytical report Micro Fabrication – Gross Profit v Operating Expenses (for the period from July 2018 to June 2021)

Gross Profit

Operating Expenses

Expon. (Gross Profit)

Expon. (Operating Expenses)

The five isolated operating costs totalled over the three financial years are greater than the gross profit over the same period. These costs are: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Consulting Offshore Staff Information Technology Occupancy Local Staff

In the first instance, it would be useful to consider how some of these costs can be reduced. Local staff costs for the year ended 30 June 2021 represent 62% of Gross Profit. Add offshore staff costs to this and employee costs account for 96% of gross profit. Figure 1.2 shows that total employee costs are increasing both offshore and locally. Costs are increasing at a slightly greater rate offshore, but local employee costs are higher than those offshore. 5. KEY FINDINGS AND CONCLUSIONS 1. Gross profit increased to $287k in 2020/21, representing a 17% increase on 2018/19. 2. Operating expenses have grown at a greater rate than gross profit (and sales) to $568k in 2014/2015, a 20% increase on 2019/20 ($475k), which was already a 44% increase on 2018/19 ($330k). 3. Erosion of profitability has been influenced most significantly by continued growth in Local Employee costs and the growth in Offshore Employee costs (62% and 34% of gross profit, respectively, in 2020/21). 4. Much of the investment in Information Technology ($81k in 2020/21 or 28% of gross profit) could have been capitalised. Considering occupancy costs and other non-staff costs, it is clear that information technology investment is not the difference between profitability and loss. 5. Many cost categories are essential, immaterial or difficult to influence. The key levers available to improve profitability are Offshore and Local employee costs, Information Technology costs and Consulting costs.

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>

CHAPTER 16 / Write short reports

>

Figure 1.2 An example of an analytical report Micro Fabrication – Employee Costs – Local and Offshore

Offshore Employee Costs Linear (Offshore Employee Costs)

Local Employee Costs

Total Employee Costs

Linear (Local Employee Costs)

Linear (Total Employee Costs)

6. RECOMMENDATIONS 1. A review of all resources in terms of staffing is required with a view to eliminating offshore employee costs. It would be prudent to extend the review to consideration as to whether information technology could be bought in house rather than outsourcing. 2. Sales staff to commence trade shows and focus on acquiring new clients as well as current client retention with a view to boosting sales figures. 3. Consider acquiring an investor to assist with short-term capital requirements.

DASHBOARD REPORTS A dashboard report is a visual management tool that monitors, analyses and displays key business data to track the performance of a business. The objective of dashboard reporting is to provide clear and concise information of the key performance indicators that drive business performance. Generally, the information is provided at a glance in visual format and can be analysed to identify trends, areas for improvement and potential business risks. The stakeholders of these reports are generally key decision makers. Most financial software packages can produce reports on a particular area of the business, such as debtors or creditors ageing. This information is often piecemeal and difficult to understand. Dashboard reporting collates and presents key business information and analysis in a visual format in a short report of one or two pages. There are software packages that assist in dashboard reporting by providing a management reporting and financial analysis tool. These aim to assist business owners to assess business trends and identify areas for improvement. Systems such as Fathom can integrate with an accounting system, analyse the data and convert the data into metrics and visualisations. However, many organisations plan and design their own dashboard reporting often drawing data from many sources to provide a short report tailored to the company. (See Exhibits 16.18 and 16.19 for examples.) 435 Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202

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EXHIBIT 16.18 Potential metrics to include in a dashboard report Business area

Potential inclusions

Sales

• Sales for the period • Actual sales against budget for the period • Sales by employee • Top-selling items • Total discounts applied • Sales by customer • Sales by form of payment (cash / credit / account)

Net profit

• Breakeven calculation • Net profit margin • Total amount of fixed & variable expenses

Business efficiency

• Debtor & creditor days • Debtor & creditor aging • Stock turnover

Cashflow

• Cash balances • Cashflow forecast • Available working capital

Balance sheet

• Return on assets • Return on investments

EXHIBIT 16.19 An example of a dashboard report

Source: InsightSquared, www.insightsquared.com

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CHAPTER 16 / Write short reports

1. a. Explain how you would begin and close a justification report. b. Identify the features of an effective progress report. c. What type of short report and order of information would you use to supply information regularly? 2. a. Discuss the reasons for using form reports when reporting incidents. b. What must be included in an incident report? 3. How can trends be highlighted in an analytical report? 4. a. Explain the purpose of a dashboard report. b. Identify the type of metrics that may be included in a dashboard report.

The three Ps Weekdone, a producer of productivity tools, suggests that a key to writing an excellent progress report is to account for the 3Ps: progress, plans and problems. This approach should be combined with the idea of keeping the report ‘heavy in stuff but light on fluff’. • Progress: this should give a brief snapshot of how much work has been done up to this point. It should include specific accomplishments, finished and closed tasks. • Plans: these should list the potential or future items of progress. These are both immediate and long-term goals and should allow enough flexibility to be able to incorporate changes as they might be required. • Problems: challenges and problems that have been encountered should be listed. This will allow attention to be given to solving problems as they occur and focusing attention on potential future issues before they arise.

CHECKPOINT 16.3

FROM THEORY TO PRACTICE

Source: https://blog.weekdone.com/guide-how-to-write-an-excellent-progress-report-sample-template/, viewed 21 November 2018.

ASK YOURSELF: Are the 3Ps something you could use as a prompt to keep your progress report concise and information-rich? What might be something else to keep in mind when writing a progress report?

LEARNING ACTIVITIES SUMMARY 16.1 Understand the function of a short report, as well as the importance of planning and ordering its information appropriately. Apply a five-step plan for a short report. This will help you to produce a logical outline and a readable report that is accurate and complete. Choose the order of information – direct, indirect or routine – appropriate to your writing purpose and receiver. If you select and arrange the information carefully, your material will be easy to read and more likely to result in the desired action.

16.2 Be familiar with the different formats of short reports and use them appropriately. Follow formatting conventions for short reports. Format your documents correctly by including the details required in each report in the appropriate order. The format will depend on the type and the purpose of the document. The four most common short report formats acceptable by convention are formal, letter, memo and analytical. 16.3 Write six widely used short reports – justification, progress, periodic, incident form, analytical reports

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and dashboard reports. Each of these short reports has a specific purpose – to inform, advise or persuade. Your task is to help the reader to consider, analyse or evaluate new information quickly. Aim for a balanced view. Base your interpretations, conclusions and

recommendations on the facts, and arrange these in an order that is suitable for your purpose and distribution. The purpose of a short report is to provide concise information that will enable the reader to make a decision, check progress or plan for the future.

KEY TERMS analytical report completion report dashboard report

electronic report form report formal report

incident report justification report periodic report

progress report routine order of information short report format

LEARNING ACTIVITIES Upon completing each question, 1 to 3, you may wish to review your work using the checklist in Checkpoint which follows these exercises. Be sure to comply with the direct, indirect or routine order of information as appropriate for each report. 3. Write a periodic report 1. Write a justification report You work in the marketing department for Willem Wines, a The staff in your section have been discussing the wine company. The Board of Directors likes to receive possibility of cutting short their lunch hour and accruing formal reports every quarter outlining marketing activities time to enable them to take one rostered day off (RDO) per and any recommendations you have. month. The preferred option is for lunch on Monday to During the past quarter, marketing activities have Thursday to be 35 minutes long, and lunch on Friday to be included: 40 minutes long. That way, each employee is building up • the successful launch of a new wine, Sun Valley two hours per week, equivalent to eight hours per month. Chardonnay These eight hours can then be taken as an RDO. • expanded advertising into the Saturday edition of all Your task is to write a justification report in memo major city newspapers (previously, only Adelaide, format to your manager, outlining this proposal. Also, Melbourne and Sydney were covered) briefly state why staff value RDOs. • continued work with your San Francisco advertising 2. Write a progress report agency on developing marketing strategies leading up to Assume you are a fashion designer. You have been asked to the US launch of Willem Wines in six months. present your new collection at the Spring Fashion Festival Prepare a short periodic report in a formal format for the in a couple of months’ time. The organiser of the festival is Board of Directors. monitoring all participants’ progress and wishes to know how your preparation of the 150 garments required for Writing short reports your show is going. Write a progress report to the organiser following the Have I: Yes Partly No letter layout. Include these details: prepared a purpose statement? • number of garments completed – 68 followed the five-step • number of garments in progress or yet to be started – 82 approach to planning a report? • expected completion date – 3 September organised information in an • number of models you will be supplying – 6 female, order suitable for a formal/ 2 male letter/memo report/form? • number of additional models to be supplied by the used a suitable format? Festival – 2 male.

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CHAPTER 16 / Write short reports

GROUP ACTIVITY Part A Importance of five-step plan for a short report Work in a large group for these exercises. a. Brainstorm examples of short reports you may be familiar with from your school, college, work or personal life. Briefly describe the purpose of each report. b. Discuss what the consequences could be if the five-step plan for short reports is not followed. Part B Produce a correctly formatted short report Work in small groups for this activity. a. Select one of the following occupations: • retail assistant in a sports store • bank teller

WHS manager in a building company restaurant manager Project Officer for the Department of Sustainability, Environment, Water, Population and Communities. b. Brainstorm the types of short reports the person in the occupation you selected might have to generate as part of their duties. c. Choose one of the reports you identified, and work together to produce it. (You have creative licence with the content.) Plan your report effectively, and be sure to consider the most appropriate format, type of report, order of information and content. d. Upon completion, present your work to the whole group. • • •

CASE STUDY HOW CAN A COMPANY BENEFIT FROM DASHBOARD REPORTING? Margarita, a sales manager, works at a company that provides small electrical appliances to the public. She has worked for the company since June 2015 and has been attempting to grow online sales. Although there has been some growth, Margarita would like to understand in more detail the drivers of both divisions: 1. the online business 2. direct business Margarita would like the Finance team to introduce a data-driven culture by producing a daily dashboard report using the following metrics: • daily revenue by division • online sales conversion rate • average order value by division

• •

number of customer calls by division value of items returned by division. Margarita advises that there are 25 stores in four countries. The stores were created to sell electrical appliances as well as spare parts and accessories to consumers.

Questions 1. Describe how dashboard reporting may assist in identifying problems with direct or online sales prior to sales being severely affected. 2. Prepare the scaffold for a dashboard report incorporating the metrics that Margarita would like monitored.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY Arnold, K. 2002. ‘Email Basics: Practical Tips to Improve Communication’, in E Blech (ed.), The 2002 Annual Handbook, vol. 1, Training, Jossey-Bass, San Francisco, CA. Baldwin, C. ‘How to Write a Final Progress Report’, eHow.com, http://www.ehow.com/how_7682296_writefinal-progress-report.html#ixzz1BvLJqQXt, viewed 1 October 2018. Fowler, H.R. & Aaron, J.E. 2015. The Little Brown Handbook, 13th edn, Longman, New York, NY. Goodman, Debbie J. 2011. Report It in Writing, 5th edn, Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ. Latham, A. ‘How to Write a Justification Report’, eHow.com, http://www.ehow.com/how_6375848_write-justificationreport.html, viewed 1 October 2018

Lehman, C.M. & DuFrene, D.D. 2011. Business Communication, 16th edn, South-Western Cengage Learning, Mason, OH. Schramm, R.M. & James, M.L. 1992. ‘The Impact of E-mail in Today’s Organizations’, Office Systems Research Journal, vol. II, no. 1, pp. 3–13. traning.gov.au, BSBWRT401 – Write Complex Documents, https://training.gov.au/ Training/Details/BSBWRT401, viewed 01 October 2018 Van Alstyne, J.S. 2005. Professional and Technical Writing Strategies, 6th edn, Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ.

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WRITE LONG REPORTS

CHAPTER

17

17.1

Your Learning Journey

PLANNING + ORGANISING material according to:

Chapter 17

purpose

STANDARD LONG REPORT

context

audience

front matter body endmatter

17.2

arguments analysis

17.4

conclusions

EDITING + REVIEWING the report for:

recommendations

they can easily grasp:

information

Writing a LONG REPORT using language suitable for THE TASK + AUDIENCE

Writing style clear

accuracy

CORRECT FORMATTING can help the reader

consistency clarity

readable factual objective

17.3

CH18

Next WRITE TECHNICAL DOCUMENTS + PROPOSALS

relevant

Write the conclusions and offer recommendations

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LEARNING OBJECTIVES After studying this chapter, you should be able to: 17.1 plan and organise material according to purpose, audience and context 17.2 write a long report using language suitable for the task and audience 17.3 format the front matter, body or main text and endmatter correctly 17.4 edit and review the report for accuracy, consistency and clarity.

17.1 PLAN A LONG REPORT Formal reports are major documents written to provide comprehensive information and expert opinion. They are written for specific purposes – for example, to investigate the suitability of a particular site or to analyse achievements over a set period. They are therefore usually long and require careful organising. The level of detail and issues addressed by the writer depend on the report’s purpose and particular audience. The report writer researches the problem or issue, structures the findings, presents the evidence, develops the conclusions and recommendations, and writes and formats the formal long report. Three key factors that decide the scope of a report are outlined in Exhibit 17.1.

EXHIBIT 17.1 Three key factors that influence the scope of a report 1. The report’s intended audience

3. The type of information to be included

The scope of the report

2. The report’s purpose

Formal business reports generally study problems and recommend solutions. Your task in preparing a long, formal report is to plan and produce a document that is accurate, objective and complete. It must give your readers a reliable basis for checking progress, planning or making a specific decision.

THE STEPS FOR PLANNING A REPORT The planning stage of a long report is the most time consuming and, in one sense, the most important part of the task. Good planning allows you to write and edit more easily. There are seven steps to planning a report: 1. define its purpose 2. define the audience 3. determine the scope, level of detail and issues 4. gather information purposefully 5. create the outline 6. organise the information 7. order the presentation. Complete each step before you start writing the long formal report.

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CHAPTER 17 / Write long reports

Define the purpose First, decide what is the purpose of your report. Read the report brief or instructions carefully. Write a clear purpose statement that clarifies and addresses the problem or opportunity you have been asked to write about in the report.

Simple purpose statement The purpose statements here simply state the report’s purpose without identifying the scope, significance and limitations. For example: • ‘The purpose of this report is to explore new ways of promoting environmentally responsible business practices that reduce the environmental impacts of our activities.’ • ‘The purpose of this report is to explain how social media tools will improve communication with staff and customers.’ • ‘The purpose of this report is to investigate new ways of promoting and selling our services to increase our market share.’

Extended purpose statement In a long, formal report you may decide to expand the simple purpose statement to identify the report’s purpose, scope, significance and limitations. As you write the purpose statement, choose action words to let the receiver know what you intend to do: for example, ‘establish’, ‘explain’, ‘determine’, ‘analyse’ or ‘recommend’. If, for example, you have been asked to develop a local traffic management plan, you need to determine at the beginning whether your report must identify a problem or present a plan to prevent problems arising. An example of an extended purpose statement is:

Include simple purpose statements to focus the writer and the reader on the problem or opportunity addressed in a report.

Identify a report’s purpose, scope, significance and limitations in an expanded purpose statement.

The purpose of this report is to recommend a local traffic management plan for Toronto city. The anticipated 10% increase in traffic flows in the innercity over the next two years will cause increased congestion and delays. This report will investigate two options: the reduction of parking spaces on the inner-city streets and the introduction of bus-only lanes. The investigation is limited to the inner-city blocks of Toronto. Or suppose you are examining the feasibility of opening a new office in the city. Your purpose will be to evaluate the site according to what you believe is essential and acceptable – for example, access to public transport or parking. In this case, your report will investigate the options. Or suppose you are preparing a community centre’s funding report: your purpose will be to detail how a grant of money was spent. In this case your report will present data, figures and facts without analysis or recommendations. An effective purpose statement clarifies the issue or challenge you are addressing in the report and enables you to stay focused on the core issue rather than being side tracked into irrelevancies. Once you have defined your purpose clearly in the form of a simple purpose statement or an expanded purpose statement, develop your report to help the reader solve the problem or make a decision.

Define the audience Think about who will read the long report – for example, a supervisor, fellow worker, client or government department. Your reader will determine your definition of the problem and how you develop your arguments, analyse problems and present solutions. For example, the receiver may want to read a comprehensive introduction to a topic before deciding if and how to use the information.

Consider the needs of the reader.

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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK As you plan and write, consider the readers’ point of view, their need for detail, their preference for a particular order of information, and their experience and understanding of technical terms. All this will affect the content, structure and language of a long report. At the same time, you must consider your own needs as a writer. Exhibit 17.2 distinguishes the needs of the writer and reader.

EXHIBIT 17.2 Writer and reader needs The writer needs:

• to define the purpose of the long report • to define its scope and limitations • to state why the topic is worth investigating • to know all the facts • to know how the long report will be used.

The reader needs:

• to know the significance of the report at this time • information and evidence • an analysis of the information • conclusions • recommendations.

In many cases, a report is written in response to someone’s request. That person will have certain expectations about your report, and if you consider these early in the planning stage you will write it more efficiently.

Determine the issues Determine the scope and level of detail required.

Answer the following question before you begin researching and writing: ‘What issues or topics do I need to deal with?’ The issues establish the report’s boundaries or limits and the amount of detail and length of the final report. For example, if you are proposing a local traffic management plan, you will need to explore its effect on the environment, the availability of parking and its effect on residents. List these issues, then create a preliminary outline of headings – that is, your plan for writing. As you formulate assumptions or propositions, check their accuracy and relevance to the report’s purpose.

Gather the information

Ensure information is factual, relevant and contemporary.

After identifying the relevant issues, find sources of information on each. Gather information from primary and secondary sources, checking that they are credible and reliable. Review Chapter 12, Analyse and present research information, for further details on researching primary and secondary sources of information. Sort the material you have gathered and place it in sequence, or order. Once information has been sorted, review your material. Highlight keywords and your most important material, and place it in a working file. Put irrelevant information into another file to be checked later. It is unwise to throw out any details until the report is finished. Check your information is sufficient to achieve the report’s purpose. As you evaluate the information, try to answer the following questions: • Does the evidence relate to the report’s purpose and provide objective information? • Does the evidence I have gathered answer the right questions? • Does the information provide a clear, concise, consistent and complete picture? • Are my sources of information credible?

Create the outline Decide on a logical sequence of headings.

The sequence of information varies according to what the report presents. However, in each case your outline must present your data in a logical sequence. Organise all your information into sections under the headings you have chosen. Then see whether any section could be subdivided under subheadings. In a report on local traffic management, for example, there may be a major section on ‘Current traffic problems’. As you plan this section, you may decide to include a subsection titled ‘Peak-hour congestion’.

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CHAPTER 17 / Write long reports

Organise information Information can be arranged logically as follows: • chronological sequence (a time progression) • order of importance (from most important to least important, or from least to most important) • geographical identity (e.g. by states) • inductive order (from the general to the specific) • deductive order (from the specific to the general) • from cause to effect (one event, the cause, makes another event happen) • following a problem-solving method (from problem or issue to solution). If you were preparing an outline for the local traffic management plan, for example, you might choose the chronological sequence, identifying problems as they occurred over the past five years, starting from the first year. Alternatively, you might choose the problem-solving order: identifying the nature of the problem, its causes and possible solutions. Organise your material according to the preliminary outline of headings you created earlier. Your task now is to be sure that you are ready to prepare the writing outline for your report. Determine this by considering the whole picture. How do the ideas come together? Are there any gaps in the information? Which headings are the most important? If you are dissatisfied with your preliminary outline, revise it and include new topics to replace those that are no longer relevant. The outline you prepare at this stage is crucial. It guides your investigation and provides you with the structure of the body or main text of the report, and enables you to present your information logically and clearly.

Organise information under appropriate headings.

Order the presentation Your decision about the sequence of the introductory, central and final sections of the main text is largely determined by the purpose and nature of your report. It is a decision you may take after you have written it, but remember how you organise the report affects how it is received and whether action is taken. If you are trying to persuade a reluctant reader that restructuring in the workplace is essential, you will choose a different sequence from the one you would use if you are endorsing a proposal to which the reader is already committed.

Sequence the information to suit your writing purpose.

Indirect order of information The indirect order of information in the body or main text of a long report is suited to a reader who may resist the conclusions, or who will not understand the conclusions and recommendations until the whole main body of the text has been read. The indirect order of information usually starts the body with an introductory section, followed by the centre section and then the final section. The indirect order of information used in the body of the Fairways Golf Club report (see Exhibit 17.10) is the most common indirect order. It follows this order: • introductory section • central section • final section with the conclusions followed by the recommendations. This indirect order introduces your readers to what you are about to do and why, and to the limits of the report. Readers are then led through the central section and on to the conclusions and recommendations. By reading the findings in the central section of the report first, they are able to understand the reasons for the conclusions and recommendations.

Use the indirect order of information when the report gives bad news or news different from the receiver’s opinion.

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Direct order of information Use the direct order of information for an expert reader.

The direct order of information is more appropriate when the receiver is knowledgeable about the subject and likely to understand the conclusions without having to read the whole main text of the report. Two direct orders of information are shown in Exhibit 17.3.

EXHIBIT 17.3 Two direct orders of information for the main text Choice 1

Choice 2

Introductory section

Final section with conclusion(s) first, followed by the recommendations

Final section with conclusion(s) first, followed by the recommendations

Introductory section

Central section

Central section

Choice 1 starts the main text or body with the introductory section, followed immediately by the final section (conclusions and recommendations) and then the central section with the full details of your findings. Choice 2 is the order to use when writing for an expert. It allows you to present an overview and your conclusions first. You follow with the recommendations, then the introductory section to the central section that contains the information supporting the conclusions (findings) and recommendations. This direct order focuses the reader’s attention on the conclusions and recommendations first. Once you have chosen a sequence and outline that suits your purpose and your reader’s needs, the planning of your report is complete. Your task now is to write the main text or body of the long report and prepare its additional components.

CHECKPOINT 17.1

1. Purpose and scope: a. Think about the following statement: ‘If you can answer questions such as what the report will do, how it is to be prepared, why it has been requested and when it will be completed, you will have defined the purpose and scope of your report.’ Briefly explain the terms ‘purpose’ and ‘scope’ in the context of long report writing. b. Write an expanded purpose statement for a long report that aims to investigate student amenities provided at your college or a school you attended in the past. 2. Identify three ways in which an outline and headings can improve a report’s capacity to communicate. 3. Find a long report in the library, on the Web or at work. Evaluate the report by answering these questions: a. What improvements could you make to the title page? b. Does the report use an executive summary? Is it a suitable length? c. Is the table of contents well constructed? d. What headings does the report have? Are they suitable? e. What is its order of presentation? f. Is the conclusion well written and convincing?

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17.2 WRITING A LONG REPORT Writing clear, concise reports is a key skill for effective business communication. For example, an effective, well-written report may recommend establishment of another branch interstate, changes to financial operations or streamlined customer service processes. Before making a decision, the reader must understand the report’s contents and have confidence in the quality of information and credibility of the writer. At the writing stage of a long report, your first task is to produce the body or main text. It contains the introduction to the findings, the body of the findings, your conclusions and recommendations. This section builds on the writing techniques and ideas you learned in Chapter 14, Effective business writing, with issues that are particularly important when preparing long reports.

WRITING STYLE The principles of an appropriate report-writing style apply to all sections of the report. ‘Writing style’ means how the report writer uses words, sentences and paragraphs to present ideas to the reader. An effective report-writing style uses cohesive and well-structured language to deliver detailed and accurate information. Although Plain English is suitable for most business writing, overuse of the ‘you’ approach is unsuitable for long reports (see Chapter 14 for an explanation of the ‘you’ approach). The language in a long report is more formal and should present facts and information as objectively as possible (see Exhibit 17.4). Report-writing style avoids emotional language. The impersonal objective approach is more suited to a long report than the personal ‘you’ approach. The impersonal approach removes all reference to ‘I’, ‘we’, ‘us’, ‘our’ and ‘you’. You should take care, however, to limit your use of the passive voice, as it can make a document dull and wordy. Exhibit 17.4 presents some examples of personal and impersonal language.

EXHIBIT 17.4 Personal/impersonal language in a long report The personal ‘you’ approach

• • • •

I undertook research … My results were … I found that … My recommendations are …

The impersonal approach

• • • •

Research was undertaken … The research results demonstrated … The findings are … It is recommended that …

CULTURAL APPROPRIATENESS A culturally appropriate report meets the needs of a broad and diverse range of readers. It fits with their cultural traditions and beliefs, making them feel respected and understood. Since most Australian audiences include a variety of cultural and ethnic groups it is good practice to use language that is ‘culturally neutral’. Culturally neutral language avoids offence and works well for the variety of subgroups in society. If you learn more about and acknowledge your readers’ knowledge, attitudes, and beliefs then you are able to write a report that meets the needs of your receivers. When writing a report, choose inclusive words that are easily understood and do not demean the practices of another culture. Avoid stereotypes and culturally inappropriate explanations of information, as causing offence or misunderstandings create barriers that may prevent the reader from finishing

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Ensure your writing is culturally appropriate.

the report. Refer to the subsection ‘Choose non-discriminatory, inclusive language’ in Section 14.2 of Chapter 14 for strategies you can use to ensure your writing is culturally neutral and therefore appropriate to a diverse audience. Discriminatory language can arise from unconscious prejudices and preconceptions. Singling out and placing unnecessary emphasis on a group’s race, ethnicity, religious belief or nationality for no obvious reason can stereotype. The consequences for the group discriminated against may be unfair treatment and a feeling of alienation. As you write and edit your report, consider Australia’s multicultural nature. Think about how the report may be perceived by people of different backgrounds. Use words that are truthful, objective and factual to create a report that is accurate, balanced and ethical. If possible, gather feedback from people who represent your intended receivers. Testing the draft of your report from the receiver’s perspective helps you to prepare a final report that works well for the receiver.

USING TECHNOLOGY Technology has revolutionised the way in which writers research, plan, write and edit their work. It has also revolutionised the way organisations present their information. Word processing, email, the internet and other digital technology have changed the nature of communication. Using the computer as a report-writing tool has immediate time benefits because tasks such as legibility, spelling and formatting are taken over by word-processing software, leaving the report writer to concentrate on higher-order tasks such as: • adapting to your receiver’s needs • composing clear, logical content • documenting primary and secondary sources of information correctly • grouping the content into the front matter, body and endmatter of the long report format.

Formatting and outlining

Use the features in software packages effectively. Save and keep backup copies on disk or memory sticks to prevent loss of information due to computer malfunction or power outages.

In the report-writing stage, use the computer for more than its basic word-processing capabilities: • format and create the outline for the body of a report with built-in Word styles • use the ‘navigation pane’ to move quickly from section to section • use the ‘format’ menu in your word-processing package to find options for formatting paragraphs, bullets and numbering, borders and shading, columns and changing case. Other standard menus, such as ‘edit’ and ‘insert’, let you cut, copy, paste and insert pictures, objects and other material as you write. By using software packages to their full capacity, you can structure, format, write and edit your long report more effectively. Additionally, the ability to move information between packages makes the report-writing task easier; for example, you can insert an Excel chart, a PowerPoint¤ or Prezi slide, a piece of clip art, a hyperlink or multimedia into a Word document. With Adobe Acrobat, for example, a long report can be converted from a Word document into a PDF document that allows it to retain its format and content. Other software systems can convert reports into RTF, HTML and Excel formats. In the writing and completion steps of the report-writing process, cloud computing documentsharing services such as Google Docs allow writers to share, open and edit long reports and other documents. Documents, spreadsheets, forms and presentations are created within the Google Docs application and shared through the Web interface, by email or saved to the user’s computer in a variety of formats (HTML, PDF, RTF, text, Word). The report writer is able to collaborate online with others in real time in any geographic location for editing and review of content. The writer’s efficiency is increased

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CHAPTER 17 / Write long reports because they have easy access to information and other people. Reports can be forwarded internally through the intranet or to institutions outside the organisation via the internet. After the report is distributed an organisation can tag, store and archive the completed report online.

READABILITY AND CREDIBILITY You need your readers to respond to the message in your report, so you want them to understand its contents and be able to implement the recommended action. As well as being sufficient to document and explain the problem, the evidence and facts in the report must come from reliable and credible sources. As your readers expect a report to have information presented objectively and organised under headings, follow these conventions. A reader mindset lets you present information in the most useful way for your readers.

Organise the information into sections with headings.

Headings Headings highlight the main ideas and give them an order that suits the purpose of the report and helps the reader. As you create the report’s outline, choose between descriptive (topical) and informative (talking) headings. Descriptive headings label the subject or topic within each section. For example, in Exhibit 17.5, the heading ‘Cost comparison of existing and proposed watering systems’ is a descriptive heading.

EXHIBIT 17.5 Numbering system for Section 2 of the Fairways Golf Club report 2.0 COST COMPARISON OF EXISTING AND PROPOSED WATERING SYSTEMS 2.1 Costs of Existing System 2.1.1 Current operating costs 2.1.1.1 Greenkeeping 2.1.1.2 Water Board usage charges 2.1.1.3 Electricity 2.1.1.4 Maintenance 2.1.1.5 Staffing

2.2 Costs of Proposed System 2.2.1 Installation costs 2.2.1.1 Installing pump machinery, cables and machinery housing 2.2.1.2 Landscaping 2.2.2 Anticipated operating costs 2.2.2.1 Greenkeeping 2.2.2.2 Water Board charges 2.2.2.3 Electricity 2.2.2.4 Maintenance 2.2.2.5 Staffing

Informative headings (in either question or summary form) look like sentences or questions because they usually contain a noun and a verb. For example, the heading ‘Communities have mixed reactions to wind farms’ is an informative heading. Informative headings suggest more about the meaning of the issues and enable the receiver to skim the informative headings quickly to gain an idea of the content within each section. Well-chosen headings lead readers through the report’s structure so that they can identify its content and order easily – for example, Section 2 of the Fairways Golf Club report, shown in Exhibit 17.5, is divided into four levels of heading. The first and largest heading, 2.0, is bold and in upper case. The second heading, 2.1, is bold with upper case initials. The third heading, 2.1.1, is in lower case. The fourth heading, 2.1.1.1, is also in lower case. The intention is to show the reader that a completely new section is beginning, with subsections within it. Headings should be used for each new aspect of the content, to break the text into manageable sections. Pages without headings make it hard to find information quickly. 449 Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202

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Numbering systems Choose a numbering system that suits your document. Numbers and headings give the reader an outline that makes reading and referencing easy. Exhibit 17.5 is an example of a decimal numbering system. An example of an alphanumeric system is shown in Exhibit 18.3 in Chapter 18, Write technical documents and proposals. By using multilevel numbering or outlining in your word-processing package, you can renumber and make changes easily.

Statistics Check statistics for relevance and reliability. Statistics collected by the Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) carry more authority than those collected personally. ABS statistics provide objective, accurate information. For example, the ABS Consumer Price Index figures are compiled from a survey of thousands of items and placed into a simple format. Conclusions (e.g. on the rate of inflation) can then be drawn from these figures.

Graphics

Create interest with graphics.

The use of graphics in the central section can add meaning and emphasis to your report. However, if they could distract readers from the argument or interrupt the progression of ideas, place them in an appendix. Once you decide to use a graphic in the main text, draw the reader’s attention to it by following this three-step method: 1. refer to the graphic in the text 2. explain how the graphic relates to the information 3. place the graphic or diagram immediately after this reference and explanation. Use only graphics or diagrams that add meaning and interest to your report. When and how to use business graphics is discussed further in Chapter 13, Communicate using graphics and visual aids.

Notation Identify your sources of information.

If you use author–date references, endnotes or footnotes to direct the reader to extra sources of information or views on the topic, make sure that all these are accurate and complete. All sources should be fully acknowledged in the list of references or bibliography. If your information cannot be traced and checked, it loses credibility. Refer to Chapter 12, Analyse and present research information, for more about notation.

ADDITIONAL PARTS After the main text is written, you will prepare a range of additional parts that appear either before or after it. Details about these additional parts and a suggested sequence to follow as you write them are given in Exhibit 17.6.

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EXHIBIT 17.6 Sequence of parts when writing a long report Step 1

Create an outline. Include the major headings and subheadings.

Step 2

Write the purpose statement.

Step 3

Write the introduction section of the main text or body.

Step 4

Write the central section of the main text or body.

Step 5

Draw and write the conclusions from the infomation you have gathered. As you write, relate these to the report’s purpose.

Step 6

Write the recommendations.

Step 7

Prepare an executive summary, abstract or synopsis after presenting facts and findings.

Step 8

Construct a list of references or bibliography as you research, plan and write the report. Each time you use a source of information, add it to the references or bibliography.

Step 9

Construct the table of contents and the table of illustrations. Place items in the order they appear in the report.

Step 10

Write the letter of transmittal.

Step 11

Prepare the title page to complete your report.

1. Consider and briefly describe the possible consequences of using the following language in a long report: a. technical jargon in a report that targets people in technical and non-technical roles b. big words and long-winded sentences in a report about community sporting facilities c. an abrupt tone d. use of the ‘you’ approach throughout. 2. Headings, graphics and statistics: a. Explain the purpose of using well-chosen headings in a long report. b. List three steps you can use to draw a reader’s attention to a graphic. c. Access statistics collected by the Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) at your library or online at http://www.abs.gov.au. Compile a list of 10 different categories of information that are available through the ABS.

CHECKPOINT 17.2

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3. Culturally appropriate writing: a. What are the benefits gained from writing a culturally appropriate report? b. Identify the features of culturally appropriate writing. c. Compile an email to all staff in an organisation of your choice, detailing the features of an effective report-writing style.

17.3 FORMATTING A LONG REPORT

Ensure your formal long report has three major sections.

The long, formal report format makes it easy for the writer to guide the reader through their information, evidence, analysis and findings. The basis of a good report is in-depth analysis that shows the reader how the writer interpreted the findings. The format helps the reader understand the reasons for the conclusions and the recommendations. While the format should suit the purpose and nature of the report, you must also follow the in-house style of your organisation and its formal report-writing conventions. Organisations and individuals have trialled and adjusted report formats for years. An effective format achieves a professional appearance and smooth transfer of information.

PARTS OF A LONG REPORT The parts of a long report can be grouped into three sections: 1. front matter 2. body 3. endmatter. Plan and write the long report around these sections and your task will be completed more efficiently. Many writers find there is less need to write and rewrite if they place their information in the correct sections as they go (Exhibit 17.7). All the possible parts of a long report are presented in Exhibit 17.8.

EXHIBIT 17.7 The three main sections of a long report Front matter

Body (main text)

Endmatter

Essential parts: • title page • letter of transmittal • table of contents

Essential parts: • introduction • discussion and analysis of the report’s findings • development of ideas • conclusions • recommendations Optional parts: • tables • graphics

Essential parts: • bibliography

Optional parts: • list of tables • list of figures • abstract, synopsis or executive summary • authorisation document

Optional parts: • appendix • glossary

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EXHIBIT 17.8 Parts of a long, formal report Part

Purpose

Title page

Identifies the report’s title, the receiver’s name and title, the writer’s name and title and the date

Letter of transmittal

Indicates in the form of a formal covering letter the person who authorised or requested the report, the terms of reference, the scope of the report and problems addressed. It serves as a record of transmittal, identifies the writer and acknowledges others who contributed.

Terms of reference

States clearly and concisely the scope of the report.

Acknowledgements

Lists the names of persons and institutions that assisted in preparing the report.

Table of contents

Records the name of each part of the report and the name of each firstand second-order headings within the body and the page on which each occurs.

List of figures/tables

Records page numbers of tables, illustrations and diagrams.

Executive summary

Provides the reader with a brief summary of the material in the main text of the report. It includes the report’s purpose, scope, methods, findings and conclusions.

Synopsis or abstract

Provides a brief description or informative overview of the report’s most important points.

Glossary

Defines and explains technical words.

Body: introductory section

Defines the research task and problem and includes: • the purpose statement • background information • scope, aims, limits of the report, size and complexity • authorisation – when, how and by whom.

Body: central section

Presents factual, objective information. Analyses and discusses findings and evidence presented. Uses headings and a numbering system to signal to the reader when new ideas are to be introduced and developed. Includes enough detail to support conclusions and recommendations.

Body: final section Conclusions, Recommendations Signature block

Provides an analysis of the report’s findings and evaluates the main facts. Offers reasoned and logical solutions or courses of action. Contains the signature, name and job title of the writer; usually placed after the recommendations and before the appendices and bibliography.

Endmatter Appendices and attachments References and bibliography

Presents additional details and material such as charts and tables that are relevant to the report. References list the sources of the information quoted in the text. The bibliography contains recommended reading material on the subjects covered in the report, or other relevant subjects. The list of references and further reading are often presented together and called either ‘References’ or ‘Bibliography’.

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FRONT MATTER The front matter consists of the preliminary parts that appear before the body. In the format used in Exhibit 17.10, the parts placed before the main text are the title page, letter of transmittal, authorisation document (letter or memo), table of contents, list of illustrations and executive summary. These make up the front matter.

Title page On the title page include the long report’s title, the name of the person who authorised the report and their organisation. Usually, the report is submitted to this person. Also include the name and designation of the report writer and the date of submission. Create a title that indicates the purpose and nature of the report. For a report that is to be distributed to other departments, sections or members, indicate these on the title page – Exhibit 17.10 shows a sample title page.

Letter of transmittal The letter of transmittal is the covering letter for the report. It is set out in block business letter format and addressed to the person who authorised or requested the report. The date is important, as it is the formal way of stating that the report has been completed as requested, within the terms of reference and by a certain date – Exhibit 17.10 shows an example. In the letter of transmittal, state who wrote the report and thank any others who worked on it. Indicate the purpose and scope of the report. Remember that the letter of transmittal may be the first part of the report to be read, so use it to impress.

Authorisation document The memo of authorisation in Exhibit 17.10 identifies the scope of the report and the terms of reference. It also identifies who is authorising the report, the date the report is requested and the date the report is due.

Table of contents Include the main sections and subsections of the report in the table of contents. Check that the numbering system for the main section headings and subheadings of the body is easy to use. Indicate the page number on which each main heading appears. In a formal report, the page numbers for the front matter are written in lower-case roman numerals (i, ii, iii, iv, etc.). The page numbers for the remainder of the report are written as Arabic numerals (1, 2, 3, etc.). An example of a table of contents for the Fairways Golf Club report is shown in Exhibit 17.10.

List of illustrations Use visuals to improve understanding.

Visual aids, such as tables, figures, maps and diagrams, are used in reports because they are easy to understand. Business reports may refer to all visual aids as illustrations or exhibits in the table of contents. When only a few illustrations are used, place the list of illustrations straight after the table of contents. If you include a large number, start a new page for the list. The list of illustrations in Exhibit 17.10 (pp. 460–70) gives the illustrations’ titles and page numbers. It appears on a new page after the table of contents. Even though only four illustrations are listed, a new page has been used because there is not enough room under the table of contents. If you decide to number tables and figures separately, create two separate lists – a list of tables and a list of figures.

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Executive summary Business reports usually have an executive summary rather than a synopsis or abstract. Executive summaries complete the long report. An effective summary is an acceptable substitute for the whole report. It is the part of the report that is read first, but it is usually written last so that it reflects the content of the report accurately. The executive summary stands as an overview or summary of the whole report at the front of the report. It should be able to stand alone as a separate document if required. In the executive summary: • the first paragraph gives a background to the report and identifies the issue (problem) and purpose • the next paragraphs present the scope and limitations of the investigation including brief details of the general procedure (what was investigated and how) • the final paragraphs will include the significant considerations, analysis, decisions and major recommendations (if required). An executive summary (with double spacing) will usually run to about one to one and a half pages of copy (usually about 200–350 words long). An executive summary is one of the essential components of a long business report. It may be the only part of a long report read by people who are too busy to read the whole report.

Include an executive summary as an essential part.

Synopsis (abstract) Depending on the report’s intended audience, a synopsis can be either informative or descriptive. An informative synopsis is suited to a report using the direct order of information. As the informative synopsis focuses on the key points and conclusions, it allows receivers to learn about these directly before they read the long report. A descriptive synopsis describes what the report is about in slightly more detail than the table of contents. It is suited to a report using the indirect order of information because it does not give the report’s findings and conclusions before the readers have read the report’s main text. The indirect order of information in the main text of a long report leads the reader through the introductory section and central section to the final section containing the conclusions and recommendations. A synopsis can also be called an abstract. The term ‘abstract’ is more commonly used in articles in academic journals than business reports. An effective synopsis uses an introduction–body–conclusion structure in which the report’s purpose, findings, conclusions and recommendations are discussed in order. The synopsis is able to stand alone and adds no new information. The synopsis or abstract is well suited to a long information report. It improves a long technical, professional or academic report by providing a concise overview of the whole report. The decision to include an executive summary, synopsis or abstract is determined by your organisation’s in-house style. If there is no in-house style, make the choice on the basis of your report’s purpose and intended audience.

An executive summary by any other name …

FROM THEORY TO PRACTICE

Telstra in its Bigger Picture 2017 Sustainability Report chose to use the heading ‘About this report’ rather than the more formal term ‘Executive summary’.

About this Report Our reporting comprises this Bigger Picture 2017 Sustainability Report and our reporting website, which contains infographics, videos, case studies and comprehensive data packs. A concise summary of our approach is also available in Telstra’s 2017 Annual Report.

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This year we have aligned and structured our reporting to the three elements and strategic focus areas of our new strategy. Material topics identified through our materiality assessment have been aligned to these areas. In some cases, topics may be addressed in more than one section. Some topics represent global challenges, such as responding to the threat of climate change and respecting human rights. Others are key challenges for our industry, such as protecting our customers’ privacy and data security, and ensuring all vulnerable customers can access the benefits enabled by modern communications technologies. For each topic we have provided an overview of our approach and progress across the reporting period, along with 2020 targets and FY18 targets where relevant, with the aim of providing readers with a clear view of how we’re addressing our most material impacts. Source: Extract from Telstra. Bigger Picture 2017 Sustainability Report, https://1u0b5867gsn1ez16a1p2vcj1-wpengine.netdna-ssl.com/wp-content/ uploads/2017/10/Bigger-Picture-2017-Sustainability-Report.pdf, viewed 14 April 2018.

ASK YOURSELF: By reading this part of the report first, are you able to determine what the report is about? Do you think the writer wrote it before they wrote the report or when they finished the report? Why?

BODY OR MAIN TEXT Organise the body or main text into three sections.

The largest part of a long report is the body or main text. Plan and write this in three sections: 1. introductory section 2. central section 3. final section. Your task is to present your ideas clearly for the reader. For this reason, use headings and subheadings to divide your material into manageable sections. Use plenty of spacing; otherwise, material becomes too dense on the page and therefore more difficult to read.

Introductory section of the main text Define the main task or topic in the purpose statement.

The introduction defines the report’s main task or topic, so it makes sense to begin it with the purpose statement. It is helpful to think clearly about the goals of the report and to state these next. Then present the terms of reference. As they are the instructions for writing the report, they should be available to both writer and reader. Finally, state the report’s scope (limits) – for example, you may decide that a report on ‘The Greenhouse Challenge’ is too broad for your purpose. You may prefer to limit your report to ‘Features of a GreenPower Workplace’. Let the reader know by stating this in the introductory section. Exhibit 17.9 lists the parts of the introductory section. Exhibit 17.10 (pp. 460–70) is the introductory section of the main text of the Fairways Golf Club report.

EXHIBIT 17.9 Parts in the introductory section of the body of a long report Part

When is it used?

Authorisation

In every case, except when the decision to prepare the report is the writer’s own

Problem

In every case where the report addresses a problem

Purpose

In every case

Scope

In every case

Methodology

In every case

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Part

When is it used?

Sources

In every case, except when you are writing the report on the basis of your own experience

Background

Only when it is necessary for the reader to have the background information to understand the findings presented in the report

Definition of terms

Only when technical or unfamiliar terms are used in the report. Even then, it may be better to place the definitions in a glossary at the end of the report

Limitations

In every case where constraints such as available information, research assistance, time or money have limited the extent of research

Brief statement of results

Only when the conclusions and recommendations are placed at the end of the body of the report

Central section of the main text When you are producing the central section of the body (or main text) of the long report, focus on the report’s purpose by continually asking yourself: ‘What am I reporting on?’ Then write according to your outline and the order of information you have decided on. If the outline is causing difficulties – for example, by giving undue weight to a particular issue, or introducing issues that are not vital to the report – revise it. Do this by reconsidering the report’s purpose, scope and findings. As you are creating a report, not an essay or narrative, take care to keep it factual, relevant, objective and up to date. This will help you argue your case convincingly. Subsections with headings order the information in the central section of a long report. The body contains information including your analysis and interpretation. The central section of the report body usually investigates and analyses the findings, and proposes solutions for any problem involved. Aim to present a balanced, comprehensive view, to bring out the relationships between ideas and to support your findings with documented evidence. Exhibit 17.10 (see pp. 460–70) is the central section of the main text of the Fairways Golf Club formal report. As you research sources of information, distinguish between facts, opinions, beliefs and prejudice. Keep in mind that any source of information presents a case or a point of view. Analyse this point of view to determine whether it is based on fact or opinion. A fact can be determined to be true because it is supported by evidence. Develop a convincing argument by thinking and writing clearly. A convincing argument is sound, thoughtful and coherent. It expresses the writer’s knowledge of the subject well, supports the writer’s claims with evidence and enables the reader to follow the writer’s ideas and focus on the main points. A well-reasoned argument contains three parts: 1. the claim the writer is arguing for 2. the data or evidence gathered to support the claim 3. the explanation of why or how the data support the claim – that is, the bridge that connects the data to the claim. A convincing argument expresses the writer’s knowledge of the subject enabling the reader to follow the ideas. Start by clearly identifying your purpose, then focus on the main points. The characteristics of a convincing argument are: • objectivity – argument based on accurate, relevant evidence and facts that can be supported with statistics or other verifiable evidence • avoidance of statements that depend only on your opinion or your own experience and values

Use italics, bold fonts or capital letters sparingly when special emphasis is needed for particular words in the text.

Highlight the relationships between ideas.

Present clear, wellsupported arguments.

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Investigate all the issues involved.

Apply clear, logical thinking to improve the quality of your writing.

reasonable assumptions, and thoughtful and balanced analysis of the complexity of issues from various perspectives, including advantages and disadvantages • reasoned argument that shows the relationships between the writer’s ideas and why or how the evidence connects to the writer’s claim • presentation of alternative solutions and clear and concise reasons for choosing a particular solution or solutions • conclusions based on the evidence and clear propositions or recommendations that the reader will find easy to understand and take action. As you present a particular issue and reason it through, keep all your arguments together. If you find that you come back to it after two or three paragraphs’ discussion of another issue, reorganise your arguments so that they are all together. Define and explain your criteria for evaluation clearly and concisely so that your readers can weigh up the evidence for themselves. Your argument can be presented by analysing, comparing, criticising, evaluating and summarising. Some strategies you can use to develop a strong credible argument are: • analysis to identify and explain each element • comparison to show similarity or differences • contrast to show differences between two or more factors • illustration to make clear by written examples, diagrams, pictures or other devices • criticism to make judgements or show the relative merits of something • interpretation to explain or bring out the meaning • summarise to provide a brief account • justify to demonstrate a satisfactory reason • evaluation to give a reasoned appraisal or assessment of something. Avoid exaggeration and take care to present a balanced, non-biased view. Exaggeration is quickly recognised by the perceptive receiver. It can only diminish the credibility of your argument.

Final section of the main text Present conclusions and recommendations.

Ensure recommendations flow logically from the conclusions.

The final section of the body of the long report contains the conclusions and recommendations. Set these out as separate subsections. However, placing your conclusions in the final section is a matter of choice. You may prefer to place them before the body of the report or, in some cases, even before the introduction. The sequence of introduction, body and conclusion is discussed earlier in this chapter, in the section ‘Planning a long report’. The conclusion analyses and evaluates the report’s main facts. It is usually short – half a page or so. Do not present new material in the conclusion. Exhibit 17.10 (pp. 460–70) gives the conclusion to the Fairways Golf Club report. The findings in the report demonstrated that it would be cost-effective to install a new watering system at Fairways Golf Club. However, there would be considerable opposition from staff members, golfers and nearby residents. The local city council also had objections. Your conclusion should reflect the report’s findings. Recommendations are the writer’s attempt to provide at least some answers to questions and issues raised by the report. See the recommendations in Exhibit 17.10 (pp. 460–70). They are based on the report’s findings and are both reasoned and logical suggestions for solving the problem. Always relate the recommendations clearly to your analysis and the discussion set out in the body or main text of the report. Then the reader can evaluate them against the report’s purpose – that is, what it aims to do and why it was put together. Present each recommendation as a separate point or paragraph, numbered and in descending order of importance. Begin each recommendation with a verb. Avoid conditional words such as ‘maybe’ or

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CHAPTER 17 / Write long reports ‘perhaps’. Clearly state what action is required – for example, if you recommend the Fairways Golf Club should postpone the implementation of the new watering system until other options are explored, you need to justify this with supporting evidence in the central section of the long report. Supporting tables are placed either in the body of the report or in an appendix, not in the final section. Also include in the body figures on items such as total outlay, borrowings and period of repayment, and relate these to figures for projected earnings and cash flow. A useful strategy is to recommend a specific, achievable action plan. Then, if the reader agrees, your recommendations can be carried out more easily and quickly. Recommendations are not needed if the long report is intended as a source of data for others who will be responsible for planning and recommendations.

Signature block Report writers usually place their signature, name and job title in a signature block at the end of the final section of the main text, after the recommendations and before the appendices and bibliography. Sometimes the date is placed after the signature block – see Exhibit 17.10 (pp. 460–70).

ENDMATTER The endmatter includes the appendix, glossary of terms and bibliography. These are placed after the final section of the body or main text of the long report.

Appendix An appendix contains facts and findings that are useful but not vital to the main text. It may also contain information that is too long for a report section or highly technical. Examples of what can be placed in appendices include statistics, copies of surveys or questionnaires, graphs, charts and maps, and extracts from journals, newspapers or other reports. Two or more appendices should be identified by numbers or letters (A, B etc.). If you include an appendix, refer to it in the table of contents and at an appropriate place in the main body of the report.

Include material related to the report as an appendix.

Glossary The glossary lists alphabetically special terms or phrases used in the report, and briefly explains each one. Refer to the Glossary in this book for an example.

Bibliography As explained in Chapter 12, Analyse and present research information, a bibliography sometimes lists all the references and sources of information along with background or recommended reading. However, some organisations and writers prefer to present a separate list of references for the information sources cited in the report, and a bibliography for background reading and information sources not cited in the report. An example of a bibliography is shown at the end of each chapter of this book.

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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK

EXAMPLE REPORT – NEW WATERING SYSTEM FOR FAIRWAYS GOLF CLUB EXHIBIT 17.10 Example: Fairways Golf Club formal report

Proposed New Watering System for Fairways Golf Club Prepared for Mr John Cunningham Hon. President Fairways Golf Club Prepared by Alan Westbury Secretary/Manager Fairways Golf Club 28 October 2020

Title case, larger font size and bold is used for the title Shows the name and title of the receiver Identifies the name and title of the report writer Shows when the report is submitted

The title page for the Fairways Golf Club formal report has as much white space above the title as below the date. The title page is counted as page one but no page number is shown. The margin and centre point should be moved 1 cm to the right if the report is to be bound.

FAIRWAYS GOLF CLUB Driveway Avenue, Merrylands Vic 3055 Tel/Fax: (03) 6653 2948 Email: [email protected] 28 October 2020

Mr John Cunningham Hon. President Fairways Golf Club Driveway Avenue MERRYLANDS VIC 3055

Dear John Here is the report you requested on 3 July on the proposed new watering system for the golf club. I have detailed in this report an examination of the differences between the existing watering system and the proposed system. I have included a cost-effectiveness analysis as well as a detailed comparison of the physical and engineering differences of the two systems.

Highlights the report’s purpose and refers to the research, analysis and the findings

Additionally, I have included an analysis of the possible effect on golfers and the results of a survey of golf club staff, golfers and nearby residents. The City Council’s requirements and the results of an inspection of the new watering system in operation at the Riverview Golf Club are also detailed.

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CHAPTER 17 / Write long reports

EXHIBIT 17.10 (Continued) Points to the report’s recommendations

My recommendation is that the Golf Club should postpone implementation of this system until other options are considered. Please contact me if you have any questions regarding this report. Yours sincerely

Alan Westbury Secretary/Manager ii Letter of transmittal for the Fairways Golf Club formal report uses full block format with centred letterhead and open punctuation. The letter of transmittal page is numbered by the lowercase roman numeral ii, centred at the bottom of the page. The margin and centre point should be moved 1 cm to the right if the report is to be bound.

Memorandum

Identifies who is authorising the report and when Identifies the subject to be investigated Identifies the scope of work

To:

Alan Westbury, Secretary/Manager

From:

John Cunningham Hon. President

Date:

3 July 2020

Subject:

Proposed New Watering System for Fairways Golf Club

The Board authorises you to submit a report on the proposed new watering system for the Golf Club discussed at our last meeting. We require you to compare the existing system and the proposed new system in terms of cost-effectiveness, as well as any physical or engineering differences. Additionally, an analysis of the possible effects on golfers and nearby residents is required. The City Council should be contacted for their comments regarding any environmental requirements. Also include your findings from inspection of the proposed new system already in operation at another golf course.

Identifies when the report is due

The Board would like this report submitted by 30 October 2020. iii The authorisation document identifies the scope of the report. The memo of authorisation page is numbered by the lowercase roman numeral iii, centred at the bottom of the page.

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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK

EXHIBIT 17.10 (Continued) Table of Contents Letter of Transmittal

(ii)

Memo of Authorisation

(iii)

List of Illustrations

(v)

Executive Summary

(vi)

1.0

2.0

3.0

4.0

5.0

6.0

Introduction

1

1.1

Purpose, Scope and Limitations

1

1.2

Sources and Methods

1

Cost Comparison of Existing and Proposed Watering Systems

2

2.1

Costs of Existing System

2

2.2

Costs of Proposed System

2

Comparison of Physical and Engineering Differences

3

3.1

Physical Differences

3

3.2

Engineering Differences

3

Advantages and Disadvantages for Golfers

Highlights outline by indenting secondary heading

3

4.1

Advantages

3

4.2

Disadvantages

4

The Proposed New System in Operation at Riverview Golf Club

4

5.1

Inspection Results

4

5.2

Manager’s and Greenkeeper’s Comments

4

Survey Results

4

6.1

Golf Club Staff

5

6.2

Golfers

5

6.3

Nearby Residents

6

7.0

City Council Requirements

7

8.0

Conclusions

8

9.0

Recommendations

8

Appendix A Survey of Golf Club Staff, Golfers and Nearby Residents

Page numbers for front matter are lowercase roman numerals and for the remainder of the report Arabic numerals

Appendix B Letter from City Council

9 10

Bibliography

11

iv

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CHAPTER 17 / Write long reports

EXHIBIT 17.10 (Continued) List of Illustrations Figure 1 Sketch of Machinery Housing

3

Figure 2 Survey Responses from Staff

5

Figure 3 Survey Responses from Golfers

6

Figure 4 Survey Responses from Residents

6

v

The list of illustrations is placed on a separate page from the table of contents for the Fairways Golf Club report. When a report’s table of contents is short, you may place them on the same page. The writer uses title case to parallel the style within the report. Remember to use formatting styles on your report’s headings and you will be able to generate a contents page automatically using your software package. The executive summary on the next page gives readers a quick overview or picture of the report. It states the reasons for writing the report and identifies the scope, research methods used, findings and conclusions. It is an essential component of a long business report.

Executive Summary Identifies the report’s purpose

Describes methodology

This report was commissioned by the Fairways Golf Club to study the effects of the introduction of a new watering system at the golf club. This new system is based on recycling effluent to irrigate the greens. A detailed examination was made of the differences between the existing watering system and the proposed system. This entailed a cost-effectiveness analysis as well as a comparison of the physical and engineering differences of the two systems. Advantages and disadvantages for golfers were analysed. The study also examined the proposed new system in operation at another golf course. A survey was conducted to ascertain the views of golf club staff, golfers and nearby residents. An informal meeting with nearby residents to discuss the survey was also held. The City Council was contacted for comment.

Highlights the main conclusions

The study concluded that the new system was beneficial in terms of cost and effectiveness. However, there were negative effects that outweighed the positive benefits. The staff, golfers and nearby residents were opposed to the introduction of the new system on the basis of possible health issues, odour, machinery noise, visual pollution, lowered house values and possible drainage problems. The City Council was of the opinion that the system could impact detrimentally on the environment and an Environmental Impact Statement would be required.

Identifies the recommendations

The recommendation is that the golf club postpone the implementation of this system until other options are considered. vi

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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK

EXHIBIT 17.10 (Continued) Proposed New Watering System for Fairways Golf Club 1.0 Introduction Fairways Golf Club has endeavoured to ensure that the most efficient and cost-effective watering system has been used to keep the golf course in the best condition for golfers. Recent drought conditions have resulted in the greens requiring more water to maintain their current condition. However, increased Water Authority charges have necessitated the club limiting the amount of water required for the greens. This has led to detrimental conditions for the golfers and golfer dissatisfaction. The club’s aim is to make certain that the greens are maintained to golfers’ satisfaction. To ensure this under present conditions would incur additional Water Authority costs. This would result in an increase in fees. In the light of these anticipated increased costs, the Board of the Golf Club has requested an investigation into the effects of the introduction of a proposed new watering system at the golf club. This proposed system would reduce the amount of water necessary to irrigate the greens by incorporating recycled treated effluent. This reports details the results of these investigations. The results show that, although the new system would be beneficial in terms of cost and effectiveness, there are negative effects that outweigh the positive benefits. 1.1 Purpose, Scope and Limitations

The introductory section of the main text of the Fairways Golf Club report contains the report’s title and has one major heading and two subheadings

The purpose of this report is to analyse the differences between the existing system and the proposed system, the effects on golf club staff, golfers and nearby residents and to determine whether the proposed new system should be introduced. 1.2 Sources and Methods In preparing this report, a cost-effectiveness analysis as well as a detailed comparison of the physical and engineering differences of the two systems was made. A survey was conducted to ascertain the views of golf club staff, golfers and nearby residents. An informal meeting was also held with the nearby residents to discuss the survey. An analysis was made of the advantages and disadvantages to golfers. The City Council was contacted for comment and possible objections. Inspection was made of the proposed new system in operation at Riverview Golf Club for comparison purposes. 1

The title is placed on the first page of the introductory section 5 cm from the top of the page. The Fairways Golf Club report introduction presents a brief background, and defines the report’s task in a purpose, scope and limitations statement. It also describes the sources and methods used to gather and analyse information. Exhibit 17.9 (pp. 462–463) describes other parts you may choose to include in the introductory section of a long report.

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CHAPTER 17 / Write long reports

EXHIBIT 17.10 (Continued) The content in the central section of the body of the Fairways Golf Club report contains six major headings

2.0 Cost Comparison of Existing and Proposed Watering Systems Costs of both the existing and proposed new watering systems were investigated. Initially, there would be the cost of installing the new system and additional landscaping. However, results showed that over subsequent years there would be considerable cost benefits in installing the new system that would compensate for the cost of installation. The important difference is that the recycled treated effluent would considerably reduce Water Authority charges, resulting in a large cost saving. Since the commissioning of this report, advice has been received that a large engineering works is being closed. As the Water Authority will not be supplying water on a large scale to this site, it is possible that the Water Authority may consider supplying additional water to the golf course at a reduced rate. 2.1 Costs of Existing System The existing system has been in operation for more than thirty years. Currently, the overall costs of the existing system amount to $86,690 annually. This includes depreciation of equipment ($15,500) as well as the day-to-day operating costs listed below. 2.1.1

The central section investigates and analyses the report’s findings

Current operating costs 2.1.1.1 Greenkeeping Includes replacement of turf and fertilising, also petrol for mowers 2.1.1.2 Water Authority usage charges Includes increased charges this year 2.1.1.3 Electricity 2.1.1.4 Maintenance Includes lawnmower repairs and pumping equipment service calls 2.1.1.5 Staffing Includes salary of one greenkeeper and one apprentice

2 505.00 11 685.00 5 000.00 1 300.00 50 200.00 $70 690.00

2.2 Costs of Proposed System The proposed system would incur initial costs of installing the pump machinery, cables, pipes, and housing for the machinery, as well as landscaping. The existing sprinkler system would be incorporated into the new watering system. The club presently has this amount available so it will not be necessary to obtain a loan. However, loss of interest on this amount should be taken into account. Depreciation of equipment would be marginally higher. The anticipated operating costs are based on quoted figures from the Water Authority and the installing company. 2.2.1

2.2.2

Installation costs 2.2.1.1 Installing pump machinery, cables and housing 2.2.1.2 Landscaping Anticipated operating costs 2.2.2.1 Greenkeeping 2.2.2.2 Water Authority charges (costs reduced using the recycling process) 2.2.2.3 Electricity 2.2.2.4 Maintenance (costs reduced owing to new equipment installed) 2.2.2.5 Staffing

200 000.00 3 000.00 $203 000.00 1 000.00 2 000.00 5 500.00 800.00 50 900.00 $60 200.00

2

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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK

EXHIBIT 17.10 (Continued) 3.0 Comparison of Physical and Engineering Differences There are considerable physical and engineering differences between the two systems. These are detailed below. 3.1 Physical Differences The major physical differences would be in the installation of the plant to treat the effluent and the construction of plant housing. This would be situated near the tenth dam behind the sixth tee. The housing for the new machinery would differ markedly from the present plant housing, which is small and unobtrusive. The new housing, a recycled shed, would be covered with treated pine lattice cladding to blend into the landscape. The housing roof cover would be Caulfield Green Colorbond zincalume custom orb roof cladding. (A sketch of the housing is shown in Figure 1.) Landscaping would be required to ensure minimal visual effect from the housing. A ‘buffer’ of native plantings would need to be created. Figure 1 Sketch of machinery housing

Graphics improve the report’s readability and create interest

3.2 Engineering Differences The main engineering difference between the two systems is in the transfer system to recycle the sewerage water. Cables would be laid underground from an access shaft in Salisbury Street and the effluent pumped to a plant on the golf course. The effluent would be treated by ozone to separate the contaminants. The contaminants would be discharged back into the sewer. The clean, treated water would then be pumped to the main storage dam before being distributed to other dams on the course. The treated effluent would be of a high quality, but marginally lower than the World Health Authority standard for drinking water. The new system differs from the existing system in that the pumps would be in operation during night hours. Watering of the greens, however, would occur on the same cycle as presently exists.

4.0 Advantages and Disadvantages for Golfers There are considerable advantages for golfers with the introduction of the proposed system. However, there are also some disadvantages that could affect golfers. Perceived advantages and disadvantages are listed below. 4.1 Advantages The main benefit for golfers would be the improved condition of the greens, both in summer and winter. Additionally, the saving on Water Authority charges would mean that fees could remain at their present level. The savings made by the golf club would also result in the club being able to improve the clubhouse and its facilities. This would give golfers better amenities without the need to increase fees. 3

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CHAPTER 17 / Write long reports

EXHIBIT 17.10 (Continued) 4.2 Disadvantages There would be some disruption during the installation of the cables and machinery and the creation of new ponds. Attempts would be made to keep this at a minimum. There may be some opposition from golfers to increased operating noise but, as most of the operations will be confined to evening hours, this should be minimal. The company supplying the new system has given assurance that the noise level will be within acceptable decibel levels. The golfers may be opposed to treated effluent being used to water the greens. Signs will be erected advising golfers of this fact.

5.0 The Proposed New System in Operation at Riverview Golf Club The Secretary/Manager and head greenkeeper inspected the proposed system in operation at the Riverview Golf Club during August and September. They also consulted the greenkeeper and manager of Riverview Golf Club regarding financial advantages for the club. They asked for comments or objections the club may have received from golfers and nearby residents relating to the new system. 5.1 Inspection Results The irrigation of the golf course worked well. The greens were regularly watered and were of a high quality and a lush green. There appeared to be no discernible noise effects from machinery operation. 5.2 Manager’s and Greenkeeper’s Comments This section presents data gathered from primary sources

5.2.1 Financial savings The manager reported that there had been considerable saving on water costs since the installation of the new system. The recycling had greatly increased the club’s ability to maintain the greens in an acceptable condition at much lower cost. 5.2.2 Golfers’ and nearby residents’ comments and/or objections 5.2.2.1 Golfers According to the manager, there had been some adverse comments from golfers during the installation period. Golfers were at first reluctant to have treated effluent used as irrigation. However, golfers now appreciate the improved condition of the greens. They also appreciate the removal of the water levy imposed during the earlier drought period. 5.2.2.2 Nearby residents Riverview Golf Club differs from Fairways Golf Club in that a large proportion of the green is adjacent to a river. As a result of this, only a very small number of residents adjoin the golf course. The machinery and housing are located near the riverbank away from any residential property. The only objections from residents were in relation to run-off from the dams during a recent heavy rainfall and the fear of possible health problems from the treated effluent. Over 4 years of operation, there have been no health issues.

6.0 Survey Results Surveys were made of golf club staff, golfers and nearby residents. Additionally, an informal evening meeting was held to inform nearby residents of the reasons for the survey. There was a 100% return from golf club staff. Of the golfers, the return was 20%. A very high percentage (89%) of the residents of the four streets adjoining the golf club returned completed surveys. 4

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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK

EXHIBIT 17.10 (Continued) Overall, results showed that golf club staff and golfers were in favour of a new watering system. They appeared to have few objections to the proposed system. The main objection was in respect of the machinery housing. Nearby residents, however, raised very strong objections to the introduction of this proposed watering system. They were concerned about possible odour and drainage problems. A particular concern was the likelihood of health risks if there was run-off from the golf course into their properties. Noise levels were also a problem, particularly as the machinery would operate mainly during evening hours. Visual pollution from the proposed machinery housing construction was an added concern. At the informal evening meeting, they also expressed concerns about possible devaluation of their properties. Many had already lodged objections to the construction of the proposed new watering system directly to the City Council. Survey results from the different groups are listed below and shown in the graphs (see Figures 2, 3 and 4). 6.1 Golf Club Staff (n=14) 6.1.1 A majority of the staff (78.6%) were in favour of the introduction of a new watering system. 6.1.2 A small number (21.4%) were in favour of increasing fees and retaining the existing system. 6.1.3 Numbers were equally divided on the possibility of increased noise from the machinery of the proposed watering system. 6.1.4 A small majority (56.4%) were concerned with possible health problems. 6.1.5 A majority (85.7%) felt that the introduction of new clubhouse facilities and the improved condition of the greens would attract new members. 6.1.6 A large percentage (92.85%) considered that the machinery housing located near the ninth tee would be visual pollution. Figure 2 Responses from golf club staff (n=14) 100

Survey data gathered is objective and factual. It provides evidence and facts that are analysed and presented in the body of the report

Percentage

80

60

40

20

tio n lu

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A

tt

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Vi s

ct

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th ea l H

cr In

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as e re In c

ob l

no is

fe d

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6.2 Golfers (n=223)

e

es

em

0

Survey Topic

6.2.1 A majority of the golfers (89.2%) were in favour of the introduction of a new watering system. 6.2.2 A very low percentage (10.3%) was in favour of increasing fees and retaining the existing system. 6.2.3 A slight majority (53.36%) felt that there could be noise pollution. 6.2.4 A significant number (78.4%) felt that there was a heath risk. 6.2.5 Similar to golf club staff, the golfers (89.6%) felt that the introduction of new clubhouse facilities and the improved condition of the greens would attract new members. 6.2.6 Similar to golf club staff, 99% of the golfers felt that the machinery housing would be visual pollution. 5

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CHAPTER 17 / Write long reports

EXHIBIT 17.10 (Continued) Figure 3 Responses from golfers (n=223) 100

Percentage

80

60

40

20

n tio

rs

N

lu ua

Vi s

A

tt

ew

ra

H

ct

ea

ne

lth

w

lp

m

pr

ol

ob

em

le

be

m

s

e no d se ea

cr In

w

at

In

er

cr

in

ea

g

se

sy

d

st

fe

is

es

em

0

Survey Topic 6.3 Nearby Residents (n=98)

Responses are compiled into column graphs and interpreted

6.3.1 4% of residents were in favour of the introduction of the new system. 6.3.2 100% were in favour of increasing the fees. 6.3.3 Numbers were equally divided on the possibility of increased noise from the machinery of the proposed watering system. 6.3.4 A large majority (96%) felt there was a health risk. 6.3.5 75% felt that the introduction of new clubhouse facilities and greens would attract new members. 6.3.6 90% felt that the machinery housing would be visual pollution. Figure 4 Responses from residents (n=98) 100

Percentage

80

60

40

20

tio n lu ol

em Vi s

ua

lp

m w

A

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ea

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m le ob pr

d se

se ea cr In

s

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fe d

st sy g rin at e w N ew

is

es

em

0

Survey Topic 6

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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK

EXHIBIT 17.10 (Continued) 7.0 City Council Requirements The City Council was contacted to ascertain if there were any objections to the implementation of the proposed new watering system based on recycling treated effluent. Detailed plans of the proposed system were submitted. The City Council’s engineers inspected the golf course and consulted golf club management. After the inspection, a letter was received from the City Council stating that there were concerns about the introduction of this system. They were of the opinion that there could be detrimental effects. They have requested an Environmental Impact Statement before any consideration of the implementation of the proposed watering system. 7

The central section of the Fairways Golf Club report is factual and objective. The central section has six sections identified by headings. The sections are further divided by subheadings that make it easier for the receiver to understand the report’s analysis and findings. The Fairways Golf Club report develops an argument in writing by analysing, illustrating, comparing, interpreting and evaluating information.

8.0 Conclusions Although the new system is beneficial in terms of cost and effectiveness, the negative effects outweigh the positive benefits. 8.1 There is strong opposition from golf club staff, golfers and nearby residents that could lead to a loss of goodwill and long-term revenue on the basis of: • possible odour • health risk • machinery noise • possible drainage problems • lowering of land values. 8.2 The City Council requires an Environmental Impact Statement and this would have an impact on costing. Additionally, the City Council might impose conditions that would make the introduction of this system cost-prohibitive.

9.0 Recommendations 9.1 That installation of the proposed new system be postponed. 9.2 That other options be explored: 9.2.1 Approaching the Water Authority for a reduction in rates (closure of the large engineering works may make this a feasible option). 9.2.2 Reviewing other watering systems currently available.

The final section of the main text of the Fairways Golf Club report contains the conclusions, recommendations and signature block

Alan Westbury Secretary/Manager Fairways Golf Club 28 October 2020 8

The conclusions and recommendations are clear and suggest postponement of the new system until further options are explored. They are the most important part of the long report and suggest the actions to be taken. Management decisions will be made on the basis of the conclusions and recommendations. Note, an example of a bibliography is shown at the end of each chapter of this book.

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CHAPTER 17 / Write long reports

1. Terms of reference and executive summary: a. Briefly explain the purpose of a long report’s terms of reference. b. What are the items that should be included in an executive summary? 2. Tasks and arguments: a. In which part of a long report is the research task and problem defined? b. Outline the characteristics of a convincing argument. c. Identify three strategies you can use to develop a convincing argument. 3. Conclusions and recommendations: a. Why should your conclusions relate to the report’s findings? b. What are the characteristics of an effective recommendation?

CHECKPOINT 17.3

17.4 EDIT AND REVIEW A LONG REPORT Once the long report is written and presented, you want the reader to act on its findings, conclusions and recommendations. Any blocks in the communication flow between the writer and reader can prevent this from happening. The editing and review process will help you to check the report for accuracy, consistency and clarity.

Check for accuracy, consistency and clarity.

THE SIX-STEP APPROACH TO EDITING AND REVIEWING A long report is a formal document with many parts. Readers of a long report expect it to have a professional format and accurate, objective information. The six steps in Exhibit 17.11 allow you to take a systematic approach to editing and reviewing the report.

EXHIBIT 17.11 Six steps to editing and reviewing Step 1

Edit the long report to eliminate obscure language, unnecessary jargon and abbreviations

Step 2

Correct any spelling, punctuation or gramatical errors to ensure that what you have written is clear at the first reading

Step 3

Check that the introductory part of the body of your report identifies the report's purpose clearly

Step 4

Check for any unsupported opinions, as these will cast doubt on your credibility as a report writer

Step 5

Remove any extra information that is not vital to the main argument, findings or discussion

Step 6

Carefully edit and proofread the layout or format of your final copy

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Step 1 Delete any irrelevant information or repetition to make your report more concise. Rewrite any sentences that are too long or poorly structured, and avoid exaggeration as this irritates the reader and distorts the message. Also remove any imprecise expressions such as ‘a terrific result’ – this statement conveys very little. It is much better to say ‘the percentage changes are high’ or ‘the figures and results are significant’. Make sure that you have provided these figures in a graph or table near your statement or as an appendix.

Step 2 Revise and correct your report in the editing stage.

Check that each paragraph has a concise topic sentence, and that each following point relates to it. Restructure paragraphs that lack unity and make sure that each one follows on logically from the previous one. Consider where it may be appropriate to change a long paragraph into a list or bullet points, add headings and subheadings to improve the report’s readability, or add linking words and phrases to connect your points logically.

Step 3 Review your purpose statement to ensure you have used action words in a sentence that addresses the problem or opportunity you have been asked to write about in the report. A simple purpose statement will state (usually in one sentence) the report’s purpose without identifying the scope, significance and limitations. An expanded purpose statement will identify the report’s purpose, scope, significance and limitations in a paragraph of two or three sentences.

Step 4 Remove careless, inaccurate, or conflicting data and any outdated or irrelevant data, and any unsupported conclusions and recommendations. Presenting factual, objective information with accurate references is an essential part of report writing. As you edit, make sure the arguments are logical and check the information for accuracy.

Step 5 Put information that is still useful in an appendix or endnote. Extra information in the body of the report can distract the reader and interrupt the progression of ideas so strip out any information unsuited to your writing purpose or the needs of the receiver. Alternatively, add any important information that may have been left out.

Step 6 Check that each essential component of a long report is included and achieves its purpose. In addition, check the sequence of information and ideas, and the numbering of sections. Whenever possible, ask someone who is not involved with the report writing to proofread the report for typos, spelling errors or other mistakes or omissions in content or format. The report writer’s familiarity with the document and its content make it easy for them to overlook discrepancies or omissions. A ‘fresh set of eyes’ may be more discerning.

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CHAPTER 17 / Write long reports

METHOD OF DELIVERY The rapid and ongoing increase of digital communication channels means that the delivery of a report can take several forms. A long formal report may be presented in the traditional printed, bound report or it may be emailed in full as an attachment. It may also be divided into a number of sections and delivered over some weeks to different receivers. A long report may be presented in a shorter version as a slide show and discussion at seminars, conferences, special presentations and on the intranet to ensure wider dissemination of the report’s contents, particularly the conclusions and recommendation. The method of delivery will be determined by the receivers’ requirements, the length of the report and the geographic locations of the receivers. 1. Editing the report: a. List three items you should eliminate as you edit the report. b. Why should you check for any unsupported opinions in your report? 2. What should you check for in each new paragraph? 3. Where should you place information that is useful but not essential? 4. Discuss the likely consequences of not acknowledging sources or citing them incorrectly?

CHECKPOINT 17.4

LEARNING ACTIVITIES SUMMARY 17.1 Plan and organise material according to purpose, audience and context. At the planning stage of writing the report, prepare a preliminary outline of headings on the major issues. The outline breaks the long formal report into smaller sections (using either the direct or indirect order of information) to make the information accessible and easy for the reader to understand. Effective headings identify the main issues of the report. The report’s purpose must be clear in the writer’s mind before work is started. When the purpose is clear decide on the order of information. The indirect order is used when the reader may disagree with your conclusions or not understand them until the main text of the report is read. The direct order is suited to a report prepared for a receiver who has the background to understand it or is too busy to read the whole report. When the conclusions contain good news, the direct order is appropriate. 17.2 Write a long report using language suitable for the task and audience. Your report is often the only communication you have with those who read it. Therefore, use a report-writing style that is clear, readable, factual, objective and relevant. The writing style

should also be impersonal and avoid repetition and redundancy. A report that is too wordy is often obscure and difficult for the reader to understand. Write the conclusions and offer recommendations appropriate to the purpose of the document. The conclusions tell the reader what the findings mean. The conclusions may include a summary of the main information, arguments and findings of the report. The conclusions may be placed after the front matter and before the body (main text) so the significant information is up front. Most writers place the conclusions after the body and before the recommendations. Effective conclusions help the reader to grasp the report’s main points. Recommendations are your suggestions or solutions. They should identify specific and realistic actions to solve the problem. Others should be able to base their decisions and/or actions on them. The recommendations may be placed with the conclusions after the front matter and before the body (main text). Usually, they are placed after the conclusions in the final section of the main text.

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17.3 Format the front matter, body or main text and endmatter correctly. The standard long-report format consists of three main sections: front matter, body and endmatter. Each section of the conventional long-report format has a specific function that enables the writer to present information, arguments, analysis, conclusions and recommendations in a format the reader can understand easily. The essential parts of the front matter are title page, letter of transmittal and table of contents. The optional parts of the front matter are a list of tables, list of figures, abstract, synopsis or executive summary and an authorisation document. The essential parts of the body are the introduction, discussion and analysis of the report’s findings, development of ideas, conclusions and recommendations.

Tables and graphics are optional parts of the body. The essential part of the endmatter is the bibliography. An appendix and glossary are optional parts. 17.4 Edit and review the report for accuracy, consistency and clarity. Check the structure and writing style of your report for logic, clarity and concision. Follow the six-step approach to review and edit your use of language, remove any irrelevant information or repetition, correct any spelling, punctuation or grammatical errors and restructure paragraphs that lack unity. Remove any conflicting, outdated or irrelevant data and any unsupported conclusions and recommendations. Place any useful information that is not vital to the main argument, findings or discussion into an appendix or endnote. Finally, check that your report contains each essential component.

KEY TERMS abstract appendix cloud computing endmatter executive summary findings

front matter glossary letter of transmittal long report purpose purpose statement

recommendations report-writing conventions report-writing style scope synopsis table of contents

terms of reference text title page visual aids

LEARNING ACTIVITIES 1. Scenario: Training session Assume you have been asked at short notice to take the place of a trainer who was scheduled to deliver a training session titled ‘Formal report writing’. The trainer has telephoned the training manager to say she has influenza and will be away from work until the end of the week. The training manager directs you to deliver the four-hour training session tomorrow. You decide you must develop some notes to help with your delivery. a. Identify and write a short description of the key features of formal reports. b. List and briefly explain the purpose of each of the components of a formal report. c. You decide to being the training session with a discussion on how the process of preparing a report begins before writing commences. List three key

questions the writer of a formal report should answer before they begin researching and writing. d. At the end of the training session, participants are asked to write a long formal report over the next fortnight. The participants ask you how you will evaluate their reports. Produce six criteria you could use to evaluate the quality of a long formal report. 2. Think before you start writing a. Brainstorm and list on a flip chart: • ways in which you can record and maintain control of the information you gather at the researching stage • how you might approach the first draft of a formal report • the likely consequences of not acknowledging sources or of citing them incorrectly. b. Prepare and deliver a short oral presentation on your findings.

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CHAPTER 17 / Write long reports

3. Write a short critique Read a business article of at least 1000 words in length. a. How does the writer identify the article’s purpose? b. What conclusions does the writer draw?

c. Do the evidence and analysis in the article support the conclusions? d. Prepare a short critique of the article.

GROUP ACTIVITY You will need to form a project team to complete writing a long report for this assignment. The professionally presented report can be donated to a library facility. The criteria for your team’s long report are that the report must: • have a purpose • provide comprehensive information • offer expert opinion. You and your team must select the subject for your report. The following suggestions are a guide only. The first list of topics is suited to a report that could be donated to a community library. The second list of topics are suited to a report that could be donated to a technical workplace library. For a community library You might consider subjects that will not only be interesting and informative but also serve a community need. Your team may consider visiting local community centres to survey opinion before selecting your project subject; for example: • local tourist destinations for your region • history of the local area • local food guide to cheap eating • do-it-yourself manual or self-help manual • achievements of local voluntary service groups.

a. Prepare and submit the action plan in Exhibit 17.12 for your planning stage.

EXHIBIT 17.12 Action plan to complete the four steps of planning the report Steps

Team action plan

Progress report

Completed

1. 2. 3. 4.

b. Discuss and document the content of the three main sections of your long report in Exhibit 17.13 before you start. Submit Exhibit 17.13 to your trainer, teacher or lecturer.

EXHIBIT 17.13 Sections in the long report Section

Essential parts

Team action plan

Progress report

Completed

For a technical workplace library There is always a need for good resources in any workplace. Consult managers and supervisors regarding a potential need for workplace information, including: • flexibility of workplace training • cultural diversity • drivers of sustainable work practices • how your organisation can use social media to engage with customers.

c. Follow the writing sequence shown in Exhibit 17.6 (p. 457) as you write the long report. d. Use the six-step approach (described on p. 477) to edit and review your report. e. Submit your team report.

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CASE STUDY HAZELL ENGINEERING: NORTHERN EXPANSION Harry Melville, Managing Director of Hazell Engineering, explained to his project team: ‘I have called you here this morning to discuss Hazell Engineering’s new Sydney branch.’ He reminded them that they had initially met on 12 March to discuss the establishment of a company branch in Sydney. Each team member was given a brief and instructed to provide Harry with a progress report at the next meeting, on 10 April. The progress reports were discussed in more detail at the 10 April meeting. At this meeting Harry asked each team member to write a long report that included their conclusions and recommendations. The long reports were submitted to Harry on 15 May. Harry read the reports and gave the following feedback at the next meeting. ‘As you all know, a key reason for our success is how well our communication systems work. The long reports we all occasionally write must be as successful and professional as the rest of our communication. Unfortunately, the reports on the proposed move to Sydney will need some more work before we can make any plans.’ Harry let his team know that he’d found it difficult to work out the purpose of some of their reports. The centre sections were generally good because their information was correct and well researched. But some reports had no letter of transmittal or executive summary, so Harry found he had to spend a lot of time trying to understand the approach they were taking. He also said: ‘Some of you

need to look at your writing style. Please use Plain English and watch for excess jargon. Luckily, I understood it, but some of our customers and suppliers would have difficulty. In some of the reports, the primary and secondary information sources were missing.’ Harry explained that the front matter of each report needed to be more professional and would require reworking. In addition, some reports included graphics that tended to interfere with the text. Others did not use enough graphics. Then Harry gave them the good news. The final sections of all of the reports presented excellent conclusions and recommendations about how to get the Sydney branch up and running.

Questions 1. What is Harry complaining about? After all, he said he understood the reports. 2. Explain why excess jargon and insufficient front matter are problematic in a long report. 3. What components would you include in the: • front matter? • body or main text? • endmatter? 4. Assume Harry asks you to deliver a three-minute presentation at the next staff meeting about the reasons for using well-chosen headings, numbering systems and graphics. Write the presentation.

BIBLIOGRAPHY Bove´e, C. & Thill, J.V. 2017. Business Communication Today, 14th edn, Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ. Bowden, John. 2011. Writing a Report: 9th edition, How To Books, Oxford, UK. Fowler, H.R. & Aaron, J.E. 2015. The Little Brown Handbook, 13th edn, Pearson Education, Essex, UK. Gowers, Rebecca & Gowers, Ernest. 2015. Plain Words, A Guide to the Use of English, Penguin Books, London, UK. Guffey, M.E. & Loewy, D. 2017. Business Communication: Process and Product, 9th edn, Cengage Learning, Mason, OH.

Northey, M. & McKibbin, J. 2015. Impact; A Guide to Business Communication, 9th edn, Pearson Education, Toronto, Canada. Newman, Amy. 2017. Business Communication in Person, 10th edn, Cengage Learning, Mason, OH. Ramage, John D. Bean, John C. & Johnson, June. 2015. Writing Arguments: A Rhetoric with Readings, 10th edn, Longman, New York, NY. Telstra. Bigger Picture 2017 Sustainability Report, https:// 1u0b5867gsn1ez16a1p2vcj1-wpengine.netdna-ssl.com/ wp-content/uploads/2017/10/Bigger-Picture-2017Sustainability-Report.pdf, viewed 14 April 2018.

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WRITE TECHNICAL DOCUMENTS AND PROPOSALS

CHAPTER

18

instruct + describe

Your Learning Journey

Understanding THE PURPOSE explain + organise

Chapter 18

18.1

tenders

Consider any STANDARDS

Industry

    

active voice repetition heading structure formatting style visuals

Workplace

18.2

Different forms of

technical writing

18.4 proposals

technical definitions

descriptions

instructions

18.3 18.5 Don’t forget to edit!

CH19

Next RECORD KEEPING

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LEARNING OBJECTIVES After studying this chapter, you should be able to: 18.1 explain the purpose of technical writing 18.2 discuss the main features of a technical writing style 18.3 identify the characteristics of a technical definition, technical description and technical instructions 18.4 describe the major elements in a formal proposal and a formal tender 18.5 review, proofread and edit a technical document.

18.1 THE PURPOSE OF TECHNICAL WRITING

Use factual information for a specific purpose when writing technical material.

The purpose of technical documents is to help people learn, complete tasks and make decisions. Technical writers create user guides that explain ideas, technologies, processes and products to the people who need to understand or use them. Effective technical writers produce reader-friendly technical documents to answer two questions: • ‘What is it?’, a straightforward, complete description of the object (process, idea or concept) and the document conveys this message in clear and concise language • ‘How, when and where do I use it?’, an identification of the object’s features and functions and detail on how to use them. In the workplace, a great deal of information is conveyed in technical documents. Some examples are: • proposals for new products, new equipment, new staff members • reports on WHS incidents, case management • credit and consumer complaints • instructions on how to use equipment or work with different software programs • explanations of processes and procedures.

WHO CREATES TECHNICAL DOCUMENTS? Technical documents are usually produced by two different categories of people: • technical professionals such as engineers, scientists, computer specialists and other technicians. • technical communicators who create manuals, proposals, instructions, reports and other factual information regarding businesses, products and services. Technical writers communicate highly specific information. Anyone may be called on to write technical documents in the workplace, so it is worth having these skills.

WHO ARE TECHNICAL DOCUMENTS CREATED FOR? Select and organise the information.

Technical writers must identify the intended audience first, and then sort, organise and shape the content of their document so that their audience grasps the main points easily. The readers of technical documents need to be able to easily: • understand and interpret the information • recognise the purpose of the writer’s work. The audience may have varying technical or non-technical backgrounds, knowledge and experience. As a technical writer, you will be communicating with people from widely different backgrounds. Some

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CHAPTER 18 / Write technical documents and proposals of your readers will be technical experts and managers, others will be non-expert general readers. For a technical writing task at work, consider your range of readers and your writing purpose. These elements affect the document’s content, organisation and format. 1. What type of information is conveyed in a technical document? 2. What must technical writers do after they identify their audience?

Convey your exact meaning to the reader.

CHECKPOINT 18.1

18.2 MAIN FEATURES OF TECHNICAL WRITING Conveying your exact meaning to the reader is an essential function of technical writing. There are a number of key features and techniques, such as writing style and formatting, that will help to make your technical document effective and easy to understand.

A TECHNICAL WRITING STYLE In choosing words for your technical writing tasks, aim for a style that is concise and straightforward, and be very careful to use technical terms precisely and consistently.

Active voice The active voice shows who or what is doing something, identifying and emphasising the subject of the sentence. The active voice is strong and direct. The sentence ‘The operator loaded the software’ demonstrates the active voice. It tells us that the operator loaded the software. If you used the passive voice and wrote ‘The software was loaded’, the reader does not know who or what did the loading. Technical instructions are often written in the form of a specific command (e.g. fasten, lift, put, close). Technical descriptions explain the steps of a process (e.g. the driver lifts, the kitchen hand spreads, the electrician removes). The active voice is always more useful in technical writing than the passive voice, because the passive voice often leaves out important information. Parallel language should also be used in technical writing, particularly in tables and lists.

Technical terms Technical terms have a precise meaning specific to a particular subject or organisation. When you write to someone who understands this precise meaning, the proper technical term is the most appropriate one to use. Define its meaning if you are writing for a non-technical reader.

Repetition In a technical document, such as a word-processing guide, you may have to repeat instructions (e.g. ‘click the right mouse button to use shortcuts’) several times. Select a simple phrase to describe the action and use the same phrase each time. The precise and consistent repetition of key words and phrases helps to link sentences and paragraphs throughout the document. This strategy is known as keynoting: restating key words and phrases.

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Sentence structure Identify the main point in a topic sentence.

The general rule in technical writing is to keep sentences short (15–20 words). Technical material is easier to follow this way. Try breaking long sentences into two or three sentences per paragraph. Every word and sentence in a technical document should help the reader understand each detail. The topic sentence announces the main point of each paragraph. It is usually the first sentence of the paragraph, followed by two or three more sentences containing the supporting details. Exhibit 18.1 shows how different types of topic sentences organise a paragraph.

EXHIBIT 18.1 The purpose of topic and comment sentences Topic sentence

Comment sentence

• Announces the main topic

• Adds supporting details

• Indicates the purpose of the document

• Explains who or what does what

• Sets the scene (context)

• Gives proof

• Gives a framework

• Gives examples

• Shows reasoning

• Develops the main ideas of the paragraph

Paragraph structure A paragraph expands or clarifies the main point expressed in the topic sentence. In technical writing, each sentence in the paragraph adds and explains further relevant details. It is sometimes helpful to repeat the main point in the final sentence. Exhibit 18.2 shows some examples of how topic sentences discussed above can be used to organise a paragraph.

EXHIBIT 18.2 How different types of topic sentences organise a paragraph Type

Example

Specific to general

The unemployment rate is decreasing because the economy is moving out of a recession.

General to specific

The economy is moving out of a recession and as a result the unemployment rate is decreasing.

Spatial order

To transfer a call to another line, lift the handset. Press the hash button on the bottom left-hand side. Push button 2, then button 4. Press the circular button on the top right-hand side.

Chronological order

Today at 10.30 am I attended a Beginners’ Class in aerobics. The instructor started with warm-up exercises and then moved on to a group of power exercises for about an hour. Then, finally, the instructor led us through the wind-down exercises.

Bullet points and numbered lists Bullet points and numbers are useful tools to draw attention to important information when writing technical documents. Bullet points are reader-friendly because they make it easy to find information quickly. Bullet points are used for a group of related items that are not sequential. Numbers (1, 2, 3) or letters (a, b, c) are used to indicate sequence or importance. Use them only when you want to indicate chronology or importance. 480 Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202

CHAPTER 18 / Write technical documents and proposals Bullet points are easier to read and understand if you write them in parallel language. Parallel language means that each bullet point in the list begins with the same part of speech (preferably an action verb), is about the same length and has the same format. Bullet points and numbered lists should: • be brief • begin with action verbs • contain five to eight items. A final sentence is usually included after the last bullet point to reinforce the importance of the bullet points or list.

FORMAT TO IMPROVE READABILITY Choose a format or layout that makes the technical information as accessible as possible. Employ white space to make a technical document look less crowded and therefore easier to read. A solid block of text can be broken up with white space in the form of margins, paragraph indenting, hanging indents and line spacing. White space surrounding texts or graphics in paper-based or online documents draws the reader’s attention to the content. Signalling devices, such as headings and numbers, help to highlight each part of the document and move the reader through it. Signals should be used to: • identify the main point • indicate connections between the main point and supporting points • indicate the connections between all the main points • highlight any warnings or cautions.

Use signalling devices to highlight the main points.

Headings Headings help the readers to find specific information by dividing it into sections and paragraphs. The first-level heading indicates each main section, while the second-level heading indicates a subdivision, and so on for third-level and fourth-level headings. Headings help the reader to: • locate specific material • show the relationships between different sections of material • give the reader a place to stop and think • reduce the reading time by indicating the main points • give a brief survey of the information that follows.

Use headings to highlight the main sections.

Numbering systems A numbering system can be used with headings. Numbered headings help writers and readers to sort out highly detailed material. Each main section requires a main heading. Adding numbers to headings gives an outline that is easy to follow and revise. The example in Exhibit 18.3 presents the alphanumeric system for numbering the main section and subsection headings, if you decide to subdivide your main sections. The decimal system is shown in Exhibit 17.5 in Chapter 17, Write long reports. The numbering of subdivided sections is not always necessary, but is useful for technical or very long documents. Check to see if an in-house style is used at your workplace. If not, create your own numbering system.

Number headings to give a clear outline.

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EXHIBIT 18.3 Alphanumeric system of outlining Heading for first main section

Heading for second main section

Heading for third main section

Heading for first subsection of first main section

Heading for first subsection of second main section

Heading for first subsection

Heading for second subsection

Heading for second subsection

Heading for subdivision of first subsection

Heading for third subsection

Heading for third subsection

Heading for the next subdivision of first subsection

The subsections may require further subdivision

Heading for second subsection

Notes Notes (e.g. ‘NB’, followed by a short statement) highlight important aspects of text or diagrams. Avoid using too many notes, as this defeats their purpose, which is to attract attention.

Tables Tables present data in a concise form that separates yet relates them. The information is usually presented in lists or columns so that the reader can recognise key relationships or make comparisons easily.

Illustrations Use illustrations (graphics) to make an immediate impact.

Illustrations are particularly helpful for explaining technical details concisely, and simplifying or emphasising the main points of interest. Whenever you need to describe what, where and how things happen, diagrams and photographs are particularly useful. However, if you decide that your graphics are not essential to the text or interrupt its progression, place them in an appendix. Once you decide to use a graphic in the main text, focus the reader’s attention by using the three-step method outlined in Exhibit 18.4.

EXHIBIT 18.4 Using graphics in text Step 1

Explain the point in writing.

Step 2

Relate the illustration to the text.

Step 3

Place the illustration straight after the text explanation.

Use only graphics that add meaning and interest to the text. When and how to use graphics is discussed in Chapter 13, Communicate using graphics and visual aids.

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CHAPTER 18 / Write technical documents and proposals

1. Rewrite the following sentences by placing the action word (verb) at the beginning. • A safety hat must be worn at all times. • The equipment must be placed in the tool box. • Heavy planking is to be used to support digging equipment on soft ground. • The printer paper is inserted from the front. • The jack is placed under the marked support. • The knives need to be sharpened at the end of each day. 2. Owl exercises: a. Visit the Purdue University site at and read the article on Writing Definitions (https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/general_writing/common_writing_assignments/definitions.html). b. Follow the link Owl Exercises (https://owl.purdue.edu/owl_exercises/sentence_style/ eliminating_wordiness_test/eliminating_wordiness_exercise_1.html), click on Sentence Style and complete the Eliminating Wordiness Exercise. After you have finished, click on the ‘Go to answers’ link and compare your answers to those on the website.

CHECKPOINT 18.2

18.3 COMMON TYPES OF TECHNICAL DOCUMENTS Technical writing provides factual information for a specific purpose. There are various ways of presenting this information. Three common types of technical documents are: • technical definitions • technical descriptions • technical instructions. More complex types, such as technical proposals and tenders, are discussed in the next section.

TECHNICAL DEFINITIONS A technical definition sets out to explain a special technical term. Many technical terms have no familiar, equivalent term, so they must be clearly defined by the writer for readers who are not expert in that field. Examples of a definition of water, comic books and astronomy are on the Web at https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/general_writing/common_writing_assignments/definitions.html writing definitions.

Define technical terms clearly.

When are definitions required? Technical writers should make it a rule to use a definition in the following four situations: • For all highly specialised terms when technical information originally written for expert readers is revised for non-expert readers. • A technical document intended for a range of expert and non-expert readers must include definitions for the non-expert. • For any term that is new or rarely used – for all readers, expert or otherwise. • A term that changes its meaning according to context must be defined so that both writer and reader are clear about its meaning in the document. Exhibit 18.5 lists three kinds of definitions and their purpose.

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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK

EXHIBIT 18.5 Definitions and their purpose Type of definition

Purpose

Informal

To give a brief explanation of a term, in the first sentence that uses it – most helpful for non-experts

Formal

To define a term or concept, using a three-part formula: 1. the term 2. all objects or actions to which the term applies 3. any features that distinguish this term from other similar terms To define the term and to emphasise and discuss other related qualities and aspects – usually in a full paragraph

Extended

TECHNICAL DESCRIPTIONS Describe a technical subject factually.

A technical description is a factual account of a technical subject. There are two main types of technical descriptions: • descriptions of a mechanism or piece of equipment • descriptions of a process.

Description of a mechanism Convey technical instructions clearly and factually.

A technical description of a mechanism requires at least four parts: a definition, a list and description of the parts, an explanation of how these work, and a logical explanation of its general operation (see Exhibit 18.6). A description of a mechanism should include: • its purpose or function • model numbers and names • weight, shape, measurements, materials • major and minor parts, their location and how they are connected • features such as texture, sound, colour and size • operating cycle • special conditions for appropriate use such as time, temperature, safety features. The amount and kind of detail depends on your readers’ needs and their level of knowledge about the subject.

EXHIBIT 18.6 Description of a mechanism Part

Purpose

1. A summary statement, often in the form of a definition

3. A list and description of each part of the mechanism

• • • • • • • •

4. A logical explanation of the operation of each part

• To explain how each part functions • To explain when each part functions

2. A logical explanation of the general operation

To state main use To show how it works To explain when it is used To break into main sections or steps To explain human and mechanical controls To describe any pre-operational conditions and controls To describe general size and dimensions To compare and/or contrast with other related mechanisms

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CHAPTER 18 / Write technical documents and proposals

Description of a process A process description describes how something works, why it works that way, and each step of the process. How to write a description of a process is shown in Exhibit 18.7.

EXHIBIT 18.7 Technical description of a process Step

Purpose

1. Definition of the process

• • • • • • • • • • • • •

2. Overall description of the process

3. Description of each step of the process

To explain why the process happens To show when the process happens To indicate where the process happens To state who performs the process To outline main steps of the process To list essential materials for the process To explain the special skills required for the process To explain any actions or conditions to complete before the process begins To state special time requirements for the process To explain how each step is carried out To explain why each step occurs. To state when it occurs. To indicate time needed for each step to occur

TECHNICAL INSTRUCTIONS Technical instructions guide the reader to a full understanding of a procedure and what constitutes the efficient, safe performance of a procedure. Failure to convey instructions properly can have serious consequences for those who rely on them. Technical instructions may be suitable for general (non-expert) readers – to explain, for example, the operation of commercial kitchen equipment. Technical instructions usually consist of three main steps, shown in Exhibit 18.8.

EXHIBIT 18.8 Technical instructions Step

Purpose

1. State the purpose of the instructions

• • • • • • • • • • •

2. List conditions that must be met before performance

3. Provide the order of steps to follow

To state what the instructions are for To show when to perform them To show where to perform them To explain the safety considerations and consequences To indicate the environmental factors To list the essential material and equipment To explain special skills required To indicate time constraints To provide the sequence to follow as the work is performed To use the direct ‘you’ approach with a brief description of the steps To illustrate with visuals and brief notes if necessary to ensure clarity

Most readers are interested in how to use something or, if it malfunctions, how to fix it. For experts, only a brief description of how it works may be necessary, but you need to know what your readers’

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Organise a set of instructions into introduction, body and conclusion.

requirements are. Whether they are highly trained or beginners, all readers require a well-organised set of instructions. These can be presented in the form of an introduction, body and conclusion.

Introduction Use a summary statement or definition to explain what the instructions are for, and when and where to perform them.

Body Next, explain each step in a logical, numbered list. Notes and warnings should be inserted where appropriate. As you proceed through the instructions, begin each step with its definition. The reader must understand each step and the reason for it. Numbering the steps and/or placing them in lists helps to avoid confusion and separates the steps from one another.

Technical instructions identify the purpose, the conditions that must be met and the order of steps to follow.

CHECKPOINT 18.3

Conclusion The conclusion should summarise the major steps and repeat safety warnings. It helps readers to revise the instructions. Offer follow-up advice and any additional instructions for what can be done next – for example, how to adjust the levels of the individual speakers of a surround-sound system to ensure maximum effect. It is also useful to tell the reader what to do if something goes wrong. Definitions: Write three different definitions for a car wheel: a. an informal definition b. a formal definition c. an extended definition.

18.4 PROPOSALS AND TENDERS The writing of proposals and tenders, like other forms of technical writing, must be specific, clear and meet certain criteria. The success, or otherwise, of a proposal or tender can have a significant impact on business. In this section, we cover the major elements that make up formal proposal and tenders.

SOLICITED AND UNSOLICITED PROPOSALS A proposal is a formal written plan or suggestion put forward for consideration by others. A solicited proposal is a request from an external party that requires a product or service (such as a tender request). An unsolicited proposal is a plan submitted on the initiative of the submitter rather than in response to any formal or informal request. Proposals put forward a plan of action. Proposals are written for two types of audience, internal and external audiences. Internal proposals request decisions from managers, for example, to buy equipment or to trial flexible working arrangements. External proposals include request for funds from external investors, grant proposals requesting funds from government agencies and sales proposals that suggest solutions for potential customers.

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CHAPTER 18 / Write technical documents and proposals Written proposals are submitted for a variety of reasons: to obtain funds for research to present a feasibility study to solve a problem to express interest in a project to ask for approval for a change or a new course of action. A proposal that clearly identifies its objectives and the organisation’s need, presents strategies for meeting that need, outlines the direct benefits of these strategies and offers a way of evaluating the results has a high chance of success. • • • • •

FORMAL PROPOSAL Formal proposals can vary in length from a one-page memo or letter report to a short or long formal report. A major project may require a long report before it begins, and progress reports once it starts. (Refer to Chapter 17, Write long reports, for the long report format.) Make sure your proposal gains maximum benefit from the time, energy and costs involved in preparing it. The typical order of information in a proposal is to lead the reader from the proposal’s purpose and objectives, through the facts and supporting details to the conclusion. Your proposal should include: • a cover page • a letter of transmittal • an abstract or executive summary • title page • table of contents • list of figures • an introduction • background briefly describing problem and purpose • details of the management of the project • the qualifications and experience of all those involved in proposing the project • a detailed budget • a proposed schedule • terms or conditions • attachments (if any).

Proposal objectives An effective proposal separates the project’s objectives or goals into two kinds: • primary goal or objective: the need the proposal will fill • subgoals or secondary objectives: the outcomes that lead to the project’s deliverables. To develop clear and persuasive objectives in your proposal: 1. Consider the proposal’s purpose; that is, how it fills the need of the party requesting the proposal. 2. Write a need statement (the proposal’s primary objective) in the introductory section of the proposal. 3. List the secondary objectives and rank them in order of importance. 4. Decide how to convert the secondary objectives into the products or services to be delivered during and on completion of the proposed project.

Present factual, objective information.

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Body of the proposal

Break the body of a technical proposal into four main points.

The body of the proposal should outline the plan of action for the project and the procedures involved: • List and explain the steps required to achieve the primary objective and explain the deliverables across the life of the project. • Show how the secondary objectives will be achieved, their intended results and how they will be evaluated and reported. • Include details of the research and resources required, and the organisations and other people involved. • Make clear the experience, qualifications and any special skills or facilities offered by the proposing organisation. A widely accepted rule is to keep the body of a long formal proposal to the four parts shown in Exhibit 18.9. These parts will need headings, and perhaps subheadings, lists or numbers to emphasise important points. Detailed technical information is presented as attachments. This helps to keep the proposal as short as possible. Most people are overwhelmed by a 50-page document; a maximum of eight pages for a proposal is recommended.

EXHIBIT 18.9 Four major parts in the body of a proposal Part

Purpose

Part 1

Two detailed pages on how the project will be managed

Part 2

Two pages to identify the costs and detail the budget

Part 3

Two pages to present the schedule

Part 4

Two pages for selling the idea and the special qualities of the proposing organisation and the benefits you offer

Conclusion Emphasise the benefits, results and advantages in a formal proposal.

FROM THEORY TO PRACTICE

In the conclusion, restate the project’s purpose, summarise its benefits and show how the benefits and results outweigh the costs. Focus on the advantages offered by the proposing organisation, past successes and future success that will flow from implementation of the project. Include contact details and thank the receiver for the opportunity to present the proposal.

Outline the scope of the project FitSmallBusiness recommends that before you start typing out the proposal itself, take a moment to reflect on the project. Answer the ‘who, what, where, how, when, and why’ to give you a head start. Who: who will do the work, who will manage the work, who does the customer call if there is a problem? What: what needs to be done/delivered, what will be required to do it, what can the customer expect, what will it cost? Where: where will the work be done, where will it be delivered? When: when will you start, when will key milestones be scheduled, when will the project be complete, when is payment due? How: how will be work be done, how will it be deployed, how will it be managed, how will you achieve quality assurance and customer satisfaction, how will risks be mitigated, how long will it take, how will the work benefit the customer?

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Why: why have you chosen the approaches and alternatives you have selected, why should the customer select you? Source: Extract from FitSmallBusiness.com. 2018. How to write a business proposal in 5 easy steps. https:// fitsmallbusiness.com/how-to-write-a-business-proposal/, viewed 2 December 2018.

ASK YOURSELF: Why should you answer the ‘when’ question before you begin to write a proposal? Why is it important to confirm the ‘who’ and ‘how’ questions before you begin to write a proposal?

WORK REQUEST This type of proposal is usually submitted as a request to carry out a work project. It should include: • details of work to be carried out • descriptions of facilities and capabilities of proposer • complete technical information • a detailed budget for the project • a schedule. A work request proposal often uses graphics to clarify details.

FUNDING REQUEST A funding request is a proposal for funds. As well as giving details about a project, it should emphasise the proposer’s credibility and ability to complete the project. A funding request usually includes: • an introduction to arouse interest and gain approval • reasons supporting the request, such as the proposer’s special facilities or expertise • an explanation of any benefits to be derived from the project, supported by specific data • a specific request for funds • a brief summary • appropriate graphics. If the organisation asking for funds has previously received funds, and used them for a successful project, this should be mentioned, along with any benefits gained by the community or others. This emphasises the proposer’s ability to manage a project.

REQUEST FOR TENDER (RFT) A tender is a bid to provide something in exchange for a fee. A tender document is a written response to a Request for Tender (RFT) for the procurement of products or services. The RFT is a document inviting offers from businesses to provide specified goods or services. An RFT consists of four main parts: 1. The Conditions of Tender: the conditions upon which the organisation preparing the RFT is prepared to receive and evaluate tenders. The Conditions of Tender specify the criteria against which tenders will be evaluated. 2. Specification and Required Additional Information: a comprehensive description of the services and other requirements to be met by the tenderer.

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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK 3. Conditions of Contract: the terms of the contract that the successful tenderer (supplier) is required to sign. 4. The Tender Form: list of all the information that is required to be supplied by the tenderer to ensure that all relevant information is provided in a comparable format.

The tendering process A tender is written in response to the RFT. It is a bid or offer to provide a product or service in exchange for a fee. A tender should do more than make a statement about money. Its purpose is to persuade the receiver to accept it and offer you (the tenderer) the contract. An effective tender is a plan of action that sets out clearly how the service or product will be provided, and how this will satisfy the specification. As you write the tender, complete each part of the tender form accurately. Show how your tender provides value for money and meets other requirements identified in the RFT. The Queensland Business and Industry Portal, at https://www.business.qld.gov.au/ running-business/marketing-sales/tendering/competitive/bid/tips, presents a range of tips for writing a successful tender response. Tendering, particularly government tendering, is usually competitive. The contract is awarded to the company that can supply quality goods and services in the time specified and at a reasonable cost. In some cases, such as in public works tendering, there is an accredited list of companies to which the invitation to tender is sent. In others, advertisements may call for statements of intent or registrations of interest before the tenders are sought. Negotiation with a preferred company may occur after a registration of interest or statement of intent is received. For routine purchases, many government agencies have a list of preferred companies that are invited to tender.

Before tendering Before preparing and submitting a tender, ask yourself what will be the costs involved, and whether they are within your working budget. Do you have adequately trained staff available to deliver the required goods and services? Are you able to complete the project by the specified time? After purchasing the tender documents, it may be necessary to check out any details that are not readily understandable. You might need to read and reread the documents to ensure that important criteria are addressed. If the document is very large, you may need to divide it into sections for easy handling. You may need to make a site inspection or attend a pre-bid conference or briefing. Many organisations now require an electronic response to an RFT. The e-Tendering process requires the tender to be completed on a template and submitted electronically. Each field in the template must be completed.

Successful tendering

Locate the tender opportunity, research the customer’s needs, follow guidelines and submit by the closing date.

To be successful in tendering, you need to: • find the opportunities – for example, through national and state advertisements, trade journals, internet sites • know the customers’ needs, wants and expectations • know the right person/s in the organisation to approach • know the strengths and weaknesses of your potential competitors • realistically assess your ability to provide quality goods and services within the specified time and give good customer service.

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• • • • • • • •

Additionally, it is important that your tender: follows the organisation’s tender guidelines includes background material on your organisation, such as previous successful tenders, staff qualifications, your mission statement explains the benefits and value for money of your bid details when and how products and services are to be delivered (provide a timetable) provides details of your pricing and any aftercare arrangements within the price includes details of quality assurance accreditation and occupational health and safety accreditation as well as level of public liability insurance is submitted by the specified closing date indicates clearly which information is commercial-in-confidence.

Parts of a tender document As you plan and draft the tender document, focus on the project description – its purpose and any other relevant details of the project. The tender document should contain: 1. the project’s purpose 2. your willingness and ability to meet the project’s objectives 3. the costs of equipment, all the labour and materials, all the costs related to permits, documentation, testing, outside approvals and certification 4. project milestones and the anticipated completion schedule 5. your capacity to deliver and meet the criteria identified in the RFT. The organisation inviting the tender identifies its main objectives and expectations in the specification document. Preview these, and rank them from most to least important. Then prepare a tender document based on sound reasoning and reliable data.

Focus on the project description as you plan and draft the tender document.

Preparing the tender document Address the objectives in the specification document. Show how your tender fulfils their expectations and emphasise the special benefits you offer. Focus on the client’s needs and how you can solve their problem(s). When you write about your company (or yourself) it is to prove you have the skills, experience and organisation to fulfil the client’s requirements. Remember, how you address the specific criteria and plan to meet the organisation’s objectives are used to compare the tender documents. Sometimes it may be necessary for you to divide the tender into several sections to address the specifications. Alternatively, the tender may have to be submitted on a printed form supplied by the organisation. You should have your tender checked by someone else to make certain that all aspects have been covered. Remember also to check and recheck your calculations, quantities and numbers. It is quite easy to write $5000 instead of $50 000. Exhibit 18.10 lists the various sections that may be required in a tender document. An effective tender or proposal differentiates the responder from the competitors. The document is written to the strengths and the specific benefits of the tendering or proposing organisation, its project team and the solutions it offers to meet the requirements of the request for tender or proposal. Exhibit 18.11 compares some of the do’s and don’ts of tender and proposal writing.

Address the specific criteria.

Employ careful reviewing, proofreading and editing as crucial steps in the proposal and tender writing process.

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EXHIBIT 18.10 Suggested sections in a tender document Section

Content

Method/Timing

The order and timing of the completion of the tasks. You could include a timetable

Technical

How you will carry out the work, and the technology and methodology you will use. Any problems anticipated, and contingency plans to counter them, should be included.

Management

Describe your organisation’s structure, special expertise and projects already completed or under way. Include your organisation’s mission statement and proposed administration of the project. Collaborative ventures and use of local resources should be mentioned.

Financial

Include a breakdown of the tender price. Itemise the costs involved. The quoted price should be firm; include a statement that any other options requested later will be charged at a negotiated price. Say whether you will offer a discount for early payment.

Benefits

List the key benefits to the organisation as well as the special features you can offer

Value

The lowest bid is usually accepted. Calculate your tender to ensure quality and price. Quote only on what is requested by the organisation. Increase your chance of winning by including extras such as staff training or service at no extra cost.

Executive summary

Include a summary of the whole proposal. As this is often the first part of the proposal to be read, be clear, concise and convincing.

EXHIBIT 18.11 Dos and don’ts of tender and proposal writing Do

Don’t

Prepare a timeline or Gantt chart of the tasks – researching, drafting, writing and editing – to ensure submission of a quality document.

Postpone the writing and editing of the document until there is not enough time before the deadline to produce a high-quality document.

View the problem from the receiver’s point of view and plan to include everything asked for in the request for tender or proposal.

Write a tender or proposal from how you perceive the problem while ignoring the receiver’s specific requests for information.

Develop a structured outline.

Present disorganised information.

Explain how you will meet each and every requirement in a clear, concise manner.

Assume the receiver knows how you will meet their requirements.

Connect ideas and support them with evidence in the body of the document.

Use ambiguous language, overly long sentences and unconnected paragraphs.

Develop a concise staffing and project management plan.

Present unclear information about staffing and qualifications.

Present clear conclusions and recommendations based on the evidence in the body of the document.

Leave the reader to reach their own conclusions about the points in the body of the document.

Support your claims with references, performance data, and facts.

Think your company is the answer to the customer’s problems.

Provide evaluators with the material that substantiates your claims in order to support a decision in your favour.

Present extraneous or marginal material or boast about capability without supporting evidence.

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1. Differences between a proposal and a tender document: a. Define the terms ‘proposal’ and ‘tender’. b. List the main differences between a proposal and a tender. c. Name three different purposes for writing a proposal. d. List five essential elements to include in a tender document. e. Identify the features of a proposal layout that conveys a professional image. 2. Write an instruction memo to staff titled ‘How to format a work request’.

CHECKPOINT 18.4

18.5 REVIEW AND EDIT Technical documents must be edited to ensure they are grammatically correct, internally consistent and use a business format. The reviewing and editing stage is your chance to ensure that you have said all you intended to say in a document that meets the needs of the receiver. When you edit your writing, consider each sentence from the reader’s position. Will it be easier to understand if the sentence is: • broken into two or more sentences? • written in a different order? • rewritten to replace jargon or difficult words with simpler, clearer words? Check that the paragraphs begin with a topic sentence to show the focus of each paragraph. Then expand on the topic sentence with two or three support sentences.

Avoid hidden meanings and sexist, racist or offensive language. Recognise jargon as the specialised language of a trade or profession that can convey specific meaning quickly in the workplace.

COMMON WRITING ERRORS Four common writing errors that make a document difficult to follow are: • confusing language • discriminatory language • verbose language • information overload.

Use and define technical terms correctly.

Confusing language Words that can mislead the reader include the following: • ambiguous words (those that have more than one meaning) • vague, imprecise words that do not clearly convey or define anything (e.g. ‘implement’) • trendy words (buzzwords) that are imprecise, or hackneyed terms that have lost their impact (e.g. ‘a level playing field’) • pompous words (‘undertake’ instead of ‘do’) • archaic words that are no longer part of everyday vocabulary (e.g. ‘herewith’).

Discriminatory language In any document, avoid sexist, racist or other words that discriminate against a group of people. Avoid sexist words by checking that the document: • does not use male-dominated terms to describe occupations or roles that are shared by both men and women – for example, ‘chairman’ • does not mention gender unnecessarily, as in ‘male nurse’ or ‘female barrister’ • does not use only the male pronoun; replace with ‘a person’ or ‘people’, or ‘they’ or ‘he/she’. 493 Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202

THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK Consider cultural differences. Replace any words that show bias or discriminate against people on the basis of their country of origin, religion, marital status or other factor with non-discriminatory, inclusive language to include all of your readers.

Verbose language

Remove unnecessary words to avoid confusion.

Verbose means ‘too many words’, which can interfere with comprehension. For example, ‘Your attention is drawn to the fact that the tender project plan is a document that verifies our capacity to precisely, accurately and reliably comply (within the required timeframes and budget) with the overall requirements of your organisation and meet all legal requirements identified in your request for tender’. Simply say, ‘The tender project plan shows how we will achieve the required outcome within the budget and time schedules detailed in the Request for Tender No. 616’. Verbosity can confuse or bore the reader. Lists, tables, graphs and charts are alternatives to too many words. They replace complex and verbose sentences and add variety to the layout of a technical document such as a proposal, description or set of instructions. Lists, tables, graphs and charts provide a more clear-cut representation of the information. Present the facts and content as clearly and concisely as possible.

Information overload Send a clear, concise message.

CHECKPOINT 18.5

Information overload means that too much information is provided so that the reader becomes overwhelmed and confused. Improve the document’s readability by removing superfluous information. Check for clarity, conciseness and completeness. Too much detail at once may frustrate readers, and may create the impression that the writer is over-anxious to impress. The receiver does not need to consider all your knowledge or background reading. Decide how much of your information is absolutely relevant. In the editing and reviewing step, read everything again. Where possible, ask a colleague to read the tender to check for meaning, typing mistakes, spelling errors and omissions. Consider having the tender printed and bound professionally if the client has asked for hard copies rather than electronic submission.

1. List six dos and don’ts of tender writing 2. Identify four common writing errors that make a tender document difficult to follow. 3. What should you check for as you edit to remove information overload from your technical writing?

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CHAPTER 18 / Write technical documents and proposals

LEARNING ACTIVITIES SUMMARY 18.1 Explain the purpose of technical writing. Technical writing informs, instructs, describes, explains and documents technical material. It is important to identify the audience, and determine the scope of the document and the level of technical information to include in it. An expert reader, for example, may not require a definition of a particular system, but they may still require a detailed description of it. An apprentice or student may require full definitions, descriptions and installation instructions. In each case, the writing style should be clear and precise. 18.2 Discuss the main features of a technical writing style. The purpose of technical writing is instruction and assistance. Present headings, lists and instructional steps consistently to help the reader to identify the main points and connect them with each other and with other relevant supporting points. Special points such as warnings and safety issues, as well as procedural steps, must be easy to find and understand. 18.3 Identify the characteristics of a technical definition, technical description and technical instructions. Technical definitions briefly explain specific subjects. Technical descriptions explain the subject more fully. Technical instructions explain how to perform precise procedural steps. Effective technical definitions, descriptions and instructions convey a clear, concise and,

most importantly, helpful message to the intended receivers. 18.4 Describe the major elements in a formal proposal and a formal tender. The essential parts of a formal proposal and a formal tender will be identified in the request for proposal or request for tender (RFT). Include all the essential parts. As you plan and write the document, use headings, a numbering system, tables and illustrations consistently to create a positive first impression. A proposal is a plan or scheme sent to a decision maker or a funding body. A tender is an offer to supply a particular product or service for a fee. They are persuasive documents that should emphasise the value and benefits for the receiver of using the services offered in the proposal or tender. 18.5 Review, proofread and edit a technical document. The final stage in writing is editing or checking your own work. Read the document from the point of view of the reader. Remove confusing and discriminatory language. Avoid the use of too many words and information overload. As a writer, your aim is to convey accurate, appropriate information. Proofread for typos, omissions and misspelling. Check that the format of your technical definition, description, instruction, proposal or tender meets the standard expected by your workplace and industry.

KEY TERMS edit editing format funding request information overload

keynoting letter report process description signalling devices solicited proposal

specification document technical definition technical description technical instructions tender document

unsolicited proposal verbosity white space work request

LEARNING ACTIVITIES 1. Role of a technical writer Your company is considering employing a technical writer. You have been asked to make a verbal presentation to senior managers identifying the benefits for the company of employing a technical writer.

a. Focus your thoughts by answering the following questions: • What primary skills should a technical writer have? • What are some of the different types of documents created by technical writers?

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•

What sort of signalling devices do technical writers use to highlight the main points? b. Prepare and deliver the presentation. 2. Formal proposals and tenders a. Identify three reasons for writing a proposal. b. Name at least six components of a typical business proposal. c. Name five parts of a typical tender. d. How do formal proposals differ from formal tenders? 3. Response to request for tender Raffa, the owner of a small construction company, says to you, ‘We’ve received a Request for Tender. What do I do?’

Develop a list of tips to guide Raffa as he responds to the RFT. 4. Write a proposal Choose a product or service such as a fresh meal delivery service, a window cleaning business, an online florist business or a new vehicle on the Australian market that you would like to offer to a particular audience. Nominate your product or service and think about the characteristics and needs of your particular audience. Write a business proposal to your particular audience promoting your chosen product or service.

GROUP ACTIVITY Writing a technical document 1. Work in small groups. Collect two or three operation manuals for equipment such as a camera, dishwasher, fishing gear or laser printer. Analyse the manuals as follows: a. Label each section of the manual as definition, description or instruction. b. Identify their major strength as a piece of technical writing.

c. Identify any weaknesses. d. Comment on layout. 2. Write a technical description of a process – for example, how to install door frames, operate a smartphone, scan supermarket items or enrol as a student in a course of your choice. Follow the three steps required for a process description.

CASE STUDY JARGON AND TECHNICAL DEFINITIONS Joe is a senior technical writer within a large manufacturing company. He has been asked to mentor Jane, a newly appointed technical writer. Technical writing involves jargon and definitions. Most organisations have their particular brand of definitions and jargon, so Joe decides to have a discussion with Jane about the organisation’s definitions and jargon. Joe starts the discussion by explaining that readers need to understand how the writer is defining the terms in a procedure, a manual, a safety warning or other technical writing tasks. Joe says to Jane: ‘We must write definitions that clarify terms and enable our readers to understand the terms in the same way as we understand them, otherwise understanding and meaning are lost on the reader. For our technical people, jargon can provide useful shorthand to get across specific meaning quickly. For our non-technical people, jargon is ineffective because they don’t understand it.’

Jane asks Joe how she can decide if a definition she writes is the right definition. He replies: ‘Check your definition to ensure it meets the right level of technicality for your reader. Use Plain English and explain any concept or object clearly, objectively and accurately.’ Joe then writes the following example of a formal definition for Jane: Term (plus)

the objects or actions to which the term applies

(plus) any features that distinguish the term from other similar items.

An iPhone (plus)

is a smartphone (mobile phone with advanced computing ability and connectivity)

(plus) that integrates mobile phone, camera, text messaging, email and Web browsing.

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Jane replies, ‘OK, now I can see the three parts of a definition. How do I decide the right level of technicality for the reader?’ Joe says, ‘You must analyse your reader before you begin writing the technical definitions. They are your audience.’ He then explains the reasons for analysing the audience as: • knowing your readers’ level of expertise • meeting your readers’ needs • defining the terms to meet your purpose (or task). Jane says, ‘Thanks, Joe. This will greatly assist me in writing definitions that explain technical terms and jargon in a way that technical and especially non-technical people can understand.’

Questions 1. Prepare a checklist Jane can use to judge the quality of definitions. 2. Jargon can be a useful tool in writing. It can also have a negative effect on the reader. Explain both positions. 3. Identify at least four types of graphics Jane could use in her technical writing. 4. Joe decides to have another mentoring session with Jane about how to write a technical description of a process. Research and list for Joe the important elements of a technical description of a process.

BIBLIOGRAPHY Alred, G.J., Brusaw, C.T. & Oliu, W.E. 2015. The Handbook of Technical Writing, 11th edn, St Martin’s Press, Boston, MA. Australian Communications and Media Authority. 2016. Key Elements of the Spam Act, http://www.acma.gov.au/ Industry/Marketers/Anti-Spam/Ensuring-you-dont-spam/ key-elements-of-the-spam-act-ensuring-you-dont-spam-iacma, viewed 2 January 2018. Fowler, H.R. & Aaron, J.E. 2016. The Little Brown Handbook, 13th edn, Pearson Education, Essex, UK. Johnson-Sheehan, Richard. Planning and Organizing Proposals and Technical Reports, https://owl.english.purdue.edu/ media/pdf/20080628094326_727.pdf, viewed 28 January 2018. Markel, M. 2017. Technical Communication, 12th edn, Bedford/St Martin’s, Boston, MA. Pepper, M. & Driscoll, D.L. 2015. ‘Writing Definitions’, Purdue Online Writing Lab, http://owl.english.purdue.edu/ owl/resource/622/01/, viewed 2 February 2018. Pfeiffer, W.S. 2010. Pocket Guide to Technical Writing, 5th edn, Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ.

Queensland Business and Industry Portal. 2018. Tips for Writing a Successful Tender Response, https://www.business.qld.gov.au/business/running/ winning-new-business/developing-competitive-bid/writingcompetitive-bid/tender-writing-tips, viewed 2 February 2018. Reep, D.C. 2010. Technical Writing: Principles, Strategies and Readings, 8th edn, Longman, New York, NY. Snooks and Co. 2002. Style Manual for Authors, Editors and Printers, 6th edn, John Wiley & Sons Australia Ltd, Milton, Qld. Stiefel, Malcolm. 2017. How to use graphics in a piece of technical writing, Business Writing Info Blog, https:// www.instructionalsolutions.com/blog/graphics-technicalwriting, viewed 9 February 2018. Strunk, Jr, W. & White, E.B. 1999. The Elements of Style, 4th edn, Longman, New York, NY. Thackrey, Don. Updated by Christine Black. 2014. The Proposal Writer’s Guide: Overview, University of Michigan, http://orsp.umich.edu/proposal-writers-guide-overview, viewed 27 January 2018.

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CHAPTER

19

RECORD KEEPING

CH20

.1 19

Administer ACCESS in a TIMELY MANNER following organisational POLICY + PROCEDURE

19.3

YOUR

Chapter 19

Next DEVELOP EFFECTIVE WORKPLACE RELATIONSHIPS

LEARNING JOURNEY

of ITIN e os WR p r L pu ICA e Th HN C TE

G

19.2

IDENTIFY + GATHER

tracking records communication consultation

classification systems key words

19.4 user requirements version control duty of care

record management systems

Access rules + procedures

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CHAPTER 19 / Record keeping

LEARNING OBJECTIVES After studying this chapter, you should be able to: 19.1 explain the importance, function and life cycle of records 19.2 identify and gather records required 19.3 interpret and administer access rules and procedures 19.4 provide the required records to the user within reasonable timeframes.

19.1 THE IMPORTANCE, FUNCTION AND LIFE CYCLE OF RECORDS Records are a valuable organisational asset. The value is extracted and magnified as records enable members of an organisation to perform meaningful work. The scope of the term ‘record’ is wide and includes all forms of organisational information regardless of characteristic (physical or electronic) or medium of storage. A record is any organisational document and includes items such as customer and supplier details, transaction dates and amounts, staff details, legal agreements, certificates of currency, photographs and contracts. A record may be captured on film, paper, memory stick, disk or any other medium. Records can be registered in a variety of ways such as manually, electronically or photographically. The International Standard ISO 15489 defines a record as ‘information created, received, and maintained as evidence and information by an organisation or person, in pursuance of legal obligations or in the transaction of business’. (From ‘ANAO Audit Report No.53 2011–12: Records Management in the Australian Public Service’, Australian National Audit Office. Published by Commonwealth of Australia, ª 2012) A record should meet the following criteria: • authenticity – a true item that originates from the author who created it • integrity – cannot be altered maliciously or accidentally • reliability and non-repudiation – is from a trusted source and the author cannot dispute or deny the accuracy or creation of the record • security – maintain item security through the life cycle of records • accessibility – can be retrieved and used as required during the life cycle of records. Exhibit 19.1 provides guidance in making such a determination. Businesses have both active and inactive records. Active records are those that are accessed and used on a daily, weekly or monthly basis. Inactive records are either in archive or awaiting destruction. These records are generally only accessed and used a few times per year.

Access and retrieve records to assist with business activities, including decision making.

Access active records on a daily, weekly or monthly basis.

RECORD MANAGEMENT In any organisation, individuals are required to make decisions as to whether information created during the course of business is a record that requires capture in the record management system. Record keeping is a vital function in any business or institution. It is an essential tool that ensures compliance with legal and statutory obligations and involves the systematic management of records throughout their life cycle. Record management aims to: • collect, maintain and store accurate records • facilitate the efficient retrieval of records • promote the prompt disposal or archival of records. 499 Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202

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EXHIBIT 19.1 Identifying a record Is information a record to be captured in the record keeping system?

Does information relate to organisational work?

Not a record to be captured in the record keeping system

No

Yes

Was information received in the course of organisational work?

Yes

A record to be captured in the record keeping system

No

Does information provide evidence that organsational work was performed?

Yes

No

Does information support an organisational decision?

Yes

No

Store and manage records using an efficient and orderly record management system.

When collecting or receiving records, employees are required to make decisions about the format in which to create these records. Decisions are also required about organising and storing the record. Records can be stored as physical records, such as paper records at workstations or digital records on shared drives. Examples of mediums to store records are: • physically, such as filing rooms or cabinets at workstations • digitally, such as file-hosting services, email, personal network drives, intranets, portable storage devices or mobile devices. An effective record management system logs, stores and discards records efficiently. The implementation of an efficient and effective record management system can: • minimise costs associated with a record management system • allow adherence to legal and other compliance obligations

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CHAPTER 19 / Record keeping • • •

ensure efficient access to records to support organisational decision making assist efficient work practices capture and store permanent or historical records.

THE LIFE CYCLE OF RECORDS The life cycle of records, displayed in Exhibit 19.2, shows the stages through which information progresses from the time it is collected until it is no longer needed to support legal, business or operational requirements. At this stage the record is either disposed of or archived.

Archive or destroy inactive records.

EXHIBIT 19.2 The life cycle of records Collect, create, receive and capture

• • • •

is the information a record? if a record, the life cycle begins determine how the record will be collected follow good practice when collecting personal or confidential information

Organise and store

• determine the format in which data will be represented in the record management system • classify or categorise records and allocate security within organisational guidelines so that it is easy for users to securely locate records • store in appropriate location – paper records, email account, shared drives, flash drives, mobile devices and shared filing areas

Use and share active records

• use and share active records in a timely manner • send and receive information through channels and formats appropriate to the message, its purpose and user need • comply with legal and organisational requirements as you use, maintain and share • protect and restrict access to personal, confidential and classified information

Dispose or archive inactive records

• records are inactive and generally not accessed regularly • destroy records that are no longer required for legal, business or operational purposes – physical destruction of records requires secure document disposal either on-site or off-site • archive legal, historical or any other information that is required to be kept

The life cycle of records implies that records become less important as time passes. After record creation there is a period of high use followed by a longer period of low use. Eventually, the record will add no value to the creator or organisation and be a candidate for disposal either by physical destruction of the record or transfer to archives. Legislation and company retention and disposal schedules provide guidance on the minimum retention periods for records. Records can be retained for longer periods, if required. A retention and disposal schedule is usually presented in a tabular format and provides information such as: • record reference number • record description • record status (permanent/temporary) • time to retain record before disposal. 501 Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202

THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK The Australian Taxation Office (ATO) requires individuals and companies to keep tax records for certain periods of time. The length of time depends on the content and context of the record, as well as whether the record is required as supporting documentation; for example, support to a claim for an allowable deduction in a tax return. It is a requirement that individuals and companies adhere to the timeframes set down by the ATO.

LEGISLATION STANDARDS AND ACCOUNTABILITY Record keeping is a legal requirement in Australia and many other countries. Australia has enacted legislation around the creation and management of records. Records are a vital organisational asset that require administration to assist with the efficient operation of a business. Legislation around record keeping also ensures compliance with legal and accountability requirements. Australian and International Standards provide guidance on designing polices relating to record creation, as well as the strategies, methodologies and systems required to coordinate and manage all types and formats of records. AS ISO 15489 is an International Standard on records management and is used across the private and public sectors in Australia. The Standard highlights the importance of record keeping and assigning record-keeping duties to appropriate organisation members. It also discusses the need to understand the legislative requirements about record keeping in terms of the sector in which the organisation operates. The standard aims to provide practical guidance to assist organisations to create and implement record management systems that can be used to meet legal requirements while creating an environment whereby records are accessible for both internal and external stakeholders. Legislation and standards provide a framework and guidance on the types of records to keep, the length of time to keep the records prior to disposal, and how to collate and index the records into a record management system. Orderly and accessible records are beneficial to a business in both nonfinancial and financial aspects. A good record management system allows legal, statutory and tax obligations to be met. Reports can be generated from records, allowing the measurement of profit and key performance indicators. Contracts and work can be planned and executed more efficiently and potential risks to the business can be managed. Records protect the rights of an employer and employee, enable the review of policies, procedures and processes and assist with other activities such as continual improvement and research and development initiatives. Individuals access records for wide and varied functions. Accessible records allow functions to be completed by individuals. Knowledge work is performed by experts or specialists across all areas of an organisation, and these specialists access records to analyse information, write documents and advise internal and external stakeholders on business matters. Knowledge functions are performed by technical staff across the various levels of an organisation to support knowledge processes and assignments. Technical staff capture and organise records with a view to providing accessible records. The life cycle of records is the starting point for creating a record management system. Managing records is a challenge that can be met by developing a record management system that encompasses all stages in the life cycle of records. This can be achieved by researching, developing and implementing tools, systems and organisational procedures that are able to manage each step in the life cycle of records. Record management systems consist of many components, including organisational policies and procedures, people, tools, information technology and maintenance.

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1. Legislation and standards provide a framework around records and record keeping. Consider the following: a. Define the terms ‘record’ and ‘record management system’. b. Determine five reasons why institutions such as governments have enacted legislation and standards around records and record keeping. 2. Using bullet points, explain the benefits of an effective record management system. 3. Describe the stages through which information progresses from the time it comes into an organisation until it is no longer needed to support legal or operational requirements. 4. AS ISO 15489 explains the importance of assigning record-keeping duties to appropriate organisation members. Analyse why this may be of importance, considering issues such as separating organisational duties and restrictions around confidentiality and privacy.

CHECKPOINT 19.1

19.2 IDENTIFYING AND GATHERING RECORDS The increasing volume of legislation, standards and guidance around record management issued internationally and in Australia makes it difficult for organisations to be aware of and implement all record management requirements. It can be a complex task for organisations to prioritise requirements when it is difficult to determine whether a requirement is legislative, guidance or good practice. Some organisations develop internal policy and guidance documents to assist with records management. Exhibit 19.3 details the aims of legislation, standards, organisational policy and employee training on records management.

EXHIBIT 19.3 Records and record management – the aim of legislation, standards, organisational policy and training Policy type

Description

Employee requirements

Legislation and Australian and international standards

Formal guidance around the requirements of record keeping

Organisational policy

Employee framework around record keeping

Adhere to legal and accountability requirements around records and record management by creating and managing records that are: • authentic, complete and accurate • secure and cannot be changed or deleted • accessible, indexed, relevant and legible Knowledge of the type of information to be captured as a record, for example, meeting minutes or tender documents Identification of electronic business systems or paper file systems that have the functionality to manage records Integration of records from business systems that don’t manage records into the record management system Understand some records may be required to be duplicated to be stored in the record management system Knowledge of how records in electronic business systems should be managed Capabilities around security of record management systems including access levels and rights

Until recent decades businesses, governments and other organisations have predominantly stored physical records or records that can be touched such as paper. Records are now commonly stored as electronic records or digital records. These records are accessed using information technology devices.

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CLASSIFYING RECORDS Classification or categorisation of records is fundamental to records management. AS ISO 15489.1, 3.5 defines classification as ‘systematic identification and arrangement of business activities and/or records into categories according to logically structured conventions, methods, and procedural rules represented in a classification system’. (ª State of New South Wales through the State Archives and Records Authority of NSW 2016. CC BY 4.0 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/) The classification scheme for the records of any organisation may have four levels or degrees of detail incorporated into a classification tool: • function – a broad, overarching category • activity – a subset of the function • transaction – a more specific subset of the activity • narration – notes describing the transaction. The functional approach is incorporated in Australian and international guidelines on record keeping. Records are organised and classified according to the functions and activities they report. The benefits of the functional approach are that records are: • linked to business context • retrieved more efficiently due to consistent keywords • managed consistently across all business units within an organisation. Classification or categorisation occurs immediately after the record is created. Records can be classified as either physical records or electronic records. Classification also includes the allocation of access restrictions (whether a record is non-exempt or exempt). Many records are held in electronic format, and these records may need be retrieved for reference or to assist with knowledge work such as analysis or report writing. Establishing search criteria in record keeping can assist with record indexing, classification and efficient retrieval.

Utilising keywords A keyword thesaurus can also assist with the classification and management of records in an electronic record management system. A keyword thesaurus is a list of terms in alphabetical order used for indexing records. Keywords link business functions and activities to the records created and stored. A record can be classified using a keyword that describes a broad business function. Further classification or detail can occur by a description of the business activity or activities that create the records. Final detail can occur by adding text. Develop a keyword thesaurus to classify, index and retrieve records. Using keywords means searches for the records are more ordered, efficient, logical and time saving. When searching for an electronic record in a record management system, keywords are used to recognise or pinpoint particular records. A keyword thesaurus provides consistency when indexing the records, as records must be classified within the boundaries of the keyword thesaurus. Implementing and maintaining a keyword thesaurus is not a legal requirement. Organisations should consider whether a keyword thesaurus is required. A small organisation that generates minimal records may not have a requirement for a keyword thesaurus.

MEET USER REQUIREMENTS AND PURPOSE A record management system requires the ability to manage a wide range of records. The range and type of records required to be created and managed will depend on the sector and type of business in which the organisation operates; for example, a public school will be required to keep different records to a local council. 504 Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202

CHAPTER 19 / Record keeping

• • • • • • • •

The school will create and manage records such as: student progress reports personal details of students admission details a register showing missed school days due to sickness or other factors roll books. The local council will create and manage records such as: local resident development applications pet registration rate invoices and statements issued to owners of properties in the municipality.

Types of records to be managed Records can be physical or digital. Physical records can be touched and include paper, photographic and audiovisual files. Physical records also include objects or models. Digital records are any records that are created and maintained using electronic equipment. Physical records can be digitised, and the international standard for digitisation is ISO/DTR 13028 Information and documentation – Implementation guidelines for digitization of records. An organisation may decide to digitise physical records to save filing space, and integrate physical records into business information systems so all records are stored and accessed from one source or to protect records from deterioration. Information technology has impacted on record-keeping practices. Technology has placed and continues to place new demands on professionals employed in records management. Organisations create electronic records through the use of tools such as smartphones, computers and tablets. Some organisations have attempted to progress to paperless environments with the use of document management software to convert paper documents to an electronic format and then storing them electronically in the record management system. In reality, paper documents still exist alongside electronic records. The use of mobile and smart devices, as well as their associated capacity has significantly increased over recent years with a corresponding decrease in the cost of such devices. Individuals have the ability to work remotely using smart devices. This provides employees with the capacity to use smart devices to create, store, access and change existing organisational records at any time from many locations. This poses challenges for record keeping and management. Users are able to copy and edit documents on a mobile phone or smart device, creating a risk that the documents are not reintroduced as the latest version into the organisation’s record management system. There is the added risk that information is contained in applications specific to mobile and/or smart devices, making it difficult to integrate back into the record management system. These business risks need to be taken into account when developing a record management system. Exhibit 19.4 shows some of the types of digital records that can be generated by an organisation over a period of time. Exhibit 19.5 details some of the types of physical records and provides examples of each type.

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EXHIBIT 19.4 Range of digital records Source of digital record

Electronic means of creating the record word processing software spreadsheeting software presentation software specialist functional software such as accounting or payroll software

Example of record created

Business software applications desktop, server, mainframe or cloud

• • • •

Communication systems

• email • SMS (short messaging services) • MMS (multimedia messaging services) • voicemail • live chat • video conferencing • teleconferencing

• An email message such as a request from a client for advice • A certificate of currency received electronically from an insurance company • Client meeting or calendar invitation and acceptance

Business information systems

• • • •

• Patient records such as dental charts • Credit note issued to customer • Important customer meeting minutes

Web-based systems

• websites • internets • extranets

databases personnel system accounting system sales management system

• • • •

Payment summary Budget or sales forecast Customer proposal Tax invoice

• Online transactions such as a purchase • Bank statement

EXHIBIT 19.5 Range of physical records Type of physical record

Example of record

Paper-based

• • • • • •

personnel files containing employee details plans maps sketches or drawings organisational contracts company register

Photographic

• • • •

historical photographs photographs as legal evidence X-rays film

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>

CHAPTER 19 / Record keeping

>

Type of physical record

Example of record

Audiovisual and multimedia

• videos • audio recordings

Objects and models

• architect’s 3D model of a home renovation

Microform

• historical newspaper articles • photographs • rare books

LOCATING AND ACCESSING RECORDS Records that are well organised and indexed can be located with ease. Conversely, a poorly indexed record management system can add time and cost to the task of finding records. The inability to obtain records in a timely manner can lead to fines and possible litigation, and affect the general operation of the organisation. A finding aid is a tool that assists with identifying and retrieving a record within a record management system. Finding aids assist with the ongoing use of records once in a record management system or after migration from one record management system to another. Finding aids can be in different formats such as calendars (descriptive lists of documents in a collection), card indexes, databases, registers, guides, inventories, container lists and microform. Microform is a photographic reproduction of any material and requires magnification to be read. Microform readers are used to display microform content. Microform assists with storing fragile materials such as old newspapers or rare books. For examples of specialist finding aids and indexes, visit the State Records Office of Western Australia at http://www.sro.wa.gov.au/archive-collection/finding-aids-and-indexes/specialised-finding-aids-and-indexes

Retrieve records using finding aids.

Use a finding aid to assist in identifying the availability of records.

DIFFERENTIATING TYPES OF RECORD MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS Organisations may choose to operate a manual, automated or hybrid record management system. The type of record management system employed will depend on the industry the organisation works within and organisational requirements. Some of the different types of record management systems are archival control

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Access meta data to obtain additional information about a record.

systems, business systems and cash register-based systems. Cash register-based systems are common in the retail sector, where the organisation is selling products or services to consumers. This record management system captures the record as well as meta data such as the date and time of the transaction. All electronic record systems can aggregate data, identify the context of the transaction and the entities involved and capture the actual record. In a digital environment all record management systems can potentially capture and store the meta data associated with the record. Meta data is the ‘footprint left behind’, and can describe the contents and context of a record. Metadata can provide further information about a record such as the time and date the record was created, the author of the record and the purpose of the record. An electronic document and records management system (EDRMS) is a software application used to facilitate records management by classifying, tracking and storing records. An EDRMS can manage digital records such as email, as well as physical records including objects (see Exhibit 19.6). A business system that captures records must have the ability to manage business processes such as: • capture content, structure and context for each record • provide storage facilities for records compliant with organisational policy • protect record criteria such as integrity and authenticity • adhere to record security and confidentiality • make certain the accessibility of records to users for as long as the record is needed • carry out disposal of records in accordance with disposal schedules and legislation • protect availability of records through changes in technology or migration to new technology • ensure records can be recovered in the event of a disaster.

EXHIBIT 19.6 Benefits of EDRMS improves business processes

incurs less organisational costs (including accountability and compliance costs) as information is located more quickly

There are many benefits of EDRMS. Quick, convenient access to records:

allows better decision making if the correct records can be supplied

cultivates internal and external customer satisfaction due to the ability to locate and provide records in a timely manner

An efficient system will allow records to be identified and retrieved via keyword searches or the use of finding aids such as indexes.

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CHAPTER 19 / Record keeping

Barriers to timely retrieval Those responsible for the retrieval and provision of records to end users may face difficulties in supplying records to users in a timely manner as outlined in Exhibit 19.7. Any obstacles will be directly proportional to factors such as the sophistication of the record management system, whether those retrieving records are trained appropriately and the accuracy of finding aids. It is easier to retrieve records when all records are stored and classified in one record management system.

EXHIBIT 19.7 Obstacles to providing records to a user in a timely manner Obstacle

Detail

Cost

• The cost of acquiring and implementing a compliant, efficient digital record management system can be expensive or even prohibitive for some organisations, especially smaller organisations. • Maintaining a document’s authenticity and security as per initial classification throughout its life cycle can challenge costs. • Maintaining integrity by detecting and tracking unintentional or intentional record alteration. • Inaccurate or out-of-date finding aids make it difficult to provide records to a user in a timely manner.

Unreliable or complicated finding aids Level of information provider’s proficiency

Reluctance, ethics or organisational policy around providing records Remoteness of record location

Not all records captured in the record management system Legal or privacy requirements

• Lack of trained staff in the provision of records to users can lead to time inefficiencies in obtaining records. Increased staff costs will also be an obstacle due to additional staff time in locating and providing records. • Without appropriate training in records management, there is the risk that the end user will be provided corrupt records due to output being dependent on reliable input of records. • An organisation may not have sufficient resources to provide end users with records. • Not in the organisation’s best interests, as providing records to end users may not align with organisational objectives. • Physical records need to be stored within the organisation’s premises or offsite in a vault or warehouse. It may be a timely and costly exercise to provide off-site records. • Organisational records can be created, changed, stored and accessed remotely using phones and other smart devices. Records may not be managed back into the record management system. • Organisations and employees need to be aware of confidential records and communicate this as a barrier to users who are requesting confidential information. • Not all records are can be provided to end users; for example, employee records.

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CHECKPOINT 19.2

1. Identify whether the following records are required to be captured in a record management system, explaining reasons for your answer: a. an email sent to a client requesting clarification prior to issuing a formal advice on ‘Accounting for Incentives’ b. an internal memo from the Managing Director requesting stricter compliance with the clean desk policy c. a certificate of currency from the organisation’s insurance company d. a service level contract between a client and an organisation e. an update from the Australian Taxation Office advising of changes to Business Activity Statement lodgement dates. 2. An organisation will need to ensure that email messages of corporate significance are stored in a record management system. a. Identify five examples of organisational email that would be required to be stored in a record management system. b. Identify three examples of organisational email that could be deleted and not stored in a record management system. c. When should appropriate corporate emails be saved to a record management system? 3. Visit http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK22845/. Explain (in around 150 words) the types of obstacles that may prevent full realisation of the benefits of an electronic medical record management system.

19.3 ACCESS RULES AND PROCEDURES Ensure timely, secure and controlled access to records.

A record management system will often be supported by an organisational record management policy. The policy will provide guidelines or a standard on each step in the life cycle of records, as well as guidance on how to make records available to users securely.

VERSION CONTROL Use version control when more than one version of a record exists to manage the various drafts of the record. Protect a record from alteration or deletion by using a read-only tag.

Within the record management system, procedures are required for the general maintenance and management of records. Management of records extends to version control of various draft records. Version control is a procedure for managing different drafts and versions of a document. Version control identifies the development of a record and provides an audit trail by tracking several drafts prior to culminating in a final record. Version control can be achieved using a sequential numbering system until the record is final. The version number – for example, V1, V2 or V3 – can be used in the file name as well as the title of the record or in a header/footer within the record. To increase security and ensure versions remain unchanged the record can be protected by a read-only tag. A version control table is an additional measure that can be used to track the versions of a draft record. The table is required to be updated each time a change to the document is made. Table format will vary depending on the organisation and any organisational policies relating to version control. Information recorded in the table could include a new version number, description of the change, author of the change and date of the change. Exhibit 19.8 is an example of a version control table.

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EXHIBIT 19.8 Leave policy – version control table Version number

Description of change

Author of change and job description

Date of change

1.0

Initial draft to Managing Director

Alicia Metcalf, Human Resources Manager

15 January 2020

1.1

Added parental and compassionate leave

Alicia Metcalf, Human Resources Manager

02 February 2020

1.2

Final version approved by senior management team

Alan Collins, Managing Director

04 March 2020

1.3

Revision of paragraph 26 to clarify leave application procedure

Alicia Metcalf, Human Resources Manager

25 June 2020

DUTY OF CARE AND CONFIDENTIALITY Organisations are required to exercise a duty of care and comply with legislation when handling confidential records such as personnel records. It is imperative that organisations understand the worth of the information contained in records held in a record management system. Organisations are required to comply with privacy legislation when dealing with the management of records. Records need to be made available to users securely, permitting access only on a genuine need-toknow basis. Individual employees only require access to the records required to conduct authorised business.

Exercise a duty of care to meet legal and ethical obligations when providing and sharing records.

Safeguarding security of information To adhere to legislative requirements in relation to records management it is prudent that organisations document and implement a records policy and standards on security. The policy should include: • security classification for records • staff security profiles • documented security provisions within contractors’ contracts. Employee security profiles allow staff to access only the records contained within their security profile. It is advisable that staff are aware of the record limitations provided by their security profile and comply with any organisational security policies. Security classifications are generally managed within the record management system and assist to ensure that records are protected from alteration, deletion and loss. Many record management systems have tools such as an audit trail to monitor access to records, as well as specific activities undertaken within the record management system. In a digital record management system, records are protected by granting access to areas of the system according to security rights administered to the user’s login. The user’s login ensures that users gain access only to those records they are authorised to see. This limits the possibility of unauthorised access, alteration or deletion of records.

Managing sensitive records In all organisations, some records are confidential and are required to be protected from unauthorised access. Employee records documenting confidential information such as tax file numbers, salary levels, performance reports, leave accruals and other personal information may need to be maintained for long

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Confirm access category of individual or organisation requesting record. Manage access levels within the record management system to protect confidentiality and adhere to privacy legislation.

periods of time. The timeframe will extend to after the employee has left the organisation in order to protect employee and employer rights. The management of sensitive records (such as personnel records) within the record management system can be achieved by: • creating and implementing written organisational record management policies and procedures that include the identification and management of confidential information • establishing personnel record management systems so that confidential records are secure. This could be achieved by paper-based personnel records being kept under lock and key with the Managing Director being the keyholder. In an electronic environment, confidentiality can be achieved by allocating various levels of access within the accounting system; for example, only the payroll administrator has access to the payroll function in the accounting software • managing personnel records with short retention periods separately to those with long retention periods. For example, in New South Wales records relating to criminal record checks can be destroyed once the check is complete, but timesheet records need to be kept for seven years after the last year-end entry. Access to areas of the organisation where secure physical records are held is required to be restricted to those individuals that have a security classification sufficient to access the area. Security or access controls maybe applied to records to prevent access by unauthorised users. Access levels should be documented in organisational policies and procedures. The procedures should stipulate that the storage of records both on- and off-site guarantees security, accessibility and confidentiality of sensitive records.

Access to government records The Freedom of Information Act 1982 stipulates that public access to government records is a right in Australia. Records are considered an asset and most Australian government agencies are required to release records to users including the Australian public. The Archives Act 1983 provides a legally enforceable right to access public records once the record is in the open-access period. Some records are unable to be accessed as they contain exempt information. Exempt information generally encompasses personal records or records that, if used inappropriately, could jeopardise national security. Prior to the records being released to users, they are examined for exempt information. The existence of exempt information means that the record can be withheld or that the record can be partially provided. The decision to provide or deny access to a record is made by trained employees. If access is denied or restricted, the user of the record will be provided with reasons why the record cannot be accessed. The National Archives of Australia provides a process whereby a decision to withhold records due to exempt information can be reviewed. Initially, an employee will inform the user that they are able to apply for a review of the decision and then the user can determine whether or not to follow the procedures of the review process in an attempt to have the decision changed.

CHECKPOINT 19.3

Visit http://www.naa.gov.au to assist with answering the following questions: 1. Outline generally why the National Archives of Australia refuses access to records. 2. Give three specific examples where access to records would be refused. 3. If access is refused, outline what the user of information can do in an attempt to have the decision changed.

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CHAPTER 19 / Record keeping

19.4 PROVIDING RECORDS WITHIN REASONABLE TIMEFRAMES An individual or organisation requesting access to a record is required to follow organisational policy and procedures. The record may be required to complete work in a business context or simply as a supporting or informative document for research into a topic. Once a user has requested a record, the provider is required to check access and authorisation rules and then prepare the requested records in an appropriate format and in a timely manner.

COMMUNICATION AND CONSULTATION The provider should understand the parameters of the user’s request for records. This can be done by communicating with the user to clarify the record needs of the user in terms of the detail, format, context and content of the required record. Clarification of an information request is beneficial to both the record user and the provider, as both parties can clarify and change the parameters of the request if required. Clarification of what is being requested will assist with decisions involving: • choice of finding aid or search technique used to locate the record • method to extract and format the record • determining if records outside the request will be beneficial to the user • masking of all or part of a record due to security classification protecting privacy and confidentiality • better organisation of records to facilitate future record requests. The provider of the records from the record management system is required to consider record security in accordance with organisational procedures and access rules. A record that contains exempt and non-exempt information can be provided by masking the exempt portion of the record prior to providing the record to the user. Provide non-exempt records to users. Records can be relocated so that a user has access to the record from their location. Once the location of the requested record is identified, the organisation or individual requiring the record will communicate with the provider to establish: • a genuine requirement for the record • the contents of the located record • the record required • who requires the record • the timeframe in which record is to be provided.

Withhold exempt records from users to comply with legislation and standards.

Mask the portion of the record that is exempt from being provided to users.

TRACKING RECORDS Record management involves record retrieval and tracking. Generally, the following items will be recorded in the record management or tracking system: • reason the record is required • unique record reference number • current holder of the record • the requester’s name • the user’s name • new location of record • date and mode of transport of record. It is generally the responsibility of the person sending the record to the new location to track it, although this will depend on the contents of organisation policies and procedures. 513 Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202

THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK The holder of the record will initiate transportation when it is agreed that the record will be relocated within a specified timeframe. The record will be dispatched and received in the new location. The dispatch and receipt will be recorded in the tracking or record management system. Organisational policies may stipulate how records should be transported. All physical records may be transported in secure bags with a unique bag number. However, there is a security risk when transporting records. It is imperative that all relocations of records include the reason why the record is being relocated, as well as who requires the record. This information will assist with records being sent only to those with authorised access.

CHECKPOINT 19.4

FROM THEORY TO PRACTICE

1. Within the health system, the need may arise to relocate patient records. Patient records contain private and confidential information such as patient address, phone number and health records. a. Research and consider the concerns that health professionals may face when relocating records. b. Create a list of do’s and don’ts in relation to relocating records. c. Use your list to create an information flyer explaining the process to be used to relocate records within the health system. 2. Think about a time when you requested a record from a government department, a library, a health professional or any other source. a. Explain the record request you made and how the request was made. b. Did you clarify the record request with the record provider in terms of format, content and timeliness of the provision of the record? c. Create a dot-point list of items or actions to follow that will assist with requesting and obtaining records. Consider content, format and timeframe.

AS ISO 15489 – The standard on records management In 1995, Australia was the first country in the world to develop a records management standard. After the creation and release of the Australian standard, the international records management community used it as a starting point to create an international standard. This resulted in AS ISO 15489, published in 2002. This intentional standard provides organisations around the world in both the public and private sector with guidance and assistance in creating best-practice record management systems. In Australia, legislation has also been implemented to provide a framework around how records are created, captured, used and managed by an organisation. Records that businesses need to keep include: evidence of all sales and purchases made by a business, tax invoices, wage/ salary records, GST documentation, costs or profit relating to business assets, all records relating to all tax returns, activity statements, and contributions to employee super. The Australian Securities and Investments Commission requires companies keep relevant records for seven years, as does the Fair Work ombudsman. The ATO requires records be kept for five years. Source: https://government.archives.sa.gov.au/sites/default/files/20110829%20Australian%20Standard%20AS%20ISO% 2015489%20-%20Records%20Management%20Final%20V2_Copy.pdf, viewed 21 November 2018; https://www.business.gov.au/new-to-business-essentials/series-one/keep-the-right-records; and https://www.ato.gov.au/General/Aboriginal-and-Torres-Strait-Islander-people/ Tax-for-businesses/Keeping-business-records/, both viewed 21 November 2018.

ASK YOURSELF: Other than meeting legal requirements, can you think of three other benefits that following records management best practice creates for businesses?

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CHAPTER 19 / Record keeping

LEARNING ACTIVITIES SUMMARY 19.1 Explain the importance, function and life cycle of records. A record is any organisational information regardless of characteristic or medium of storage. A record management system is a system used to manage and store organisational records. The phrase ‘life cycle of records’ implies that records become less important as time passes. After the record is created, there is a period of high use followed by a period of less use and the eventual disposal of the record. There are four stages in the life cycle of records. These stages are creation of the record, organising and storing the record, using and sharing the record and disposing of the record. 19.2 Identify and gather records required. Legislation, standards and policies provide guidance around records management. Classification, which categorises records, occurs immediately after the record is created and aims to assist with the location of records. A finding aid is a tool that assists to identify and locate a record in a record management system. Finding aids include indexes, databases and registers. There are obstacles to providing records to users in a timely manner. These include cost, unreliable finding aids, remoteness of record location, reluctance to provide the records, the level of proficiency of the information provider and legal or privacy requirements.

19.3 Interpret and administer access rules and procedures. It is imperative that information providers protect records from unauthorised access and use. Organisations are required to exercise a duty of care and comply with legislation around privacy and confidentiality when managing records. To assist security, classifications can be granted and managed within the record management system. Security classifications can assist to ensure that records are protected from alteration, deletion and loss. A version control table can be used to track the versions of a draft document prior to culminating in a final record. 19.4 Provide the required records to the user within reasonable timeframes. To ensure the correct records are provided in the desired format and in a timely manner, a record request could be clarified. Clarification will ensure the record provider clearly understands the requirements of the user. Access categories are applied by the record provider and any exempt information can be masked or withheld from the user. Records may be relocated so that the user has access to the records from their location. The details of the relocation and movement of records are generally noted in the record management system.

KEY TERMS accessibility access rules active records authenticity classification digital records

electronic document and records management system (EDRMS) exempt record finding aid inactive records integrity

keyword thesaurus legislation life cycle of records meta data non-exempt record physical record record

record management system reliability security standards version control

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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK

LEARNING ACTIVITIES 1. Life cycle of records Write a short information report titled ‘Life cycle of records’. Discuss each stage of the life cycle using the following headings in the body of your report: • collect, create and receive records • organise and store records • use and store active records • dispose or archive inactive records. In your report explain why an organisation: a. limits access to those who need the records to conduct authorised business b. institutes a consistent and secure procedure for the disposal of records. 2. Organisational duties and confidentiality AS ISO 15489 explains the importance of assigning recordkeeping duties to appropriate organisation members. Analyse why this may be of importance, considering issues such as segregation of organisational duties and restrictions around confidentiality and privacy. 3. Accessibility and privacy Assume on your last visit to your doctor you asked the following three questions: • Is the privacy and confidentiality of my health care records assured? • Do I have the right to access my health care records? • What rules apply to the use and disposal of my health care records?

a. Conduct a search on the Web to answer the questions. b. Present your answers in a dot-point list. 4. Good-practice record keeping Australia has adopted standards such as ISO 15489:2004 Records Management to provide organisations in both the public and private sectors with guidance and assistance in creating best-practice record management systems. Legislation has been implemented in Australia to provide a framework around how records are created, captured, used and managed by an organisation. Write a short information report: • explaining the process of identifying whether an item is information or a record to be captured in the record management system • identifying five criteria of a credible record and explaining the importance of each criteria • summarising five benefits (either financial or nonfinancial) of an effective record management system. 5. National Archives Visit http://www.naa.gov.au/collection/fact-sheets/fs46.aspx to assist with answering the following questions: a. Outline generally why the National Archives of Australia refuses access to records. b. Give three specific examples where access to records would be refused. c. If access is refused, outline what the user of information can do in an attempt to have the decision changed.

GROUP ACTIVITY Use a team approach for this assignment. 1. Consider this statement: Records are an asset and it is in the best interest of any organisation, regardless of size, to keep and manage records. The value of a record could be considered directly proportional to the ability to retrieve, use and share the record in a timely manner. a. Give five reasons why records may be considered an asset. b. Explain why good record management is more than the collection of records.

c. List five ways an organisation can benefit from effective records management. Include at least one non-financial reason. d. How do good records reduce potential liability? e. How can organisations ensure low-value records aren’t kept unnecessarily? 2. As a team, prepare and give a presentation on your assignment titled ‘Records are an asset that add significant value to an organisation if managed effectively’.

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CHAPTER 19 / Record keeping

CASE STUDY CAPTURE OF RECORDS The Head of Records Management of a publicly listed company has scheduled a meeting to be attended by all managers in the records management department. The meeting has been called to address the challenges to the record management team posed by the increase in use of personally owned information technology devices to access organisational records. The following questions are to be discussed in the meeting: 1. From which locations do employees perform their work, what devices do employees use to complete work and who owns the device used for the work? 2. Are all organisational records captured in the record management system regardless of where business is performed and the device used to do work? 3. Do employees transfer records created on personally owned mobile phones and smart devices into the organisation’s record management system? 4. Is the latest version captured and are version control tables updated when work is completed outside the organisation?

5. What are the risks to the organisation of failing to capture all company records? It is established early in the meeting that employees use a range of different devices to complete work from both within and outside the workplace. Some devices are owned by the organisation, but the majority are personally owned tablets. The meeting attendees are unable to establish with certainty whether all company records are captured, but the consensus view is that this is a challenge worth investigating.

Questions 1. What could be the difficulties and possible consequences to a publicly listed company of an incomplete record management system? 2. Consider challenges that the organisation faces in accurately capturing records created and changed using smart devices. What strategies could be developed and implemented to address these challenges?

BIBLIOGRAPHY Australian National Audit Office (ANAO). 2012. Audit Report No. 53 2011–12: Records Management in the Australian Public Service, Commonwealth of Australia ª 2012. Franks, Patricia C. 2013. Records and Information Management, ALA Neal-Schuman, USA. Hare, Catherine & McLeod, Julie. 2006. Managing Electronic Records, Facet Publishing, London, UK. Henne, Andrea. 2006. Intensive Records Management, 5th edn, Cengage Learning, USA. National Academy of Sciences. 2009. Beyond the HIPAA Privacy Rule: Enhancing Privacy, Improving Health Through Research, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ 20662116, viewed 1 October 2018.

New South Wales Government. 2018. State Records Act 1998 No 17, https://www.legislation.nsw.gov.au/#/view/act/1998/ 17, viewed 1 October 2018. New South Wales State Records. 2015. Records Classification, http://www.records.nsw.gov.au/recordkeeping/advice/ records-classification, viewed 1 October 2018. Queensland State Archives: Department of Science, Information Technology, Innovation and the Arts. 2013. Recordkeeping Implications of Mobile and Smart Devices: A Guideline for Queensland Public Authorities, April, http://www.archives.qld.gov.au/Recordkeeping/ GRKDownloads/Documents/MobileDeviceGuideline.pdf, viewed 1 October 2018.

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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK

Read, Judith & Ginn, Mary Lea. 2015. Records Management, 10th edition, Cengage Learning, USA. Smallwood, Robert F. 2013. Managing Electronic Records: Methods, Best Practices, and Technologies, Wiley, USA. Smithsonian Institute Archive. 2018. Records Management, https://siarchives.si.edu/what-we-do/records-management, viewed 1 October 2018.

State Records Office of Western Australia, Specialised Finding Aids and Indexes, http://www.sro.wa.gov.au/archivecollection/finding-aids-and-indexes/specialised-findingaids-and-indexes, viewed 1 October 2018. training.gov.au. BSBRKG402 Provide Information from and About Records, https://training.gov.au/Training/Details/ BSBRKG402, viewed 1 October 2018.

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PART

CHAPTER 20 DEVELOP EFFECTIVE WORKPLACE RELATIONSHIPS CHAPTER 21

MANAGE TEAM EFFECTIVENESS

CHAPTER 22 LEAD AND DEVELOP TEAMS AND INDIVIDUALS

5

COMMUNICATION ACROSS THE ORGANISATION

CHAPTER 23 ORGANISE AND MANAGE MEETINGS

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Spotlight on: Communication across the organisation

Coming together is a beginning, staying together is progress, and working together is success. Henry Ford

Organisations and workers are no longer confined to a single office environment. It is common now for employees to be working across multiple locations, hours and devices. Communication, positive workplace relations, collaboration, leadership and teamwork enable organisations of any type to build capacity and strengthen their presence. Employees working on tasks in groups, meetings or crossfunctional teams in both traditional and digital workplaces adapt to change, manage problems, make decisions, consider alternative views and resolve misunderstandings to achieve consensus. Regardless of location or device, being open to suggestions and concerns, acknowledging one another’s work, offering assistance and communicating clearly and honestly foster teamwork, facilitate morale and build relationships. The result is teamwork, productivity and efficient working processes. When leaders and members are working together they carry out task functions such as defining the task, planning, organising, controlling, evaluating and monitoring in order to accomplish tasks. They also complete relationship management functions to collaborate and maintain productive relationships, performance and team cohesiveness. Once a team in any setting is officially established, ground rules are set and team values and goals determined and agreed to in order to ensure everyone across the team and organisation knows what is required.

What do you think? • • • •

•

How do you show respect for the opinions, values and particular needs of others? What do you do to develop trust and positive working relationships with your colleagues? Can you think of a time when a team leader’s communication style impacted on your performance of a task? Do digital workplaces value the skills of communication, collaboration, adaptability, negotiation, conflict management and the ability to engage and motivate others? Would you feel as comfortable working in a team in a digital workplace as in a traditional organisation?

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DEVELOP EFFECTIVE WORKPLACE RELATIONSHIPS

 developing agreement en

ce

joint decision = improved work

di

20.6

ch

au

20.1

 information - giving - receiving - exchange

he

Chapter 20

n

pe n ds on l de t

collect + share information

o m m u n i c a ti o

ne

consul ta

rc

an

Your Learning Journey

20

u Yo

n tio

DETERMINE: purpose, stakeholders + the consultative process

CHAPTER

GIVE INSTRUCTIONS  move from the simple to the complex or  move from the familiar to the unfamiliar or  follow the order required by the job

What actions to take when MANAGING DIFFICULTIES + POOR WORK PERFORMANCE

20.2

20.5

ESTABLISH, BUILD + MAINTAIN RELATIONSHIPS through networking (formal + informal)

Networks BUILD RELATIONSHIPS and allow you to SHARE YOUR EXPERTISE + INFORMATION

CH21

Adjust INTERPERSONAL STYLES + methods to SHAPE + MANAGE effective workplace RELATIONSHIPS

Develop TRUST + CONFIDENCE of colleagues, customers and suppliers positive culture clear organisational standards

20.4

Next MANAGE TEAM EFFECTIVENESS

20.3

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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK

LEARNING OBJECTIVES After studying this chapter, you should be able to: 20.1 explain how to collect and share relevant information, consult and engage in joint decision making to improve work performance 20.2 identify guidelines to follow as you give and receive instructions at work 20.3 develop the trust and confidence of colleagues, customers and suppliers 20.4 adapt interpersonal communication styles and methods to shape and manage effective workplace relationships 20.5 discuss actions to take when managing difficulties and poor work performance due to either lack of motivation or low ability 20.6 establish, build and maintain relationships through networking.

20.1 COLLECT AND COMMUNICATE INFORMATION AND IDEAS AND ENGAGE IN JOINT DECISION MAKING Workgroups engage in a range of communication activities such as collecting, analysing, recording and conveying simple, routine information; giving and following routine instructions; and participating in small formal and informal workgroups. In each of these activities it is important to communicate well by taking the time to identify needs and develop communication methods that will allow you to share specific information, instructions, arguments or proposals in a way that reduces the chances of misunderstanding and ambiguity. EXHIBIT 20.1 Plan and organise information Successful communicators present factual information in a clear, concise, complete and objective manner. To do this effectively they Define Your main idea or purpose consult to determine needs and research the topics well before proceeding. They also plan well and communicate effectively. Plan well to reduce the chances of misunderstanding and ambiguity.

Limit

The scope of your information

Select

The direct or indirect approach

Outline

The major points to structure your content

Adapt

The information to your audience

Choose

An appropriate communication channel

PLAN COMMUNICATION Good planning is the key to presenting information clearly and concisely in either written or spoken form. Follow the steps in Exhibit 20.1 to tackle the task of collecting, planning and organising the information. An effective communication plan identifies the communication purpose and to whom (the audience) the message will be addressed. The plan also identifies the objectives of the communication, message, channels of communication and the timelines. The communication plan enables you to prioritise and monitor tasks collaboratively. The communication plan in Exhibit 20.2 has been created by the Section Manager of a beauty academy to share information and consult with stakeholders about a proposed move to new premises. The communication plan is a useful way to set priorities, focus on tasks and explore possibilities and likely outcomes.

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CHAPTER 20 / Develop effective workplace relationships

EXHIBIT 20.2 Communication plan for relocation to new premises Audience

Communication objective

Message and responsibility

Channel(s)

When

All staff within the region

To inform

Regional Director Announcement of the relocation

e-Newsletter article Broadcast email to all staff in the region

One month before relocation

All academy trainers and support staff

To announce academy relocation

Section Manager Announce move and benefits Clarify and deal with any issues or concerns

Staff meetings Meeting minutes Academy Wiki Email to trainers and support staff One-to-one conversations Telephone calls

One month before move

Project plan for the move Formal meeting Minutes of meeting Meeting with all trainers Meeting with all support staff One-on-one discussions Group brainstorming staff briefings

Fortnight before

All trainers and support staff

Academy Principal

Weekly Ongoing

To assign duties for packing and labelling

Section Manager Assign individual responsibilities

To complete tasks in a timely manner and readiness for move

Section Manager and Staff Clarify tasks and time lines for packing and labelling tools of trade, teaching aids, consumables, files and records

To review project status

Section Manager Update of progress Take corrective action as necessary

Formal meeting Meeting minutes Academy Wiki

Fortnightly Daily

To provide update and progress on the relocation

Section Manager Communicate progress, achievements and problems (if any)

Formal written progress reports One-to-one meetings

Weekly

Weekly Daily as needed

The purpose of the communication plan is to: define communication objectives clearly – what is to be achieved, by when, why and by whom focus on the issue and adapt to the needs of the various stakeholders choose the appropriate communications channel(s) to deliver the message plan the consultation to ensure the right information is provided avoid information overload and confusion caused by too much information, too many messages and conflicting messages • decide how to monitor tasks, gather feedback and check understanding and responses to the consultation. Refer to Chapter 5, Organise workplace information, for further information about planning and organising information. • • • • •

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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK

Analyse stakeholders Sometimes the information will need to flow to different stakeholders. When you need to communicate the same information to different groups, plan the message for each by thinking about the broadest group first. For example, the broadest group in Exhibit 20.2 is ‘All staff within the region’ and the most specialised group is ‘The academy trainers and support staff’. The academy trainers and support staff will need defined objectives, specific procedures and details to complete the necessary tasks for the relocation to new premises. The employees in the region will need to know the overall goal and enough information to support the academy staff in their relocation. Choose the most effective channel to achieve your communication purpose and meet the needs of each stakeholder group. The audience profile in Exhibit 20.3 is used to identify your stakeholder’s needs and select communication channels that target this audience.

EXHIBIT 20.3 Audience profile Checkpoint

Analysis

Appropriate communication channel(s)

What is the size of my audience? How much information does this audience need? Is a verbal report sufficient? Is an email sufficient? Do I need to prepare both a written report and an audiovisual presentation? Should I request a face-to-face meeting? Does this audience respond best to an informal or a formal delivery? Should I speak in Plain English, or does this audience respond better to high-level technical language? When will my audience be most receptive to this information? What is the socioeconomic background of this audience? Do I have to cater for special needs with this audience? What can I do to show I value the cultural diversity of this audience?

The variety of possible communication channels include: CEO briefings, department and team meetings, formal organisational channels, public relations and major events • informal discussions and one-to-one conversations, blogs, podcasts and webinars • email, voice mail, instant messaging, Twitter and texting, newsletters, bulletin boards, posters and intranet articles • teleconferences and visiting remote workers in the field, discussion threads and members’ pages on a shared virtual work space. Consider the needs and diversity of each of your stakeholder groups. Different cultural groups have different rules for humour, irony and politeness. Adapt your message to cater for different perceptions and avoid potential communication barriers. Refer to Chapter 21 for techniques you can use to work well with diversity. •

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CHAPTER 20 / Develop effective workplace relationships

Consult to resolve issues Consultation is a process by which the decision maker seeks the views of stakeholders before reaching the decision. By involving stakeholders in the process, decision makers share information and enable stakeholders to voice their opinions. An effective consultation process gathers, gives and exchanges information. Effective consultation ascertains the competing interests of different stakeholders and tests whether a proposed action reflects their key concerns, interests and issues. Consultation encourages cooperation and engagement of employees and management.

Consult effectively to build mutual respect and trust, support and commitment.

Consultation and joint decision making Consultation may cover a range of issues such as work organisation, future change and plans, production and financial issues and employment conditions. Processes or techniques such as advisory committees, employer/employee representative committees, formal and informal meetings, team briefings, focus groups, surveys, questionnaires, newsletters and reports enable the exchange of ideas and opinions. The direct benefits of consultation and joint decision making are shown in Exhibit 20.4. Additional indirect benefits may include higher performance and productivity leading to increased job security, higher pay, higher morale and more engaged employees.

EXHIBIT 20.4 Direct benefits of consultation and joint decision making Improved organisational performance

Due to: • uncovering of previously unknown employee knowledge now connected to organisational performance • better and more informed decision making • attraction and retention of skilled, engaged and positive workforce

Improved job performance

Due to: • increased transparency in decision making • improved working life of employees • minimisation of employer/employee disputes

Improved employee engagement

Due to: • consideration of employees' interests and opinions • input into work organisation, performance targets and results • more participatory and cooperative culture

The Australian Fair Work Ombudsman recommends that Australian employers consult with their employees in the following circumstances: • when the employer intends to make significant changes at the workplace • when the employer proposes to change an employee’s regular roster or ordinary hours of work • in relation to workplace health and safety • in the context of good faith bargaining for an enterprise agreement • when employees request flexible working arrangements • when the employer intends to dismiss more than 15 employees at one time for reasons of economic, technological, structural or similar nature. 525 Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202

THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK Employers consult with their employees in accordance with the relevant procedure(s) as set out in: the Fair Work Act a modern award an enterprise agreement or other industrial instrument the employer’s company policies state or territory workplace health and safety laws. Consultation takes place when an issue must be addressed; for example, workplace health and safety. The consultative process required by law for large organisations is the Workplace Health and Safety (WHS) Consultative Committee. Consultation encourages the employer to consider the interests and opinions of employees and enables employees to participate in the decision-making processes in accordance with the relevant legislation, regulations and company policies. Note: In Chapters 2, 5, 8 and this chapter, this textbook discusses how to communicate when consulting. It does not attempt to describe the relevant procedures. Reference to and advice about procedures should be sought from specialists. Successful consultation: • listens to and responds to the stakeholders’ responses and input • provides opportunities for all stakeholders to contribute ideas and information • offers feedback about the outcomes of the consultative process to those involved in the consultation. Consultation is unsuccessful when the inputs of stakeholders are ignored. The result is poor decisions, deliberate or inadvertent non-compliance and cynicism about future consultative processes. Before consultation occurs answer the three questions in Exhibit 20.5.to ensure the interaction style across the organisation is planned, genuine and collaborative. • • • • •

EXHIBIT 20.5 Questions to answer before consultation Question

Reason

What is the purpose of the consultative process?

By identifying the purpose you are able to: • clarify and share the intended outcome of the consultation with stakeholders • select the most appropriate method of consultation to either gather, give or exchange information. Stakeholders are those affected by the: • issue as it is now • options for dealing with it • way the options are put into practice. Choose a process appropriate to: • the needs of the stakeholders • the type of issue • how the final decision will be made and who will be involved.

Who are the stakeholders?

What process will be used?

Participate in decisions Become involved, provide input and feedback to participate in decision making.

Organisations realise employees who are able to offer input and be involved in decisions are more actively engaged in core activities than those who are not. Since the early 21st century, organisations have increasingly encouraged employee involvement to take advantage of employee input and feedback. Engaged employees are more committed to successful achievement of organisational, departmental or team objectives.

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CHAPTER 20 / Develop effective workplace relationships Direct employee involvement in decisions may relate to the immediate job task or to higher-level organisational decisions such as investment, workforce structure, product development and general work organisation. The discussion in this section focuses on the ‘direct participation’ or interactions between employers and employees in: • decisions about job tasks • decisions about organisational participation relating to wider company issues. Task discretion refers to employee involvement in decisions that affect the immediate tasks in their job. Organisational participation refers to employee involvement in decisions relating to wider company issues. N.B. This textbook does not discuss ‘indirect employee participation’; that is, the involvement of employee representatives (such as local trade unions or workplace health and safety) in decision-making processes.

Levels of involvement Employers and employees have some level of interest and opinions regarding almost all of the day-today workplace decisions. The level of interest and expertise related to the issue in question should establish whether or not to consult and the level of involvement in the consultation. Four levels of involvement are shown in Exhibit 20.6.

EXHIBIT 20.6 Four levels of involvement in decision making Inform

Seek input

Consult with

Consensus process

How a decision is made and communicated determines the extent to which people will commit to its implementation. Workplace decisions may be about specific issues, such as the introduction of flexible working arrangements, or they may be open-ended and broad, such as how to make significant changes at the workplace. Reason and logic should underpin decisions about the work environment, working conditions and other issues. Decision makers using facts and knowledge are able to make reasonable and logical decisions based on evidence. Dependence on intuition or ‘gut feeling’ means that perceptions based on experience and values, rather than evidence, influence the decision. A possible disadvantage when employees have increased involvement is inconsistency. The lines of communication, reporting and monitoring of decisions and activities must be clear to ensure decisions are consistent across the organisation. Inconsistent decisions between departments about, say, flexible working arrangements, will cause unrest among employees because those in one department may feel disadvantaged in comparison to those in other departments. The appropriate level of involvement for a decision depends on the level of interest, the expertise of those likely to be involved and the type of decision. The participation, discussion and coordination among group members require additional time. Hence, for simple day-to-day decisions it is an inefficient use of time and resources.

Use positive communication to improve the quality of decision making.

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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK

Four ways to make decisions

Encourage all members to participate in decision making and planning. Three useful techniques for stimulating ideas are brainstorming, the nominal group technique and the decision-making agenda. (These techniques are discussed in Chapter 23, Organise and manage meetings.)

Work-team members are part of a work unit and also a social unit. They depend on one another to reach objectives and to derive satisfaction from being part of the team. The way in which a team makes its decisions affects the completion of tasks and the relationships between members. Before the decision-making process begins, team members should know the expected level of involvement (receiving information, seeking input, consulting with or the consensus approach) and how the final decision will be made. Then the way in which a decision will be made should be clarified as being either decision by authority, majority, compromise or consensus. Clarity upfront ensures expectations of all stakeholders are met. The four different ways of making team decisions, and the processes involved, are shown in Exhibit 20.7.

EXHIBIT 20.7 Ways of making decisions Method

Process

Outcome

Decision by authority

The decision is made outside the team or by one member and then communicated to the others. Decision by authority after team discussion is one of the most common ways of making team decisions. The team discusses the issue, then either the leader or even an external supervisor makes the decision.

This may be the quickest way of reaching a decision, but over the long term it can produce resentment and low morale, and reduce the team’s sense of purpose.

Decision by majority

Agreement is reached by the majority of team members. This may be the best option if there is insufficient time to reach consensus, or if it is clear that members will not all agree.

A majority decision leaves a minority who may be hostile about it.

Decision by compromise

Made when several members of the team clearly will not agree on anything. The team leader can either make the decision or offer a compromise.

A compromise might appeal to both sides without really satisfying either.

Decision by consensus

The decision is made by all team members. Sometimes this approach can be a disguised (covert) way of authoritarian decision making or decision by the loudest. Its disadvantages are that this method takes time and requires well-developed communication skills.

Members feel they have contributed to the decision and, therefore, will work towards acting on it, but it is very difficult to get real team consensus.

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1. Briefly explain the purpose of an effective communication plan. 2. List three different ways to sequence information. 3. Consultation questions: a. List four types of questions you can use in a consultation. b. What is the purpose of each type? 4. Employee involvement: a. Define the term ‘direct employee involvement’. b. Identify four levels of involvement. c. What are four areas covered when employers and employees use direct participation in decisions? d. What are the direct benefits of consultation and joint decision making? e. List four ways of making decisions.

CHECKPOINT 20.1

20.2 GIVE AND RECEIVE INSTRUCTIONS AT WORK Decisions based on information and consultation are put into action by instructions inform, explain and make requests in a way that improves understanding, seeks feedback and offers encouragement. Effective instructions: • share with spoken or written language what will happen or is happening in the workplace • communicate in a manner that is appropriate and sensitive to the cultural and social diversity and any special needs of the work group. Direct instructions are to the point and indicate who, what, when, where and how a task should be completed. Clear workplace instructions explain the objectives, provide background information and describe the intended outcome. Then it is up to the person receiving the instructions to decide how, when and where to reach this outcome.

Guidelines When giving instructions at work, follow these simple guidelines: 1. Determine what has to be accomplished – the intended outcome. 2. Give the reasons for doing the job. 3. Indicate clearly each step of the task, in sequence. 4. Use verbs (action words) rather than abstract words, and start with a verb. 5. Have the other person paraphrase the instructions back to you. 6. Use familiar words appropriate to the receiver’s level of understanding. 7. Demonstrate the skills required by the task if it involves machinery or equipment. 8. Encourage questions and offer timely and specific feedback. 9. Ensure that your timing is appropriate and monitor the person’s progress. The instructor must explain precisely each step of the task, and the receiver must fully understand and follow the instructions, so a systematic approach to instructions is necessary. It follows the sequence shown in Exhibit 20.8.

Adapt workplace instructions to the cultural and social diversity of the receiver. Identify the purpose of the instructions, decide the points to include and choose an appropriate sequence.

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EXHIBIT 20.8 Systematic approach to workplace instructions

1

Explanation By the instructor

2

Demonstration By the instructor

3

Review By the instructor

4

Feedback The receiver paraphrases the instruction(s)

5

Observation By the instructor as the receiver uses the instructions

6

Feedback By the instructor and receiver in the form of questions and answers

Sequence and structure

Group your ideas into a logical structure that is easy to follow.

Choose an appropriate time.

Question to confirm understanding.

Once you have determined what people need to know to accomplish the instructions, sequence the instructions in one of the following three ways: 1. Move from the simple to the complex. 2. Move from the familiar to the unfamiliar. 3. Follow the required order of tasks. As soon as you choose the sequence, group the instructions into introduction, body and conclusion. The introduction gives the purpose of the job. Emphasise any dangers and highlight any safety measures that must be taken. In the body of the instructions, outline the whole task and describe each step of the procedure slowly and clearly. Whenever it is possible for the other person to perform the step immediately, demonstrate how to do it first and then let them practise and ask questions. Check understanding by asking questions and observing how they complete the task. Lead the other person through each step of the process. Never assume that someone knows what workplace standard must be achieved: take time to explain it. Use graphs, signage, videos, pictures and real objects to help people learn. They add meaning to verbal instructions. In the conclusion, repeat the main points and state the standards again, particularly when safety is an issue. As you give feedback, be constructive. Correct any mistakes and let the other person know what they do well. When you give instructions, ensure that the timing is right and the communication climate is positive so that the people receiving the instructions have enough time to listen and understand fully, say what they think and feel, ask questions and clarify. Balance open, closed, mirror and probing questions. As you give instructions, you need to know how thoroughly they are being understood. Simple routine instructions usually only require questions to confirm that the person can:

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CHAPTER 20 / Develop effective workplace relationships • • •

remember the facts rephrase the instructions in their own words apply the instructions to a new situation. By asking questions, you engage the other person in a two-way communication process. You are also offering them feedback in a positive framework. Rather than give the impression that you are interrogating the other person, use a balanced mixture of open, closed, mirror and probing questions – examples are shown in Exhibit 20.9.

Engage in positive two-way communication.

EXHIBIT 20.9 Ask questions in a positive framework Type

Purpose and example

Open questions

Will encourage individuals to open up, and typically begin with a query like: ‘How do you feel about …’ or ‘Tell me about …’

Closed questions

Can direct the communication towards a positive outcome and a desired result. A closed question will ask for specific information and will often begin with ‘who’, ‘where’, ‘when’ or ‘how’. For example, ‘Where do you live?’ If your audience is ill at ease, it is useful to begin your questioning with some simple, non-threatening closed questions.

Mirror questions

Are useful when you wish to check, reinforce or expand on the steps and information in the instructions; for example, ‘It sounds as if you would like more information before we make a decision?’ These questions will give you the opportunity to find out how much your receiver understands and to offer positive feedback as encouragement for more information. You can repeat a previous answer, offer positive feedback on this answer, then seek more information or qualification.

Probing questions

Must be dealt with carefully because they are specific and often seek information that has been deliberately glossed over. It may help to explain why you need this information – for example: ‘Could you tell me more about that, please?’

Receive instructions Strategies to help you follow instructions more easily and to ask questions are shown in Exhibit 20.10. Questions like these help you think about and evaluate all the facts and tasks involved. As instructions are given and received, issues should be dealt with assertively and cooperatively. People who listen carefully and ask questions are able to achieve the intended outcomes.

Listen well to avoid barriers and share ideas.

EXHIBIT 20.10 Strategies – receiving and following instructions Follow the instructions

Questioning skills

When receiving instructions: • listen carefully • concentrate on the instructions, and avoid thinking about anything else • avoid jumping to conclusions • ask questions about what standards must be reached • paraphrase to check your understanding • double-check any safety issues • ask for help if you cannot follow the instructions.

When receiving instructions, your questions should be: • brief and clear • focused on the work task • general, when you want an overview • specific, when you want to understand particular facts or ideas • rephrased, when the instructor does not understand your question • open, when you want more information and an idea of the instructor’s understanding • closed, when you want a specific answer.

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Choose the right communication channel Identify your receiver’s needs. Ensure visual materials add to the message and are simple, clear and easy to see and understand.

As well as conveying the instructions in a clear, objective way your choice of communication methods and channels should cater for social diversity, cultural diversity and any special needs of your audience. Giving instructions should, however, be about the sharing of meaning. What is important is to ensure that the way you convey the instructions leads to clarification and enhanced understanding. Workplace instructions that use a variety of communication channels make it easier for the receiver to remember them. Some of the different channels are shown in Exhibit 20.11.

EXHIBIT 20.11 A range of communication methods Conduct small group oral briefings

Give oral instruction one-to-one

Give feedback

Ask questions

Workplace instructions

Use surveys to find out if instructions are followed

Hang up posters

Include instruction in procedures manual

Present sketches/plans

Communication climate The communication climate during decision making reflects the way people feel about each other. Employees who feel that they are valued and respected have the confidence to put forward their ideas and to interact confidently and courteously. The feeling of goodwill towards one another facilitates the contribution of ideas. The tone of the group is positive and respectful as issues such as improvements in disability access, policies on attendance and sick leave, workplace site security and current ways of working are raised and discussed. People speak openly, listen carefully, ask questions and offer feedback. A positive communication climate builds trust and encourages open and honest consultation.

CHECKPOINT 20.2

1. Identify three ways in which you can sequence and structure instructions. 2. Instructions: a. How can you check your understanding when receiving instructions? b. Identify four communication channels you can use to give instructions. c. Which channel do you prefer to receive instructions? Why? 3. Briefly outline the systematic approach to workplace instructions.

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CHAPTER 20 / Develop effective workplace relationships

20.3 DEVELOP TRUST AND CONFIDENCE Trust is built in a workplace environment when it provides more than shelter, resources and accessibility. Trust also requires people (managers, team leaders and staff) who are competent, credible and empathic. Consequently, the workplace environment and its people inspire confidence, loyalty, cooperation, motivation and work satisfaction. We can all identify the externally visible culture of organisations through the signals that are sent between people, and most of us recognise the internal culture of groups in the workplace. That internal culture is increasingly becoming the focus of change initiatives through internal communication strategies, restructures and the growing tendency to use teams as the basis of planning, decision making and program implementation.

IMPACT OF CULTURE ON PERFORMANCE AND RELATIONSHIPS An organisation’s culture is based on the shared customs, attitudes, beliefs, and written and unwritten rules that evolve over time. Culture holds an organisation together and influences how work gets done. Organisational culture is sometimes referred to as the way we do things around here. It can be argued, however, that this statement is trite, and that culture is a much more complex concept. Culture can be defined as ‘the set of assumptions implicit in behaviour’. An organisation’s culture is a system of shared meaning. When people work together behavioural norms can quite quickly emerge. Over time, team members develop particular ways of interacting with each other; for example, how we help each other, how rules are enforced and how we manage conflict. Established behaviour and habits become the team’s norms. They are the accepted standard or a way of doing things that most people agree with; that is, rules of behaviour. A team norm, for example, may be to be transparent and avoid hidden agendas when making group decisions. The purpose of norms or accepted standards of behaviour are to: • provide order • allow understanding of the group’s activities • ensure members orientate themselves to the group’s performance. Norms are the expectations of behaviour. Once they are established, it is very difficult to change them. Workplace culture may be a positive influence or it may stifle individuality and initiative and make it difficult to change entrenched attitudes. Behavioural norms, like punctuality, time management, planning and dress codes build the workplace culture. People within an organisation or team learn the norms. The norms or way other people behave impacts on their expectations and actions or behaviour. People within an organisation or team learn from experiences and by observing the behaviour of others. An organisation’s social, ethical and business standards are built into its culture. More and more, management is consulting widely with staff to identify and clarify these standards, which can then be documented in a code of conduct and specific organisational guidelines and procedural guides. This partnership approach to standards and procedures will encourage ownership by all stakeholders and is more likely to win acceptance.

POSITIVE WORKPLACE CULTURE

Understand the collective rules or norms by which your team and organisation operates.

Identify and understand your organisation’s social, ethical and business standards. Communicate roles, objectives and expectations clearly. Communicate effectively, understand the organisation’s purpose and direction and contribute to a positive workplace culture.

Culture is about an organisation’s people. It’s about how people work across the organisation and how they work together within their team. A positive culture facilitates better communication, has fewer conflicts and a greater understanding of shared goals and objectives. A positive workplace culture encourages safer work practices, reduces workplace injuries and improves job satisfaction. 533 Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202

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Ensure your contribution at work supports the team’s work and treats others with respect.

In some long-established organisations and teams the culture may be negative because it has become so strong and entrenched. There may be widespread resistance to change and barriers to diversity in the workplace. Initiatives designed to develop positive workplace cultures in existing organisations and teams have received government funding to create a positive workplace culture. Some of these are shown in Exhibit 20.12.

EXHIBIT 20.12 Create a positive workplace culture: some examples Melbourne call centre Publicis Loyalty was awarded funding to develop a cultural change program that decreased work pressure using a balanced scorecard management system.

Tullamarine’s Cryovac Australia received funding to develop leaders to assist in addressing workplace culture issues and change initiatives.

Horsham’s Workco Limited received funding to develop a retention strategy designed to increase workplace flexibility and enhance opportunities for older and younger workers.

The Australian Catholic Commission for Employment Relations received a grant to increase business literacy and management methods in employment arrangements.

EMPLOYEE ENGAGEMENT Engage positively with the organisation and its values.

Employee engagement is the extent to which an employee believes in the values and purpose of an organisation and commits to achievement of the organisation’s objectives. Engaged employees care about their work and their organisation. They are willing to use extra or discretionary effort to benefit the organisation. Employees are motivated and act in ways that benefit their team and organisation. Employee engagement is enhanced in a culture of respect and participative leadership that encourages employee ‘buy-in’. An organisational culture that enables employees to become involved with, committed to and satisfied with their work, team or organisation enhances employee engagement. A culture that recognises and rewards team and individual performance through motivators such as a formal ‘thank you’, acknowledging an employee’s contribution on the organisation’s intranet or a teamwide email builds engagement. Rewards such as extra leave, cinema tickets or subsidised gym or sporting facilities membership are motivating. Positive communication, constructive feedback, recognition, mentoring and coaching build expertise. Ethical and impartial allocation of duties and responsibilities and acknowledgement of issues and concerns enhance commitment. As well as understanding the organisation’s purpose and objectives, engaged employees understand their role and how they fit into the organisation. They are informed and consulted about proposed organisational changes and other issues that affect the workplace. Consultation allows them to offer ideas and express views as part of the decision-making process. Inclusion in the process builds trust and empowerment. Engaged employees lead to better service, quality and productivity. As a consequence, the workforce is high performing and customers receive better service and higher customer satisfaction. The possible results of employee engagement and disengagement are shown in Exhibit 20.13.

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CHAPTER 20 / Develop effective workplace relationships

EXHIBIT 20.13 Employee engagement and disengagement Employee engagement can lead to:

• lower turnover of staff and reduced costs of hiring • higher morale, motivation and performance • increase in innovation and productivity • less absenteeism, grievances and disputes.

Employee disengagement can lead to:

• higher turnover of staff and the loss of expertise and knowledge • low morale and absenteeism and some employees overburdened with duties of others • high workers compensation premiums and psychological injury claims • negative perceptions of the organisation’s culture and high numbers of grievances and disputes.

CODES OF CONDUCT Organisations have become more aware of the need to set out clearly their expectations of behaviour and the standards they wish to see in place for social relationships, ethical norms and business standards. They are increasingly working with staff to agree on what is appropriate and documenting the details. As a result, codes of conduct, codes of practice or codes of ethics are used to a greater extent by organisations to express the standards of conduct they wish to see in place in the workplace. An organisation’s code of conduct identifies the way in which it expects its staff to conduct themselves in their work and the way in which they represent the organisation. Refer to the ANZ Bank’s Code of Conduct and Ethics at http://www.anz.com > Conduct. The Code of Conduct and Ethics sets standards for the way employees of ANZ are expected to work. The Code explains who the Code applies to, when the Code applies, how breaches of the Code should be reported and how compliance will be monitored. The code of conduct should identify for you and your colleagues the expectations of how to comply with organisational requirements and a wide range of statutory requirements and obligations in regard to issues such as discrimination, corrupt conduct, workplace safety, privacy, freedom of information, industrial relations and the like. Organisations expect their people to act within the spirit of relevant legislation. Many codes of conduct identify the need to: • treat people with respect regardless of social or cultural characteristics • avoid conflicts of interest and behave ethically • protect the privacy of individuals or organisations where an organisation holds confidential information. Social, ethical and business standards have a significant impact on work systems and processes, and on workplace relationships. Therefore, organisations should communicate them in the three forms of communication – verbal (both spoken and written), nonverbal and graphic communication. By communicating and promoting the standards, an organisation sends a strong message of expectation that will impact on behaviour across the organisation. Coca Cola’s Code of Business Conduct (2018), available at http://www.coca-colacompany.com/ investors/code-of-business-conduct, identifies the requirement for all staff to be aware, protect company assets, demonstrate accountability, deal fairly with others and care for the community. The Code of Business Conduct is the guide to appropriate conduct.

Work in accordance with legislative, industry and organisational standards.

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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK Legislative and industry standards impact on all organisations. The purpose of the legislative and industry standards is to ensure honest and fair dealing of products and services of a consistent quality. Standards are set and recognised at different levels, such as international, national, regional, industry or organisational level. Relevant government legislation in regard to workplace health and safety, environmental issues, equal opportunity, industrial relations and anti-discrimination are standards that you and your organisation must comply with. We all have ideas about what is right and wrong, and we derive them from a variety of values and conventions throughout our lifetime. Personal ethics, professional ethics and corporate ethics are sets of moral principles by which we judge human actions and proposals as good or bad, or right or wrong. Codes of conduct and codes of ethics support individuals and teams to behave ethically in the workplace.

FROM THEORY TO PRACTICE

Codes of conduct ‘Don’t be evil’ is the underlying assumption in any company’s code of conduct. The importance of open communication, honesty and transparency are qualities that are ranked highly by organisations, their customers and other stakeholders. Codes of conduct typically talk about: • providing customers with unbiased access to information, products and services • focusing on customer needs and satisfaction • treating colleagues and others with courtesy and respect • working in accordance with company policies and the requirements of legislation and regulations. Refer to the Google Code of Conduct for an example of a code. It is interesting to note who the Google Code is specifically written for, the consequences of not following the Code and the areas where conflicts of interest may arise. Source: Google Code of Conduct, https://abc.xyz/investor/other/google-code-of-conduct.html, viewed 5 September 2018.

ASK YOURSELF: What are the benefits of a documented code of conduct for an organisation’s employees, contractors, consultants and service providers? What might be the benefits for the company?

Code of ethics Work in accordance with your organisation’s code of ethics.

Most organisations have a code of ethics, which is a statement of its primary values and the ethical rules it expects its employees to follow. In a company without a code of ethics, people may be uncertain about how to deal with an issue or problem. A code of ethics benefits the company and the individual by: • reinforcing the organisation’s standard of conduct • reminding staff that management wants participants to consider ethical issues in their decisions • identifying practices that are and are not permissible • allowing leaders, managers and others to share experiences and ideas about what is or is not an ethical position • developing a shared culture based on ethics and accountability. People behave ethically when they act with equity, fairness, impartiality and respect for the rights of others. They communicate factual information objectively and avoid using distortions of fact and misleading information. Ethical people respect the dignity of each person, irrespective of ethnic background, religion or gender, and follow the organisation’s policies, procedures, guidelines and code of ethics. Professional ethics are the conventions for the right professional conduct or practice. In the workplace, we are expected to behave according to the established rules and standards. Ethical behaviour leads to professional behaviour. People working for an ethical company behave with integrity.

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POLICIES AND PROCEDURES INFLUENCE STANDARDS AND BEHAVIOUR Every organisation has policies and procedures to provide guidelines about how things will be done. Organisational policies are written statements about the courses of action or guidelines to be followed by management, employees, contractors and volunteers. Policies should be followed when dealing with broad issues, roles and functions such as risk management, workplace safety or customer service. Policies clarify the organisation’s values and influence its culture Procedures provide specific guidelines for completing a task; for example, the procedure for taking annual leave shown in Exhibit 20.14.

EXHIBIT 20.14 Procedure for taking annual leave Annual leave balance appears on your online payslip and may be taken as it accrues, subject to approval. You are expected to: • plan your annual leave in advance • seek approval from your supervisor of the timing of your annual leave and discuss arrangements associated with your workload before taking annual leave • give your supervisor as much notice as possible of your intention to take annual leave • apply for leave once you have your supervisor’s approval through the company intranet.

Your supervisor:

• must consider your application for annual leave within 14 days • has authority to approve annual leave • has authority to decline your annual leave application when other team members have already requested and received approval for leave during the same period • will give reasons for declining an application for annual leave and will discuss alternative options for the timing of your annual leave.

Note: Variations to your annual leave are made by completing an ‘Application to cancel or amend a leave request’ form and sending it to Payroll.

Policies and procedures cover legislative and ethical requirements, customer service, quality, efficiency and many other factors. If you are unsure of your workplace policies or procedures refer to the organisation’s guidelines or manuals or ask a more experienced colleague to assist you. Effective policies and procedures: • ensure people know what is expected of them, how to do it and what standard needs to be reached • clarify how things need to be done and help ensure that people are clear about their work role and responsibilities. Role clarity and clear responsibilities enable people to be accountable. Role clarity exists when a person in a position knows what is expected of them. They are able to monitor their own performance and results against specific expectations and standards.

Productive performance Five essential components for productive performance are shown in Exhibit 20.15. An organisation with these components locked into ‘the way things are done around here’ establishes a framework, a positive work culture and an engaged workforce. Clear guidelines about standards and expected levels of workplace performance are communicated. Expecting the best of staff and assisting them to meet those expectations builds performance and productivity.

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EXHIBIT 20.15 Five essentials for productive performance

1

Work in a framework • People have purpose, goals and key result areas • Have policies, procedures, guidelines, rules and regulations

2

Want to • People are motivated and engaged • Have specific duties, responsibilities and tasks identified clearly

3

Know how to • People have qualifications, competence, confidence and willingness • Have opportunities to further improve knowledge and skills

4

Have support • People have appropriate tools, equipment, technology and ‘know-how’ • Have efficient work systems and procedures and support from team

5

Leadership • Follow a leader who communicates, interacts and influences positively • Leader consults, sets challenging but achievable goals and provides feedback

The framework provided by the five essentials lets people know what they are doing, why they are doing it and to what standard. The job not only identifies the specific duties, responsibilities and tasks clearly but also provides opportunity for job enrichment through multi-skilling and cross-skilling. Performance and productivity are enhanced when the manager, supervisor or team leader: • communicates and builds esteem of team members • sets challenging but achievable goals supported by appropriate information and time • demonstrates high standards and takes responsibility for things happening even when they go wrong • provides a focus on productivity and performance, supports team members and represents team proactively across the organisation. Team members are empowered to take on responsibility for problem solving and decision making. Motivation is high because people are able to do their job well, and receive constructive feedback and recognition.

CHECKPOINT 20.3

1. Culture, norms and standards: a. What is the basis of an organisation’s culture? b. What do norms do? c. Where does an organisation document its standards? 2. Employee engagement: a. How can an organisation enhance employee engagement? b. What are the benefits for an organisation of employee engagement? c. What are the costs of employee disengagement? d. Briefly discuss the advantages of a positive workplace culture. 3. Codes of conduct and ethics: a. Identify three issues that should be addressed in an organisation’s code of conduct. b. How does a code of ethics benefit a company? 4. Policies and procedures: a. What do policies clarify? b. What is the purpose of a procedure? 5. How can a team leader enhance the performance and productivity of their team?

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20.4 INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION STYLES Many people progress to more senior positions because of excellent technical skills, but have difficulty interacting with others because of poor people skills. Their interpersonal communication style often causes friction and unnecessary conflict due to their intolerance of difference, insensitivity to colleagues, an inability to listen and consider the views of others, and a resistance to change and new methods of working. Interpersonal communication style refers to the typical set of behaviours an individual displays in their interactions with others. Bateman and Zeithaml (1990) identified six main styles of interpersonal communication used in workplace settings: controlling, egalitarian, structuring, dynamic, relinquishing and withdrawal. A brief description of each style is provided in Exhibit 20.16.

Adjust your interpersonal communication style to meet the needs of the situation. Adaptability means openness to new ideas or changes in the workplace, the ability to adjust to change and new situations and to handle unexpected demands.

EXHIBIT 20.16 Main styles of interpersonal communication Style

Description

Controlling style – a form of one-way communication

• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Egalitarian style – a form of two-way communication

Structuring style – taskfocused or organising approach

• Dynamic style – a high-energy approach Relinquishing style – a deferential rather than directive approach

• • • • • • • •

Withdrawal style – a lack of communication

• •

is used to direct others and gain compliance expects little or no feedback employs power and manipulation can intimidate the receiver and raise communication barriers alienates others in normal situations is effective in times of crisis or an emergency involves sharing information rather than directing stimulates others to contribute their ideas and opinions builds trust and positive relationships enables mutual understanding and cooperation keeps interaction open to responses from others takes into account the needs and feelings of others enables appropriate responses to concerns, complaints and questions is used to establish schedules or impose organisation works to company standards or rules is necessary to inform others of goals, objectives and procedures for complex tasks is best counterbalanced with the egalitarian style to avoid making the interaction a one-way conversation uses inspirational pleas to motivate another person to take action is effective in crisis situations is ineffective when the receivers have inadequate experience is highly receptive to the ideas of others shifts responsibility for communication to the receiver allows others to discuss and make decisions while making little comment works well when the sender and the receiver are both interested in carrying the discussion forward is effective when the receivers have the knowledge, experience and willingness to assume responsibility the sender avoids using their influence and legitimate power indicates a disinterest or unwillingness to participate or carry the communication forward

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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK Good communicators are adaptable. They keep an open mind, respond with a positive attitude to change and are willing to learn new ways to achieve targets and objectives. Good communicators are able to switch between styles according to the people they interact with and the situation. Factors influencing your choice of interpersonal style and methods include: • the skill levels and experience of the other person • the work situation (routine, new, crisis or emergency) • your own preferred or natural interpersonal style • your own flexibility and adaptability to meet the needs of unanticipated events, and changing situations or emergencies • the organisational culture and environment (stable, changing, authoritarian or open and participative).

MAINTAIN ADAPTABLE AND CONSISTENT BEHAVIOUR Maintain your reputation for trustworthiness as you interact with others.

Establishing trust is one of the keys to effective workplace relationships. Trust is the firm belief or confidence in the honesty, integrity and reliability of another. Each person’s interpersonal communication style affects their interactions with others as they provide direction, instruction and guidance. A consistent interpersonal communication style, good interpersonal skills, an open mind and the ability to adapt to change are essential characteristics of a trustworthy manager, supervisor, team leader or team members. Very little happens in the work situation and problems arise if people cannot trust one another and work towards achievement of targets and outcomes. Six interpersonal attributes that help to build a reputation for trustworthiness are listed in Exhibit 20.17. Mutual trust built by these six interpersonal attributes enables you to give and receive instructions, inform, explain, make requests and consult in a way that improves understanding. The six interpersonal attributes, complemented by the skill of adaptability, allow you to modify your behaviour and style of working or responding to change to meet the needs of daily operations, unexpected events and emergency situations. The outcome is improved individual and team performance consistent with the organisation’s and team’s values, code of conduct, goals and objectives.

Show respect and positivity A consistent interpersonal style complemented by adaptability, good listening, nonverbal and assertiveness skills shows respect. Respect is an essential part of effective interpersonal workplace interactions. Demonstrate the skill of adaptability and contribute to effective workplace relationships by: • Being receptive to change, responding with a positive attitude and a willingness to learn new ways to achieve objectives, targets and tasks • Listening and using open nonverbal communication to show an interest in the speaker and concentrate on the message • Asking questions to ensure understanding • Seeking out new ways of doing things and having confidence to improvise or experiment • Using assertiveness skills to demonstrate openness, receptivity and affirmation of the other person • Keeping an open mind to accept change and integrate and draw conclusions from new information. Adaptability allows positive responses and a willingness to learn. The outcome is improved individual, team and organisational performance. Refer to Chapter 2, Develop emotional intelligence and interpersonal intelligence, for further information about relationship management, communication and adaptability skills.

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CHAPTER 20 / Develop effective workplace relationships

EXHIBIT 20.17 Six interpersonal attributes that help to build a reputation for trustworthiness

Clear communication

Assertiveness and empathy

Integrity

Respect for others

Be a team player

Deal with conflict constructively

• listening, questioning, giving and receiving feedback • recognises the needs and concerns of others is essential

• enables you to work with and through others • enables you to listen well and acknowledge the concerns and aspirations of others • lets you understand their point of view, perspective and reality

• • • • • •

enables you to interact positively and ethically means having values and consistently demonstrating those values in your behaviour interacts honestly, fairly and ethically sets a good example expects the best from others provides encouragement and constructive feedback

• enables you to value and acknowledge the contributions of others • breaks down barriers to particpation and commitment

• enhances cooperatve work and consultation • increases collaboration and continual improvement

• acknowledges conflict is a part of any workplace • manages conflict to meet different interpersonal and group goals and needs

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SENSITIVITY TO CULTURAL AND SOCIAL DIVERSITY Australia’s diversity is reflected in its mixture of cultures, languages, beliefs systems and values. Communicating effectively across the increasing diversity in workplaces is an important aspect of any work role. The underpinning principle in communicating effectively with a diverse audience is to be sensitive to, and respectful of, other cultures. Communicate effectively by: • acknowledging people have different levels of language, literacy and numeracy (LLN) skills • recognising that people have different perceptions and may respond differently to the same event • respecting the way others respond to different challenges to avoid conflict when things are handled in a way that is different from your culture • inviting and using feedback – ask questions, listen, respond and adapt • learning more about your own and other cultures to identify own cultural biases and avoid stereotypes. Sensitivity to differences in LLN skills acknowledges the need to adapt oral and written communication to the needs of the receiver(s) to enable them to understand instructions and perform well in their key result areas. Language and literacy skills are essential to an employee’s understanding of their job role, their team’s and organisation’s focus, and relevant laws and regulations that they must comply with. Conveying information clearly so that it is easily understood improves work relationships and contributes to greater productivity. Outcomes from sensitivity to cultural and social diversity are shown in Exhibit 20.18.

EXHIBIT 20.18 Sensitivity to diversity Enhanced understanding

Improved team performance

Increased job satisfaction

An organisation, managers and employees who handle diversity successfully create environments that value and utilise the contributions of people with different backgrounds, experiences and perspectives. The organisation’s leaders and managers at all levels empower employees across the organisation by accommodating differences in culture, background, perspectives and family responsibilities of others. The benefits of workforce diversity are highlighted in Fact Sheet 8: Maximising the Value of Cultural Diversity at http://www.fecca.org.au > Resources > Harmony in the workplace factsheets. The Fact Sheet provides examples of how cultural diversity and cultural connections benefit organisations, employees and the community. It is more than a matter of choice that you understand the implications of cultural diversity in the workplace. Senior managers, middle managers, supervisors, team leaders and members are legally required to work in accordance with the requirements of: • Equal Employment Opportunity (EEO) • anti-discrimination • anti-harassment legislation. The legislation makes it illegal to discriminate against any employee, customer, supplier or other stakeholder on the grounds of race, gender, sexual preference, ethnicity or disability. Detailed information about this legislation is available from the Australian Human Rights Commission website, http://www.humanrights.gov.au/.

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CHAPTER 20 / Develop effective workplace relationships

1. Interpersonal communication: a. List six styles of interpersonal communication. b. Which style do you prefer? Why? 2. What factors should influence your choice of interpersonal style when you switch between styles? 3. Identify six attributes that help build a reputation for trustworthiness. 4. Apaptability: a. Identify three characteristics of an adaptable person. b. Briefly describe how you adapt to changes you have no control over. 5. Diversity and cultural sensitivity: a. Why is it important to have sensitivity to differences in language, literacy and numeracy (LLN) in the workplace? b. Why is it important to have sensitivity for cultural and social diversity in the workplace? c. Who benefits from a diverse workforce and why?

CHECKPOINT 20.4

20.5 MANAGE POOR WORK PERFORMANCE The success of any organisation depends on having a productive and motivated workforce. How employees’ performance is managed and rewarded has an impact on employee motivation. Salary, recognition, rewards and other incentives have a significant impact on workplace performance. Effective team leaders, supervisors or managers will model good practice and set an example for their employees to follow. They need to practise what they preach, lead by example, coach, empower and help employees do their job well. Before attempting to manage poor work performance and conducting a one-on-one performance appraisal, determine the cause of the performance problem.

KEY RESULT AREAS (KRAs) To resolve work difficulties by giving guidance and support, you must first be able to identify and agree what is required of an individual in the performance of his or her job. An efficient way to agree expectations is to refer to the position description. It will define the key result areas (KRAs), or primary responsibilities of the position, and identify the tasks and the competencies needed to complete them effectively. Then set reasonable goals and objectives for the period of time in question. Each job can be broken down into about five to seven KRAs, rarely more. KRAs are the main areas of responsibility and accountability of a job. Once the KRAs are identified you have the basis for discussion and a means to provide guidance and support if all is not well. A basic planning format to use as you prepare KRAs makes use of the series of questions shown in Exhibit 20.19.

Identify what is expected of people in their job by identifying the KRAs of the position and the required standard of performance.

EXHIBIT 20.19 Basic planning format for KRAs Question

Purpose

What is to be done?

To define the specifics of what is to be done

When is to be done?

To set a target date to track progress and manage time efficiently

Where will it be done?

To set guidelines about the environment, individual or team resources needed

How will it be done?

To define the tasks involved, stages and key points

What is the benchmark?

To identify the key indicators or standards of performance

Who will do it?

To assign responsibility to the task

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Establish measurable key performance indicators.

Performance indicators should also be determined for KRAs. A key performance indicator (KPI) is the aspect of the task against which performance can be measured (such as quality, quantity, time and cost). KPIs can be set for work outputs and outcomes and evaluated for their effectiveness and efficiency. Effectiveness means doing the right things and achieving results. Efficiency means doing things the right way to minimise resource usage and to consistently produce quality products and services. Efficient outputs and effective outcomes should align with your organisation’s values and code of conduct.

REVIEW AND TAKE ACTIONS TO RECTIFY THE SITUATION

Lead by example and act as a positive role model.

Most organisations have some form of planning and performance appraisal in place, even if it is not fully formalised. Performance appraisal interviews aim to establish a supportive climate by greeting the interviewee and explaining the process clearly. The performance appraisal thus becomes motivational (encouraging) and part of the organisation’s regular feedback. Performance appraisal interviews seek to evaluate the employee’s performance and provide feedback on the organisation’s perception of it. The next section of this chapter will cover motivating employees, managing performance and rewarding performance.

Performance and motivation People are motivated by different things. David McClelland’s theory (1985) explains motivation and the relationship between motivation and performance. In his ‘Three Needs Theory’ he suggests social motives that motivate people are: • achievement from a sense of doing a job well and being recognised for it • power through having some control over own actions, and possibly the actions and outputs of others • affiliation from feeling part of the team and a sense of belonging through social connections. A work environment that includes a range of motivators is more likely to lead to improved and sustained performance. Opportunities for a sense of achievement through completing a task within the deadline, meeting quality standards or enabling increased responsibility by allowing people to work without unnecessarily checking or supervising are examples of ways to increase motivation. Power, such as formal influence as a supervisor or manager, or informal influence, through being known as the company expert on safety issues or having the keys to the stationery cabinet, can be a motivator. Another is affiliation, such as membership of company sporting teams and the annual company gettogether with colleagues. Other examples of motivators are allowing team members autonomy and flexible work arrangements, encouraging positive relationships between colleagues and customers, recognising team members’ performance and contributions, and offering personal and professional growth through training and professional development. A personal ‘thank you’ for doing something well or public mention of effort or achievement in newsletters, team meetings or on the intranet are motivators that guide and reinforce desired performance. Frequent small and unexpected rewards such as money or material goods are often more effective than one-off big rewards because they recognise employees’ efforts and achievements immediately and reward performance. The big rewards such as bonuses or the Christmas party may become expected. Rather than motivating people to better performance, expected rewards may provide little encouragement to contribute to the team or organisation’s overall performance. The benefits of highly motivated employees are: • fewer absences from work • higher levels of performance

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CHAPTER 20 / Develop effective workplace relationships • •

loyalty to the organisation resulting in reduced staff turnover higher levels of customer service delivery bringing about greater customer retention. Matching a team member’s skills to enrich and make the job more meaningful provides the team member with extra challenges and enables them to surpass expectations. The likely outcome is improvement in attitude and performance. Advancement, promotion or sideways moves provide variety and the chance for individual growth through additional responsibilities or new jobs.

Performance and ability What should you do when a team member is unable to perform a task to the required workplace standard? First, determine what is causing the performance issue by identifying the source of the problem. However, because performance is bolstered by both motivation and performance any solutions to the performance problem should focus on two factors. The first is ability or aptitude. The second is the team member’s desire or commitment. When the problem causing poor performance is diagnosed as ability or inability, check whether the low ability is caused by: • overly difficult tasks • low individual aptitude, skill and knowledge • inadequate setting of priorities • recent changes to responsibilities • poor team or organisational culture. The overall aim in a one-on-one performance interview with a team member with low EXHIBIT 20.20 The Five Rs ability is to enhance their performance by using any one or more of the ‘Five Rs’ interventions, as shown in Exhibit 20.20. (Mind Tools 2018) Interventions The least intrusive of the five interventions is resupply. Resupply focuses on the availability of resources needed to do the job. Ask the Resupply question, ‘Do you have what you need to perform well and meet expectations?’ During the two-way flow of questions and answers, ask the person about any additional resources Retrain they think they need and listen for any points of frustration. Record what the person has found to be inadequate and investigate to verify their claims. Verify because a team member, rather than admitting their own poor performance, may blame other factors. If Refit additional resources are needed, ensure they are provided and thank the team member for raising the issue. Reassign Retrain to upgrade the skills of team members to use changing technology and other changes effectively. Retraining may involve: Release • simulation exercises • in-house training seminars • computer-based training (CBT) • college or university courses with fees paid on successful completion. Refit the job to the person by reassigning parts of the job to others. The intention is to rearrange the jobs of other people as well to meet operational needs and refit the job to retain the employee and provide meaningful and rewarding work. Reassign the poor performer when revising or refitting the job does not improve performance. Reduce the level of responsibility, technical knowledge and interpersonal skills required to perform the job. However, ensure that the reassigned job is still meaningful and is not seen as a demotion or punishment. The reason for the reassignment is the person’s lack of skills for the position.

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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK Release is the final option for lack of ability. When there are no opportunities for reassignment and refitting, the employee may need to be released to find other work. The negative consequences of retaining a poor performer include the belief in other team members that underperformance is acceptable. Other team members may feel that they have to work harder to carry the under-performer. Interventions to use when performance is poor due to low motivation are the setting of performance goals, providing performance assistance and providing performance feedback. As you provide guidance and support you can take any of the four actions shown in Exhibit 20.21.

EXHIBIT 20.21 Taking action to rectify a difficulty Actions

Description

1. Setting performance goals to ensure team members: • understand what’s expected of them • agree on what they need to do to improve.

The SMART formula helps develop effective statements for key result areas by defining objectives in a way that is: • Specific • Measurable • Achievable • Relevant and realistic • Time-referenced and trackable. Once the goals are set, help a team member succeed by: • securing essential resources • assessing the employee’s ability regularly • taking action if performance is below expectations • providing training if needed • encouraging cooperation and assistance from other team members. Positive and negative constructive feedback is aimed at improving performance. When you have to provide negative constructive feedback that guides the receiver to improved performance, follow this process: • prepare to face the problem • bring the poor performance into the open in an impartial, nonthreatening way • be open, honest and accurate • provide timely feedback that links the behaviour with the evaluation as soon as possible • avoid talking about the person rather than the performance • use records of lateness, attendance missed, deadlines or unmet targets and job rejects to illustrate the performance problem • highlight strengths and use constructive feedback deal with weaknesses. Mentoring is a relationship. The role of the mentor in the relationship is to: • create a positive communication in the relationship • counsel in a non-threatening environment • provide objective and reliable support • assist in providing meaningful learning opportunities through work activities • build self-confidence, and encourage and stimulate the mentoree.

2. Providing performance assistance by involving the team members by asking open questions such as ‘What do you think contributes to the problem?’

3. Providing performance feedback when performance is below the expected level. Feedback on performance is most likely to be accepted when it: • is in objective form • is constructive • is supported by hard data (for example, numbers or specific examples) • comes from a credible source • acknowledges effort so that the team member knows their current performance is acceptable or unacceptable and how it fits with long-term expectations.

4. Mentoring is a process whereby an experienced employee gives advice, support and encouragement to a less experienced individual to assist them in their personal or career growth and development

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CHAPTER 20 / Develop effective workplace relationships The purpose of mentoring, coaching, training and other development opportunities is to develop competence in task and people skills. Mentoring is the deliberate pairing of a skilled and experienced person with a less-skilled and less-experienced colleague. The mentor is an encouraging and supportive counsellor who spends time with a less experienced employee, guiding, listening and advising on workplace problems, training needs and ways of working. Coaching differs from mentoring in that it usually occurs on the job and assumes that people can learn from everything they do. It is more than simply issuing instructions and telling people what to do. Coaching is being aware of what people need to be able to do, guiding them in how to do it and encouraging them to do it well. Training is different from mentoring and coaching. Training is an organised developmental activity aimed at imparting information and instructions to improve performance and help the learner to attain the required level of knowledge or skill. Effective team leaders ensure team members are able to access the necessary mentoring, coaching, training or other developmental opportunity to acquire the knowledge and skill to perform their responsibilities to the required standard. Refer to Section 21.4 of Chapter 21 for more information on mentoring, coaching, training and professional development. A significant part of feedback involves rewards and recognition. Check your organisation’s policies and procedures for ways in which you can acknowledge the successes of team members. Meet regularly to review progress, provide feedback on how to improve performance and acknowledge successful performance.

Provide wise and supportive counsel as you mentor.

One-on-one performance interviews The three main parts to the performance appraisal process are preparation for the performance appraisal, the interview itself and follow-up after the interview. However, none of these steps can be undertaken without previous documentation of the work expectations. There also needs to be agreement on the desired goals and performance standards. An effective performance review lets an employee: • understand clearly how their work fits with the overall organisational goals • know what part they play in achieving organisational goals, what they should be doing and how they should be doing it • raise issues and concerns and express their opinions about their work • receive constructive feedback: ‘Since your last review the number of customer support complaints you were able to solve has increased by 10%. Well done.’ • identify and discuss reasons (work-related or personal) for under-performance and resolve • clarify career pathways and identify succession planning opportunities • understand what they are expected to contribute and how it will be measured • understand what will be measured: for example, percentage of blog posts that result in customer leads or number of units produced per hour • work with the person conducting the interview to prepare a performance improvement plan. Discussions on performance issues should not come as a surprise during a formal performance appraisal. Performance issues should be dealt with at the time of occurrence because people need to know what they need to do differently. Waiting until the appraisal interview means a team member will continue to do what they have always done. Ongoing informal feedback supports the formal appraisal process. In the performance appraisal interview, give employees helpful feedback about their performance. Do this by describing what the employee does in specific terms – for example, tell them where they need to improve: ‘The time log shows a 5% increase in the time it takes you to respond to customer requests.’ Balance this by commenting on areas where they perform well: for example, ‘Customer

The key goals of a one-on-one performance meeting with a team member are to confirm what the problem is, as well as to explore how to enhance their ability, improve their motivation and encourage optimal performance. Communicate well, focus on KRAs and know what is expected of you in a performance appraisal interview.

Provide specific feedback.

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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK surveys show an increase in repeat visits from your customers. Thank you for your contribution to our service levels.’ Questions should be open or probing. Closed questions help to establish facts. Avoid ‘Why did you …’ questions, as they make the interviewee defensive and can lead to conflict. Feedback and questioning skills are discussed more fully in Chapter 2, Develop emotional intelligence and interpersonal intelligence, and Chapter 8, Develop negotiation and conflict management skills. Follow the steps shown in Exhibit 20.22 to move towards a positive appraisal process. These steps help you structure the interview and achieve a satisfactory outcome. After you have completed all preparation, follow a number of sequenced steps during the interview itself. This will help to organise your thoughts, table information systematically and ensure a satisfactory exchange.

EXHIBIT 20.22 Steps in a positive appraisal process Steps

Strategies

1. Defining key expected results and task planning

People work together to discuss and clarify the key tasks and KRAs of a position over a given period of time by: • focusing on what people in the positions can be held accountable for delivering • making the task definition as clear as possible • relating the KRAs to position description or statements of duty to ensure people’s work is consistent with their level of employment. Follow a process to: • gather data • monitor work achievements • identify any poor or underperformance • take corrective action(s). In preparing for performance appraisals be clear about: • what is expected of you or your team, and the need for further clarification if you are the team leader or supervisor • what was achieved by the team as a whole and by the individuals in it • what policies on incentives and sanctions apply in your organisation • your own goals for the interview and the outcomes you want to achieve in the next period of work • the standards and measures that will be used to assess performance. The steps to follow are: • introductory discussion • review results • review performance effectiveness • discuss the roles of the team leader or supervisor and the individual team member • plan tasks and KRAs for the future • review career and professional development planning and training. Review the outcomes and: • complete the performance appraisal records accurately • store and file records securely to maintain confidentiality • follow up and monitor planned tasks and KRAs • follow through on any promises, agreements or commitments made in the interview.

2. Monitoring performance

3. Preparing for the performance appraisal

4. The performance appraisal interview

5. Post-interview follow-up and supervisory interactions

The one-on-one formal performance appraisal interview should be supported by other actions such as ongoing reviews, follow-up or feedback, rewards and ongoing professional development or training.

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CHAPTER 20 / Develop effective workplace relationships

Create a performance improvement plan Agree upon a plan for improving performance that includes agreed goals and dates for achievement. Components to include in a performance improvement plan include: • written standard to which the team member is to complete the task or responsibility • time period (usually 30 or 90 days) within which to make improvements • milestones and check points for measuring progress • indicators that will verify performance improvement • support and resources that will aid in learning the task or skill • consequences if improvement goals are unmet • signatures of both the team leader and team member indicating understanding and agreement. The plan’s intended outcome is to improve either or both of the causes of poor performance – low motivation and lack of ability. Check that you: • have discussed with the team member what they think is the problem • are recognising and rewarding team member’s contributions and the things that they should be doing • help team members keep their skills current • have regular goal setting and development meetings with team members • reach agreement and understanding of what is expected and the consequences if expectations are not met. • have gained ‘buy-in’ from the team member and acceptance from them of their responsibility for their own development. Remember, for those being appraised it is a personal experience that involves their ego, feelings and self-image in relation to work. Monitor and provide feedback in a supportive environment. Always keep the discussion relevant to the job to avoid side tracking and to minimise the employee’s defensiveness. Provide constructive negative feedback to correct unsatisfactory performance and minimise resistance, rather than destructive, judgemental statements. The performance appraisal interview is a free and frank exchange of views. It is not an attack on either the interviewer or interviewee. Workplace interviews can involve a level of conflict; therefore, always aim to make an objective and factual assessment of the employee’s job performance. Keep the discussion relevant to the job and identify strengths as well as weaknesses and opportunities for improvement and skills development. The goals of a performance appraisal interview are to: • support decisions on promotion, salary increases and transfers • control feedback about performance • establish mutual work goals and plans of action • agree on and implement a monitoring and feedback process • identify training needs and career counselling requirements.

Counselling interviews Counselling interviews aim to help employees deal with issues and solve problems. They may also deal with issues that affect work performance. Poor performance may be caused by absenteeism in the form of unauthorised leave or excessive sick leave. Erratic work performance, long coffee breaks and too much time away from the workstation are other indicators of poor work performance. In a counselling interview, it is important to remain non-evaluative, to use a range of questions, and to develop active and reflective listening skills.

Conduct a counselling interview that enables the employee to deal with issues and seek the support of professionals as required.

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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK A counselling interview should be conducted privately, and confidentiality should be respected. As a counselling interviewer, you will aim to: • help the employee clarify the problem • use active listening skills to help the employee define the problem • offer feedback and alternative solutions • assist the employee to select the solution that most suits their needs • provide a supportive environment • help the employee find professional help if required • act in accordance with your organisation’s policies and procedures. Most team leaders, supervisors and managers have the empathy and skills to perform adequately, or better than adequately, in a counselling interview on work performance. This kind of interview is not meant to be a deep psychological probing of the employee’s problems. If you feel that this is what they want, it is better to refer them to a qualified psychologist or therapist. Keep a list of professional and other referral services handy in case they are required.

Discipline or reprimand interviews Deal with facts and plan corrective actions and solutions together.

Deal with any conflict early before it reaches crisis level.

On occasion, you may have to take part in a discipline or reprimand interview. Minimise and even avoid conflict by managing the interview professionally. Discipline or reprimand interviews aim to identify unacceptable or undesirable behaviour and to discuss how to change the behaviour. Plan the interview carefully and choose a place free from interruptions. Listen to the employee to determine reasons for their behaviour. Dealing with the facts rather than the employee’s personal characteristics helps to reduce emotional reaction and defensiveness. Plan the course of action and solutions together. Acknowledge any positive aspects of the employee’s behaviour. Always work in accordance with your organisation’s policies and procedures. Before you reach the stage of a discipline interview, try other communication techniques such as instructions, training, corrections and counselling. If these fail, then use the discipline interview. The discipline interview is a formal organisational procedure used by management to correct unacceptable behaviour. It seeks to: • describe the unacceptable behaviour • relate this behaviour to the organisation’s rules and practices • examine the causes and who is responsible • obtain the employee’s view of the situation • work out what corrective action is necessary to solve the problem or eliminate the unacceptable behaviour • conduct the interview and follow-up actions in accordance with your organisation’s disciplinary policies and procedures. At the beginning of the discipline interview, state its purpose. Begin with open-ended questions to encourage the employee to discuss their perceptions of the situation. Use your listening and questioning skills to collect information and identify specific points. Follow up later with feedback on the interview’s effect on the employee’s behaviour. Be aware that conflict may arise, and be willing to deal with it at the discomfort stage or at incident levels. Ignoring conflict at the early stages may allow it to escalate to crisis level.

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CHAPTER 20 / Develop effective workplace relationships

MANAGE CONFLICT CONSTRUCTIVELY WITHIN THE ORGANISATION’S PROCESSES When managing conflict at work, check your organisation’s processes to resolve conflict. These processes are designed to support managers, supervisors, team leaders and team members when conflict happens and avoid damage to work performance and long-term careers. If a conflict does arise when you are managing poor work performance, deal with it assertively, objectively and as soon as possible. Conflict seems inevitable whenever people work or live together. It exists in all human conditions and can occur over quite small things such as roles, task allocation, access to resources, or operating methods. It can also arise over significant matters of equity, justice and fundamental values because people: • have different perceptions and different aspirations • exist within different contexts and have different drivers • have different interpersonal styles and ways of dealing with one another. Difficulties can arise over interpersonal issues but sometimes they can come about because of change in the organisation, economic drivers or even because of legislative changes in the broader context. Some examples are: • changes to tax laws, family leave provisions, workplace health and safety regulations • economic drivers that mean a company has to move its offices or operations, lay off staff or outsource activities • restructuring within the organisation or product changes might also create major change to people’s roles and career expectations. Such changes, even if handled carefully, will inevitably create difficulties that then have to be sorted out in a manner that respects the needs of individuals, meets the organisation’s goals and complies with legislation. Negotiated settlements are a positive way to proceed in most cases. Focus on the problem and listen to both sides. Seek facts to understand. Map the conflict (refer to Section 8.6 of Chapter 8, p. 204) to identify both the easy and difficult issues. Sort out the easy issues first and aim for a win–win outcome. People approach negotiation differently because of their preferred interpersonal style, their expectations of the process or their assessment of the best way to go about meeting their own needs. They may adopt an approach that is: • competitive or positional negotiation • principled or unprincipled negotiation • withdrawing, relinquishing or controlling negotiation • integrative, problem-solving, interest-based or cooperative negotiation. Being able to negotiate requires you to analyse and understand what is happening in the negotiation. Techniques to use as you negotiate resolution of a conflict include acknowledging the problem, staying neutral, using patience and staying focused on the problem rather than attacking or belittling the colleagues involved in the conflict. Body language should be open using positive gestures and facial expressions. Spoken language should be calm, positive, assertive and responsive to the needs of others as you work towards common ground. Refer to Chapter 8, Develop negotiation and conflict management skills, for a full discussion of strategies to use as you manage and resolve conflict. In the end, a team skilled in negotiation will have developed strong collaborative attitudes and behaviours. Chapter 8 presents a range of strategies that enable you to handle conflict constructively and negotiate well. The critical element is to deal with emerging conflict as soon as it becomes apparent so that discussions can occur while people are still relatively objective and unemotional.

Deal with conflict assertively, objectively and in a timely manner.

Negotiate responsively by focusing on interests rather than positions.

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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK

CHECKPOINT 20.5

1. Identify three actions managers, supervisors and team leaders can take to provide guidance and support or to rectify a difficulty. 2. KRAs and KPIs: a. Define the term ‘key result area’. b. What is the purpose of a key performance indicator? 3. What are the three needs McClelland suggests motivate people? 4. Five Rs and poor performance: a. List and briefly explain the purpose of the Five Rs. b. List three interventions you can use when performance is poor due to low motivation. 5. Performance appraisal: a. List the five steps in a positive performance appraisal. b. How can you give helpful feedback in a performance appraisal interview? c. What are the components of a performance improvement plan? 6. Interviews: a. What is the overall aim of a one-on-one performance interview? b. List three objectives of a counselling interview. c. List three objectives of a discipline interview. 7. Dealing with conflict: a. When change causes conflict what are three areas that must be respected as the conflict is sorted out? b. Which of the approaches to conflict do you prefer? Why?

20.6 DEVELOP AND MAINTAIN NETWORKS AND RELATIONSHIPS Identify and build relationships through networking.

The key to successful networking is to earn the right to do business and the right to ask a favour. Within the network it is not who you know but who knows you. On occasion, you will share your expertise and information without asking for anything in return. The outcome is goodwill between you and others in the network. Networks are not fixed and people may belong to many overlapping or discrete networks. The views and values they adhere to may even vary in focus or intensity according to which network they are participating in at any given time and the primary messages and functions of each network. Open communication and participation in networks throughout the organisation foster innovative thinking, problem solving, discussion and incorporation of appropriate innovations.

NETWORK-BUILDING STRATEGIES Effective networkers have influence flowing from acceptance by others from their credibility. They realise credibility and influence flows from an understanding of the main interests and positions of their audience (others in the network) and a thorough knowledge of information and ideas they share within the network. More people are networking on social media professional sites such as Xing, Zerply and LinkedIn. These sites allow the user to create and maintain an online profile that recruiters, employers and others can access easily. A credible profile includes a photo appropriate to your industry, background summary of your qualifications, expertise, job history, and accomplishments, interest groups you engage with and recommendations from others within your industry.

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CHAPTER 20 / Develop effective workplace relationships A professional site allows you to share industry-related articles, blogs, events and opinions with your connections. Discussion and participation with like-minded professionals and organisations builds credibility and influence. Adding the URL of your social media site to your business cards and email signature helps others access your profile easily. Attendance at professional, student or work functions will increase your network. One of the simplest strategies is to use your business card when you meet people at functions and work activities. They then know your name and contact details. Keep an address file that is easy to use and have coffee or lunch with people every so often to maintain contact. Colleagues, clients and acquaintances like to be recognised. Positive acknowledgement builds respect and trust. Remember to: • act with integrity • value the contacts in your network • engage in win–win encounters • respect the confidentiality of information you may gather through your network contacts. Networking, inside and outside of the organisation, widens your contacts and access to information and resources. Three different types of networking and their purpose are identified in Exhibit 20.23.

Establish relationships to widen contacts and create mutual benefits.

EXHIBIT 20.23 Three types of networking Operational networking

Personal networking

Strategic networking

Purpose • accomplish current tasks and projects efficiently • build relationships with people • establish internal contacts oriented around routine work priorities • focus primarily on current tasks or projects

Purpose • enhance personal and professional advancement • build relationships outside organisation • provide mutual benefits to both parties • provide referrals and external contacts oriented towards current projects and interests • share best practice

Purpose • determine future priorities and challenges • build internal and external relationships oriented towards key organisational objectives • generate new business contacts for future business and strategic partnerships

Examples Conferences and trade shows, product user groups and professional associations

Examples Other senior functional and business group managers, peers in your field

Examples Cross-functional and virtual teams, internal user groups

Network effectively by managing relationships in three directions: upwards with your senior manager, downwards with team members and laterally with colleagues inside and outside the organisation. Consider the mutual relationship and act in ways that benefit both sides. Dedicate between 30 minutes and one hour to networking activities each day, with 50% of that being spent on current clients and contacts, and 50% being spent on developing contacts for the future – that is, new contacts. Each of your current clients and contacts should be contacted once every 90 days. Networking provides the opportunity to grow and learn how to make conversations and lasting connections. Referrals through networking are normally high quality and a source of connections with like-minded people. The intention of professional networking is to: • gain information • establish personal connections • be there for others in the network • increase your visibility and contacts within your field of work. 553 Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202

THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK Active participation in a strong network enables you to keep your professional knowledge current, to gather advice from trusted sources and to locate career opportunities. The Australian Women’s Network at http://australianwomensnetwork.com/ is an example of a professional network that makes it easy for women to find, share and create information and referral networks. Effective networking builds long-term meaningful and productive relationships.

CHECKPOINT 20.6

1. Brainstorm the characteristics of effective networkers. 2. Discuss the purpose of operational networking, personal networking and strategic networking and give an example of each type. 3. What is the intention of professional networking?

LEARNING ACTIVITIES SUMMARY 20.1 Explain how to collect and share information, consult and engage in joint decision making to improve work performance. At work, you will collect information to use in instructions, proposals, and persuasive and oral presentations. Know your purpose, consider your receiver’s needs, select, organise and sequence the collected information and create a communication plan. The communication plan helps you define communication objectives clearly, focus on and adapt to the needs of the receiver, choose the right communication channel to deliver the message and provide each group with the right information. The consultative process aims to manage or resolve an issue by seeking the views of stakeholders. Before consultation takes place, determine the purpose of the consultation, identify the stakeholders and choose the most appropriate and efficient consultative process. The issues addressed in consultation usually fall into the following four categories – information giving, information receiving, information exchange and developing agreement. The communication channel chosen to convey the message will depend on the communication or issue and the needs of the audience. 20.2 Identify guidelines to follow as you give and receive instructions at work. Workplace instructions should develop ideas, knowledge and skills step by step. Determine what the intended outcome requires. Decide how to convey the details of who, what, when, where and

how a task will be done. Plan the instructions first, and take a structured approach by using an introduction, body and conclusion. The language used for instructions should be appropriate for the tasks required. Present your instructions in a sequence that (a) moves from the simple to the complex; or (b) moves from the familiar to the unfamiliar; or (c) follows the order required by the job. 20.3 Develop the trust and confidence of colleagues, customers and suppliers. Performance and relationships built on trust are created when people are clear about their roles, the expectations and behaviours associated with those roles and the intended results. An organisation with a positive culture and clear standards builds the trust and confidence of its people, customers and suppliers. Organisation-wide codes of conduct and practice require managers, team leaders and team members to treat one another with respect regardless of social or cultural characteristics, protect privacy, avoid conflicts of interest and behave ethically. Employees must work in accordance with legislative, industry and organisational standards. A culture of respect and participation builds employee engagement and commitment to the organisation. Recognition of performance, ethical behaviour and impartial allocation of duties and responsibilities and communication through appropriate channels encourages employees to contribute to issues related to their work.

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CHAPTER 20 / Develop effective workplace relationships

20.4 Adapt interpersonal styles and methods to shape and manage effective workplace relationships. Interpersonal communication style is the typical set of behaviours an individual displays in their interactions with others. The six main styles of interpersonal communication used in workplace settings are controlling, egalitarian, structuring, dynamic, relinquishing and withdrawal. An effective communicator is able to adapt or adjust their preferred style to meet the requirements of the situation. Five interpersonal attributes that help to build a reputation for consistent behaviour and trustworthiness are clear communication, assertiveness and empathy, integrity, respect for others and the ability to be a team player. Cooperation with others and the ability to deal with conflict positively are other attributes that lead to improved understanding and group cohesion. Sensitivity to differences in LLN skills acknowledges the need to adjust oral and written communication to the needs of the receivers to enable them to understand instructions and perform well in their key result areas. 20.5 Discuss actions to take when managing difficulties and poor work performance due to either lack of

motivation or low ability. Conflict at work can occur over roles, how tasks are allocated, access to resources and changes in operations. Deal with emerging conflict quickly to prevent it escalating to the critical level. Interviews at work usually aim to inform, instruct, obtain ideas, counsel or solve a problem. Specific purposes for interviews include performance appraisal, discipline and counselling. Sometimes these interviews may address poor work performance and involve a level of conflict. Whenever possible, proceed to a negotiated settlement based on objective criteria and select options that manage or solve the problem. 20.6 Establish, build and maintain relationships through networking. Networks may be internal or external to your workplace. They may be formal or informal. Formal networks are structured and have protocols for meetings and other activities. Informal networks are unstructured and more spontaneous than the formal networks. Professional or business associations are examples of formal networks. Networks build relationships and allow you to share your expertise and information.

KEY TERMS adaptability coaching consultation counselling interview culture

direct instructions discipline or reprimand interview employee involvement

interpersonal communication style networking norms

performance appraisal interview routine instructions task discretion

LEARNING ACTIVITIES 1. Reflection Reflect on the statement ‘Technical proficiency is not enough for professionals to gain promotion to higher levels’. Do you agree or disagree, and why? 2. Consultation Assume you are a manager who has to change a standard operating procedure that has been used by your department for the past two years. You decide to use a consultative process. a. Which consultation technique(s) would you use and why? b. What questions should you ask yourself before you consult? c. Explain the benefits you are likely to gain from consultative processes, of giving good feedback on the

outcomes from consultation and the likely problems if you ignore the input of those who took part in the consultative process. 3. Social motives To become more aware of the social motives that motivate you, your friends and others around you keep a log for one week. Observe how you, your friends and others respond to each of the three motivations – achievement, power, affiliation – identified in the McClelland ‘Three Needs Theory’. For each of the three needs identified by McClelland, list examples illustrating the motivation that led to the response. For example, for achievement you may have noticed that when your teacher/trainer grades your

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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK

assignment as an ‘A’, you find yourself doing an extra hour of study that evening. Become observant over the week and make notes in your log recording how many times you observe a response that illustrates each of the three motivations. If you are sharing your list in a group discussion, maintain the anonymity of the people whose responses you have recorded. 4. One-on-one performance interviews a. What should you check for when a one-on-one performance review finds a person’s performance is poor? b. Identify and provide an example of each of the five possible interventions that can be used to enhance workplace performance.

c. Briefly describe the characteristics of an effective performance appraisal and explain at least six outcomes for employees from performance interviews. 5. Networking Explain the benefits of belonging to a social media network such as LinkedIn and identify the elements in a credible online profile. 6. Code of conduct Locate the code of conduct for your own organisation or another organisation of your choice. Explain the purpose of the code of conduct and identify practical steps the organisation could take to encourage all employees to work in accordance with the code of conduct.

GROUP ASSIGNMENT Work in small groups to complete Parts A, B and C of this assignment. Part A: Analyse employee empowerment Brainstorm to create a list of the characteristics of an empowered employee. Describe the type of culture and leadership that encourages employee ‘buy-in’ and empowerment. Compare the benefits an organisation gains from: • an empowered workforce • a disempowered workforce. Report your findings to the large group. Part B: Workplace instructions In your small group: a. Brainstorm different sorts of workplace instructions.

b. Choose one of the workplace instructions from your list and prepare a set of written instructions. c. One person from the group is to use the written instructions as the basis for orally delivering the instructions to the rest of the group. d. The rest of the group is to provide constructive feedback to the person who delivered the verbal instructions. Part C: Feedback skills Consider your own feedback skills by answering the following questions: a. What are the three links that feedback makes in the communication process? b. What are three features of good feedback? c. Explain how checking your interpretation of the other person’s feedback improves the flow of communication.

CASE STUDY MANAGING PERFORMANCE Susan’s manager, Peter, has noticed that Susan has been taking more sick days recently than normal. Peter has an informal chat with Susan to discuss the recent increase in leave being taken. Susan advised Peter that she has had some personal issues and feels that these issues are now resolved and that Peter should see a decrease in the amount of leave being taken. Peter let Susan know that they would need to meet on a more formal basis if the excessive amount of leave continued.

A few months have passed, and Peter notices Susan’s attendance beginning to decline again and runs a report showing all of the leave taken and notices the majority of days being taken are on a Thursday. Peter organises a formal meeting with Susan to discuss her sick leave and sends Susan a letter to notify her of the meeting and that she has the option to bring a support person with her. During the formal meeting Peter gives Susan the opportunity to explain her reasons for the excessive leave

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CHAPTER 20 / Develop effective workplace relationships

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and then discusses the impact the leave is having on the business and the flow-on effect this has for their clients. Peter questions Susan about the pattern of Thursdays that is occurring and discovers there is a particular client that Susan visits on this day that she states has had some difficulty dealing with. Peter addresses the concern Susan is having by removing that client from her schedule for three months and replacing it with another client she has not met before. Peter advises Susan that an immediate and sustained improvement is required moving forward, which Susan agrees to. Peter lets Susan know they will meet again to review her progress in three months and askeds her to provide medical certificates for every instance of leave taken during this period. Peter is to follow up with an outcome letter from the meeting highlighting their agreed actions.

Questions 1. In managing Susan’s sick leave, Peter has followed the business’s sick leave procedures. Briefly discuss the benefits for Susan, Peter and the business of following the procedures. 2. What could Susan have done to address the problem in a way that avoided taking so much sick leave? 3. How did Peter engage in joint decision making with Susan? 4. Briefly explain how Peter’s approach helped Susan to contribute to the issues related to her work. 5. Briefly describe the advantages of Peter moving to a formal meeting as opposed to informal talks. 6. Is Peter’s approach likely to improve Susan’s performance? Provide reasons for your answer.

BIBLIOGRAPHY ANZ Bank 2018. Code of Conduct and Ethics, http:// www.anz.com/documents/au/policies/ANZ-EmployeeCode-of-Conduct.pdf, viewed 15 March 2018. Australian Human Rights Commission. 2018. News, http:// www.humanrights.gov.au/, viewed 13 March 2018. Australian Women’s Network, 2018. What We Do. http:// australianwomensnetwork.com/, viewed 14 March 2018. Bateman, T.S., & Zeithaml, C.P. 1990. Management: Function and Strategy, Irwin, Homewood, IL. Beebe, S.A., Beebe, S.J. & Redmond, M.V. 2016. Interpersonal Communication Relating to Others, 8th edn, Pearson Education Inc, Boston, MA. Coca Cola. Code of Business Conduct: Acting with Integrity Around the Globe, http://www.coca-colacompany.com/ investors/code-of-business-conduct, viewed 15 March 2018. Fair Work Ombudsman. 2018. Consultation and cooperation in the workplace, https://www.fairwork.gov.au/how-wewill-help/templates-and-guides/best-practice-guides/ consultation-and-cooperation-in-the-workplace, viewed 1 March 2018.

FECCA. Fact Sheet 8: Maximising the Value of Cultural Diversity, Harmony in the Workplace: Delivering the Diversity Dividend, http://www.fecca.org.au/images/ Documents/Harmony/factsheet%208%20%20maximising%20the%20value% 20of%20cultural%20diversity.pdf, viewed 19 March 2018. Gallant, Melany. 2013. ‘4 Innovative and Meaningful Employee Engagement Activities That Work! (and Why)’, TalentSpace blog, http://www.halogensoftware.com/blog/4innovative-and-meaningful-employee-engagementinitiatives-that-work-and-why, viewed 22 March 2018. Google. 2018. Code of Conduct, https://abc.xyz/investor/other/ google-code-of-conduct.html, viewed 5 September 2018. McCarthy, Dan. Updated by Petty, Art. 2017. 70 Awesome Coaching Questions for Managers Using the GROW Model, https://www.thebalance.com/coaching-questions-formanagers-2275913, viewed 12 March 2018. McClelland, D.C. 1985. ‘How motives, skills, and values determine what people do’, American Psychologist, 40(7), 812–25.

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MindTools Content Team. 2018. Dealing With Poor Performance Lack of Ability, or Low Motivation. https:// www.mindtools.com/pages/article/newTMM_80.htm, viewed 18 March 2018. Tolbize, Anick. 2008. Generational Differences in the Workplace, Research and Training Center on Community Living, University of Minnesota, http://rtc.umn.edu/docs/ 2_18_Gen_diff_workplace.pdf, viewed 13 March 2018.

training.gov.au. BSBLDR402 Lead Effective Workplace Relationships, https://training.gov.au/Training/Details/ BSBLDR402, viewed 12 March 2018. Wood, Julia T. 2016. Interpersonal Communication: Everyday Encounters, 8th edn, Wadsworth Cengage Learning, Boston, MA.

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MANAGE TEAM EFFECTIVENESS

What is a TEAM?

Your Learning Journey

CHAPTER

21

CONSULTING + COMMUNICATING to IDENTIFY + DOCUMENT:

Members understand

What

21.1

Who

How

When

team purpose to achieve expected outcomes + take responsibility

key result areas roles Support and fair treatment helps to build HARMONIOUS + COHESIVE TEAMS

responsibilities goals objectives

21.4

Ethics + team communication impacts TEAM CULTURE

5 ENABLERS

21.2 power

accountability

21.5

capability

direction

transparency

Don’t forget to keep OPEN COMMUNICATION with all stakeholders

forming storming

5 Stages of DEVELOPMENT

norming performing adjourning

21.3

CH22

Next LEAD + DEVELOP TEAMS + INDIVIDUALS

Build COOPERATIVE RELATIONSHIPS + develop efficient work practices

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LEARNING OBJECTIVES After studying this chapter, you should be able to: 21.1 consult and communicate openly as you identify and document team purpose, key result areas, roles, responsibilities, goals and objectives in a team performance plan 21.2 explain how ethics and team communication influence norms and team development 21.3 explain how work-team enablers build cooperative relationships and develop efficient work practices 21.4 discuss the importance of support and fair treatment when identifying and resolving work performance problems 21.5 liaise with, establish and maintain open communication processes with all stakeholders.

21.1 WHAT IS A TEAM? The terms ‘team’ and ‘group’ are frequently used interchangeably because on most occasions, they share almost identical characteristics. However, though a team can always be loosely classified as a group, a group may not conform to the more specific criteria for a team, which is that members: • operate according to a mandate • are assigned specific roles • consider the team is responsible for achieving specified organisation goals. A team is a group with a charter or reason for being. A work team may form in various ways. The most Discuss common kind of team is set up by management; for example, a work team with specific responsibilities organisational goals and the relationship and accountabilities for a specific function (say, production or finance), a project work team set up to between complete a specific project (and then disbanded), or a management team established to plan, implement, organisation and control and monitor progress and achievements across the organisation. A team may, however, gradually team goals with your evolve with its own particular structure and behaviours. team. A work team’s effectiveness is demonstrated by the quantity and quality of its outputs, how the members interact to achieve EXHIBIT 21.1 Critical success factors in an the team goals and objectives, and the capacity of the team to effective work team fulfil its purpose and adapt to ongoing change. Refer to Exhibit 21.1 for critical success factors for team effectiveness. An Capacity to adapt to ongoing change effective team leader encourages and supports team members to take responsibility for their own work. Achievement of planned outputs Collaborate to achieve team responsibilities and accountabilities efficiently and effectively.

and outcomes Positive team interaction to achieve goals

A clear purpose statement, goals and objectives

CONSULT AND CLARIFY TEAM PURPOSE AND KEY RESULT AREAS Every team should have a short, clear team purpose statement to enable team members to understand clearly the team’s reason for being. A variety of communication channels such as formal team meetings, virtual meetings, informal team briefings, brainstorming, notice boards, Google Docs and Sheets, apps, online shared workplaces, emails and other useful methods are used to discuss, explain and agree the purpose statement, goals and objectives. Consultation allows team members to contribute to team performance plans.

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CHAPTER 21 / Manage team effectiveness

Purpose statement The purpose statement identifies and defines: • what the team does – the specific focus that differentiates it from other teams • who will receive and use the team’s products or services (internal and external customers) • how the team will serve its customers (values, quality and processes). Exhibit 21.2 shows a purpose statement for a records management team.

EXHIBIT 21.2 Purpose statement for a records management team. What, who, how

Actions

What and who

Our purpose is to be the guardians of the company’s records and records management system.

How

We will: • maintain existing and establish new records retention schedules • train and advise staff in good records management practice • respond to external government agencies regarding records and records management practices • report annually to senior management about compliance of systems with records management legislation and regulations • achieve this by consulting and promoting honesty, openness and respect for internal and external customers.

Key result areas (KRAs) A team usually has five to seven key result areas (KRAs). Every team should know its KRAs, as these are the activities that contribute most to team and organisational performance. Together, these five to seven KRAs cover significant aspects of performance such as financial, customer, task, relationship, quality and safety. Each KRA for a team consists of a group of tasks designed to achieve the team’s results. Clarification of the KRAs enables team members to know why the team exists and what they need to do within the team. Each KRA should be supported by measures of success or key performance indicators (KPIs). Key performance indicators are the specific targets of the important aspects of performance. They: • inform the team leader and members how their efforts will be measured • are benchmarks that should be negotiated and agreed on by team members • are the measures that will be used to monitor team and individual performance.

Clarify the team’s KRAs to enable team members to understand the team’s main areas of accountability and responsibilities.

ESTABLISH TEAM PERFORMANCE PLAN The purpose of a team performance plan is to determine goals and objectives that are clearly linked to organisational goals and objectives. Consulting, negotiating and agreeing the objectives in the team plan before the work is allocated supports achievement of expected outcomes. Team members know how the work is organised and the benchmarks against which it will be monitored. Team members know what they are expected to do, why they are doing it and where to focus their efforts. An effective team performance plan links goal achievement by the team and individual team members to organisational goals and objectives. Rewards linked to team rather than individual performance, such as certificates of achievement and team of the year awards, promote high team performance.

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Contents of a team performance plan Develop a team performance plan that covers KRAs, is realistic, specific and measurable.

In a team performance plan, goals should cover the team’s KRAs and be realistic. The team performance plan in Exhibit 21.3 commences with the team purpose statement and identifies one of the team’s overall goals. The goal is a broad statement of intent supported by objectives. The objectives identify how the team intends to accomplish the overall goal and its identified targets. The steps are the actions (who and what) the team members will undertake to achieve the objectives, targets and overall goal within the timeframe.

Developing the performance plan

Listen and respond with empathy.

When developing the team performance plan, work with the team to: • clarify the team’s purpose and KRAs • identify goals and objectives • identify and allocate required resources to tasks • negotiate and assign individual tasks • set and agree benchmarks and timelines for individual team members • determine and agree benchmarks and timelines for team. When implementing the team performance plan: • participate and facilitate the team to meet the identified performance outcomes • encourage input into planning and decision making and follow through with action • provide feedback and support team members to take responsibility for their work • encourage team members to assist and work cooperatively with others • mentor and coach as required, and identify any need for training and development • address issues or concerns and manage difficulties into positive outcomes.

Monitor and review When monitoring and reviewing outputs and outcomes from the performance plan: • identify, discuss and resolve difficulties encountered by team members • monitor performance of team and individual members against agreed benchmarks and timelines • provide constructive feedback to team and individual members • monitor training and development needs of team and team members • work effectively to support the team by communicating well. If you fail to consider factors such as feedback and context, the team may misunderstand your intentions and ideas. Refer to Chapter 2, Develop emotional intelligence and interpersonal intelligence, and Chapter 8, Develop negotiation and conflict management skills, for a range of listening, attending, reflecting and encouraging skills that enhance interpersonal and team communication. Commitment to the team is one of the outcomes of a positive climate. If you do not feel committed or valuable to your team, or feel unable to change the team, you may be working in a negative communication climate or creating one yourself. In such a case, it may be a better option to leave the team.

Develop team cohesion Team cohesiveness is the level of common purpose and commitment among members. In a cohesive team, members obtain a high level of job satisfaction mainly because they feel needed by the team and will not let the team down. Listening, attending, reflecting and encouraging skills are used to increase understanding and focus on tasks, and maintain positive interactions and processes between the team and other stakeholders. 562 Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202

CHAPTER 21 / Manage team effectiveness

EXHIBIT 21.3 Team performance plan for a marketing and sales team Team purpose statement: To enhance our company’s position in the market, bring new product offerings to market, grow our market share and adhere to high-quality standards in product and service delivery. Overall goal: By end of year, team will generate revenue of $10 million Objectives: By end of year the team will: • sell 1 million units of current product at average price of $6 • introduce one new product line • attend the half day ‘Teamwork Refresher Program’ by end of 7th month • work in accordance with safe work procedures (no time lost to injury) • increase total sales (current product lines plus new product line). (Note: Observable key performance indicators highlighted in bold italics) Members of team: Marketing Team Leader – Sam; Promotion and Advertising – Mike; Sales – Shona, Frank, Scott, Myla Objective 1: By end of year, sell 1 million units of current product at average price of $6 Steps 1. Sales team Shona, Frank and Scott to maintain and build ongoing relationship with existing customer base (Myla delegated to work with Mike) 2. Support sales team in maintaining and growing customer base 3. Monitor and report outcomes at fortnightly team meetings

By whom

By when

Shona, Frank and Scott

Ongoing

Sam

Ongoing

Sam and team

Ongoing

By whom

By when

Objective 2: By end of year, team will introduce one new product line Steps

1. Myla delegated to work with Mike to maintain existing customer relationships Shona, Frank and Scott

Ongoing

2. Introduce new product line by: researching and defining prospective market

Mike and Myla

By end of month

3. Target existing and potential new customers in the market through promotion and advertising

Mike and Myla

By end of 2nd month

Mike, Myla and Shona

By end of 4th month

Shona, Frank, Scott and Myla

Ongoing

4. Visit prospective purchasers to discuss new product line 5. Grow sales of new product line

Objective 3: By end of year, team will attend the half-day ‘Teamwork Refresher Program’ Steps

By whom

By when

Sam

By end of 2nd month

Attend program

Shona, Frank and Scott

By end of 4th month

Attend program

Sam, Mike and Myla

By end of 7th month

Determine and organise (in consultation with team) participation in ‘Teamwork Refresher Program’

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>

Objective 4: Work in accordance with safe work procedures (no time lost to injury) Steps Report any hazards or incidents Conduct risk assessment Follow safe work method statements

By whom

By when

Team

Immediately

WHS rep

As required

Team

Daily

Objective 5: By end of year, increase total sales by 5% (current product plus lines plus new product line) Steps

By whom

By when

Maintain regular sales visits to existing customers and highlight benefits of existing product and new product line

Shona, Frank, Scott and Myla

Monthly

Build customer relationships through direct calls to potential new customers

Shona, Frank, Scott and Myla

Ongoing

Website updates and direct mail-out to existing customers

Mike

Bi-monthly

Website updates and direct mail-out to potential customers and general public

Mike

Bi-monthly

Sam and Mike

August

Monitor and take corrective action (if required)

Sam

Ongoing

Report to CEO

Sam

Monthly

Sam, Mike, Shona, Frank, Scott, Myla

By end of year

Organise presence at trade show (purchase space and display and roster team members’ attendance)

Achieve target of 5% growth

A role is the behaviour that is expected of someone who holds a particular position. Work teams operate with set expectations about how each team member should behave. For example, a leader’s role differs from the roles played by other team members. A leader is expected to behave differently from other members (refer to Chapter 22, Lead and develop teams and individuals). A work team’s results are evaluated by considering two aspects. One involves what it does, in terms of production, service or costs; the other involves how it achieves those results, in terms of teamwork, cooperation and initiative. This chapter explains how a team operates to complete its tasks. Communication, involvement and commitment to the team’s goals are important parts of that process.

CHECKPOINT 21.1

1. List three criteria that identify a group as a team. 2. Team KRAs and KPIs: a. Identify the benefits a team gains from a clear team purpose statement. b. List at least three KRAs of your own workplace team. c. What is the purpose of a key performance indicator (KPI)? 3. Performance plan: a. What does an effective performance plan do? b. Brainstorm a list of strategies a team leader can use to encourage team members to take joint ownership of the team’s performance plan.

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CHAPTER 21 / Manage team effectiveness

21.2 TEAM COMMUNICATION Communication and interaction between the team leader, members and other stakeholders such as customers, suppliers and colleagues is the foundation for productive performance. Communication is the enabler for task achievement and relationship building. The way a team leader communicates helps people understand the team’s overall goals, objectives and tasks and affects the attitude of team members towards the organisation and the team. Without communication, teamwork cannot happen. Discussion about the team’s common goals and the cooperation required to achieve those goals are essential to create an understanding of the team’s purpose and the teamwork necessary to achieve that purpose. A team leader who speaks courteously and treats team members equally demonstrates respect. Respect, acceptance and recognition of the obligations of individual members by the team leader encourage team members to engage with tasks and relationships. Respectful discussions allow team members to: • speak their minds • have their points of view considered and appreciated • commit to team goals and shared effort as they work together to achieve team goals. Disrespect leads to defensiveness, confusion, misunderstandings, disagreements, disputes and conflict. The likely outcome from disrespectful behaviour within a team is miscommunication, demotivation and a decline in the efficiency of individuals and the team.

ETHICS, VALUES AND NORMS Ethics, team values, norms and standards influence the way members interact with each other over time. A team’s ethics are defined as the code of moral principles and values that govern the behaviour of team members with respect to what is right or wrong. Ethics deals with the internal values that are a part of team culture. Team values are defined as the specific beliefs the team holds about what is right and what is wrong. Values establish the culture, impact on standards and reflect the principles that sustain the team’s efforts. For example, a team that values communication and equal treatment of members establishes ways to behave that reinforce positive communication. The team leader and members are expected to speak respectfully to each other, avoid talking down to one another, and recognise and thank each other for their contributions. The success of a team depends on how a team functions, makes decisions, assigns work and engenders accountability of its members for individual and team performance. A team that values accountability, for example, expects individual team members to acknowledge and accept responsibility for their decisions, actions, products and services. The collective value of accountability is applied to the individual member as well as to the team. As members act in accordance with team values, current and new members learn about expectations of appropriate behaviour. For example, a team’s expectations or values for communication in team meetings may be to arrive on time, work from an agenda, follow the rules for effective meetings, listen without interrupting or holding competing conversations and end the meetings on time. The values displayed by members’ behaviour throughout a meeting reflect the meetings’ culture. Norms are the agreed guidelines or set of rules developed as a team forms and works collectively. As team members interact, norms guide the behaviour of members towards each other and with other stakeholders. Without positive clear norms that are understood by all members, team behaviour may become dysfunctional or disruptive and impact negatively on the team’s performance.

Develop team norms to shape interaction of team members with one other and with other stakeholders who are external to the team.

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Ground rules Ground rules to set the team’s expectations of how members will work together to accomplish the team’s goals are a characteristic common to high-performing teams. A team that is involved in setting the ground rules rather than having them imposed by management is more likely to work within the rules. Ground rules about how decisions will be made, how problems and conflict will be managed and how team members will be held accountable become the norms that reflect the team’s values Three elements ground rules focus on are shown in Exhibit 21.4.

EXHIBIT 21.4 Three areas of focus for ground rules To facilitate the assigning of tasks and distribution of workload

To facilitate norms about handling problems, conflict, decision making and accountability

To facilitate communication processes, channels, work processes and actions

Ground rules: identify the expected behaviours of members of the team facilitate communication and reciprocal interactions among team members and other stakeholders help to establish communication channels such as face-to-face, digital workplace, email, voice mail, text message, mobile, internet. The choice of communication channels and the ground rules for their use are based on needs and work processes. Effective ground rules about task analysis and distribution of workload ensure tasks are assigned and workload distributed according to members’ roles, accountabilities and capabilities. All members are listened to and receive equal treatment. • • •

RELATIONSHIPS, ROLES AND TASKS A team with strong team values, clear ground rules and positive communication enables members to fulfil their roles effectively. Core values are agreed and shared and team members are able to build cooperative relationships and accomplish tasks and team goals effectively.

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CHAPTER 21 / Manage team effectiveness

General roles within a team There are three general roles that help a team achieve its goals – task-related roles, maintenancerelated roles and dysfunctional roles. An understanding of these different roles helps to explain some of a team’s interactions, as well as how they communicate and the influence this can have on norms and team development.

Maintenance-related roles Communication roles such as advising and counselling others and facilitating communication helps the team to maintain its identity and reason for being. These communication or maintenance-related roles are concerned with people and their relationships. By opening up the channels of communication, developing relationships and considering the needs of individuals as tasks and activities are undertaken, team leaders help to maintain team relationships. Positive interaction helps to reduce tension and avoid conflict. The resulting people-orientation helps to keep the team together so that tasks can be completed effectively.

Task-related roles Task-related roles are action-oriented. Communication focuses on getting the job done: for example, instructing, briefing, reporting, self-evaluating performance and assessing the performance of others. Exhibit 21.5 gives seven examples of questions and statements typical of task-related roles. People who play the task roles communicate and act to help the team reach its goals. Team members may assume any of the task-related roles, but an efficient team leader will maintain control of proceedings and support effective performance of the roles.

Implement taskrelated roles effectively to achieve the team’s accountabilities, responsibilities and specific goals.

EXHIBIT 21.5 Team communication – task roles Role

How and why

Example-question or statement

1. The initiator

To start a procedure, define problems and organise solutions to facilitate operations by engaging and motivating team members

‘Why don’t we apply ourselves, fix this problem and move on?’

2. The information seeker

To draw out facts by asking questions and enhance problem solving by sharing objective information

‘As the safety officer, Jill, could you tell us about the problem?’

3. The information giver (preferably an expert)

To provide facts and reassure team of accuracy of objective information and is a reflection of team success

‘The annual report shows that output has increased by 2 per cent.’

4. The opinion seeker

To ask questions to discover the team’s views on a particular topic, encourage engagement and gather ideas from members

‘I’m not sure about that proposal. What do you think about it?’

5. The opinion giver

To offer useful opinions based on personal experience to help interpret information and the position the team has reached

‘One way to overcome the problem might be to …’

> 567

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>

Role

How and why

Example-question or statement

6. The clarifier

To paraphrase, ask for feedback on a member’s comment and integrate ideas to help focus on possibilities by gathering ideas and working towards a solution

‘Are you proposing we complete the manuals ourselves rather than ask consultants for support?’

7. The summariser

To restate the main points and the team’s ideas, plans for action and assess the main points and move the team’s ideas and plans forward

‘So far we have heard from Data Processing, Accounts and Sales. The proposals seem to be …’

Examples of team-maintenance roles, their purpose as well as questions and statements typical of maintenance roles are given in Exhibit 21.6. People who play the maintenance roles communicate and act to support the relationship and belonging needs of members. A team member may assume any of these. An understanding of these different roles and their purpose helps to explain some of a team’s interactions.

Apply maintenancerelated roles to focus on people and encourage positive relationships.

EXHIBIT 21.6 Team communication – maintenance roles Role

How and why

Example-Question or statement

1. The harmoniser

To reduce tensions and mediate between members to maintain harmony and avoid conflict

‘Both suggestions are useful, Sue and Carlos. I think we can combine both in our plan.’

2. The encourager

To give appropriate recognition to all contributions and ensure that each team member participates

‘That’s a great suggestion. You obviously put a lot of work and thought into it.’

3. The communication facilitator

To acknowledge and encourage team members to communicate well with each other and ensure that no single member dominates the discussions or activities

‘That’s interesting. What do others think?’

4. The interpersonal problem solver

To identify and resolve quickly any conflicts that emerge in the team

‘There appears to be a problem here, let’s discuss it.’

5. The standard setter

To suggest norms and standards of behaviour to facilitate performance

‘I’ve noticed the team prefers to keep management structure issues out of these meetings. Is this a subject to be avoided?’

Identify dysfunctional behaviour and support team member to contribute to team purpose and outcomes.

Dysfunctional roles Dysfunctional roles disrupt team communication and activities as well as weaken its cohesion and distract the team from its purpose. Dysfunctional roles arise for any number of reasons, including a lack of vision or purpose, poor definition of roles, unclear performance goals, an absence of appropriate standards for behaviour and inappropriate or unfair application of reward and recognition processes (see Exhibit 21.7).

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CHAPTER 21 / Manage team effectiveness

EXHIBIT 21.7 Team communication – dysfunctional roles Role

How and why

Example-Question or statement

Aggressor

To make personal attacks by using belittling and insulting comments

‘That’s never going to work.’

Blocker

To oppose every idea or opinion put forward and refuse to offer suggestions

‘You can’t do it without permission.’

Self-confessor

To use the group meetings as an avenue to disclose personal feelings and relate issues to personal life

‘That reminds me of a time when I …’

Dominator

To control the conversation, dictate what people should be doing and exaggerate own knowledge

‘Next time we’ll do it my way.’

Help seeker

To look for sympathy by expressing feelings of inadequacy, being self-deprecating and unable to contribute

‘I can’t help you, I’m too useless with this stuff.’

Roles, effective teams and change Effective teams have members in both task and maintenance-related roles to assure a balance of accomplishment of tasks, relationship building and sense of satisfaction from team membership. A work team’s emotional climate is continually changing and maintenance roles change too. The tasks a team is asked to complete also change. External environmental changes also affect the team. A decision by management – for example, to diversify the company’s activities – means the development of new teams or adaptation of existing teams to new members and the skills needed to adapt flexibly to complete new tasks. If a company goes into liquidation, its teams will disband as people leave the company.

HOW DOES A GROUP DEVELOP? Cooperative groups and teams pass through stages as they develop, mature and work together to accomplish common goals. The four stages of group development, identified by Tuckman (1965), are: 1. forming 2. storming 3. norming 4. performing and a fifth stage was later added: 5. adjourning, which describes how a group or team evolves. The following discussion focuses on the communication tasks during the five stages of development. The stages usually (but not necessarily) occur in the following sequence: forming, storming, norming, performing and adjourning. As a team forms, it may evolve slowly or quickly as it moves through the stages. While most teams move through all five stages, some may overlap stages or even miss out one or two completely.

Communicate and contribute to quality interactions in each stage – forming, storming, norming, performing and adjourning – of group or team development.

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Forming Use your interpersonal skills to build rapport and find common ground.

In the forming stage, group members may be uncertain about the group’s membership, leadership and goals, so great importance can be attached to the group’s leader as members look for support, guidance and direction. When people interact for the first time in a team, differences in operating methods emerge. Some seek information, some give opinions, others like to encourage everyone to participate. Throughout the forming stage the team leader and members concentrate their communication on the explanation of goals, securing commitment to the team’s purpose and the creation of relationships. Members are willing to find out about each other, look for inclusion and determine their relative status in the group. As they interact, members are able to recognise the attitudes and skills of others and are willing to make tentative contributions. The forming stage allows members to establish the real purpose of the group.

Storming Encourage and refocus self and others from conflict on to the team’s goals and reason for being.

During the storming stage, members are willing to discuss problems or concerns, provide negative and positive feedback and present alternative points of view. Conflict may emerge as group members begin to perform their various roles, negotiate where they fit in the group’s structure and have their ideas heard. Conflict, if managed properly can be an important and productive aspect of team development. Conflict may be about leadership or power and the way the team’s goals are being achieved. Alternatively, it may be about the individual performance of some members or feelings about inclusion or exclusion from the group. Personal agendas or a lack of commitment to the team’s goals can lead to disagreement, disengagement and hidden agendas that jeopardise the team’s cohesiveness and effectiveness. Conflict that clarifies ideas and is resolved is a positive force that enables the team to become more cohesive.

Norming Negotiate and work out the team’s norms.

During the norming stage, communication and actions focus on problem solving, decision making, improvement of plans and verification of goals. The team leader and members offer one another support, interact and develop relationships as similarities and differences emerge. Team norms – acceptable behaviour, attitudes, work patterns and related behaviour – emerge at this stage. The team becomes cohesive and members learn to tolerate each other’s differences. As members start to feel part of the team they share goals and develop a common group approach to tasks. The team establishes a ‘pecking order’ as members accomplish work goals, establish and maintain relationships. Teams that fail to identify goals or to follow through to goal achievement can become ‘bogged down’ in activities rather than goal accomplishment. They never really emerge from the norming stage and fail to achieve group identity or a common purpose.

Performing Work well together to achieve the team’s goals.

The performing stage occurs when a group has formed its identity and structure. Members have specific duties, responsibilities and tasks, know how to perform and have support from, and trust in, other members. The team gets on with the job but strikes a balance between task completion and maintenance of interpersonal relationships. During the performing stage, performance depends on the team’s ability to make a decision, take action or make recommendations to accomplish tasks. There can be wide differences in the effectiveness of different teams or groups in completing their tasks. Some groups focus on collective success and work relatively smoothly toward the completion of a task or the achievement of the team purpose. They capitalise on the synergy that comes from the

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CHAPTER 21 / Manage team effectiveness diverse experiences group members bring to the decision-making process. The result is acceptance of delegated tasks, involvement in decision making and continuous improvement in how tasks are done. Interpersonal relationships facilitate task performance. Other teams or groups may pursue individual goals and personal status instead of collective success. The result is inattention to results. Lack of communication, particularly feedback, unclear objectives and an indecisive team leader cause declining commitment and lack of accountability. A team that lacks accountability, for example, may push back deadlines. Any desire to preserve harmony rather than handle conflict productively may lead to groupthink.

Adjourning During the adjourning stage, tasks are finalised and relationships fade as commitment is no longer needed. A team may disband because of a restructure, a committee is wound up or a task force is dissolved. Members check achievement of goals, finalise any outstanding tasks or relationship matters, celebrate accomplishments, plan for the future and leave the group. Find an example and further discussion of Tuckman’s Stages of Group Development and the life cycle of a group at http://www.skillsyouneed.com > life-cycle, under the heading Group Life-Cycles.

TEAM GROUPTHINK A form of team behaviour that should be avoided or minimised is groupthink, first described by Janis (1972). Groupthink is a term for the situation where no team or group member challenges the rest of the team or wishes to seem out of step with the others. The group’s cohesion is too strong and impairs the team’s performance: the team fails to study objectives or research adequately, does not consider alternatives and may take unnecessary risks. Groupthink creates an environment where different perspectives are not challenged. Over time, questions are not offered. Instead, team members reach consensus rather than offer ideas that are different from others. Groupthink pressures members into staying silent and agreeing to decisions that they would like to question and discuss further because they feel uncomfortable and want to avoid being excluded from the group. Examples of groupthink include UK companies Marks & Spencer, Swissair, which was often referred to as ‘The Flying Bank’, and British Airways. Concentration on past successes created a mindset and group feeling within each company that they were financially stable. Collective overconfidence and the illusion of invulnerability prevented the companies from undertaking a critical assessment of their position and how they made decisions. Individuals felt the consequences of misinterpreting a problem were too high for the individual to raise a problem officially. Groupthink leads to the selective evaluation of information. Members may tend to look after their own interests rather than those of their organisation. Teams suffering from groupthink display the following symptoms: • the illusion of invulnerability • a tendency to stereotype outsiders • a readiness to ridicule members if they criticise or put forward new ideas • a failure to express doubt because of ‘self-censorship’ and social pressure by other members • an illusion of internal harmony, maintained by avoiding disagreements • little or no attempt to obtain information from experts and selective bias in the way the group reacts to factual information and considered opinion from experts.

Encourage the team to express opinions, different points of view and critically evaluate alternatives in order to minimise the risk of groupthink.

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THE GRAPEVINE The grapevine is informal communication that usually spreads internally within a team or organisation through word of mouth. It is spread in a random, undocumented manner and is open to constant change as individuals interpret and share the message. The grapevine contains rumours and gossip shared during breaks, lunch, in after-work get-togethers, happy-hour groups and sports groups. The grapevine bypasses organisational formal lines of communication and can be more direct and faster than the formal channels because the information is not screened or controlled. The advantages and disadvantages of the grapevine communication are shown in Exhibit 21.8.

EXHIBIT 21.8 Advantages and disadvantages of grapevine communication Advantages of grapevine communication

Disadvantages of grapevine communication

• Carries information rapidly as soon as an employee hears or sees some confidential information • May have supportive emotional value through the sharing of opinions • May help develop group cohesiveness and a sense of unity among those who share and discuss their views on the grapevine • Acquire feedback quickly compared to formal channels of communication and lets managers and team leaders know the reactions of others • Acts as a supplement in those situations where formal communication does not work

• Carries partial information often based on rumours rather than facts – may give an unclear picture of the issue • May lead to hostility against executives and senior management • Productivity may be hampered because employees spend more time talking rather than working • May not be trustworthy as it is spread more by gossip and unconfirmed reports instead of following official channels of communication • May carry false and negative information and so hamper the goodwill of the organisation

In times of stress or uncertainty, the amount of information communicated along the informal grapevine channel usually increases. The grapevine network offers a release from emotional stress as people gossip and pass on information informally. As employees try to make sense of what is happening around them, misinformation as well as accurate information may be passed on.

SOCIAL LOAFING Social loafing is the tendency of certain members of a group to exert less effort on a task if they are in a group than when they work alone. Social loafing affects both the group culture and the individuals in the group. The social loafing may influence team morale and satisfaction when members of the group feel the social loafers are taking advantage of the rest of the group to accomplish the loafer’s part of the work. The loafer is considered to share unfair recognition.

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CHAPTER 21 / Manage team effectiveness When some individuals are seen as weak contributors to the group purpose, the group dynamic is affected. The group is likely to be split into an ‘in’ group who are working hard and an ‘out’ group whose members are contributing little to the group effort. Social loafing reduces a team members’ contribution when working on collective tasks and reduces a team’s efficiency. The motivation of other team members is likely to be reduced because they have to complete the tasks the social loafer is avoiding. Tension, misunderstandings and conflict may arise and reduce team cohesiveness and performance. ‘Free-riding’, shirking responsibilities and avoiding group participation may affect the way group members interact with each other and influence the group norms. The sense of unfairness provoked by the free-riding behaviour affects motivation and others in the group may perform below their potential. Consequently, the group becomes a low-performing group. Two common manifestations of social loafing are the: • free-rider effect, where some members do not put in their share of work under the assumption that others’ efforts will cover their shortfall • sucker effect, where the other (fully performing) members lower their efforts in response to the freeriders’ attitude. Group size, low levels of motivation and reduced sense of contribution add to social loafing. The larger the group, the more likely social loafing will occur. Low motivation and an unwillingness of individual group members to participate arise when individual members question the value of the group’s goal. An individual who feels their contribution does not matter is less likely to make the effort. Social loafers look for ways to take on the least amount of responsibility and contribute as little as possible. When this happens, the rest of the group have to take on more than their share of responsibility. Management of social loafing depends on clear norms about acceptable behaviour such as arriving on time, fulfilling responsibilities, accepting and negotiating duties, collaborating with colleagues, meeting deadlines and adapting to unforeseen circumstances. Without positive, clear norms that are understood by all group members, social loafing is likely to become the norm and continue to impact negatively on group performance. 1. Think about the roles you have fulfilled in a team. a. What are the task-related roles concerned with? b. What are the maintenance roles concerned with? c. Identify three factors that cause dysfunctional roles to emerge. d. Provide an example of a task-related role, a maintenance-related role and a dysfunctional role. 2. Reflect on the stages of team development by completing the following tasks. a. List the five stages in the development of a team. b. What does communication focus on in the forming stage of team development? c. What does communication concentrate on in the storming stage? d. What do communications and actions focus on in the norming stage? e. What does performance depend on in the performing stage? 3. Groupthink, grapevine and social loafing. a. Briefly discuss the symptoms displayed by a group suffering from groupthink? b. Identify three advantages and three disadvantages of grapevine communication. c. What causes social loafing in groups? d. What can be done to resist it?

Avoid the negative consequences – lack of cohesion, resentment, less productivity and emotional tension – of social loafing.

CHECKPOINT 21.2

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21.3 WORK-TEAM ENABLERS Enable team members to deliver results through effective application of power, accountability, capability, direction and transparency.

The organisation, the team and each team member must all communicate with each other to learn what tasks are to be completed at each organisation level by each different team member. Cooperative relationships help work teams to develop efficient workplace practices. The five work-team enablers shown EXHIBIT 21.9 Work-team enablers in Exhibit 21.9 are power, accountability, capability, direction and transparency. Each work team must: Accountability Transparency • establish the enablers • agree on ways to develop • create positive relationships • maintain relationships with other teams. Direction Capability The five work-team enablers are the key to meeting performance outcomes and developing positive communication and cooperation within and between Power teams.

Power Apply three sources of team power – personal power, positional power and situational power – to influence teamwork.

Power is the capacity to influence. For a team to develop and work well, it must have power. That power is given by its mandate (reason for being). The team leader and each member must all be clear about the team’s role and individual roles. They must also understand the authority held by their team. The three sources of team power are: • personal power held by each team member • positional power delegated by the organisation to the team leader or any other team member • situational power determined by environmental factors and by team interactions. Any one of these three sources of power can influence the way the work team develops.

Accountability Discuss and explain accountabilities and responsibilities defined in codes of conduct, team purpose statements and position descriptions.

Each work team has a mandate – that is, an authorisation, order or contract to perform its particular duties. A mandate, or clear definition of the work team’s role and each team member’s role, is vital for everyone involved to perform their work tasks, singly and cooperatively. The term ‘accountability’ describes the team’s responsibilities. A team’s effectiveness in meeting its accountabilities depends on the quality of the team leader. The more the team respects the leader, the less a leader has to rely on their formal status in the organisation. The more organised and well-informed the leader, the more likely their influence will be positive and enhance the team’s cohesiveness and effectiveness. Finally, if the leader has good human relations and communication skills, there is less chance of conflict. Not only is the team, as a whole unit, accountable but each member is also individually accountable. The qualifications, skills and attitudes of each member are central to how well the team performs. If members are underqualified, uninterested or over-concerned with their own objectives, then team discussion and actions will be less productive.

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Capability A team’s potential depends greatly on the capability of its members – that is, their qualifications, knowledge, skills and attitudes. It also depends on the team’s operating structure. This is the framework in which individual team members’ capabilities are used. The operating structure enables the organisation, its teams and individuals to meet legislative, industry, market, customer, operational, personal and changing requirements. A team needs an operating structure for its collective achievement. The team’s operating structure also affects its functioning and how people feel about belonging to it. Team members who know what is happening and feel confident can contribute to, and influence, the team’s outcomes. They are able to work productively through the combination of individual and team capabilities.

Direction Direction is the line the team works along to reach its goals. Sometimes these goals are simply to complete the team’s day-to-day activities. Other goals may be longer term – for example, changing to new team systems and ways of doing things. If the direction and goals are clear, it is easier for the team to complete its activities. A team with clear direction is more likely to achieve its intended outcomes. A common purpose and direction, and commitment to the team from its members lead to team cohesion. In a cohesive team, members obtain a high level of job satisfaction. They feel needed and will not let other team members down. Any issues, concerns and problems are recognised, addressed or referred to relevant persons for resolution. Communication flows freely between members of such a team and decisions are rapidly acted on.

Provide clear direction and encourage team effort, performance and actions towards achievement of team goals and objectives.

Transparency Transparency means that it is easy for all members of a team to understand fully what is happening in the team. Each member can participate and trust the capacity of others to get the job done. With transparency, team members collaborate to achieve the team’s goals. Every member has needs – for example, status, friendship or achievement – which they expect the team to meet. Transparency helps individuals to contribute information and ideas clearly, to work towards establishing harmony and to minimise power struggles and conflict in the team. A team that understands its mandate and has a joint commitment to the task usually has a positive attitude and communication climate. If, on the other hand, there is dissatisfaction, lack of unity and low morale, the climate is negative and the team will inevitably be less efficient. While the organisation provides the setting, the work team provides the forum where people interact, develop relationships, and take a common approach to tasks and goals. The way in which a team uses the five enablers – power, accountability, capability, direction and transparency – affects communication and collaboration within the team. The enablers help members to contribute and work with others to complete their own role and achieve the team’s common goals and objectives. Each team in an organisation is constantly changing in response to changing circumstances.

Collaborate to share information, decision making and problem solving to build positive and transparent interactions.

Provide constructive feedback to encourage, reward and value individual and team efforts and contribution.

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CHECKPOINT 21.3

1. Work-team enablers: a. Identify the work-team enablers that help a team to develop efficient work practices and cooperative relationships. b. What are the sources of team power? c. What are the attributes that make team discussion and actions less productive? d. How does transparency help team members? 2. Explain how the work-team enablers enhance team cohesion. 3. How would you describe the culture in a cohesive team?

21.4 FACILITATE TEAMWORK Organisations have established teams to fulfil the functions needed to achieve organisational goals. Teamwork is encouraged because the efforts of members organised around the team’s purpose can yield much more than individual effort. When the team works together to streamline work processes and enhance efficiency, the team leader and members have a sense of belonging and involvement that produces high morale and motivation.

PROMOTE COOPERATIVE RELATIONSHIPS Engage in cooperative effort to promote teamwork by team members to achieve a common goal.

Teamwork means people work together to accomplish a common goal. It is cooperative work, based on collaboration, understanding and sharing of information and resources. Teamwork can be promoted in an organisation’s overall goals or mission. For example, ConocoPhillips (2018), an oil and gas company, includes ‘Teamwork’ in their published ‘SRIRIT values’: ‘Our SPIRIT values (safety, people, integrity, responsibility, innovation and teamwork) set the tone for how we behave. We encourage collaboration, celebrate success, and build and nurture long-standing relationships.’ Teamwork breaks down barriers between departments, enables sharing of different perspectives and communicates the ‘why’ behind decisions and actions. Communication methods and processes that promote effective teamwork include delivering verbal and written presentations to share information face-to-face, online and through social media, providing feedback and discussing team objectives and ideas, questioning and seeking the opinions of others, testing ideas in a way that is critical of the ideas and not the speaker, and negotiating agreement.

Supportive communication Supportive communication enhances team performance and satisfaction. Supportive communication is a willingness to listen with an open-mind and a readiness to ask for the opinions of others. Adaptability and the capacity to change their way of thinking and doing things, and the ability to avoid accusation or blame and negative evaluative terms, are other attributes of team leaders and members who demonstrate supportive communication. Listening to learn, share and promote better ideas, acknowledge concerns and encourage others to contribute encourages teamwork. Concrete, precise, timely feedback centred on the idea, rather than the person, focuses on the issue without demeaning the other person. Team members are usually willing to respond to the feedback and engage in the ongoing exchange of ideas, decision making and problem solving to accomplish shared objectives.

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CHAPTER 21 / Manage team effectiveness Participation and support by the team leader and members are essential components of teamwork. Positive interaction as targets are set, implemented and monitored creates a climate of trust, respect and cohesiveness and avoids a closed group and groupthink. Members are encouraged to speak on issues, and accept and handle criticism and conflict in a positive way. Hidden agendas and gossip are minimal. Teamwork allows team members to be involved in broader jobs and responsibilities and have access to a wider range of training and development opportunities to facilitate their responsibilities. Effective teamwork improves the quality of decision making because a wider range of alternatives and opinions are considered as members share attitudes, experiences and expertise. Teamwork involves several people, so there is a greater capacity to evaluate ambiguous situations and promote unique ideas. Cohesive, high-performing teams enable members to fully use their capabilities. However, in some teams there may be pressure to conform to team norms and attitudes, and the team may take too much time to reach a decision and take action. In a negative team culture, members may try to avoid responsibility and resist change. A dominant person may influence the team’s decision making, leading to incidents, misunderstandings and conflict. However, the disadvantages can be minimised and positive teamwork encouraged if the team leader and members participate in and facilitate task performance and positive interactions.

FAIR TREATMENT AND INCLUSION In an effective team, rather than discriminating on the basis of difference the team benefits from fair treatment. Team leaders and members should recognise individual differences among members such as differences in nationality, gender, intellectual and physical ability, language, experience, race, religion, sexual orientation and work style. Fair treatment acknowledges and embraces team diversity and avoids stereotyping and derogatory and imposed labelling. Inclusive communication and behaviour is non-discriminatory. It assures greater application of team talents and encourages members to contribute their full potential to the team. The characteristics of team leaders who treat others with dignity and sensitivity are: • consideration of the needs of others • embracement of individual differences • lack of bias or prejudice. Discriminatory practices and harassment on the basis of age, race, colour, national extraction, parental status, marital status, religion, physical and intellectual disability can result in distress, distrust, disharmony, inequities, absenteeism, low morale, complaints and poor work performance. Workplaces are legally liable if discriminatory behaviour is proven. Acceptance of individual differences, respect and equal treatment means less conflict and grievance issues within the team. In words and actions, individuals are treated equally. No one is treated less favourably then another person or group because of their background or certain personal characteristics. The result is improved productivity and innovation and greater job satisfaction across the team.

Build a harmonious and cohesive team through sensitivity to and respect for workplace diversity.

Variance in age Workplaces may include up to four generations as Gen Xers (Generation X) enter the management and leadership stages of their careers and Millennials join the workforce. Gen Z, born from 1990 to 2000 follow the Millenials and are now entering the workforce. Baby boomers are the generation born between 1946 and 1964. Baby boomers are described as hard-working, loyal, dependable and willing to work long hours. Generation X is the generation born between 1965 and 1980. They are independent

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Create a positive environment within an intergenerational team.

Treat team members as individuals, respecting their cultural and individual differences to create a culture of respect.

Eliminate discrimination and harassment through systems, practices, training and actions that promote fair and equitable treatment.

thinkers, self-reliant, expert users of technology and value a work–life balance. Millennials, born between 1981 and 2000, are also known as Generation Y or Generation Next. They are ethnically diverse, enjoy working in teams, think organisations should be socially responsible and use more technology and social networking tools than previous generations. The foundation of effective intergenerational leadership is open, honest communication to build trust, teamwork, connections and engagement between the different generations. Techniques applied by effective intergenerational leaders and team members avoid stereotyping based on generational attitudes and are open to knowledge about the characteristics and views of each generation. Recognition and acknowledgement of individual strengths and productivity regardless of age motivates and enables team members to contribute to team results. The four generations may have different preferences for communication channels, hence the ability to adapt and convey workplace expectations through a variety of channels. For example, baby boomers may value verbal communication about changes in policy or procedures, Generation Xers, Millennials and Gen Z may prefer information from the company’s Digital Workplace, email, instant messages, blogs or corporate broadcasts. Intergenerational workplaces create opportunities for mentoring partnerships among the generations. For example, a baby boomer may be partnered with a Millennial to learn more about how to manage the organisation’s internal interactions and interactions with external clients. A Millennial may be partnered with a Gen Xer to learn more about advertising via social media. Fair treatment and open communication encourages free flow of ideas and creates trust between team members. Strategies that increase trust include communicating direct and clear statements of intent to all team members and discussing policies and procedures openly. Leaders who are open to new ideas and accept the diversity among generations are able to influence team members, facilitate a positive work culture and productive work environment.

Culturally aware communication Acknowledgement of cultural diversity allows team leaders to use oral and written communication effectively. Choice of words, voice intonation and expressions differ between cultures. There are variations in the approach to time, environment, comfort, personal feelings and motivations. The use of body language and its interpretation can vary between age groups and cultures. Leaders should use inclusive rather discriminatory language to avoid offence when they use internal communication tools such as memoranda, short reports, intranet, emails and social media to explain team goals, strategies and progress. In team meetings, coaching and mentoring, leaders who use inclusive communication to involve groups and individuals in discussion, problem solving and explaining issues will earn respect and support. Fair and respectful communication improves the sharing of knowledge and increases job satisfaction, and employee engagement. Good communicators use strategies in their oral and written communication to include individual differences in the workplace. Culturally aware communication builds trust within the organisation. Respectful instructions, feedback and small talk encourage team members to exchange ideas and information, engage and support one another. A positive workplace culture and environment encourages teamwork and high performance.

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TEAM – Together Everyone Achieves More Teamwork is the art of collaborating with others. It is a skill that is not only highly sought after but vital in almost every industry. Employees are expected to be team workers. Even jobs that favour independent workers, when looked at from the wider perspective, still require team players. A job might require someone to work alone, but that work should also be viewed in the context of the bigger picture such as the company’s goals; and even an independent worker needs to be able to communicate progress or issues to other people in the organisation. All employees need to be able to work with others. Team workers need to be respectful and reliable, they need listening and communication skills, as well as an ability to manage conflict. Team workers are highly valued by potential employers, recruiters and hiring managers. You will find teamwork is a requirement for most job listings, even those seeking independent, selfmotivated workers.

FROM THEORY TO PRACTICE

Source: Doyle, Alison. 2017. List of Teamwork Skills, https://www.thebalance.com/list-of-teamwork-skills-2063773, viewed 29 March 2018.

ASK YOURSELF: What skills do you possess that help you to be a team player? Can you think of an example you could give to a potential employer of a time you used some of these skills?

ADDRESS ISSUES, CONCERNS AND PROBLEMS Resistance, negativity or internal threats to a team and the work it does can lead to conflict. Restructuring, downsizing, outsourcing, new technology and other factors may cause resistance to change and negative attitudes that may even lead to conflict. Additionally, concerns and problems may arise because of: • the team’s inability to perform to the required standard of performance in its KRAs due to poor technical, people or teamwork skills • an increasing number of incidents, issues and conflict within a team • lack of coordination, communication and liaison with other teams • poor decision-making and problem-solving processes • lack of commitment to safety and welfare of others • erratic attendance, punctuality and observance of procedures • inability of the team to meet bottom-line rules and regulations • variations in the quality of a product or service causing customer dissatisfaction and complaints. Managers, supervisors and team leaders should take action to support the team as soon as an issue or concern arises to prevent it escalating to a crisis. Any action taken must be ethical and remain confidential. Team leaders and their team are able to manage issues and concerns when they address them before misunderstandings, tension and crisis arise. Exhibit 21.10 identifies four steps to follow as the team addresses an issue or concern. Issues, concerns and conflict dealt with positively will increase understanding and team performance. Issues and concerns that are ignored will impede a team’s performance. The ongoing success of a team depends upon how it deals with the problem. Rather than attributing blame or ignoring the issues, the team leader should support the team to explore the reasons and cause, problem solve and decide how to take corrective action. All managers, supervisors and team leaders and their teams will experience conflict. Refer to Chapter 8, Develop negotiation and conflict management skills, for a range of strategies to handle issues, problems and conflict.

Address issues as they arise to minimise discomfort, incidents, misunderstandings, tension and crisis.

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EXHIBIT 21.10 Steps in addressing an issue or concern

Define the issue

To gain a clear idea of the issue(s) before taking action

Identify who is involved

To identify and group together people with shared needs and concerns

List each party's concerns

To work out the win–win approach and generate appropriate solutions

Draw together common threads

To highlight points of special concern or importance

Hot stove principle The ‘hot stove principle’ applies to the bottom-line rules and regulations that everyone must follow; for example, standard operating procedures and safe work method statements. A breach of any of the bottom-line rules and regulations results in warnings and then disciplinary measures. Ignoring rather than dealing with a breach of the bottom-line rules leads to negative behaviour and threats to a team’s cohesiveness. The hot stove principle highlights the need for disciplinary procedures to be applied in a nondiscriminatory manner: ‘No favourites. No scapegoats’. Any team member who touches the ‘hot stove’ (i.e. breaches a bottom-line rule or regulation) receives an immediate response. There is no doubt about the cause and effect of breaching the regulation or rule. The disciplinary warning is applied consistently to whoever touches the hot stove. Every contact with the ‘hot stoves’ within the team or organisation will have the same result: you will get burned. The warning or disciplinary action is not directed against a specific person or group. No matter who breaches bottom-line rules and regulations they will be disciplined. Manager, supervisors and team leaders should always remember the hot stove principle where discipline is concerned. Ensure: • team members know what will happen if bottom-line rules and regulations are broken • team members receive a warning if they do breach guidelines (‘touch the hot stove’) • penalties are consistent, impersonal and everyone receives the same treatment • due process is followed and, if appropriate, apply the discipline as soon after the event as investigations will allow.

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CHAPTER 21 / Manage team effectiveness

Straight-talk Rather than simply imparting information, team leaders and members may engage in straight-talking and crucial conversations. Straight-talk simply says what you mean in Plain English without empty words that hide the real message. Straight-talking about problems, procedures and suggestions is effective: • when you know what you want to say • when it gets and keeps attention • when it confirms understanding. For example, in a meeting the team leader straight-talks about customer service: ‘Too many customers are saying service is slow and their opinions regarding the slow service are not being listened to, so we need to better handle customer complaints. From now on, if a customer comes to our company with a complaint, I am asking you to apologise, offer a refund or a replacement service or product. Please put their best interests first even if you think you are right and they are wrong.’ Straight-talking in conversations, emails or meetings identifies clearly: 1. what you want to accomplish 2. what you expect from others.

Difficult conversations Dealing with issues that occur at work in a prompt and fair manner often involves having difficult conversations. Exhibit 21.11 outlines some guidelines for handling these conversations.When having a difficult conversation, remain calm, objective and focused on the issues, and be prepared to respond calmly if the other person reacts emotionally. If the difficult conversation involves a challenging and emotional issue, let the team member know they can bring a support person to the meeting if they feel they want someone else to observe what happens during the meeting.

EXHIBIT 21.11 Guidelines for handling difficult conversations Step 1

Stating what the issue is straight away rather than beginning with irrelevant small talk

Step 2

Using open, positive body language to complement your spoken words

Step 3

Listening to the other person and considering their point of view

Step 4

Staying with the facts instead of opinions or hearsay and offering examples where possible

Step 5

Focusing on the issue rather than the person and explaining how the issue is impacting on others

Step 6

Keeping an open mind because there could be a range of other facts or situations that you are unaware of

Step 7

Considering and discussing alternate solutions to problems that are possible to achieve

Step 8

Reaching agreement with the other person on a plan for resolving the issue

Step 9

Gaining commitment to a plan of action and keeping a record of the discussions

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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK Follow up agreed actions with the team member and keep the channels of communication open so that you can both feel comfortable discussing any other issues that may arise. Unresolved workplace issues may result in absenteeism and harm morale, team culture and productivity. When difficult conversations are executed quickly and outcomes are successful, the confidence and engagement of team members is improved. A significant portion of a team leader’s time is spent evaluating and appraising performance and dealing with poor performance if and when it arises. An effective team leader identifies appropriate tactics for monitoring and follow up actions. Tactics that inspire, motivate and develop team members include one-on-one check-in meetings, mentoring, coaching and collaboration. Beliefs about job security, benefits, concern for employee welfare, and communication and treatment from management all contribute to trust expectations between team members, team leaders and the organisation. If a member believes the team leader or organisation is breaking expectations, they may cease to make extra efforts to produce, and disengage from the team and its goals. People become demoralised, unwilling to take risks and lack commitment. Consequently, hidden agendas, denial, gossip and conflict emerge within the team.

PROMOTE EFFICIENT WORK PRACTICES Team leaders can build positive relationships and trust with a team through consultation and concern for the needs of the team and other stakeholders. To do this, set clear targets, plan, organise and monitor progress towards targets. Knowledge of the different stages of group development enables you to recognise and provide support, guidance and direction appropriate to the team’s stage of development. Deliver criticism and compliments in the right way through constructive feedback, focused on what is happening rather than criticising the person. Support the team to produce results by accessing appropriate developmental opportunities such as one-on-one check-in meetings, mentoring, coaching, training and other activities as required.

One-on-one check-in meetings One-on-one check-in meetings are conversations of about 10 to 20 minutes between a team leader and team member. The discussion focuses on the ‘big picture’ strategy to sort out what is going well and what needs to change. Rather than simply talking about today’s work, the one-on-one check-in is a private meeting about overall goal(s) and direction. The one-on-one provides a regular time for addressing any issues and concerns or for acknowledging successes. The regular conversations keep the team members engaged with the team leader and with the team’s goals and objectives. Any obstructions to performance can be identified and removed and problems can be addressed. Team members who are involved in one-on-one conversations are able to understand the bigger picture and have a greater sense of the purpose of their role and the team’s role. Team members know how they are performing, and are able to make any necessary adjustments progressively rather than being surprised in the more formal end-of-year performance appraisals. The meetings have an informal, flexible structure without the need for formal minutes. The informal structure encourages conversation and frank, courteous exchanges of ideas and information. The team leader guides the conversation, provides feedback and listens well to hear, understand and acknowledge the team ember’s issues, concerns, progress and successes. During the conversation, the team leader and member should: • ask clarifying questions • paraphrase and acknowledge feelings 582 Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202

CHAPTER 21 / Manage team effectiveness • •

ensure issues are addressed respect each other’s concerns and work performance. As both parties are accountable for any commitments made in the one-on-one check-in meeting, simple records of outcomes are usually kept by both the team leader and member.

Mentoring skills Mentoring in an organisation is useful in ensuring that teams and individuals achieve competence and work effectively. Mentoring can increase productivity and assist an organisation to achieve its goals and objectives in a cost-effective manner. A mentoring program can be either formally or informally structured. A formal mentoring program defines its goals and creates an action plan. It identifies how the results and benefits of the program will be measured and the resources required. An informal mentoring program leaves individuals and their leaders or managers to self-select the areas to include in the mentoring program. It is often impromptu and unplanned. Measuring the results of the informal mentoring program will depend on the mentor and mentoree taking the time to plan and decide on the intended results. To be successful, both mentor and mentoree should be goal-oriented and committed to the mentoring process. Mentors should be willing to pass on their skills and glad to acknowledge a mentoree’s work. Mentors need strong interpersonal skills and an interest in working with other people. Effective listening and use of positive nonverbal communication by the mentor build the mentoree’s trust in the mentor and confidence in their own ability to learn. Mentorees should be willing and able to learn from their mistakes. A mentor takes an interest in another person’s career development. The mentor provides positive support and feedback and helps the mentoree understand the formal and informal system. Often, it is the leader who mentors a team member and is responsible for their development. The leader acts as a role model. Communication is a critical success factor in the mentoring process. Leaders who can use their interactive communication skills well are able to mentor well and inspire support.

Coaching skills Coaching is about building on potential and facilitating self-improvement and team improvement. Effective coaches unlock the potential in others. They establish rapport and help the other person to develop skills, set goals, enhance performance and develop personally and professionally. Coaches engage through questioning, listening and guiding towards performance improvement. They ensure that there is sufficient time and opportunity for team members to practise and reflect on the skills and knowledge passed on in the coaching process. Exhibit 21.12 lists the different roles of a workplace coach. Coaching can be as informal as an encouraging conversation with a colleague, or more formal, such as during an appraisal conversation or a formalised coaching session. Effective coaches engage interpersonally by: • explaining, clarifying and giving feedback • giving credit for achievements and providing encouragement • demonstrating and modelling desired actions and behaviours. The common obstacles to coaching include a lack of time, low priority and lack of coaching skills. These are overcome when an organisation identifies coaching as a priority and allocates the necessary time and resources to coaching activities. (Chapter 22, Lead and develop teams and individuals, highlights the coaching and mentoring roles of team leaders.)

Coach to transfer skills to a less experienced person to improve their performance and motivation.

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EXHIBIT 21.12 Roles of a workplace coach Type of role

Purpose

Guiding

• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Assist members gain knowledge about the organisation Help the member work within the organisation’s culture Identify and support career development opportunities Gain agreement on intended outcomes Help the member think through a process Provide intensive one-on-one training Encourage and supervise as member practises new task Model how to do the activity in the workplace Demonstrate the task skills Transfer the underpinning knowledge Encourage two-way discussion Involve members in what needs to be done and how it will be done Motivate members to deliver enhanced performance Help members solve their own problems rather than provide all the answers Show interest in the needs, work and concerns of workgroup members Build on strengths Share insights Work through conflict Consult and set direction Clarify goals Support action plans Acknowledge strengths Provide support and opportunities to improve performance Agree to what will be done, how it will be done and by when

• • • • • •

Create a positive communication climate Offer suggestions Use empathy Listen actively Gain feedback to check learning Give constructive feedback

Tutoring

Training

Empowering

Counselling

Managing performance

Communicating

Training and development Training and development is initiated to develop the technical (task) skills and interpersonal (maintenance) skills of employees. The outcome from effective training and development is performance improvement of the individual, team or organisation. A training program may be part of an overall professional development program, part of succession planning to help an employee develop the expertise to fill another role in the organisation, or it may be aimed at training in a specific skill or skill set. Training may be delivered: • formally in off-the-job in a training room at TAFE, university or other training institution • informally in short training programs specific to the needs of an organisation’s employees • on the job in traineeships, apprenticeships, job rotation and shadowing • by distance and online learning, supported by learning portals that include learning and assessment experiences through multimedia, wikis, blogs, RSS feeds and 3D virtual learning spaces. 584 Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202

CHAPTER 21 / Manage team effectiveness The worth or value of training is evaluated by gathering information about the participants’ reactions, the amount of learning and the impact of the learning on skills and performance. Refer to Chapter 22 for more information. 1. Team leaders and teamwork: a. Briefly discuss the attributes of team leaders and members who demonstrate supportive communication. b. What are the benefits of teamwork? c. Brainstorm the communication skills of team leaders that have the ability to support team performance. 2. Hot stove principle: a. Outline the steps in addressing an issue or concern. b. What is the hot stove principle? c. What advice would you provide to a manager, supervisor or team leader who had to put the hot stove principle into practice? 3. Coaching, mentoring and one-on-one check-in: a. What are the features of an effective one-on-one check-in meeting? b. Briefly explain the difference between formal and informal mentoring. c. How can a workplace coach empower and communicate as they manage performance? 4. Team leaders’ communication: a. Briefly describe the characteristics of team leaders who treat others with dignity and respect. b. Define the generations who are currently in the workforce. c. Briefly discuss three techniques applied by effective intergenerational leaders. d. Briefly describe the oral and nonverbal communication of culturally aware leaders.

CHECKPOINT 21.4

21.5 LIAISE WITH MANAGEMENT AND OTHER STAKEHOLDERS Leaders and managers are role models with the responsibility to meet the standards in the organisation’s code of practice, policies, procedures, business plans and work method statements. Team members will model their own behaviour on the culture of the organisation and what they observe their manager, supervisor or team leader and others in the team doing. Effective team leaders ensure their own contribution to the work team serves as a role model for others and enhances the organisation’s image for all stakeholders. Senior-level managers need to proactively communicate information to others at all levels within the organisation. Middle and first-line managers must be visible and communicate information from seniorlevel management to the team and, conversely, convey relevant information from the team to senior managers. Effective liaison between managers and others within the organisation uses established lines of communication and finds a balance between control, motivation, efficiency and effectiveness. Communication takes place with senior management for a number of direct and indirect reasons. It is necessary for passing information between people working in the same organisation and between the organisation and others outside the organisation. Liaison and communication help to turn codes of practice and values, organisational strategic, business and operational plans, goals, objectives and performance targets into action.

Form a connection, link or relationship between different levels of management, departments, teams and other stakeholders through effective liaison.

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LIAISE THROUGH FORMAL CHANNELS The formal communication channels in an organisation are designed to enhance liaison and cooperation between stakeholders. Exhibit 21.13 identifies four formal communication channels. Effective flows of information between stakeholders maintain relationships and a sense of belonging. Liaison should be constructive and should address the positive and negative performance within the team and across the organisation to ensure there are fewer hidden agendas and issues are resolved at an early stage. Effective communication and liaison enables participation, involvement and teamwork.

EXHIBIT 21.13 Liaison through formal channels Direction

Examples

Purpose

Downward channels

instructions, guidelines or feedback to managers and staff at the lower levels of the organisation in the form of policy statements, meetings, webinars, intranet messages or face-to-face meetings.

• Information communicated downwards may change if, for example, a large document needs to be simplified, or at the discretion of supervisors who withhold what they see as unnecessary information. • Information may increase on the path down an organisation as supervisors feel the need to add to it so that it is more relevant to their section. • The message may be distorted or lose its original intention.

Upward channels

production reports, financial information, complaints, ideas for improvements, in the form of one-on-one or group meetings, committees, intranet or suggestion systems.

• Can be difficult to achieve successfully; often impeded by the egos of supervisors, a lack of incentive to put forward ideas, poor responses to previous upward communication. • Managers may feel upward communication challenges their authority.

Lateral or horizontal channels

highly organised in the form of regular meetings or online discussion forums between section heads, newsletters and standard forms. May be irregular such as Twitter, email, formal letters of complaint or telephone.

• Often involves open conflict as different divisions battle for a share of the organisation’s resources or the CEO’s attention. • Modern organisational structures, such as project and team-based structures, are set up with formal horizontal communication channels.

Diagonal channels

coordination of tasks, information sharing and managing conflict in the form of face-to-face meetings, task forces, twitter, email, telephone.

• A head of a division may agree with a lower-level supervisor of another division on a matter that will then be put to the supervisor’s own head of division. • Informing the relevant supervisor of your actions or obtaining permission can avoid possible barriers to effective communication. • Management may try to stop the diagonal direction of communication because it threatens control. • In most organisations, informal communication develops to speed up decisions.

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CHAPTER 21 / Manage team effectiveness Managers use upward channels of communication when communicating with their supervisors. Downward communication occurs when a more senior manager sends a message to others at lower levels within the organisation. A great deal of downward communication consists of instructions or guidelines to team leaders, supervisors, managers and others. In their downward communication managers should take the time to gather ideas and information from those closest to the work practices, provide positive feedback and recognise successes and good work.

Social media channels Twenty-first century technologies have provided organisations with the opportunity to share knowledge, skills and workloads, both internally and externally, on employee-driven knowledge platforms and cloud platforms. Working together via social media channels facilitates the creation of value, as well as building trust, and individual and team competence. Other benefits include improved responsiveness to customer requests and enhanced operational agility. Successful liaisons through social media channels cannot be achieved simply by installing the right tools and technologies. To meet this objective an organisation also requires: • leaders who promote social media strategies, purpose and processes • a culture and framework supportive of social media initiatives • social media platforms that support its primary business function, that are easy to use and that assist employees in their work • team members with the knowledge and skills to use the social media tools effectively. Within the organisation, social media channels can operate as multidirectional forums. For example, they can allow a team leader to engage in horizontal communication with his or her peers. At the same time, the team leader may feed these exchanges vertically: ‘up’ the organisation to senior management. By supporting employee liaisons through formal as well as informal channels, organisations are able to draw directly on the knowledge and insight of their workforce. Social media channels also provide organisations with ways in which to collaborate with their customers and meet their specific needs. These channels typically include Facebook, YouTube, Twitter, LinkedIn, Skype, blogging, weblogs and SMS mobile phone text messages. For example, retailers that use an enterprise social network, such as Yammer, are able to flag up issues arising in the course of their day-to-day operations. If a customer wants to exchange a dress for a smaller size and the store does not have that size in stock, the sales assistant can post the issue on Yammer. Rather than ringing around a number of different stores, the assistant can see immediately which store has the correct size, ask for its immediate dispatch and resolve the customer request. Thus, the use of social networks and other online forums can vastly improve customer service.

MAINTAIN OPEN COMMUNICATION Managers need to support and represent their team and demonstrate how the team’s goals, objectives and performance align with the rest of the organisation. Senior managers are interested in knowing how the work performed by the team supports any departmental or organisational objectives and targets and how well the team is performing against the performance targets for the current period. Many managers and team leaders make the mistake of assuming that their supervisor and managers are familiar with the manager’s area of operations. Liaising and open communication, both formal and

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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK informal, enhance information sharing about responsibilities and accountabilities, changes in statutory obligations and organisational requirements. Liaising across the organisation: • ensures concerted action, cooperation and collaboration directed towards achievement of goals and objectives • enables people to take responsibility and respect one another’s point of view as they make decisions, solve problems and get the job done • facilitates teamwork, promotes participation, goal achievement and high levels of performance. More and more organisations are creating Digital Workplaces to disseminate information across the organisation and set up work groups and teams. Information that needs to be shared by all employees is uploaded on a company-wide group. Information specific to a work group can be shared on the Digital Workplace by that group only. Social interactions or sporting interests are also able to be shared on the Digital Workplace’s social group or sport group. Clear, fast and concise communication entails less time looking for information. By liaising and communicating information from management to their team, managers help overcome barriers to information, build positive attitudes and enhance teamwork. When understanding between the organisation and its employees is achieved, the needs and goals of both are compatible.

ENHANCE THE ORGANISATION’S IMAGE Fulfil the purpose of your role consistently and responsibly to become a trustworthy role model for others to emulate.

Work in accordance with your organisation’s code of ethics – a set of standards, rules, guidelines and primary values and rules for the behaviour it expects of employees.

Every organisation has an image. An organisation’s image is what others (the staff and the general public) perceive the organisation to be based on what the organisation says or does. Managers and team members are expected to act as the organisation’s representatives within the company and in public. This means upholding the organisation’s values and standards by behaving with professional and personal ethics.

Shared values Earlier in this chapter, team ethics, values and norms were discussed. Values and norms are also shared across an organisation. Organisational shared values are often identified by organisations in their vision, mission and values statements. The values can refer to productive relationships, safety, health and welfare, continuous improvement, learning and development, environmental performance, honesty, fairness and integrity. Ethical behaviour is characterised by honesty, fairness and equity in interpersonal, business and professional relationships. An organisation’s code of conduct and ethics is its set of conventional principles and expectations that are binding on any person who is a member of the organisation. The code of conduct focuses on ethical and socially responsible issues. It provides guidance on how to act in cases of doubt or confusion. A code of ethics is a statement and description of required behaviours, responsibilities and actions expected of employees of an organisation or of members of a professional body. A code of ethics helps reduce or remove ambiguity. For an example, refer to the Murray Goulburn Co-operative Co. Limited (MG) Code of Conduct at http://www.mgc.com.au/media/4027/MGC-Code-of-Conduct.pdf. Ethical practice is facilitated by a code of ethics and clear decision rules, management by example and reinforcement of the organisation’s standards of conduct. The shared culture is positive and based on ethics, responsibilities and accountabilities. Unethical behaviour does not conform to approved business practices and professional standards. Examples of unethical behaviour are: • discrimination and harassment • inflated expense accounts

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CHAPTER 21 / Manage team effectiveness • • • •

personal use of company resources falsifying the number of hours worked any action in breach of a formal code of ethics any action that will damage the organisation’s image or reputation. Damage to your organisation’s image and reputation can result from managers or team members not following the established codes of conduct or ethics. It is a manager, supervisor or team leader’s responsibility to question unethical behaviour; however, they must always use the established lines of communication and protocols. Established communication channels can include an ethics committee whose function is to deal confidentially with reports of unethical behaviour, discussion with senior management and referring to written codes of ethics, conduct and other company documents. 1. Information flows: a. Explain the types of information that flow downwards through an organisation. b. What can impede the flow of communication upwards through an organisation? c. Provide two examples of lateral or horizontal channels of communication. d. What sort of information is shared along diagonal channels of communication? 2. What are the benefits of liaising and open communication across the organisation? 3. Ethical behaviour: a. What are the characteristics of ethical behaviour? b. Provide three examples of unethical behaviour. 4. Social media: a. Identify three requirements for successful social media liaison and engagement. b. What are the benefits gained from an enterprise social network? c. Outline the reasons for encouraging employees to use social media to communicate with one another.

CHECKPOINT 21.5

LEARNING ACTIVITIES SUMMARY 21.1 Consult and communicate openly as you identify and document team purpose, key result areas, roles, responsibilities, goals and objectives in a team performance plan. The organisation provides the setting in which a work team develops. By creating an open and encouraging climate, an organisation promotes the willingness of coworkers to communicate, participate and be involved in achieving its overall targets and objectives. A documented team performance plan establishes team goals, expected outcomes and key performance indicators. The plan enables positive team interaction to achieve goals, planned outputs and outcomes and adapt to ongoing change. Members understand what, who, how and by

when the expected outcomes will be achieved and are able to take responsibility for their own work. 21.2 Explain how ethics and team communication influence norms and team development. As team leaders and members give and receive instructions, give and receive feedback, work through differences and deal with difficult people, formal and informal communication occurs in the form of interpersonal speaking, listening, nonverbal, assertive and written communication skills. Clear norms and ground rules that reinforce positive interpersonal communication and respectful interaction allow the diverse personalities and backgrounds within a team to interact effectively. As a team forms and

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concentrates on performance, norms may be adjusted over time. Norms are the team’s relationship guidelines. They impact on the culture of the team. A team usually moves through five stages of development: forming, storming, norming, performing and adjourning. Throughout this development, task roles focus on achieving goals, while maintenance roles encourage the relationships between team members to develop. Dysfunctional roles can interfere with performance. Successful teamwork is dependent on clear performance expectations and the commitment of team members to work together to accomplish common goals. 21.3 Explain how work team enablers build cooperative relationships and develop efficient work practices. Teams operate with a mandate, have a specified role and are accountable for achieving specified workplace goals. A good work team uses five enablers: power, accountability, capability, direction and transparency. The enablers support team members to contribute and assist others as they fulfil their own and the team’s roles and responsibilities. Cohesion and trust within the team contribute to high levels of individual, team and organisational performance. A positive communication climate evolves through regular communication and feedback, collaborative team planning, opportunities to make suggestions and contribute to decision making.

The team is able to develop accountable, productive participatory teamwork. 21.4 Discuss the importance of support and fair treatment when identifying and resolving work performance problems. Managers, supervisors and team leaders should take action to support the team as soon as an issue or concern arises by defining the issue, identifying who is involved, listing each party’s concerns and then focusing on points of special concern. Address the issue and access development opportunities such as mentoring, coaching or training as soon as possible. Fair treatment and respect for workplace diversity help to build harmonious and cohesive teams. 21.5 Liaise with, establish and maintain open communication processes with all stakeholders. Liaising involves team-to-team relationships and collaboration. A manager or team leader interacts, networks and maintains work relationships with other teams and line management. The purpose of these interactions is cooperation and achievement of the organisation’s objectives and outcomes. Effective liaison and productive interactions meet the needs and expectations of the organisation, the individual teams and their members. The teams are able to achieve objectives within their own area of operations that are aligned to organisational objectives. Without successful team-toteam relationships, work is much more difficult.

KEY TERMS climate code of ethics cohesion Gen Xers (Generation X)

grapevine groupthink intergenerational leadership maintenance-related role

mentoring Millennials social loafing task-related role

team team performance plan team values work-team enablers

LEARNING ACTIVITIES 1. Reflection activity a. Recall either a social or work team you belong to or have belonged to, and reflect on whether individual contributions were valued or not. b. Did your social or work team move through the five stages of development? c. Did the team stay in some stages more than others? d. How would you describe the team’s cohesion and climate?

e. Write a paragraph explaining how you feel (or felt) working in this team. 2. Creative yet cohesive Assume you are a member of middle management in a large breakfast-food company. You are asked to form a task force to look at new marketing strategies for the company, which has gradually been losing market share over the past year. What would you do to make this group as cohesive as

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CHAPTER 21 / Manage team effectiveness

possible, but creative enough to come up with some dynamic strategies? 3. Ethical issues a. Consider the following two scenarios and discuss the ethical issues in each scenario. b. Decide what you would do in each scenario. Scenario 1 You are a driver with a local bus company. The bus company transports children to and from school. After a brief time with

the company, you are concerned about the level of maintenance on the buses. You submit a report. The owners remind you very strongly that your job is to drive the buses and let them fix things when they break. What would you do? Scenario 2 You become aware that a colleague is using the internet for personal use – shopping online, and checking and sending personal email – during work hours for at least 15 minutes per day. It seems only a small matter, but … what would you do?

GROUP ASSIGNMENT Part A: Critical success factors In your group: a. Discuss the responsibilities and accountabilities for your work team or a work team of your choice. b. Give an example of a situation where the interplay of a clear purpose statement, goals and objectives enhanced the work team you chose in part (a) of this question. c. Brainstorm examples of positive interactions within that team. d. Present an oral report of your findings to the whole group. Part B: Liaison and engagement through formal channels a. In your small group, each person is to tell the story of their best and worst experiences when communicating along formal communication channels.

b. When all stories have been heard, create two columns on a flip chart. The first column is titled ‘More of this’. The second column is titled ‘Less of this’. c. Record your group members’ suggestions for positive communication along formal channels. Record into the ‘Less of this’ column your group members’ suggestions for negative communication along formal communication channels. d. Work together to identify the top six ‘More of this’ and the top six ‘Less of this’. e. Report and compare your findings of the top six with the rest of the large group.

CASE STUDY FAIRLIGHT MEDIA COMPANY Fairlight Media Company wants to create a new office layout that will give each member of staff their own workstation. Ten members of staff will be affected by the changes. A task team of four has been called together to prepare a floor plan and to determine which new furniture and equipment should be purchased. The team’s leader, Eli, is the office manager. The members are: from accounts payable, Leah; the media coordinator, Ariana; the media sales officer, Tom. Ariana does not want to be part of the team because she has a large project to complete within the next two weeks. Eli is anxious to have the task completed and the purchases made before the end of the month. Leah realises she will have to collect quotes and prepare the orders. Brad wants the workstations to improve staff working conditions.

Questions a. Briefly describe what aspects of the forming and norming stages will affect the team’s success. In your answer, discuss the roles of the team leader and the team members. b. Identify any differences between the team members that may cause conflict. c. Identify the work team enablers that Eli and the others should use to help the team develop group cohesion, cooperative relationships and efficient work practices. d. Suggest four different channels the task team could use to communicate with, and present the proposed changes to the 10 people who will be affected by the changes.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY Australian Human Rights Commission. 2018. Australian Human Rights Commission: Information for Employers, https://www.humanrights.gov.au/australian-human-rightscommission-information-employers, viewed 20 March 2018. Australian Human Rights Commission. 2018. Workplace discrimination, harassment and bullying, https:// www.humanrights.gov.au/employers/good-practice-goodbusiness-factsheets/workplace-discrimination-harassmentand-bullying, viewed 6 April 2018. Bateman, T.S. & Snell, S.A. 2016. Management: Leading and Collaborating in a Competitive World, 12th edn, McGrawHill/Irwin, New York, NY. ´ Bovee, C.L. & Thill, J.V. 2017. Business Communication Today, 14th edn, Pearson Education, Harlow, UK. ConocoPhillips. SPIRIT values, http:// www.conocophillips.com/who-we-are/our-company/spiritvalues/Pages/default.aspx, viewed 20 March 2018. Dewey, J. 1993. How We Think, Heath, Boston, MA. Doyle, Alison. 2017. List of Teamwork Skills, https:// www.thebalance.com/list-of-teamwork-skills-2063773, viewed 29 March 2018. Janis, I.L. 1972. Victims of Groupthink, Houghton Mifflin, Boston, MA.

Johnson, Brad. W & Ridley, Charles R. 2008. The Element of Mentoring, revised edn, Palgrave Macmillan, New York, NY. Kinicki, A. & Williams, B. 2012. Management: A Practical Introduction, 6th edn, McGraw-Hill, New York, NY. Magloff, Lisa. 2015. Examples of a Code of Ethics for Business, http://smallbusiness.chron.com/examples-code-ethicsbusiness-4885.html, viewed 12 March 2018. Murray Goulburn Co-operative Co. Limited. 2019. Our Code of Conduct, Devondale, http://www.mgc.com.au/media/ 4027/MGC-Code-of-Conduct.pdf, viewed 4 February 2019. Rues, Raphael. ‘Case Study of SAir (Swissair) Group: What Role Does Organisational Culture Play in Organisational Resilience: a Case Study of SAir Group (Swissair) 19982001’, Minimarisk, http://www.minimarisk.com/swissairrisiko/, viewed 21 November 2014. Skills You Need. 2018. Group Life-Cycles, http:// www.skillsyouneed.com/ips/group-life-cycle.html, viewed 5 December 2018. training.gov.au. BSBWOR502 Lead and Manage Team Effectiveness, https://training.gov.au/Training/Details/ BSBWOR502, viewed 20 March 2018. Tuckman, B.W. 1965, ‘Developmental Sequence in Small Groups’, Psychological Bulletin 63, pp. 384–99.

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LEAD AND DEVELOP TEAMS AND INDIVIDUALS

Your Learning Journey

What type of leader?

CHAPTER

22

TRANSFORMATIONAL lead by example / interact with, empower + inspire followers

TRANSACTIONAL exchanges rewards for effort and meeting expectations

22.1

AUTHENTIC transparent / ethical / encourages information sharing / accepts input from others

Chapter 22

DIVERSITY utilise differences to benefit WORKPLACE + INDIVIDUAL

22.4

22.5 Determine TEAM DEVELOPMENT needs

appropriate activities monitor + evaluate workplace learning

Next MANAGE MEETINGS

legitimate

Types of POWER

expertise reward

    

facilitate teamwork develop mutual accountability empower team members represent + support team members provide coaching + mentoring assistance

coercive referent 22.2 information

5

competence The TASK-RELATED + MAINTENANCE-RELATED team functions and the features of TEAM-BASED LEADERSHIP

22.3 CH23 ORGANISE +

6

honesty

Drivers of TRUST

concern reliability identification within team

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LEARNING OBJECTIVES After studying this chapter, you should be able to: 22.1 discuss the features of transformational, transactional and authentic leadership 22.2 describe the sources of a leader’s influence, power and five drivers that build trust between a leader and team members 22.3 describe the task-related and maintenance-related team functions and outline the features of team-based leadership 22.4 discuss diversity and how to utilise differences to benefit both the workplace and the individual 22.5 determine team development needs, choose appropriate learning and development activities, and monitor and evaluate workplace learning.

22.1 WHAT DOES A LEADER DO?

Influence others and promote accountability by communicating roles, responsibilities and expectations clearly. Participate, inspire and motivate the team to take individual and joint responsibility for collective team goals and results.

Effective leadership produces change and movement. The leader establishes direction, aligns people, motivates and inspires. In contrast, effective management produces order and consistency. The manager plans and budgets, organises and staffs, controls and problem solves. Both leadership and management are necessary if an organisation is to prosper (Kotter 1990, pp. 7–8). While there are clear differences between leadership and management, the two concepts overlie one another. When leaders are engaged in planning, organising, staffing and controlling they are engaged in management. When managers are engaged in influencing people to meet organisational and team goals they are engaged in leadership. The focus of this chapter is leadership. Effective leaders have a positive influence on followers. They: • establish direction, create and endorse a vision, set strategies, communicate and adapt goals in response to changing circumstances • inspire and empower team members and promote a culture of participation, openness to innovation and achievement • build teams, align people with organisational and team goals and gain commitment to the collective team purpose. The leader and members’ shared vision of accomplishment strengthens teamwork and effective achievement of the team outcomes. A leader may need to adapt their style and respond flexibly to any changes within the team, the task or the organisational environment. The needs of the leader, the needs of the team and the demands of the situation will vary. The role of the leader of a workplace team is to influence, assist and guide members towards achievement of the team’s objectives and desired outcomes. A team is defined here as a group with a charter or specific reason for being.

THREE THEORIES OF LEADERSHIP The role of a leader can be very complex. Its complexity will vary with the size of the team, the tasks facing the team, the length of time the team is together and the expectations of both the organisation and the team itself. Whatever the size or complexity of the team, every leader influences the behaviour of team members at work in a positive or negative way, or somewhere in between. A leader’s capacity to influence others – that is, to affect performance and achieve results – is a factor of the leader’s aptitude for leadership and their willingness to fulfil and complete a range of activities. A leader participates in and facilitates a work team, as shown in Exhibit 22.1.

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EXHIBIT 22.1 Leadership participation and facilitation of work team Inspiring, motivating, and gaining agreement and acceptance of the team vision, purpose, goals and objectives

Ensuring effective communication within the team and between the team and the rest of the organisation

Clarifying, prioritising and gaining commitment to goals to achieve a common understanding or purpose

A leader participates by

Empowering team members to have input and responsibility for their work, and for sharing suggestions and ideas about their work and how it is done

Organising, guiding and facilitating activities and coping with unexpected developments

Leaders who communicate well encourage the sharing of common goals and a sense of inclusion that promotes teamwork focused on achievement of common goals and objectives. Part of a team leader’s role is management. Management is about seeking order and stability through effective planning, allocation of resources, organising, establishing rules and procedures, controlling and problem solving. Refer to the section ‘Plan team outcomes’ in Section 21.1 of Chapter 21, Manage team effectiveness, for information about developing and implementing team plans, facilitating teams to identify key result areas, promoting accountabilities, and developing and setting key performance indicators and targets.

Communicate openly, listen well, and give and receive constructive feedback to complete leadership tasks effectively.

Transformational leadership Transformational leadership motivates followers to transcend their own self-interests for the collective good of the organisation or team. (Bass & Avolio 1990) As well as being aware of the strategic implications of organisational and team initiatives, a transformational leader fosters a positive and engaging team climate. Transformational leaders lead by example, and interact with, empower and inspire followers to achieve above expectations. Transformational leaders appeal to their follower’s values, show concern for their wellbeing and build a culture of independence. Followers trust leaders who demonstrate transformational characteristics such as integrity, fairness and consistency in their dealings with others. (Dirks & Ferrin 2002) Follower trust enhances the ability of transformational leaders to influence or persuade followers to transcend their own interests for the collective team or organisational interest and to deal with the resistance of followers to change. Trust also enhances the collective efficacy of a team, which in turn helps to lead to better team performance. (Chou et al. 2013) Transformational leaders emphasise values, act confidently and inspire their followers. Examples of transformational leaders include Mahatma Gandhi, Mustafa Kemal Ataturk, Winston Churchill and Barack Obama.

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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK Transformational leaders articulate a clear and realistic vision and gain follower commitment to organisational and team goals. They share a joint purpose with the organisation and increase the performance of their followers. The transformational approach to leadership increases team performance and creates higher levels of commitment to organisational goals and change efforts. Performance exceeds expectations. Transformational leadership is a powerful influence on leader effectiveness as well as employee satisfaction. (Judge & Piccolo 2004) Four features of transformational leadership are identified in Exhibit 22.2.

EXHIBIT 22.2 Features of transformational leadership

Idealised influence

• The leader arouses follower confidence, commitment, admiration and respect toward the leader. • Followers identify with the leader and wish to emulate them.

Inspirational motivation

• The leader communicates high expectations to followers. • Team spirit is enhanced as followers become motivated towards and committed to the organisation or team’s vision.

Intellectual stimulation

• The leader encourages followers to think creatively. • The leader encourages followers to challenge their own beliefs and organisational norms and status quo.

Individualised consideration

• The leader provides a supportive climate and demonstrates personal care and concern for the wellbeing of others. • The leader delegates, coaches and advises to facilitate followers’ personal growth and professional development.

Transformational leaders engage and connect with others. Their attention to the needs and motives of followers and willingness to engage, listen and consider new ideas empowers followers. The positive team climate fosters critical examination of commonly held views, beliefs and ways of doing things.

Transactional leadership Transactional leadership exchanges rewards for effort and the meeting of expectations. Transactional leadership theory assumes that followers are motivated by rewards and the consequences of not meeting expectations. A transactional leader focuses on the key management processes of planning, organising and controlling. Exhibit 22.3 identifies four primary aspects of transactional leadership: contingent rewards, active management by exception, passive management by exception, and laissez-faire relinquishing of decision making and power.

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EXHIBIT 22.3 Primary aspects of transactional leadership Contingent rewards linked to goal achievement

• The leader sets mutually agreed goals and clarifies expectations. • The leader provides needed resources and various kinds of rewards for successful performance.

Active management by exception

• The leader actively monitors the work of followers. • The leader observes successes and watches for deviations from rules and standards. • The leader takes corrective action if required.

Passive management by exception

• The leader intervenes when underperformance occurs or standards are not met. • The transactional leader may use punishment as a response to unacceptable performance.

Laissez-faire leadership

• The leader relinquishes responsibilities and avoids making decisions. • The followers have opportunities to make decisions; however, if the leader and the followers are not self-motivated the group may lack direction.

Transactional leadership motivates through self-interest. If followers do what is desired, a reward will follow; if they do not, a punishment will follow. In the performance of goals the exchange between leader and follower depends on the leader directing through a system of rewards and punishment. Transactional leaders influence followers primarily through their formal authority and responsibility in the organisation. The behaviour of transactional leaders is highly directive and action-oriented. The transactional approach identifies clearly who does what, when and how. Tangible rewards for successful performance are a reliable motivator when short-term results are needed fast or for the range of routine tasks that need to be done. However, transactional leaders may be inclined to overemphasise detailed and short-term goals, and standard rules and procedures. Followers may be closely monitored and controlled. Rather than encouraging followers’ innovation and creativity, transactional leaders tend to ignore ideas that do not fit with existing plans and goals. Reward for effort depends on the meeting of expectations. While the transactional approach to rewards and punishment may ensure that the job gets done in the short term, it may do little to ensure the long-term motivation and loyalty of followers.

Authentic leadership Authentic leadership is a pattern of transparent and ethical leader behaviour that encourages openness in sharing information needed to make decisions while accepting the inputs of followers. ‘Authentic leaders demonstrate a passion for their purpose, practice their values consistently, and lead with their hearts as well as their heads. They establish long-term, meaningful relationships and have the selfdiscipline to get results.’ (George et al. 2007) As well as having a positive impact on organisational and team behaviour, an authentic leader develops followers. Exhibit 22.4 lists four key components of authentic leadership, as described by Walumbwa et al. (2008).

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EXHIBIT 22.4 Four key components of authentic leadership

Selfawareness

Understanding own strengths, weaknesses and the way one makes sense of the world

Internalised moral perspective

Guided by internal moral standards to self-regulate own behaviour

Balanced processing

Relational transparency

Share decision making, consult, collaborate and listen to demonstrate participative leadership. Use your preferred leadership approach; however, your approach may vary depending on the requirements of a particular situation.

Analysing relevant data before making a decision

Sharing information and feelings openly to present one's authentic self

Authentic leaders have high levels of personal integrity and a steady and confident presence. Their consistent, ethical behaviour matching with the leader’s underlying values enables authenticity. Followers observe fairness and honesty. Followers respond to the integrity of the leader and commit to the leader and the group. Authentic leaders base their actions on their values, demonstrate genuine leadership, lead from conviction and instead of copying others are original in their approach. (Avolio et al. 2009; Shamir & Eilam 2005) Authentic leaders find their style in their own personality and life experiences and derive their strength from their own past experiences. Approaches to leadership tend to fall somewhere between these three approaches. Many leaders deliberately use a range of leadership behaviours suited to the particular situation. Others have an approach that is probably not even thought out, and which varies according to the situation and perhaps even the mood of the leader. Whatever leadership approach is used, as the result of either a conscious or unconscious choice, it affects team performance and the motivation of members. No one style of leadership approach is the most effective. Each has advantages and disadvantages. But if you have the capacity and willingness to use effective interpersonal communication and appropriate leadership, there is every chance of achieving the intended result. At times, team leaders will need to modify their behaviour to suit the task, situation or people they are working with. In other words, leaders may choose to use any of the above three leadership theories rather than just their preferred leadership approach. It is unusual to find a completely transformational, transactional or authentic leader.

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1. Transformational leadership: a. ‘Transformational leadership is a powerful influence over leader effectiveness as well as employee satisfaction.’ Discuss features of transformational leadership that support this statement. b. Would or would you not like to work for a transformational leader? Provide reasons for your answer. 2. Compare transactional and authentic leadership: a. What are the characteristics of transactional leaders? b. In general, do you think a transactional leader is more task-oriented or relationship-oriented? 3. Authentic leadership: a. Discuss the key components of the authentic theory of leadership. b. What are the strengths of an authentic leader? c. How does authentic leadership improve or strengthen team effectiveness?

CHECKPOINT 22.1

22.2 SOURCES OF INFLUENCE AND POWER A leader may be given authority by company management, be elected by other employees or emerge as the person that others in a team allow to take the leadership role. In any one of these situations, an effective leader is able to influence behaviour and achieve results in a way that meets the needs of their followers as well as the needs of the organisation. In the case of an ineffective leader, there is a significant and important gap between the official title and the actual performance of leadership. Neither the needs of the team nor those of the organisation are realised because the leader is unable to use their authority and power to perform the leadership functions well.

Use authority well for task achievement, maintenance of relationships and achievement of team outcomes.

TYPES OF POWER Power is the potential ability to influence the behaviour of others (Mintzberg 1983; Pfeffer 1981). Power involves more than personal power; it also involves positional power delegated by the organisation to leaders to get the job done. At least six different types of power can be used by a leader: 1. legitimate power 2. expert power 3. reward power 4. coercive power 5. referent power 6. informational power. Each type of power, or a combination of them, is used by leaders. Legitimate power is held because the organisation has given power and authority to the position held by the leader. Expert power is held because of the leader’s knowledge, aptitude and ability. Others are willing to defer to expertise power. Reward power is held because the leader has the opportunity, through the control of resources, either to give or withhold things wanted by others. A leader can use reward power well to reinforce effective behaviour or can use it badly to manipulate the behaviour of others. Coercive power is held when a leader compels others to behave in certain ways. A leader who uses reward power or coercive power in a way that deprives members of something they need is likely to lose the ability to influence the team. Members become resentful, do only the minimum to get by and tell the leader only what the leader wants to hear. Facts are withheld from the leader.

Differentiate the types of power used by leaders to influence others.

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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK By flattering the leader, particular members may ingratiate themselves. Others may submit and conform to the leader’s will, while some may become rebellious and defiant or withdraw in an attempt to escape the leader’s abuse of power. Team members may compete with each other for the leader’s attention or blame one another when problems arise rather than working towards solutions. Communication barriers develop. Referent power is the power of charisma. It is the power held by someone who is respected, admired, liked or personally identified with by others. Referent power flows from another person liking or wanting to be like the person holding the power. A sixth source of power, informational power, was added by Raven (1965). Informational power results from possessing knowledge that others need or want. A power base may develop from the ability to use information to persuade others, drawing on objective information when making decisions or solving problems. Informational power can also be misused through the manipulation of information to coerce others to act in a particular way. Informational power is based on the potential to utilise information.

ORGANISATIONAL POLITICS The approach of leaders and managers to decision making, handling conflict and providing recognition and support to teams influences an organisation’s political climate. The behaviour of leaders and managers, such as board members, CEOs, direct supervisors and other management representatives, influences and affects relationships, norms, processes, performance and outcomes.

Interests, conflicts and power

Apply procedures and processes openly, transparently and fairly in a leadership role.

Organisational politics refers to the relationship between interests, conflicts and power within an organisation. Conflict and competition between the desires and interests of different departments, teams and individuals occur in any organisation. Personal interests may differ from the organisation and team’s objectives as members compete for resources and rewards. Rival interests are resolved through the exercise of power in an organisation’s political system. The way in which leaders and managers exercise their power has a strong influence on the political climate of an organisation. Power may be exercised anywhere along a continuum from autocracy to democracy depending on the preferred style of leadership. Openness, transparency and fair play in procedures and processes are the key to creating a positive organisational climate. A positive organisational and team climate that values integrity, respect and fairness is able to channel interests and energy away from negative political interplay and towards the achievement of common team and organisational goals and objectives. Organisational politics describes the clash between cooperation to achieve common goals and the pursuit of self-interests even at the expense of organisational goals. Organisational politics becomes negative and destructive when the processes and power interactions between rival interests result in the pursuit of individual agendas and self-interest without regard to the effect on the organisation’s efforts to achieve its goals. Negative organisational politics are manifested through: • personal conflicts, non-cooperation and allocating blame • competition for power and building personal stature • filtering, distorting or controlling access to information • hidden agendas, ‘gamesmanship’, reprisals, dishonesty, obstructionism and threats • cliques and coalitions built around the chief executive officer and other powerful people in the organisation.

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CHAPTER 22 / Lead and develop teams and individuals People have beliefs and expectations about job security and benefits, how people are treated and how tasks are completed. When the behaviour of an organisation and its leaders meets the expectations of employees, the political climate is positive. When people believe the organisation and its leaders are breaking expectations, the political climate becomes negative and employees may disengage and pursue self-interests rather than team and organisational interests. Hidden agendas, denial, gossip and conflict emerge.

LEADERSHIP AND TRUST Many leaders rely on formal directions and control to motivate. Other leaders seem to be able to get the most from the people working with them without ordering them about or using threats. When a team leader’s behaviour does not match the message, team members become disillusioned and may set themselves apart from the team. Their disengagement can lead to mistrust, poor performance and conflict. Trust supports constructive behaviour, while mistrust leads to destructive behaviours. Five drivers of trust within an organisation and its teams were identified by Shockley-Zalabak et al. (2010), as outlined in Exhibit 22.5. The five drivers establish high-trust relationships that enable high levels of organisational, team and individual performance. People are able to work collaboratively towards a common purpose and goals. Each person focuses on the needs of the group.

EXHIBIT 22.5 Five drivers of trust

Competence

Openness and honesty

Identification Trust

Reliability

Concern for employees and stakeholders

Competence A positive culture, regular communication, collaborative team planning, opportunities to make suggestions and constructive feedback help create a culture of competence and inclusion. A team’s performance depends greatly on the competence of its leader and members. Maintain and improve team competence by: • clarifying roles • planning goals, objectives and targets collaboratively • providing feedback • rewarding contribution • building an environment of trust. A supportive team culture informs people that they are valued and part of the team process. Communication is genuine, spontaneous and considers both the needs of the receiver and the sender as problems are solved and tasks completed. Competence, openness and honesty create a positive communication climate, productive workplace relationships and a cohesive team. The quality of team members’ skills in speaking, offering support and empathy, and responding openly to others is important to the team’s performance.

Consult and collaborate to empower team members to make decisions affecting their work, fulfil responsibilities and accountabilities and seek opportunities for improvement.

Openness and honesty

Demonstrate openness, honesty, concern for employees and stakeholders, reliability and identification to build trust and a positive team communication climate.

A positive communication climate enables team members and other stakeholders to work with dignity and respect. The positive workplace experience empowers team members and gives them the opportunity to contribute to problem solving. Team performance is high and decision making works well because all members actively take part, and share ideas, knowledge and expertise.

Create a climate of openness, trust, respect and team cohesion.

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Maintain a positive team climate and embed a culture of engagement to improve team performance and productivity.

By contrast, a team with a negative communication climate has low morale, high absenteeism and high turnover of staff. This can result in the loss of experienced, valuable staff as well as a high number of grievances and disputes, and a high frequency of workers compensation premiums and psychological costs of claims. Disengaged team members are physically present but psychologically absent. They are unhappy with their work situation, have a low level of commitment or achievement and often disrupt the team’s activities. A lack of clarity about what is expected of team members and knowledge of why their work is important can bring on disengagement and consequent poor performance. Leaders who only provide feedback on the negative aspects of the team or an individual’s performance can cause disengagement. Absence of any feedback is even more disengaging. Constructive feedback that focuses on the positive as well as the negative aspects of performance is encouraging and improves performance. Praise and recognition for good work enhance teamwork.

Concern for employees and stakeholders Fulfil expectations and build a reputation for reliability.

Concern for employees and stakeholders is reflected in the way an organisation and its leaders treat its staff. Employees and team members know they can rely on the organisation or leader to deliver what it promises in terms of job security, employee benefits and opportunity for career advancement. Employees hold expectations about the organisation’s concern and commitment for their welfare. When an organisation and its leaders break these expectations, mistrust arises because employees view the organisation or leader as unreliable. People become demoralised, are unwilling to take risks, lack commitment and may cease to make extra efforts to produce.

Reliability Ensure actions reflect commitments to maintain the organisation and team’s reputation for reliability.

Maintain and enhance self-esteem and focus on team members’ strengths or positive characteristics as you give feedback.

In a high-performing team, members understand the team’s purpose and get on with the job. The leader and members work together, accept delegated tasks and maintain productive relationships. The leader can rely on the team to achieve goals, objectives and targets. Team members have expectations about the leader. A reliable leader is expected to lead by example, support team members to meet expected outcomes, share information consistently and involve team members in planning and decision making. The team trusts the leader to participate, be available, provide feedback that recognises effort (both good and poor) and deal with unresolved issues, concerns and problems raised by team members. When team members believe the leader is breaking expectations and behaving unreliably, trust is broken. If team members do not understand what the team is trying to achieve and the effect their contribution has on it, they will be less productive. Poor communication can result in misunderstandings and mistrust. Not having feedback can lead to low morale and substandard performance. Inadequate or unclear instructions from a team leader can mean a team member acts in breach of regulations without meaning to. Successful communication and consultation between the team leader and the team is critical to high performance.

Identification with the team High-performing teams have clear goals and objectives and a shared sense of purpose. Members work in accordance with the team norms or acceptable standards of behaviour. The dynamics within the team are conducive to high performance and positive, stimulating interactions. Members identify with the team and engage in honest and open communication.

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CHAPTER 22 / Lead and develop teams and individuals Alternative ways of doing things, criticisms and conflict are accepted and handled in a positive way. Members speak out on issues and test ideas in a way that evaluates the ideas, not the speaker, so that self-esteem is not damaged. Members are allowed to express their opinions without interruption and the team adapts to one another’s needs until goals and tasks are completed. Members take responsibility for their own work, are adaptable and willing to assist others to achieve team responsibilities and accountabilities. Interactions are positive and no single person monopolises the discussion or controls the interactions within the team.

EMOTIONALLY INTELLIGENT LEADERS Emotional intelligence refers to the way we respond to people, environmental demands and pressures. Emotionally intelligent leaders are reliable, take responsibility, solve problems and demonstrate honesty, integrity, optimism and ethical behaviour. They have high credibility and are seen as being good at listening to others, and they foster relationships and gain input from team members. They have good people skills. Rather than impulsively reacting in difficult situations, emotionally intelligent leaders understand their own emotions and the emotions of others and respond accordingly. They are personally competent, understand their own emotions, realise their impact on others (self-awareness) and know their strengths and limitations. They direct their behaviour to achievement and adaptable, flexible responses to change and unusual events that threaten to disrupt normal operations or cause harm to people or property. They self-manage to act on opportunities, innovate and engage with others. They respond flexibly to obstacles and setbacks and are ready to act on opportunities optimistically. Personally competent leaders and managers regulate their own behaviour and work effectively towards shared goals. Emotionally intelligent managers, supervisors and team leaders are socially competent. They are able to influence, encourage and guide others to act on opportunities. They understand the emotional mood and power relationships within a team, promote teamwork and collaboration, and create trust and a sense of group identity. A team’s confidence and trust in a leader’s consistent and supportive approach increases the leader’s influence and ability to affect the behaviour, attitudes and motivation of the team. (Refer to Chapter 2 for more information on emotional intelligence.)

It’s goodbye from me, and hello to us Collective leadership is the way of the future, according to psychologist and leadership development expert Sebastian Salicru. Salicru believes making all members responsible for an organisation or team’s success results in better outcomes. Collective leadership is effective as it puts the aims of the group above those of the individual. This type of leadership, spread across all levels of an organisation, emphasises group goals and action over individual self-interest and gives more weight to connectedness and workplace relationships than it does to command hierarchies. In effect, the command hierarchies are dismantled, leaving leaders to use influence rather than rank. In collective leaderships, the organisational direction is determined by members’ capabilities and motivations.

Demonstrate the emotional competence to manage self and relationships through selfawareness, selfregulation, selfmotivation, social awareness and social skills.

FROM THEORY TO PRACTICE

Source: Salicru, Sebastian. Leadership Results: How to Create Adaptive Leaders and High-Performing Organisations for an Uncertain World, John Wiley and Sons, Milton, QLD; Tarrant, Deborah. 2017. ‘A whole world of change’, Leadership Matters, Institute of Leaders and Managers, November 2017, p. 18.

ASK YOURSELF: What impact(s) do you think collective leadership might have on the culture of an organisation? What type of person do you think would be needed to be a leader in this type of environment?

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CHECKPOINT 22.2

1. 2. 3. 4.

Briefly describe six types of power that can be used by a leader. Define the term ‘organisational politics’. What are the five drivers of trust? Emotional intelligence: a. Describe the skills of emotional intelligence. b. Identify the characteristics of leaders you believe work with emotional intelligence.

22.3 TEAM-BASED LEADERSHIP Team leaders do more than plan and direct action. They inspire and empower team members to collaborate, communicate and work together to achieve the team’s common purpose and support organisation-wide goals, plans and objectives. The benefits are greater organisational and team effectiveness, employee satisfaction, higher morale, a safer workplace, improved processes, less waste and return of poor quality products, a better company reputation in the market and greater customer satisfaction.

LEADERSHIP ACTIONS Carry out the taskrelated leadership functions – defining the task, planning, briefing, organising, controlling, evaluating and monitoring – to accomplish tasks.

Complete maintenance-related functions to maintain relationships and team cohesiveness.

A significant part of a team leader’s role is to inspire and engage the team, communicate ideas and show how the tasks completed by the team contribute to the organisation. When leaders and members are working together in a team to complete a particular task, they perform two basic functions: taskrelated functions and maintenance-related functions. (Refer to Chapter 21, Exhibit 21.5 and Exhibit 21.6, for examples of task-related and maintenance-related behaviours.) Task-related functions or behaviours relate to the management parts of a team leader’s role (planning, budgeting, organising, controlling and problem solving). Task-related functions focus on the team’s common purpose and the tasks to be achieved or the problem to be solved. Task-related functions include planning, organising, controlling, coordinating, delegating, monitoring and evaluating. Whether the team is designing a new product, planning an advertising campaign or changing work practices, task-related functions must be fulfilled to ensure performance to the desired standard. Maintenance-related functions relate to the relational parts of a team leader’s role (establishing direction, communicating goals and objectives, seeking commitment, team building, motivating and inspiring). Maintenance-related functions focus on what is happening in the team, the way members listen and relate to each other, and the behavioural developments within the team. Maintenance-related functions develop a positive climate and a sense of belonging to the team. Effective leaders are able to distinguish between task-related and maintenance-related functions and be able to use them. These functions are discussed in Chapter 21, Manage team effectiveness. Leadership requires the leader to complete task- and maintenance-related functions as they work with the team to develop a vision and set goals, facilitate teamwork, develop mutual accountability, empower team members, represent and support team members and provide coaching and mentoring assistance.

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CHAPTER 22 / Lead and develop teams and individuals

Develop a vision and set goals Effective team leaders establish a team vision or common purpose. The common purpose provides the team with direction. It also enhances commitment and accountability for joint effort and achievement. The best team leaders are able to translate the team’s common purpose into specific performance goals. Clear performance goals provide purpose and allow team members to focus on results and know when the performance objectives have been reached. Effective team leaders: • communicate the vision in a way that is understood and accepted by team members • set realistic but challenging goals following the SMART approach (discussed more fully in Chapter 6) • promote accountabilities through discussion and explanation of responsibilities defined in codes of conduct, team purpose statements and position descriptions • apply open communication, honesty and transparency to enhance member participation in team planning • consult and identify who needs to deliver what, and how tasks will be done and by when to hold team members accountable for their performance, and show how performance will be monitored and tracked.

Gain agreement and acceptance of the team vision, purpose, goals and objectives. Set clear goals that are realistic but challenging.

Facilitate teamwork Effective team leaders open the lines of communication within the team to engage their interest and cooperation and promote understanding of their role and contribution to the team’s common purpose. Open communication among all of the team members develops trust and cooperation. Team members should feel comfortable about asking questions to clarify jobs and responsibilities and feel free to make suggestions for improvement. When a challenge or conflict arises, rather than avoiding the issues open communication allows the team to engage and manage the conflict effectively, rather than avoid the issue. Teamwork and team performance are enhanced when the leader helps the team to establish its norms together. Agreement about the ways in which members treat one another and how issues are resolved develops team cohesion and promotes teamwork. Norms may address: • standards of civility, including activities that are off limits such as name-calling, personal attacks and threats • ways of resolving conflict without causing lasting damage between team members • systems of communication (meeting, conference and consultation schedules) • job responsibilities, as well as personal responsibilities for maintaining the team and calling attention to problems in the work or among team members. The combined efforts of a team to achieve its common purpose or goal are enhanced by a team leader who shares a common vision with team members and who respects and values the contribution of others. A team leader builds teamwork by: • collaborating to establish that the collective team goal comes first and that everyone on the team agrees to work towards it to enhance team effectiveness and success • developing cohesiveness, mutual concern, trust, camaraderie and a sense of belonging • building trust, supporting team members in times of crisis • acknowledging members’ personal needs such as feeling valued and respected, being heard and being able to participate • listening actively, showing respect and enhancing insight and understanding of the situation (the active listening process is discussed in Chapter 8, Develop negotiation and conflict management skills)

Discuss and explain accountabilities and responsibilities defined in codes of conduct, team purpose statements and position descriptions.

Involve the team and individuals to gain acceptance of team norms and promote achievement of meaningful tasks.

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Communicate to build trust, cooperation and team work as you plan, organise, direct, participate, monitor and evaluate team performance.

seeking and listening to the ideas and opinions of team members, taking action once the ideas have been discussed and agreed to as workable solutions that fit in with the goals and objectives of the team • holding regular team reviews of progress and highlighting the connection between efforts and reward • developing positive and engaged relationships with the rest of the organisation. Teamwork is enhanced by team leaders who are willing and able to remove barriers to the smooth functioning of the team as early as possible, by addressing personal issues such as conflicts between or among members, inflexibility or inability to compromise and lack of commitment to the work. Working together towards resolution of problems whether caused by frustrations, conflict, stress or other personal matters advances mutual accountability. Effective team leaders make certain the team operates as a task group and as a social group. Both the team leader and members must be able to use both the task and maintenance behaviours identified in Exhibits 21.5 and 21.6 to enable team effectiveness.

Develop mutual accountability Give relevant and timely feedback to enhance performance, morale and team spirit. Focus on specific behaviour rather than the person.

Mutual accountability means that the members of the team feel answerable to each other and to the team as a whole. The whole team accepts accountability for the results of the team’s actions. Team accountability is underpinned by commitment to the team’s purpose and trust in the leader and other team members to work together to accomplish the team’s objectives. Mutual accountability depends on the leader offering constructive negative and positive feedback and rewards based on performance rather than preferential treatment. The provision of relevant and timely feedback enhances performance, morale and team spirit and a sense of belonging to the team. Effective team leaders build mutual accountability by: • giving the team as much authority as possible to determine how common objectives will be achieved • allowing the team to track and analyse its own performance • analysing together with team members a situation or problem, making decisions and taking action to reach an effective solution or outcome • encouraging the team to analyse work practices for improvement and allowing them to act on their improvement ideas • holding the team accountable for its results. Celebrating mistakes as learning opportunities for deciding how to do things differently in the future builds trust and a willingness to innovate and try new ways of doing tasks. When team members blend their strengths to work together cooperatively, it is important for the team leader and team members to provide feedback on successful and unsuccessful performance by: • focusing on behaviour • using factual information rather than hearsay or gossip • making it timely – that is, close to the event • delivering it in an open and appropriate way; that is, for the right reasons to the right person at the right time in the right way • giving negative feedback in private and avoiding hidden agendas such as ‘paybacks’.

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CHAPTER 22 / Lead and develop teams and individuals Feedback should focus on the specific behaviour that is causing a problem rather than on characteristics of the person or ‘dumping’ past frustrations onto a team member, or more than they can handle at one time. Rewards for effective performance should focus on collective results. Capable team leaders are open and willing to accept feedback from team members, act upon constructive feedback and express appreciation for the interest of team members; e.g. ‘Thank you for the ideas’. They are able to apply the hot stove principle effectively to confront difficult behaviour and performance issues as soon as they arise. Handling problems quickly minimises the escalation of conflict between team members. (Refer to Section 21.4 of Chapter 21, page (000), for an explanation and discussion of the hot stove principle.) Rewards for mutual performance may be formal or informal: for example, formal recognition (a letter of appreciation from management, an article in the organisation’s newsletter or a thank you at the team leaders’ meeting) of the team’s efforts in achieving the organisation’s goals, or informal recognition of desired behaviour (which could be expressed as: ‘Well done’, ‘Great job’, or giving a box of chocolates). Constructive and fair use of rewards encourages mutual accountability as well as increasing job satisfaction and productivity. Underperformance, lack of execution and missed deadlines are signs of leaders that evade giving feedback and teams that avoid accountability and contribute to poor organisational results.

Create and manage information, knowledge and ideas.

Empower team members A unified and committed team has a collective consciousness. Members perceive themselves as belonging to the group. Mutual trust evolves as members listen to each other, respect contributions, help each other to clarify ideas and show interest in each other. By involving the team and individuals in all aspects of the team’s processes, team leaders are able to develop a sense of unity or identification with the team. Members identify with the team, accept the need for achievement of objectives and acknowledge the contribution of others. Team members are empowered to accept responsibility and use their skills and talents to achieve team goals, objectives and targets. Effective team leaders empower team members by: • setting and clarifying results-orientated goals and allowing team members the freedom to decide how to accomplish the tasks necessary for goal achievement • encouraging team members to be innovative and identify opportunities for innovation and continuous improvement • communicating assertively with appropriate interpersonal, negotiation and conflict management skills • avoiding directly ordering, panicking or threatening team members, which may lead to demotivation, apathy, indifference, resistance to change, lack of cooperation and increased absenteeism • developing clear lines of communication and ways for people to contribute • empowering individuals and the team to take individual and joint responsibility for their actions • sharing knowledge and information to facilitate understanding of the ‘bigger picture’ and why the team and team members are doing what they are doing • setting boundaries or broad parameters to facilitate team members to work with confidence and guide them towards the achievement of goals

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Empower members to accept responsibility and use skills and talents to achieve team goals, objectives and targets. Reward desired behaviour to acknowledge and encourage future performance.

•

acknowledging the team’s limits and constraints and providing regular feedback to the team on how they are progressing towards their common goals • engaging with the team to address team dynamics and processes, acknowledging good performance and intervening to correct dysfunctional behaviour • acknowledging team members’ strengths and achievements and building skills through training, mentoring and coaching assistance. Team leaders allow discretion, autonomy and power over their tasks and resources to those team members who have demonstrated the capacity to handle responsibility. Empowerment allows team members to make decisions, share information, innovate and engage in continuous improvement. The outcome is enhanced commitment and motivation.

Represent and support members Represent and support team members by acknowledging their needs, providing guidance and support and matching the team’s activities to the organisation’s priorities

Liaise with stakeholders to represent and support the team.

Part of a team leader’s role is to communicate clearly the organisation’s needs and expectations of the team and on occasion to present team members’ needs to higher management. By seeing both sides (the organisation’s and the team’s), the leader is able to provide the team with information relevant to organisational and team priorities and to match the team’s efforts to the organisation’s medium- and long-term objectives. Effective team leaders represent and support the team by: • linking the work team with higher management through formal communication channels (refer to Chapter 21, Exhibit 21.12 on page (584), for information about the purpose of liaising through formal channels of communication.) • forming networks and friendships through informal communication channels inside and outside the organisation (refer to Chapter 20, Exhibit 20.22 on page 548), for a discussion and examples of operational, personal and strategic networking) • communicating upwards to report progress and current problems to supervisors and top management • communicating downwards to define tasks, inform, coordinate, support and evaluate team members • facilitating coordination and cooperation through lateral communication between teams and other team leaders • communicating diagonally across work teams and different levels within the organisation to problem solve and increase the speed of decision making • linking a team member with an emotional problem into an agency or other resource that has the professional skills to help in a purposeful and effective way, rather than trying to act as counsellor. Representing and supporting team members encompasses both organisational and interpersonal communication as the team leader networks, advocates and negotiates support for the team they engage in downward, upward, lateral and diagonal communication along formal and informal channels of communication.

Coach and mentor At times, the team leader may recommend that a team member be matched with a mentor, or suggest coaching that will further develop the team member’s skills and competence. Mentoring pairs a team member with a more experienced person. Sometimes the leader undertakes this mentoring role. Mentors have workplace skills, knowledge and experience. They look for ways to improve work and encourage continuous improvement and learning. Mentors are good at developing networks and supporting the person they are mentoring.

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CHAPTER 22 / Lead and develop teams and individuals Alternatively, a coach may work with the team member to provide encouragement, guidance and training. A team leader may recommend coaching to assist team members who are not working in accordance with team norms and procedures. The team leader may choose coaching as the correct intervention for a team member who is increasing risk to self and others by ignoring safety instructions, interrupting the flow of work or avoiding housekeeping activities such as removing rubbish and leftover work materials. Effective team leaders offer coaching and mentoring assistance by: • coaching on the job and ensuring there are opportunities for skills guidance, practice and reflection • documenting the coaching plan clearly and using it as a guide and checklist • arranging for a skilled and experienced person to mentor a less-skilled and less-experienced colleague • guiding, listening and advising the less experienced person on workplace problems, training needs and ways of working • acting as a role model and building a long-term relationship to pass along knowledge and experience. Coaching and mentoring assistance guides, empowers and improves the performance of team members. They are able to develop skills and an understanding of procedures and practices.

Pass along knowledge, skills and experience to encourage continual improvement and learning.

Provide encouragement and support and build a long-term relationship.

SOLVE PROBLEMS AND MAKE INFORMED DECISIONS An important part of a team leader’s role is to diagnose problems and take corrective action(s) to ensure the team performs effectively. When solving problems, the leader: • acknowledges and adapts behaviour, plans and actions to work with others to solve the problem or meet the needs of an unanticipated event, situation or emergency • keeps the team focused and maintains a collaborative climate to facilitate teamwork • communicates and shares responsibility and accountability for problem solving to gain team commitment. • ensures specific goals are set to deal with the problem or unanticipated event, solves the problem and acts to monitor and assess the team’s performance. As well as adapting to solve the problem, the leader’s behaviour supports and improves team development, product and service improvement and innovation. Workplace problems fall into three categories, as shown in Exhibit 22.6. Deviation problems arise when the team falls short of its expected targets. The team must work together to get back on track. An improvement problem arises when the team is working well but wants to improve the way it does things. Open-ended problems have several correct answers and several ways to reach the correct answer. They require creative thinking. New ideas and breakthroughs come from creative solutions to openended problems; for example, businesses responding to meet the challenges caused by external factors such as changing government tax laws or new and emerging technologies. The leader and team members contribute to the short-term, everyday operational decisions. Two questions a leader must answer when a problem arises are: 1. Should I monitor the team or take action? 2. Should I intervene to facilitate task or maintenance needs? The answers to these two questions help the leader decide whether to meet task needs through the setting of goals, providing structure, establishing rules or to meet maintenance needs such as motivating, negotiating, managing conflict or building commitment.

Gain commitment through frequent communication and feedback to encourage joint decision making and problem solving. Promote effective informed decision making and problem solving supported by quality data and good information.

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EXHIBIT 22.6 Three categories of workplace problems

TARGET

Deviation Problems Fall short

Improvement problems Can improve

Open-ended problem More than 1 way to reach target

Effective problem solving and decisions are based on sound, objective information. Leaders who work with and facilitate others to make good decisions gather and organise quality data from people, records, manuals and operating procedures and participate actively in decision making and problem solving. They examine options and assess associated risks to determine a preferred course of action. They monitor implementation and intervene appropriately when needed.

RADAR five-step approach

Uphold the organisation’s values and standards by behaving with professional and personal ethics.

The RADAR five-step approach facilitates two-way communication and helps groups and teams to identify practical strategies to turn problem-solving ideas into action. 1. Request that the other person identifies the ‘what’ and ‘why’ of the problem or situation. 2. Ask for the details. 3. Develop ideas. 4. Agree on the actions to be taken. 5. Review the main points and decide how to follow up. Practising two-way communication while focusing on the problem enables the leader and team members to determine the root cause of the problem and select the most appropriate solution. They are able to collaborate, diagnose, correct problems and strengthen team performance. Problem-solving and decision-making strategies are presented in Chapter 21, Manage team effectiveness, and Chapter 23, Organise and manage meetings.

Enhance the image of the organisation Team leaders are role models. A positive role model demonstrates confidence, assertiveness and respect in their interactions. They are aware of the importance of their personal presentation

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CHAPTER 22 / Lead and develop teams and individuals and behaviour in contributing to the image and reputation of the organisation. A team leader’s conduct, dress, language and punctuality must be in accordance with organisational standards and policy. Positive role models integrate ethical conduct into everyday activities and develop a reputation as reliable and competent. They foster team effectiveness through open, honest and positive communication and represent and support team members with fairness, equity and impartiality. Work practices and any action taken to correct underperformance or non-compliance with codes of conduct and ethics is non-discriminatory and follows organisational and legal guidelines. Trust is built through an open-door policy and a willingness to listen to input with an open mind. Team members will model their own behaviour on the culture of the organisation and what they observe their manager, supervisor or team leader and others in the team doing. Effective team leaders ensure their own contribution to the work team serves as a role model for others and enhances the organisation’s image for all stakeholders. Effective team leaders understand and evaluate their organisation’s standards and values, and are willing to liaise with senior management and other stakeholders to communicate and change any organisational standards and values that are damaging the organisation’s reputation. The code of conduct focuses on ethical and professional behaviour and is binding on every person within the organisation; for example, it might dictate a dress code or require the wearing of uniforms. An organisation’s written and unwritten standards influence the culture of an organisation. A breach of an organisation’s code of conduct or values can damage an organisation’s reputation, credibility, performance, productivity and customer relationships. For an example, refer to the Australian Planning Institute Australia’s Code of Professional Conduct at https://www.planning.org.au/documents/item/ 6014. 1. Team leader’s role: a. What are the task-related functions of a team leader’s role? b. What are the maintenance-related functions of a team leader’s role? c. Create a profile of an effective team leader. 2. Teamwork: a. Define the term ‘teamwork’. b. List three ways in which team leaders can empower team members. c. How can a team leader develop mutual accountability? 3. Power and authority: a. What type(s) of power is/are best used by an effective mentor? Give reasons for your answer. b. What is the source of authority for a mentor? 4. Problems and RADAR: a. Identify three categories of workplace problems. b. How does the five-step RADAR approach help groups and teams to problem solve?

Match actions to words and demonstrate ethical conduct into everyday tasks and interactions to maintain and enhance your organisation’s image. Meet the standards in the organisation’s codes of practice, policies, procedures, business plans and work method statements. Work in accordance with the organisation’s codes of practice, guidelines and expectations for an acceptable standard of professional conduct.

CHECKPOINT 22.3

22.4 WORKING WITH DIVERSITY Leaders should recognise that individual differences exist in the workplace and that these differences in nationality, gender, intellectual and physical ability, language, experience, race, religion, sexual orientation and work style can be utilised to benefit both the workplace and the individual. Each person comes to the workplace with their own cultural differences, ideas, attitudes, expectations, educational level, biases and prejudices.

Build a harmonious and cohesive team through sensitivity to and respect for workplace diversity.

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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK Culturally aware workplaces and leaders avoid discrimination (unfair treatment) of people based on their membership of a group – ethnic, gender, age, marital status – or on other characteristics. Culturally aware communicators acknowledge diversity in the workplace and avoid stereotyping and derogatory and imposed labelling.

BENEFITS OF DIVERSITY Leaders who work effectively with diversity are able to adapt and respond flexibly to the different ages, genders and ethnicities within the workplace. They are innovative and creative in their approach to diversity. The positive contributions flowing from the diverse skills, talents and perspectives of others are valued and incorporated into daily operations and tasks. Working well with diversity leads to a number of benefits, including: • greater utilisation of staff talents and improved job satisfaction • greater encouragement of staff to contribute to their full potential • different approaches to problem solving • increased productivity and innovation • diminished conflict and grievance issues • improved reputation of the organisation in the local community • greater breadth of skill, knowledge, experience and creativity available to provide superior levels of service to internal and external clients.

Sensitivity and non-discriminatory behaviour Treat others fairly without bias or prejudice against a particular group or type of person.

In a diverse workforce the challenge is for everyone to show respect for others. Non-discriminatory behaviour means that in words and actions all individuals are treated equally. Discrimination means a person or group of people is treated less favourably then another person or group because of their background or certain personal characteristics. Leaders demonstrate respect for others by: • treating people with dignity and sensitivity • considering the needs of others • accepting individual differences • respecting cultural differences and valuing diversity. Policies, practices and procedures in the workplace should incorporate systems that comply with legislation to promote equity and diversity and eliminate any discriminatory practices. Equal Employment Opportunity (EEO) legislation not only requires organisations to promote equity and diversity but also requires leaders, teams and individuals to behave in a non-discriminatory manner. Discriminatory practices and harassment can result in distress, distrust, disharmony, inequities, absenteeism, low morale, complaints and poor work performance. Workplaces are legally liable if discriminatory behaviour is proven. The Australian Human Rights Commission explains that federal discrimination laws protect people from discrimination on the basis of their: • • • • •

race, including colour, national or ethnic origin or immigrant status sex, pregnancy or marital status and breastfeeding age disability, or sexual orientation, gender identity and intersex status. ª Australian Human Rights Commission 2017 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/legalcode.

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CHAPTER 22 / Lead and develop teams and individuals Anti-discrimination legislation, its schedules and regulations, help an organisation and its leaders to develop guidelines and procedures that enable staff to give standard interpretations and consistent application of services. The Australian Government has passed legislation to ensure that there is no discrimination in employment and occupation on the grounds shown in Exhibit 22.7. An organisation that implements EEO, equity and diversity principles encourages better performance and better relationships.

EXHIBIT 22.7 Illegal grounds for discrimination • • • • •

Race and colour Parental status Sex Religion Medical record

• • • • •

Age Criminal record Sexual preferences Trade union activities Marital status

• • • • •

National extraction Political opinion Social origin Physical disability Intellectual disability

Complaints of discrimination, harassment and bullying The complaint statistics recorded by the Australian Human Rights Commission (2018) in 2016–17 show that the Commission received 14 911 enquiries. ‘The main issues raised by enquirers in this reporting year related to disability discrimination (20%), general employment matters including harassment and bullying (15%), discrimination on grounds covered by the Sex Discrimination Act (11%), racial discrimination including racial hatred (10%) and human rights related issues including immigration and immigration detention (6%) … Data provided to the Commission indicates that in 2016–17, less than 2% of finalised complaints regarding unlawful discrimination proceeded to court.’ (ª Australian Human Rights Commission 2017 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/legalcode) Of the 1128 conciliation processes conducted by the Commission, 843 (75%) were successfully resolved. The outcomes of conciliated complaints under federal anti-discrimination law indicate that 31% of outcomes included terms that will have benefits for people beyond the individual complainant. Examples of the terms that yielded benefits include agreements to: • introduce anti-discrimination policies • provide antidiscrimination training in workplaces • undertake modifications to buildings and services to address potential discriminatory factors. 1. Briefly discuss the benefits of workplace diversity. 2. How can a team leader demonstrate respect for others? 3. Discrimination: a. Identify six grounds for illegal discrimination. b. Identify three ways in which an organisation can resolve complaints of discrimination in a way that yields benefits for people beyond the individual complainant. c. Identify three typical outcomes from discriminatory practices and harassment.

Eliminate discrimination and harassment through systems, practices and action that promote fair and equitable treatment.

CHECKPOINT 22.4

22.5 DEVELOP TEAMS AND INDIVIDUALS Team leaders promote team effectiveness through facilitation of learning opportunities inside and outside the organisation. Opportunities within the organisation include on-the-job workplace learning, work shadowing, mentoring, coaching, rotation and project work (on the job). Opportunities outside the

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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK organisation include TAFE, registered training organisations, university, professional associations and other external programs. Learning and development opportunities across different functions and tasks increase employee engagement, motivation and productivity. Team members understand not only what to do but also why they are doing it. The job and work tasks become more meaningful.

DETERMINE DEVELOPMENT NEEDS Identify any skills gap – difference between what an individual/team can do and what they are required to do – and provide support to fill the gap.

Effective performance of a team depends on each individual member being able to perform satisfactorily the duties and responsibilities identified in their job description. The performance of individual team members should be monitored against their job description. (Refer to Chapter 6, Exhibit 6.15 on pages 154–5 for an example of a job description.) Methods team leaders use to monitor performance include observation, skills audits, surveys and questionnaires, performance reports, interviews and performance appraisals. When a gap is identified the reason for the underperformance is determined. The gap may be caused by: • changes such as the introduction of new technology, introduction of a new procedure, the need to comply with new statutory requirements • team members who are underqualified, disinterested or concerned with their own agenda ahead of the team’s objectives. Identification of the cause of the underperformance establishes the type of development required to fill the gap. When the gap is due to either a lack of knowledge or skill, relevant learning and development activities can fill the gap. When the gap is due to other factors, learning and development is not the answer.

Skills analysis Effective organisational and team learning and development are based on the results of skills analysis. The purpose of skills analysis is to ensure that learning and development is: • due to a lack of knowledge and skills • customised to organisational and team objectives • addresses existing skills gaps and problems • delivered effectively and cost-efficiently. As a rule, the human resources section of an organisation or a training consultant have responsibility for undertaking skills analysis at the organisational level. Managers and team leaders often have responsibility for the learning and development of their team, and therefore need to be able to implement skills analysis successfully. There are three steps in a skills analysis, as shown in Exhibit 22.8 and outlined here:

EXHIBIT 22.8 The three steps of a skills analysis Step 1

Carry out a skills audit

Step 2

Measure findings against the organisation and team’s skill requirements

Step 3

Identify the type of training or learning and development needed to fill the gaps

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CHAPTER 22 / Lead and develop teams and individuals 1. The first step, conducting a skills audit, determines the level of skills of individual team members and the team. The benefits of the skills audit are identification of the skills of individual team members, assurance that individual team members are in jobs or roles where they are best able to contribute, and a documented representation of the team’s collective skills. 2. The second step is measurement of the findings of the audit against: • what the individual members are required to do to perform their jobs • what the team is required to do to perform its collective goals to the standard desired by the organisation (what the organisation needs the individual members and team to be able to do). 3. The third step is a training needs analysis to identify the type of learning and development required in order for individual team members and the team as a whole to acquire the necessary skills to fill any gaps. A training needs analysis: • monitors current performance using techniques such as observation, interviews and questionnaires • predicts future shortfalls or problems • identifies the type and level of learning and development required and analyses how this can best be provided.

Identify training needs for the purpose of improving individual and team performance.

SUPPORT TEAM AND INDIVIDUAL LEARNING AND DEVELOPMENT Effective workplace learning and development applies the six principles underpinning adult learning (Knowles 2011): • Adults are internally motivated and self-directed. • Adults bring life experiences and knowledge to learning experiences. • Adults are goal-oriented. • Adults are relevancy-oriented. • Adults are practical. • Adult learners like to be respected. Learning and developmental activities are implemented after the skills analysis. Any type of workplace learning and development is planned, delivered, monitored and reviewed. In the planning stage, objective(s) are identified clearly, a learner-centred set of activities are prepared, support materials and schedule are prepared and the venue is checked for comfort, equipment, safety and freedom from distractions. In the delivery stage, clear learning objective(s) are presented; information is ‘chunked’ into discrete, logical pieces; people are allowed time to process information; the active involvement of learners is stimulated in discussion groups, practical exercises and brainstorming; questions and queries are responded to positively and promptly; constructive feedback is offered to reinforce and enhance learning; and ‘hands-on’ opportunities are provided for practise, and progress monitored. In the concluding stage, learning is reviewed and summarised. Feedback shows how the learning is linked to organisational and team objectives and how it can be transferred into workplace processes and tasks.

Types of learning and development Learning and development activities should transfer learning into workplace processes and tasks. Examples include these shown in Exhibit 22.9.

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EXHIBIT 22.9 Example of learning development Example

Description

Mentoring

• the partnering of more experienced staff with less experienced • the mentor shares their knowledge of the organisation’s values and business processes

Coaching

• in a specific work task or skill by a more experienced person • often in a formalised process • delegation of tasks with clear, brief instructions about objectives, resources, priorities and review dates

Promotion of learning

• learning networks and study circles • learning exchanges in self-managed teams of self-directed learners

Action-based learning

• involve team members in real work, discussion, reflection, review • share learning to build task competency and improve communication, teamwork, problem solving and decision making • participate in on-the-job projects and problem solving

After-action review

• learn about what happened and how to improve performance • identify the intended outcome through comparison of what happened with what should have happened • identify any variations and decide why there were differences • document and communicate what was learnt from the review

Self-directed learning

• in which the learner initiates the learning • learner makes the decisions about what learning and development experiences will occur • can be formalised by approaching the manager or team leader to support continual learning in real-time workplace tasks

Align learning and development activities Access management support for team learning and development.

Learning and development activities are aligned to the needs of the organisation, team and individuals. An organisational decision to introduce a change to make work practices more environmentally friendly requires more than a decision and a plan. Managers, team leaders and individual members across the organisation need the knowledge and skills to be able to understand the organisation’s environmental sustainability objectives and plans, have knowledge of the intended outcomes and have the skills to be able to contribute to the planned change. Learning and development that imparts skill in identifying the team’s purpose, responsibilities and accountabilities, participating in team planning, communicating, negotiating, committing to and working cooperatively empowers teams and facilitates employee engagement. It also enhances individual, team and organisational effectiveness. Learning and development to support the introduction of new technologies and improved productivity will have clear objectives designed to develop the skills and knowledge to operate technology in the workplace efficiently and safely, comply with workplace health and safety regulations and safe work practices, develop, implement and monitor plans, as well as participate in internal audits and take corrective actions.

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CHAPTER 22 / Lead and develop teams and individuals

Learning plans facilitate workplace learning and development A learning plan is created to: • clarify how the planned learning and development will happen • support the learning • show how it will be monitored and evaluated. Learning plans structure and promote learning by identifying what the learner needs, why (the reason for learning), how, what time, resources and opportunities are available to allow them to learn and how the learner will know when learning has been achieved. The components of a learning plan are shown in Exhibit 22.10.

EXHIBIT 22.10 Components in a learning and development plan Purpose

Steps

Develop a step-by step process:

• • • •

Identification of learning goals Identify the learning strategy, necessary resources and support Identify rights and responsibilities of the respective parties Specify what constitutes evidence of learning; that is, how will you know learning has occurred • Identify time lines and target dates for the attainment of the objective(s) and duration of the developmental activity • Adjust plan in response to ongoing feedback (if required)

Promote a positive learning culture Learning in the workplace takes time and resources; therefore, the benefits of the learning should flow to the organisation as well as to the individual. Developmental activities should relate to workplace roles, tasks and targets, be appropriate to the needs of the team and individual team members and offer clear learning pathways. A positive learning culture flows from: • orientation of the team’s vision towards the long-term as well as immediate short-term success • creation of a shared plan of action to improve unsatisfactory performance and mistakes • team leaders who support their team’s performance improvements in processes, task, sustainability practices and management of change • constructive, objective feedback about performance and taking action to achieve improvement • equality of opportunity to undertake training, learning and development, which increases interest and motivation that leads to increased productivity, job satisfaction and morale. Equity issues are addressed to ensure fairness or impartiality in access to opportunities in the workplace. Refer to the Anti-Discrimination Act 1977 – Act 48 of 1977, http://www5.austlii.edu.au/ > AntiDiscrimination Act 1977 – to provide fair and equitable access to training and promotion for all staff. This legislation requires employers to make allowances for staff with special needs and ensure they are not disadvantaged in any way. The location, timing, entry requirements or content of a workplace training

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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK initiative may need to be adjusted to meet particular needs if the criteria discriminate on the basis of race, sex, religion, political opinion, national extraction, social origin, marital status, age or disability. Team leaders should focus development activities to ensure team members know what to do, how to do it and ensure that they have the opportunity to do it. Team members are motivated by psychological rewards such as knowing their work is worthwhile, goal achievement, recognition, development of talent and potential career opportunities. The learning and development should have relevance to workplace practices, routines and challenges, enhance competence and acquisition of up-to-date skills, promote performance to the required standard and enhance service delivery to satisfy the expectations of internal and external customers. Effective team leaders support performance and foster enthusiasm and genuine commitment to ongoing learning and continuous improvement.

MONITOR AND EVALUATE LEARNING Monitor and evaluate outcomes from development activities, which allow individuals and teams to reflect on what works and what does not and allows for continuous improvement.

Organisations typically arrange competencies into a framework that brings together a number of job roles and the required skills and knowledge that a job holder must possess or acquire in order to perform their job effectively. A workplace competency is a description of a required skill, attribute or behaviour for a specific job used to define and measure an individual’s effectiveness. National competency standards provide a nationally recognised benchmark against which organisations can measure workplace performance and design learning and development activities to fill skill gaps. A competent person is able to perform their work to the standard required in their workplace. The benefits of monitoring and evaluating learning and development activities are: • ensuring objectives of the learning program address and improve core competencies and team effectiveness • demonstrating compliance with mandatory training requirements • tracking program outcomes and budget accountability for efficient implementation of programs. Monitoring provides a record of learning and development that enables the team members to quantify how much time is spent providing on-the-job training, supervising and supporting learners. Monitoring also allows the team leader and members to reflect on its practices and ways in which to improve ongoing improvement of processes and procedures.

Performance standards

Use standards to evaluate a person or team’s performance.

Workplace performance standards are documented in competency standards, standard operating procedures, safety legislation and regulations, organisational customer service standards and industry benchmarks. A competency standard identifies what is to be done, to what standard and under what conditions. Refer to BSBLED401 ‘Develop Teams and Individuals’ at https://training.gov.au/Training > BSBLED401 for an example of a unit of competency. The elements of competence for the national unit of competence are: determine development needs; develop teams and individuals; and monitor and evaluate workplace learning. The performance criteria identify the standard of performance required to perform competently. The performance criteria in the BSBLED401 national unit of competency identify the standard of performance required of a manager or team leader with responsibility to develop teams and individuals in the workplace. When monitoring and evaluating it is critical to ensure performance is measured against an objective and transparent performance criteria or standard.

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Assess competence Competence may be assessed in the workplace through observation of the performance of a task or of the product from a task, spoken or written answers to questions, information from competency log books, information from colleagues, managers or others and previous qualifications such as certificates or licences. Any evaluation of learning outcomes should be measured against appropriate and known standards and benchmarks such as national competency standards (refer to training.gov.au for examples of national competency standards), standard operating procedures, safe work method statements, legislative and industry requirements. The assessment process uses the principles of assessment – validity, reliability, fairness and flexibility – although each assessor assesses in a manner that best suits the circumstances, individuals and needs of the organisation. Competency assessment involves assessing the ability of the person being assessed to do the job, transfer learning, cope with problems and communicate effectively. Proper application of the four technical principles of assessment ensures people have the same opportunity to demonstrate competence. All assessments should: 1. be a valid assessment against objective standards that are part of the performance required in the workplace 2. be reliable so that each person assessing offers the same process for each learner who is undergoing assessment 3. be fair – no person should be disadvantaged and those conducting an assessment of learning should use the same approach with each learner 4. have the flexibility to deal with formal or informal learning opportunities, accommodate any disability – for example, a wheelchair – and allow familiarity with necessary equipment or work methods.

Record results of learning Records provide an organisation with: • evidence to show how it meets its legal responsibilities and accountabilities in areas of mandatory training, such as responsible service of alcohol (RSA) • information about the number and type of skills and any skills gaps in the organisation • a historical record of the learning, development and assessments undertaken within the organisation • information for personnel records and evidence for remuneration and reward. Records of performance and learning are essential to allow any organisation to meet legislative requirements, human resource (HR) requirements such as performance review systems, payroll system and training system requirements. The record-keeping system in an organisation records team leader and team members’ targets and bonus payments, completed learning and development activities and performance appraisal ratings. 1. Learning and development: a. Create a three-column table. The overall title of the table is ‘The benefits of workplace learning and development’. The title of column one is ‘Benefits for the team’, column two ‘Benefits for the team leader’ and column three ‘Benefits for team members’. List the benefits of learning and development in the appropriate column. b. Develop a poster titled ‘The organisational benefits of workplace learning and development’.

CHECKPOINT 22.5

> 619

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>

2. Performance standards: a. Consider one of your routine work tasks. Write a statement to describe the task. b. How do you know you have achieved the required standard of performance? c. Write three or four specific statements about what you are expected to achieve and to what standard. 3. Learning, coaching and mentoring: a. What is the purpose of action-based learning? b. Briefly explain the difference between coaching and mentoring. 4. Learning plans and activities: a. Identify the components in a learning plan. b. How can a team leader promote a positive learning culture? c. What are the benefits of monitoring and evaluating learning and development activities?

LEARNING ACTIVITIES SUMMARY 22.1 Discuss the features of transformational leadership, transactional leadership and authentic leadership. Transformational leaders have idealised influence. They arouse follower confidence, commitment, admiration and respect toward the leader. Followers identify with the leader and wish to emulate them. They provide inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation and individualised consideration. Transactional leaders provide contingent rewards linked to goal achievement. They engage in active management by exception – monitoring the work of followers, observing successes and watching for deviations from rules and standards – and take corrective action if required. They also engage in passive management by exception through intervention when underperformance occurs or standards are not met. Transactional leaders may on occasion use laissez-faire leadership. Authentic leaders have self-awareness and an understanding of their own strengths and weaknesses. They have an internalised moral perspective and engage in balanced processing or analysis of relevant data before making a decision. Their relational transparency allows them to share information and feelings openly to present the authentic self.

22.2 Describe the sources of a leader’s power and five drivers that build trust between a leader and team members. A leader may use six different types of power: legitimate power, expertise power, reward power, coercive power or referent power and information power. Power used well enhances the leader’s capacity to influence others to act in the best interests of the organisation, the team and individual members. The five drivers of trust are the leader’s competence, openness and honesty, concern for employees and stakeholders, reliability and identification with the team. 22.3 Discuss the task-related and maintenance-related team functions and outline the features of teambased leadership. Leadership requires the leader complete task- and maintenance-related functions as they work with the team to develop a vision and set goals. Team-based leaders facilitate teamwork, develop mutual accountability, empower team members, represent and support team members and provide coaching and mentoring assistance. They problem solve and work with team members to make decisions. 22.4 Discuss diversity and how to utilise differences to benefit both the workplace and the individual. Leaders should take advantage of the diversity within the team. Diversity is the overall consequence of the

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CHAPTER 22 / Lead and develop teams and individuals

individual differences present in the workplace. People may differ in their nationality, age, gender, intellectual and physical ability, language, experience, race, religion, sexual orientation and work style. A clear understanding of individual differences helps in the recognition of the benefits of a diverse workforce. Good team leaders are culturally aware, work effectively with diversity and collaborate with team members to solve problems and make informed decisions. They lead effectively across the three generations (baby boomers, Gen X and Millennials).

22.5 Determine team development needs, choose appropriate learning and development activities, monitor and evaluate workplace learning. Team leaders have responsibility to determine the development needs of their team, to develop individuals and the team and to monitor and evaluate workplace learning activities in accordance with organisational requirements. Learning is evaluated in accordance with organisational procedures, industry and nationally recognised standards of performance.

KEY TERMS accountability action-based learning after-action review authentic leader emotional intelligence expert power

informational power learning plan maintenance-related functions motivation needs

performance criteria principles of assessment RADAR rewards self-directed learning task-related functions

teamwork transactional leader transformational leader

LEARNING ACTIVITIES 1. Authentic leadership Work individually. ‘Authentic leaders have high levels of self-awareness and their behaviour is driven by their core personal values. They make integrity a priority.’ a. What are your core values? Name three of your most important values. b. Do an ethics check of your behaviour. Are you being consistent with your core values? c. What kind of a leader would you be if you truly acted out your values? d. How would people working with you respond to such a leadership style? 2. Learning and development plan Work individually.

Work in Progress is an engineering firm that provides services to clients across Australia. Because many of the clients are located in remote locations Work in Progress employs a large number of casual contractors to work in the remote locations, as well as full-time staff in the head office of each Australian state. Some of the contractors have limited knowledge of Australian workplace health and safety legislation and regulations. Prepare a learning plan for the casual contractors. In the learning plan, identify the objective(s) of the learning, how the learning will be delivered, the learning and development activities the contractors will undertake, and how achievement of the learning objective(s) will be assessed.

GROUP ACTIVITIES Part A: Outstanding leaders Work in small groups. a. Identify a public figure who is recognised as an outstanding leader.

b. Brainstorm the qualities that make that person an effective leader. c. Which theory of leadership (transformational, transactional or authentic) best describes their approach to leadership? Provide reasons for your answer.

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Part B: Contrast transformational, transactional and authentic leadership a. Develop a profile of a transformational leader. b. Write a brief explanation of this statement, ‘The transaction style of leadership is also referred to as a telling style’. c. Write a brief explanation of this statement, ‘Authentic leadership is viewed as a potentially influential style because employees are more likely to trust such a leader’.

Part C: Meet the diverse needs of a team ‘Effective team leaders undertake a wide range of activities as they establish direction, communicate, motivate, empower and promote team performance.’ Create a PowerPoint or Prezi presentation outlining the range of leadership actions required of a leader who is able to meet the diverse needs of a team.

CASE STUDY RUMBLINGS IN THE TEAM RANKS Will is an experienced motor mechanic for a national network of the TRUGOOD Tyre Company. TRUGOOD supplies tyres, shock absorbers and suspension systems, brakes, wheel alignment, safety seats and belts, cargo restraints and other vehicle accessories. Will is recognised throughout TRUGOOD’s network for his exceptional product knowledge and mechanical expertise. Will has been promoted to State Manager. His responsibilities cover eight TRUGOOD outlets with a total staff of 40 (two managers, four team leaders and 34 team members). TRUGOOD’s Chief Executive Officer has informed the state managers that one of the company’s major goals for the next 12 months is to increase sales by 10% and improve their customer retention rate by 5%. Will decides to hold a meeting with the managers and team leaders to decide how to achieve the goal. At the meeting Will directs the managers and team leaders to: • set individual and team targets in line with the new sales targets • review systems and processes to ensure the most efficient options are in use • coach team members to improve customer service skills in each TRUGOOD outlet in the state. One of the managers, Jack, says, ‘Will, how should we do this? Do you have any suggestions? Could we see your statewide plan so we can match what we are doing to the overall plan?’ Will replies, ‘It’s OK to develop your own plan. Just create one that suits your area. It’s your job, you know.’ Over morning tea, Jack says to the others, ‘Is Will just not listening to us or is he deliberately withholding information about what the company wants? We need to

work together with him. How can I prepare a plan when I am in the dark about what TRUGOOD is planning nationally and at the state level?’ Liz, one of the team leaders, says, ‘I don’t know, but the other day when I suggested we needed to upgrade the safety equipment in the workshop, Will disagreed and walked off. I don’t think he likes suggestions. All he does is dictate what has to be done and expects us to jump to it. While a lot of his ideas are good, a few could be improved with some input and discussion from us.’ Phil, the other manager, says, ‘I dislike being dictated to. I know a lot about the job and I like to get things done, and done well, but being ordered around doesn’t help. I want to discuss some strategies with others and know how we are going to measure improvements in service and customer retention.’ The discontent of the managers and team leaders reporting to Will filters through to Will’s National Manager who becomes concerned about Will’s poor interpersonal skills impacting on performance across TRUGOOD’s state operations.

Questions Assume you are Will’s National Manager and you believe you can coach Will. 1. Identify the issues in Will’s approach that are causing discontent among team members. 2. What issues would you work with him on? 3. How would you approach Will, and what would you say? 4. How would you hold Will accountable for improvement in his leadership skills?

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CHAPTER 22 / Lead and develop teams and individuals

BIBLIOGRAPHY Australian Human Rights Commission. 2018. Workplace discrimination, harassment and bullying, https:// www.humanrights.gov.au/employers/good-practice-goodbusiness-factsheets/workplace-discrimination-harassmentand-bullying, viewed 26 March 2018. Avolio, B.J., Walumbwa, F.O. & Weber, T.J. 2009. ‘Leadership: Current theories, Research and Future Directions’, Annual Review of Psychology, 60, pp. 421–49. Bass, B.M. & Avolio, B.J. 1990. ‘The Implications of Transactional and Transformational Leadership for Individual, Team, and Organisational Development’, Research in Organisational Change and Development, 4, pp. 231–72. Bungay, Stephen. 2010. The Art of Action: How Leaders Close the Gaps Between Plans, Actions and Results, Nicholas Brealey Publishing, London. Chou, Huey-Wen. Lin, Yu-Hsun. Chang Hsiu-Hua & Chang, Wen Wei. 2013. ‘Transformational Leadership and Team Performance: The Mediating Roles of Cognitive Trust and Collective Efficacy’, Sage Open Journal, 4 July, https:// journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/2158244013497027, viewed 6 December 2018. Consortium for Research on Emotional Intelligence in Organisations. 2015. Emotional Competence Framework, 1998, http://www.eiconsortium.org/reports/ emotional_competence_framework.html, viewed 29 March 2018. Dirks, T. & Ferrin, Donald L. 2002. ‘Trust in Leadership: Meta-Analytic Findings and Implications for Research and Practice’, Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 87, No. 4, pp. 611–28. Dyer, W.G., Dyer, W.G. Jnr. & Dyer, J.H. 2013. Team Building: Proven Strategies for Improving Team Performance, 5th edn, Jossey-Bass, San Francisco, CA. French, Jr., J.R.P. & Raven, B. 1960. ‘The Bases of Social Power’. In Cartwright, D. & Zander, A. (eds). Group Dynamics, 3rd edn, Harper & Row, New York, NY. Garvey, Bob. Stokes, Paul. & Megginson, David. 2009. Coaching and Mentoring: Theory and Practice, Sage Publications, London, UK. George, Bill. Sims, Peter. McLean, Andrew N. & Mayer, Diana. 2007. ‘Discovering Your Authentic Leadership’, Harvard Business Review, February, https://hbr.org/2007/ 02/discovering-your-authentic-leadership, viewed 24 March 2018.

Goleman, D. 1998. Working with Emotional Intelligence, Bantam Books, New York, NY. Goleman, D. 2006. Emotional Intelligence: Why It Can Matter More Than IQ, 10th anniversary edn, Bantam Books, New York, NY. Harvard Business Review, 2011. HBR’S 10 Must Reads: The Essentials, Harvard Business Press, Boston. Judge, T.A. & Piccolo, R.F. 2004. ‘Transformational and Transactional Leadership: A Meta-analytic Test of Their Relative Validity’, Journal of Applied Psychology, October, Vol. 89 No. 5, pp. 755–68. Katzenbach, J.R. & Smith, D.K. 2006. The Wisdom of Teams: Creating the High-Performance Organization, Harper Collins, New York, NY. Knowles, Malcolm Shepherd. Holton, Elwood F. & Swanson, Richard A. 2011. The Adult Learner: The Definitive Classic in Adult Education and Human Resource Development, 7th edn, Routledge, New York, NY. Kotter, J.P. 1990. A Force for Change: How Leadership Differs from Management, Free Press, New York, NY. Malloch, Margaret. Cairns, Len. Evans, Karen & O’Connor, Bridget N. 2011. The Sage Handbook of Workplace Learning, Sage Publications Ltd, London, UK. McNamara, Carter. Strong Value of Self-Directed Learning in the Workplace: How Supervisors and Learners Gain Leaps in Learning, http://journeyofhrd.blogspot.com.au/2008/05/ carter-mcnamara-strong-value-of-self.html, viewed 15 March 2018. Mintzberg, H. 1983. Power In and Around Organizations, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ. New South Wales Consolidated Acts. Anti-Discrimination Act 1977, Act 48 of 1977, http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/ nsw/consol_act/aa1977204/notes.html, viewed 4 March 2018. Northouse, P.G. 2015. Leadership: Theory and Practice, 7th edition, Sage Publications Inc, Thousand Oaks, CA. O’Neil, J. 1996. ‘On emotional intelligence: a conversation with Daniel Goleman’, Educational Leadership, vol. 54, issue 1, September. Pfeffer, J. 1981. Power in Organizations, Pitman, Marshfield, MA. Planning Institute Australia. 2018. Code of Professional Conduct, https://www.planning.org.au/documents/item/ 6014, viewed 29 March 2018.

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Raven, B.H. 1965. ‘Social influence and power’. In I.D. Steiner & M. Fishbein (eds), Current Studies in Social Psychology, Holt, Rinehart, Winston, New York, NY. Robbins, S., Bergman, R., Stagg, I. & Coulter, M. 2017. Management, 8th edn, Pearson Education Australia, Sydney. Salicru, Sebastian. 2017. Leadership Results: How to Create Adaptive Leaders and High-Performing Organisations for an Uncertain World, John Wiley and Sons, Milton, Queensland. Shamir, B. & Eilam, G. 2005. ‘‘‘What’s your story?’’; A lifestories approach to authentic leadership development’, Leadership Quarterly, 16, pp. 395–417. Shockley-Zalabak, P.S., Morreale, Sherwyn P. & Hackman, M. 2010. Building the High-Trust Organization: Strategies for Supporting Five Key Dimensions of Trust, Jossey Bass, San Francisco, CA. Tarrant, Deborah, 2017. ‘A whole world of change’, Leadership Matters, Institute of Leaders and Managers, November 2017, p. 18.

THE TIMES 100. Business expansion through training and development, http://businesscasestudies.co.uk/aldi/ business-expansion-through-training-and-development/ development.html#ixzz242l9HjDF, viewed 26 March 2018. Tovey, Michael D. & Lawlor, Diane, R. 2011. Training in Australia, 4th edn, Pearson Education Australia, Sydney. training.gov.au. BSBMGT405: Provide Personal Leadership, https://training.gov.au/Training/Details/BSBMGT405, viewed 6 December 2018. training.gov.au. BSBLED401: Develop Teams and Individuals, https://training.gov.au/Training/Details/BSBLED401, viewed 6 December 2018. Walumbwa, F.O., Avolio, B.J., Gardner, W.L., Wernsing, T.S & Peterson, S.J. 2008. ‘Authentic Leadership: Developmental and validation of a theory-based measure’, Journal of Management, 34(1), pp. 98–126.

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ORGANISE AND MANAGE MEETINGS

Your Learning Journey

CHAPTER

23

What is required to

ORGANISE + MANAGE MEETINGS

Chapter 23 MEETING TYPE + PURPOSE as well as planning + documentation

23.5

23.1

Roles + duties 23.4 MONITOR ACTIONS + the CHARACTERISTICS of effective meeting records

Follow up

chairperson / secretary / members meeting conventions + processes

DECISION MAKING PROCESSES to analyse information, create new ideas + problem solve

23.2

23.3 MEETING ETIQUETTE + COMMUNICATION SKILLS (face-to-face, virtual meetings + team briefings)

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LEARNING OBJECTIVES After studying this chapter, you should be able to: 23.1 identify the type and purpose of the meeting, and plan and prepare documentation and venue 23.2 understand the roles and duties of chairperson, secretary and members and use meeting conventions and processes in a structured meeting 23.3 use communication skills and meeting etiquette in face-to-face meetings, virtual meetings and team briefings 23.4 apply decision-making processes to analyse information, create new ideas and problem solve 23.5 follow up, monitor actions and describe the characteristics of effective meeting records.

23.1 DETERMINE THE PURPOSE

Conduct well-run, effective meetings to achieve results and offer satisfaction to members.

Meetings cover three main areas of responsibility: 1. The organisation’s responsibility is to provide the policy and procedures. 2. The meeting’s executive is responsible for organising and running the meeting according to its standing orders and formalities. 3. Members are required to take part in decision making at the meeting and contribute to areas requiring their expertise. When the three areas of responsibility are dealt with efficiently, meetings give the executive and members the opportunity to create new ideas, solve problems and make democratic decisions. Meetings vary to suit their purpose and the organisation’s needs. Formal meetings suit a structured situation and are governed by rules. Informal meetings and team briefings suit less structured situations. In each type of meeting, certain steps and procedures take place. Meetings, both formal and informal, are essential to ensure an organisation achieves its goals and objectives. Well-run formal and informal meetings enable everyone to contribute so that the maximum range of opinions and relevant information can be presented. They are a means of exchanging information, opening communication channels, addressing issues, making decisions and choosing solutions. This opportunity to contribute to decision making increases commitment by members of the meeting to chosen solutions and proposed actions.

FORMAL MEETINGS Apply rules and regulations to provide a framework and enhance participation.

Formal meetings have rules and regulations, and sometimes follow the British Westminster system of government. Meeting rules and procedures provide a framework for the business or purpose of the meeting, and usually allow all members to participate. This chapter discusses only the formal procedures required for a structured meeting. Even though interaction between members is generally limited by the formal procedures, and initiatives are taken by the leader who manages the meeting and the discussion, the meeting should be conducted in a democratic way. Exhibit 23.1 lists some examples of formal meetings.

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CHAPTER 23 / Organise and manage meetings

EXHIBIT 23.1 Examples of formal meetings Type

Purpose

Example

Annual general meeting

To inform interested parties of the year’s progress and the plans for the next year

CSR’s annual general meeting

Extraordinary general meeting

To inform members of unusual circumstances and any potential advantages and disadvantages to shareholders, other interested parties and the company

A company receives a takeover offer from another company

Board meeting

To provide a forum for management and the board of directors

The board meeting of a student association

Departmental meeting

To discuss operations or to brief members

Members of a university English department

Interdepartmental meeting

To discuss common policy with the most senior person from each section or division, and to exchange information

Heads of department at an art college

Operational meeting

To discuss new equipment requirements or new safety procedures

Computer support committee

Briefing

To pass information along the organisation’s channels; to save time

Weekly briefing of public relations staff

Private meeting

To provide a forum for members and their invitees

Clubs like APEX and professional associations

Public meeting

To allow the public to express opinions or give public support to an issue

A proposal to close parkland to the general public

INFORMAL MEETINGS Informal meetings at work are held to exchange information, solve problems, make decisions or set goals for a department or section – for example, a news reporter, camera operator and sound engineer are briefed by the news editor before going out to cover a story. Informal meetings are less structured than formal meetings. People can contribute their expertise in this give-and-take situation. Everyone participates. Group discussion, participation, feedback and interaction lead to the final decision and action. This kind of procedure is ideal for the meeting held to make decisions and solve problems as it allows the group to define tasks, draw up plans of action and make decisions. One of the main complaints about informal meetings is that they are often disorganised. The chairperson, usually the most senior person, not wanting to appear authoritarian, often allows discussion to become undirected. Without direction, group members tend to debate an issue without achieving any consensus or worthwhile result. Alternatively, if the chairperson adopts an authoritarian role and controls the meeting, group members can become disinterested, bored and not committed to any decisions made. Exhibit 23.2 outlines an order to follow to achieve a face-to-face or virtual meeting that is productive and reaches a consensus. Globalisation and improvements in technology have led to an increasing number of teleconference and videoconference meetings. Teleconferences, videoconferences and Skype enable people to participate in regional, national or worldwide meetings without leaving their local office. The costs of group meetings are reduced due to the significant reduction in travel costs. Problems may arise due to technical failure, unfamiliarity with the equipment or members who lack virtual meeting skills.

Encourage group discussion, participation, feedback and interaction.

Reach consensus in a face-to-face or virtual meeting through a process of familiarisation, evaluation, consensus, action and confirmation.

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EXHIBIT 23.2 Encourage consensus

Familiarisation

Convenor to distribute agenda and information days before the meeting to allow members to familiarise themselves with the issue(s)

Evaluation

During the meeting, members discuss the issues, examine courses of action and make judgements on effectiveness of suggestions

Consensus

Members persuade, conciliate, compromise and move towards a group decision

Action

Confirmation

Members reach a decision, commit and agree on action to be taken (by whom and by when)

Conveners sends minutes to members confirming decisions made and actions to be taken

The Cisco webpage identifies the substantial benefits the company has gained from the introduction of virtual meeting across its international operations. In mid-2008, Cisco IT implemented 269 Cisco¤ TelePresence systems in Cisco offices located in 123 cities worldwide. Cisco IT has collected system statistics and participant feedback on more than 100 000 TelePresence meetings to measure the usage, benefits, and value of the TelePresence deployment. This data shows that Cisco has gained significant business value from TelePresence … including: • Estimated US$90 million travel avoidance cost savings from reduced employee travel • Employee productivity improvements worth more than US$40 million • Accelerated revenue from increased sales closing rate and reduced sales cycle time • Average weekly utilisation rate of 45 per cent for the TelePresence rooms, higher than the target investment value • Elimination of 20 million cubic meters of emissions, which equals 8700 cars off the road. Source: Courtesy of Cisco Systems, Inc. Unauthorised use not permitted, http://www.cisco.com/web/about/ciscoitatwork/collaboration/telepresence_benefits.html, 2012.

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TEAM BRIEFINGS Team briefings involve team leaders meeting with their teams to exchange information and ideas. Team meetings are led by the team leader, and take place face-to-face or on videoconference or Skype or other online technology to ensure team members are able to interact with the team leader and one another. Team briefings let people know what is happening, why it is happening and how it affects the team (the implications). As you plan and select the briefing content, consider what the team must know, should know and could know. Focus on key issues and avoid information overload. Managers and team leaders who run effective briefing sessions keep members focused positively on the key issues. They run the meeting on a regular basis and share both organisational and team information. The meetings enable members to offer suggestions and raise any concerns. Effective team briefings follow the process illustrated in Exhibit 23.3. The process enables the briefing to stay focused on the key issues relevant to the team such as work standards, approaching deadlines, new and ongoing projects, special events, progress in the form of figures, returns and numbers, marketing success stories, customer complaints, quality issues and health, safety and welfare. Common problems in a team briefing are a manager or team leader who: • responds more favourably to some members than others • displays negative nonverbal behaviour • allows the briefing to wander off the subject • comments after every input and takes over the discussion rather than just saying enough to encourage. Diversions and disruptions are minimised when members know the ground rules, such as that only one person talks at a time, no jargon is allowed, confidential information will ‘stay in the room’, and meetings will start and finish on time. The outcome from effective, regular team briefings is awareness of progress and proposed changes, fewer rumours, and increased understanding and commitment to the team. Team briefings also encourage communication upwards, downwards and horizontally throughout an organisation.

Keep the team upto-date on performance, results and progress and enhance understanding in regular team briefings.

Redirect questions to other team members when one person tries to dominate.

PREPARE FOR THE MEETING Face-to-face meetings, virtual meetings and team briefings are an essential part of current workplace practices. Exhibit 23.4 identifies four planning steps that facilitate the effectiveness of a meeting. The agenda identifies the meeting’s purpose, order of business and time lines. Send out the notice of meeting, agenda and minutes of the previous meeting to attendees so they can prepare. Scheduling the meeting room or Web-conferencing facility ahead of time avoids double-booking and consequent frustration. In formal meetings, the chairperson and secretary plan the meeting and organise the order of business. The roles of chairperson and secretary are outlined later in the chapter. Arrangements for the meeting include drawing up the meeting agenda in advance, booking an appropriate venue, establishing costs and operating within a budget, organising accommodation and transport, organising appropriate communication technology, organising catering, preparing relevant documentation for participants and scheduling the date and time for the meeting. The chairperson and secretary must ensure the facilities for a face-to-face meeting or a virtual meeting will enhance interaction and collaboration among participants.

Think about how the seating arrangements will influence the interactions between members.

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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK

EXHIBIT 23.3 Conduct a team briefing Take the time to identify the briefing purpose, become familiar with the content and limit the briefing to three or four key messages

Focus

Prepare

Check the venue, equipment, refreshments, agenda and any supporting documentation

Manage

Open the briefing, explain the purpose, have someone record decisions, encourage open discussion but keep the briefing on track, summarise discussion points regularly and positively

Communicate

Commit

Encourage open discussion, listen, answer questions, maintain eye contact and positive nonverbal behaviour, encourage solution of problems with open and probing questions

Encourage dialogue, build consensus and gain commitment to agreed course of action, confirm who is accountable, decide any follow-up

EXHIBIT 23.4 Four essential planning steps

Agenda

Set an agenda for the meeting

Schedule

Reserve the meeting time and schedule the room or Web-conference facility

Notice

Distribute notice of meeting, agenda and minutes of previous meeting in advance

Facility

Prepare the room or Web-conference facility

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CHAPTER 23 / Organise and manage meetings

PLAN THE FACE-TO-FACE VENUE For face-to-face meetings, consider the facility’s lighting, room temperature, ventilation, acoustics and refreshments. Carefully consider the layout and seating arrangements. Round tables encourage participation as people can see one another’s actions and reactions. Rectangular tables give power to the people at either end. No table creates an informal atmosphere. If you sit above the rest, you have more power. If you sit below other people in a position where you have to look up, they have more power. The ideal seating arrangement is the circular or oval shape illustrated in Exhibit 23.5. It allows everyone to see everyone else, which means better communication between members and better control and participation by the chairperson. This type of arrangement lessens the possibility of anyone dominating the meeting.

EXHIBIT 23.5 Circular or oval seating arrangement

The long rectangular table illustrated in Exhibit 23.6 is less than ideal. It can lead to problems such as ‘meetings within meetings’. The members farthest from the chairperson may talk among themselves. The chairperson may find it difficult to maintain control. It is not as democratic as the circle. Board meetings and international meetings often use this layout.

EXHIBIT 23.6 Long rectangular seating arrangement

The U-shaped seating arrangement in Exhibit 23.7 presents problems similar to those of the long rectangular table. The person on the immediate left of the chairperson tends to have trouble asserting their presence, while the person on the right is easily noticed. This is because right-handed people – the predominant tendency – tend to look to the right more often than to the left. The members closer to the chairperson also gain more attention than those further away.

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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK

EXHIBIT 23.7 U-shaped seating arrangement

PLAN THE VIRTUAL MEETING

Check the technologies before the meeting to avoid technical problems caused by improper setup and the consequent loss of sound or images.

Virtual meeting technology allows distant groups to interact over the Web, work on shared topics and build a sense of belonging even if meeting members are thousands of kilometres apart, without the need for participants to meet face-to-face. The virtual meeting allows members in remote locations to interact, make social connections and develop a sense of community without the associated time and travel costs of face-to-face meetings. Virtual meetings serve a number of purposes. Some of these include: • a video chat to plan a presentation for a meeting • delivery of information to an audience; for example, a broadcast lecture, a webinar or a document posted on a bulletin board • an exchange of ideas and opinion, as in an internet chat session or newsgroup, without any attempt to come to a conclusion • an interactive online meeting with an agenda or a set of objectives which attempts to come to some form of agreement or decision. Regardless of the online conferencing system through which the virtual meeting is conducted, ensure the technology is working properly. Web-based meeting systems combine shared work spaces, instant messaging, videoconferencing, virtual whiteboards and other tools. Check the infrastructure to avoid problems caused by differences such as local hardware and connection speeds between centres. The increasing use of virtual meetings means online meeting applications are continually improving, thus making virtual meetings easier to conduct and technical problems less likely to occur. The chair of the virtual meeting should check the virtual meeting centre to ensure that the notice of the meeting, the agenda, minutes and actions arising from the previous meeting are available. The chair also checks any background information for the meetings and links to any relevant threaded discussions.

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CHAPTER 23 / Organise and manage meetings

1. Meeting leaders and participants: a. What makes a good meeting leader? b. What makes a good participant? c. Identify four characteristics that are common to both. 2. Types of meetings: a. List six reasons for holding meetings. b. Discuss the difference between a formal meeting and an informal meeting and give an example of each. 3. What benefits does an international organisation gain from the introduction of virtual meetings? 4. Outline a process team leaders can use to run an effective team briefing.

CHECKPOINT 23.1

23.2 MEETING ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIES Face-to-face and virtual meetings can be either formal (with a chairperson, an agenda and formal meeting rules) or informal (with a facilitator). In the informal meeting, group participants manage the meeting with (possibly) one person acting as facilitator to control the meeting. Group members participate from workstations in their own offices without the necessity of having a dedicated conference room. Virtual meetings have been used effectively in regard to both time and costs to realise organisational goals. With face-to-face meetings, many may not attend because of the time factor alone; others may find the costs of travel prohibitive. People at a formal, structured meeting may take an executive role or a membership role. Both roles involve two main responsibilities: • to prepare for the meeting • to participate in the meeting. Members taking a leadership or membership role make the best contribution to any meeting if they realise that a group of people who meet to complete tasks should, in the process, also satisfy their need to belong to the group.

DUTIES OF THE CHAIRPERSON –– MANAGE PROTOCOLS The chairperson is crucial to the meeting’s success. The chairperson should be able to achieve the goals of the meeting, maintain control, exercise impartiality and understand meeting procedures. The chairperson is either elected or appointed. Their responsibility is twofold: 1. to prepare and set the scene for the meeting 2. to conduct the meeting according to the standing orders or rules of the organisation, committee or meeting. The chairperson’s role is the most important role in the meeting. It covers the duties of a task leader and a maintenance leader. Therefore, a good chairperson needs a combination of technical skills and human relations skills. He or she must be able to prepare the agenda in consultation with the secretary, involve all participants in the meeting, keep the meeting focused on the order of business presented in the agenda, help everyone present to reach decisions and plan future action, and promote goodwill.

Fulfil the chairperson’s role – achieve meeting goals, maintain control, be impartial and apply meeting procedures correctly. Keep the meeting focused on the order of business. Follow procedures as you conduct the meeting.

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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK

Conducting the meeting When acting as chairperson, conducting a meeting will involve you in the following duties: • check that a quorum (the minimum number needed to conduct the business of the meeting) is present • declare the meeting open • welcome people to the meeting and introduce any visitors • state the aims of the meeting • state that the order of the agenda will be followed • indicate the time limit for each item • give priority to the most important items • sign the minutes when they are confirmed as correct • guide the meeting through the business on the agenda • allow each item to be discussed fully – this includes the presentation of information and plans • control the moving and seconding of all motions and amendments • delegate when necessary • brief members and give feedback • encourage everyone’s participation • plan the action required by decisions reached.

Ruling on points of order Manage the business of the meeting by following procedures.

Formal meetings have a procedure. At any point in a meeting a member can draw the chairperson’s attention to an irregularity such as a speaker speaking more than once or exceeding allowable time. The chairperson makes a decision on any points of order that are raised. The chairperson should: • acknowledge that members can, at any time in a meeting, point out any improper proceeding or incorrect interpretation of the meeting’s rules of conduct • rule on the point as correct or incorrect after discussion or debate about it • ask the meeting to vote for their ruling on a dissenting member’s point of order – no seconder is needed • accept the vote and take any necessary action required by the decision.

Following procedures An important part of the chairperson’s role is to ensure that correct procedures are followed and to maintain control of the meeting. This is done by: • allocating enough time for adequate discussion of each item on the agenda • ensuring that the meeting begins and ends on time • following procedures to keep the meeting democratic – but not a ‘free-for-all’, ‘gossip’ or ‘gripe’ session • following the meeting’s procedure rules and keeping order • ruling on difficult matters • focusing discussion on the meeting’s objectives • summing up the main points and asking for a decision or vote • dealing with any potential conflict before it becomes serious • being objective and impartial • if business cannot be completed, putting forward the motion or proposal to adjourn it to the next meeting • determining the date and place of the next meeting • closing the meeting. 634 Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202

CHAPTER 23 / Organise and manage meetings

MOVING AND SECONDING PROPOSALS, MOTIONS AND AMENDMENTS A motion is a specific proposal formally put by a member to the rest of the meeting – for example, ‘I move that a pay increase of $30 per week be accepted’. Ideally, a motion should be put in writing and given to the chairperson before the meeting for inclusion in the agenda. At the meeting, the proposal is given in writing to the secretary for inclusion in the minutes. A motion seeks action on a proposal. Once the motion is put to the meeting, it must be seconded (supported) by another member before it can be discussed and voted on. The chairperson asks for a seconder. When the motion is seconded, the chairperson asks the mover of the motion to ‘speak to it’ (outline the motion). A time limit is imposed by the standing orders or by the chairperson. After the mover outlines the motion, the chairperson asks if anyone would like to speak against the motion. Then discussion on the motion is opened to all members present. Throughout the discussion, the chairperson aims to maintain a balance between those ‘speaking to’ the motion and those speaking against it by giving each side a turn.

Amendments An amendment is a formal proposal for change to a motion. An amendment to the motion can be suggested by any member. It is an alteration that aims to clarify the motion (or improve it some other way) by rearranging, removing or adding words. The chairperson asks for a seconder to the amendment and then it is discussed and voted on. If it is accepted, the original motion is amended (changed) before the new version is put to the vote. An amendment is not permitted to negate or change the intention of the motion. Members who want to do this must wait until the motion is discussed and put to the vote, and then propose a separate motion to the meeting.

Bringing a motion to a vote Once there are no more speakers for or against the motion the chair will call on the meeting to vote on the motion. Before the vote is taken the original mover of the motion must be given a right of reply. The right of reply enables the mover of the motion to reiterate and emphasise the main points.

Voting for the motion The chairperson then asks members to vote for or against the motion. Occasionally, when members feel that the discussion is taking too long, they may pre-empt the chairperson and ask that ‘the question be put’ – that is, they request that the members vote for or against the motion at that point, without further discussion. However, it is more usual for the chairperson to ask for the vote. The simplest way to vote is by asking members to say ‘aye’ (yes) or ‘nay’ (no) and to judge the result by the volume of the voices. A motion is won or lost by simple majority. When votes for the motion equal those against, the vote is tied. The chairperson then has the casting vote to break the tied vote. The chairperson abstains from voting unless the vote is tied. The chairperson also abstains from the discussion, but can join it if someone else agrees to take the chair.

Record successful and unsuccessful motions in the minutes.

Resolution A motion put to the meeting and carried becomes a resolution – that is, the discussion about it has been resolved to everyone’s satisfaction. The decisions and course of action for the resolution may either be agreed on at the meeting or deferred until the next meeting. All motions, whether successful or unsuccessful, should be recorded by the secretary in the minutes. A resolution is a motion that has been put to the meeting and agreed. 635 Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202

THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK Exhibit 23.8 explains some of the terms used in connection with meetings.

EXHIBIT 23.8 The terminology of meetings Term

Meaning and purpose

Agenda

A list of the meeting’s business items, prepared by the secretary in consultation with the chairperson and distributed before the meeting. It gives participants at the meeting a brief to prepare information, form opinions and consider courses of action.

Amendment

A proposal to alter a motion by: 1. adding certain words 2. leaving out certain words 3. replacing certain words with others.

Casting vote

An amendment must be debated and voted on before the original motion is dealt with. If there are two or more amendments, each is debated and voted on in turn. An amendment needs a mover and a seconder. The mover and the seconder of the original motion, plus anyone else who has spoken in debate on the original motion, may ‘speak to’ the amendment. A vote from the chairperson that will decide the issue in case of a tie. The chairperson may choose not to use this casting vote.

Constitution

The Constitution contains the organisation’s name, aims and objectives, rules of administration, membership, office bearers and committee.

General business

The heading on the agenda under which ‘new’ business may be introduced. Notify the secretary before the meeting of any items you wish to raise under this heading.

Minutes

A proposal made by someone at the meeting. A motion becomes a resolution after it has been voted for by the majority. A motion can be classified as substantive (any motion of substance to do with the business of the meeting) or procedural (to do with the rules and regulations of the meeting).

Notice

A notice convening the meeting; sent to all members at a time specified by the organisation’s rules.

Quorum

The minimum number of people who must attend a meeting for business to be conducted. The secretary should check that a quorum is present before voting proceeds. The size of the quorum is specified by the constitution.

Standing orders

Rules governing the way a meeting’s business must be conducted.

Vote

At formal meetings, members vote on issues by saying ‘aye’ or ‘nay’, by a show of hands, by a division or by a secret ballot.

DUTIES OF THE SECRETARY –– COMPLY WITH PROTOCOLS The secretary assists the chairperson. The duties of the secretary are numerous. The way in which they are carried out is important to the process of the meeting and the meeting’s result.

Agenda

Prepare and forward the agenda to enable members to plan for the meeting.

The secretary convenes all meetings and prepares the agenda in consultation with the chairperson. An agenda distributes information to members at least two days in advance of the meeting. The agenda clearly states the time, date and place of the next meeting, the meeting’s objective and the order in which items will be discussed. Agenda items can be separated into two groups: • items requiring decisions • items to be discussed.

636 Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202

CHAPTER 23 / Organise and manage meetings By dividing the agenda in this way, the chairperson and secretary ensure that the most important items are dealt with first. Thus, the agenda lets members know: • where and when the meeting will be held • who is invited to the meeting • what business will be covered • when each item will be dealt with • any pre-meeting preparation expected of participants. An example of an agenda is given in Exhibit 23.9.

EXHIBIT 23.9 Example of a meeting agenda AGENDA: BRENT SERVICED OFFICES Date: 4 October 2020 Time: 9–10 a.m. Location: Suite 1A, Level 3 Order of business 1. Opening of meeting. 2. Apologies. 3. Confirmation of minutes of previous meeting (copy attached). 4. Business arising from minutes. 5. Correspondence. 6. Business arising from correspondence 7. Decision items a. Assignment of administrative assistants b. Decide fees charged for administrative services c. Approve travel/conference/representation schedule 8. Discussion items a. New accounts b. Development of website 9. Other business. 10. Adjournment of meeting. Agenda distribution:

Kersten Randall Ko Amari Finn McMahon Sophia Minas

Paul James Darcy Thomas Katherine Watson Sam Regan

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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK

Record proceedings of the meeting in the minutes – the official written record.

A copy is sent to each member before the meeting, allowing them to think about and prepare for the business of the meeting. An agenda should be prepared and distributed in such a way that members can anticipate any problems and have time to consider solutions. The phrase ‘other business’ indicates that other items not on the agenda may also be discussed. The agenda may also indicate the time allotted to each item of business.

Documentation The secretary deals with the paperwork that a meeting involves, including: • preparing enough copies of documents for all members • sending members the agenda for the next meeting and a copy of the minutes of the previous meeting • answering inquiries from members.

Apologies At the meeting, the secretary: • records the names of those present • reads apologies from absentees and asks the chairperson to call for any other apologies for absentees • records these apologies.

Correspondence and minutes The secretary also deals with all incoming and outgoing correspondence, and keeps clear and accurate minutes. Minutes will include meeting details (title, date, time, location), agenda items, apologies and attendees, action items, approval of the record of previous minutes, correspondence, other business and the date of the next meeting. Minutes are often written on an organisation’s template and use lists rather than complete sentences about matters arising from the previous meetings. When acting as secretary, you should: • keep copies of any motions put without notice • record in the minutes the names of those present, apologies, a list of correspondence, a brief summary of any discussion, and all conclusions and decisions reached • check that the minutes clearly identify each motion and those who moved, seconded or amended it • record in the minutes any action to be taken, and by whom • check any doubtful points with the chairperson as soon as the meeting ends • write up brief, clear and accurate minutes as soon as possible after the meeting, within 24 hours or sooner • ensure that the chairperson initials any alterations to the minutes • record the minutes in a minutes book • ensure that the chairperson signs these at the next meeting to confirm that they are correct. The secretary should be able to advise the chairperson on rules and procedures, and may also be required to handle details such as organising the seating in the meeting room. Exhibit 23.10 gives an example of the minutes of a meeting.

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CHAPTER 23 / Organise and manage meetings

EXHIBIT 23.10 Example of minutes MINUTES OF BRENT SERVICED OFFICES STAFF MEETING HELD AT SUITE 1A, LEVEL 3 ON 4 OCTOBER 2020 Present:

Kersten Randall (Chair)

Paul James (Secretary)

Ko Amari

Darcy Thomas

Finn McMahon

Katherine Watson

Sophia Minas, Sam Regan

Apologies: Order of business

1. Minutes of the previous meeting: Darcy Thomas moved and Finn McMahon seconded that the minutes of the previous meeting be accepted. Carried 2. Business arising from the minutes of the previous meeting: Nil 3. Business arising from correspondence: Nil 4. Purpose of meeting: Chairperson Kersten Randall advised that the objective of today’s Staff Meeting is the assignment of administrative assistance to tenants, approval of travel budgets and schedules and that the order of items on the agenda is to be followed. 5. Decision or action items ACTION Administrative assistance available 24/7 at a rate of $65.00 per hour to meet tenant’s international obligations. K Randall to advise tenants by email and place on Brent’s Website by 11 October. Moved: K Amari

Seconded: D Thomas

Carried

ACTION Travel schedule and budget approved. K Watson to post approved schedule on Brent’s Intranet. Moved: P James

Seconded: F McMahon

Carried

6. Discussion items ACTION K Randall Schedule a meeting with new tenants to verify satisfaction with Brent’s services. ACTION P James a. inviting members and partners, or members only b. provide food only, or alcohol and food. Moved: K Watson

Seconded: K Amari

Carried

7. Other business General discussion on the methods to use to attract new tenants. Members decided to consider different types of marketing and advertising and to present their views at the next meeting. 8. Date of next meeting: 15 November 2020 9. Meeting closed: 10.05 a.m. Chairperson’s signature ............................................... Secretary’s signature ............................ Date: .............................................................................. Date: ......................................................

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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK

Read the agenda and the minutes of the previous meeting before you attend a meeting.

DUTIES OF PARTICIPANTS –– INTERACT EFFECTIVELY Productive meetings give results and satisfaction to those attending them. As a participant, you are able to make a meeting more productive by knowing how to prepare for it, how to conduct yourself there, and how to communicate with others.

Task-related roles Pay attention to task-related roles.

Prepare in writing any proposals or motions you wish to put to the meeting and forward these to the chairperson. Prepare your oral presentation so that you are ready to ‘speak to’ the proposal and exercise your right of reply. The following three steps help you keep to the main point: 1. State your main point to catch everyone’s attention. 2. Explain your reason for the proposal. 3. Present concise, relevant background information. Saying too much will distract members from your main point. Remember to reiterate the main point and its advantages or benefits in your right of reply. Task-related roles enable the meeting to move through each step in an organised way. As a member of a formal meeting, you must indicate to the chairperson your intention to speak, and wait for the chairperson’s call to speak. Then you address your remarks to the chairperson before looking at the others present. Generally, you can speak only once when a motion or proposal is being discussed.

Maintenance-related roles Attend to maintenance-related roles to improve group cohesion.

Avoid defensive and dysfunctional behaviours, as they hinder the group’s performance. Focus discussion on the agenda items and control the discussion threads. Enable people in different locations to conduct meetings in virtual forums such as teleconferences, videoconferences and Webconferences.

The meeting’s leader or chairperson, members of the executive and other members are all responsible for maintenance-related roles. Support and encourage others’ contributions to create a positive atmosphere, reduce tensions and reconcile disagreements. Be willing to negotiate, to modify your position or to admit an error. Open communication channels encourage discussion and contributions. Good maintenance skills enable task achievement in a cooperative environment. Maintenance-related roles use the human relations skills of support, encouragement and feedback. Delegating, guiding, influencing and motivating others are all part of the maintenance-related role.

Defensive and dysfunctional roles Defensive and dysfunctional roles operate against task-related and maintenance-related roles, which help to achieve a group’s goals. People take defensive roles – such as tension reliever or scapegoat – to protect others from the anxiety caused by a meeting that is not functioning well. People who play dysfunctional roles – such as show-off, blocker or rebel – to achieve their own hidden agendas prevent the meeting from achieving its goals. Both roles hinder the group’s performance. Task-related and maintenance-related roles are discussed more fully in Chapter 21, Manage team effectiveness. As you develop communication skills in speaking, questioning, listening and encouraging others, you become more productive and self-confident and better prepared to carry out task-related and maintenance-related roles in a meeting.

FORMAL VIRTUAL MEETINGS As with traditional formal meetings, distribute in advance a notice of meeting and agenda to set meeting expectations, clarify any preparation steps needed for the meeting and request input on the agenda. Consider other time zones when choosing the meeting time.

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CHAPTER 23 / Organise and manage meetings The chairperson presides and acts as facilitator, and the secretary records those in attendance, apologies, acceptance of minutes of the previous meeting and reports, as well as decisions made throughout the meeting. Although virtual meetings obviate the necessity of participants being physically in the same location, managing the meeting requires the chairperson to have specific virtual skills or an assistant conversant with the software. The chairperson or facilitator controls the discussion threads. The discussion in a virtual meeting will relate to the formal agenda items or to the many sub-issues that arise. An effective chairperson requires that meeting members confirm their progress on decisions from the previous meeting and become familiar with each other’s progress before the next meeting. Then the meeting time will be used more efficiently to discuss problems, make plans and handle other matters that are more effectively done through conversations in the virtual meeting. The virtual meeting centre is more welcoming when it has a members’ page with information about each team member, including contact information, a professional summary of experience and areas of expertise, a personal profile of hobbies and interests, and an outline of each member’s responsibilities. Set meeting times to avoid the potential problems caused by time-zone differences. Connecting people in Sydney and Melbourne is straightforward, but scheduling a virtual meeting between colleagues in Australia and India is more complicated. Online formal and informal virtual meetings benefit remote workers and those in central locations because they are able to communicate in real time as if they were in the same location. Collaboration increases as people engage, hear ideas directly from colleagues, seek clarification and make decisions. Exhibit 23.11 identifies three broad categories of online conferencing and collaboration systems. Online conferencing and collaboration systems are becoming easier to use due to the continual improvement in the merging of digital text, audio and video technology.

EXHIBIT 23.11 Categories of conferencing systems Type

Purpose

1. Real-time conferencing – typical applications include instant messaging and interactive chat, participatory webinars, interactive webcasting, online interactive teleseminars and video-conferencing

Refers to synchronous communications in which participants: • are virtually present in real time • interact actively as if they were physically co-located • collaborate, modify and edit documents inside a shared application feature that allows remote control • share, annotate, print and save files through a share presentation or document feature • view the presenter using the whiteboard to draw and display text and objects • view PowerPoint¤ presentations • collect feedback by conducting a survey or voting on a topic, share and save results in a session. Refers to linear or threaded, topic-centred meeting places that enable: • discussion in tagged sequential entries in chronological order • participation by persons in time zones spread across the world that avoids the problems caused by differing day and night cycles • forums or communities of practice to share expertise and experience. Refers to the internet or an organisation’s in-house network that enables: • conferencing and collaboration • virtual meetings and decision making • discussion threads and problem solving • idea generation and discussions • messaging and sharing of ideas, views and news.

2. Forums, message boards, bulletin boards and even blogs and wikis that allow linear communication

3. Collaborative team or group-based work environments with in-built features such as email and instant messaging, application sharing, flash animation, shared files, streaming audio and video

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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK

Use time well to enhance the outcomes from faceto-face and virtual meetings.

Kostner suggests applying the 80/20 rule to online meetings: Spend 80 per cent of the meeting time on topics that require all-participant interaction, and 20 per cent of the meeting time on information-only topics … Reserve the majority of the online meeting time for interaction – identifying issues, brainstorming solutions, making decisions, and building alignment. Source: From ‘Eight Steps to Better Online Meetings’ by Jaclyn Kostner. Published by Pivotal ª 2018.

She goes on to argue that because virtual teams collaborate 84% less frequently than traditional same-site teams, online meeting time should not be wasted on anything that can be shared by email or other one-way media. As in face-to-face meetings the virtual meeting’s chairperson has responsibility to prepare for the meeting, state the meeting’s purpose clearly, stay in control of the meeting and keep participants focused on the main point. In both informal and formal virtual meetings the primary role of a chairperson or facilitator is to control discussion threads. An effective chairperson facilitates discussion of the important issues, ensures everyone is engaged, helps the members to reach a decision, covers all action items and closes the meeting on time.

CHECKPOINT 23.2

1. Motions and amendments: a. Briefly explain the difference between a motion and an amendment. b. List the steps involved in moving and voting on a motion (assuming that no amendment is made). 2. Agenda, items and minutes: a. Briefly explain the following: agenda, minutes, decision or action items, discussion items, other business, motion, quorum. b. Name and explain the main elements of an agenda. c. Name and briefly explain the main elements of the minutes. 3. Briefly explain the responsibilities of the chairperson of a virtual meeting. 4. Virtual meetings: a. Identify the features a virtual meeting has in common with face-to-face meetings. b. What makes a good virtual meeting leader?

23.3 COMMUNICATE TO ACHIEVE RESULTS Offer suggestions and accept some of the responsibilities. Identify communication barriers and build good relationships to accomplish the meeting’s tasks and objectives.

People come together at a meeting to exchange views, ideas and knowledge. High-quality communication between them produces a meeting that enables decisions to be made and actions taken, with successful results. The communication skills you need in the preparation, participation and follow-up stages of a meeting are considered here.

PARTICIPATION AND INVOLVEMENT Participation means involvement in the meeting. Offer suggestions, and accept some of the responsibilities in a way that supports the group’s efforts. As you become involved in the discussion, share your feelings and ideas. This way, new ideas and ways of doing things may emerge. Exhibit 23.12 suggests strategies that will help you to perform well at a meeting.

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CHAPTER 23 / Organise and manage meetings

EXHIBIT 23.12 Strategies that aid participation at meetings Strategy

Action

Practise courtesy and good meeting manners

• • • • • • • • •

Express your ideas and give feedback

Ask questions

Listen

Match the nonverbal message to the spoken

Follow up

• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Arrive prepared and on time Show your readiness to be involved in the meeting and in the decision making Express yourself clearly Listen to others and clarify points Accept and follow the agenda and the specified time limits Avoid causing unnecessary interruptions or distractions Cooperate to bring the meeting back to the agenda when others cause interruptions or distractions Apologise to the secretary if you must leave early Send an apology to the secretary or ask another member to do this if you cannot attend the meeting Participate fully in the meeting Direct your comments to all members and occasionally summarise your remarks Ask others for feedback on what you have said, to confirm that your ideas have been accurately received Give feedback that acknowledges and considers others’ ideas Question others when you are unclear about something Avoid questioning in a way that causes unnecessary interruptions Aim to increase understanding and speed up the decision making Avoid interfering with the time limit or the order of the agenda Avoid making hasty judgements about other people’s ideas Seek clarification by paraphrasing other people’s comments Consider others’ ideas carefully Give others the opportunity to expand or explain their ideas Check that your nonverbal communication is assertive and treats others as equals Avoid using body movement that can be interpreted as aggressive or submissive Speak clearly and courteously, with open body language Attend the meeting with acceptable clothing and appearance Use your own and others’ personal space appropriately – formal or informal Check that everyone understands the decisions reached Before the meeting concludes, verify who will complete each agreed course of action Take part in the planning for the next meeting Offer any contributions you wish to add to the agenda for the next meeting Complete any required tasks before the next meeting

MEETING ETIQUETTE One of your responsibilities at a meeting is to be prepared, read the agenda and become familiar with it before you arrive. Research as much relevant background information as you can so that you are able to make a useful and courteous contribution. Consider why you are attending the meeting. Another responsibility is to participate actively in discussion, the generation of ideas and problem solving. Meeting etiquette requires you to keep your discussion relevant and brief, avoid interrupting anyone who is speaking, pay attention and listen to understand. Never engage in side conversations as

Demonstrate common courtesy, good manners and an understanding of meeting etiquette to promote positive interaction and outcomes.

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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK these show lack of respect for the speaker and may be confusing and distracting to other meeting members. Exhibit 23.13 contains a number of tips on meeting etiquette.

EXHIBIT 23.13 Tips on meeting etiquette • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Reply to the invitation to attend the meeting. Read the agenda to familiarise yourself with issues before the meeting. Be punctual, turn off your phone and if you are late take your seat quickly and quietly. Greet people with a smile, eye contact and a handshake. Dress appropriately, be informed, stay calm and behave professionally. Use positive nonverbals, maintaining eye contact with others for 80–90% of the time and stay calm. Avoid interrupting another member’s presentation unless they have requested questions. Ensure any handouts, PowerPoint slides and other aids are correct and organised when making a presentation. Avoid talking to others in asides during the meeting. Keep questions short and to the point and listen to the answer. Give full attention to the meeting, avoid texting and checking emails. Avoid distracting behaviour such as fidgeting, tapping a pen and reading material unrelated to the meeting. Maintain appropriate confidentiality of the meeting’s discussions and proceedings. Arrange to attend the entire meeting unless you have prior permission from the chair to leave earlier.

A courteous and confident chairperson observes the meeting’s time limit, follows the agenda and concludes on time.

Common courtesy requires a round of introductions in a face-to-face meeting and in a Web meeting. Members of a Web meeting are not at the same physical location; therefore, it is essential to have a round of introductions for everyone to know each other and feel connected. In a Web meeting, speakers should reinforce their identity before speaking by saying, for example, ‘This is Sue again, I agree with Jack’s point’ to help avoid confusion. At the conclusion of a meeting it is good practice to thank people for their attendance and contribution.

OVERCOME COMMUNICATION BARRIERS Communication barriers in meetings waste time, money and effort. They also cause interpersonal conflict and low morale. Communication barriers at formal meetings can be directly linked to: • poor leadership • poor membership skills • a combination of both. They interfere with and prevent productive results.

Poor verbal, nonverbal and listening skills Jargon, slang and negative language also interfere with the communication flow. Addressing a person by the wrong name or with the wrong level of formality may cause an immediate communication barrier. Verbal communication barriers may be caused by: • poor choice of words • inappropriate use of words • unclear or discourteous ways of speaking. Nonverbal behaviour such as your tone of voice, type or lack of eye contact, gestures, use of space, clothing and appearance all affect your communication with others. Use these in an assertive rather than

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CHAPTER 23 / Organise and manage meetings aggressive manner. Barriers occur when verbal or nonverbal behaviour is inappropriate to the type of meeting and its purpose. Listening enables you to hear and comprehend the other person’s message. Boredom, lack of interest, a clash of values, jumping to early conclusions, judging the speaker, dislike of the speaker and allowing the physical environment to distract you are all examples of poor listening. Barriers arise because some of the message is lost. The members of a meeting usually have access to resources and power. However, unwilling, less confident members are unable to make decisions or to organise the business of the meeting efficiently. Communication barriers develop. When people realise that the meeting is ineffective they tend to withdraw or behave in dysfunctional ways.

Hot-headed participants Communication barriers arise when a meeting gets overheated. An effective chairperson will aim to cool any ‘hot-under-the-collar’ participants by using one of the following strategies: • calling firmly for order and a return to objective, reasoned discussion • summarising the hot issue, thus giving participants the chance to calm down • suggesting the current issue be dropped for a while and moving onto another agenda item • taking a break to relax, chatting with each other and then trying again for a limited time.

Dominant and distracting participants When a ‘long-winded’ participant dominates, the chairperson may: • interrupt the speaker and suggest that it is now time to hear from others • say, ‘I think we have been over this before’ • pose a different question to halt the flow of words from the dominant person • discuss the problem in private with the talkative person. When two people dominate discussion and leave the rest of the participants looking on, the chairperson may: • summarise their arguments by saying, ‘Is this what you two mean?’ • involve other participants by saying, ‘What do others think about this?’ • ask them to stand aside and allow the group to make a decision. When an argumentative person takes over, the chairperson may: • request all participants to make positive and helpful contributions • insist that all participants have a chance to speak • agree to disagree and move on • speak with the argumentative participants in private during a break • give the argumentative person a task such as recording points on the flipchart or whiteboard. When side-talkers, pencil tappers or paper-shufflers who are disinterested in the topic, bored or feel excluded distract others from the meeting’s business, the chairperson may: • ask the distracter a relevant question • look directly at the distracter • take a break and discuss the problem with the distracter in private • tackle them in public, indicating that the distraction is making it difficult for the meeting to get through the agenda in a timely manner. The success of any meeting is related to how well participants and the executive (particularly the chairperson) contribute, solve problems, organise and manage the business in a way that achieves satisfactory results. Positive feedback, verbal and nonverbal, motivates the group, and gives it a sense of 645 Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202

THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK belonging and achievement. In fact, many of the potential barriers to communication at a meeting are avoided when participants understand meeting etiquette, use positive verbal and nonverbal communication and follow up their decisions.

CHECKPOINT 23.3

FROM THEORY TO PRACTICE

1. List five behaviours of attendees that participate actively in a meeting. 2. Define the term ‘meeting etiquette’ and provide two examples of behaviour that demonstrate etiquette. 3. List five communication barriers in meetings that can cause a waste of time, money and effort. 4. Dealing with hot-headed or dominating members: a. Explain how a chairperson can deal effectively with a ‘hot-headed’ member of a meeting. b. Explain how a chairperson can deal effectively with attendees who dominate the discussion. 5. Good meetings: a. Record on a flip chart the characteristics of a good meeting. b. Prioritise the identified characteristics of a good meeting from most important to least important. c. Report your findings in a whole-group discussion.

Workplaces that work: effective meetings Among the constant bombardment of emails, phone calls, messages and memos, meetings can sometimes feel like just another demand pulling attention and time away from getting things done. Despite this, when used effectively, meetings are still one of the practical ways for organisations to share information, provide and receive feedback, plan, learn, collaborate and make important decisions. Canada’s HR Council regards regular staff meetings as essential as they serve to: • remind staff there’s more going on that their own issues and deadlines • provide opportunities for collaboration and mutual support • help staff to share important information • create an opportunity for different strata of an organisation (employees, managers, contractors) to unite around organisational goals and priorities • give all employees regular access to information about, within and relating to the organisation, including policies and processes • allow managers to check in with their staff and get an idea of how they are doing. Source: HRCouncil.CA. 2018. Workplaces that Work, Effective Meetings, http://hrcouncil.ca/hr-toolkit/workplacesmeetings.cfm, viewed 8 April 2018.

ASK YOURSELF: Considering all the benefits that can be gained from meetings, why do you think meetings have such a bad reputation?

23.4 DECISION MAKING AND PROBLEM SOLVING IN A MEETING When decisions are made at meetings, two important processes take place. First, members think and analyse to create ideas from the information presented. Second, decisions are made and a procedure or a plan of action is established to carry them out.

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CHAPTER 23 / Organise and manage meetings Two ways of creating new ideas are the nominal group technique and brainstorming. The nominal group technique lets you work independently and gives you time to consider the ideas. In the brainstorming process, you work with the group in a spontaneous way.

NOMINAL GROUP TECHNIQUE The main advantage of the nominal group technique is that it enables members of a group to work independently as individuals at the meeting, to think about and present new ideas. (The term ‘nominal’ means ‘in name only’.) A disadvantage of this technique is that group members may feel their spontaneity is inhibited and that the situation is too controlled. Once the thinking process and presentation of ideas is finished, members work together again as a group to consider and evaluate the ideas. Exhibit 23.14 outlines the steps of the nominal group technique.

Use the nominal group technique to encourage members to think independently. Generate new ideas through brainstorming.

EXHIBIT 23.14 Nominal group technique Step

Process

1. Discuss and clarify the situation or problem to be considered

The meeting’s group of participants listen, ask questions, clarify the issue and decide how the nominal group process will work.

2. Work as individuals

Members are asked to think about the issue on their own and write down their ideas about possible solutions individually, without discussion. This usually takes 15–20 minutes.

3. Present and record the ideas

A ‘round robin’ contribution of ideas takes place. The leader records each member’s contribution. No evaluation or discussion occurs at this time, but members may add further ideas to the list.

4. Clarify and evaluate

Once all the ideas are recorded, the group discusses, analyses and evaluates them.

5. Rate the ideas

Each member of the meeting independently rates the ideas. (If 20 ideas are presented, each person gives the best one a score of 20, the next best 19 and so on until the least favoured idea receives a score of 1.)

6. Choose the most preferred option

Each person’s rating score for each idea is recorded alongside it. (If there are eight people at the meeting, each idea will be given eight different scores.) If you prefer anonymity, put your score rates on cards for the leader to collect and record. The scores are then totalled and divided by eight to give the average score. The idea with the highest average score is the preferred option.

BRAINSTORMING When people in a meeting need to consider new ideas to reach a decision or solve a problem, brainstorming can quickly involve all members in the decision. Brainstorming is a process suited to stimulating innovative ideas and creative solutions. Exhibit 23.15 explains it further. Brainstorming lets each person contribute ideas and feel part of the process that produces the result. It is a quick and easy method to use at a meeting. It leads to new ideas and includes everyone. The meeting must then plan a course of action to ensure that the ideas are acted upon. Two ways to plan a course of action are the problem-solving process and the decision-making agenda.

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EXHIBIT 23.15 Brainstorming Step

Process

1. Define the main issue

Clarify for all participants the main purpose of the meeting. For example, a retail store employing 15 people may want to decide on ways to improve customer service. At a meeting of all staff, the group leader or chairperson states that the task is to ‘identify ways to improve customer service’. Then the leader briefs the group on the brainstorming process.

2. Brief the meeting

Before the brainstorming begins, tell everyone that for two minutes the group is to suggest ways of tackling the task: improving customer relations. As the list of suggestions is created, no one must interrupt or comment on another person’s contribution. It is important that no one speaks except to add new ideas.

3. Encourage all members to participate

Urge everyone to participate and feel part of the group. As people give their ideas they are written on a large sheet of paper or board that everyone can see. Simply throw ideas forward until a timekeeper calls ‘time’ at the end of two minutes.

4. Evaluate the ideas

Everyone at the meeting decides which ideas are a possibility and which should be discarded.

5. Choose the action

The possible ideas are considered further until one is chosen. At this point the brainstorming exercise is complete.

PROBLEM-SOLVING PROCESS Use Dewey’s reflective thinking process to problem solve.

In deciding on a particular solution to a problem, meetings are generally more productive if members follow a logical sequence of steps. The reflective thinking process (Dewey 1933) provides a logical fivestage sequence for a meeting group to follow. It is creative, helps participants understand the reasons for the final decision and encourages them to discuss the results with others. The reflective thinking process is a useful way of creating new ideas and solving problems on an issue that concerns everyone present. Exhibit 23.16 outlines the process.

EXHIBIT 23.16 Dewey’s reflective thinking process Step

Process

1. Define the problem

Define and clarify the meeting’s understanding of its main purpose or task. Encourage each person to contribute ideas and opinions.

2. List all the possible alternatives

Brainstorming is a relatively easy way to list all the alternatives in the second stage of the process. Follow the brainstorming steps outlined in Exhibit 23.15.

3. Discuss and analyse the alternatives

Work through the list with everyone until it is narrowed down to a few alternatives. The process of group participation draws everyone into decision making and helps them to feel committed to the decision reached.

4. Choose a solution

Set your limits and identify the acceptable and unacceptable results. Agreeing to a solution that will bring undesirable results or one that is unrealistic simply wastes time. (You would not use this method for an issue that requires only a quick decision that can be dealt with by the executive or by a vote from all members.)

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Step

Process

5. Plan the course of action

Ask all members to contribute ideas. State that planning is to be directed at the particular course of action decided by the group. Some members may ask to be involved in the plan. They may be willing to follow through until the task is finished.

Schedule the action In step 5 of Dewey’s reflective thinking process, you are able to plan a course of action. Then identify each step of the plan, create a schedule and give a copy to each group member. If, for example, the first step is to compile a set of computer printouts into a database, you could set a deadline of one week from the meeting date. The next step is to circulate the database printout for editing to remove out-ofdate information or add new information. Set a date for return of, say, five working days. Work through each subsequent step of the plan. Make one person responsible for checking the plan’s progress. Add a follow-up stage to the problem-solving process, so that at the next meeting people report results to the group. If the results are acceptable, acknowledge one another’s success. If the plan of action shows flaws, revise the plan.

Plan and implement a course of action.

DECISION-MAKING AGENDA The decision-making agenda is a process that encourages all members of a meeting to participate in decision-making and planning actions through consensus decision making. It is a useful strategy to encourage all members of a meeting to participate in planning the actions required to implement the meeting’s decisions. This agenda moves through nine stages: 1. Clarify and establish an agenda for the process. The agenda clarifies the task, problem or issue and encourages members to ask questions to define it. 2. Establish clear objectives on which to base decisions. Brainstorm as many objectives as possible. 3. Rank the objectives. Determine which objectives must be met, which are desirable but not essential, and which need not be met. 4. Identify the obstacles. Consider what could prevent the team from reaching the objectives. 5. Consider all the alternatives. Brainstorm again at this stage to determine which alternatives will allow the team to reach its essential objectives, and perhaps some of the desirable objectives. 6. Check the alternatives. Analyse each alternative again in terms of the musts and wants, so that you are sure which objectives must be met, which are not essential and which need not be met. 7. Make a tentative decision. Choose from the alternatives identified. 8. Test the tentative decision. Evaluate the chances of success and failure by testing the tentative decision. 9. Choose the best alternative. By asking all members to contribute their ideas, a greater range of creative decisions is made possible. Strategies that include all the meeting members will prevent the discussion from being dominated by some members and overcome others’ fears that their ideas will be rejected. Incomplete participation leads to a false consensus. 1. 2. 3. 4.

When is the nominal group technique used? Define the term ‘brainstorming’. When is it useful in meetings? Briefly describe the stages of Dewey’s problem-solving (reflective thinking) process? How does the decision-making agenda facilitate consensus?

The decisionmaking agenda facilitates efficient decisions and helps meeting members to commit to the actions required for implementation.

CHECKPOINT 23.4

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23.5 FOLLOW UP AND KEEP RECORDS Name and store minutes and other relevant meeting papers for easy future retrieval.

All minutes and papers from a meeting must be forwarded to participants within specified timelines. The timelines may be set down in the constitution or standing orders. All meeting papers must be stored for record purposes. Minutes of meetings are essential records. The minutes and other papers must be named and stored for easy future retrieval. The naming and storage of documents may include: • file names which are easily identifiable in relation to the content • file/directory names which identify the operator, author, section, date etc. • electronic storage in folders, sub-folders, memory sticks • organisation policy for backing up files • organisation policy for filing hard copies of documents • filing locations, security and authorised access.

MONITOR ACTIONS Once a decision has been made and implemented in any type of meeting, monitor the actions taken as a result of the decision using the following methods: • direct observation of actions, attitudes, behaviour and performance • formal feedback such as personal interviews, verbal or written surveys, suggestion boxes, performance appraisals, reports from people outside the organisation, or discussion in a formal group or individual meeting • informal feedback such as casual conversation or comments during work, lunchtime or social functions, anecdotes. Report actions and outcomes of meetings and verify achievements. Confirm progress on action items about mid-way between meetings to check deadlines are being met and enable corrective action to be taken if goals and actions are falling behind the schedule. Follow-up verifies deadlines determined during the meeting are respected and achieved. Progress should also be checked at the next meeting. If there is a barrier to progress, members can work together to plan how to move forward. Monitoring helps determine: • whether the decision has made a positive or negative difference • who is being affected by the decision in a positive or negative way • whether there has been unintended benefits or problems • how popular the decision has been and its effect on team morale • whether additional or further changes are appropriate. Decisions made in meetings and actions taken are recorded. Some reason for difficulties in implementing action include: • hidden agendas • inadequate leadership • lack of opportunity to express differences • unclear goals and no recorded plan of action. The secretary (or delegated officer) should inform members involved of the timeframes for the actions. The progress or results of the actions decided upon at the meeting should be reported at the next meeting.

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KEEP RECORDS IN ACCORDANCE WITH ORGANISATIONAL GUIDELINES

Keep records safe and secure.

As minutes, agendas and agenda papers are retained as permanent official records, organisations prepare guidelines for the purpose of record keeping, safekeeping, binding and preservation of the papers. These guidelines may include the procedures in Exhibit 23.17.

EXHIBIT 23.17 Guidelines for record keeping • The confirmed official minutes, agendas and agenda papers must be the original documents. • The official minutes must be signed by the chairperson at the meeting in which they are approved. Also, any minor amendment must be written in hand on the document and signed in ink. • All pages must be clean, dry and white, A4 size. Also, no white-out of any type or adhesive is to be used as this tends to make pages stick together and be unacceptable for preservation of records.

• To enable efficient indexing, pages should be printed on one side only, with margins of at least 2 cm on the left side of the page. Avoid staples. • Pages should be numbered sequentially. • Minutes, agendas and meeting papers must be checked to ensure that all papers are filed. • Minutes, agendas and meeting papers must be accessible in organised files or electronic recordkeeping systems. • Meeting documentation filed, stored or archived must be systematically maintained and preserved.

1. Identify the characteristics of minutes and other papers that are easy to retrieve. 2. Briefly discuss reasons for difficulties in implementing actions. 3. Create a list of tips a business could use to ensure its official records are retained and easy to access.

CHECKPOINT 23.5

LEARNING ACTIVITIES SUMMARY 23.1 Identify the type and purpose of the meeting, plan and prepare documentation and venue. A meeting with a clearly defined purpose outlined in the agenda is more productive and satisfying than one that is held simply because ‘we always meet on Fridays’. Formal meetings follow established structured proceedings. Informal meetings are less structured; the leader is usually chosen by the group and the roles worked out by the participants. Team briefing sessions let the team know what is happening, why it is happening and the implications for the team. Check the venue and seating arrangements for faceto-face meetings, virtual meetings and team briefings

before the meeting. The secretary prepares an agenda which tells members where and when the meeting will be held, what business will be covered and when each item will be dealt with. Prepare enough copies of documents for all members. The secretary prepares the minutes as the official written record of the meeting and sends members the agenda for the next meeting and a copy of the minutes of the previous meeting at least two days before the meeting. 23.2 Understand the roles and duties of chairperson, secretary and members and use meeting conventions and processes in a structured meeting. The chairperson’s position is one of authority. He or she

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prepares for the meeting, conducts it, rules on points of order and initiates follow-up action. Some duties are completed before the meeting in consultation with the secretary. The secretary prepares the agenda, organises the documents for the meeting, accepts apologies and correspondence, and prepares the minutes. Members carry out task-related roles such as participating and passing motions and amendments. They also attend to maintenance-related roles to keep the group together. When the chairperson, secretary and members work according to accepted conventions, the meeting is conducted with cooperation and efficiency. Proposals, motions, discussion of these, any amendments and the resolution of the motion are more easily achieved this way. The chairperson should end the meeting at the agreed time, summarise the actions that will take place before the next meeting and reiterate who has responsibility for those actions. The secretary should ensure the minutes of the meeting are distributed on time. On occasion, the chairperson or secretary may call on the participants with responsibility to complete major tasks to remind them of the time lines and to volunteer additional help, if needed. Keep records in accordance with your organisation’s guidelines. 23.3 Use communication skills and meeting etiquette in face-to-face meetings, virtual meetings and team briefings. The skills of speaking, listening, negotiation and conflict management are all used in meetings. The application of your own communication skills and

knowledge as you chair, convene or participate in a meeting will help or hinder the meeting. Promote positive interaction and outcomes through common courtesies and an understanding of meeting etiquette. Research issues, read the agenda and be prepared to make a useful and courteous contribution. Meeting etiquette requires you to keep your discussion to the point, to wait until a speaker is finished, show respect for the contribution of others and comply with meeting conventions. 23.4 Apply decision-making processes to analyse information, create new ideas and problem solve. Brainstorming enables members to contribute ideas and be part of the group process. Dewey’s reflective thinking process is a problem-solving technique used to define the problem, list alternatives, discuss and analyse, choose a solution and plan a course of action. The decisionmaking agenda encourages consensus. These strategies allow members to participate in decision making, and create and commit to the plan of action required by the meeting’s final decisions. 23.5 Follow up, monitor actions and describe the characteristics of effective meeting records. After the meeting, transcribed meeting notes are checked to ensure they reflect a true and accurate record of the meeting. Format the documentation and ensure timely distribution of the minutes. Store minutes and other follow-up documentation in accordance with your organisation’s procedures and meeting conventions to make it easy for others to retrieve as required.

KEY TERMS agenda amendment apologies casting vote chairperson constitution correspondence

decision-making agenda defensive role dysfunctional role formal meetings informal meeting meeting minutes

motion newsgroup notice of meeting point of order proposal quorum resolution

secretary standing orders teleconference videoconference vote

LEARNING ACTIVITIES 1. Reflect on the dos and don’ts of running a briefing session a. Brainstorm the do’s of running a briefing session. b. Brainstorm the don’ts of running a briefing session.

c. Develop a two-column table that lists ‘what to do’ and ‘what not to do’. Assume the table will be posted on your company’s intranet.

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2. Planning a meeting Conduct a search on the Web to find examples of notice of meetings, agendas and minutes items. a. Review the notice of meetings, agendas and minutes. b. Drawing upon the information presented in this chapter and the minutes, agenda and action items you have viewed on the Web, develop a good-practice checklist that meeting secretaries could use to help them prepare notices of meeting, agendas and meeting papers. 3. ACE Company’s formal team meeting Assume you are to chair the next formal team meeting in ACE Company. The main item on the agenda is to decide how the team members will contribute to the

implementation of strategies to control workplace health and safety risk. You realise that team members will have to problem solve and make decisions. Research these three decision-making and problem-solving strategies: a. nominal group technique b. brainstorming c. problem-solving process. Choose the technique you will use. Prepare a short report that: • identifies the technique you will use and why you chose it • indicates how you will use the technique • indicates how you will follow through to ensure that the decisions become actions.

GROUP ASSIGNMENT Work in small groups Assume that the Society of Business Communicators is about to hold its annual conference, entitled ‘Communication: Not always simple’, at the Adelaide Hilton Hotel. You are the secretary of the committee planning the conference. In your group, plan and conduct a committee meeting, following meeting procedures and the agenda. Work through the following tasks: 1. Prepare a memorandum and draft agenda for the initial conference planning meeting, and invent the details for the place, time and date of this meeting. Follow the agenda format for the Brent Serviced Offices staff meeting shown in Exhibit 23.9. 2. At the meeting, brainstorm to create a range of ideas for each conference session. First, clearly define the purpose

of the meeting. Use each of the five steps of the brainstorming process (see Exhibit 23.15). Keep in mind that many participants at the conference will come from the public relations sections of large and small private business firms and of government departments. All consider themselves to be professional communicators. 3. Also at the meeting, decide how to publicise the conference. Use the nominal group technique to think independently about ways of doing this. Complete each of the six steps in the process. The group’s goal is to create a list of publicity options ranked in order of preference. 4. Delegate someone to create a checklist that will help the committee make sure that the Adelaide Hilton Hotel meets its requirements for a highly professional venue.

CASE STUDY HAHN FOOD GROUP MEETINGS Three months from now, HAHN Food Group will undergo its annual quality audit. Noah is the chair of the meetings of HAHN Food Group’s internal Quality Working Party Group. Noah is acknowledged as a competent chairperson because he ensures the secretary informs people in advance of the meeting’s objective and agenda. He starts all meetings on time and clarifies the agenda objectives.

Noah’s overall goal as chair of any meeting is to make sure members are able to deal with the issues. As he prepares an agenda, he aims to ensure it will keep the meeting running and on time. He thinks about what must be covered, the priorities or results to be accomplished, by whom, in what sequence and for how much of the meeting’s time. Noah also considers who needs to attend the meeting for it to be successful, as well as the date, time and place.

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When running a meeting, Noah gives most items on the agenda a brief introduction. When a report or a discussion paper is presented, he normally invites the author to introduce it and briefly draws attention to key points and issues as an aid to discussion. Noah then invites open discussion and tries to draw out the full range of opinions held by the meeting participants. When appropriate a vote on a motion is taken at the end of discussion. In his role as Chair, Noah asks the Executive Officer to count the votes if the issue is likely to be close. However, Noah finds the meetings are frequently becoming overheated, especially when discussing how to uncover the cause of customer complaints and report these issues to management. Recommendations regarding customer service improvements aim to standardise customer service processes in order to avoid, or at least minimise, the issues that led to the complaints. Noah is very concerned because two people often dominate the meeting with others simply looking on. During or at the end of the meeting, Noah encourages the meeting to create an action item register or list to ensure that everyone knows what they are expected to do

and when. At the end of the meeting, he revisits the action items by stating the meeting’s outcomes.

Questions 1. ‘There are good meetings and bad meetings.’ Briefly discuss the actions Noah takes to help him lead a good meeting and allow the meeting to achieve its objectives. 2. Noah realises running a good meeting is more than talking to a collection of people. Explain how Noah’s approach to setting an agenda will structure and order proceedings. 3. Prepare a list of some possible practical measures Noah can apply to minimise the communication barriers caused by: • overheated discussions • the participants who are tending to dominate the meetings. 4. What strategies can Noah adopt to cope with team members who ‘simply look on’ at meetings? 5. What can people aspiring to the role of meeting chairperson learn from Noah’s approach?

BIBLIOGRAPHY Cisco on Cisco. TelePresence Case Study: How Virtual Meetings Provide Substantial Business Value and User Benefits, http://www.cisco.com/web/about/ciscoitatwork/ collaboration/telepresence_benefits.html, viewed 14 April 2018. Dewey, J. 1933. How We Think, Heath, Boston, MA. Harvard Business Review. 2014. Running Meetings (HBR 20Minute Manager Series), Harvard Business Review Press, Boston, MA. Heathfield, Susan M. 2018. How to Run Effective Business Meetings that Produce Results, https://www.thebalance. com/effective-meetings-produce-results-before-themeeting-1918729, viewed 7 December 2018. Hood, J.H. 2013. The How to Book of Meetings: A Complete Guide for Every Business, WordCraft Global Pty Ltd, Teringie, Australia. HRCouncil.CA. 2018. Workplaces that Work Effective Meetings, http://hrcouncil.ca/hr-toolkit/workplacesmeetings.cfm, viewed 8 April 2018.

Kostner, Jaclyn. 2018 Eight Steps to Better Online Meetings, http://www.consultpivotal.com/eight_steps.htm, viewed 12 April 2018. Renton, N.E. 2005. Guide for Meetings and Organisations, Vol 2. Guide for Meetings, 8th edn, Law Book Co., Melbourne. training.gov.au. BSBADM502: Manage meetings, https://training.gov.au/Training/Details/BSBADM502, viewed 7 December 2018. Whitmore, Jacqueline. 2005. Business Class: Etiquette Essentials for Success at Work, St. Martin’s Press, New York. Wilkinson, Michael. 2005. The Secrets to Masterful Meetings, Leadership Strategies Publishing, Atlanta, GA. Wilkinson, Michael & Smith, Richard. 2014. Click: The Virtual Meetings Book, Leadership Strategies Publishing, Atlanta, GA.

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GLOSSARY abstract

after-action review

assertive behaviour

See executive summary.

Learning about what happened and how to improve performance.

A constructive style of behaviour, based on high self-esteem and an acceptance of self.

Ethical behaviour in all academic work, including acknowledging all sources correctly, presenting your own work and gathering objective, reliable data.

agenda

assertive statements

A list of a meeting’s business prepared by the secretary in consultation with the chairperson and distributed before a meeting.

Used to make people aware of your rights while respecting theirs.

accessibility

aggressive behaviour

Records can be obtained and used as required during their life cycle.

When one person seeks to dominate others.

Focusing on the speaker by giving physical attention.

AIDA formula

attention line

access rules

Describes the process suited to persuasive writing. It aims to catch the attention, interest, desire and willingness of the customer or potential customer to take action.

Names the person who is to attend to a letter’s contents.

academic honesty

Rules and procedures that are designed to protect the privacy and confidentiality of records.

accommodation

attending listening

audit An internal or external inspection of an organisation’s accounts and systems, typically carried out by an independent body.

A negotiation style in which one party is willing to oblige or adapt to meet the needs of the other party.

amendment

accountability

analytical report

To be responsible for your own actions.

Involves the collection of qualitative and quantitative data. This data requires processing which may involve the analysis of numerical data and the interpretation of textual material.

authentic leader

announcement memo

author–date (Harvard) reference system

action-based learning Involves team members in real work, discussion, reflection, review and sharing of learning to build task competency and improve communication, teamwork, problem solving and decision making.

A proposal to alter a motion in a formal meeting.

A memo that provides information.

active listening

apologies

A listening technique in which the listener works at paying attention to the whole message – that is, the content and the feeling.

The names of people who have apologised for not being present at a meeting.

active records

Information relevant to a report but which would interfere with the flow of ideas if included in the body.

Records accessed daily, weekly or monthly.

active voice A writing style in which the subject is placed before the action to give a stronger link between them and to show who or what is doing the action.

adaptability The ability to change or modify behaviour in response to new or changing environments.

adaptors Nonverbal acts performed unconsciously in response to an inner desire.

adjustment refusal A refusal given when an organisation believes that a request for an adjustment is unjustified.

affective displays Changes in facial expressions that display emotion.

appendix

applicant tracking system (ATS)

authenticity A true item that originates from the author who created it. Someone who is transparent and ethical and encourages openness in sharing information needed to make decisions while accepting the inputs of followers.

Acknowledging work written by someone else by identifying, in the following order, the author’s surname and initials or given name, year of publication, title, publisher and place of publication.

authorisation email A written statement giving the reader authority to take some action.

A software application that automatically filters job applications on criteria such as keywords, skills, former employers and years of experience.

bad-news letter

application form

A graphic that consists of parallel, usually vertical bars or rectangles with lengths proportional to the frequency with which specified quantities occur in a set of data.

A printed document with spaces in which to write when making an application.

argument An argument is a claim or an assertion that shows the relationship between the evidence and conclusion(s).

artefacts Objects used to convey nonverbal messages about self-concept, image, mood, feelings or style.

A letter that gives unwelcome news, by using the indirect order of information.

bar graph

barriers Obstructions that occur when the message received is not necessarily the same as the message sent.

basic resume A short, simple resume suiting those who have just left school or have little work experience.

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GLOSSARY

belief A personal conviction, not necessarily based on fact.

benchmarking The process of comparing an organisation’s processes and performance to industry-best practice in order to improve work practices and performance.

bibliography A list of all the sources of information used in a report as well as further recommended reading.

big data Big data is extremely large data sets captured from social media, internetenabled devices (including smartphones and tablets), machine data, video and voice recordings and other varieties of structured and unstructured data that may be analysed computationally to reveal patterns, trends and associations.

document the causes and sub-causes of a particular problem or effect. The presiding officer of a meeting, committee or board.

A set of written rules and guidelines issued to members of a particular profession or organisation to help them comply with its ethical standards.

channel

coercive power

chairperson

See communication channel.

Power based on coercion or punishment.

channel richness

cohesion

Refers to the amount of information that can be transmitted by a particular communication channel.

A sense of belonging and inclusion that allows team members to satisfy their needs and objectives.

citations

cold canvassing

Acknowledgements of the work of others that allow the reader to find the original source.

Seeking job opportunities by writing directly to companies. (Also known as a direct mail campaign.)

clarifying

collaboration

A communication technique that aims to bring accuracy to an area of confusion. The listener explains how they have interpreted the message.

classification

biodiversity The variety of plant and animal life in the world or in a particular habitat.

blog A website containing dated written entries from one or more contributors on a specific topic in reverse chronological order – the entries can be combined with music, audio, photographs and video.

The arrangement of records into categories in a logical manner. Classification occurs immediately after a record is created and includes the allocation of access restrictions.

cliche´s Words that have been so overused they have lost meaning and impact.

climate

body The main part of a spoken or written presentation.

bookmark A bookmark, or favourite, is a saved link to a web page that has been added to a list of saved links.

brainstorming A group process for generating ideas and creative solutions.

briefing A short, accurate summary of the details of a plan or operation, given orally.

collection letter A letter that uses persuasion to collect money from those who are slow to pay.

column (vertical bar) graph A graphic that uses vertical columns to show changes over time, or compare amounts/items.

comfort zone A situation in which you feel comfortable and you do not have to do anything new or difficult.

communication Any behaviour, verbal or nonverbal, that is perceived by another.

closed question

communication barriers

A question that is designed to limit the response.

Anything that distorts or interrupts the message and its meaning.

cloud computing

communication channel

A general term for anything that involves delivering hosted services over the internet. The term ‘cloud computing’ derived from the cloud symbol often used to represent the internet in flow charts and diagrams.

The means or techniques that are used to send a message.

coaching

A vote by the chairperson in the case of a tied vote that decides an issue in a meeting.

cause-and-effect diagram

code of ethics

A structured problem-solving tool that enables users to brainstorm, identify and

People cooperating to produce a solution satisfactory to everyone.

See communication climate.

Can be as informal as a coaching conversation with a staff member; more formal, as during the appraisal conversation; or a formalised coaching/training session.

casting vote

code of practice

A formal statement of an organisation’s values and ethical rules.

communication climate The tone of the relationship as expressed by the verbal and nonverbal messages between people.

communication process A two-way exchange of information between two or more people that takes place in various situations for different reasons.

competence The ability to complete a task to the standard required by industry.

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GLOSSARY

competency standards

conflict of interest

cradle to cradle

Standards that identify the skills required to perform a job or task, and range from national industry standards to simple checklists developed within a company.

A situation that has the potential to undermine the impartiality of a person because of the possibility of a clash between the person’s self-interest and professional interest or public interest.

A term used to describe a material or product that is recycled into a new product at the end of its life, so that ultimately there is no waste.

A situation in which one party negotiates to maximise its results at the expense of the other party’s needs.

confrontation A situation where people are in opposition or antagonistic towards one another.

A term used to describe a material or product that moves from inception through use to end of life as waste.

completion report

constitution

credit refusal

A report which assesses and reviews overall performance of a plan or activity.

A document that contains an organisation’s name, aims and objectives, rules of administration, membership, office bearers and committee.

A credit refusal rejects a request for credit.

competition

complex sentence A sentence that contains one main clause and one or more subordinate or dependent clauses.

complimentary close The part of a letter or email that, by convention, immediately precedes the signature.

compound sentence A sentence that contains two or more main ideas expressed in two main clauses, each of which is able to stand alone.

constructive feedback Informs and encourages the person receiving the feedback and allows them to make changes that build on strengths and improve any areas of weakness.

consultation The action of gathering information from customers (or others) about their needs and expectations.

consultative mechanisms

The settlement of differences by mutual concessions.

Mechanisms that assist an organisation in meeting its consultation and communication requirements.

conclusion

context

compromise

A summary of the findings and an evaluation of the main facts discussed in a report; a closing overview of the main points of a presentation; must be related to and result from the material in the report/ presentation.

concrete language Definite and specific words that are easy to understand.

confidentiality The term used to prevent the disclosure of information to unauthorised individuals or systems.

The situation or setting within which communication takes place. Contains three dimensions: physical, social-psychological and temporal.

control charts Distinguish between normal and unusual variations in the performance of a process or work practice over time.

corrective action Action taken to correct an actual situation that does not meet the desired situation.

correspondence

cradle to grave

critical thinking Critical thinking considers possible viewpoints and results in interpretation, analysis and evaluation of evidence, and the conclusions inferred from the evidence.

cultural fit The willingness of an employee to adopt a company’s values.

cultural nonverbal communication Rule-governed nonverbal behaviour learnt unconsciously by observing others in the society or group.

cultural sensitivity Awareness of the common rules and patterns of behaviour in other countries.

culture An integrated system of learned behaviour patterns that are characteristics of the members of a group or organisation.

customer A person who purchases and/or seeks goods or services from another person or organisation.

customer-centric approach An approach to customer service that focuses on creating a positive customer experience.

customer engagement

confirmation email

counselling interview

Courteous response that confirms in writing what has been agreed between the sender and the receiver.

An interview that aims to provide support for employees dealing with emotional problems.

Customer engagement involves the participation and involvement of existing customers and potential customers in positive relationships with an organisation that create customer rapport and loyalty.

conflict

courtesy

customer enquiry

A clash of opinions, values, context and so on.

Showing politeness to customers at all times.

conflict map

covering letter

A tool used to find the cause of a conflict.

See letter of application.

A customer’s seeking of information, usually by questioning about a good or service provided by another.

A meeting’s incoming and outgoing mail.

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GLOSSARY

customer journey approach

delegate

discretionary time

Aims to develop customer engagement through positive customer experiences with each interaction, or touch point the customer has with an organisation.

To give someone else the authority and responsibility for carrying out a task while retaining accountability.

The time available to you to think, plan and create ideas.

diagram

customer value

A graphic that is used to compare structures.

In the workplace, discrimination means denying people equal treatment for reasons other than those relating directly to the job.

digital literacies

dot graph

The individual and social skills needed to interpret, manage, share and create meaning in the growing range of digital communication channels.

A graphic that is used when there are six or more variables.

When the customer is provided with what they need and value in the product or service. There are four types of customer values: basic, expected, desired and unanticipated value.

customer value package The range of strategies designed to give customer service based on the things that customers value.

digital records

dashboard report

digital rights

Provides concise information on key business drivers such as sales or revenue, profit margin, number of calls made by sales people, machine downtime or website traffic generally provided in visual format that is easy to read for users of the report.

data sampling The technique of selecting a representative sample from a population, gathering data from the sample group, drawing conclusions from the findings and making inferences about the total population on the basis of the findings.

decision-making agenda A nine-stage process that encourages all members of a team to participate in planning the actions to be taken to complete a task.

decode To interpret a message to achieve understanding.

deductive reasoning The act of reasoning from a general idea to a specific point or conclusion (or from cause to effect).

deep acting

Records created and maintained using digital equipment. The rights of copyright holders of digital works, devices or documents to prevent unauthorised duplication of their work in order to ensure ‘fair play’ from continued revenue streams.

digital workplace Concept describing how technology is increasingly creating a virtual equivalent of the physical workplace to align technology, people and business processes to improve operational efficiency and meet business goals.

drama triangle An illustration of non-assertive behaviour in which people play the role of victim and behave in a helpless manner.

drawing A graphic used to emphasise details of interest.

due diligence In workplace health, safety and welfare, the legal obligation to ensure so far as reasonably practicable that duties are performed in a manner appropriate to the circumstances in which the duties are being discharged and to provide evidence that all reasonable measures have been taken.

duty of care

These are to the point and indicate who, what, when, where and how a task will be completed.

A legal obligation to have thought or regard for those who may be affected by one’s acts or omissions – a concept common to all modern workplace health and safety (WHS) regimes.

direct mail campaign

duty holders

See cold canvassing.

People under Australian WHS law who are responsible for ensuring the safety of a group of people or an organisation.

direct instructions

direct or inductive order of information The chronological presentation of information in the sequence in which it occurs.

directive interview An interview that is controlled and organised by the interviewer.

Requires individuals to express the right emotions and feel emotions needed for the job.

directive techniques

defensive role

discipline or reprimand interview

Behaviours that are intended to protect the group from anxiety when it is unable to function effectively.

discrimination

Techniques used in interviews to focus on a particular topic and gain further information. An interview that aims to discuss unacceptable or inappropriate behaviour and to create and discuss the plans to take action to change the situation.

dysfunctional role Behaviours that are intended to distract the group from its purpose or to inhibit the group’s progress towards its objectives.

ecosystem Everything that exists in a particular environment and interacts as a system such as living organisms; plants, animals and microbes in conjunction with the nonliving things; air, water and mineral soil in their environment.

edit To revise and correct a piece of writing.

658 Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202

GLOSSARY

editing

emotional labour

environmental audit

The final stage in writing that involves checking and correction. How well a document achieves its intended purpose.

The practice of controlling your own behaviour to display the expected emotions (feeling rules) required to perform the interpersonal aspects of a job efficiently and effectively.

efficiency

emotional trigger

An examination of the activities of an organisation in order to check their effect on the environment, and whether the organisation is complying with its internal environmental policies and procedures and environmental legislation and regulations.

effectiveness

Refers to the process – that is, how quickly a task (e.g. writing a letter) is completed.

A behaviour or situation that goes against one of your personal values.

electronic document and record management system (EDRMS)

empathy

A software application used to facilitate and manage digital and physical records including objects.

electronic report Distributed in electronic form rather than hard copy and may contain hyperlinks and multimedia content as well as text.

electronic resume A resume placed online, which can be searched electronically for key words matching a position description.

email

The ability to understand and feel as the other person feels.

empathy blockers Behaviours that prevent the receiver understanding how the person sending the message feels.

employee engagement The emotional commitment the employee has to the organisation and its goals.

employee involvement The direct participation of employees in decisions as individuals rather than through representatives.

The electronic transmission of messages from computer to computer through devices such as modems, telephone lines and mail servers.

employment agency

email hygiene

See job interview.

The efforts organisations are making to keep email clean and safe.

empowering questions

emblems Nonverbal acts that are learnt through imitation (e.g. nodding the head).

emotional competence

A broker of jobs – a middle person between employers and job applicants.

employment interview

Are open-ended questions that invite new insights.

encode To put a message into words, pictures or actions so that it can be sent.

The ability to manage self and relationships through self-awareness, self-regulation, selfmotivation, social awareness and social skills.

encouraging listening

emotional contagion The transfer of moods through imitation.

The process of learning or absorbing one’s own culture.

emotional dissonance

endmatter

The conflict between emotions experienced by the employee and those required by the organisation.

emotional intelligence Refers to the way we respond to people, environmental demands and pressures.

A form of listening that invites the speaker to disclose their thoughts and feelings.

enculturation

The final part of a report or book containing the appendix, bibliography, index and glossary of terms.

endnotes Supplementary material placed at the end of a chapter or article.

environmental hazards Environmental hazards or risks are the actual or potential threats to the environment as a result of an organisation’s activities.

environmental sustainability Requires the design and provision of products and services that incorporate and promote waste minimisation and the efficient and effective use of and reuse of resources.

environmentally sustainable work practices Those which reduce harm on the environment and reduce wastage of resources.

Equal Employment Opportunity (EEO) A policy that aims to achieve fairer representation in employment for all groups in the community.

equity The quality of being fair or impartial.

ergonomics The science of anatomic, physiologic and mechanical principles affecting the efficient use of human energy at work: for example, safe lifting techniques.

ethics The principles of right and wrong that guide decision making when faced with conflicting responsibilities.

ethnocentrism The belief that one’s cultural norms are superior to those of other social groups.

executive summary, preface, abstract or synopsis Part of a proposal or report that summarises the contents and findings.

exempt record A record that may be unable to be accessed as it contains personal information or information that could jeopardise national security.

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GLOSSARY

expectations

focus groups

The type or level of service looked forward to by the customer.

Facilitated group discussions in which an interviewer asks a series of questions, the group members respond to each question and a discussion ensues.

expert power Held because of the leader’s knowledge, aptitude and ability.

expertise power Power that is held because of a person’s knowledge, aptitude and ability.

footnote A comment at the foot of the page giving extra information about a point in the text.

form report

Gantt chart and time is shown horizontally in hours, days or months.

Gen Xers (Generation X) The generation born between 1965 and 1980. They are independent thinkers, selfreliant and expert users of technology and value a work–life balance.

globalisation

A person or organisation who purchases goods or services from another organisation.

A standard layout that enables information to be gathered in a consistent manner from a number of different sources.

The process of growing world interdependence caused by changes in global economies and communications technology.

fact

formal meetings

glossary

Meetings that have structured, unchanging proceedings.

A list that defines and explains technical terms.

formal report

goals

A major document formatted into three main sections: (1) front matter or preliminary information to outline for the receiver what the report contains, (ii) body or main text (introduction, discussion, analysis and development of ideas. conclusions and recommendations) and (iii) endmatter (appendices, glossary and bibliography).

Aims or ends towards which effort is directed.

external customer

Something that can be shown to be true.

feedback The receiver’s response to a sender’s message. It tells the sender how the message is being received and helps the receiver confirm whether their perception of the message is correct.

feedback on results of research Gathers information from stakeholders to validate the reliability of research methods, data analysis, findings, conclusions and recommendations.

feeling rules Provide the framework for the type of feelings a person employed in a particular occupation should display.

format Layout and appearance of a document.

front-load

Used in a conflict situation to control or defend a position.

To catch the eye of readers by starting each paragraph with the main point in the first one or two sentences, then explaining the point and limiting each paragraph to one point to allow readers to scan the document and get an overview of its content.

finding aid

front matter

fight response

A tool that assists with identifying and retrieving a record within a record management system.

findings Facts and information presented in a document.

flight response Behaviour that occurs when either party tries to avoid rather than deal with a conflict.

flow response Behaviour that occurs when the parties in a conflict acknowledge the conflict and respond appropriately.

flowchart A graphic illustration of the steps in a process, procedure, system or model.

The first part of a report that contains the title page, letter of transmittal, table of contents, abstract or synopsis and authorisation document.

full block layout A layout style for business letters that places each part of the letter against the left margin.

functional re´sume´ A re´sume´ arranged to make the most of a wide range of skills and work experiences.

good-news letter or neutral letter A letter that presents positive, favourable or neutral information, using the direct order of information.

goodwill The reputation of a business and its relations with its customers.

grapevine An unofficial fast means of relaying information through conversation and gossip from person to person.

graphic communication The visual representation of ideas, relationships or connections, using shapes, diagrams and lines.

graphics Visual representation that organises information, shows relationships, highlights trends and helps to sort, classify and group data.

greeting (salutation) The phrase ‘Dear …’ placed before the body of a letter or message to acknowledge the receiver.

groupthink

A formal request for money.

A situation in which a high level of group cohesiveness prevents disagreement, constructive criticism and full assessment of alternatives.

Gantt chart

hack

funding request

A horizontal bar graph used for planning activities and schedules. Tasks or activities are listed vertically at the left side of the

To connect to someone else’s computer secretly and often illegally to find or change information on it.

660 Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202

GLOSSARY

hazard Anything that may injure or harm the health of a person.

hierarchy of control A sequence of options that offer a number of ways to approach the hazard control process – the higher in the hierarchy of control, the better and more reliable the control.

provides detailed evidence and discussion, and concludes with the main point.

inductive reasoning The process of making inferences based upon observed patterns, or simple repetition. Often used in reference to predictions about what will happen or does happen, based upon what has happened.

intergenerational leadership Occurs within an organisation, department or team with members from two or more generations.

internal customers The people you work with.

interpersonal communication

high-quality service

An unstructured meeting.

Takes place whenever two or more people interact with each other or in small groups.

The act of providing a good or service to the expected, desired or unanticipated level of service.

information life cycle

interpersonal communication style

Stages through which information progresses from the time it is collected until it is no longer needed to support legal, business or operational requirements.

The consistent set of behaviours an individual displays in their interactions with others.

information overload

The ability to interact with understanding of the motives, emotions, perspectives and feelings of those around you.

horizontal bar chart A graphic that emphasises the differences or similarities between two or more items at a certain point in time.

informal meeting

Excessive amounts of information.

interpersonal intelligence

horizontal channel

informational power

Communication channel that operates between colleagues at the same level within the organisation’s structure.

Power that results from possessing knowledge that others need or want.

‘I’ message

See letter of inquiry.

Assertive statement that helps to send a clear message.

inside address The receiver’s address in a business letter.

interviewee

illustrators

instant messaging (IM)

The person being interviewed.

One of the Web 2.0 capabilities that helps users share and collaborate through basic chat, presence awareness, automated newsfeeds, blogs and other media.

interviewer

Nonverbal acts that relate to, and illustrate, the spoken word.

impromptu speech An unexpected speech that is delivered without preparation.

inquiry

interview memory jogger A document prepared in advance to aid you during a job interview. It should briefly list important points you wish to cover in the interview.

The person conducting the interview.

intrapersonal intelligence

inactive records

A memo that gives directions.

The self-awareness that underpins your emotions, motivations, fears, beliefs and aspirations.

Records that are either archived or awaiting destruction.

integrity

introduction

The quality of being honest with strong moral ethics. In terms of records, cannot be altered maliciously or accidentally.

The first part of a presentation, which prepares your audience for what you are going to say and identifies the aim or main theme.

incident report A clear factual account of something that happens which is non-routine (e.g. an accident or other unusual occurrence).

inclusion The use of language that does not exclude a group of people on the basis of gender, race or some other factor.

instruction memo

intellectual capital The collective knowledge (documented and undocumented) of the individuals in an organisation or society that can be applied to work to add value.

inverted pyramid style of writing

intellectual property

An upside-down pyramid with the most important information at the top.

Ishikawa fishbone diagram

indirect or deductive order of information

intentional message The message the sender means to send.

A cause and effect diagram that uses a template resembling a fish skeleton to provide a structured tool to assist users to brainstorm, identify and document the causes and sub-causes of a particular problem or effect.

The presentation of information in such a way that it emphasises the problem at the beginning and end of the document. Starts with the result or action needed, then

intercultural communication

jargon

The interpersonal interaction between individuals from varying cultures, backgrounds and experience.

The specialised language of a trade or profession that can convey specific meaning quickly in the workplace.

inclusive language Language that includes all readers by avoiding stereotypes and discriminatory wording.

Is what you have written, created or recorded and protected by law so that it cannot be copied by someone else without permission.

661 Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202

GLOSSARY

job analysis

layout

line graphs

Identifies all the knowledge and skills necessary to perform a job competently.

The arrangement of information on a page.

job description A list of the objectives of the position and the duties completed by a person in the position.

Clarifies how the planned learning and development will happen, supports the learning, and shows how it will be monitored and evaluated.

Diagrams that show movement. Their main purpose is to show trends over time in a situation in which there is a continuous relationship.

job interview

legislation

An interview conducted to choose the best applicant for a position.

A process of drafting and implementing laws. Legislation around record keeping also ensures compliance with legal and accountability requirements.

listening

legitimate power Power held because the organisation has given authority to that position.

A formal document written to provide comprehensive information and expert opinion.

A systematic way to organise a job search, where job details, as well as your ideas and impressions, are all recorded in the one document.

letter of acceptance

maintenance-related functions

A courteous letter stating acceptance of a job offer.

justification report

A letter that acknowledges requests for information, confirms orders, supplies information and thanks the receiver.

Behaviours that focus on what is happening in the group, the way members listen and relate to each other and the behaviour developments within the group.

job safety analysis A detailed plan of how a job is to be done so that the safety of those doing the work and others is assured.

job search control sheet

A report that presents an idea or proposal and then uses evidence to justify the proposal or request.

justified complaint

learning plan

letter of acknowledgement

letter of application

A valid and reasonable complaint from a customer.

The persuasive part of a job application. It is a covering letter and should be brief (about one page) and specific.

key performance areas (KPAs)

letter of inquiry

The spheres of activity in a job and/or workgroup that produce results.

A letter that asks for a specific action.

keywords

A letter that aims to maintain contact and to create goodwill and the opportunity for future sales.

Keywords are often called search terms.

keyword thesaurus

letter of introduction

A list of terms in alphabetical order used for indexing records.

letter of request

keynoting

letter of transmittal

Restatement and repetition of key words.

The covering letter for a report.

knowledge

letter report

Data, information and intelligence that can be used to act.

A report that includes the seven basic parts of a business letter plus a subject line.

knowledge communication

life cycle analysis

communication activities which convey insights, assessments, experiences and skills through verbal and nonverbal means

The compilation and evaluation of the inputs, outputs and the potential environmental impacts of a product system throughout its life cycle.

knowledge management

life cycle of records

The process through which organisations generate value by gathering, organising and sharing their intellectual and knowledge-based assets.

The stages through which information progresses from the time it is collected until it is no longer needed to support legal, business or operational requirements.

Asks for something to be given or done.

list of references A list that gives details of only those works cited in the report or essay. Both hearing and striving to understand the other person’s message.

long report

maintenance-related roles The behaviours that are needed in groups or meetings to focus on people and their relationships with one another – e.g. to support and encourage the contributions of members or to resolve disagreements.

manuscript speech A written speech suited to technical and/or complicated information. It is often read rather than memorised.

map A type of graphic that uses scale, grids, symbols, lines, colours, legends, titles, figures and text to show the location of land forms, cities, towns, roads, etc. See also conflict map.

meeting A forum or group of people that provides and clarifies information, gives and receives feedback, encourages problem solving and allows discussion.

memorandum or memo The standard format of internal written communication within an organisation.

mental scripts Are created during previous experiences that may dictate behaviour in new experiences.

662 Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202

GLOSSARY

mentoring

needs

non-exempt record

A relationship in which those with experience and knowledge facilitate and support those with less experience and knowledge.

Major requirements that people have.

A record that can generally be accessed as it contains no information that would render it inaccessible.

negotiation

The principle that the best and most efficient person must be selected (for a job, or another appointment).

A process in which two or more parties try to resolve differences, solve problems and reach agreement. Effective negotiation meets as many interests as possible in an agreement that is durable.

message

netiquette

An idea or feeling transmitted from the sender to the receiver to achieve understanding.

The conventions and accepted standards used by a sender of messages online (made up of internet and etiquette).

meta data

network

Information about data or a description of the data that can aid in the identification or recovery of a record

A group of people who exchange ideas and information with one another.

Millennials

The process of building and maintaining interpersonal and professional contacts.

merit principle

The generation born between 1981 and 2000. Also known as Generation Y or Generation Next.

minutes The written record of what happened during a meeting.

mirror statement A statement that clarifies and summarises the other person’s communication without interrupting the flow of words or thoughts.

modified block A layout style for business letters that centres the sender’s address or aligns it with the right-hand margin. Other parts of the letter (the date, the complimentary close and the signature block) are then aligned with the sender’s address.

monitoring The supervision and observation of activities in progress to ensure they are meeting performance targets and to take corrective action if necessary.

motion A proposal for action put by a member to the rest of the meeting.

motivation A process that directs action or behaviour towards a goal.

multicultural society A society that consists of people of diverse cultural, racial, religious and ethnic backgrounds.

networking

nonverbal behaviour Behaviour includes body movement of the hands, head, feet and legs; posture; eye movements; facial expressions; vocalisations; and voice qualities.

nonverbal communication Communication that is sent by any means other than words or graphics. It modifies, changes or complements the verbal communication.

norms The shared ideas and expectations about how members of a group should behave.

notations

See good news letter.

Acknowledgements of the sources of information.

newsgroup

note (traditional) reference system

neutral letter

An association (formal or informal) of computer users with a special interest who form a network for distributing electronic messages.

noise or interference An interruption to the message or communication flow between the sender and receiver that can lead to misunderstanding.

nominal group technique A technique that enables the members of a group to work as individuals to think about and present new ideas.

non-assertive behaviour Described as aggressive or submissive behaviour that ignores our own rights by failing to express honest thoughts and beliefs.

non-directive interview An interview technique that involves the participants and the organisation in setting the goals and process of the interview.

non-directive techniques Techniques that use minimal questions, create a conversational tone and adopt positive nonverbal cues to encourage the applicant to speak.

A referencing system that, when someone else’s work is presented in an essay or project, identifies the work in the following order: author’s surname, given name or initials, title, publisher, place of publication and year of publication.

notice of meeting A document convening a meeting that is sent to all members at a time specified by the organisation’s rules.

obscure writing Imprecise language that obscures meaning – for example, cliche´s, lead-ins, topic announcements and qualifiers.

omni-channel customer service describes the situation where service is integrated across an organisation’s multiple channels of communication to enable customers to switch between channels easily and consistently.

online information Information that is generated by, transmitted by or accessed via a computer system or network.

open question A question that is designed to encourage the interviewee to speak freely and to provide a range of information.

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GLOSSARY

opinion

perception

¤pivot table

A personal judgement.

The process by which people select, organise and interpret data in order to give meaning to a message.

A tool that enables a large amount of data to be summarised by category in accordance with user requirements.

options The range of alternatives from which the appropriate choice can be made.

oral report A report in which the sender uses oral communication skills and workplace language to explain what has happened and must the receiver must do.

order of information The sequence in which information is presented.

order refusal An order refusal declines an order.

organisational culture The pattern of shared assumptions and beliefs members learn about appropriate behaviours and share with new members.

organisational time Time taken up by an employee doing what their organisation expects them to do.

panel interview An interview conducted by a group of interviewers.

paragraph A clustering of sentences that is built around one main idea. It connects or relates details.

paralanguage How something is said.

parallel language Use of the same parts of speech to give balanced phrases that give flow and rhythm to a piece of writing.

paraphrasing Expressing the meaning of what was said, using different words from the original.

pareto analysis An analysis using bar graphs to show that only a few vital causes result in a significant proportion of a problem.

passive voice

performance appraisal interview An interview that seeks to evaluate employees’ performance and provide feedback on the organisation’s perception of that performance.

plagiarism

performance criteria

A writing style that is easy to read and understand. This style uses positive language, clear expression and a courteous tone.

These identify the standard of performance required to perform competently.

periodic report A report designed to keep management informed by providing, at regular intervals, information on some aspect of the organisation’s operation.

persecutor A role from the drama triangle played by those who put the other person down or bully them into action.

personal competence Comprises the skills of self-awareness and self-management.

Plain English

podcast A digital media file, or a related collection of such files, that is distributed over the internet for playback on portable media players and personal computers.

point of order A question raised (usually at a meeting) as to whether proceedings are in accordance with the meeting’s rules.

post-interview stage

The use of nonverbal actions in a way that is personal or unique.

The time immediately after the interview(s) when the interviewer or panel evaluate the applicants and the results of the interviews.

persuasion

power

Aims to change the attitude or behaviour of others based on source credibility, factual and emotional arguments and a message conveyed along the channel(s) appropriate for the intended receiver.

pre-interview stage

personal nonverbal communication

persuasive letter A persuasive letter aims to change attitudes or produce action.

phishing Attempts to steal personal information through emails and websites mimicking trusted sources.

photograph A graphic used to show the physical appearance of the subject.

A form of the verb in which the subject of the sentence is acted upon. Often used in technical and scientific writing.

physical record

peer review

pie chart

Peer review is a process used for checking the work performed by one’s equals (peers) to ensure it meets specific criteria.

The presentation of other people’s ideas and expressions as one’s own.

A record that can be touched and includes paper, photographic and audio-visual files. A circular graphic representing the parts or divisions of a unit. Gives a comparison of the parts.

The capacity to influence, the possession of delegated authority or an ability to act. Preparation for an interview when the purpose of the interview is defined, details of time and location are decided, and research is undertaken to establish the responses required and the questions to be asked.

prejudice A preconceived opinion or feeling, favourable or unfavourable.

premise A proposition or claim on which an argument is based or from which a conclusion is drawn.

prepared speech A speech that is planned and organised before the time of presentation.

primary activities Activities that produce the most important results.

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GLOSSARY

primary sources

questionnaire

People or organisations that present original thinking, share new information and report on discoveries.

Form used by participants in a survey to record their opinions.

principles of assessment Assessment based on validity, reliability, fairness and flexibility.

The minimum number of people that must be at a meeting for business to be conducted.

A record that is dependable and from a trusted source. The author cannot dispute or deny the accuracy or creation of the record.

priorities

RADAR

report-writing conventions

The most important things.

A five-step approach to effect two-way communication that involves: requesting that the other person identify the ‘what’ and ‘why’ of the problem; asking for details; developing ideas; agreeing on the actions to be taken; and reviewing the main points and deciding how to follow up.

Accepted guidelines that ensure the expectations of the writer and the reader of the report are in agreement. The conventions cover the report’s structure, format, writing style and content.

probing question A question that follows on from the last response of the interviewee.

process description Describes how something works, why it works that way and each step of the process.

product sampling Places trial-size samples and marketing materials in the hands of consumers via various sampling strategies, venues and channels.

professional development The activities we undertake to improve our personal, technical and career knowledge.

progress report This provides objective factual information on specific progress.

quorum

readability

Someone who decodes or interprets the sender’s message to achieve understanding.

A role played from the drama triangle by those people who offer help and support while denying their own needs.

recommendations

resilience

The actions proposed as a result of the findings of a report or proposal.

record

record management system

purpose

A system that logs, stores and discards records efficiently.

The objective in writing a document.

reference

purpose statement

A document written by someone else that highlights and supports certain skills and experiences you have gained.

qualitative data

referent power

Information that describes things in terms of categorisations or qualities.

Power held by someone who is respected, admired, liked or personally identified with by others.

quality

reflective listening

The level of excellence or whether or not a finished product or the process by which it was produced is fit for its purpose.

Restating to the speaker the feeling and content in their message.

quantitative data

Nonverbal acts, such as head nods and movements, that regulate communication between people by maintaining and

Information that can be counted or expressed numerically.

An objective rather than subjective form of writing.

receiver

proximity

A sentence that focuses the writer and reader on the problem, opportunity or theme addressed in a document.

report-writing style

request memo

A plan or scheme sent to a decision maker in the form of a well-organised and persuasive document. See also motion. Nearness in place.

reliability

How easy a document is to read. To improve the readability of business writing, keep sentences short and logical.

Any organisational document, including items such as customer and supplier details, transaction dates and amounts, staff details, legal agreements, certificates of currency, photographs and contracts.

proposal

controlling the flow of speaking and listening.

regulators

A memo that asks for information.

rescuer

The ability to recover from or adjust easily to change, stress or misfortune and view problems as opportunities to learn.

resolution A motion put to the meeting and carried.

respect Showing esteem or deferential regard for customers.

response time When you are available to others for problems, inquiries or complaints.

re´sume´ The summary of your personal data: education, skills, qualifications, work experience, references, hobbies and interests. It is also referred to as a curriculum vitae or CV.

reward power Power held by a person in authority who has control over resources desired by others – they can influence or manipulate the behaviour of others who want the reward.

reward Something given or received in return for taking some action.

665 Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202

GLOSSARY

rhythm

sender

social competence

A measured flow of words that is used to emphasise the flow of ideas or to provide pauses that halt the flow in order to emphasise a point.

Someone who encodes an idea or feeling in words or signs that the receiver will recognise and transmits this message to the receiver.

Comprises the skills of self-awareness and self-management.

risk

series interview

The likelihood of an accident happening.

Several interviews conducted in turn by a number of interviewers.

routine instructions Regular instructions that require only questions that check if the person can remember, restate and apply the information to a new situation.

service conditions

social loafing The tendency of certain members of a group to exert less effort on a task if they are in a group than when they work alone.

social media

Conditions or terms that apply in the delivery of a service to customers; for example, no refund without a receipt of purchase.

Websites that build on Web 2.0 technologies to provide space for content creation, networking, dialogue, collaboration, social interaction, media sharing, bookmarking and community formation.

Factual information that is presented in the context of an overview of the complete picture.

service culture

social media cleanse

The way in which service is offered across an organisation.

safe work method statement (SWMS)

service strategy

A statement covering a company’s hazard identification, risk classification and riskcontrol measures.

The techniques used to offer service.

The process of updating privacy settings, removing embarrassing photos and running searches on your name to find posted pictures, comments or text that could prevent employers from forming a favourable impression when they check out potential candidates online.

routine order of information

sales letter A persuasive letter that follows the order of information in the AIDA formula.

scope The scope of a report is the limit of the information it contains.

short report format The three main short report formats used in business are formal, letter and memo format.

signalling devices Devices such as subject headings, introductory paragraphs, prefaces or summaries that signal that the flow of ideas, the importance of ideas or the emphasis in the document is about to change.

solicited proposal A request from an external party that requires a product or service.

spam

The letter writer’s signature, name and job title.

Irrelevant or unsolicited messages sent over the internet, typically to a large number of users, for the purposes of advertising, phishing and spreading malware (software specifically designed to disrupt, damage, or gain unauthorised access to a computer system).

secondary activities

signature elements

Activities with a lower priority than primary activities.

Logos, slogans and packaging that are the visual signature of an organisation, presentation, document or other entity.

specification document

search engine A program that receives a research request, compares it to the index created by the ‘robot’ or ‘web crawler’ and returns the results of the search to the researcher.

secondary sources

signature block

People, groups or organisations that describe, interpret, analyse and evaluate the events, activities and evidence supplied by primary sources.

simple sentence

secretary Someone who conducts correspondence, prepares the minutes, keeps records and completes other duties for a meeting.

A job interview that is conducted by a single interviewer responsible for interviewing all applicants and selecting a new staff member.

security

skills audit

The security of a record is maintained through the life cycle of records.

Involves identifying the skills and knowledge (both used and latent) held by existing staff.

self-directed learning

SMART approach

The learner initiates the learning and makes the decisions about what learning and development experiences will occur.

A goal-setting technique in which goals are specific, measurable, achievable, relevant and timely or time-bounded.

A sentence that contains one idea in a main clause that stands alone.

single interview

A document that lists the selection criteria and the selection mechanism to be used to differentiate between tenders.

stage fright Anxiety or fear about making a presentation before an audience.

stakeholders Those individuals and groups both inside and outside the organisation who have direct or indirect interest in the organisation’s conduct, actions, products and services.

standards Provide a framework and guidance on the types of records to keep, the length of time to keep the records prior to disposal and how to collate and index the records into a record management system.

666 Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202

GLOSSARY

standing orders

task discretion

terms of reference

The rules that govern the manner in which a meeting’s business is to be conducted.

Refers to employee involvement in decisions that affect their immediate job.

These define the scope of a report.

statistical analysis

task-related functions

The main body of matter in a document.

A data-oriented approach to collecting, analysing, interpreting and presenting knowledge for use in decision making.

See task-related roles.

thoughtline

task-related roles

The connecting theme that ties together each element in a presentation.

text

A set of beliefs about the personal attributes shared by an entire group.

The behaviours needed to focus on the specified goals to be completed as a group or meeting achieves its purpose (e.g. goal-setting, decision making and problem solving).

subject line

team

A plan that allows you to schedule and complete tasks according to their level of priority.

A line of text that identifies a letter’s subject or purpose.

A group with a charter or reason for being.

time wasters

team performance plan

submissive behaviour

A plan that determines goals and objectives for a work team that are clearly linked to organisational goals and objectives.

Are distractions caused by human nature, environmental factors and poor management skills.

stereotype

Accepting the opinions of others without asserting one’s own point of view; based on low self-esteem.

success triangle An illustration of the flow response or assertive behaviour in a conflict situation.

summarising In listening, restating in a condensed way the most important points.

surface acting Involves employees showing emotions without necessarily feeling them, for example, outward emotional expressions such as smiles or frowns.

survey

team values Are the specific beliefs the team holds about what is right and what is wrong.

teamwork When trust, cooperation and compatibility exist between the leader and members.

technical competencies The knowledge, skills and attitudes required to perform the duties, tasks and activities in your job.

A factual account of a technical subject. Often written in the form of a specific command, they explain the steps of a process and guide the reader to a full understanding and efficient, safe performance of a procedure.

teleconference

synopsis

A telephone meeting between two or more people in different locations involving more sophisticated communication technology than a simple two-way phone connection.

See executive summary.

tender document

table

A bid or offer to provide a product or service in exchange for a fee.

table of contents A list of the main sections and subsections of a report.

The mood or feeling expressed by a piece of writing.

topic sentence Signals the main point of a paragraph. Are the many critical moments when customers interact with the organisation and its offerings on their journey from the unawareness stage through to purchase and after.

technical instructions

A graphic in which related information is presented in parallel columns.

tone

touch points

sustainability

A shorthand form of writing (e.g. the international full stop sign).

The first page of a report that includes the report’s title, the name of the person who authorised the report and the name and designation of the report writer.

Sets out to explain a special technical term used in a document.

technical description

symbols

title page

technical definition

A research technique used to gather information that is not otherwise available. Sustainability is dependent on an organisational culture that facilitates the economic, social, and environmental performance of the organisation to meet the needs of present-day customers while taking into account the needs of future generations.

time-management plan

tension A level of conflict where relationships are weighed down by negative attitudes and fixed opinions.

transactional leader Focuses on the key management processes of planning, organising and controlling. They influence followers primarily through their formal authority and responsibility in the organisation.

transformational leader Leads by example, interacts with, empowers and inspires followers to achieve above expectations.

triple bottom line Triple bottom line (profit, people and planet) aims to measure the financial, social and environmental performance of an organisation over a period of time in order to take into account the full cost of its operations.

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GLOSSARY

undercurrent message

vertical bar graph

white space

The hidden part of the message that may contain feelings and/or content.

A graphic that uses vertical columns to show changes over time, or compare amounts/ items.

Frames texts or graphics in the form of margins, paragraph indenting, hanging indents and line spacing to improve the readability of paper-based or online documents.

unintentional message A meaning placed on the message by the receiver that is different from the sender’s intended message.

universal nonverbal communication Body movements common to humankind such as a smile or tears.

vertical channel The channels of communication that move communication up and down between different levels in the organisation.

victim

withdrawal A negotiation style in which one party retracts their point of view or backs away from the situation.

An unreasonable complaint from a customer.

A role played in the drama triangle in which a person who is not a real victim plays the role of a victim in order to have someone else rescue or persecute them.

unsolicited letter of application

videoconference

workgroup plan

Initial, unsolicited contact with a potential employer in the form of a letter introducing yourself and seeking work.

A live connection via audio, text and video between people in separate locations.

visual aids

unsolicited proposal

Graphics and visual devices used by a speaker to improve the audience’s understanding.

A short-term, detailed plan developed by managers, supervisors and team leaders to outline the specific actions required for goal and task achievement by a group of workers over a specified time period.

unjustified complaint

A plan submitted on the initiative of the submitter rather than in response to any formal or informal request.

visuals

urgent activities

See graphics.

Interruptions to a time-management plan that must be attended to.

vocabulary

usability testing

vocalisations

Verifies a document’s information, vocabulary and design is appropriate to the intended audience. The soundness or authority of research.

Vocal characterisers, qualifiers and segregates such as sighing, pitch height and ‘uh-huh’ or ‘um’ sounds that give clues to the meaning of the spoken message.

verbal communication

vote

validity

Communication between two or more people in the form of spoken or written words.

verbosity The use of too many words.

version control A procedure that manages different drafts and versions of a document.

The stock of words in a language.

At formal meetings members vote to make decisions. The vote is usually by a verbal ‘aye’ or ‘nay’, by a show of hands or by a ballot.

waste hierarchy A tool that defines waste management strategies in terms of their desirability and environmental impact.

work request A proposal submitted as a request to carry out a work project.

workplace health and safety (WHS) Legislation, codes of practice, policies and procedures to ensure the health, safety and welfare of employees and the health and safety of others in the workplace.

workplace language The language used on the job, appropriate to the particular workplace.

work-team enablers Five factors necessary for an effective work team: power, accountability, capability, direction and transparency.

writing style The way a writer uses words, sentences, paragraphs, tone, rhythm, order of information and layout to present ideas.

‘you’ approach A writing style that speaks personally to the reader by addressing them directly as ‘you’ throughout the document.

668 Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202

INDEX ABC packaging techniques 181 ability 545–8 abstracts 453, 455 academic honesty 307 acceptance letters 111 access restrictions 514 accessibility 499, 502 accidents 226, 233 accommodation in negotiation 195–6, 197 accountability 70–1, 128, 574, 606–7 accuracy of information sources 306 acknowledgement letters 394, 399, 400–2 Acknowledgement of Country 172 acknowledgements 453 action words 110 action-based learning 616 actions 650 active listening 48–50, 244–5 active records 499 active voice 356, 390, 479 activities 144–5 adaptability attributes 65 barriers to 69–71 benefits 67–9 case studies 83 in communication 7–8 described 64 maintaining 540 skills for 65–6 adjourning stage 571 adjustment refusal letters 404–5 adjustment refusals 404 after-action reviews 616 age bias 357 age variation 577–8 agendas 629, 636–8, 649 aggressive behaviour 56, 200, 569 AIDA formula 96, 407 alignment 325, 365 amendments 635, 636 analogies 177 analysis of information 299 analytical reports 423, 432–5 animation 180 announcement emails 373, 375 annual general meetings 627 annual leave 537 anxiety 182–3 apologies 638

appendices 453, 459 applicant tracking systems (ATS) 88 applications see job applications appraisals see performance appraisals archives 305 arguments 299, 309, 457–8 artefacts 42 assertive behaviour 53–4, 200, 541 assertive statements 54 assessment 619 attachments 453 attending listening 45–6 attention lines 393 attitudes 12 audience profiles 524 audiences handling difficult members 183–5 noisy 185 and presentations 173–4, 181 of reports 260, 443–4 of research reports 312 for writing 353 audiovisual material 305, 507 audits 133, 235, 286–7 authentic leadership 597–8 authenticity 499 author–date (Harvard) reference system 314, 315–16 authorisation documents 454, 461 authorisation emails 373, 376 authority 528 avoidance 196, 197 baby boomers 577 bad-news letters 403–7 bar graphs 327, 330–3, 334, 344 barriers to adaptability 69–71 to communication 11–12, 43–5, 245–7, 644–6 to listening 50–1 to negotiation 194–5 to record retrieval 508 behaviour aggressive 56, 200, 569 assertive 54, 200, 541 changes 65 consistent 540–1 constructive 202–4 ethical 588–9 managing inappropriate 37–8

non-assertive 56, 202 non-discriminatory 612–13 nonverbal 182 rapport-building 270 rules of 22, 23 sensitivity 612–13 bibliographies 315–18, 453, 459 big data 16 ‘blame games’ 195 block layouts 394, 396–7 blockers 569 blogs 381–2 board meetings 627 body movement 41, 46 body of documents 364 body of letters 96, 395 body of presentations 176–7 body of proposals 488 body of reports 452, 453, 456–9, 464–70 body of technical instructions 486 bomb threats 257–8 bookmarks 306–7 books, referencing 315–17 boss-imposed time 150–1 brainstorming 125, 647–8 breathing exercises 183 briefings 169, 627, 629, 630 buffering 39 builds in presentations 180 bullet points 480–1 bullying 613 business communication see communication business letters see letters business writing see writing buzzwords 355 capability 575 capacity-building strategies 17 capitulation 192 career objectives 93 carefulness 347 case records 262 case studies adaptability 83 collection letters 418–19 conflict 209 customer service 165, 265–6, 385–6 dashboard reports 439 emotional intelligence 60–1 ergonomics 320–1 feedback 28 keywords 114

meetings 653–4 performance management 556–7 presentations 188–9 privacy 135–6 records capture 517 reports 476 safety performance 237–8 social media 291–2 teams 591, 622 technical definitions 496–7 virtual bookkeeping service 385–6 visual communication 348 casting votes 635, 636 cause-and-effect diagrams 328, 338–9, 345 chairpersons 629, 633–4, 641, 642, 645 changes receptive to 65 sources of 18–19 channel richness 5 channels of communication and customers 268 described 6–7, 10, 127 digital 72, 77–81 formal 586–7 social media 587 workplaces 524, 532 see also customer engagement charts see graphics check-in meetings 582–3 citations 314–15 clarification 48 clarifiers 568 clarity 390 cliche´s 355 client records 262 clients see customers closed questions 47, 52, 106, 531 clothing 23 cloud computing 448–9 coaching 39–40, 277–8, 547, 583–4, 608–9, 616 code literacy 74 code of conduct 121–2, 535–6, 611 code of ethics 14, 536, 588–9 codes of practice 213 coercive power 193, 599 cohesiveness 562 cold canvassing 89 collaboration 77–81, 132, 193, 195, 196

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INDEX

collection letters 408–9, 410, 418–19 collective leadership 603 collectivism 21 comfort zone 70 comment sentences 480 communication adaptability in 7–8 barriers to 11–12, 43–5, 245–7, 644–6 clear 541 climate 532 definition 4 effective 7, 24 ethics in 13–15 flow 10 forms of 4–5 functions of 5–6 impacts on 15–20 methods 6–7 minimising barriers 246 model of 8–12 open 275, 587–8 plans 522–3 process 8–13 pull model 273 push model 273 regular 280 strategies 17 successful 6–7, 9 communication channels and customers 268 described 6–7, 10, 127 digital 72, 77–81 formal 586–7 social media 587 workplaces 524, 532 communication facilitators 568 communication systems 506 communicators, good 540 community information 128 comparative analysis 297 competence 601, 619 competency standards 153–9 competition 195, 196, 197 complaint letters 412–13 complaint response letters 413–18 complaints and cultural differences 253–4 from customers 251–5, 270–1, 286 of discrimination 613 dos and do nots of responses 414 handling telephone 257

justified 252–3, 414 method of resolving 252–3 policies 285–6 tips for handling 251 unjustified 253, 414 see also negotiation completion reports 428 complex sentences 359 compound sentences 359 compromise 192–3, 195, 196, 197, 528 computer-generated graphics 341–2, 346 conclusion section 96, 177–8, 458, 470, 486, 488 conduct, code of 121–2, 535–6, 611 conferencing systems 627, 641 confidence 533 confidentiality 119–21, 306, 511–12 confirmation emails 373, 376 conflict case studies 209 deal with constructively 541 described 199 and discipline interviews 550 drama and success triangles 57 levels of 199–200, 201 management 199, 551 management strategies 203–4 mapping 204–7 and negotiation 551 options 204–7 and politics 600–1 responses to 200, 202 styles of resolution 192–3 see also complaints conflict of interest 14 confrontation 194 consensus 628 consensus decisions 528 consistency 365 constitutions 636, 650 constructive feedback 51, 158–9, 186 consultation 132, 217–19, 525–6 contents, table of 453, 454, 462 context 11, 174, 196–7 continuous improvement 233–4 contrast 325, 365 controlling style of communication 539 conversations, difficult 581 cooperation 269 co-presentations 168, 170

copyright 181, 367 corporate governance information 128 corporate planning 138 corrective actions 285–9 correspondence 638 counselling interviews 549–50 courtesy 244, 245, 390 cover letters for job applications 94–8 creativity 65 credibility 7, 307, 449–50 credit 404 credit refusal letters 404 critical thinking 299 cultural appropriateness 447–8 cultural differences 22, 23, 253–4 cultural diversity 35, 542, 578 cultural fit 67–8 cultural nonverbal communication 40, 41, 254 cultural orientation 21 cultural sensitivity 22 culturally aware communication 578 culture customer service 274–5 definition 20, 533 levels of 21 workplace 533–4, 601 customer engagement and customer complaints 270–1 described 268 goals 271–2 modifications 289 stages 268–9 strategies to support 272 customer enquiries definition 244 identifying needs 244–5 stages 268–9 on telephone 256–7 customer information 128, 260–1 customer records 285 customer satisfaction monitoring 259, 285–6 promoting 284 reports 260–1 researching 282 see also complaints customer service action plans 275, 276 attributes 277

audits 286–7 case studies 165, 265–6, 385–6 communication skills 243–7 complaints policies 285–6 corrective actions 285–9 culture 274–5 customer journey approach 269 legal aspects 288–9 modifications 289 monitoring 259 performance standards 275–7 policies 275, 289 quality 259–60 reports 260–2 reviewing 277 and social media 282–4 and technology 280–1 see also complaints customers addressing needs 247–50 complaints from 251–5, 257, 270–1, 286 and cultural differences 253–4 described 243 difficult 249–50 and digital communication tools 78 feedback from 250, 272–3, 277, 282 greeting 243, 244, 270 identifying needs 244–5 information for 247–8, 273–4 needs 140, 252, 268 networking with 279–82 rapport with 269–70 records 285 on telephone 255–6 types of difficult 249–50 customs 23 dashboard reports 435–6, 439 data 281–2, 304, 309–10 databases 306 dates 393 decision making 609–10, 646–9 decisions 6, 525–7, 532 decoded messages 9 deductive reasoning 308–9 deep acting 38, 39 defensive roles 640 definitions, technical 483–4, 496–7

670 Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202

INDEX

delegation 149–50 department planning 138 departmental meetings 627 descriptive statistics 310 design principles 324–5, 365 desks 148 developmental information 128 Dewey’s reflective thinking process 648–9 diagrams 328, 339, 345 digital channels 72, 77–81 digital communication 10, 77–81 digital competence 75–7 digital literacy 71–7 digital records 505–6 digital rights 307 digital technology 17–18, 171–2, 379–82 digital workplaces 72–3 direct mail campaigns 89 direct order of information 312, 398, 422, 446 direct patterns 364 direction 575 disability bias 358 discipline 550, 580 disclosure 347 discretionary time 151–2 discrimination 24, 104, 356–8, 493–4, 577–9, 612–13 discussions 311 disposal schedules 501–2 distractions 46 diversity benefits 612–13 cultural 35, 542, 578 sensitivity to 542 workforce 16–17, 542 working with 611–13 Do Not Call Register 258 document design principles 364–5 documentation for meetings 638 documents see research reports dominators 569 dot plots 328, 335, 336, 345 DRAFS strategy for emails 372 drama triangles 57 due diligence 220, 235 duty holders 211 duty of care 213–14, 221, 511–12 dynamic style of communication 539 dysfunctional roles 568–9, 640

editing 493–4 effectiveness 544 effectiveness measures 260–1 egalitarian style of communication 539 electronic communication 317 electronic document and records management system 508 electronic presentations 180–1 electronic reports 423–4 electronic resumes 99–102 email hygiene 370 email policies 370, 371 emails advantages and disadvantages 370, 371 common faults 369–70 components 369 DRAFS strategy 372 etiquette 369, 377 referencing communication 317 before sending 377 structure 369 types 372–7 emotional contagion 35–6 emotional dissonance 39 emotional intelligence 53 benefits 34–8 case studies 60–1 described 31–2 improving 36 and leaders 603 in negotiation 194–5 and personal competence 32–3 and social competence 33 emotional labour 38–40 emotional triggers 35 emotions 37–8 empathy 11, 48–50, 259, 541 employees and adaptability 67 concern for 602 consultation with 525–6 engagement 534–5 involvement in decisions 526–7 see also performance employment agencies 86 empowering questions 52, 53 empowerment 538, 607–8 encoded 9 encouragers 568 encouraging listening 46–7 encouraging questions 47

enculturation 22 endmatter of reports 452, 453, 459 endnotes 314–15 engagement see customer engagement environment 43, 46 Equal Employment Opportunity 104 ergonomics 230, 320–1 ethical principles 307, 368 ethics code of 14, 536, 588–9 in communication 13–15 in conduct 121–2 in public speaking 172 and teams 565 in visual communication 346–7 in writing 366–8 ethnicity 358 ethnocentrism 22 etiquette 79–80, 369, 377, 643–4 executive summaries 453, 455–6, 463 expectations 243 experiments 303 expertise power 193, 599 external audits 133, 235 external threats 78 extraordinary general meetings 627 eye contact 46, 245 face-to-face meetings 7, 631–2 face-to-face presentations 171–2 face-to-face service 248, 251 facial expressions 245 facilitators 303–4 facts 299 fair use of information 306 feedback case studies 28 from customers 250, 272–3, 277, 282 definition 10–11 effective 51 gathering 310–11 information needs 133 performance 157–9 and questions 52–3 on results of research 311 service delivery 248 types 51, 158–9, 186 feeling rules 38

femininity 21 fight response 202 figures, list of 453 files see records finding aids 507 findings in report 458 five Rs of interventions 545 flexibility 7–8, 66–7 flight response 202 flow response 200, 202 flowcharts 328, 337–8, 345 focus groups 303–4 Fog Index 360–1 follow-up letters 111 footnotes 314–15 form reports 428–32 formal communication 6 formal meetings 626–7, 629, 640–2 formal proposals 487–9 formal reports 423 format see layout forming stage 570 forms for job applications 98 freedom of information 512 freelance work 88 front matter of reports 452, 454–6 functional resumes 91 funding requests 489 games 274 gaming literacy 74 Gantt charts 328, 334–5, 345 gender bias 356–7 general business 636 general meetings 627 Generation X 577–8 gestures 245, 254 globalisation 15–16 glossary 453, 459, 655–68 goals 139–42, 271–2, 546, 605 good-news letters 394, 398–402 goodwill 251 government records 512 grammar 359–60 grapevine communication 572 graphic communication 4, 5 graphics computer-generated 341–2, 346 ethics 346–7 infographics 323–4, 339–41 presentation of 344 qualities of 325 in reports 450

671 Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202

INDEX

selecting 344–6 in technical documents 482 types of 327–44 greetings 243, 244, 270, 393–4, 396 ground rules for teams 566 groups see teams groupthink 571–2 hand movements 245 harassment 613 harmonisers 568 Harvard reference system 314, 315–16 hazards classifications 216–17 corrective action 226 definition 216 hierarchy of control for 226–7 ranking risk 227–8 report and document 223–7 safety inspections 223–4 headings 93–4, 449–50, 481 health and safety representatives 225–6 hearing 45 help seekers 569 hierarchy of control for hazards 226–7 historical information 128 honesty 307, 346, 601–2 horizontal channels 10 hot stove principle 580 humour, use of 180 hyperlinks 180 hypertext literacy 74 hypothesis testing 297 ‘I’ messages 54–6, 200 ideas identification 174 illustrations 328, 341, 346, 454, 463, 482 imagery 177 impromptu speeches 169, 170–1 inactive records 499 incident reports 232–3, 428–32 inclusive communication 577 indirect order of information 312, 403, 422, 425, 427, 445 indirect patterns 364 individualism 21 induction training 220–2 inductive reasoning 309 industry pricing policies 298 inferential statistics 310

infographics 323–4, 339–41 informal communication 6, 572 informal discussions 311 informal meetings 627–8 information assessment against standards 130 and collaboration 132 for customers 247–8, 273–4 disposal 131 life cycle 123–4 organisation 127–9, 445 power of 599–600 responding to requests for 131–2 reviewing needs 133 role of 5 safeguarding security 511 searching 76 sharing 275 user needs 125 withholding 12 see also order of information information analysis 299, 300–1 information collection and access 124–5 confidentiality 119–21 customer complaints 252 and customer service 279 format 124 information life cycle 123–4 legislation 119, 120 methods 125–7 policies 121–2 for reports 444 security 120–1 sources 124 stages 119 techniques for gathering 303–7 while on telephone 256 see also feedback; information sources information givers 567 information overload 494 information requests 132 information retrieval 129 information seekers 567 information sharing 121, 131–3, 283–4 information sources business 302 credibility 307 current 305 customer service 282 described 302–3

online 305–7 potential problems 306 types 299, 303–8 workplace health and safety 216 see also primary sources of information; secondary sources of information information systems 128–9, 506 initiative 68 initiators 567 inquiry letters 400 inside addresses 393 instruction emails 373, 374 instructions communication channels 532 direct 529 effective 529 following 531 guidelines for giving 529–30 questioning skills 531 receiving 531 sequence and structure 530–1 technical 485–6 integrity 499, 541 intellectual capital 19 intellectual flexibility 65 intellectual property 181, 307 intercultural communication 20–5 interdepartmental meeting 627 interest-based approach to negotiation 197–9 interests 600–1 interference 11 intergenerational leadership 578 Internet of Things (IoT) 73 internet searching 305–7 interpersonal attributes 540, 541 interpersonal communication 44, 539–40 interpersonal intelligence 31–2 interpersonal problem solvers 568 interpersonal skills 131 interventions 545, 546 interview memory joggers 107–8 interviews counselling 549–50 discipline 550 information collection 304 performance 544, 547–8, 549 reprimand 550 see also job interviews

intimidating questions 184–5 intrapersonal intelligence 32 introduction letters 402 introduction section 96, 175–6, 364, 486 introductions 12–13 invitation declining letters 405–6 Ishikawa fishbone diagrams 328, 338–9, 345 issues 444, 579–82 jargon 245–6, 355, 391, 496–7 job analysis 153, 154 job applications application forms 98 cover letters 94–8 follow-up letters 111 shortlisting candidates 105 unsolicited letters 97 job descriptions 153, 154–5 job fairs 88–9 job interviews after 111 during 108–10 goals 103 preparing for 106–8, 109 questions 105–6 stages 103–4 types 103 job safety analysis 228–9 job search control sheets 106–7 job searching 83–90 journal articles 316–17 journals 305 judgement 12 justification reports 425, 426 key performance areas 139–40, 145 key result areas 543–4, 561 keynoting 479 keyword searches 99–102 keywords 100–1, 114, 305–7, 504 kinesic behaviour 41 knowledge communication 19–20, 79 knowledge management 19–20 language appropriate 245–6 bias in 357–8 confusing 493 cultural differences 23 and discrimination 24, 356–8, 493–4

672 Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202

INDEX

misinterpreting 12 parallel 358 personal/impersonal 447 positive and negative 391 use of 354–9 verbose 494 layout of information 91–3, 364–5, 392–7 leaders authentic 597–8 described 594 and diversity 611–13 effective 605–6, 607, 608, 609, 611 and emotional intelligence 603 problem-solving processes 609–10 role of 594–5 transactional 596–7 transformational 595–6 types of power 599–600 see also team leaders leadership collective 603 effective 594 and performance 538, 543, 550, 582 team-based 604–9 theories of 594–8 and trust 601–3 learning alignment 616 determining needs 613–15 monitoring 618–19 plans 617 promotion 616–17 records of 619 types 615 legal aspects customer service 288–9 organisational requirements 139 record management 501–2 workforce diversity 17 workplace health and safety 235 legislation employment 104 information collection 119, 120 intellectual property 181 record management 502, 504, 512 workforce diversity 542, 612–13

workplace health and safety 211–12, 213 legitimate power 193, 599 letterheads 393, 396 letters of acceptance 111 of acknowledgement 394, 399, 400–2 adjustment refusal 404–5 AIDA formula 96, 407 bad-news 403–7 closings 395–6 collection 408–9, 410, 418–19 common errors 391 of complaint 412–13 complaint response 413–18 completing 391 credit refusal 404 follow-up 111 function of parts 393–6 good-news 394, 398–402 greetings in 393–4, 396 of inquiry 400 of introduction 402 invitation declining 405–6 job applications 94–8 openings 395, 403 order of information 398, 403, 412, 414 order refusal 404 parts of 96, 392–3 persuasive 407–12 planning 389 as report format 423, 429, 487 of request 400 request refusal 405–6 thank you 397 three-step writing process 389–92 transmittal 453, 454, 460–1 types of layout 394, 396–8 unsolicited applications 97 writing business 389–92 writing plans 399, 403, 407 library catalogues 305 library resources 305 life cycle of records 501–2 line graphs 328, 333–4, 345 list of figures 453 list of illustrations 454, 463 list of tables 453 listening barriers to 50–1 and customer enquiries 244–5 definition 45

at meetings 644–5 responses 49 on telephone 255–6 types 45–50 listening funnel 47 live chat 279 logic see reasoning logos 180 long reports see reports lose–lose strategies 191, 196 lose–win strategies 191, 196 maintenance-related roles 567, 568, 604, 640 majority decisions 528 management systems see record management systems managers 585–8 effective 585 see also leaders manuscript speeches 169 maps 328, 341, 346 market research 281–2 marketing strategies 17 masculinity 21 meetings actions 649, 650 brainstorming 647–8 case studies 653–4 check-in 582–3 communication barriers 644–6 conducting 634 consensus 628 decision making at 646–9 duties of chairperson 633–4, 641, 642, 645 duties of participants 640, 642–3, 644–6 duties of secretaries 636–9, 641 effective 646 etiquette 643–4 face-to-face 631–2 follow up 650 formal 626–7, 629 nominal group technique 647 participation 642–3 preparing for 149, 629–30 problem-solving processes 648–9 procedures 634–6 purpose 626 records 650–1 seating arrangements 631–2 teams 629, 630

terminology 636 types 627 virtual 627–8, 632, 640–2 voting at 635, 636 memos 377–8, 423, 427 mental scripts 69 mentoring 277–8, 546–7, 583, 608–9, 616 mentors 278 messages definition 9–11 ‘I’ 54–6, 200 intentional and unintentional 20 taking telephone 257 when understood 44–5 messaging, writing for 380–1 meta data 508 metaphors 177 microform 507 Millennials 577–8 minutes 629, 636, 638–9, 650 mirror questions 48, 52, 106, 531 mobile literacy 74 models 507 money collection letters 408–9, 410, 418–19 motions 635 motivation 538, 544–5 motivators 159 multicultural society 21 multimedia 181 multimedia literacy 74 mutual accountability 606–7 negotiation barriers to 194–5 and conflict 551 definition 191 emotional intelligence in 194–5 interest-based 197–9 options 195–7 personal qualities 202–3 personal styles in 192 power in 193 strategies 191–2 netiquette 369 networking 88–9, 279–82, 552–4 neutral letters 398–402 newspaper articles 317 newspapers 89 noise 11 nominal group technique 647

673 Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202

INDEX

non-assertive behaviour 56, 202 nonverbal behaviour 182 nonverbal communication appropriate 245 classifications 41–3 confirm meaning 44–5 and culture 20 definition 4, 40 and feedback 10–11 inconsistency 12 and informal communication 6 matching with verbal 43–5 at meetings 644–5 and presentations 182 types 40–1 norming stage 570 norms 533, 565 notation in reports 314–15, 450 note reference system 315–16 notes 482 notice of meetings 629, 636 numbering systems 449, 450, 480–2 numerical tables 328 objectivity 347 observation 303 occupations 74–5 online forums 279 online information 305–7, 315–16, 317 online resume sites 102 online technology see digital technology open communication 275, 587–8 open questions 47, 52, 106, 531 openness 347, 601–2 operational meetings 627 operational networking 553 opinions 299, 567 optimism 66 order of information described 312 in letters 398, 403, 412, 414 reports 312, 445–6 short reports 422, 425, 427, 428 in writing 364 order refusal letters 404 organisations and adaptability 67 changes within 18–19 culture within 16 enhance image 588–9, 610–11

goals 139 planning levels 138 politics within 600–1 requirements 139 requirements of 313 stages of customer engagement 268–9 PAIR approval strategy 252 paper-based records 506 paragraphs 361, 362–3, 390, 480 paralanguage 42, 43 parallel language 358 paraphrasing 48 Pareto analysis 331, 339 participants at meetings 640, 642–3, 644–6 passive voice 356, 390 patronising expressions 358 pauses 47 P.E.E.L. approach 362 peer assessment 158 peer review 310 perception 8, 12 performance and ability 545–7 case studies 556–7 feedback 157–9 improvement plans 549 indicators 544 and leadership 538, 543, 550, 582 manage poor work 543–52 monitoring own 145–6, 152 and motivation 544–5 productive 537–8 recording 162 rectify a difficulty 546–7 team performance plans 561–4 see also key performance areas performance appraisals 158, 544, 547–8, 549 performance criteria 155–6, 618 performance standards 275–7, 618 performing stage 570–1 periodic reports 428, 429, 430 periodicals 305 permissions for information 128–9 persecutors 57 personal characteristics 105 personal communication 317 personal competence 32–3, 35

personal information 119–20 personal networking 553 personal nonverbal communication 41 personal presentation 245 personal qualities 202–3 personal space 46 persuasion 5 persuasive letters 407–12 phishing 129, 370 photographs 328, 341, 346, 506 physical records 505–7 pie charts 328, 335–7, 345 pivot tables 129 plagiarism 307 Plain English 352, 366–7, 390, 392, 447 plans communication 522–3 customer service 275, 276 learning 617 organisations 138 performance 549, 561–4 professional development 160–1 time management 145, 146–7 work schedules 144–6 workgroup 138, 139–40, 142–4 workplace health and safety 214–16 podcasts 169 points of order 634 points of view 12 policies customer complaints 285–6 customer service 275, 289 customer-friendly 259 described 537 emails 370, 371 importance of 80 industry pricing 298 information collection 121–2 information sharing 121 organisational 504 record management 503 workplace health and safety 223 politics 600–1 portfolio websites 97–8 positivity 540 post-interview stage 103–4 posture 46, 245 power 21, 193, 574, 599–600 pre-interview stage 103–4 prejudices 299 premises 309

PREP formula for speeches 170–1 prepared speeches 169 presentation of graphics 344 in reports 445 of research 300–1 presentations and audiences 173–4, 181 case studies 188–9 delivering 181–3 electronic 180–1 and ethics 172 evaluation 111 and job interviews 107–10 objectives 170 planning 173–5 practice and revise 178 preparing for 183 purpose 173 reviewing 186 supporting material 175 techniques 176, 179 types 168–72 virtual 171–2 visual aids 179–81 writing 175–9 pricing policies 298 primary activities 144–5 primary sources of information 125, 303–5 principles of assessment 619 print literacy 74 priorities 144–5, 152–3 privacy 119–21, 122–3, 135–6, 306 private meetings 627 probing questions 47, 52, 106, 531 problems in workplaces 609 problem-solving processes 609–10, 648–9 procedures 80, 275, 537 process descriptions 485 process mapping 298 procrastination 149 product information 247–8, 274 product sampling 304–5 productivity 537–8 professional associations 89, 285 professional development creating a plan 160–1 definition 160 and digital communication tools 78–9

674 Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202

INDEX

identifying opportunities 161 programs 40 recording achievements 162 and training 584–5 types 615–16 professionalism 249 program records 262 progress reports 425–8, 437 proposals body of 488 dos and do nots 492 formal 487–9 funding requests 489 objectives 487 outlines 488–9 purpose 486–7 solicited and unsolicited 486 work requests 489 proximity 325, 365 public meetings 627 public speaking 168–72 see also presentations publications 89 punctuation 361, 390, 397 purpose statements 443 qualitative data 125, 308–9 quality of information sources 306 quantitative data 126, 308–9 questioners 184 questioning skills 52–3, 531 questionnaires 126, 304 questions before consultation 526 encouraging 47 and feedback 52–3 intimidating 184–5 and job interviews 105–6, 109–10 listening funnel 47 for performance appraisals 548 positive framework 531 for recruiters 102 types 47, 52–3 quorum 634, 636 race 358 RADAR five-step approach 610 random nonverbal communication 41 rapport with customers 269–70 readability 360–1, 390, 449–50, 481 reasoning 308–9

receivers of messages 9, 10–11 recommendations in reports 261, 458–9, 470 record management access restrictions 504, 514 barriers to retrieval 508 case studies 517 confidential records 511–12 customer service 261–2, 285 described 499–501 DRAFS strategy for email 372 keywords 504 legal aspects 501–2 legislation 512 for meetings 650–1 providing records 513–14 retention and disposal schedules 501–2 standards 514 team purpose statement 561 tracking 513–14 user requirements 504–5 version control 510–11 workplace health and safety 232–5 record management systems 500–1, 502, 507, 507–8, 514 records classification 504 criteria 499 customers 285 definition 499 digital 505–6 government 512 identifying 500 of learning 619 life cycle 501–2 personnel 162 physical 505–7 safeguarding security 511 sensitive 511–12 as source of information 303 types 505–7 recruiters 102 recruitment agencies 87 references lists of 315–18 notation 314–15 in reports 453 work-related 98 referent power 193, 599, 600 referrals 281 reflective listening 47–8 refusal letters 403–7 relationship management 33 reliability 259, 299, 499, 602

relinquishing style of communication 539 repetition 325, 365, 479 reports analytical 423, 432–5 audiences 312, 443–4 body of 452, 453, 456–9 case studies 476 characteristics of poor short 422 completion 428 credibility 449–50 cultural appropriateness 447–8 customer service 260–2 dashboard 435–6, 439 details required 423 determining issues 444 editing 471–2 electronic 423–4 endmatter 452, 453, 459 example of long 460–70 five-step plan for short 421 form 428–32 formal 423 formats for short 423–4 formatting 448–9, 452 front matter 452, 454–6 graphics in 450 headings 449–50 incident 232–3, 428–32 information collection for 444 information organisation 445 justification 425, 426 method of delivery 473 notation in 314–15, 450 numbering systems 449, 450 order of information 312, 422, 425, 427, 428, 445–6 outlines 444, 448–9 parts of 450–1, 452–9 periodic reports 428, 429, 430 planning long 442–6 presentation order 445 progress 425–8, 437 purpose statements 443 readability 449–50 references 315–17, 453 research 312–15 reviewing 471–2 sections of long 452, 456 statistics 450 technology use 448–9 three Ps of progress 437 visual aids in 454 writing 421–2, 447–51 writing conventions 452 writing plans for short 430

see also proposals; technical documents reprimand interviews 550 request emails 373, 374 request letters 400 request refusal letters 405–6 rescuers 57 research common mistakes 301 ethical principles 307 interpret findings 308–9 job searching 94 objectives 298 presenting results 300–1 process steps 298–301 purposes 297–8 review of previous 311 supporting material 175 use of 297 see also market research research reports audiences of 312 notation in 314–15 order of information 312 and organisational requirements 313 referencing 315–17 resilience 68 resolutions 635 resources for workgroup 140 respect 244, 540, 541, 565 response time 151–2 responses 47 restricted information 128–9 resumes electronic 99–102 and keywords 114 writing 91–9 retention schedules 501–2 reviews of previous research 311 reward power 193, 599 rewards 596–7, 607 rhythm in writing 363 ripple effect 35–6 risks control measures 228–30, 233–4 controlling 226–31 definition 227 evaluation scale 228 management process 218 ranking 227–8 role clarity 537 role models 585, 610–11 routine order of information 422, 428

675 Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202

INDEX

safe work method statement 228–9 safety see workplace health and safety safety inspections 223–4 safety procedures 230–1 sales letters 409–11 salutations see greetings sample sizes 310 scope of reports 456 screen-based content 379–82 search engines 305–7 seating arrangements 631–2 secondary activities 144 secondary sources of information 125, 301, 303, 305–7 secretaries 629, 636–9, 641 security 120–1, 129, 499 self-actualising people 192 self-assessment 158, 159 self-awareness 32, 35 self-bargaining people 192 self-confessors 569 self-confidence 70 self-denying people 192 self-directed learning 616 self-evaluation 186 self-exposing people 192 self-imposed time 150–1 self-inventory 89–90 self-management 70 self-protecting people 192 self-regulation 32–3, 70 senders of messages 9, 10–11 sentences 356, 359–60, 362, 390, 479, 480 service conditions 272, 273 service delivery 247–8, 259–60 service information 247–8, 274 service records 262 sexism 356–8 short reports see reports signature block 396, 459 signature elements 180 simple sentences 359 simplicity in visual design 325 situational diagnosis 298 skills for adaptability 65–6 analysis 614–15 assessing 153–9 audit 156–7 customer service communication 243–7 digital 74–5 interpersonal 131 questioning 52–3, 531

small groups 6 small talk 270 SMART approach to goals 140–1, 546 social awareness 33 social competence 33 social diversity 35, 542 social loafing 572–3 social media case studies 291–2 complaints on 251 and customer service 282–4 and difficult customers 249–50 and information sharing 283–4 and job searching 90–1 use of 10, 18, 77–8, 274 writing for 379–80 social media channels 587 social media cleanse 88 social media strategy 283 social networking sites 87–8 social responsibility 17 software 506 space 23, 42, 46 speakers focus on 45–6 ineffective responses to 50 inviting to continue 46–7 mirror the content 47–8 showing empathy 48–50 specification documents 491 speeches 169–71 see also presentations spoken communication see verbal communication stage fright 182–3 stakeholders 524, 585–7, 602 standard setters 568 standards assessment against 130 competency 153–9 customer service 275–7 performance 275–7, 618 record management 502, 514 types 536 standing orders 635, 636, 650 statistical analysis 158, 310 statistics 450 stories 177, 180 storming stage 570 straight-talking 581 strategic networking 553 strategic planning 138 stress 34–5 structuring style of communication 539

subject lines 395 submissiveness 56 success triangles 57 summarisers 568 summarising 48 summary areas 102 supervisors see team leaders suppliers 78 supporting material 175 surface acting 38–9 surveys 126, 304 sustainability 18–19 SWOT analysis 298 synopsis 453, 455 system records 262 system-imposed time 150–1 table of contents 453 tables 327–30, 344, 453, 454, 462, 482 ‘tag team’ approach 168, 170 tangibles 259 targets for workgroup 140 task discretion 527 task-related roles 567–8, 604, 640 team briefings 629, 630 team leaders and communication 565, 578, 595 described 604–11 effective 547, 560, 582, 585 and work practices 582–5 team members and communication 565 empower 607–8 empowerment 538 and performance 582 represent and support 608 and team formation 570 team players 541 teams addressing issues 579–82 case studies 591, 622 cohesiveness 562 communication 565 cooperative relationships 576 described 560 developing 613–15 development stages 569–71 dysfunctional roles 568–9 and ethics 565 fair treatment 577–9 goals 605 and grapevine communication 572

ground rules 566 and groupthink 571–2 identification with 602–3 inclusion 577–9 intergenerational 577–8 key result areas 561 leadership of 604–9 liaising with management 585–7 maintenance-related roles 568 norms 533, 565 performance 605 performance plans 561–4 problem-solving processes 609–10 purpose statements 560–1 roles within 567–9 and social loafing 572–3 success factors 560 support learning 615–18 supportive communication 576–7 task-related roles 567–8 and trust 601–3 values 565 visions 605 work enablers 574–6 see also leadership; workgroups teamwork definition 579 enablers 574–6 facilitate 576–7 technical competencies 155 technical definitions 483–4, 496–7 technical descriptions 484–5 technical documents formatting 481–2 purpose 478 reviewing 493–4 types of 483–6 who creates 478 who for 478–9 technical instructions 485–6 technical terms 355, 391, 479, 496–7 technical writing styles 479–81 technology 280–1, 448–9, 505 TED talks 174–5 teleconferences 627 telemarketing 258 telephone calls 149, 255–8 temporary work 88 tender documents dos and do nots 492 parts of 489–90, 491

676 Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202

INDEX

preparing 491 sections of 492 tendering process 490–1 tension 200 terms of reference 453, 454 texting literacy 74 thank you 544 thank you letters 397 themes, connecting 174 thesauri 504 thoughtlines 174 time and cultural differences 23 monitoring use of 151–2 saving 148 types of organisational 150–2 wasters 147, 148 time management effective 145, 146 plans 145, 146–7 strategies to improve 147–9 title pages 453, 454, 460 tone in communication 69, 363 topic sentences 480 touch points 269 touching behaviour 42 traditional reference systems 315–16 training definition 39–40 described 584–5 and digital communication tools 78–9 induction 220–2 and performance 545, 547 workplace health and safety 219–22 see also coaching; mentoring transactional leadership 596–7 transformational leadership 595–6 transitions in presentations 180 transmittal emails 373, 375 transmittal letters 453, 454, 460–1

transparency 575 trends 297, 333–4 trust 7, 533, 540, 541, 601–3 Twitter, writing for 380–1 uncertainty avoidance 21 universal nonverbal communication 41 urgent activities 144 validity 310 values 12, 565, 588–9 verbal communication definition 4–5 difficult 581–2 discussions 311 inconsistency 12 matching with nonverbal 43–5 straight-talking 581 use of 7 see also presentations verbose language 494 version control 510–11 vertical channels 10 victims 57 videoconferences 627 videos 273–4 virtual meetings 627–8, 632, 640–2 virtual presentations 171–2 visions 605 visual aids 179–81, 454 visual communication case studies 348 described 323 ethics in 346–7 purposes 325 quality 346 see also graphics visual design principles 324–5 vocabulary 354 vocal qualities 42, 43, 245 voting at meetings 635, 636 web-based systems 506 websites 97–8, 317

Welcome to Country 172 white space 481 win–lose strategies 191, 196, 203–4 win–win strategies 191, 196, 203–4 withdrawal 196, 197 withdrawal style of communication 539 words, unnecessary 354–5 Work Health and Safety Act 2011 212–14 Work Health and Safety Framework 212–13 work performance see performance work practices 582–5 work process efficiencies 79 work requests 489 work schedules 144–6 workforce diversity 16–17, 542 workgroup plans 138–40, 142–4 workgroups assessment 158 goals 140–2, 546 targets 140 and workplace health and safety 219–21 workplace coach 583–4 workplace health and safety case studies 237–8 consultation 217–19 described 211–12 harmonisation 211–12 information sources 216 legal aspects 235 legislation 211–12, 213 management plans 214–16 managing risks 223–6 policies 223 record management 232–5 training 219–22 workplace health and safety management systems 217–19, 233–4

workplaces channels of communication 524, 532 culture 533–4, 601 digital 72–3 ergonomics 230–1 intergenerational 577–8 problems in 609 work-team enablers 574–6 writing audiences 353 blogs 381–2 common errors 493–4 for ear 178 emails 369–78 ethics in 366–8 for messaging 380–1 objectives 352 plans for letters 399, 403, 407 plans for short reports 430 presentations 175–9 purposes 352–3 reports 447–51 resumes 91–9 screen-based content 379–82 for social media 379–80 three-step process 352–3, 389–92 for Twitter 380–1 unethical 367–8 see also language; sentences writing styles components 354–65 inverted pyramid 379 Plain English 352, 366–7, 390, 392, 447 reports 447 technical 479–81 written communication 7 see also emails; letters; memos; reports ‘you’ approach 363, 390, 447

677 Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202

Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202

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Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202