The Book of Revelation in Christological Focus [58] 2003046087, 0820467944

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The Book of Revelation in Christological Focus DAN LI OY

5htdies in Biblica l Literature 58

Dan Lioy

The Book of Revelation in Christological Focus

PETER LANG New York· Washington, D.C/Baltimore· Bern Frankfurt am Main· Berlin· Brussels· Vienna· Oxford

The Book of Revelation in Christological Focus

Studies in Biblical Literature

Hemchand Gossai General Editor Vol. 58

PETER LANG New York • Washington, D.C/Baltimore • Bern Frankfurt am Main· Berlin· Brussels· Vienna • Oxford

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Uoy, Dan. The book of Revelation in christological focus / Dan Uoy. p. cm. - (Studies in biblical literature; v. 58) Includes bibliographical references and index. 1. Bible. N.T. Revelation-Theology. 2. Jesus Christ-Person and offices-Biblical teaching. 3. Jesus Christ-History of doctrinesEarly church, ca. 30-600. I. Title. II. Series. BS2825.52.L57 228'.06--dc21 2003046087 ISBN 0-8204-6794-4 ISSN 1089-0645

Bibliographic information published by Die Deutsche Bibliothek. Die Deutsche Bibliothek lists this publication in the "Deutsche Nationalbibliografie"; detailed bibliographic data is available on the Internet at http:/ / dnb.ddb.de/.

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© 2003 Peter Lang Publishing, Inc., New York 275 Seventh Avenue, 28th Floor, New York, NY 10001 www.peterlangusa.com All rights reserved. Reprint or reproduction, even partially, in all forms such as microfilm, xerography, microfiche, microcard, and offset strictly prohibited. Printed in Germany

To my beloved wife, Marcia, for her affection and companionship; and to my precious son, Joshua, for his love and playfulness.

Contents Editor's Preface .......................................................................................

IX

Acknow ledgments ...................................................................................

XI

Chapter 1: Introduction ................ ............. ......... ... ......... .......... ........... .... The Issue to Be Explored .................................................................. Methodology ........... ... .... ....... ....... ................. ......... ... ... .... ........ ......... Conclusion ........... ................. ....... .... ........... ..... .... ..... ..... ................ ...

1 1 2 4

Chapter 2: The Historical and Cultural Background of Revelation ........ The Authorship of Revelation .......................................................... The Date of Writing of Revelation ................................................... The Place of Writing of Revelation .................................................. The Original Recipients of Revelation ............................................. Conclusion .. ... ... ... ..... ........ ...... ....... ............ ..... .... ... .......... ..... ...... ......

5 5 9 19 20 23

Chapter 3: The Literary Genre of Revelation .......................................... 25 Defining the Apocalyptic Genre ....................................................... 25 Old Testament Apocalyptic Literature ............................................. ~2Intertestamental Apocalyptic Literature ........................................... 28 New Testament Apocalyptic Literature ............................................ 34 The Book of Revelation as Apocalyptic Literature .......................... 37 Characteristics of Apocalyptic Literature ......................................... 39 Conclusion ... ................ .... .... ..... ...... ......... ... ..... ..... .... ..... ................... 43 Chapter 4: The Literary Structure and Purpose of Revelation ................ Key Philosophical Assumptions ....................................................... Prominent Views Concerning the Organizational Scheme of Revelation ....... .................. ..... ...... ........... .... .... ............. Recapitulation Versus Progression ................................................... The Influence of Revelation 1: 19 ...... .... ........ ... ........ ....... ... ........... ... A Content Analysis of Revelation 11: 19-14:20 ............................... The Purpose of Revelation ............................................................... Conclusion ........................................................................................

45 45 46 60 63 65 83 89

Chapter 5: Interpretive Schemes and Theological Approaches .............. 93 Four Major Interpretations of Revelation ......................................... 93 Three Theological Perspectives in Revelation ................................. 96 The Use of Symbols, Metaphors, and Allusions in Revelation ... ........ ... .... ..... ................ ....... ..... ..... ....... ................... 102

The Book of Revelation in Christological Focus

viii

The Use of the Old Testament in Revelation .................................... 108 Conclusion ........................................................................................ 110 Chapter 6: An Exegetical Analysis of Revelation .................................. . Five Christological Motifs in Revelation ........................................ . Prologue and Greeting (Rev. 1:1-8) ................................................ . Seven Churches (Rev. 1:9-3:22) ..................................................... . Seven Seals (Rev. 4: 1-8: 1) .............................................................. . Seven Trumpets (Rev. 8:2-11:18) ................................................... . The Woman, the Dragon, and Their Offspring (Rev. 11:19-14:20) ...................................................................... . Seven Bowls (Rev. 15:1-16:17) ...................................................... . Destruction of Babylon (Rev. 16: 18-18:24) ................................... . New Jerusalem (Rev. 19:1-22:5) .................................................... . Closing and Epilogue (Rev. 22:6-21) ............................................. . Conclusion ....................................................................................... . Chapter 7: Summary and Conclusion .................................................... . The Salient Findings of Chapters 2 through 5 ................................. . The Christological Emphases Detectable in the Literary Structure of Revelation ............................................. . The Christological Emphases Detectable in the Content of Revelation ................................................................... . Conclusion ....................................................................................... .

113 113 120 124 130 139 143 143 146 148 155 159 161\ 1611

I

1631 164 172

Notes ....................................................................................................... 175 Bibliography

269

Subject Index

301

References Index

303

Editor's Preface

M

ore than ever the horizons in biblical literature are being expanded beyond that which is immediately imagined; important new methodological, theological, and hermeneutical directions are being explored, often resulting in significant contributions to the world of biblical scholarship. It is an exciting time for the academy as engagement in biblical studies continues to be heightened. This series seeks to make available to scholars and institutions, scholarship of a high order, and which will make a significant contribution to the ongoing biblical discourse. This series includes established and innovative directions, covering general and particular areas in biblical study. For every volume considered for the series, we explore the question as to whether the study will push the horizons of biblical scholarship. The answer must be yes for inclusion. In this volume, Dan Lioy explores the Christological focus of the Book of Revelation. It is Lioy's sustained and detailed argument in this volume that God through Christ sets about to destroy the forces of evil. This, he maintains, advances the central theological trajectory of the book. Certainly in this volume scholars who are interested in this area of New Testament scholarship will find a substantive and important contribution to this discourse. The horizon has been expanded.

Hemchand Gossai Series Editor

./

Acknowledgments

I

wish to express my sincere appreciation to al1 those who have helped me in the writing and preparation of this book. I am especial1y indebted to the Revd. Dr. Colin Warner (my Promoter at Greenwich School of Theology, United Kingdom) and Professor Dr. J.e. Jordaan (my Co-Promoter at Potchefstroom University for Christian Higher Education, South Africa). As I researched and wrote the manuscript, they provided careful, thoughtful, and substantive feedback. The result of their patience and insight is an immensely improved monograph. I am also grateful for the constant encouragement and support of Professor Dr. Byron Evans and Mrs. Peg Evans (both of Greenwich School of Theology). At several points along the journey when I felt either discouraged or uncertain, they remained confident that I was heading in the right direction and would successfully complete this research project. I would like to thank Larry and Jackie Armstrong for their meticulous proofreading; Bill and Nadege Armstrong, who helped me with the translation of various French documents; and Ingrid Buch-Wagler and Pam Beilby, who helped me work through several German documents. I especial1y want to express my love for and appreciation to my wife, Marcia. Without her encouragement, affection, and companionship, especial1y as I trudged along in my research, the long hours of writing would not have been possible. My son, Joshua, likewise remained patient and understanding, especially during more intensive periods in the manuscripting process. Finally, I am indebted to my other family members and friends for their prayers and support during this long venture.

Chapter 1

Introduction

T

he Book of Revelation (,begins and. ends with Christ 0:1; 22:21). Though it is filled with m;gnltlcent visions and symbols that may be difficult to understand, it is first and foremost about(}esus-His char\acter, His mission, and His fmal goal of bringing all things into subjection to His Father's_peIfec! will (1 :5-8), A survey of the pertinent literature indithat this Christological emphasis in Revelation has not escaped the attention of various scholars. I Also, an examination of the relevant literature indicates that others have observed that the book has a theological interpretation of historical events, whether in the past, present, or future. 2 Three observations are of interest regarding the main focus of scholarly endeavor. First, an effort has been made to summarize various titles, symbols, and descriptions of a Christocentric nature. Second, corresponding attempts have been made to formulate a holistic presentation of this data, especially within the context of Systematic Theology. Third, there seems to be missing a thoroughgoing textual analysis of the Christology of Revelation by means of a grammatical-historical form of exegesis. Correspondingly absent is a discussion that focuses on the connection between the ChristologicaI themes and the theological argument of the book. 3 These are intriguing omissions, given all the scholarly activity. An assessment of the literatUre suggests that a full-scale investigation into the way in which the Christological focus helps to advance the theological argument of the book has not been specifically done. This implies that such a comprehensive endeavor is worthy of undertaking. In fact, as late as 1999, Talbert noted that "there are relatively few major studies of the Christology of the Apocalypse.,,4 -

cates

The Issue to Be Explored

This study, then, will explore how the Christological focus of Revelation helps to advance the theological argument of the book. To investigate this issue sufficiently, the following topics are discussed in detail: • the historical and cultural background of Revelation (chap. 2);

2

The Book of Revelation in Christological Focus

• the literary genre of the book (chap. 3); • the literary structure and purpose of Revelation (chap. 4); • the main interpretive schemes and theological approaches to the book (chap. 5); • an exegetical analysis of Revelation in light of its Christological emphasis (chap. 6); and, • an evaluation of how the Christological focus of the Revelation advances the theological argument of the book (chap. 7). Each of these strands contains information germane to the issue being investigated. The basis for this statement is a grammatical-historical approach to interpreting Scripture. In their extensive discussion concerning this method of understanding God's Word, Klein, Blomberg, and Hubbard make the following clarifying statement: "The process of accurate understanding and correct interpretation involves five essential items: (1) literary context, (2) historical-cultural background, (3) word meanings, (4) grammatical relationships, and (5) literary genre."s Methodology

To achieve the objective of this study, two distinct but related methods of research will be used-historical research and hermeneutical research. Concerning the first method, Hogg states that the historical approach should be used "when investigating the history of a social or a political event, the history of individuals or groups, the history of organizations, the history of laws or curriculums, the history of structures, the history of processes, the history of teacher's textbooks or facilities, and so forth.,,6 He also adds that "any particular phenomenon that has occurred during the specified period of time in a given culture or subculture, whether ancient or modem, could become the subject of investigation in historical research.,,7 It is clear that the historical and cultural background of Revelation falls well within the historical method of research. Such an investigation involves the collection and analysis of source materials, the formulation of hypotheses to explain the events or conditions, and the interpretation and reporting of one's findings. 8 Concerning the hermeneutical method of research. Hogg states that it "covers all processes of interpretation that mediate between and incorporate different cultural and historical meanings and traditions. These processes do so through the analysis of texts and symbolic meanings and their cultural and

Introduction

3 ./

historical contexts with a view of applying and extending the meanings and traditions.,,9 It is clear that the historical and cultural background of Revelation falls well within the hermeneutical method of research. This is because the researcher "is concerned not only with the objective meaning of ideas or symbols, but also with what the texts have to say to people today.,,10 The previous information indicates that historical and hermeneutical methods of research require interacting with a variety of authoritative sources. For this study, five major ones will be consulted: the original texts of the Bible; various English translations of the Old and New Testaments; journal articles; specialty texts (exegetical commentaries, scholarly/theological monographs, and encyclopedicllexical references); and theses/dissertations. The basis for constituting these as valid sources of evidence is the fact that they are where the majority of relevant information lies. A key aspect, then, of the methodology being adopted in this book is to identify and exegete the relevant portions of Revelation. The grammaticalhistorical approach is the exegetical technique to be used. McCartney and Clayton offer the following clarifying remarks: II Grammatical-historical exegesis attempts to uncover the meaning a text would have had to its original human author and readers. This involves asldng: what was the cultural, social, geographical, linguistic, and historical background to the original situation; what is the usual significance of the words, phrases, and idioms used; what special circumstances or problems were the author or his original hearers facing; how does the passage fit in with what that particular human author says elsewhere; what type or genre of speech/writing is this; what was the purpose of the book as a whole; how does the passage function literarily in the larger text; and where do the original hearers stand in redemptive history.

In this study, the hermeneutical rules formulated by Klein, Blomberg, and Hubbard will be used to interpret Revelation. 12 These guidelines are summarized as follows:

1. The Bible is viewed as the inspired and inerrant Word of God; what it communicates is straightforward, objective, and absolute; thus, it is the supreme and final authority in all matters pertaining to God, creation, and humankind. 2. The Bible is considered to be a harmonious collection of distinctively unique writings; these writings complement and supplement one another; thus, the message Scripture communicates is both unified and coherent.

4

The Book of Revelation in Christo logical Focus

3. Although the Bible is the verbally inspired Word of God, it is nevertheless to be interpreted with the same degree of diligent study and intensive research that one would expend on any other book. 4. The culture, history, and geography surrounding the Bible should be taken into account. 5. Close attention is to be paid to the language and grammar of the text. 6. A word should be understood in terms of its sentence, a sentence in terms of its context, and the context in terms of the original purpose and theme of the author. 7. All of Scripture is to be used to unlock the meaning of individual passages of Scripture that are obscure or difficult to understand. 8. The interpreter should remain sensitive to the various forms and styles of literary expression present in the text being studied. 9. A passage should be interpreted in its plain and natural sense unless the literary form or style being encountered dictates otherwise; the interpreter should seek to explain the original sense of the writer according to the normal, customary, and proper usages of words and language.

Conclusion In summary, this study will investigate how the Christological focus of

Revelation advances the theological argument of the book. We will begin in chapter 2, which explores the historical and cultural background of Revelation. This includes investigating the authorship, date of writing, place of writing, and original recipients of the book.

Chapter 2

The Historical and Cultural Background of Revelation

I

n this chapter we will consider the historical and cultural background of Revel.a~ion. This i~~ludes ~v~stigating the authorship, date of writing, place of wntmg, and ongmal recipients of the book. A grammatical-historical approach to interpreting Scripture, as defmed in the fIrst chapter, implies that this body of information is relevant to the main issue we are exploring. Zuck makes the following two helpful observations related to understanding the meaning of the biblical text. 1 First, before modem readers of Scripture can fathom the relevance of a particular passage, they must "seek to determine what the words meant to those who originally read them." This involves investigating the "specific historical, geographical situation." Second, interpreters of Scripture must also "give attention to cultural matters." Accordingly, being aware of the historical and cultural background of Revelation will help minimize the possibility of making faulty interpretations of this portion of Scripture. 2 The Authorship of Revelation

While it is clear that the Apocalypse is about the struggle between good and evil and the ultimate triumph of Christ (1:7}2 the authorship of the book remains a matter of deb'l.te. 4 Four time& within. the text of Revelation the author identified himself as :'John" 0:1, 4, 9; 22:~. The earliest church fathers took this to be a reference to John,-a son ofiebedee (Matt. 4:21; Mark 1:19; 10:35; Luke 5:10), one of the twelve apostles (Matt. 10:2; Mark 3:16--17; Luke 6:1314), and the "disciple whom Jesus loved" (John 21:20; cf. 19:26; 20:2; 21:7).5 This is the same "John" to whom leaders in the early church attributed the writing of the fourth Gospel and three General EpistIes. 6 These early church fathers included Justin (the) Martyr (ca l00-ca 165),7 Irenaeus (ca l3O-ca 2(0),8 Clement of Alexandria (ca 15O--ca 215),9 Tertullian (ca 155-ca 220),10 Hippolytus of Rome (ca 17O--ca 236),11 and Origen (ca 185-ca 254).12 Dionysius of Alexandria (ca 19~ca 265)-a theologian and bishop of Alexandria 13-is perhaps one of the earliest church leaders to question whether John the apostle wrote Revelation. 14 Though Dionysius accepted the

6

The Book of Revelation in Christological Focus

document as a canonical New Testament book, he did not believe it was the work of an apostle.1 5 Eusebius of Caesarea (ca 260-ca 341)-a theologian, church historian, and bishop of Caesarea l6-wentfurther than this by attributing Reyc;!lation to another person named John. $usebius thought this person was a presbyter, and he l;asedihis supp~sition on a statementmad~ ~ Papias (ca 70-ca 140).17 The latter individual was the Bishop of Hierapolis, a church leader, and a writer concerning the origins and content of various New Testament books.. IS Though the works of Papias have not survived, quotes that he made appear in Ecclesiastical History, which was written by Eusebius. 19 The following citation, which appears in 3:39:4 of Ecclesiastical History,IfJ has given rise to the theory that someone named "John the Vresbyter~" who is different from John the apostle, wrote the Book ofReveIatlon(iialicsadded for emphasis): If, then, anyone came, who had been a follower of the elders, I questioned him in regard to the words of the elders, what Andrew or what Peter said, or what was said by Philip, or by Thomas, or by James, or by John, or by Matthew, or by any other of the disciples of the Lord, and what things Aristion and the presbyter John, the disciples of the Lord, say. For I did not think that what was to be gotten from the books would profit me as much as what came from the living and abiding voice.

Ancient and modem commentators disagree as to whether "the presbyter John" refers to John the apostle or to an otherwise unknown follower of ChriSt. 21 Those favoring the latter option argue that it was this early church leader, rather than John the apostle, who wrote Revelation. 22 It is maintained that, while this person was a visionary (of sorts) with distinctive prophetic gifts, he did not identify himself with "any title or description beyond the words in 1:9.,,23 Also, it is claimed that, while the book contains many themes appearing in the fourth Gospel and the Johannine epistles, "it omits many more which one may have had a right to expect from a writing of 5t. John.,,24 To strengthen their case against the apostolic authorship of Revelation, advocates maintain that the style and grammar of the Greek original are inferior to what appears in the fourth Gospel, a document that is also said to be authored by John the apostle.25 Whereas the Gospel and epistles of John are known for their smooth and polished literary style of Greek, Revelation is said to have a clunky and halting mode of expression. 26 Also, while Revelation seems to violate the accepted norms of first century Greek grammar, the Gospel and epistles of John more readily conform to these linguistic conven-

The Historical and Cultural Background of Revelation

7

tions. 27 Based on these observations, it is maintained that the same person could not have penned both Revelation and the other works attributed to John, the "beloved disciple.,,28 Those who favor the apostolic authorship of Revelation suggest that the solecisms 29 are possibly due to the following factors: the author was ''uneducated" (Acts 4: 13) and thus was not able to write in a polished style of first century Greek;30 the author did not have the help of an amanuensis to smooth and standardize the manner of expression;31 the author wrote the manuscript while in exile "on the island called Patmos" (Rev. 1:9) and thus did not have the tools necessary to write from a scholarly vantage point;32 the general mood of Revelation (namely, one of drama and excitement) did not lend itself to polished prose;33 the nonstandard language was preferred when conveying divine oracles and visions;34 and the author, being in an heightened state of mental and emotional awareness, did not have time to refine what he hurriedly wrote. 35 Worthy of mention is a theory espoused by Beale. 36 He noted that many of the irregular forms appearing the Apocalypse "occur in the midst of Old Testament illusions.,,37 As a result, "a number of the expressions appear irregular because John is carrying over the exact grammatical form of the Old Testament wording.,,38 Beale postulates that this deviation from the accepted order "is one of the ways that John gets the readers' attention, causing them to focus on the phrase and to cause them more readily to recognize the presence of an Old Testament allusion.,,39 The result is that readers' are inclined to pause, reflect on the nonstandard wording, and hopefully come to a better understanding of "the meaning of the phrase in Revelation.,,4Q Another possible effect is that readers' will come to see the "solidarity of [John's] writing with that of the Old Testament. ,,41 It has already been noted that the writer of Revelation called himself "John.,,42 Supporters of the apostolic authorship of the book claim that the lack of any further description on the part of the writer suggests that he was well known by his original readers. 43 Advocates of this view also note that the writer comes across as a Palestinian Jew who was intimately familiar with the temple and synagogue rituals, the Old Testament, and the Targum. 44 Moreover, proponents state that he spoke as a prophet who had great authority (1:3; 22:6-10, 18_19).45 Those favoring the apostolic origin of Revelation note that there are numerous similarities in the concepts and expressions appearing in this book

8

The Book of Revelation in Christological Focus

and the Gospels and epistles of John.46 For instance, John 1:1 and 14 as well as Revelation 19:13 use the Greek noun logos, which is rendered "Word.,,47 Both books promise living water to those who thirst (John 7:37-38; Rev. 22: 17).48 Moreover, the fourth Gospel and the Book of Revelation make reference to Zechariah 12: 10 (John 19:37; Rev. 1:7).49 John 1:29 and 36 as well as Revelation 5:6 and 8 (to name a few verses) use the tenn "the Lamb," which renders the Greek noun arnfon, as a messianic title. 50 Other typically Johannine expressions appearing in both Revelation and the Gospels and epistles of John include the following: 51 the idea of Jesus (Rev. 5: 5; 17: 14) and believers conquering the forces of evil (1 John 2: 1314; 4:4; 5:4-5; Rev. 2:7, 17, 26; 3:5, 12, 21; 21:7); believers keeping the Lord's commandments (John 14:15; 15:10; Rev. 12:17; 14:12); the phrase "protect/keep ... from" (Greek, tereo ek; John 17: 15; Rev. 3: 10); a particular form of the Greek adjective rendered "true" (alethinos), which appears nine times in the fourth Gospel, four times in 1 John, ten times in Revelation, and only five times elsewhere in the New Testament; Christ receiving something from the Father (John 10:18; Rev. 2:27-28); white clothing being worn by angels (John 20:12) and the worthy (Rev. 3:4); the concept of Satan being "driven out" (John 12:31) and "thrown down" (Rev. 12:9, 13); and the notion ofthe first resurrection (John 5:24-29; Rev. 20:5). Worthy of mention are some alternate theories regarding the authorship of Revelation. 52 One group has suggested that the author was an otherwise unidentified person named "John," who enjoyed recognition among his peers as an itinerant prophet and charismatic leader. 53 Some speculate that this individual may have been a Palestinian Jew who was associated with the original apostles and disciples of Jesus. 54 A second group has conjectured that there was a Johannine schoolnamely, a community of followers sharing the same theological perspective and ecclesiastical tradition-to which John the apostle, John the presbyter, and other individuals were associated. 55 A third group postulates that a number of pseudonymous editors or redactors of Revelation have assumed the name of John to give the book a higher degree of authority and acceptability.56 It is claimed that other existing ancient writings of an apocalyptic nature are the compilation of various literary fragments. and supposedly the Book of Revelation follows this same practice. 57 The appeal of these views is that they seek to maintain a connection with the apostolic age of the church without necessarily affirming the apostolic

The Historical and Cultural Background of Revelation

9

authorship of Reveiation. 58 The drawback is that these views rest mainly on conjecture, rather than on solid internal and external biblical data. 59 In the absence of more substantive information, such speculations seem hard to assess and confirm. 60 In fact, the various theories mentioned previously generate more questions than answers.61 Ultimately, one cannot know with absolute certainty whether the selfidentified writer named "John" in Revelation (1: 1, 4, 9; 22:8) is the apostle by the same name or another follower of Jesus, such as the so-called "presbyter John.,,62 Nevertheless, the consensus of the early church consistently favored the apostle John as the author of Revelation,63 and there seems to be insufficient evidence to overturn this view. 64 Therefore, this work is written from the point of view that the apostle John penned the book. 65 The Date of Writing of Revelation

Knowing the approximate time when Revelation was written can help the reader discern pertinent aspects of its historical and cultural context. 66 An examination of the book's contents leaves one with the impression that it was penned during a time when its recipient churches were undergoing intense persecution. 67 The author of the book seems to acknowledge that believers may be called upon to suffer and even die for their faith.68 Nevertheless, the writer also seems to underscore that the vindication of their faith and the doom of the wicked is certain (1:9-11, 17-20; 2:1-3:22; 7:13-17; 11:15-18; 12:10-12; 13:9-10; 14:12-13; 15:3-4; 16:5-7; 17:14; 19:1-22:21). Given the above, a number of commentators sense that the magnitude of the crisis described in Revelation best fits with one of the imperial persecutions of the Roman emperors.69 There are several rulers suspected of having maltreated Christians,70 the most noteworthy being Nero (A.D. 37-68), who reigned from 54-68,71 Domitian (A.D. 51-96), who reigned from 81-96,72 Decius (ca 205-ca 251), who reigned from 249-251,73 Valerian (died A.D. 260), who reigned from 253-260,74 and Diocletian (ca 245-ca 313), who reigned from 284-305. 75 Of these, only Nero and Domitian lived within the lifetime of the apostle John. Those favoring Nero date Revelation before the fall of Jerusalem in A.D. 70, while those favoring Domitian place the date of writing at about A.D. 96. Those who favor a pre-A.D. 70 date claim that the persecution mentioned in Revelation 1:9 most likely refers to one that occurred during the reign of

10

The Book of Revelation in Christological Focus

Nero. 76 Those who favor a post-A.D. 70 date counter with the assertion that Nero's persecution was confined mainly to the city of Rome,77 whereas Domitian's persecution extended throughout the empire. 78 It is maintained that the seven churches addressed in Revelation (cf. 1:4) were located in the Roman province of Asia (the western portion of modem-day Turkey).79 Because this region was separated from Rome by a considerable distance, the province's inhabitants supposedly were able to escape Nero's persecution. 8o However, they were not able to avoid the empire-wide persecution of Domitian. 8t Those who favor a pre-A.D. 70 date take issue with this line of reasoning. They maintain that it is not necessary to insist that the original recipients of Revelation were suffering as a result of a decree from the Roman emperor. 82 For instance, when Christians in Rome faced persecution at the hands of Nero, believers in other parts of the empire may have encountered local harassment. 83 This maltreatment may have been incidental, or it may have been the result of regional enemies of the faith taking advantage of the emperor's anti-Christian attitude to rationalize their own oppression of believers. 84 It is further noted that nothing recorded in Revelation 2-3 makes an ironclad case for an empire-wide persecution. 85 For instance, it is possible that the trouble Christians encountered originated at the hands of local adversaries. 86 In fact, advocates of this view note there is no convincing proof for an empire-wide persecution during Domitian's reign. 87 Thompson remarked, "The conflict and crisis in the Book of Revelation between Christian commitment and the social order derive from John's perspective on Roman society rather than from significant hostilities in the social environment."s8 Collins has also written about the nature of the crisis being experienced by John and his initial readers. 89 Collins postulated that they were going through a perceived social crisis and communal trauma (interpreted from the viewpoint of apocalyptic beliefs), not an actual dilemma. 90 The writer and other likeminded Christians supposedly were feeling frustrated and powerless,9t not as a result of a "recent encounter with a different culture perceived to be superior,,,92 but rather because of the "conflict between the Christian faith itself, as John understood it, and the social situation as he perceived it.,,93 Thus, it was "the tension between John's vision of the kingdom of God and his environment that moved him to write his Apocalypse.,,94 Expressed another way, "assimilation into the Roman culture was the social-theological crisis which 'John' anticipated, and which precipitated the writing of the Apocalypse.,,95

The Historical and Cultural Background of Revelation

11

./

Collins furthermore asserts that, because of the "unbearable tension perceived by the author between what was and what ought to have been,,,96 he wrote Revelation to bring himself psychological relief. In other words, the energy and creativity that John invested in writing Revelation allegedly had a cathartic effect on him. 97 Also, because of his concern for other Christians, he composed Revelation "to create that tension for readers unaware of it, to heighten it for those who felt it already, and then to overcome it in an act of literary imagination.,,98 In a sense, the writer wanted to alert the original recipients of his work to the divine empowennent they had in Christ. 99 John also sought to mitigate the feelings of defenselessness and resentfulness they had-"due to [their] marginal social situation"IOO-by "the assurance that they had access to privileged infonnation, to revealed truth of heavenly origin.,,101 The writer moreover wanted to help his readers transfer their feelings of aggression and hostility from inappropriate subjects or entities to "God or the Lamb"I02 and from the "present to [the] future.,,103 The reason is that "such transference relieves some of the tension related to the aggression and defuses the human relationships involved."I04 This catharsis view of Revelation is also espoused by Pippin. 105 A number of recent scholars are in disagreement with Collins. For instance, Beasley-Murray wrote, "John had been banished to Patmos because of his powerful ministry ... and therefore was viewed by the authorities as a dangerous leader of the Christian sect. His perception of the nature of the imperial cult accordingly was conditioned by his experience, not his prejudice."I06 Hatfield likewise notes, "Although the imperial cult blossomed midway through the first century, and not at the behest of anyone particular emperor, the confrontation with Christians depicted by the seer intensified under Nero, and peaked under Domitian.,,107 Metzger similarly affinns, "Christians who refused to participate in emperor worship exposed themselves to the charge not only of being unpatriotic, but also of being subversive and enemies ofthe state. Consequently, at various times and places they . because 0 f thelr . lImt " ' h ,,108 sufIiered persecutIOn . These assertions are supported by the work of Michael,l09 whose extensive research yields the following four conclusions: (1) In the first century A.D., there was an established pattern of Rome's persecution of the Jewish people. I10 (2) The evidence from within the New Testament indicates that the early church experienced persecution. II I (3) Because Revelation was "written

12

The Book of Revelation in Christological Focus

during a time of persecution,,,1l2 it is natural to "find strong persecution language and reference to the crisis in its pages.,,113 (4) The historical reality of this calamity is validated from ancient Roman and patristic sources. 114 Stewart seems close to the mark in his appraisal: Christians were regarded as atheists who refused to worship the traditional gods, antisocial nonconformists since they did not participate in many of the civic functions (e.g. the theatre and the games) and possibly even cannibals. It is at least partially contradictory to affirm a "peaceful urban life alongside the Asian neighbors" on the one hand, and then acknowledge that the overall atmosphere in Asia Minor was one of general hostility and misunderstanding on the other. I 15

In light of the above information, it is reasonable to conclude that Collins' fundamental thesis of crisis and catharsis is flawed, being based mainly on speculation and inference. 116 As Talbert has noted, "Neither the text of Revelation nor any other apocalyptic writing, Jewish or Christian, verbalizes such an intent.,,117 Michael similarly affirms, "The sources are ... definite at least on this: at one time between the reigns of Nero and Domitian, Rome directly assaulted the Christian church and many Christians were killed.,,118 These statements do not mean that Collins' work is without merit. On the contrary, she has surfaced and articulated relevant strands of information. For instance, it is valid to conclude that John sought to help his readers deal with the distress associated with the crisis they were experiencing. As Collins noted, the psychological and social aspects of that dilemma included "resentment at the rejection and hostility of many Jews and Gentiles, envy and resentment of the autonomous, wealthy, and powerful, a desire for vengeance against Rome, and competitive and even hostile feelings toward other Christians with whom one disagreed." 119 It is also beneficial to recognize that the apostle used a variety of literary techniques to clarify the nature of the predicament his readers faced and help them deal with it in a constructive manner. As Collins observed, "Through the use of effective symbols and artful plots, the Apocalypse made feelings which were latent, vague, complex, and ambiguous explicit, conscious, and simple.,,120 Also, she seems close to the mark when she opines, "Like a poem, [Revelation] presents and interprets some aspect of reality, expresses a response to it, and invites the reader or hearer to share in the interpretation and the response.,,121 With respect to the main discussion, those who favor a post-A.D. 70 date note that the churches of Asia Minor have a considerable history and that the

The Historical and Cultural Background of Revelation

13

conditions prevailing in these congregations point more to the time of Domi. than that of Nero. 122 For example, it was only after the passage of many han years that the church at Ephesus had abandoned the love it first had (Rev. 2:4),123 that the church at Sardis had become spiritually dead (even though it had a reputation for being alive; 3: 1),124 and that the church at Laodecia had become lukewarm (vs. 15).125 It is argued that since Nero's persecution happened only about a decade or so after these churches were established, there was insufficient time for such spiritual decline to take place. 126 Those who favor a pre-A.D. 70 date counter that it does not necessarily take that long for such horrendous conditions to develop. They point to Galatians 1:6, where Paul expressed how shocked he was that his readers were turning away from God so soon after their conversion. 127 Another example might be the Corinthian congregation, which demonstrated a fairly high level of spiritual immaturity not long after being founded by Paul (1 Cor. 3:14).128 It is speculated that something similar may have happened to the believers in Ephesus. 129 It is also pointed out that little is known about the establishment of the churches in Sardis and Laodecia, especially the initial spiritual state of the believers in these congregations. Perhaps they started out being spiritually anemic and never improved much, despite the passage oftime. 130 Those who favor a post-A.D. 70 date note that during the lifetime of Paul, who possibly lived until about A.D. 67, the city of Smyrna did not have a church. 131 It thus is highly unlikely (as the argument goes) that during the time of Nero's reign a congregation would have existed to which a formal letter could have been sent (Rev. 2:8-11).132 A statement made by Polycarp (A.D. 69-155)-a bishop of Smyrna and a Christian martyr l33-in 11:5-7 of his Epistle to the Philippians 134 is the basis for the assertion that no church existed at that time: Nay, know we not, that the saints shall judge the world, as Paul teacheth? But I have not found any such thing in you [at Philippi], neither have heard thereof, among whom the blessed Paul laboured, who were his [letters] in the beginning. For [he boasteth of you in] all those [churches] which alone at that time knew God; for we knew Him not as yet.

Those who favor a pre-A.D. 70 date take issue with this line of reasoning. They note that Polycarp's comment only supports the contention that the Smyrnans did not know the Lord at the time when Paul wrote his letter to the

14

The Book of ReveLation in ChristoLogical Focus

Philippians (around A.D. 61 ).135 If the church was established not long after that, there would have been sufficient time for the believers in the congregation to endure any affliction associated with the Neronean persecution. 136 Those who favor a pre-A.D. 70 date furthermore maintain that the temple in Jerusalem seems to be in existence during the time that the Apocalypse was written (cf. Rev. 11:1-2).137 Also, there appears to be tension between Christians and antagonistic Jews (2:9; 3:9), a condition that is said to have dramatically changed after the Romans destroyed Jerusalem and its temple in A.D. 70.\38 Those who favor a post-A.D. 70 date find these assertions unconvincing. For instance, some note that the temple described in Revelation 11: 1-2 is part of a heavenly vision, one deeply laced with symbolism. 139 Hence (it is maintained), it was not necessary for the writer to see the structure before the destruction of its counterpart on earth. 140 In this line of reasoning, the temple described in Revelation 11: 1-2 could be a reference to either a future literal temple to be rebuilt before the second coming of Christ,141 a shrine in heaven, or the true Christian church.142 Also (it is argued), the Romans' devastation of Jerusalem does not necessarily mean that all Jews stopped persecuting Christians. Some assert that early in the second century, the Jews living in Smyrna (a city mentioned in Rev. 2:8) actively participated in the execution of Polycarp, the town's bishop.143 Those who favor a pre-A.D. 70 date claim that emperor worship forms the historical backdrop of Revelation 13. For instance, verse 3 says concerning the beast from the sea, "One of its heads seemed to have received a death-blow, but its mortal wound had been healed." The Greek reads "the plague of its death." It is asserted that this is a veiled reference to Nero, who committed suicide in A.D. 68. 144 Legend had it that he was still alive and would eventually return to Rome to regain his throne. 145 Those who favor a post-A.D. 70 date affirm the idea that emperor worship is being referred to in 13:3. 146 Also, they do not dispute the superstition regarding Nero.147 However, they contend that it was not until the time of Domitian that emperor worship was enforced. 148 They also claim that he was extensively looked upon as a "second Nero.,,149 They thus conclude that Domitian, not Nero, is the most likely individual being referred to in this verse as the one oppressing Jesus' followers, including the apostle John.l50 Those who favor a pre-A.D. 70 date counter that since John wrote as a prophet (Rev. 1:3), any references to Domitian discovered in Revelation

The Historical and Cultural Background of Revelation

15

were not necessarily penned during his time on the throne. 151 The apostle, it is reasoned, could have written several decades before the events that he foretold. 152 In contrast to the views just mentioned, Van de Water proposes that "the two 'beasts,' one from the land and the other from the sea, are meant to represent, not the Roman government, but political messianism in Palestinian and disaspora Judaism united in opposition against the followers of Jesus,,,153 especially "the perceived threat of Christian messianism.,,154 While this idea is a novel approach, it seems too narrow, especially in light of what was said earlier concerning the multifaceted nature of the psychological and social aspects of the dilemma facing John's original readership. Those who favor a post-A.D. 70 date claim that the repeated reference to Babylon in Revelation (14:8; 16:19; 17:5; 18:2, 10,21) reflects "a late first century CE development.,,155 According to this view, Babylon is a code name for Rome,156 a conclusion supported by similar usage in such post-70 A.D. apocalyptic literature as 4 Ezra 3:1-2, 28-31; 2 Baruch 10:1-3; 11:1; 67:7; and the Sibylline Oracles 5:143, 159-160. 157 This evidence, in tum, is said to support a date for Revelation during the reign of Domitian. 158 Those who favor a pre-A.D. 70 date counter that Babylon is figurative of the corrupt political, commercial, social, and religious system of the world. 159 Hence, its repeated usage in Revelation does not necessarily reflect a Domitianic date for the book. 160 Those who favor a post-A.D. 70 date lean heavily on Revelation 17:9-10 for support. 161 In verse 9, an angel said to the apostle John, "the seven heads are seven mountains on which the woman is seated." Because Rome was originally built on seven hills,162 some think the first-century readers of Revelation would have associated the angel's words with this great city.163 It is further maintained that this mindset reflects a "later, more intense time for Christians." 164 Those who favor a pre-A.D. 70 date undercut this line of reasoning by noting that in John's day, the city and empire of Rome were the epitome of civilized, pagan humanity in rebellion against GOd. 165 Thus, it is not at all certain that the original readers of Revelation would have associated 17:9 with Rome. l66 It is stressed that other cities and nations at later times in history would also embody humankind's opposition to God and persecution of His people. 167 Those who favor a pre-A.D. 70 date further note that verses 9 and 10 talk about the king who was reigning at the time Revelation was writ-

16

The Book of Revelation in Christological Focus

ten. These verses in part say, "also, they are seven kings, of whom five have fallen, one is living, and the other has not yet come; and when he comes, he must remain only a little while." Some think the Greek noun translated "kings" (basileis) is a reference to "kingdoms" (for instance, Egypt, Assyria. Babylon, Media-Persia, Greece, and Rome).I68 However, the more common understanding is that the writer was referring to Roman monarchs-five of them had died, the sixth was currently ruling, and the seventh had not yet ascended the throne. Nero (it is argued) was the sixth king to be recognized as the emperor of the Roman Empire. This, in tum, places the date of the writing of Revelation sometime during Nero's reign. 169 Revelation 13: 18 is also said to confirm this statement, for the number "six hundred sixty-six" reputedly is a cryptic reference to Nero. 170 Those who favor a post-A.D. 70 date find these evidences inconclusive. For instance, it is acknowledged that, while the angel of Revelation 17 :9-10 may have been referring to a strict succession of Roman emperors,I71 there is a lack of agreement among those favoring this view as to which first-century rulers of Rome match with the details of John's vision.I72 Another group says the seven kings is a selective list of Roman emperors or even world empires. 173 In contrast, there are those who insist that the rulers symbolize all antiGod and anti-Christian governments throughout history.174 Even further a field are interpreters who say that, given the symbolic way the writer used numbers elsewhere in Reveiation,I75 the seven heads represent the fullness of evil and blasphemy. 176 Those who favor a post-A.D. 70 date also take issue with the notion that Revelation 13: 18 is a cryptic reference to Nero.177 Two other possible options for the significance of the number "six hundred sixty-six" are that it is the number of imperfection, since it falls short of three sevens, which is said to be the number of perfection,l78 or that the number represents the unholy trio of Satan (12:9, 18), the beast from the sea (13:1), and the beast from the land (13: 11). I79 Those who favor a post-A.D. 70 date note that, according to early church tradition, it was during the reign of Domitian that John wrote Revelation. 180 This position is based on a statement that Irenaeus made in Against Heresies 5:30: I, 3 (italics added): 181 Such, then, being the state of the case, and this number [666] being found in all the most approved and ancient copies (3) [of the Apocalypse], and those men who saw John face to face bearing their testimony [to it]; while reason also leads us to con-

The Historical and CuLturaL Background of ReveLation

17

elude that the number ofthe name of the beast, [if reckoned] according to the Greek mode of calculation by the [value of] the letters contained in it, will amount to six hundred and sixty and six; ... We will not, however, incur the risk of pronouncing positively as to the name of Antichrist; for if it were necessary that his name should be distinctly revealed in this present time, it would have been announced by him who beheld the apocalyptic vision. For that was seen no very long time since, but almost in our day, towards the end ofDomitian's reign.

There is considerable debate regarding what "was seen" during "Dornitian's reign."I82 Those favoring a post-A.D. 70 date claim it was the vision that John experienced!83 In contrast, those who favor a pre-A.D. 70 date think the phrase "that was seen" is a corruption of the original, which actually read, "He was seen."I84 In this case, Irenaeus would be referring to John himself, who was seen "face to face" by those who testified. If this view is valid, the quote by Irenaeus only establishes that John lived during the reign of Dornitian, not that the apostle penned Revelation around the time of the emperor's rule. 18S Gentry, who favors a pre-A.D. 70 date, lists a number of reasons for understanding the statement made by Irenaeus as referring to John himself.186 These reasons concern, among other things, the context, syntax, and translation of Irenaeus' work. For instance, in 5.30.1 of Against Heresies, Irenaeus made reference to "all the most approved and ancient copies [of the Apocalypse].,,187 This statement presupposes that the book had been in existence for quite some time. As the argument goes, if there were "ancient copies," then it must stand to reason that the original was even more ancient. 188 Gentryl89 also points out the statement Irenaeus made in 5.30.3 of Against Heresises: "For that was seen no very long time since, but aLmost in our day, towards the end of Dornitian's reign" (italics added).I90 In other words, in the estimation of Irenaeus, the time during which Domitian was emperor ("almost in our day") was not regarded to be ancient history. If Revelation had been written during the reign of Dornitian, there would not be sufficient time for copies of the book to be regarded as "ancient." Thus, as the argument goes, Irenaeus must have been talking about the time when John's fellow believers saw him, not the time when the apostle had seen the apocalyptic vision. Gentry paraphrases what he takes to be the main of idea behind the statement made by Irenaeus: "It is not important for us to know the name of the Beast (or Antichrist), which was hidden in the number 666. Were it im-

18

The Book of Revelation in Christological Focus

portant, why did John not tell us? After all, he lived almost to our own era, and spoke with men I have known.,,191 Those favoring a post-A.D. 70 date dispute this idea. In their view, Irenaeus was stating that John experienced his vision "towards the end of Domitian's reign.,,192 They support this assertion by the fact that early Christian tradition almost unanimously assigned "the Apocalypse to the last years of Domitian.,,193 It is commonly held that Irenaeus knew Polycarp,I94 who in tum was a personal acquaintance of the apostle John.195 If this was the case, the information Irenaeus conveyed concerning the time John was imprisoned on Patmos could be regarded as accurate and determinative. There are some, however, who question the historical accuracy of what Irenaeus wrote, since he claimed in Against Heresies 2:22:5 that Jesus lived to be over 50 years of age. 196 Furthermore, there is a cloud of uncertainty surrounding the exact meaning of what Irenaeus wrote. For instance, the quotation appearing in 5:30: 1 and 3 of Against Heresies is a rendering of a Latin translation of Irenaeus' original work, which was penned in Greek. 197 An additional layer of ambiguity involves the poor condition of the existing manuscript evidence for what Irenaeus penned. These points are underscored in a citation that Gentry made from Roberts and Rambaut: 198 The great work of Irenaeus. now for the first time translated into English. is unfortunately no longer extant in the original. It has come down to us only in an ancient Latin version, with the exception of the greater part of the first book, which has been preserved in the original Greek, through means of copious quotations made by Hippolytus and Epiphanius. The text, both in Latin and Greek, is often most uncertain . ... Irenaeus, even in the original Greek, is often a very obscure writer. At times he expresses himself with remarkable clearness and terseness; but, upon the whole, his style is very involved and prolix.

Because of all the doubt connected with the statement made by Irenaeus, it seems unwise to build one's argument for a post-A.D. 70 date on what the ancient church leader mayor may not have meant by what he said. A survey of the preceding evidence suggests that a strong case can be made for both a pre-A.D. 70 date and a post-A.D. 70 date. l99 As a result, it seems best to conclude that that the date of Revelation "cannot be fixed with any certainty.,,2oo This is not a derailing factor, however, to the primary focus of our investigation, for "the main purpose of the book may be considered apart from the question of date.,,2ol Before ending this section, it is important to note that some have favored

The Historical and Cultural Background of Revelation

19

dating Revelation during the reign of Vespasian (A.D. 69-79).202 It is maintained that the sixth king alluded to in Revelation 17: lOis Vespasian and also that there are symbolic images within the book that best refer to this emperor of Rome. 203 Also, the historical context of the seven churches discussed in Revelation 2-3 is said to best fit the time of Vespasian's reign. Some even go so far as to say that, while the book was penned during this king's lifetime, it was possibly reedited in the reign of Domitian. 204 Those not favoring the Vespasianic date take issue with the notion that the writer of the Apocalypse was referring in Revelation 17: 10 to Vespasian?05 Some who interpret the passage more literally assign a different ruler to the phrase in the verse that says "one is living.,,206 Others who interpret the passage less literally take it in a symbolic sense and thus jettison any attempt to make precise calculations and dates based on what the verse says.207 With respect to the historical context, it is noted that there is little, if any, evidence to suggest that Vespasian persecuted Christians. 208 Also, it is pointed out that the time of his rule was characterized by relative tranquility, not the turbulent circumstances of Revelation. 209 Moreover, it is stressed that appeals made to editorial activity are often too speCUlative and contradictory to be relied upon for insight and understanding. 210 These objections with the Vespasianic date help explain why this theory has enjoyed less favor than the other two discussed earlier. The Place of Writing of Revelation There are two main views concerning where Revelation was written-the island of Patmos and the city of Ephesus. 2lI The first view is based in large part on the statement made in Revelation 1:9, which reads, "I, John, ... was on the island called Patmos because of the word of God and the testimony of Jesus." According to this view, the apostle John received and recorded his apocalyptic vision while exiled on Patmos. 212 Patmos is a small, volcanic, and mostly treeless island about 35 miles off the coast of Asia Minor and abou(70 miles southwest of Ephesus in the Aegean Sea.2J3 This roughlY)lOrseshoe-shaped rock-quarry islan~)s about ten rrutes-Iong from north to south andsli-mites wide_a)ong thenorthem coast. 214 Patmos was an ideal spot for ~)~'()ll1an prison colQn~. In fact, the government routmely baniShed dissidents there to work in mines.215 Some think that John

20

The Book of Revelation in Christo logical Focus

may have labored in the rock quarries alongside the rogues and slaves of the empire, chipping out the materials for pagan temples and state edifices.z 16 It is also argued that in the midst of such agonies, the Lord was uniquely revealed to John in a vision (1:1, 10--12).217 The second main view asserts that there would not have been enough time for John to both experience his apocalyptic vision and record his impressions.2J8 Also (as the argument goes), it is asked how an exile to such a barren island would obtain the materials needed-such as clay tablets, waxed wooden tablets, or papyrus-to record his thoughts and feelings. 219 Thus, it is concluded that it was not until after John was freed from exile that he wrote down what he saw and heard (1:11).22°(Moreover, it is maintained that, be:" cause the apostle served as a church leader in the closing years Qf his life, Ephesusis the most likely place where he permed Re...v~LatioJl.221 In the first century A.D., Ephesus was past its prime,222 due in part to soil erosion and the silting of its harbor along the Cayster River.223 Neverthe!ess, _!his w~s the largest city of the RO,man pJ;oyince of Asia and a centerJo.Lcommerce, politics, and religion'::VEphesus had an imperial temple, a shrine aedicated to tilt goddess Diana (the building was one of the seven wonders of the ancient world), gymnasiums, public baths, a large theater that could seat 25,000 spectators, and a library.225 In stepping back from the survey of the preceding information, it is clear that a strong case can be made for either Patmos or Ephesus as the place where John penned Revelation. Thus, I am not inclined to assert the superiority of either position. Nevertheless, several points can be maintained. First, while John was banished to Patmos, he experienced an apocalyptic vision. Second, either while on the island or sometime thereafter (for example, when he returned to Ephesus), the apostle recorded what he saw and heard. 226 The Original Recipients of Revelation In Bible times, most ancient letters began with the name of the author, the

name of the recipient, and a salutation. 227 This was followed by the main body of the letter and then a closing greeting. 228 In Revelation one finds these same elements. 229 While the book is undeniably apocalyptic literature, it is also "embedded in an epistolary framework.,,230 According to Revelation I :4, the sender was the apostle John and the recipients were the seven churches located in the Roman province of Asia. 231

The Historical and Cultural Background of Revelation

21

The traditional epistolary greeting of grace and peace is expanded into a confessional about the Father's reign and