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The Body Broken The Calvinist Doctrine of the Eucharist and the Symbolization of Power in SixteenthCentury France Christopher Elwood New York Oxford Oxford University Press 1999
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Oxford University Press Oxford New York Athens Auckland Bangkok Bogotá Buenos Aires Calcutta Cape Town Chennai Dar es Salaam Delhi Florence Hong Kong Istanbul Karachi Kuala Lumpur Madrid Melbourne Mexico City Mumbai Nairobi Paris São Paulo Singapore Taipei Tokyo Toronto Warsaw and associated companies in Berlin Ibadan Copyright © 1999 by Christopher Elwood Published by Oxford University Press, Inc. 198 Madison Avenue, New York, New York 10016 Oxford is a registered trademark of Oxford University Press. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior permission of Oxford University Press. Library of Congress CataloginginPublication Data Elwood, Christopher. The Body Broken : the Calvinist doctrine of the Eucharist and the symbolization of power in sixteenthcentury France / Christopher Elwood. p. cm.—(Oxford studies in historical theology) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0195121333 1. Lord's Supper—Reformed Church—History—16th century. 2. Reformed Church—France—Doctrines—History—16th century. 3. Calvinism—France—History—16th century. 4. Power (Social sciences) 5. Power (Christian theology)—History of doctrines—16th century. 6. Reformation—France. 7. France—Church history—16th century. I. Title. II. Series. BX9423.C5E48 1998 234'.163'088242—dc21 9817045 1 3 5 7 9 8 6 4 2 Printed in the United States of America on acidfree paper
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For my mother, Lora Lee Elwood, and in memory of my father, Robert Bailey Elwood, and my brother, Robert Bailey Elwood, Jr. Prestiosus erit sanguis eorum in oculis eius
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Acknowledgments This study of eucharistic controversy in the sixteenth century began rather innocently. It was to be a more or less straightforward contribution to the question of whether the Reformation in France could be fairly characterized as a "print event." It rather quickly became considerably more than that. The fact that this is a book not only about propaganda and the use of the printing press in religious controversy but also about the nature of symbols and symbolization, patterns of change in symbolic worlds, conceptions of power, and the social location of the sacred owes a great deal to the many conversations that helped to shape the progress of my thinking about the eucharist in early modern Europe. They have made this a somewhat more complicated book than I had initially anticipated, but I think also a considerably more interesting one, and (also owing to the input of conversation partners) one that is still able to hold the attention of readers who prefer clear and concrete historical explanations to theoretical abstraction. In many ways this is a collaborative work, and the list of those who deserve thanks for their contributions is longer than I can supply here. I owe much to the teachers whose ideas challenged and enriched my approach to history and theology in the years when this project was begun as a doctoral dissertation at Harvard Divinity School. Clarissa Atkinson, Gordon Kaufman, Margaret Miles, Richard Niebuhr, Ronald Thiemann, and the late Nancy Jay were especially valuable in helping me to frame the right questions. Mark Edwards, who served as my principal adviser, suggested some of the methodological principles that guided my research and interpretation early on, and he has remained an important source of advice as this study has progressed. I also am grateful to those who read and commented on early versions of the manuscript, or portions thereof, including Sarah Coakley, Francis Higman, Robert King
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don, Andrew Pettegree, and David Steinmetz. Many friends deserve thanks for the time and energy they invested in encouraging and guiding this project. I am especially grateful to Stephen CampagnaPinto, David Cantrell, John and Ineke Carman, D. Jonathan Grieser, Corrie Norman, Teresa O'Rourke, and Burns and Lorraine Stanfield. My students at Harvard Divinity School also served as engaged conversation partners on the matters this book takes up. Their questions and responses have stimulated my own thinking in significant ways, and I offer them my thanks. I am also thankful for partners in more recent discussions at Louisiville Presbyterian Theological Seminary, who have helped me see implications in my work I had not noticed before. I am particularly indebted to my colleague Johanna W. H. van Wijk—Bos, who offered muchneeded practical advice and criticism in the late stages of writing and editing. Susan Ecklund, Will Moore, and the staff at Oxford University Press took great pains over the manuscript, and they have helped make this a more readable book. (However, despite the heroic efforts of these many contributors to save me from all errors and infelicities, in some instances I have turned a deaf ear to their sound arguments. And so I humbly ask the reader to blame only me for the book's remaining weaknesses.) Thanks also to those who helped with final tasks: Melissa Nebelsick, who offered secretarial support, Liz Van Kleeck, who supplied timely computer assistance, and Emily Rodgers, who helped prepare the index. A Sheldon Travelling Fellowship from Harvard University made possible research in several European libraries, work without which the present scope of this study would have been inconceivable. I am grateful for assistance rendered by the competent and efficient staffs of the Bibliothèque publique et universitaire and the Musée historique de la Réformation in Geneva, the Bibliothèque nationale in Paris, the British Library in London, and the Houghton and AndoverHarvard Libraries at Harvard University. I am also grateful to Francis Higman and the staff of the Institut d'histoire de la Réformation for providing me work space, access to their formidable collection, and, equally important, the benefit of their bibliographic expertise. And for significant aid in my travels, I want to express my thanks to Holly Brubach and Hatty Crabtree. Most of all, however, I want to thank my family for their forbearance and support through the long course of this book's journey to completion. My wife, Narges Moshiri, and our daughter, Josephine, have contributed far more than they know to this endeavor; my brother, John Elwood, and my sister, Jean Wheeler, and their families have, in their different ways, provided powerful sustenance; and my mother's practical interest in my work's progress has been a familiar and welcome accompaniment. I wish to dedicate this book to her, and to the memory of my father, in whose conversation my historical and theological interests were awakened, and of my brother, whose honest, inquiring, and generous spirit has taught me the most. C. L. E. LOUISVILLE, KENTUCKY CORPUS CHRISTI, 1998
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Contents Abbreviations
xi
Introduction
3
1— Immanent Majesty: The Eucharist and the Body of Christ in Late Medieval Society
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2— Heavenly Things in Heaven: The First Wave of French Protestant Propaganda, 1533–1535
27
3— Specifying Power: Sacramental Signification in Calvin's Theology of the Eucharist
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4— Seeds of Discord: The Diffusion of the Reformed Doctrine, 1540–1560
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5— The Catholic Riposte: Defenses of the Real Presence at the Beginning of the Religious Wars
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6— The Eucharist, Reformed Social Formation, and the Ideology of Resistance
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Conclusion
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Notes
173
Bibliography
223
Index
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Abbreviations ARG Archiv für Reformationsgeschichte BHR Bibliothèque d'humanisme et renaissance BSHPF Bulletin de la société de l'histoire du protestantisme français CO Ioannis Calvini Opera quae supersunt omnia, ed. Wilhelm Baum, Edward Cunitz, and Edward Reuss, 59 vols. (Brunswick, 1863– 1900). Cited by volume and column. Institutes (1536) Institutes of the Christian Religion, ed. and trans. Ford Lewis Battles (Grand Rapids, Mich., 1975; reprint, 1989). Institutes (1559) Institutes of the Christian Religion, ed. John T. McNeill, trans. Ford Lewis Battles, 2 vols. (Philadelphia, 1960). Cited by book, chapter, and section. Institutio (1536) Christianae religionis institutio (Basel, 1536), in OS, vol. 1. Institutio (1559) Institutio christianae religionis (Geneva, 1559), in OS, vols. 3–5. Cited by book, chapter, and section. Institution Institution de la religion chestienne, ed. Jacques Pannier, 5 vols. (1541) (Paris, 1961). Cited by volume and page. Institution Institution de la religion chestienne, ed. JeanDaniel Benoit, 4 (1560) vols. (Paris, 1957). Cited by book, chapter, and section. NPNF A Select Library of the Nicene and PostNicene Fathers of the Christian Church, ed. Philip Schaff, 14 vols. (New York, 1886– 1890). OS Joannis Calvini Opera Selecta, ed. Peter Barth, Wilhelm Niesel, and Dora Scheuner, 5 vols. (Munich, 1926–1962). Cited by volume and page. PL Patrologia cursus completus: Series Latina, ed. J. P. Migne (Paris, 1857–1866).
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WA D. Martin Luthers Werke: Kritische Gesamtausgabe, 58 vols. (Weimar, 1883–). Z
Huldreich Zwinglis Sämtliche Werke, ed. Emil Egli, Georg Finsler, et al. (Berlin, Leipzig, and Zurich, 1905–).
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Introduction A symbol, once in being, spreads among the peoples. In use and in experience, its meaning grows. Charles Sanders Peirce
The sixteenth century in Europe was a revolutionary age. The dissipation of religious consensus that resulted from the Reformation movements brought with it consequences for social and political life unforeseen by the designers of religious reform. Virtually everywhere the reforming ideas took hold, traditional hierarchies were called into question, existing social arrangements undermined, and both ecclesiastical and political institutions laid bare to attack. From the early 1520s to 1660 the first fires of modern political revolution swept across Europe. Insurrections large and small, all fueled by outbursts of religious controversy, sprang up in Germany, Scotland, the Low Countries, and England. In France, where religious wars consumed most of the last four decades of the century and destroyed a royal dynasty, revolutionary and civil strife seemed to many contemporary observers to be on the verge of reducing the nation to ashes. Historians have frequently turned to the influence of religious ideas and patterns of practice—particularly those associated with the reformer Jean Calvin and Calvinism—to explain the emergence of the new forms of radicalism that upset the peace of early modern Europe. 1 But we have yet to understand fully the contribution of one focal religious symbol to the birth, nurture, and full flowering of social and political revolution. The eucharist, the sacrament of the body and blood of Jesus Christ, was the focus of more
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theological controversy in the sixteenth century than any other item of Christian confession and practice. It provoked dispute in print, public speech, and popular songs; among professional theologians and ordinary men and women. In the cities and towns of France, people rioted, fought, killed, and died over theological definitions of the eucharist. But this symbol was not simply the site upon which political struggles were concentrated. To a large extent, it served as the catalyst for those struggles. The eucharist and the meanings attached to it created particular habits of thought and action that shaped the political understanding and commitments of men and women in the sixteenth century. In its Calvinist interpretation, the eucharist created the environment that made social and political revolution possible. Why should the eucharist have played such a crucial role in the political and social unrest that characterized the sixteenth century? The key to answering this question is to recognize that the eucharist was the central symbol defining power in the late medieval and early modern periods. An association of the sacrament with power was nothing terribly new. From the very earliest celebrations Christians, believing that Christ's Supper in some sense occasioned the divine presence and conveyed to them the efficacy of Christ's redemptive work, treated the sacrament as both a conduit of power and a representation of the manner in which divine power operated within their world of experience. Agreement about the nature and operation of this power in the sacrament was notoriously difficult to achieve, but precisely because of what was at stake in its definition Christian authors were unable to put the question aside. Their many attempts to negotiate the relation between food and spirit, visible sign and invisible grave, earthly matter and heavenly Lord demonstrate a perennial preoccupation with the sacred potency mediated in the holy meal. In the late Middle Ages, both theological definitions and popular religious practices placed the eucharist at the very center of religious life and underlined its status as the preeminent locus of divine power within the Christian's world of experience. It is in large measure due to the persistence of this concentration on the sacrament's capacity to provide powerful effects that the doctrine of the eucharist supplied such fertile ground for religious dispute in sixteenthcentury Europe. The theologies of the eucharist formulated by Reformed Protestants, which rejected the predominant Catholic construal of the sacrament, involved radically new ways of symbolizing power. Although the association of the sacrament with power was never entirely rejected by the Reformed—certainly not by those identified as Calvinist—they came to be harshly critical of attempts to locate power definitively in any visible thing. And because the eucharist served to symbolize power considered in a general sense, and not sacred potency alone, the effect of the Calvinist reorientation was not restricted to the realm of theological definition. It influenced the way ordinary men and women conceived of political power, interpreted their social world, and established the relation between the sacred and society. The principal means for achieving this reorientation was a reinterpretation of what is involved in the process of signification, or semiosis. Calvin
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was the pivotal figure for this development because he gave more attention to the question of signification than any other participant in the Reformed movement. He developed a way of talking about eucharistic signs and their operation that departed sharply from the emphasis on an intimate, organic relation of sign and signified found in the popularly mediated theology of the late Middle Ages. In offering a radically new interpretation of the way in which the signs of the eucharist operated, Calvin and the Reformed who followed his lead effected what might be called a semiotic revolution—a revolution that created a conceptual framework for the new, revolutionary modes of social and political thought and activity that convulsed European societies at the dawn of the modern age. The notion that a reorientation in semiotic theory should have such a profound social impact may surprise readers who associate semiotics with a somewhat arcane academic discipline. But in fact the relation of sign and signified, especially as it related to the eucharist, was a subject of great popular interest in the sixteenth century in those areas where Reformed Protestant ideas took hold. As the following chapters will show, it was precisely the Reformed capacity for reaching ordinary people—the menu peuple, or ordinary folk, of French cities, towns, and villages—and conveying to them a new understanding of signification that accounts for the extraordinary influence of the new semiotic paradigm and the discourse on power it engendered. In attempting to reconstruct this sixteenthcentury discourse on power, the present study of the new understandings of the eucharist that made their way into Reformation France differs in some obvious ways from previous studies of Calvinist sacramental thought. Some of the principal differences are methodological. Although my concentration throughout is on the theological ideas the Reformed articulated, I make no pretense of trying to understand ''the ideas themselves,'' abstracted, as it were, from their engagement in a world shaped by social, economic, and political forces. I want to understand ideas concerning the eucharist in light of their public career, to identify the meanings attached to the eucharistic symbol by both major theological writers and ordinary people who appropriated theological ideas in specific social and political contexts. This interest determines two concentrations, one upon a particular place and time (France in the middle decades of the sixteenth century) and another upon a particular type of theological text (those that were accessible to a large, popular, lay audience). A focus on the public career of eucharistic ideas should prevent us from concentrating exclusively on the intentions of major thinkers, at the expense of the ideas actually presented and appropriated by a lay audience. 2 An interpretation of Reformation theologies of the eucharist in the context of their popular interpretation, going beyond the mental landscape of particular authors, is particularly well suited to the place and period under consideration. The Reformation movements were, after all, preeminently public affairs. They were distinguished from all previous ideological upheavals by the fact that they made use of the technology of print, a technology
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that provided a medium for communicating messages quickly and effectively across a wide geographic area. By their use of the printing press, the leaders of these movements dramatically changed the character of theological discourse. For the first time in many centuries, complex and highly technical theological issues were discussed in vernacular languages and presented in a format—the printed book—to which a large group of readers might have fairly easy access. Latin, of course, remained the preferred language for serious scholarship, but because the Protestant reformers (and in due time their Catholic opponents as well) were concerned to appeal to the opinion of a broad audience of laypersons who could not read Latin, the great majority of writings on contentious issues appeared in the vernacular. Hence religious debate came to be held in a public language and a public and popular forum. If we are interested in understanding the relations between ideas conceived and articulated in the course of the Reformation and sixteenthcentury public discourse, we must concentrate on the dissemination of ideas in the press and their reception by a popular audience. An appreciation of the significance of publicity in the Reformation requires such an approach. It demands, first, that we distinguish published from unpublished sources because only those writings that appeared in print could be expected to have a direct, popular impact. It also obliges us to pay attention to which published sources were printed in the vernacular and which appeared in multiple editions or impressions, because this information provides clues to the size of a text's audience. And we must take note as well of any responses elicited by the writings in question so that we may gauge how ideas propounded in print were understood and appropriated by those who came into contact with them. 3 Certain other items of information about a text, such as genre and authorship—frequently useful especially in determining intended meanings—diminish in importance under this method. This is chiefly owing to the need, in our concentration on publicity, to attend not only to what people read but also how they read. The consumers of the new religious ideas formed their understandings of the eucharist from pamphlets and treatises written by a variety of authors, from preaching and conversation, from their observance of contemporary religious practice, and from their own particular experience of life. The boundaries between the variety of written texts to which they were exposed (many of which were anonymous), between printed and oral texts—as, for example, between the text of a book and that of a public address—and between verbal and nonverbal media of communication were not nearly so distinct as the methods of historians with a penchant for emphasizing such distinctions might suggest. The framework of interpretation they utilized was then considerably different from the kinds modern interpreters frequently impose upon these sources. Relations among the variety of ideas conveyed in the available texts were established on the basis of judgments that had very little to do with identifying the intended meanings of individual authors. Accordingly, when we attempt to view these texts as they were appropriated by their audience, connections and relations that
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otherwise have eluded notice and a range of possible meanings not intended or understood by their authors become apparent. Concentrating on theological ideas that were popularly disseminated through print supplies us with a key to the influence of ideology upon society at large. But as we recognize the prodigious power of print in the Reformation, we must also remain aware of its inevitable limitations as a means of communication in the societies of the sixteenth century. The audience for printed works was limited by the relatively low levels of literacy across western Europe. Therefore, even though the potential audience for a particular printed work was not restricted to those who could read—since a work could be read aloud and its messages spread through preaching, conversation, and debate (results envisioned by many authors of popular pamphlets)—those who were directly influenced by Reformation writings were a minority of the population. Nevertheless, they represented a large audience, far larger than any previous ideological movement in Europe had been able to reach and mobilize through the written word. And although they might constitute a minority of the general population, those who were directly engaged by Reformation writings were without a doubt a committed and influential minority whose impact on society and the larger population was much greater than their numbers might suggest. 4 Since this study aims to trace the public, historical life of a religious symbol, it bears emphasizing the extent to which symbols have such a life. The variety of mutations and metamorphoses to which medieval symbolic forms were subjected in the early modern period supply ample evidence of this. It should be apparent, then, that I am adopting an understanding of symbol and symbolization distinguished both from the popular, largely dismissive use ("mere symbolism," meaning lacking in substance) and from one, particularly influential in religious studies, that equates a symbol with a fixed, archetypal pattern.5 A symbol, as I use the term in this study, is a culturally specific device that organizes perception and facilitates conceptualization. Symbols convey meaning and value; they elicit human responses, create social worlds, and regulate communal life.6 Moreover, a symbol is always rooted in a particular historical and cultural environment. Its meaning is fundamentally dependent on its interpretation by historical individuals whose ways of knowing are governed by the networks of social and symbolic relations that constitute their world. Far from being fixed forms insulated from the exigency of historical transformations, this examination of eucharistic doctrine in sixteenthcentury France will show the extent to which symbols are susceptible to change—both gradual and revolutionary—and capable of facilitating new conceptualizations and practices that contribute to a variety of cultural transformations. While it offers many benefits, adopting the language and the concepts of symbol and symbolization in a reading of Calvinist eucharistic theology poses potential interpretive problems and takes us into at least one area of controversy in Calvin studies. As modern interpreters, we are the inheritors of modern theories of sign and symbol whose proponents were profoundly,
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albeit indirectly, influenced by the Reformation reorientation in semiotics. Because we stand within what HansGeorg Gadamer has called the effective history of the eucharistic ideas elaborated by Calvin and others, we face a challenge when called upon to assess these ideas as historical artifacts with frames of reference other than our own. Were we tempted to produce a reading of sixteenthcentury sacramental thought that conformed to interpretive categories produced in muchchanged historical circumstances and that evolved indirectly out of the ideas in question, we would naturally succeed only in distorting what we seek to understand. Fortunately, other options are available. If we remain aware of the hazards of distortion, we may avoid anachronism by acknowledging the presuppositions of modern ways of conceiving of symbols and symbolization and avoiding an unreflective or heavyhanded application of our own conceptual categories. Most important, our interpretations must arise from careful examinations of the language use of our authors considered in the linguistic and discursive contexts of which they were a part. 7 Such an approach is by far preferable to one that would reject all references to symbolization as impositions of concepts alien to the world of sixteenthcentury Reformed belief and practice.8 While it is true that one cannot discover nineteenthand twentiethcentury understandings of symbol in the writings of Calvin, the pertinent question is whether the category of symbol is appropriate for understanding the sacramental ideas disseminated in Calvin's time. An answer to that question depends, of course, on a careful examination of the sources that form the subject matter of our study; but for now Calvin's own terminology provides a clue. Although in the larger body of his writings he did not use the word "symbol" with great frequency, Calvin did not hesitate to employ it when speaking of the sacrament of the Lord's Supper. It is, then, very far off the mark to argue that the word has no application to his eucharistic thought. Calvin regularly used both the Latin words symbolum (symbol) and signum (sign) to designate, at various times, the eucharist, liturgical aspects of the sacrament, and the eucharistic elements of bread and wine. However, in French he showed a clear preference for the term signe (sign) and a variety of roughly synonymous terms (figure, marque, enseigne; figure, mark, badge). That symbolum and signum could be used interchangeably, and that signe in French could be used to translate the Latin symbolum in Calvin's own translations or translations approved by him indicate that the distinction between sign and symbol characteristic of modern thinking does not particularly suit Calvin's conception. It suggests as well that signe as used by Calvin might carry with it some of the connotations we associate with the word "symbol."9 Since, then, the terminology is pertinent to Calvin's way of speaking of the eucharist, a proposal for its careful and qualified use in interpreting his thought and that of his associates seems not without warrant. The argument of this study is organized in terms of a more or less chronological account of eucharistic controversy in France in the four middle decades of the sixteenth century. This method allows us to trace the for
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mation of the discourse on power as it developed from the early insinuation of distinctively Reformed ideas in France through the early years of the Wars of Religion— the period in which the dispute over the theology of the eucharist made its greatest impact on French society. 10 Chapter 1, however, falls outside this chronology, as it takes up developments in eucharistic theology and piety and the variety of public deployments of the eucharist in the late medieval period. This discussion serves to introduce the dominant cultural and religious meanings that had attached themselves to the eucharistic symbol in the early sixteenth century and the constructions of the sacred in relation to the social body and political institutions against which the Reformed contended. Chapter 2 begins the story of Reformed eucharistic ideas in France, considering the immediate prehistory of Calvin's own attempt to inculcate his eucharistic theology upon the French populace. The sacramental ideas conveyed in the Protestant propaganda campaign of the mid1530s—chiefly those of Guillaume Farel and Antoine Marcourt—helped to form a subversive discourse on the sacred, power, and the social body primarily through the vigorous defense they offered of the transcendence of God and their rejection of Catholic affirmations of the embodiment of God and the sacred in physical media, events, and institutions. Calvin's contribution to this discourse, the subject of chapter 3, marked a pivotal point in Reformed thinking. In looking at Calvin's discussions of sacramental signification, presented in a series of vernacular writings of the 1540s, we discover that the emergent Calvinist movement offered more than a simple championing of God's transcendence—the characteristic theme of the early Reformed movement (and a concentration of quite a few recent studies of Calvinist and Reformation thought).11 In Calvin's effort to offer a positive account of the efficacy of the eucharist, his emphasis on sacramental instrumentality and on the relation of sign and signified made possible for his many readers new and potentially revolutionary ways of conceiving of power, its operation, and its relation to temporal authority. Our attention then turns, in chapter 4, to the articulation of the ideas enunciated by Calvin in some of the most influential writings of his Reformed colleagues, which streamed into France in the period 1540–1560. This was the period in which the French Protestant movement experienced its most rapid expansion, growing into a wellorganized and potentially powerful minority religious faction. The Reformed propaganda barrage of midcentury, which even the increasingly restrictive measures of censorship in France could not effectively curtail, fueled the movement for reform and placed into the hands of laypeople books that encouraged them to exercise their own judgment, on the basis of their reading of Holy Scripture, concerning the truth or falsity of inherited doctrines. Our examination of the ways these texts re presented Calvin's eucharistic thought provides a useful perspective on the ideas concerning the sacrament and its efficacy to which the growing audience of French Protestant readers was exposed. The impact of these printed texts was considerable. As we shall see, their capacity to
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magnify the sacramental dispute and create a widespread popular discourse, in concert with the valorization of individual authority and subjective experience to which the Reformed eucharistic doctrine contributed, posed a powerful threat to the interests of ecclesiastical and secular authority. Catholic authors were initially reluctant to engage the Reformed in the vernacular press because they regarded a medium of discourse that appealed to the simple and ignorant an improper forum for theological discussion. However, by the early 1560s the pressure of Protestant propaganda successes led to a sizable Catholic contribution of pamphlets and treatises on the eucharist. In the latter half of the decade, Catholics for the first time produced more vernacular printed works on the sacrament than Protestants. Chapter 5 examines these writings for the ways Catholics attempted to frame the debate and stem the tide of the Protestant ascendancy in France by portraying Reformed teaching as an attempt to destroy religion and incite common people to revolution. In a period of tremendous social, economic, and political turmoil, when society itself seemed to be disintegrating, Catholics argued that the only reliable defense against the predicted apocalypse was to cling firmly to France's historic faith in the bodily presence of Christ within the sacrament. I have indicated that one burden of this study is to describe the historical life of the eucharistic symbol, or at least a small portion of that life. My analysis will make plain, however, that we must recognize in sixteenthcentury France not one but at least two such symbols. The symbol as interpreted by the French Reformed mediated a set of messages fundamentally different from the Catholic symbol of the divine body present in the sacrament. In chapter 6 I examine the messages conveyed to French Protestants in the public deployments of the eucharist that shaped their perception of the social world and their sense of responsibility to the various communities that claimed their allegiance. I suggest that symbolizations of the social body in Reformed eucharistic belief and practice contributed to the fragmentation of French society and provided a conceptual framework within which innumerable small and large insurrections against established constellations of power were possible. Although such an outcome was actually opposed by Calvin, the discourse on power formed in large measure by Reformed writings on the eucharist bore some responsibility for popular uprisings in the 1560s and anticipated most of the basic themes of the Calvinist theories of political resistance of the late sixteenth century. The book then comes to a close with a discussion of connections among the semiotic realignment effected by Calvinist eucharistic doctrine, public discourse, social and religious perception, and the organization of the social world, and we explore the various ways in which the ideas articulated in the sixteenth century eucharistic controversies ramified in other contexts. As a work of historical theology, this study makes no claim to direct significance for constructive theology. An indirect benefit, however, may derive from the approach to religious symbols and theological ideas this investigation exemplifies. In attempting to take seriously Charles Sanders
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Peirce's insight that the life of symbols is a life "among the peoples," I review the theological ideas and the deployments of symbols that provided orientation for life in early modern France in the light of their public and popular experience. Such an approach makes possible a richer interpretation of the theology of the period than is possible when one attends only to a learned discourse on the meaning of Christian faith. It also acknowledges the reality that public meanings and popular modes of thought and practice have shaped and continually reshape the symbolic and categorial schemes that form and populate the theological landscape, a reality too often suppressed or ignored by traditional histories of doctrine. By taking seriously the public and popular life of ideas and symbols, we naturally extend the range of texts and contexts for which we are responsible as interpreters. In relation to contemporary thought, the benefit for theology's constructive task of such an extension derives, then, both from altering the conception of what counts as the pertinent tradition and from an emphasis on the phenomenological dimensions of faith. Critically rethinking and restating the contemporary meaning of faith will require attending carefully to the present public life of theological ideas and religious symbols, the public discourses to which they give rise, and the particular social and political contexts in which they have their life. 12
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1— Immanent Majesty: The Eucharist and the Body of Christ in Late Medieval Society In a treatise published in 1565 on the Roman Mass and the Holy Supper as instituted by Christ, the Reformed minister Pierre Viret identified as "the greatest superstition and idolatry which has ever appeared since the beginning of the world" the belief that after the consecration in the Mass of the bread and wine, the sacramental elements become "Jesus Christ himself in flesh and bones, both God and man together." The idolatry was made complete by the practice of showing the elements to the congregation, ''lifting them up, and causing them to be worshiped by all, as idols.'' If this error were not considered grave enough, Viret pointed out that those who perverted Christ's Supper were not content to confine their idolatry to the moment of consecration but reserved the consecrated bread in monstrances, pyxes, and ciboria "not only to make it worshiped there as God or to carry it for the same purpose in processions with great pomp and solemnity, as the Persians of old carried their sacred fire, but also in order by it to ward off bad weather, storms, and devils and to use it for other such superstitions, as it occurs to them by their fantasy." 1 The critical ideas upon which Viret based his complaints stand in sharp contrast to the religious ideals of the Christian Middle Ages. The beliefs and the practices to which Viret so strongly objected supplied a vital centerpiece for late medieval European religious life and helped to construct and maintain the symbolic universe that formed the context of everyday life. Thus a very significant part of the experience of people in the medieval and early modern periods was profoundly influenced by a theological affirmation: that in the celebration of the eucharist Christ came to dwell bodily and ineffably in the eucharistic species. In order to feel the impact of this affirmation, the Christian laity did not require any special theological sophistication. The
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Mass and the sacrament of Christ's body and blood were everywhere, and the influence of eucharistic doctrine pervaded the shared culture of the time. If common folk did not understand all the technical explanations supplied by theologians, they knew that in the Mass a wonderful miracle occurred upon which their material and spiritual wellbeing depended; they believed, as the church encouraged them to believe, that when the priest had spoken certain words over the bread and wine and when these elements were lifted up for them to see, that they were there confronted with the very presence of God. 2 In the pages that follow I shall examine the development and the general contours of a particular kind of eucharistic piety as it came to be expressed in late medieval Europe and the impact this form of devotion exerted upon the construction of understandings of society and political power. My interest, then, is in the emergence of the sacrament of the altar, defined primarily by the doctrine of the corporeal presence, as a public symbol, and we shall be investigating the various public uses to which that symbol might be put. The Ascendancy of the Bodily Presence in Eucharistic Theology and Devotion The flowering of eucharistic piety in the late Middle Ages was a consequence of many convergent influences, but especially significant was the eucharistic doctrine that came to be formulated in the wake of controversies over the definition of the manner of the presence of Christ's body and blood in the sacrament.3 A ninthcentury dispute between the monks Paschasius Radbert and Ratramnus, both of Corbie, was settled in favor of a realistic conception of the presence of Christ's body in the elements consecrated by the priest, but it produced no definitive statement by the church, and as a consequence its impact on religious life was relatively limited. More important for further developments in the conception of the eucharist was the controversy that followed upon the publication of the sacramental ideas of Berengar of Tours. Berengar favored a symbolic interpretation of the presence of the body and blood of Christ in the sacrament. In his understanding, the bread and wine of the eucharist are signs and figures of the matter of the sacrament, Christ's body and blood, which never become materially one with the signs. This interpretation was immediately challenged by those who wished to emphasize a real presence of the body and blood in and under the signs, and Berengar was forced by Rome to recant and confess that Christ's true body and blood "are physically taken up and broken in the hands of the priest and crushed by the teeth of the faithful, not only sacramentally but in truth."4 The stark realism of this formulation reflects the approach that was to dominate sacramental understandings after Berengar. Subsequent theological discussion focused ever more intently upon the true and natural body of Christ as inseparably bound up with the elements received in the sacrament, and generally those terms which suggested any kind of presence other than a real
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and material presence were relegated to other uses. 5 To underline this notion the transformation of the elements came to be a particular area of concentration. This process of doctrinal development was more or less completed with the formulation of the theory of transubstantiation, which held that the substance of the bread and wine is converted into Christ's body and blood, and that Christ as a consequence dwells bodily under the forms of bread and wine. This was the doctrine approved by the church at the Fourth Lateran Council in 1215, and thereafter the realistic conception of the sacramental presence constituted the only orthodox option in Western Christian sacramental throught. These theological developments were accompanied by parallel developments in popular devotion. The emphasis placed upon the conversion of the elements into Christ's true body was reflected in a popular fascination with the consecrated elements themselves and particularly with seeing the elements. The focus of the liturgy came to be the moment of transformation and the point at which the host was elevated for the congregation to see, a practice introduced early in the thirteenth century. The eagerness to see the consecrated host was abetted by the church's policy of attempting to support belief in the miracle of the bodily presence by encouraging acts of devotion to the sacrament, particularly the adoration of the host. Seeing the host increasingly became far more important for most Christians than actual reception, which had become very infrequent, required by the church only once a year. According to some accounts, a majority of those who came to witness the miracle of the presence entered only when they heard the sance bell announcing the approach of the consecration, and then after having seen the host left immediately "running and fleeing, as if they have seen the devil."6 Observations such as these testify not only to the popular fascination with seeing the divine present though hidden in the sacred wafer but also to a kind of fear or awe often associated with encounters with a numinous presence.7 The host was for most people a divine epiphany, and the infrequency of actual reception of the sacrament only increased the popular sense of reverence for the eucharist.8 The conception that regarded the sacrament as a powerful locus of the divine presence was further underlined by the policy of restricting the privilege of handling the sacred elements to the clergy.9 The great power and efficacy of the sacrament and the great benefits that could be obtained simply from glimpsing the consecrated host are suggested by the popular beliefs concerning its effects: that one is protected from sudden death and blindness on a day one has seen the sacrament, or that one does not age in the time spent regarding the host.10 Further reinforcing belief in a realistic, corporeal presence were the many accounts of miracles associated with the eucharist that began to appear in the late thirteenth century and increased in popularity in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. Of course, the church's version of what transpired in the Mass already constituted a miracle of tremendous import, but since the miracle of transubstantiation was not immediately apparent except to the eye of faith, miracle tales were found to be helpful to enhance belief in Christ's
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physical presence. Perhaps the most common and wellknown examples of eucharistic miracles are the many visions conveying to especially worthy recipients or devotees of the sacrament some evidence of the real presence—seeing a child, the human form of Christ, or bleeding flesh in the host. These visions are particularly associated with holy women, many of whom were also reported to have been able to subsist on no food other than the sacrament. 11 Then there were the many stories of hosts resisting abuse, either intended or unintended: hosts that rose miraculously to the altar when accidentally dropped, hosts surviving fire, leaping from the mouth of an unworthy recipient, bleeding when cut or stabbed and miraculously exposing the assailant—usually a Jew.12 These accounts appeared frequently in sermons, devotional literature, and visual representations, feeding off the popular impression that God intervened frequently in the natural order to give added weight to the belief in Christ's bodily presence in the sacrament.13 To meet the need created by the popular fascination with seeing and worshiping the sacred host, the church began to institute the practice of reserving the consecrated bread in a monstrance or tabernacle upon the altar for the adoration of the people outside of the Mass. From this practice developed other extraliturgical uses of the sacrament, most notably the processions in which the host was taken out of the church for the viewing of those who might gather for the occasion, for the hallowing of areas external to the church building—particularly spaces with special local economic importance, or for protection from the onset of natural calamities. These extraliturgical uses led naturally, in many cases, to magical applications of the sacrament. That the consecrated elements and the altar on which they rested possessed a potency that could be directed to particular ends, whether beneficial or injurious, was a popular and widespread notion that is reflected both in popular tales and in the accounts of church authorities concerned with the growth of practices they regarded as superstitious. Thus while the church hierarchy had approved and even designed many of the practices that helped to create popular notions of the divine potency present in and emanating from the sacrament, in local cultural applications these sacramental beliefs came to have a life of their own that went considerably beyond the intentions of church leaders concerned to cultivate Christian piety.14 The greatest impetus to popular devotion to the sacrament came with the institution in the thirteenth century of a new liturgical feast devoted to the sacrament of Christ's body, the feast of Corpus Christi. First established in Liège in 1246 and authorized by Pope Urban IV in 1264, the feast came to prominence in the rest of Europe in the early fourteenth century, when it rapidly became one of the most popular feast days of the liturgical year. The importance of the day in the popular mind is suggested by the term the French applied to the feast day; for them this was not only the feast of Christ's body and blood, it was the FêteDieu—the feast of God. The theme of the feast was established in the liturgy adopted for Corpus Christi, much of it attributed to Saint Thomas Aquinas and composed just as the observance was being born. The church's newly authorized doctrine was a central
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feature of many of the Corpus Christi hymns, some of which managed to convey the concepts quite succinctly and explicitly. The hymn Lauda, Syon, for example, includes the following declaration: So the Christian dogma summeth, That the Bread his Flesh becometh, And the wine his Sacred Blood: Though we feel it not nor see it, Living Faith that doth decree it All defects of sense make good. 15
The popular Pange, lingua, which came into prominence as a processional hymn in the fourteenth century and continued in use for some time thereafter, also invoked the doctrine of the real presence as the organizing principle of eucharistic devotion: Into Flesh the true bread turneth By His word, the Word made Flesh; Wine to Blood; while sense discerneth Nought beyond the sense's mesh, Faith an awful mystery learneth, And must teach the soul afresh.16
Both hymns address the issue of the conflict between the evidence of the eyes, which see bread and wine, and the testimony of faith, which attests to the reality of Christ's body, and they attempt to resolve the conflict by suggesting that the capacity of faith to fathom the miraculous overwhelms the infirmity of human perception. The conception of the physical presence of the divine in the sacrament is further reinforced in other parts of the liturgy by encouragements to render honor and praise to the divine encountered in the transubstantiated elements. When the host is elevated, it is to be greeted with the hymn Ave verum corpus—"Hail True Body"—in which the consecrated wafer is recognized as "sweet Jesus, Mary's Son."17 And so while the faithful were confronted with the appearance of nothing but bread and wine, they were encouraged in the celebration of the Corpus Christi Mass to discern the hidden truth of the divine majesty, to render "praise and jubilation'' to the ''new King" at his sacred table, and to give thanks for the sacrifice that has accrued to the eternal benefit of the human race. However, the real focal point of Corpus Christi, as far as the great masses of the laity were concerned, was not so much the celebration of the Mass as the procession in which the sacred host was carried out of the church and through the main streets of the city or town. The entire community was expected to participate in this event. For common folk this meant, at a minimum, decorating the route of the procession with appropriate hangings and tapestries, and appearing to witness the spectacle and show reverence for Christ's body. For people of means it meant participating in the proces
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sion itself. Members of guilds and confraternities, as well as the municipal magistrates, all joined in the cortege, usually in positions that reflected and reinforced the established hierarchy. The mood in many cases was celebrative and boisterous, but there are suggestions of a certain solemnity also, especially around the centerpiece of the procession—the corpus Domini, the body of Christ, hidden under the form of the consecrated wafer. The dominant theme was of the majesty of the hidden divine presence, and because the first Corpus Christi processions were probably modeled on earlier eucharistic processions on Palm Sunday there were many echoes of the entry of Jesus as Messiah into Jerusalem. The procession route was normally strewn with grass and sand or sawdust and decorated with branches and brightly colored cloths. Crosses were carried ahead of the sacred host, and many of those who processed carried the banners and seals of their parishes or corporations. Bells were rung, and hymns praising the mystery of Christ's body were sung. Almost every account of the Corpus Christi processions indicates that participants carried lighted torches and candles, and frequently a great many torches were clustered around the sacrament itself. The host, as the locus of the divine presence, required a suitably precious and ornate vessel, a costly monstrance or tabernacle that was carried by a clergyman. 18 In the latter half of the fourteenth century it became customary to carry the host under a canopy of fine fabric, often richly decorated, and typically the canopy's staves were carried by prominent laymen who were prohibited from carrying the host itself but welcomed the honor of supporting this symbol of the divine dignity.19 The great popularity of this observance and the eagerness of civic institutions to have a prominent part in the procession illustrate the growing interest in the sacrament as a divine epiphany. With the institution of Corpus Christi and as the observance developed through the fourteenth century, we can trace the inexorable movement of the symbol of the eucharist from its place as a primarily liturgical and ecclesiastical instrument to its assumption of a prominent role in the secular sphere. The epiphany was not limited to the celebration of the sacrifice of the Mass; its effects and its influence extended into the public spaces of local communities. This movement was driven both by popular fascination with the immanent divine potency in the sacrament and by the design of a church intent on extending the influence of its symbolizing power into nonecclesiastical realms of life. Medieval culture, strictly speaking, did not recognize the modern distinction between sacred and secular. Society was a whole, a sacred body modeled on the body of Christ that came to dwell in the sacramental species, and created and sanctified by that very body. Society was sacred, and the presence of the sacred host in public spheres of life made this message very real and present to local populations.20 And so, for the church, Corpus Christi was a helpful instrument to underline the message of the sacral character of the social body and the central role of the church as guarantor of this sacredness. For the observance had the benefit of mediating between the liturgical and extraliturgical uses of the sacrament while bringing the extraliturgical uses un
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der the influence of ecclesiastical design. But the church had also to contend with the aims of the civil authorities, for whom the symbol of the eucharist was an attractive instrument to achieve their own political aims. As local, regional, and national authorities came increasingly to exert their organizing power over this public representation of the sacrament, the disparate and potentially conflicting interests of ecclesiastical and temporal rule required some delicate negotiation. In most cases the outcome was a remarkable achievement of symbiosis: roles were assumed and the symbol deployed in ways that articulated meanings serving both the institutional interests of the church and the leaders of civil society. 21 The Social Meanings and Uses of the Sacrament "The cup of blessing which we bless, is it not a participation in the blood of Christ? The bread which we break, is it not a participation in the body of Christ? Because there is one bread, we who are many are one body, for we all partake of the one bread" (1 Cor. 10:16–17). These words of Saint Paul to the Corinthians express one of the defining and enduring features of Christian belief concerning the effect of the sacrament of Christ's body and blood. The eucharist is the symbol of unity in Christ, a sign that not only points to the organic oneness of the multitude of humanity redeemed by Jesus' sacrifice but also actually creates this oneness in the union Paul called "the body of Christ." The manner in which the body is created, however, has been represented variously in various times and by various interpreters. In the later Middle Ages, as I am suggesting, the principal instrument for the creation of the bond linking the members of Christ's body was the natural body of the Lord, which became present in the sacramental elements and was offered by the priest on behalf of the church for the salvation of the living and the dead. The conception of a corporeal presence in the eucharist was, therefore, the central element establishing the unity of the faithful in the church. But, as we have noted, medieval notions of the unity of society meant that the boundary between the community of the faithful and society at large was very hard to locate. As a consequence, the symbolic impact of the eucharistic doctrine on the church also ramified upon society and upon notions of social wholeness and wellbeing. The impact of eucharistic doctrine depended to a large extent upon a common agreement regarding the claim of the church that, on the one hand, the sacrament constituted a worldchanging act by virtue of its sacrificial aspect and that, on the other, it was the corporeal abode of the divine in the midst of the social body. Both components of sacramental doctrine involved an emphasis on the sacrament not only as intimately connected with power but also as the central temporal locus and vehicle of divine power. And both elements were basic to popular understandings of the sacrament. Thus far I have concentrated on the significance of the corporeal sacramental presence, but the sacrificial theme was also a central component of popular
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conceptions of the eucharist. Common folk may not have been adept at explaining exactly how the Mass came to achieve what it did, but there are certainly indications that they appreciated that the priest's actions accomplished a setting right of relations with the numinous, a harnessing of divine power for spiritual and material benefit, and deliverance from the dangers that lurked everywhere in the experience of medieval men and women. The logic of the medieval doctrine required that in order to achieve these outcomes Christ himself, as the divinehuman hypostasis, must be present bodily in the visible and material element of the eucharist that is offered to God by the church. Thus the sacramental presence and the sacrificial interpretation of the eucharist were linked in the notion that the subsistence of the divine in the visible things consecrated at the altar was the source of dramatic metaphysical and mundane effects. This particular way of associating the visible signs with divine potency meant that the eucharistic symbol was particularly effective for the constitution of the vital social and metaphysical relations upon which the communal whole depended. It was not unique to the experience of the later Middle Ages that such a concentration of potency in a popularly received material symbol should come to exercise a defining influence over the understanding of the communal essence. 22 Especially in a society held to be sacred, some ground or center would naturally be required to guarantee and express the sacred character of the community and its connection to the divine realm. This is precisely the function the eucharist served for late medieval communities. We see this function in operation most clearly in moments when the wellbeing of the communal whole seemed to be threatened. In times of crisis societies habitually turned to the eucharist to display it and deploy it in the public realm.23 We can discern several layers of meaning in these public deployments. They were undoubtedly attempts to recreate communal solidarity and sanctity by turning the attentions and energies of the members of society to the potent center of the community and to the necessity of ordering life around this center. Through the public display of this symbol of social cohesion, the social body itself might be reconstituted and restored to health. But these public enactments also were held to produce effects that proceeded directly from the inherent virtue of this symbolic center. The processions in which God's body was carried displayed to the forces that lay beyond human control the sacral character of the society, while they actually, by the power that emanated from the sacred host, created sacred and protected space. They might as a consequence ward off natural disaster, pestilence, and demonic assaults. At the same time they served as reminders to God of the sacred character of the community that possessed Christ's very body and rendered it honor, and the intimate connection that as a result of this possession existed between heaven and earth. By recalling this special relationship in displaying the sacred host the community might elicit divine protection. Of course, other sacred objects, such as the reliquary caskets of saints identified with a particular community, could be employed for similar pur
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poses. But to no symbol other than the eucharist was attached such a concentrated sense of the material presence of the divine and divine potency. The eucharist also had associated with it certain socially constitutive properties that other material symbols lacked, which made it uniquely well suited to the socially redemptive and re creative aims medieval communities were seeking to achieve. Of particular importance in this regard is the somatic metaphor and the interpretations that had been laid upon the metaphor through the symbol's history. 24 The tendency one sees from the twelfth century on to represent society as a body modeled on the body of Christ and the gradual transference to the secular realm of the ecclesial definition, the "mystical body of which Christ is head," suggests the peculiar role the symbol of the true and natural body hidden under the form of bread and wine might play.25 As the utility became apparent of understanding the communal unit as an organic whole made up of distinct "members"—each with an appointed position and function, and contributing to the life of the whole when ordered, according to a certain organic logic, under the direction of a unitary ''head"—the sacramental symbol, which in the Christian symbolic scheme was both divine body and the instrument by which temporal relations were absorbed into the holy communion of Christ's extended, mystical body, assumed an increasingly important position at the center of communal life. Thus the Mass, with its sacramental and sacrificial aspects, could be seen as the moment in which social relations were expressed and confirmed, when the social body created by the offering of the divine life back to God ratified its own status as an integrated corporate whole of no longer alienated social parts.26 Nowhere were the social meanings of the eucharist more clearly displayed than in the Corpus Christi processions that came to occupy a central place in urban life in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries.27 By the late fourteenth century most municipalities had wrested control of the procession from the church and had designed an observance that local leaders hoped would either reflect or create anew the conditions necessary for social peace and cohesion. Thus the several politically significant corporations, craft guilds, confraternities, and the local magistracy all took part in the procession and were arranged about the symbolic center—the sacred host—in positions that testified to their relative social status. In general, those processing nearest to the host occupied the position of greatest dignity. Although the laity were forbidden from carrying the host itself, usually politically powerful laymen were granted the privilege of carrying the canopy that stood over the symbol of divine majesty. Frequently, however, the most prominent political figures took up a place next to but slightly separated from the contingent of clergy, candle and canopy bearers who stood about the sacrament, so as to call attention to their presence and their special position.28 The procession then constituted a visual representation of the hierarchical ordering of the community. The importance of this representation is indicated by the fierce competition on the part of guilds and confraternities for positions that reflected special dignity. But the goal of the ritual was not
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competition and conflict but rather the unity of the distinct segments of society joined into a social whole by the power of the majestic body of Christ. 29 That there should be so much eagerness to be assigned special positions in the procession is itself strong testimony to the efficacy of the symbol. Undoubtedly, Corpus Christi processions excluded as many members of the community as they included, and so the spectacle of Corpus Christi was not by any means an accurate representation of the full range of urban life. But there is no evidence to suggest that the symbolism of social integration around the center of Christ's body was rejected by any elements of local populations as an unfaithful portrayal of their social experience. Whatever consciousness of alienation from the representations of the dominant classes took hold and found expression in the late medieval period did not emerge on Corpus Christi so as to obscure its message of reconciliation and unity.30 From all indications the social rite was eagerly received and the sacred host devoutly honored by nearly all components of the social body. We might very well anticipate that from time to time the particular interests of occupational groups, clans, and families might come into conflict with other interests represented as the common interest on this most important of civic occasions, but in the great majority of cases it seems that the vision of the social body harmoniously rendering honor to Christ's immanent body was achieved. And so, although it would be difficult to rule definitively on the efficacy of the sacramental symbol for every western European community in which it came to prominence, the great popularity of Corpus Christi in cities, towns, and villages in the late Middle Ages provides ample evidence that for most communities the model of social wholeness, order, and concord derived from the mystical body that has Christ as its head served as an eminently profitable means of constituting the community and establishing the common good. Power in the Blood: The Eucharist and French Sacral Kingship We have seen that for late medieval men and women the eucharist was, above all, a bearer of power. And we have noted that the variety of uses to which the eucharistic symbol might be put depended in part on the assumption that the sacrament could be efficaciously employed in different spheres of life. That medieval culture tended not to recognize the modern division of sacred and secular was then a boon to those who would wish to exercise the force of the sacrament for purposes that extended beyond its strictly liturgical use. But another, related aspect of medieval thought also bears upon the possible applications of the eucharist, and this has to do with the nature of power itself. If it has become a habit of modern thinking to identify as entirely distinct the potency that produces spiritual or supernatural effects and that natural capacity that operates in a more mundane fashion, we must recognize that for men and women in the Middle Ages the two lay on a continuum as two aspects of a singular power that operates in
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different ways and to different ends. 31 This propensity to conceive of power as simple and undifferentiated helps to explain how elements of a rite that was held to procure the salvation of souls could also be thought to fructify newly planted fields, cure a fever, or seal a political pact. It also explains the ease with which this symbol of the divine power of redemption might be taken over for quite different uses by temporal authorities seeking to bolster their claims to exercise nearly unlimited power in their realms. Efforts of this kind seem to have had their most significant of origins around the time of struggles over investiture in the early twelfth century. In the midst of troublesome questions concerning the relation between the powers of the Roman pontiff and the local and regional interests of secular authorities, royalist writers such as Ivo of Chartres, Hugh of Fleury, and the socalled Anonymous of Rouen began to use some striking images to ground the power of kings in the will and design of God. In asserting that the king bears the unique "image of God" or that "the king is Christ and God," royal theorists endeavored to construct a messianic understanding of kingship in which the royal person might be regarded as a kind of divine epiphany by virtue of the act of royal anointing.32 The power of this consecration was such that it was said to work a substantial change in the person of the king, making him into "another man."33 In this transformed state he might be said to be the genuine figure of the divine Christ and to possess the very power of God. In the effort to avoid transgressing the bounds of orthodoxy, the supporters of royal supremacy were quick to point out that the king's dignity and power, though one in substance with the divine, were distinguished by the fact that what Christ and God possessed by nature belonged to the king only by grace.34 Although the eucharist itself does not figure prominently in these kinds of writings, the influence of eucharistic doctrine is apparent. Especially as royalist thinkers tended to concentrate on christological notions as a framework for thinking about the royal dignity, it was virtually inevitable that the sacrament held to make Christ's body immanent in the material world would serve as a paradigm. When royal partisans argued for royal unction to be regarded as an "eighth sacrament," when they claimed that it made of an ordinary person someone who has the dignity of Christ's divine nature, when they asserted that its effects proceeded directly from the performance of the rite, ex opere operato, they certainly must have had in view contemporary understandings of the sacrament of the altar.35 For the eucharist and the complex of theological ideas connected to it constituted the principal vehicle for disseminating the notion that by a powerful consecrating act divine potency might come to dwell in a finite and visible object, transforming a common thing into something eminently uncommon—despite the evidence of visible appearances. Eucharistic thinking had been occupied primarily with explaining how the infinite, divine majesty could be really present in the visible forms of bread and wine, and the church had concentrated upon strategies by means of which to propagate the faith in this real presence. Royal theorists were concerned to explain the same kind of appearance in
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the form of an apparently ordinary human being. With the growing popularity of eucharistic devotion based on the doctrine of the real presence, the sacrament of the altar became the indispensable conceptual model upon which claims for the efficacy of royal unction necessarily rested. That is, without the developments in popular eucharistic piety seen in the late medieval period, the prodigious claims made in support of the notion of an extraordinary and quasidivine elevation and an infusion of divine power at the moment of consecration would have had no symbolic force. The symbolic gestures executed by the propagandists of royal power benefited immensely, then, from the religious ethos of the time, an ethos significantly influenced by the notion that Christ's natural body dwells materially and invisibly in the sacrament of the altar. Drawing upon the "symbolist mentality" that posited an intimate connection between the visible world and the invisible, royalists such as the Anonymous of Rouen suggested such a close correspondence between the worlds that the very notion of a distinction was threatened. 36 In place of the model of Augustine's two cities, which emphasized the disparate character of the divine and natural orders, the two orders were held to be related so intimately that the allegedly natural hierarchies holding sway in the earthly realm might be said to reflect exactly those in the heavenly realm by virtue of having been infused with their supernatural power.37 It is fitting that the first and most thoroughly argued medieval doctrines of royal absolutism were formulated on French soil, since it was in France that the myths and symbols of kingship that helped to give weight to these claims came into prominence. In the late medieval period France developed its own "royal religion" to articulate the ties binding the nation and its sovereign to God, creating for it a sacred office and destiny, and making of its people a "holy race."38 France's kings were not alone in having bestowed upon them the title "most Christian," but by the later Middle Ages they had transformed the appellation from an occasionally employed honorific to the regular defining designation of the monarch, the dynasty, and the nation.39 But the use of the title, by itself, merely points to the ambitions of French monarchs to assert their supremacy over all other European powers, including the power of the church. To give their claims symbolic force, certain myths and legends were recalled that suggested a special role for France and her kings in the history of salvation. There was the legend dating from the late thirteenth century of the miraculous gift from Jesus of the emblem of the royal lily, the fleurdelis, to Clovis, first Christian king of the Franks.40 Clovis also was the central figure in the most important story told about the French kings, that of the gift of the Holy Ampulla containing sacred oil for the royal anointing sent in the beak of a dove by the Holy Spirit. This same vial and this chrism, it was said, were used for the consecration of each of France's kings.41 The great distinction of the dynasty, then, derived from these symbols of a direct covenant with God, an alliance unmediated by any other power.42 The kings of France were the true successors to the kings of Israel, though far superior because they came after the in
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carnation of Jesus Christ and hence might more exactly embody his royal dignity. 43 The virtue of the holy alliance and its reenactment at each royal consecration with Clovis's chrism was proved by the power of French kings to heal the disfiguring disease of scrofula simply by touching its victims. The king was therefore rightly considered a sacred figure and a bearer of divine power, since following the royal anointing in the coronation mass he possessed thaumaturgical powers, which he invariably demonstrated by "touching for scrofula" immediately following his coronation.44 The royal religion naturally enhanced the power of the French monarch by conveying the kinds of claims for the king's messianic role made by theorists of royal power in a narrative form which might be accessible to broader elements of the population. The notion of the royal unction as a sacramental act that, ex opere operato, produced a kind of divine epiphany under the form of the king's human body was given added force by the unquestioned belief in the wonderworking power of the monarch. But as powerful a reminder of the unique status of the monarch as this ritual element of investiture of power was, there arose some concerns that deriving royal power from a ceremonial act might in fact compromise the claims of rulers to possess a permanent and unmediated covenant with God. If in fact God had selected the French kings and the French nation from all the nations of the earth to enact the divine plan, the truly important act of consecration was the first one, that of Clovis. Subsequent anointings might be seen as simply ritual reminders of that first act of grace that elevated the king to the status of a figure of Christ and God. Assumption of the royal dignity might then be tied not to the consecration but to the moment when the natural body of the previous monarch died. The new king was not made at his sacring because divine power resided in the royal line itself. The expression of Gilles de Paris in addressing the future Louis VIII that it is "this blood whose power will make you king" underlines the notion that potency is localized, subsisting in the dynastic line.45 The idea that power is in the royal blood that passes from generation to generation is, then, merely an extension of the goal of joining together ever more closely the royal person and the divinely derived power attributed to him. When anxieties arose regarding the possibility that the ceremony of consecration might be regarded as representing a legal fiction or when circumstances created an interregnum in which the royal dignity could not be said to occupy a living body,46 it became necessary to proffer even more compelling evidence that divine power had come to dwell permanently not simply in the royal individual after the anointing but in all those descended from the kings so clearly approved by God: Clovis, Charlemagne, and Saint Louis. Just as the sacred host, once consecrated, was forever the abode of the divine Son, so the blood of French kings, hallowed by divine grace, bore the power to assume and represent Christ's royal dignity to the French nation and the world. If the eucharist was a useful conceptual model for representations of the king's status, eucharistic symbolism might itself be explicitly deployed to
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serve royal interests. The kings of France were typically quite eager to demonstrate their active involvement with this vital center of power, presenting themselves as unusually devoted to the sacrament and as avid supporters of the eucharistic cult. 47 Corpus Christi Day was an especially important occasion on which to make this point. At the elaborate spectacle staged in the coronation city of Reims, kings might use the opportunity not only to display their presence and their extraordinary piety but also to impose upon the eucharistic celebration symbols of royal dignity. Thus, together with the sacred host, those gathered for the procession might see the royal coat of arms, the seal of Saint Louis (that model of royal piety), fleursdelis in abundance, and an enormous torch carried on behalf of the king as a sign of his unsurpassed devotion, holiness, and power.48 But the symbols associated with Corpus Christi could also be used to impart the aura of sacred majesty to rituals of kingship not in any way connected to the cult of the eucharist. This is nowhere more apparent than in developments seen in the French royal entry processions from the fourteenth century on. As the observance of Corpus Christi became more firmly established in French cities and towns, significant features characteristic of the procession of Christ's body came to be incorporated into royal processions. Beginning in the middle of the 1300s, the king processed over roads strewn with sand and grass and beneath a richly embroidered canopy, calling attention to his unique status. The route of the procession would be richly decorated with colorful banners, tapestries, and the branches of trees, just as on the FêteDieu.49 An observer of one of these processions would then most likely recognize that here was nothing other than a Corpus Christi procession except for the significant fact that the body of the king had replaced the body of Christ hidden in the sacred host. The parallelism was hardly subtle. The royal entry was designed to render honor to and confer dignity upon the temporal monarch who was the veritable image of the same divine presence and power embodied in the sacrament. Because the theory of kingship to which the French dynasty subscribed recognized no real distinction between the essence of the power displayed in the eucharist and that said to belong to the king in his office as vicar of Christ, this kind of appropriation from the eucharistic cult of symbols of majesty would seem entirely justified.50 Toward the end of the Middle Ages the transformation of the eucharist from an essentially parochial and spiritual symbol to a symbol thoroughly invested with public, political meaning was complete. Whether in written political theology or the visual language of civic and royal ritual, the eucharist and the complex of ideas of divine immanence that defined it were present as the substantiating symbolic ground. The symbol might be displayed openly, as in a Corpus Christi procession, or it might be barely concealed, as in the spectacle of the royal entry as divine epiphany. In either case, the meaning of the representation of power, order, and sacredness drew life from the teaching of the church that divine power came to subsist in the visible sacramental species at the moment of consecration in the Mass. As a consequence, when sixteenthcentury Reformers like Pierre Viret took
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it upon themselves to enlighten common folk concerning the idolatrous nature of the church's teaching, their efforts might be seen as placing in jeopardy the symbolic foundations upon which late medieval societies had been constructed. We now turn to an examination of the earliest of these French Reformed assaults on the late medieval interpretation of the eucharist.
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2— Heavenly Things in Heaven: The First Wave of French Protestant Propaganda, 1533–1535 On the morning of January 21, 1535, ''the most beautiful and solemn procession ever held in France" set off from the church of St. Germain l'Auxerrois in Paris. 1 Moving through streets lined with tapestries and lighted torches, merchants, artisans, members of the mendicant orders, and religious from all the parishes of the city carried torches, crosses, banners, and the most prized shrines and relics of the city's impressive collection. The array of holy objects included the reliquary caskets of all the saints associated with the city, the rod of Aaron, the tablets of the Decalogue, a vial containing the milk of the Virgin Mary, the holy crown of thorns, two pieces of the true cross, the head of the spear that pierced Christ's side, Christ's burial shroud, and swaddling cloths, and a drop of his blood. Behind this display of sacred objects came representatives of the University of Paris and the cardinals of Tournon, Lisieux, Châtillon and Givry. At the center of the procession, removed from the other participants by a short distance, was the corpus Domini, "the true and precious body of our Lord and Redeemer Jesus Christ."2 Cardinal Jean du Bellay, the bishop of Paris, carried a monstrance in the form of a cross, which held the host. Stretched over the sacrament was a crimson canopy embossed with gold fleursde lis, the symbol of the royal house of France. The canopy's staves were carried by the king's three sons and Charles de Bourbon, duke of Vendôme. Surrounding them were some two hundred guards carrying lighted torches. Immediately behind this contingent walked "the most Christian king" himself, Francis I, escorted by the cardinal of Lorraine. In keeping with the solemnity of the occasion, the king appeared before his subjects bareheaded, wearing a black robe and carrying a lighted torch. Bringing up the rear of the train were a great many members of the nobility and princes of the blood, the presidents and officers
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of the Parlement of Paris, officers of the municipal government, and a contingent of four hundred archers of the royal guard. The crowd of people assembled in windows, on rooftops, and at intersecting streets ("for the people were so innumerable that it was a marvelous thing to see") 3 watched the passing procession halt periodically as the host was placed upon altars in the street so that the king might kneel before it in veneration. By all accounts this display of royal piety made a deep impression on the people. One contemporary chronicler reported that "there was neither great nor small that did not weep cold tears and pray God for the king, whom the people saw in such great devotion and performing such a devout act, worthy of great memory; and one presumes that no Jew or infidel, seeing the example of the Prince and that of his people, would not be converted to the faith."4 For the benefit of these witnesses to the spectacle, many of whom had come to the city from neighboring villages and towns, the authorities had ordered appropriate signs, tapestries, and paintings placed along the route to impress upon the populace the holiness of the sacrament of the altar. The Pont Notre Dame contained a number of these images, including a painting of a crucifix with a number of verses from Scripture suggesting the victory of God over enemies who attack the sacrament5 and an altar on which was inscribed a Latin poem appealing to God, the Virgin Mary, and all the saints for victory over heretics in the event of "hostile assaults upon the Eucharist."6 Also displayed were verses in French recounting the familiar story of the gift from heaven of the fleursdelis to the kings of ''this garden of France" and maintaining that, despite "the danger of seditious person,'' by God's grace and "under royal power France flourishes above all nations."7 Another painting related the popular story of the miraculous bleeding host, which was stabbed with a knife by a Jew. As if to underline these messages concerning the sacrament, members of the procession performed music and sang canticles and anthems to the holy mystery of God's body, including O salutaris hostia and Pange lingua, hymns traditionally associated with the feast of Corpus Christi.8 After a final stop to place the sacrament on an altar at the Pont Notre Dame, the procession entered the cathedral of Notre Dame de Paris, where the bishop of Paris celebrated a high mass, which all the notables present heard "with great devotion."9 The public events of the day were concluded when six persons accused of heresy, after being brought before the cathedral to perform the amende honorable, were burned at the stake. The grand spectacle of the January 1535 procession was planned as a response to what a contemporary chronicle characterized as "a new plague of heresy in Paris of certain Lutherans, wicked heretics, who placed placards against the honor of the holy sacrament and the Catholic faith by the squares and the most eminent and visible places of Paris."10 These placards, bearing the title Articles veritables sur les horribles, grandz et importables abuz de la Messe papalle: inventée directement contre la saincte Cene de Jesus Christ (True Articles on the Horrible, Great, and Insupportable Abuses of the Papal Mass: Divised Directly Against the Holy Supper of Jesus Christ),11 were posted in Paris and in
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several provincial cities the night of October 17, 1534, and again on January 12, 1535. 12 On the second occasion printed pamphlets also appeared, these entitled Petit traicté tres utile et salutaire de la saincte eucharistie de nostre Seigneur Jesuchrist (A Very Useful and Salutary Short Treatise on the Holy Eucharist of Our Lord Jesus Christ).13 Both the placards and the pamphlets were printed in French, and written in a plain and popular style likely to appeal to readers with no technical expertise in theological matters. They gave no indication of the identity of their author nor the place of publication, although the authorities assumed the works to have been produced locally. In fact their author was the Reformed pastor Antoine Marcourt, and both pieces had been published in Neuchâtel, in territory controlled by the Swiss city of Berne. These writings were part of an unprecedented campaign of printed propaganda on behalf of evangelical reform in France, a campaign that was to have fateful consequences for the future course of Protestant reform. Focusing especially on the Catholic Mass and eucharistic doctrine, the texts produced for circulation in France initiated a public and popular discourse about the central liturgical act of Christendom which would continue, with intermittent lapses, for the better part of a century. The impact of this discourse was not restricted to the realm of theological definition. In an age in which the influence of religious ideas permeated virtually all spheres of life, public discussion of the sacrament of Christ's body and blood significantly affected the way people thought about the social world to which they belonged. This chapter examines the beginnings of the Reformed attempt to articulate a eucharistic theology sharply distinguished from the immanental strains in medieval Catholic doctrine. An exposition of early Reformed doctrine in its critical and constructive aspects will allow us to discern both the theological presuppositions that shaped Reformed thinking and the immediate practical impact on French society of this new thinking. Examining Reformed sacramental teaching in the context of its public dissemination yields a particularly rich and complex portrait of a theological program in its interaction with a range of social and political interests. In order better to appreciate the complexity of this interaction, I begin by examining the context of the production and circulation of the Protestant texts and the official reaction with which they met. Heresy in a Sacred Society: The Threat of Print Although processions with relics through the streets of Paris were not uncommon in the sixteenth century, the procession of January 1535, with the inclusion of the sacrament, the number of holy objects transported, and the involvement of so many notables, was unprecedented.14 The elaborate character of the ritual is a good indication of the seriousness with which the authorities viewed this most recent evidence of the incursion of heresy into French territory. The posting of the placards was regarded as a pollution of
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the king's realm, the perceived danger being that the disease contaminating and "infecting some of his subjects" would multiply, undermining the very constitution of the social body. 15 The royal response to the incursion was therefore appropriately decisive. Heretics were arrested, tortured, and executed; books of questionable content were seized and burned; a moratorium on all printing was ordered; and the grand spectacle of a public procession involving representatives from the various segments of Parisian society was planned "to repair the injury done to God."16 Beyond its penitential and expiatory aspect, the procession also served a pedagogical purpose, conveying to the people certain messages regarding the sacrament, the Catholic faith, and royal authority. The first of these was the notion that the sacrament of the altar was to be held in very high honor, that the consecrated elements are holy since they constitute Christ's true body and blood, and that any attack upon the sacrament is to be regarded as an act of blasphemy requiring the most severe punishment. The king's participation in the procession as the model Christian, humbling himself in an act of devotion before the host, was a pointed reminder of the sanctity and inviolability of the sacrament. The second message can be discerned most clearly in the symbolism of the canopy that was carried over the sacrament. Should there have been any doubt that ''the most Christian king, first son of the Church, and its most zealous supporter and protector" would defend the faith against an assault on the sacrament of God's body, the symbolism of the fleursdelis adorning the canopy put it to rest.17 The juxtaposition of these two symbols—the host and the fleurdelis—indicated that the association of the most holy sacrament of the Church and the sacral monarchy was indissoluble. The vigorous assertion of the presence of the divine in the sacrament and the relation symbolically established between the locus of the divine presence and the royal lily—the sign of divine approbation of the royal house—suggest that it is precisely because the fleursdelis stand over the sacrament that "France flourishes above all nations." An attack upon the holy sacrament, according to the logic of the symbolism employed in the procession, presents a direct threat to the sacral character of the community, to the nation's wellbeing, and hence amounts to an oblique attack on the person of the sovereign. Given the close association established between the sacrament and the monarch, it is no wonder that those implicated in the affair of the placards were regarded as being guilty not only of heresy but also of lèsemajesté.18 If the procession was evidence that the authorities regarded the affair of the placards with particular concern, the incursion was made especially serious because of the means utilized to spread the heretical teaching. Perhaps the best indication we have of the particular source of official anxiety is the royal edict banning all printing, which was issued on January 13, 1535, the very day on which Paris awoke to discover a second posting of placards attacking the Mass. The production of this printed matter in volume and its display in public places, together with the very public royal response to the posting of the placards, brought ideas concerning the reform of the church and particularly its eucharistic doctrine into the open, creating a decidedly unruly public discourse.
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The creation of a broad, public discourse on both religious and political matters was a notable contribution to the sixteenth century of the evangelical reform movement allied with the technology of print. More than fifteen years before the posting of the placards in France, the example of the reform spearheaded by Luther in Germany had proved the efficacy of the printed pamphlet or broadsheet as a means of transmitting ideas quickly across a wide geographic territory, influencing public opinion and creating pressure for reform. 19 The printing of religious tracts, even those espousing evangelical or "Lutheran" ideas, was not new to France in the middle 1530s. Devotional manuals, brief summaries of the rudiments of evangelical faith, catechetical works including translations from Luther, and vernacular Bible translations had been published in Paris and Lyon, as well as in the printing centers that lay on the periphery of French territory—Antwerp, Basel, and Strasbourg.20 However, a change in the evangelical literature published for the Frenchspeaking market became apparent in the mid1530s. It was then, in the summer of 1533 to be precise, that a circle of reformers in the Swiss Romande and under the influence of the Reformed city of Berne gained their own publisher with the arrival of the French printer Pierre de Vingle in the city of Neuchâtel.21 The authors of the works produced by Vingel's press, the French exiles Guillaume Farel, Antoine Marcourt, Antoine Saunier, Thomas (or Matthieu) Malingre, and Pierre Viret from the Pays de Vaud, were clearly a force distinct from the évangéliques, the more moderate reforming party in the Gallican church.22 Their writings left no doubt about their commitment to a radical reform of worship and a complete break with the church of Rome. It was also apparent that these reformers had learned from the experience of the Reformation in Germany the reward of appealing directly to a broad spectrum of public opinion in the effort to spread ideas, as well as the tactic of advancing one's own point of view by satirizing and aggressively attacking not only the positions of one's opponents but also the opponents themselves. Unlike the religious literature produced previously by Frenchspeaking reformers, the new literature was openly iconoclastic and violently anticlerical. It employed biting satire and virulent polemics that signaled a program of fundamental reform so radical as to obviate any notion of compromise with the Roman church. Moreover, almost all of the work produced by Vingle's press appeared in a small format, and many of the works utilized popular forms such as songs and dialogues to make their message accessible to readers likely to be put off by technical dogmatic disquisitions.23 The authors of these writings, then, appealed not only to those with political power—the nobility and the clergy—and not simply to an educated elite likely to follow intricate theological arguments. Writing in the vernacular and employing straightforward arguments and vivid images, they sought a wide, public readership, making their aim explicit by addressing their writings to common folk (simple gens), the lowly (les moindres), and the "poor people" whom, they claimed, the clergy had "seduced and blinded."24 But perhaps the most important distinction of the new evangelical literature was its open attack on the Mass and Catholic eucharistic doctrine and its unambiguous assertion that Christ's body is not present in the sac
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ramental elements. In articulating a position that had come to be called "sacramentarian," a position clearly incompatible with Roman Catholic orthodoxy, the Protestant propagandists introduced a new element into the discourse on religious reform in France. 25 Although it took their Catholic opponents some time to acknowledge the distinction, the eucharistic position propounded in their writings indicated that the sacramentaires were neither évangéliques nor Lutherans, and that their agenda for reform owed as much to the inspiration of the Reformation in the Swiss cities of Zurich, Basel, and Berne as to the example of Luther of Lefèvre. The authorities in Paris, on the other hand, were not in the least confused about the import of the ideas these sacramentarians expressed. It is without doubt the radical sacramental position articulated by the newly manifest reforming party, together with their use of the printed text to make sacramental doctrine a matter for public discussion and debate, that accounts for the extraordinary official response of the public procession of January 1535. The latent anxiety surrounding the sacrament and sacramental doctrine present in the cultural experience of many segments of sixteenthcentury European society is only too apparent in the royal policy that followed the affair of the placards.26 The anxious reaction set in motion by the publication of printed posters against the Mass makes it quite plain that the Protestant propagandists, in launching an assault on the central religious rite of Catholic Europe, had perhaps inadvertently also taken aim at the symbolic underpinnings of French society. Early Reformed Writings on the Eucharist Although a variety of theological issues are taken up in the body of work produced by the presses of Neuchâtel in the years 1533–1535, the theme of the eucharist clearly predominates. In this respect the propaganda campaign was a harbinger of things to come: amid the many points of debate that would characterize the movement for reform in France, eucharistic doctrine would come to be the central, recurring issue of theological contention. That the first public outbreak of controversy in the cause of the Reformation in France concerned the sacrament of the altar attests to the priority assigned to the right worship of God in the French Reformed program.27 For many reformminded French, and especially the French Reformed exiles in Switzerland, the Mass had come to symbolize everything that was wrong with the worship and devotional practice of the church. Regarded as focusing attention entirely on external ritual while neglecting Christ's spiritual teaching, the kind of liturgical and extraliturgical piety the Mass engendered came in for criticism from many quarters in the decade prior to the affair of the placards.28 The Reformed, however, took the spiritualizing impulse of these criticisms much farther, substituting open opposition to the institution of the Mass for subtle criticisms of popular misuses of the sacrament. In their view, the church of Christ was scandalized by the Mass, and especially by
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the doctrine of the real presence and the theological and ecclesiological claims they identified as its consequences. It is hardly an exaggeration to say that, from the Reformed point of view, the movement for the reformation of the church in accordance with the gospel depended primarily upon the abolition of the Mass and the restoration of the pure and unadorned Holy Supper ordained by Jesus. This was the end toward which the publicists of reform in Frenchspeaking Switzerland expended their literary efforts in the mid1530s. Of all the early Reformed writings, it was Marcourt's that achieved the greatest notoriety—most likely because they dealt most directly with the sacrament of Christ's body and the errors of the Mass. In addition to the famous placards (Articles veritables . . . ) and the pamphlets that appeared with them in January 1535 (the Petit traicté tres utile et salutaire de la saincte eucharistie de nostre Seigneur Jesuchrist), Marcourt also authored the slightly longer and more polemical Declaration de la messe, le fruict d'icelle, la cause et le moyen pourquoy et comment on la doibt maintenir (Declaration of the Mass, Its Fruit, the Cause for Which and the Means by Which They Must Maintain It). All of these writings on the eucharist were produced within a fairly brief span of time, published between October and December 1534. 29 Marcourt had demonstrated in his earlier, immensely successful Le livre des marchans (The Book of Merchants) a gift for anticlerical satire, portraying priests as "furious thieves and insatiable ravening wolves" who, like unscrupulous merchants, cheat the people and rob them of both their spiritual and their worldly goods.30 This practiced polemical style is very much in evidence in his eucharistic writings. While Marcourt included some, almost incidental, allusions to elements of the Reformed understanding of the Supper, he attempted no concentrated exposition of the topic, devoting his energies almost entirely toward attacking the doctrinal and moral errors of the Roman Catholic ecclesiastical establishment. According to the division of labor apparently observed by the Reformed party, Guillaume Farel undertook the task of presenting the Reformed doctrine in more positive terms. A fairly comprehensive treatment of the Supper is included in Farel's liturgical handbook, Le maniere et fasson (The Manner and Method . . . ),31 and a similar discussion is presented in his Sommaire, published by Vingle in 1534.32 Beyond these more discursive sources, eucharistic themes also figure in the collections of verse and songs written in part and edited by Matthieu Malingre. Although not as well suited to sustained argument as prose, the presentation of tenets of Reformed faith in verse was a valuable means of spreading the Reformed message to a popular audience, especially when the songs, many of which were adapted from popular ballads and set to familiar tunes, were memorized and sung publicly.33 Because of their popular appeal, the song collections published in Neuchâtel—Chansons nouvelles, Plusieurs belles et bonnes chansons, and Noelz nouveaulx34—deserve special attention in our effort to discern the variety of messages concerning the eucharist the Reformed presented in this early period.35
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"The Doctrine of Devils": Criticisms of the Mass The placards made no secret of the Reformed abhorrence of the central rite of Catholic Christendom. As if to set the tone for the entire discourse, the text of the poster commenced with a broad and unreserved denunciation: I invoke heaven and earth in witness of the truth, against this pompous and arrogant papal Mass, by which the world (if God does not soon provide a remedy) is and will be totally ruined, laid low, lost, and desolated: for in the Mass our Lord is so outrageously blasphemed, and the people seduced and blinded—something which we ought no longer to suffer or endure. 36
Marcourt provided specific charges in four "articles" dealing with, respectively, the sacrifice of the Mass, the notion of the bodily presence of Christ in the sacrament, the doctrine of transubstantiation, and the fruits or moral outcome of the Mass contrasted with the Supper. Although his other writings on the eucharist expand on the themes treated in the Articles veritables, these four topics are representative of the main points of the Reformed objection to Catholic eucharistic theology and may be taken as a guide in our exploration of the content of the Reformed polemic against the Mass. In rejecting the idea of the eucharist as a sacrifice offered to God, Marcourt was expressing a judgment about the Roman Mass upon which most Protestants agreed.37 Following the example of his predecessors, Marcourt measures the conception of the Mass as a sacrifice against the argument in the Epistle to the Hebrews concerning the unique character of Christ's sacrifice. The sacrifice of the Jewish cult as portrayed in Hebrews functions as a mirror of the sacrifice of the Mass. The old sacrificial system, because it required repeated sacrifices to God, is seen to be less effective than Christ's perfect sacrifice, offered "once for all." Jesus' unique and universally efficacious sacrifice renders the system of repeated sacrifice superfluous: "For by the great and wonderful sacrifice of Jesus Christ all outward and visible sacrifice is abolished and voided, and never is another to remain." The Mass, then, in representing the act of reconciliation of humans to their God as a sacrifice repeatedly offered by the priest on behalf of the people, stands as a de facto denial of the efficacy of Christ's sacrifice. Similarly, clerics who claim to be repeating Christ's sacrifice in effect "renounce him as if he were ineffective, insufficient and imperfect." Moreover, by virtue of their power to celebrate the Mass, these "miserable sacrificers'' occupy an artificially exalted position and insinuate themselves into a redemptive role that is not properly theirs: "as if they were our redeemers, [they] put themselves in the place of Jesus Christ, or make themselves his partners, saying that they offer to God a sacrifice as agreeable and pleasing as that of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob for the salvation both of the living and the dead.'' But since Scripture attests that Christ, having offered himself once for our redemption, makes the rep
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etition of sacrifices unnecessary, "it is clear that in our redemption we have no need of such sacrificers." 38 Although the sacrifice of the Mass is the first of the identified abuses to be scrutinized, Marcourt gives even more attention to the church's teaching regarding the bodily presence of Christ in the eucharist, and Farel's writings as well place particular emphasis on the inadmissability of the doctrine.39 The centerpiece of the argument is a theme that had figured prominently in the eucharistic writings of the Swiss reformers Zwingli and Oecolampadius, namely, Scripture's account of Jesus' ascension in combination with the axiom that "a true body is ever only in one place at one time." The evidence of Scripture assures us that Jesus ascended into heaven and is seated at the right hand of the Father. Marcourt argues that since Christ's body, as a true body, cannot be in many places simultaneously, "it most certainly follows that he is in heaven seated at the right hand of God, that he is not here below on the earth in the hands of the priest nor is he shut in a box or cupboard."40 Responding to a possible Catholic objection, he rejects the notion that such a limitation of Christ's body to its temporal dimensions and its location in heaven compromises the power of God to miraculously multiply the body. At issue is not the extent of God's power but rather the reliability of the biblical testimony. Nowhere, Marcourt reminds his reader, does Scripture inform us ''that God multiplied and placed one and the same body in many places at one time.''41 Instead it tells us that angels announced to the disciples who watched Jesus ascend to heaven, "'This Jesus who was received from you into heaven will come just as you have seen him go into heaven,' that is, openly, visibly, clearly, and manifestly; not secretly, covertly, enveloped or clothed in bread or paste."42 In the interim between Christ's ascension and his return on the day of judgment, his body is not present to temporal, sensuous experience. The presence of Christ is spiritual, made effective through the Holy Spirit. In fact Jesus assures his disciples that the coming of the Spirit is contingent upon his physical absence.43 The practice of the church that celebrates the Mass and maintains that Christ's body and blood are physically present in the consecrated elements is then diametrically opposed to Scripture. The Bible testifies that Jesus is in heaven, while priests would have the people believe entirely otherwise—that he becomes present on the altar at the moment of consecration and remains in the elements, so that the holy presence may be reserved in a ciborium or placed in a monstrance for the veneration of the pious. One of the evangelical songs "containing a part of the damnable errors and abuses of the ministers of the antichrist" satirizes the claims made by the clergy on behalf of the sacrament: O prebstres, prebstres, ne vous souvient il point, Quand faisiez croyre cest erreur et faulx poinct Qu'en ce petit armoyre Jesus est en prison,
Page 36 Vous nous disiez encoire, La boitte est sa maison. 44 Priests, priests, do you not remember when you made us believe that error and false notion, that Jesus is imprisoned in this little cupboard? You also told us that the box is his home.
Farel expresses the same notion in his portrayal of priests as "false shepherds": Above all their doctrine is to say, "Here is Christ," as if they held him in their hands. For them, Christ is either in the hands of another priest or he is in a secret place, shut up in a box. And they wish to confirm their word with false signs and miracles by which many are deceived, seeking here below that which must be sought on high at the right hand of God, and not on earth.45
Elements of eucharistic devotion related to a belief in the real presence, such as the veneration of miraculous hosts—the kinds of "false signs" to which Farel refers— were particularly disturbing to the Reformed party. In their view, these practices were the result of a fundamental misunderstanding regarding the nature of the divine presence and the meaning of the sacrament. The priest who maintained that "it is in his power, if he wishes, at once and without delay, by a single word, to cause the Son of God to come and descend there, in body and soul" was plainly guilty of blasphemy.46 The offense of such a claim consists in identifying "the one who is of sovereign majesty'' with "a visible and corruptible thing." Such a misidentification perverts the biblical testimony and injures the risen and glorified Christ: "For now he is beyond the time of his infirmity and yet, by thus placing and holding him in a morsel, hidden under this paste, without any reason or foundation, he is more greatly abased than he ever was in the presence of Pilate.''47 Marcourt's writings are filled with expressions of incredulity and outrage at the kinds of claims implied in the church's eucharistic doctrine. The sentiment expressed in the following rhetorical question is characteristic of the kind of revulsion the doctrine of the real presence elicited: "Is it not audacious speaking to say that one holds, carries, and shuts up the body of Jesus Christ here and there as one wishes—fully as large, entirely whole, fully alive, in flesh and bones?"48 Allegations such as this one open the door to another, equally serious charge: that through deceiving the people about the nature of Christ's presence in the sacrament the priests incited them to idolatry. Considering this point and lamenting the way in which the teaching of the church deflected attention in the sacrament from its proper focus, Farel emphasizes the injury done to common worshipers: The heart of many does not go beyond the bread and wine which are presented to them, on which their whole thought is fixed as they worship
Page 37 them, for this is how they have been taught. And the memory of the one who died for us and is now seated at the right hand of the Father is forgotten, as also is the neighbor—for whom the table at which we must come together to be one with our neighbor was principally ordained. . . . 49
For Farel, the adoration of the consecrated elements leads people to seek the divine in material objects where God is not present and to neglect the real meaning of the sacrament. Marcourt is even more forceful in indicting the church for encouraging a practice that confuses the eternal with the temporal: "It greatly dulls and chains the spirit and understanding of the people to bind it and hence to make it stop at a visible and corruptible thing, in order to seek there the one who is of sovereign majesty."50 Moreover, "this audacity of lifting on high and showing to the people a bit of bread to be worshiped" is no more than "a human invention which profanes the things of God,"51 since no biblical support can be adduced for the practice of venerating the host: In ordaining his Holy Supper and distributing the bread to his disciples Jesus said simply, "Take and eat." He did not say, "Behold and worship." Never did any of the apostles incite the people to such adoration, as has been done for some time. But it is a familiar fact that the honor and worship owed to God alone, who must be served in spirit and in truth, is given and handed over to visible things, as has always been seen in all nations, all peoples, and all kingdoms.52
The idolatrous practice encouraged by the elevation of the host in the Mass is regarded as particularly serious because of its corrupting effect on society, and especially its influence on the common people who lack an understanding of biblical teaching with which to withstand ecclesiastical teachings that have "alienated nearly everyone from the way of salvation, from the Lord God, and from all truth."53 Despite the challenge of popular ignorance, the writer of the "Song for the Conversion of the Papists" entreats people to abandon "their stinking Mass, which so greatly injures Christianity," as well as the belief that God could be contained in physical elements: Laissez donc toute idolatrie. . . . Laissez moy ce vain dieu de paste Qui voz biens, corps et ames gaste, Ne vueillez donc plus adorer Ce dieu que voyez devorer.54 Abandon, then, all idolatry. . . . Leave behind this vain god of paste, who spoils your goods, bodies and souls. No longer desire to worship a god whom you see devoured.
In addition to denying that Christ is present bodily in the sacrament, Marcourt also took pains to refute the doctrine of transubstantiation, which
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explained the precise way in which the elements become Christ's body and blood. In Marcourt's characterization, the claim that after the priest speaks the words of consecration the substance of bread and wine are replaced by Christ's body and blood, which remain under the accidents, is a doctrinal and moral error of colossal dimensions and diabolical design. It is "a doctrine of devils, against all truth, against all experience, against reason and Holy Scripture. Among other things, it has cast away and alienated almost the whole earth from the Christian religion and faith. So disastrous is the papistical doctrine!" 55 Marcourt's argument against transubstantiation is uncomplicated. The idea is a complete fabrication, the production of "sophists" who have seen fit to employ their imagination to contradict scriptural teaching. Scripture nowhere uses the term "transubstantiation," and everything one learns from Scripture about the sacrament contends against the idea. Citing numerous passages and appealing to the plain and literal meaning of the biblical texts, Marcourt demonstrates that the eucharistic elements cannot legitimately be conceived of as undergoing any physical transformation. In every instance in which the evangelists speak of what was distributed to Jesus' disciples, they "expressly call it bread, and not the appearance of bread.'' Saint Paul and other biblical writers similarly refer to the eucharistic element as "bread'' and not "the body of Jesus Christ which is hidden under the appearance of bread."56 Marcourt concludes: In these quite evident passage Holy Scripture pronounces and expressly says it to be bread, not species, appearance, or likeness of bread. For this reason, on pain of being condemned by God, it is necessary simply to believe it to be bread, and not merely the appearance of bread. For, as has been said, there is no dissemblance in Scripture.57
Again for Marcourt the question turns on the authority of Scripture as opposed to the claims of the "false antichrists" who publish and support a "sophistical determination proceeding from the vanity of dreamers."58 If an appeal to the literal sense of Scripture served Marcourt well in his argument against the doctrine of transubstantiation, it presents something of an obstacle to be surmounted when he is confronted with biblical texts traditionally brought forward in support of the real presence, particularly the words with which Jesus instituted the Supper. Ever since Luther made the words of institution the key to his interpretation of the sacrament, Reformed Protestants who denied a bodily sacramental presence had to furnish an interpretation of the words "This is my body which is given for you" that was compatible with their notion that Christ's body is locally circumscribed in heaven. Marcourt addresses this problem by asserting that these words indicate nothing more than that the bread is holy and that it represents "the burning love with which he loved us as well as his Holy Spirit by whom he gave us life."59 The words must be taken as an indication of the representative nature of the bread, since "it is certain that what one sees, that is, the bread or, as they say, the whiteness of bread, is not the body of Jesus
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Christ." 60 This declaration is uncontroversial because even according to Catholic dogma what can be seen of the elements is not Christ's body. According to the traditional teaching, "within what one sees the body is enclosed or contained."61 But once one asserts that in fact the body is "under" or "within'' the whiteness of bread, one has departed from the simple meaning of Jesus' words: "For he did not say 'under this' or 'within this is contained my body,' but he simply said, 'This is my body.'''62 Marcourt's strategy is to undercut the position of those who contend that the plain and literal meaning of the words supports the notion of Christ's real presence; even those who claim to be representing the simple sense of the text do not "take the words of Jesus Christ in their purity and simplicity as he offered them."63 To support a figurative interpretation of the sacramental words, Marcourt follows Zwingli in citing several other biblical passages in which the verb "to be" is used to express signification rather than identity. When, in referring to the Paschal Lamb, Scripture says "This is the passover of the Lord God" (Ex. 12:11), when Saint Paul says "The rock was Christ" (1 Cor. 10:4), when Jesus says "I am the true vine" (Jn. 15:1), we must understand Scripture to be speaking of a representational relationship that obtains between a sign and the thing to which it points. Saint Augustine is cited in support of the contention that certain biblical passages employ a figure in which "the things which signify take the names of the things signified."64 Marcourt then submits the example of a passage that offers an even more apt analogy to the eucharistic words—God's declaration to Abraham regarding the gift of circumcision, "This is my covenant" (Gn. 17:10). For Marcourt it is beyond dispute that Scripture here employs a trope to explain the sacramental, representational quality of a divinely ordained sign: For this reason, if I were to ask a knowledgeable person the perfect and plain understanding of these words, "This is my covenant," he would say, "This is the sign of my covenant." Thus, just as he will say to me concerning this, "This is my covenant" means "This is the sign of my covenant," I will say to him, "This is my body" means "This is the sign of my body." For the very same manner of speaking in all similar matters is so greatly and perfectly apparent that no man could reasonably hold to the contrary.65
Repeating Oecolampadius's contention that in the case of the sacramental words the figurative interpretation is the plainest and simplest meaning, Marcourt urges his reader not to hold "so strictly to the letter of this passage . . . without a more agreeable mystical and spiritual understanding."66 To underscore the point that the presence of the verb "to be" is inadequate justification for belief in the material presence of Christ's body, Marcourt alludes to Jesus' promise, "where two or three are gathered in my name, there I am in the midst of them" (Mt. 18:20). Here the same verb that in the sacramental words is taken to signify a real, substantial, and corporeal
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presence of Christ indicates a presence of another kind: for "it is quite certain that he does not mean anything other than his spiritual attendance—not personal or bodily, as certain persons have preached." 67 If the words "I am in the midst of them" indicate the spiritual presence of Christ, so too do the words "This is my body." Such a symbolic interpretation of the words of institution is not compromised by those passages in which Jesus speaks of eating his body and drinking his blood. In the sixth chapter of the Gospel of John, where Jesus says that he is "the bread of heaven," that "anyone who eats this bread will live for ever," and that "if you do not eat the flesh of the Son of Man and drink his blood, you do not have life in you" (Jn. 6:50, 51, 53), he uses the figures of bread and eating to explain the nature of the sustenance he offers those who believe in him and who obtain his benefits through a ''spiritual eating" accomplished by "living, whole and firm faith."68 That such a spiritual eating is intended is indicated by Jesus' own declaration, ''[T]he words I speak are spirit and life; the flesh is of no avail" (Jn. 6:63). But if the truth of this kind of figurative interpretation is not yet apparent to the reader, Marcourt offers a syllogism which he insists establishes beyond a doubt that any reference to eating christ's flesh must be understood symbolically. While, on the one hand, Jesus says "whoever believes in me has eternal life and I will raise him up on the last day" (Jn. 6:40), he also says "whoever eats my flesh and drinks my blood has eternal life, and I will raise him up on the last day" (Jn. 6:54). The parallel construction of the two passages suggests that the latter passage is a figurative way of expressing the meaning of the former. The relationship between the faith indicated in the first passage and eating Christ's flesh in the second is made even clearer by the stronger and more exclusionary "if you do not eat the flesh of the Son of Man and drink his blood you do not have life in you" (Jn. 6:53). Unless eating Christ's flesh and drinking his blood are taken as a figure for believing in him, the first passage—"whoever believes in me has eternal life"—which indicates that faith alone is the sufficient condition of eternal life, is contradicted by the third, which, interpreted literally, would suggest that faith by itself is insufficient. Therefore, since Jesus cannot have spoken falsely, we have to understand the eating and drinking referred to not as "visible and external" but "invisible and internal eating which is accomplished by faith alone working through love."69 Marcourt concludes, "For this reason it indubitably follows that to eat the flesh and drink the blood of Jesus Christ, to come to him and to believe in him, is totally one and the same thing. There is not a man alive, subtle though he be, unless he is completely out of his mind, who can assert the contrary."70 If the correct, figurative meaning of Christ's words is so readily apparent, why had the literal interpretation dominated the church's sacramental theology? Marcourt represents the understanding of the eucharist supported by the literal sense of the sacramental words as a deliberate attempt by the ecclesiastical hierarchy to extinguish the knowledge of Jesus Christ and to construct an elaborate ritual by means of which to consolidate profit and
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power. The popular devotional impulse is exploited by the Mass's location of the divine in visible elements "to ravish the world with wonder." 71 "The devil therefore raised it up," one of the Reformed songs avers, "to deceive and enchant the world."72 The aim of this enchantment is that the aura of holiness that surrounds the sacrament might convey a special status upon those who administer it. Marcourt suggests that the invention of the Mass is a device employed by the clergy ''to authorize their rule and dominion, to better exercise their tyranny, to more easily profit from doing trade in our souls, to devour the substance of the people, and finally in order to make themselves to be worshiped."73 The distinction between clergy and laity which the celebration of the sacrament specifically highlights was a special concern of Farel's. In his estimation, the implied claim that ''the priest has more authority than the angels, than the Virgin Mary the mother of Jesus, and than all the saints who rest in our Lord," together with a profusion of ornamentation—of churches and of clerical vestments—depart fundamentally from Christ's simple institution of the Supper and serve to destroy the unity of the body of Christ.74 The Reformed writings all agree that the Mass produces great wealth for the church and maintains the clergy in luxury. It is chiefly owing to its profits that priests grow fat bellies and live in idleness. It is, in Marcourt's phrase, "a good milk cow": "No wonder they maintain it so strongly!"75 "Lift Up Your Hearts": Reorienting Eucharistic Piety The polemic against the Mass, with its vivid description and denunciation of the church's abuse of popular ignorance and encouragement of false eucharistic devotion, already suggests the main emphases of the early French Reformed understanding of the Lord's Supper. For example, by arguing against understanding the eucharist as a sacrifice offered to God, Marcourt indicated that Christ's perfect sacrifice is the primary object of faith for the Christian and that it is this redemptive act, understood as a historical and unrepeatable event, that should be the focus of attention for those who partake of the Supper. Denying that the priest's actions in the Mass had any sacrificial meaning or reconciling efficacy also called into question the widespread belief that the sacrament, ex opere operato, was a conveyer of grace. Moreover, the extended argument presented against the idea of Christ's bodily presence in the sacrament promoted an understanding of eucharistic communion as a spiritual union with the transcendent Christ. Similarly, by insisting on interpreting the sacramental words of institution figuratively, Marcourt suggested a spiritual and symbolic interpretation of the eucharist: Christ's Supper is a memorial of his historic act of redemption rather than a ritual that of itself has redemptive value. In his polemical writings Marcourt was intent on creating a stark contrast between the "carnal eating" he believed was proposed in the Mass and participation in the Lord's Supper, a meal in which believers eat and drink "in remembrance and recollection of
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the death and suffering of Jesus Christ, and in memory also of the love with which he so loved us that he laid down his life for us." 76 By portraying the Mass as a complete departure from Jesus' own institution in which concerns are focused exclusively upon the visible and material, Marcourt prepares his readers to accept an evangelical understanding of the eucharist that concentrates on the redemption accomplished through Jesus' sacrifice made once for all and believers' cognitive and affective appropriation of that redemption through faith. The best indication we have of the general contours of the early French Reformed understanding of the Lord's Supper comes from the evangelical liturgy produced by Farel. His La maniere et fasson presents a picture of the celebration of the eucharist very much along the lines laid out by Zwingli in Zurich and Oecolampadius in Basel.77 In a preamble explaining the meaning of the Supper, Farel emphasizes the redemption accomplished "once" through Christ's death—an offering made "to gather all of us who were scattered, so that all might be united in one body."78 Jesus' unique sacrifice, a voluntary act of love in accordance with God's good pleasure, is the centerpiece of Farel's doctrine. In his view the meaning of the Supper is completely lost unless one understands it as pointing to the event in the past by virtue of which sinful people are reconciled to God and their neighbor and an ecclesial fellowship—the body of Christ—is created. Before his death, Jesus instituted the Supper "intending that we might take and eat of one and the same bread and drink of one and the same cup in memory of his love so great—by which he gave his body for us on the cross and shed his blood for the remission of our sins—without any distinction, as he died for all men without distinction."79 The Supper is appropriately called a eucharist, a thanksgiving, since the faithful come to the table to thank God for the love shown to them through Jesus' redemptive act and "to bear witness to their faith" in that redemption.80 In the sacrament, then, Christians remember Christ's suffering and death, give thanks for God's reconciling love, and testify to their faith in the efficacy of that love. The communal element is an especially prominent feature of Farel's portrayal of the sacrament. The eucharist is a communion of equals. All who come to Christ's table, without regard to position or status, are members of the body of Christ, "without distinction." The Supper is "a visible communion of the members of Jesus Christ."81 The chief effect of the celebration is to create a bond of ecclesial fellowship among those who partake of Christ's offering on their behalf, a fellowship based on the union of believers with Christ. These two aspects of unity—the union of the faithful with Christ and the union of believers one with another—are symbolized by the bread of which all partake: [T]hose who take and break one and the same bread are one and the same body, which is the body of Jesus Christ, and members one of another, grafted and planted in him, to whom they declare and promise to persevere
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until the end and to not be separated from the faith of the gospel and the union which they all have in God through Jesus Christ.
This unity of believers in Christ creates a bond of mutual reliance among the faithful; participation in the Supper impels one to care for one's neighbor and to support the weak and the needy. According to Farel, such a fellowship of believers "without any distinction . . . all living in the same spirit and the same faith" is a far cry from the spirit of the eucharist celebrated in the Mass.83 There, through the emphasis placed on the distinction between clergy and laity, especially in the denial of the cup to laypersons, and through the neglect of love for one's neighbor, the unity of Christ's body is destroyed and the very meaning of the Supper lost.84 In contrast, Farel intends the celebration of the Supper he outlines to focus not upon the physical elements of bread and wine but on the past redemption of Jesus Christ and the believer's own interior state. To this end, he gives worshipers an opportunity to examine their own lives, not for evidence of worthiness to come to the table, for all are sinful, but for signs of their true repentance and faith in Christ.85 Then, following the reading of the words of institution and an interpretation of those words admonishing the faithful not to succumb to teaching that departs from Jesus' express commandment to eat and drink in his memory, Farel includes the passage that is probably his unique and most enduring contribution to the Reformed liturgy and eucharistic thought: Therefore, lift up your hearts on high, seeking heavenly things in heaven where Jesus Christ is seated at the right hand of the Father; and do not stop at the visible things which are corrupted by usage. In joy of heart, in brotherly union, come all to partake of the table of our Lord, giving thanks for the very great love which he has shown to us; have the death of this good savior written on your hearts in eternal remembrance, to be on fire and to move others also to the love of God and to follow his holy word.86
In this passage, called the Reformed Sursum corda for its echo of the ancient hymn preserved in the Roman Mass, Farel emphasizes the need to attend not to the visible signs upon the altar but rather to the love of God, which the sacrament symbolizes for believers. He thus introduces the doctrine of Christ's ascension and the location of Christ's body in heaven at the right hand of the Father. As if this point had not been given sufficient emphasis, Farel has the minister repeat the reference in distributing the bread: "Jesus, the true savior of the world, who died for us and is seated in glory at the right hand of the Father, dwell in your hearts by his Holy Spirit, making you wholly alive in him through a living faith and perfect love."87 The implication is not subtle: Christ's body is in heaven and therefore not in the elements, although the spiritual effect of Christ's redemption in the hearts of believers is genuine. There is therefore no reason to be fascinated with
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the physical elements used in the celebration of communion, since no connection is held to exist between them and the transcendent body. To guard against "superstition" Farel instructs the minister, when giving the bread, "which should be without image, not to permit it to be adored." 88 The influence of Farel's Sursum corda became apparent almost immediately in writings produced by the French Reformed party. The admonition to seek "heavenly things in heaven" is a pervasive motif in the Reformed literature on the sacrament. Marcourt, for example, adopted Farel's imagery of transcending earthly things in concluding his argument against the notion of a material presence of Christ's body in the eucharist: Therefore, since it is certain that according to the body Jesus Christ is in heaven, whoever would not renounce the whole truth of Scripture must not seek him elsewhere until he manifests himself visibly. One must lift up one's heart, one's understanding and mind, awaiting with humble longing the hour when it shall please him to guide us to his rest, not worshiping him here below in something visible, for Scripture teaches us otherwise.89
Similarly, Matthieu Malingre's song "Tant que vivray en aage florissant" employs much the same imagery in asserting Christ's heavenly transcendence over against the Catholic claim of his bodily presence in the sacrament: C'est le seigneur, De tout honneur, Il est la sus, Au hault des cieulx, Avec le pere, Auquel j'espere, La gist ma foy, de mieulx en mieulx.90 The Lord of all honor, who dwells above with the Father in highest heaven, is the one in whom I hope. There rests my faith, all for the better.
It was a theme the reformers could not overemphasize, since it went to the heart of Reformed objections to the prevailing forms of Catholic piety. Devotional activity based on a belief in Christ's immanence in the sacrament, practices to which the church lent its support, was, in the Reformed view, nothing less than idol worship. The rhetoric of devotion to Christ who transcends all visible signs, with its emphasis on remembrance of Jesus' sacrifice and faith in the heavenly Christ and the mystical union created by his dying and rising, was used in these popular writings to impart to common people a transcendental theological vision—a vision which, it was hoped, would rid the social body of the malignancy of idolatrous worship and restore to the church a spiritual understanding of the eucharistic meal.
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Theological Themes in the Reformed Doctrine In opposing the doctrine of the real presence and offering an alternative devotion centering on the remembrance of Christ's sacrificial act of redeeming love, the evangelical pastors of the Swiss Romande were by no means original. A careful reading of their writings betrays a heavy dependence on the reformers in Switzerland who were some of the first to argue against a material conception of Christ's presence in the sacrament. Marcourt especially borrowed liberally from Zwingli's eucharistic doctrine, and Farel's doctrine was influenced by the thought of Oecolampadius and the liturgy of Berne. The influence of the Swiss helped to shape a distinct program of evangelical reform in France. Although the approach these French reformers took was not unaffected by the humanist, spiritual evangelicalism of Lefèvre d'Etaples and the évangélique party that formed around him, their ideas and their method of pursuing reform could not by any means be confused with this more moderate approach. Similarly, although Farel and those about him clearly felt indebted to Luther and the German Reformation, their understanding of many basic theological and philosophical questions differed considerably from this pioneer of reform. In order to appreciate the individual character of this new theological option and assess its potential impact on thinking about religion and society in France, we must examine the fundamental presuppositions that underlie both the attack on the Mass and the exposition of the Reformed eucharistic doctrine. Perhaps the most apparent theological axiom operative in the reformers' approach to the eucharist is a principle they shared with Luther and indeed all Protestant reformers, namely, the unique authority of Scripture. 91 The Protestant principle of "scripture alone"—that only God's word can serve as the foundation for the doctrine and life of the church—supplied a great deal of persuasive power to evangelical efforts to challenge longheld assumptions about Christian faith and practice. The French reformers used the sola scriptura principle liberally in their arguments for a sacramental position that departed radically from the Roman Catholic doctrine.92 Most of the French pamphlets and treatises produced in Neuchâtel in the mid1530s begin with a declaration like this one Marcourt inserted in his Petit traicté de la saincte eucharistie: "It is necessary that everything said and done in the church of Jesus Christ be ruled, guided, and demonstrated by this holy word, and not by human doctrine or invention."93 According to this manner of proceeding, if a particular belief or practice cannot be established on the basis of Scripture, it must by all means be abandoned. Presenting Scripture and the tradition of the church as fundamentally opposed, reformers like Marcourt attempted to portray the Mass as the production of a variety of popes, and consequently the result of human invention. The Supper, on the other hand, was instituted by Jesus himself, as could be demonstrated on the basis of Scripture. This method of arguing effectively undercut the authority which the church claimed for its tradition of interpreting Scripture and establishing rules of orthodoxy. Vehement denunciations of the Mass as an abuse of the
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pure simplicity of Christ's institution are then rooted in the assumption that the church's belief and practice must be based on God's word and that anything produced by human reason or developed through the church's tradition is without any benefit and, to the extent that it contradicts Scripture, constitutes a malignant influence. The French reformers also adopted the evangelical insistence that for salvation, as indeed for all our knowledge of God and ourselves, human beings are dependent on God's prevenient grace. The notion that God's grace is prior to and independent of all human activity had a profound impact on a variety of evangelical teachings, from justification to election. Its influence on the French Reformed understanding of the eucharist is equally powerful, permeating nearly every aspect of the doctrine. For example, it is primarily on the basis of a belief in the priority of God's gracious initiative that Marcourt recoils at the suggestion that a priest, by mumbling some words over a piece of bread, causes "the Son of God to descend there, in body and soul, completely alive, as great and as whole as he hung on the cross." 94 The sacrament that symbolizes Christ's voluntary selfoffering on our behalf is understood to be fundamentally perverted when Christ is seen to be the object of the priest's actions in the Mass, constrained to respond to an invocation by descending into the sacramental elements. The principle of the prevenience of God's grace demands, rather, that we conceive of God's redemptive activity and Christ's willing sacrifice as effective entirely apart from any actions undertaken by human initiative. It is this reasoning that disallows the interpretation of the Mass as a sacrifice, for according to the orthodox Catholic conceptualization the actions of the priest are instrumental to the sacrament's efficacy, since God is held to respond to the priest's offering of the host by granting forgiveness. When Marcourt accuses the clergy of attempting to set themselves up as "our redeemers," he is expressing an objection to a clerical usurpation of God's free, unconstrained, and prior offering of grace to those who believe in Christ, our only mediator. An equally prominent theme in these writings on the eucharist is indicated by the sharp distinction drawn between visible and invisible things. The dichotomy of visible and invisible, earthly and heavenly, material and spiritual, functions as an important rhetorical and interpretive device in both Marcourt's and Farel's writings. For Farel the sacrament is a "visible communion of the members of Jesus Christ"; the implication is that it represents something not visible—the mystical union of believers with their Lord. In receiving the eucharist communicants are admonished not to attend only to "the visible things which are corrupted by usage." Marcourt criticizes the clergy for binding the people's understanding to "a visible and corruptible thing" and for transferring the honor owed to God to visible things. There is undoubtedly in the Reformed approach to the worship of God a kind of devaluation of what the eyes may perceive.95 The impulse to direct attention away from visible objects in the interest of focusing on an invisible, spiritual reality is especially apparent in Farel's and Marcourt's arguments against the
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real presence. The attention given in the Catholic understanding of the eucharist to the consecrated elements, the veneration of them as means of grace and vehicles of the divine presence, is objectionable because it violates this crucial distinction between the visible and material, on the one hand, and the invisible, spiritual, and divine, on the other. The supposition that Farel and Marcourt are concerned to defend is that the divine, which is invisible, cannot be communicated by means of things that are the objects of sense perception. While Farel is willing to grant some representative value to visible things—the bread, for example, is a figure of the unity of Christ's body—he is wary of assigning them too great a significance. The sacrament employs the visible signs of bread and wine, and the figures of eating and drinking, but as soon as these visible things are introduced to the congregation, Farel would immediately conduct the people's attention away from the visible to heavenly, incorruptible realities. 96 The tendency to assign a negative value to the visible and material in the context of worship is especially apparent in the reformers' reflections on the imperative of spiritual worship. In this they made frequent use of Jesus' discourse to the Samaritan woman concerning the worship of God in the fourth chapter of the Gospel of John. Marcourt, asserting that seeking and worshiping God in "temples and places made by human hands" is no less than "horrible idolatry," adduces John 4:21–24 as evidence: "For the temple of the living God is the heart, the soul, and the spirit of the believer. For this reason Jesus Christ said that the true worshipers will not worship the Lord God on a mountain, or in Jerusalem, but in spirit and in truth."97 In expressing this notion Marcourt was borrowing a familiar theme from Farel's writings. For Farel, the imperative of worshiping God spiritually necessarily means that God is not found in any object of sense experience: The true worship and pure service of God is to give him our hearts entirely, recognizing him and no other as sole sovereign Lord and Master, true God and Father, awaiting no other salvation, life, or deliverance from our wickedness and sin except from him; and to seek him neither here nor there, neither on a mountain, nor in Jerusalem, nor any other place, but in spirit and in truth. For it is not necessary to go seeking or asking for him in any creature or corporeal or visible thing, but rather in spiritual things, worshiping him in spirit and in truth, in ourselves and in our hearts. For the kingdom of God is within us when we have a firm faith in him. It is not in any observance, for there is no way of acting in order to have God, nor is there any particular place where he may be found. God is not contained and does not make his habitation in things made by human hands or in visible things, but rather he is in us when we are renewed and made spiritual, united and joined by true faith to our head Jesus Christ. He is the mercy seat where the fullness of divinity dwells, where all the treasures of knowledge and wisdom are found. Therefore, in all times and places we must address ourselves in all our needs to our Father and always call upon his help, who continually helps those who love him.98
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The importance the Reformed assigned to worship "in spirit and in truth," distinguishing God's presence from all visible, human constructions, is indicated by its appearance in the Reformed song collections. Matthieu Malingre condenses Farel's principal concerns in this offering: De le servir faisons tous diligence, Sans discerner de places or de lieux, Il est par tout par essence et presence, Qui ce ne croyt est contumelieux En toy mon Dieu. 99 With diligence we seek to serve him, seeking out no particular places. He is everywhere, by presence and in essence. Whoever does not believe this insults you, my God.
The emphasis the Reformed placed on divine priority and the spiritual worship of God was of a piece with their project of heightening a sense of God's majesty. In the view of the French reformers, the habit of associating some portion of the divine life with certain physical media—venerating the host or holy relics and visiting holy shrines—was blasphemous and idolatrous, the result of a fundamental misconstrual of the divine nature. At the heart of Farel's and Marcourt's conception of God is the idea that God transcends the created order and is absolutely free from any form of human constraint. This notion of God's freedom was a primary motive behind their attacks on "carnal worship," especially the focus on Christ's immanence in the sacramental elements. In the Reformed view there is a fundamental contradiction inherent in the assertion that the divine is locatable in physical objects. The God portrayed in evangelical songs as the "king of glory" and "the reigning prince" whose hands hold "the sky, the sea and the earth" could not be properly conceived of as being ''devoured'' in the celebration of the Mass or "imprisoned" in a ciborium that held the host. Marcourt suggested that by identifying the natural body of Christ with a morsel of bread he was "more greatly abased than ever he was in the presence of Pilate" and pronounced the notion that the priest could "carry him here and there . . . to do with him as he pleases" "a horrible thing to consider."100 For the Reformed party, then, inasmuch as they considered transcendent majesty to be of the very essence of divinity, theological representations that might suggest God's immanence and the submission of the divine life to creaturely control greatly compromised a central feature of biblical faith. The cause of defending God's majesty, impassibility, and transcendent freedom against the "blasphemy" of the Mass and erroneous sacramental doctrine was then a primary motive behind the Protestant propaganda concerning the eucharist.101 The Eucharist, Sovereignty, and Sedition The French Reformed propaganda campaign of the mid1530s produced a mixed outcome. Largely as a result of the affair of the placards, royal policy
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hardened against the cause of evangelical reform in France. 102 The aftermath of the affair saw an outbreak of official repression sufficiently brutal to elicit pleas for clemency and apologiae from many in the Reformed camp, including one from a young humanist scholar by the name of Jean Calvin.103 In part because the episode provoked the royal ire, the posting of the placards received almost universal condemnation. Even many Protestants considered it an illconceived and foolhardy act.104 The evangelical publicists who produced the placards and pamphlets, however, were not the sort to calculate the political outcome of their literary efforts in this way. Their aim was to further the cause of the gospel. They attempted to do this by acquainting Frenchspeaking people with the errors of conventional religious belief and practice through biblically supported criticisms of church doctrine and simple expositions of Reformed teachings. It was this attempt to air their ideas publicly and to speak directly to common people that made the authorities particularly nervous. Justification for official fears was to be found in the pamphlets' appeals to ordinary, perhaps only slightly educated, people to judge for themselves the truth or falsity of received ideas on the basis of Holy Scripture. To ask common folk to make decisions on their own about matters of faith by itself posed a radical challenge to ecclesiastical authority. The notion of individual conscience as the arbiter of truth in religious matters was still something of a novelty in France of the 1530s. But the Protestant propagandists went beyond the demand for people to think rightly about the faith. The tone of much of their writings suggests a call for action on the part of readers. Those won over by the Reformed ideology were encouraged to demonstrate their allegiance to the cause of the gospel. They were told to forsake carnal worship and abandon all forms of idolatry.105 Speaking directly to those who participate in the Roman Mass, "Cephas Geranius," the pseudonymous editor of Marcourt's Declaration de la messe, implores those in "danger of perdition" to forsake and abandon such idolatry, leaving Babylon. Or else remove the evil from among you, resist it with all your might and abolish it, as did the true minister Moses and the true kings Asa, Jehosaphat, Josiah, Hezekiah, and Manasseh. And what is more, the living and powerful word of God enjoins you just as much as it does princes and governors to ruin and destroy such idolatry by any available means.106
The active response envisaged in this entreaty illustrates the tendency in the Reformed rhetoric of this period to portray the response of faith as one that consists not simply in trust and passive reliance on God but also in a forceful, public assertion of loyalty to God and God's commandments. In their interpretation of the biblical message the propagandists discovered an iconoclastic imperative. Their response to this discovery was to publicize it, to speak out. Marcourt, discovering that the whole world was held in "darkness and damnation" by those who perpetuate blasphemy and idolatry, declared his vocation to be just this task of publicizing the truth: "With
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God's help I will cry out, I will write, I will do all I am able until I die, never stopping as long as it shall be allotted to me, and I am sure that more than one hundred thousand will do likewise with me." 107 He did not expect to be a lone voice, and he may well have expected his readers to join him in a public demonstration of loyalty to the gospel. This might have taken the form of refusing to attend mass and choosing to seek out an evangelical conventicle. But there were even bolder moves one might make. Refusing to decorate one's home with the requisite hangings in honor of a Corpus Christi procession, engaging in public demonstrations in which Psalms and evangelical songs were sung, destroying images and desecrating objects of religious devotion—these were all options that were open to people with evangelical leanings and the will to endure the consequences their behavior might provoke. And so, to the extent that the rhetoric of the Reformed propagandists identified a tangible, malignant influence in society that was said to offend God and encouraged people to do what was in their power either to abandon idolatrous worship or to put an end to it altogether, the official fears of social unrest were not unfounded. However, the publicists of reform did not appeal exclusively or even primarily to popular activism. They appealed, first of all, to God "to visit his poor people, rescuing them from all error, darkness, falsity and deception."108 And they also expressed a wish for some sort of royal initiative to solve the problems posed by the distortion of religious practice. Marcourt in particular displayed a penchant for portraying the common people, subjected to religious teaching that confuses the transcendent God with physical matter, as victims caught in a quagmire from which they cannot extricate themselves. With this vision of a victimized and helpless populace, he recalled the kings of Israel and Judah who waged war against the worship of idols and envisaged the appearance of a ruler to follow their example: "Would that God might raise up a king like unto Hezekiah who by the power of God will destroy and completely dissipate all idolatry! May the Lord in his mercy look upon his poor people and by his powerful hand deliver them and cleanse them of all idolatry. Amen."109 Marcourt also appealed directly to rulers to support the cause of the gospel. He reminded them of their duty "to have the honor of God at heart'' in exercising their office.110 Like Solomon, who "knew well that it does not proceed from power nor from the will of earthly men that a single man should be so feared, honored and obeyed" and who ''wished to honor the one on account of whom he reigned and was so exalted," princes "who bear the name of God" should be willing to hear the case of the miserable Christians who are enduring such savage persecution for the sake of the gospel.111 The biblical motif of the king as the one responsible for upholding justice and righteousness and defending the oppressed of the land lent authoritative scriptural support to the notion that it is the proper office of the king to support the cause of evangelical reform. There is then a certain ambivalence in the Reformed call for a response to their message about the Mass and Christ's Supper. On one hand one finds a model of religious reform by God's gracious action through the wise counsel
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of a reforming king, without any initiative taken by the common folk who are the helpless victims of a devilish religious ideology. On the other there is the model (supplied, perhaps, by historical experience) of evangelical converts struggling to rid their communities of the offending practices. The two models stand side by side, often in the same work, without resolution. It was perhaps owing to this ambiguity and also to the charge of evangelical sedition that the early French reformers placed such heavy emphasis on the requirement of obedience to authority. Farel, for example, allots an unusually large space to the traditional teaching in his liturgical manual. In describing both the prayer that precedes the proclamation of the word and the topics to be covered in the sermon, he focuses with peculiar intensity on temporal rulers, who are to be obeyed regardless of their moral disposition "in everything which is not against God." 112 It should not surprise us that reformers of Farel's ilk, whose expressed views had been labeled socially dangerous, should have taken pains to encourage a kind of political conservativism among the faithful as a defense against the charge of sedition. As incongruous as this urging might have seemed to converts to the new religion, who had abandoned the authority of the church and the "traditions of men," the biblical understanding that "whoever resists authority resists the ordinance of God, since there is no authority which is not of God's ordinance'' became Reformed doctrine.113 The evangelicals attempted to be consistent with scriptural teaching on the matter by also emphasizing the responsibility of rulers to exercise their office in accordance with God's commandments. It is God, after all ''who raises up princes and casts them down and transfers kingdoms according to his good pleasure."114 Farel even saw it as the duty of preachers, in appropriate circumstances, to admonish princes, "since they have the power, to do their duty and to treat their subjects as their brothers and their children, knowing that God is above all princes and that he will judge all people just as they deserve."115 But despite this attempt at evenhandedness, the emphasis of the teaching was clear: Christians owe their obedience to those constituted in authority over them—they are not to seek "carnal liberty and freedom, but freedom of the spirit and the soul."116 If there is an ambivalence in the French Reformed vision of a believer's duty when confronted with the evangelical demand to repudiate "carnal worship," it stems from the incongruity of accentuating the notion of divine freedom while attempting to minimize the impact of this emphasis on social and political behavior. The doctrine propounded by the Reformed in the 1530s emphasized, above all, God's majesty and God's transcendence of all things material, a theme that found its complement in the notion of the critical distinction between visible and invisible things. The more the rhetorical distinction of visible and invisible was stressed, the more these categories took on the appearance of irreconcilable ontological realities—mattter and spirit, earth and heaven. And so when Reformed authors invoked these categories in describing God and God's relation to the sacrament, maintaining that in no sense could God or any aspect of the sacred be mediated through material things, they presupposed a radical disjunction
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between the divine and temporal orders. Needless to say, this disjunction marks a decisive departure from the dominant medieval worldview. The notion that the divine is completely dissociated from all things visible is as alien a sentiment to the mindset of most late medieval Europeans as it is possible to imagine. In making this claim, then, Protestant propagandists were mounting a formidable ideological assault on the dominant religious culture. In opposition to a worldview that stressed continuity and correspondence between the material and the spiritual, the Reformed emphasized a critical distinction between the temporal and divine realms. The significance of this emphasis for political behavior can be grasped when one considers that it was precisely this medieval worldview that supplied the system of symbolization upon which many European communities relied for maintaining social cohesion and which French royalty invoked as the basis of France's political unity and wellbeing. The medieval Catholic understanding of the eucharist in particular, as a representation of the immanence of divine power, lent itself particularly well to the symbolic authorization of political regimes. We have seen this in the instance of the French royal religion's borrowings of eucharistic symbolism to represent the unity of the polity and support a particular localization of power. The eucharist, then, as the symbolic point of contact between the sacred and secular and a potent cultural and religious representation of the immanence of power, came to be viewed by many European rulers as indispensable to their political survival. Given the extent to which the French royal dynasty had in effect wed its destiny to the faith of the Catholic church and its central rite, the hostile official reaction to the Protestant polemic against the Mass is understandable. 117 In sharp contrast to the medieval worldview, Reformed doctrine dramatized the discontinuity between temporal and divine orders by emphasizing the potential for opposition between the two realms. This emphasis was in part a result of the evangelical focus on rendering unqualified allegiance to God. In attempting to cultivate a particular, spiritual form of evangelical piety, Reformed preaching displayed a strong tendency to concentrate attention on attachments that compromise one's devotion to God. The notion that sin consists primarily in this kind of conflict of loyalties is a powerful motive in the literature reviewed, here. Marcourt's and Farel's objections to the veneration of sacred "things" assumed that attachment to the sensuous directs one away from the spiritual: in worship, one cannot attend simultaneously to the products of human manufacture and to God. We find the same paradigm at work in discussions of obedience to one's superiors. In supporting the claim that "all authority is from God," Farel does not hesitate to declare that, at times, a ruler's designs are at odds with God's good pleasure. One may infer from this declaration that those who obey an "iniquitous tyrant" might in some way contribute toward aims that are in conflict with God's, ultimately triumphant, will. It is no doubt this contingency that motivates Farel to specify that obedience is to be rendered ''in everything which is not against God." Perhaps the most revealing illustration of this inclina
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tion to stress the potential for opposition between temporal and spiritual duties and attachments is given in the song "On the Ten Commandments of God" from Plusieurs belles et bonnes chansons. In relating the message of the command to honor one's parents, the writer cannot resist the temptation to qualify the allegiance one owes to earthly superiors by one's commitment to God: Dieu te promet de vivre longuement En honorant humblement pere et mere. Qui contrevient à ce commandment Par la loy doit mourir de mort amere. Et qui son pere aimera plus que Christ Digne il n'est pas d'avoir son nom escrit Au ciel supere Ou Dieu impere Qui est le Pere Au quel surtout faut obeyr. . . . 118 God promises you long life when you humbly honor your father and mother. According to the law, whoever contravenes this command must die a bitter death. And whoever shall love his father more than Christ is not worthy to have his name written in heaven above, where God, the Father who especially must be obeyed, rules. . . .
By raising the specter of idolatry even in the command to honor one's parents, the song's author demonstrates the characteristic propensity of Reformed thinking to accentuate the opposition of the temporal and divine orders. This example is particularly revealing because the command to honor parents was traditionally interpreted as an injunction to submit to all temporal authority.119 Over against a tradition that stressed the continuity between obedience to God and obedience to temporal instrumentalities ("those who act in God's place"),120 The song suggests discontinuity and conflict—that one perhaps will not be able to satisfy both the demand of honoring God and the demand to obey one's earthly superiors. The ambivalence that we see in Reformed writings on the matter of how people should respond to the evangelical message is then a direct result of ideas inherent in the eucharistic teaching. The project we have noted in the literature on the sacrament of accentuating the distinction between the temporal and the divine generated, in discussions of obedience to authority, a parallel contraposition of the allegiance demanded by temporal rulers and one's duty to obey God. Dissociating the two realms had the additional effect of undermining the kinds of symbolic claims to power made by political authorities. We should naturally expect emphases of this kind to have a corrosive effect on the inclination to submit to political authority, especially considering their presentation in the context of popularly mediated attacks on a symbol as politically invested as the eucharist. And this is precisely the consequence that Catholic opponents, including Francis I, saw in the Prot
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estant polemic against the Mass. The reformers, however, for the most part declined to elaborate these kinds of ramifications. Instead, they asserted a qualified duty to submit to all authority, but without the problematical metaphysical freight that lent special power to the traditional injunction. Political power, always deriving symbolic force from its association with the sacred, had in the case of France received its primary justification through a linkage of the immanent political order to divine power. The operative presupposition is that temporal orders and instrumentalities are, in a sense, mirrors of the divine order. When the Reformed denied that particular way of linking the two realms, and supplied instead the biblical image of rulers being raised up and brought low according to God's good pleasure, they took a great deal of the force out of the traditional argument for obedience. The command of obedience remained, but, at least in the way it was expressed by reformers like Farel, it did not appear as an organic part of the Reformed theology. 121 The Reformed eucharistic doctrine of the 1530s, therefore, had the potential to be considerably more socially disruptive than its authors were willing to openly acknowledge. The readers who, for a variety of reasons, were predisposed to respond favorably to the theological point of view presented by the Reformed found in their writings on the eucharist an approach to the sacred and an understanding of the relation between the sacred and social and political orders that were quite unlike the religious culture with which they were familiar. For the growing number of artisans, merchants, and notables who joined the movement for Protestant reform in France, Reformed teachings supplied a kind of grammar of belief, or interpretive system, that organized habits of thinking and acting in the world in a manner conducive to their changing social experience. These converts were probably not social revolutionaries, but their beliefs about God, Christ, and salvation naturally brought them into conflict with the prevailing religious ideology and the social and political interests bound up with it. A significant source of this conflict is to be found in the paradigm of divine priority, freedom, and transcendence that is most clearly in evidence in the Reformed eucharistic doctrine. The reader of the attacks on the Mass who came to agree that the divine life could not be identified with tangible matter found herself with religious interests that were inimical to the interests of the society to which she belonged. If, for example, she were present at the sacramental procession of January 1535 in Paris that identified sacramentarian beliefs with treason, she would find herself in effect having to choose between, on the one hand, submitting to her temporal sovereign by giving assent to a practice she regarded as idolatrous and, on the other, defying him by refusing to participate in blasphemous worship and so becoming one of the "seditious persons" undermining France's well being. This was not a comfortable position for converts to the Reformed faith, but should they choose the path of defiance they could take some solace in the thought that all authority has its source in a radically transcendent God—a God whose designs are not to be confused with those of temporal rulers—and that they were obeying a greater king and a higher law.122
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The intitial Reformed campaign against the Mass came to a rather abrupt end shortly after the affair of the placards. The printer Pierre de Vingle disappeared in 1535, and the reformers who supplied him with evangelical material turned their attention to consolidating local gains in Frenchspeaking Switzerland. The period 1535–1540 produced little in the way of popular literature to fuel the movement for a radical reform of the church in France. Neuchâtel ceased to be the center of Reformed propaganda efforts, ceding this role to Geneva, which was rather slow in establishing its printing industry. In the 1540s, however, the campaign began again in earnest. The continuing effort to address the issue of the eucharist came to be dominated by Jean Calvin who, from 1541, was established in Geneva as its principal reformer. Calvin did not simply reproduce the doctrine articulated earlier by Farel and Marcourt. Expressing dissatisfaction with all previous evangelical interpretations of the sacrament, he employed his considerable analytical and rhetorical skill to revisit the question of signification in the eucharist, producing a variety of Reformed sacramental theology that he was careful to distinguish from that of the sacramentaires. Yet in spite of his efforts to distance himself from aspects of the doctrine advanced by the placards of 1534, certain characteristic features of the thought of Farel and Marcourt appear in his own writings on the eucharist and in the later writings of those indebted to his influence. Marcourt's contention that the primary significance of the sacramental elements is to be found in their representational function, Farel's focus on union with Christ as the fundamental fact toward which communion points, and the critical and transcendental emphasis present in all the French Reformed writings of the 1530s are themes on which subsequent Reformed writers composed many a variation. Whether directly then (through the dissemination of their writings to popular readers) or indirectly (by their influence on later publicists of reform), the authors of the first French campaign against the Mass produced an impact on the public debate over the sacrament of Christ's body and blood whose theological and political significance ought not to be underestimated.
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3— Specifying Power: Sacramental Signification in Calvin's Theology of the Eucharist In 1541 a small theological work, written in French, came off the presses of the Genevan printer Michel du Bois with the title Petit traicté de la saincte Cene du nostre Seigneur Jesus Christ, or Short Treatise on the Holy Supper of our Lord Jesus Christ. 1 The author was the pastor and teacher Jean Calvin, who would return to Geneva in September of that year to resume his duties in the city after a period of exile spent principally in Strasbourg. This was not Calvin's first written treatment of the eucharist, but it marked the first occasion on which his attention was given over wholly to the topic. The treatise also stands as Calvin's first attempt to give a comprehensive account of his sacramental position in the French language.2 The 1540s would see a number of productions from Calvin's pen that would bear significantly on the formation of a consolidated position on the eucharist within the Reformed party in general and, more particularly, within that part of the movement that was making steady inroads in France. Among these writings, those written in the vernacular exerted the greatest influence on the French populace, since they were designed to appeal directly to lay readers who lacked any formal Latin or theological education. In addition to the Short Treatise on the Holy Supper, which would appear in at least four separate editions before the end of the decade, Calvin produced in 1541 his Institution de la religion chrestienne, a translation into French of his first revision of the Latin Institutio christianae religionis, or Institutes of the Christian Religion.3 The Institution of 1541 contained a lengthy discussion of Calvin's theory of the sacraments and a thorough explication of his position on the Lord's Supper, a discussion that would undergo revision and amplification in subsequent editions in 1545, 1551, 1554, and 1560.4 Beyond these specifically theological writings, Calvin's short liturgical and catechetical works were equally
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well suited for shaping the theological views of the lay readers who came in contact with them. La forme des prieres et chantz ecclesiastiques (The Form of Ecclesiastical Prayers and Songs) 5 and the second of Calvin's catechisms, Le catéchisme de l'eglise de Geneve,6 were both prepared by Calvin upon his return to Geneva as aids for the establishment of the life of faith and worship in that city, but he also knew that these writings might exert an even broader influence, and indeed he hoped they would do so.7 Given the frequency with which these works were reprinted, it would appear that Calvin was not disappointed. Within his own lifetime his liturgy appeared in no fewer than ten editions and the catechism in at least fourteen. In the Short Treatise on the Holy Supper and these other French writings, Calvin laid out in plain language and a straightforward style his own particular conception of the nature and meaning of the sacrament of the Lord's Supper. While a variety of topics relating to the eucharist were treated, the most important issue Calvin addressed was the one that lay at the heart of contemporary disputes over the sacrament—the manner of Christ's presence in the eucharist. His basic motive was to establish, principally through constructive arguments (although with occasional polemical assaults on Roman Catholic doctrine), the proper relationship between the eucharistic elements and Christ's body and blood, and to do so with such persuasive clarity that the controversy over the sacrament might be brought to a close. The means for achieving that end was a theory of sacramental signs that would make possible what Calvin conceived of as a "true" but not a "local" presence of Christ in the Supper. In this chapter I take up this theory of sacramental signification and the main emphases in Calvin's thinking about the sacrament and its manner of operation that were transmitted to the lay readers of his French writings of the 1540s.8 Before turning to the relevant theological themes, however, we must consider the context of the writing and publication of these works. This is important for our purpose because what we know of the circumstances in which these writings were produced and circulated significantly affects how we interpret them and assess their historical impact. I contend that if we are to understand the profound impact they exercised over popular conceptions of the social body and political power in the midsixteenth century, these writings must be placed against the background of the propaganda struggle in which the French Reformed had been engaged in the mid1530s, and the renewal, beginning in about 1540, of the appeal to lay opinion in France on the matter of the Lord's Supper. The French Writings on the Eucharist: Composition, Publishing, and Circulation The testimony of Calvin's literary output reflects a consistent interest on his part in the success of the movement for the evangelical reform of religious life in his native France.9 By the early 1540s this interest had not waned,
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and in fact we discern evidence of renewed efforts to influence events in France in the productions of Geneva's growing publishing industry (see Figure 1). 10 If in the past commentators on Calvin's theological writings ignored or disparaged the aim of furthering the progress of the French reform as motivation for the composition of many of Calvin's vernacular works, such an approach is no longer possible for those committed to understanding the intellectual productions of this ideological struggle in their appropriate historical contexts. For this reason, when we examine Calvin's French writings dealing with the presence of Christ in the eucharist, we must give adequate attention, first, to Calvin's overt and implicit designs for these works and, second, to the available evidence indicating the extent and composition of their readership. That Calvin composed the Short Treatise on the Holy Supper for the benefit of Frenchspeaking readers would seem obvious; the treatise was written in French and was not available in Latin translation until four years after its initial appearance. Thus, contrary to an often repeated characterization of the work, it was not addressed primarily to an international audience of Protestants concerned about the rift between the Reformed and Lutherans over the interpretation of the Supper. The irenic tone of the work and in particular its concluding section, which speaks directly to the positions of Luther and Zwingli, have contributed to this interpretation. The trouble with this view is that Calvin did not write the treatise in Latin, as he certainly would have done had he wanted to address readers who did not read French, and as he would have preferred to do had this treatment of a difficult theological matter been addressed to persons with some expertise in the theological niceties of the issue. Furthermore, it is apparent that Calvin did not consider it an urgent matter to see that a speedy Latin translation was prepared. When the treatise at last appeared in Latin, the translation was done not by Calvin himself but by Nicolas des Gallars. Comments Calvin made to a Germanspeaking correspondent, Veit Dietrich, shortly after the Latin version was published make his intention for the original treatise apparent:
Figure 1. Genevan book production, 1535–1550.
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"A style of instruction, simple and popular, and adapted to the unlearned, shows what my purpose was from the first. . . . I labored, however, not only faithfully to express my views, and reduce them within a brief compass, but also to unfold them lucidly, and without technicalities." 11 Theodore Beza's comments regarding the treatise underline this, pointing out that what Beza thought of as "a golden little book on the Lord's Supper" was composed "for the use of his French compatriots."12 These reports put the matter beyond doubt: Calvin composed the Short Treatise for the benefit of a popular audience primarily within France. Designs for the Institution, on the other hand, as a work translated from a Latin original, are somewhat less obvious. While Calvin clearly sought to reach an audience that extended beyond his native land in the work as first conceived, his interest in gaining a hearing among those in France who could not have benefited from a compendium of Christian instruction in Latin is clear from his preparation of the French translation in 1541 and his efforts after that time to see that French editions appeared shortly following each major revision of the Institutio. He made his intent clear in the "argument" that served to introduce the edition of 1541: "First I put it in Latin so that it might serve all persons for study, from whichever country they might be; then later, wishing to communicate that in it which might benefit our French nation, I also translated it into our language."13 We know that Calvin intended his Forme des prières and the Catéchisme for the benefit of laypeople. As a general matter, liturgical and catechetical writings of the Reformation period are some of the best indicators we have of the kinds of ideas disseminated to popular audiences of the time. Calvin, indeed, supports this view when he claims that his catechism is particularly reliable evidence of "the kind of doctrine with which the common people are imbued by me."14 But as these are a liturgy and catechism designed first for the use of Geneva's congregations, is it possible that these writings also gained a readership beyond Geneva's walls? In fact there is ample evidence to suggest that Calvin and the printers with whom he collaborated intended both the Forme des prières and the Catéchisme to find a French readership. First, we have the testimony of Calvin's own words. His claim in the "Letter to the Reader" introducing the 1542 Genevan edition of the Forme des prières that "this book will not only profit the people of this church, but also all who desire to know what form the faithful must hold and follow when they assemble in the name of Jesus Christ," reveals Calvin's hope that his work would serve as the basis of worship in many other Reformed congregations.15 Second, the intended readership is indicated by the volume of publication of these writings: the frequency with which they were reprinted created a supply that far exceeded any local demand, either in Geneva or in the other Frenchspeaking cities under Swiss influence.16 The great bulk of the Genevan output and also the product of Strasbourg (which had a tiny French population in the midsixteenth century) was clearly intended for export to France.17 Furthermore, if we examine the individual editions of these works we turn up some very interesting clues regarding their intended audience.
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For example, in 1542 a pseudoCatholic edition of the Forme des priéres was produced with the title La manyere de faire prières aux eglises Francoyses (The Way of Praying in French Churches) and claiming to have been "printed in Rome, by order of the Pope"! 18 The deceptive title and publishing information is very good evidence of a work designed for circulation within France. Through the course of the late 1530s and 1540s, attempts to stop the spread of heresy within France, particularly in response to the challenges posed by the export of "Lutheran" ideas from Geneva in the 1540s, led the authorities in a number of French cities to introduce new and more stringent methods to stem the flow of heretical literature into their areas of jurisdiction. In response to these methods, authors and printers preparing books with Protestant content for a French market would frequently take measures, such as the attempt to disguise the contents of the Forme des prières in its pseudoCatholic edition, to help the work escape the notice of the censors. However, if Calvin's liturgy could be passed off as an orthodox work, it is hardly conceivable that a book with the title Catéchisme de Genève would deceive the authorities. It is probably for this reason that printers concerned to facilitate the circulation of the catechism began as early as 1548 to produce the work in a very small format, one that could easily be hidden in luggage or in one's clothing, and soon thereafter eliminated the reference to Geneva in the title and omitted any mention of the place of publication.19 The use of strategies such as these in the publication of Calvin's liturgy and catechism provides overwhelming evidence that the writings were designed to circulate among readers in France. Thus far I have approached the question of the popular impact of Calvin's eucharistic writings from the side of their composition and production in the form of printed matter, and I have suggested that those responsible for their production, author and printers, intended to reach a popular audience within France. I now take up the matter from the other end, from their supposed destinations in France, in order to determine whether these works succeeded in reaching the audience for which they were designed. Perhaps the best evidence we have of the circulation of Calvin's French writings within France is supplied by the mechanisms put into place by the authorities concerned to eradicate the growing Protestant heresy. Francis Higman's recent studies of the developing mechanisms of censorship give us a glimpse of the inroads made among French readers by the trade in Protestant Literature.20 Books from Geneva seem to have posed the greatest threat to the orthodox faith, and among these Calvin's Institutes clearly alarmed the authorities most. On July 1, 1542, the Parlement of Paris issued an edict whose measures were designed to curtail the market in heretical literature. All books of doubtful orthodoxy were required to be handed in to the Parlement within three days, and a variety of strictures were placed on both printers and booksellers. Although designed to cover a wide range of material, the text of the edict mentions only one author and title specifically: Jean Calvin and his Institution.21 While the Parlement undertook the task of enforcing adherence to the Catholic faith, the Faculty of Theology of the
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University of Paris was given the job of determining which books were unacceptable. At regular intervals in the 1540s the Sorbonne drew up and published lists of these prohibited books. Because, as Higman has shown, the lists were almost certainly compiled from books discovered in systematic searches of Parisian bookshops, they allow us to determine with a fair degree of accuracy which Genevan books were circulating in Paris. 22 Thus it is instructive to note the following: the list of censured books that the Sorbonne produced in 1542 includes the Institution, the Petit traicté de la Saincte Cene, the Forme des prières, and the Catéchisme.23 A second list, issued in August 1544, also includes all four works.24 The list published in January 1547 together with a reissue of the list of 1544 names a 1546 edition of the Catéchisme and the 1545 edition of the Petit traicté; a fourth list, issued October 1551, again names all four writings.25 This is particularly persuasive evidence that these four books had reached booksellers in Paris and for a time had become available to those who might be attracted to the Reformed doctrine.26 Beyond the evidence of censorship lists, the new mechanisms of religious repression in the 1540s also provide us a glimpse of what was actually circulating among those leaning toward the Reformation in accounts of books seized from persons suspected of heresy. One of the more celebrated cases of the period, the trial of the printer Estienne Dolet in Paris in 1543, uncovered a number of books in his possession whose contents were suspect and some works that had already been condemned, including Calvin's Institution.27 Two years later, Calvin's Petit traicté (''1544") and La forme des prières ("1543") were discovered among a cache of thirty heretical books in the possession of Lazare Drilhon, an apothecary of Toulon.28 In Romans in 1549 a schoolmistress was accused of including Calvin's catechism and the Genevan liturgy in her instruction.29 While isolated instances of book seizures and accusations of heresy do not provide conclusive proof, when taken together with the evidence of the Sorbonne's censorship lists and the attestations of Calvin's correspondents within France that his work was being read and gaining converts in his native land,30 they do give strong support to the contention that the writings in which Calvin attempted to lay out his eucharistic theory in plain terms were in fact circulating among the French readership for which they were intended. The Theory of Sacramental Signification For Calvin, as for many of his contemporaries, the sacraments are means of grace and instruments that maintain the faith of believers and help to confirm their union with Jesus Christ. In expressing the manner in which sacraments effect the conveyance of grace, Calvin relies heavily on the language of representation and signification. The definition of a sacrament that he provides in the Catéchisme expresses this succinctly and clearly. A sacrament "is an outward attestation of the grace of God which represents to us by a
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visible sign spiritual things in order to imprint the promises of God more firmly in our hearts and make us more certain of them.'' 31 In using this language Calvin places himself in a tradition of interpretation that goes back to Saint Augustine. Although Augustine's utterances on the matter of sacraments left him open to varying interpretations, he was clear on the point that a sacrament is a species of sign. In his references to the sacraments, and indeed even more fully in his discussion of biblical interpretation, he expended considerable effort to establish a distinction between visible signs and the invisible realities to which these signs refer.32 These discussions exercised a decisive influence on all subsequent thinking about the eucharist. The distinction of sign (signum) and the matter or thing of the sacrament (res) formed the basis of all discussion of the nature of the sacrament since Augustine and was agreed upon even by those who disagreed about the kind of signification operative in the eucharist. In the Short Treatise on the Holy Supper Calvin acknowledges his debt to Augustine and identifies the outward, visible sign and the invisible matter, reality or truth of the sacrament as the two basic constituent elements given in the Supper.33 As if to underline the distinction he wishes to make, he introduces early in that treatise a metaphor in which bodily and spiritual nourishment are contrasted. He notes that while God provides all people with food for the body, believers, called to a new life, require something else: "As the life into which [God] has regenerated us is spiritual, so the food for preserving and confirming us in it must be spiritual."34 In calling to mind the dichotomy of body and spirit, Calvin signals to the reader that what is most important in the Supper is something that lies beyond the realm of the material. Upon this point Calvin lays the greatest stress: the real matter of the eucharist is something incorporeal, invisible, mysterious: "It is a spiritual mystery, which cannot be seen by the eye, nor comprehended by the human understanding. It is therefore figured by visible signs, as our infirmity requires."35 Because the reality at the heart of the eucharist is beyond the ability of our minds to comprehend, God condescends to use physical signs as instruments through which to communicate a mysterious reality to us.36 The same point is emphasized in the Institution. Beginning his exposition of the sacrament, Calvin uses the distinction between the sign and the thing signified to highlight the Reformed denial of the teaching that the consecrated bread is Christ's body and the wine his blood: "When we deny that the bread which is eaten in the Supper is the body of Christ we do not by any means seek to diminish the communication of the body which is offered to the faithful there. But we only wish to teach that it is necessary to distinguish the thing represented from its sign. . . ."37 The prominence he gives to this point suggests that one of the chief advantages Calvin saw in the Augustinian definition was its use as a means to assail an unwarranted confusion of the corporeal with the incorporeal in the sacrament. Such a confusion Calvin believed to be ubiquitous in the popular piety of his time: "For there is such an inclination in human hearts to fall into superstition that, unrestrained in abandoning the truth, they are completely fascinated by the sign unless they
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are led away from it loudly and clearly." 38 In religious practice, Calvin observed, the signs had become the real matter of the eucharist; the spiritual core was lost in the undue attention given to the outward and corporeal elements of the Supper. And so by championing the notion of the sacrament as a sign that signifies a transcendent referent, Calvin underlines the point that if one is to properly construe the efficacy of the Supper the spiritual and the material must be clearly distinguished. If highlighting the dichotomy of spirit and matter and countering the tendency of superstitious minds were notable benefits of Augustine's definition, it also had the benefit of resisting an opposite impulse, that of dissociating entirely the spiritual reality of the sacrament from the material sign. As Calvin construes the relation of sign and referent in his sacramental teaching, he emphasizes not only distinction but connection: the sign is not the reality, but the two stand in analogical relation, or in a relation of correspondence. According to him, a right understanding of the sacrament depends upon maintaining the analogy between the visible, material sign and the invisible, spiritual reality of the sacrament. The analogy is threatened when the sign and its referent are unequivocally and unambiguously identified, as when the consecrated wafer is said to be the actual body of Christ. The analogy is likewise obscured when the distinction between sign and referent is stressed to the point at which the very idea of a relation is lost. What we require, says Calvin, is an understanding of visible sign and invisible reality that distinguishes the two while maintaining a connection: ". . . the sacraments of the Lord ought not and cannot at all be separated from their reality and substance. To distinguish them so that they cannot be confused is not only good and reasonable but entirely necessary. But to divide them so as to set up the one without the other is absurd."39 In defining the relationship between sign and signified in this way, Calvin betrays his interest in articulating a view of the sacrament that maintains the notion of the Supper as efficacious, as genuinely making possible communion with Christ's body and blood, without resorting to the concept of what Calvin calls a "local presence" of Christ's body and blood. Among the corruptions of sacramental doctrine that Calvin identifies, there is none that so disturbed him as the claim that following the priest's pronouncing of the words of institution the true body and blood of Christ are present on the altar. I have noted that a principal concern in Calvin's teaching on sacramental signification in the eucharist was the tendency of worshipers to identify the sign with the real, spiritual substance of the Supper. The idea of the local presence of Christ in the sacrament, the production of theologians, or "sophists" as Calvin calls them, provided a conceptual warrant for the popular fascination with the elements of bread and wine as receptacles of the divine body and blood. In rejecting the notion of such a presence, Calvin followed very closely his Reformed predecessors Zwingli, Oecolampadius, and, among the French, Farel and Marcourt. Christological considerations, together with the doctrine of Christ's ascension, were adduced as impediments to the assertion that Christ was present bodily in the meal.40 Given
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the nature of the resurrected body of Christ and the fact of Christ's ascension, that body can only be in heaven, at the right hand of the Father. To claim otherwise is to "annihilate the glory of his ascension." 41 But there were other grounds on which to object to the idea of a local presence. From Calvin's point of view, the claim that Christ was bodily present in the elements of the Supper did violence to the distinction of sign and transcendent referent and to their analogy. That is, to make the claim, with the doctrine of transubstantiation, that after the words of institution are spoken the bread and wine are not what they appear to be but are really Christ's body and blood is not merely to identify the visible sign with the invisible reality but actually to dispense with the sign altogether: [T]he nature of the sacrament requires that the material bread remain as visible sign of the body. For it is a general rule for all sacraments that the signs which we see bear some likeness to the spiritual things they figure. As then in Baptism we have assurance of the internal washing of our souls when the water, which cleanses our bodily filth, is given us for attestation; so in the Supper there must be material bread to testify to us that the body of Christ is our food. For otherwise what meaning could there be in whiteness figuring this for us? We see clearly, then, how the whole representation which the Lord wished to give in condescension to our infirmity is lost unless the bread truly remains.42
The notion of a local presence then violates the logic of representation operative in the Supper. But for Calvin the absurdity of such a position is not sufficiently captured by this appeal to the distinction and relation of sign and referent. One needs to consider in addition the consequences of this view for christological doctrine and for the doctrine of God. Not only does the belief in a local presence of Christ in the eucharist raise questions about Christ's human nature by suggesting that his body can be present in many places simultaneously, but it also makes nonsensical the notion of Christ's divinity and, by implication, the transcendence of the Godhead. In claiming that Christ's body is "enclosed within the sign," we "abase him under the corruptible elements of the world" and so contradict Christ's glory.43 From these ideas follow all of the excesses of popular piety that Calvin abhorred: the notion entertained by priests that "by murmuring and making many signs in the manner of sorcerers they . . . constrain Jesus Christ to descend into their hands" and the idolatry Calvin discerns in the veneration of the sacrament: "For to prostrate oneself before the bread of the Supper and to adore Jesus Christ in it as though he were contained there is to make an idol in the place of the sacrament.''44 In opposing the theory of a local presence and the practice it supported, Calvin had recourse to an image popularized by Farel in the Reformed Sursum corda, of which Calvin made frequent use, most significantly in his own version of the liturgy:
Page 65 [L]et us raise our spirits and our hearts on high, where Jesus Christ is in the glory of the Father, and whence we await him for our redemption. And let us not tarry with these earthly and corruptible elements which we see with the eye and touch with the hand, to seek him there, as if he were enclosed in the bread and the wine. For only then will our souls be disposed to be nourished and quickened by his substance when they are so lifted up above all earthly things to attain even unto heaven and to enter into the kingdom of God where he dwells. Let us, then, be content to have the bread and the wine as signs and attestations, seeking the truth spiritually where the word of God promises that we shall find it. 45
It is noteworthy that each of Calvin's French writings on the eucharist contains a version of this admonition, using virtually identical language.46 With the emphasis given to this point through repetition of the image of transcending the earthly elements in favor of heavenly realities, those who came in contact with the Calvinist doctrine cannot have failed to perceive the essential message: Christ cannot be conceived of as locally present in the Supper, and the bread and wine are signs referring us to the body and blood of Christ in heaven. In holding to this view, the Reformed frequently had to contend with the claim of their opponents that in the eucharistic words of institution, Jesus' words "this is my body . . . this is my blood" are plain and clear evidence of a bodily presence of Christ in the Supper. It is then somewhat surprising to find that in his French writings Calvin devotes relatively little space to a direct rebuttal of this charge. In the Short Treatise he does offer a rhetorical exposition of the function of Christ's words, suggesting that a meaning that might appear to be plain to some does not necessarily yield the intended meaning. He cites the example of John the Baptist, who, seeing a dove descend from the sky, says that he saw the Holy Spirit. Since we know that the Holy Spirit is invisible, we can see that John could not have actually seen the Spirit. The dove, Calvin explains, was a visible sign of the Spirit, and John employs a kind of metonymy, allowing one word to stand for another. This is the way the words "bread" and "body" function in the words of institution: "the name body of Jesus Christ is transferred to the bread, as it is the sacrament and figure of it."47 In the Catechism, however, the issue of the words of institution implying a local presence is not even broached. From the beginning of the discussion of the Supper Christ's words are assumed to indicate that the elements represent the body and blood: Minister: Why is it that the Lord represents his body to us by bread and his blood by wine? Child: To signify that the same quality that the bread has for our bodies, which is to feed and sustain them in this mortal life, his body also has for our souls, namely, to nourish and vivify them spiritually. Similarly, that as the wine fortifies, restores and delights man as regards the body, his blood also is our spiritual joy, refreshment, and power.48
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Calvin's failure to dwell on this particular issue might indicate that he believed the writings of Farel and Marcourt, and the attacks on the Mass in particular, had given adequate attention to the representational interpretation of the words of institution, and that as a consequence the audience for which he was writing was not likely to consider an appeal to the "plain meaning" of Jesus' words convincing evidence of a local presence in the elements. A more troublesome charge was the contention of their opponents that in denying the bodily presence of Christ in the eucharist the Reformed created a form of the sacrament that was not genuinely efficacious. Calvin's sensitivity to this criticism is apparent in the emphatic tone of his assertions that the sacraments, although signs, are not by any means "naked" or "empty" signs, and that they do in fact communicate Christ's body and blood. In making this argument he takes great pains to separate himself from what he took to be the Zwinglian position and the position articulated by the Zwinglian Marcourt. Zwingli and Oecolampadius, as Calvin understood them, had correctly rejected a bodily presence of Christ in the Supper and introduced a representational understanding of the elements. But in their effort to combat the Roman and Lutheran teachings they had failed to define a presence of Christ that makes possible the true communication of his body and blood. 49 It is true, he notes, that the sacrament is "figured by visible signs, as our infirmity requires, but in such a way that it is not a naked figure, but joined to its reality and substance. It is therefore with good reason that the bread is called body, since not only does it represent it to us, but also presents it to us."50 In the expression "naked figure" or ''naked sign," Calvin appropriates an element of Luther's criticism of the sacramentarian position, making it clear that he does not wish to be interpreted as producing a variation on Zwingli's theory of the eucharist. In the Institution he goes on at greater length to distinguish his point of view from the sacramentarian position: There are some who define in one word that to eat the flesh of Christ and to drink his blood is nothing other than to believe in him. But it seems to me that he wanted to express something higher in that notable teaching where he commends the eating of his body. It is that we are vivified by the true participation that he gives us in himself which he signified by the words "eat" and "drink," so that no one should think that this lies in simple knowledge. For as it is eating bread, not looking at it, which gives nourishment to the body, so must the soul truly be made a participant in Christ, so as to be sustained by him in eternal life. However, we confess that this eating does not occur except by faith, as it cannot be imagined otherwise. But the difference that we have with those who make the exposition that I oppose is that they esteem that eating is nothing other than believing. I say that we eat the flesh of Christ in believing and that that eating is a result of faith. Or, if one wishes it put more plainly, eating is for them faith itself. I say that it comes from faith. There is little difference in the words, but the difference is great in the matter itself.51
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In insisting on a distinction between eating and believing, Calvin betrays a degree of discomfort with at least one aspect of the representational view proposed by Zwingli and his followers: the implication that regarding the sacraments as signs means that participation in the eucharist involves primarily an activity of the mind in remembering and believing, and that the signifying power of the sacrament is chiefly a capacity to make Christ present to the eye of faith. Against Zwingli, Calvin wanted to maintain that those who eat the bread and wine with faith do more than testify to their faith in Christ; they truly partake of, or become participants in, him. Later on in the Institution Calvin comes back to this difference with Zwingli, using language intended to clarify the nature of the disagreement: [T]he apostle says, "The bread which we break is the communion of the body of Christ," the cup that we sanctify by the words of the Gospel and by prayers is "the communion of his blood" [1 Cor. 10:16]. Now it is not necessary for anyone to object that this is a figural locution in which the name of the thing represented is attributed to the sign. For if they allege that it is a notorious thing that the breaking of the bread is only an external sign of the spiritual substance, although we concede to them such an understanding of the words of St. Paul, nevertheless we can infer from what the sign shows us that the substance is also given us in its reality. For if anyone does not wish to call God deceitful he will not dare to say that a vain and empty sign of his truth is offered by him. Therefore the Lord truly represents to us the participation of his body under the breaking of bread. 52
While Calvin affirms the representational character of the sacrament, he insists on "true" representation, to the extent of claiming that the substance of Christ's body is conveyed to believing communicants. This point is emphasized in all his writings on the subject. In the Short Treatise on the Holy Supper readers are assured that "the internal substance of the sacrament is joined with the visible signs; and as the bread is distributed by hand, so the body of Christ is communicated to us, so that we are made participants in it. . . . Jesus Christ gives us in the Supper the proper substance of his body and blood, so that we may possess him fully. . . ."53 The exposition of the eucharist in the liturgy encourages readers not to "doubt that by this sacrament Jesus gives us his body and his blood so that we may live in him and he in us," and the prayer of consecration for the Lord's Supper includes the exhortation to "believe the promises which Jesus Christ, who is the infallible truth, pronounced with his lips, namely, that he truly is willing to make us partakers of his body and blood . . .''54 The Catechism, similarly, asserts that Christ "makes us partakers of his own substance so as to unite us in one life with himself."55 It is a mark of the importance Calvin assigned to the idea that the sacrament effectively communicates Christ's body that he uses the word "substance" to name what Christians receive in the Supper. Earlier, in the 1536 edition of the Institutio, he had been careful to specify that the sub
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stance of Christ's body was not present in the eucharist. 56 The elimination in subsequent editions of passages in which objections to the word were raised is clear evidence of a deliberate change in emphasis.57 The change is not, however, a concession to the advocates of transubstantiation or a local presence. Calvin does not use substance in a technical philosophical sense, and unlike the scholastics he does not mean to oppose the substance of a thing to its accidents.58 It is, rather, an attempt to express the efficacy of the signification operative in the eucharist: the sacrament really conveys the whole Christ and all Christ's benefits to faithful communicants, and in the Supper Christians become one with him. This is true, Calvin maintains, despite the fact that Christ's body is in heaven and the Supper is celebrated on earth. Asserting that the sacramental signs actually communicate the substance of his body is, then, an attempt to demonstrate emphatically that these are not "simply the tokens" or "naked signs" of the body.59 When we come to this point in discussing Calvin's doctrine, it seems the language of signification falters somewhat. Calvin himself is chiefly responsible for this because his protests regarding "naked signs" tend to undermine the coherence of the language he is using. Calvin's reader must understand, on the one hand, that the sacrament and the sacramental elements are signs of Christ and his benefits: the bread and wine are therefore nothing more than what they appear to the eye to be. On the other hand, the reader must understand that these are signs that convey the substance of the things they signify. In certain circumstances it can even be said that the substance of these things is joined to the signs. It is evident from this apparent incongruity that the language is being stretched to accommodate the particular meaning Calvin wishes to convey. For while representational language is a useful tool for opposing the notion that the elements themselves become the reality of the sacrament, when it comes to expressing the actual manner in which that reality is present it is somewhat deficient. What the reader seems to have to understand in interpreting Calvin is, then, that as signs the sacraments are sui generis. Sacramental signs are unlike any other kind of sign with which we are familiar because they do not simply bring into one's consciousness the thing signified; they in some way communicate the truth or substance of the thing. But here another qualification must be made regarding the efficacy of the sacraments. As eager as Calvin is to affirm the capacity of sacramental signs to communicate the truth they signify, he is equally concerned to specify that these signs have no inherent power to convey this spiritual truth. A good deal of emphasis is placed upon this point, and, because it reveals one of the basic theological issues at stake in Calvin's thinking about the eucharist, it warrants careful scrutiny. The following sequence of questions and answers in the Catéchisme conveys well the point at issue: Minister: What is a sacrament? Child: It is an outward attestation of the grace of God, which represents to us spiritual things by a visible sign in order to imprint the
Page 69 promises of God more firmly in our hearts and make us more certain of them. Minister: How [is that]? Has a visible and material sign such power to assure the conscience? Child: Not by itself, but inasmuch as it is ordained by God to this end. Minister: Seeing that it is the proper office of the Holy Spirit to seal the promises of God in our hearts, how do you attribute this to the sacraments? Child: There is a great difference between them. For the Spirit of God is the one who can touch our hearts, illumine our understanding, and assure our consciences. . . . However, the Lord makes use of the sacraments as inferior instruments, as he sees fit, without in any way diminishing the power of his Spirit. Minister: Then you understand that the efficacy of the sacraments lies not in the outward element but proceeds entirely from the Spirit of God? Child: Indeed, since God wishes to operate by the means he has instituted without derogating from the Spirit's power. 60
In attempting to define the nature of sacramental efficacy for the benefit of lay readers, Calvin concentrates on potency of the sacrament and its relation to the power of God, specifically to the power of the Holy Spirit. The idea of power is extremely prominent throughout Calvin's discussion of the eucharist. This should hardly surprise us given the currency of the notion that the sacrament was the locus par excellence of the divine presence in the Christian community and the world at large. But an even more powerful influence on Calvin's thinking on this matter is the association in the New Testament between the Holy Spirit and power.61 If we keep in mind that Calvin's chief concern in the plotting out of his eucharistic doctrine is to demonstrate how believers are united with Christ, we can appreciate the impact on Calvin of the habit, especially pronounced in the writings of Luke and Paul, of identifying the Holy Spirit as the mediator of the presence and power of Christ to believers. For Calvin it is the Spirit who, following the ascension, makes Christ present to believers, and Christ is made present by means of the Spirit's power. Since in the eucharist we are centrally concerned with the presence of Christ, it is only natural that Calvin should identify the Spirit as the agent of that presence.62 The last sentence of the Short Treatise neatly sums up Calvin's view: "[N]ot to diminish the efficacy of this holy mystery, we must think that it is accomplished by the secret and miraculous power of God, and that the Spirit of God is the bond of participation, for which reason it is called spiritual."63 The significant problem that Calvin is concerned to confront in specifying the precise nature of the efficacy of the eucharist is the supposed antithesis involved in making the claim that the sacrament, since it communicates Christ's flesh and blood, possesses a certain potency, and the concomitant claim that Christ's presence is mediated only by the power of the Spirit. That Calvin could view these claims as in some way antithetical
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is a measure of his distance from many of his Catholic contemporaries. For him, designating the sacrament a conveyer of power runs the risk of positing an autonomous locus of power that is potentially beyond God's control. There are at least two theological assumptions that drive this way of thinking. The first is Calvin's commitment to the idea that God is the source of all doing, and that all agency is traceable to the direct willing and doing of God. 64 The second assumption is related to the emphasis on the distinction between spirit and matter, which we have already noted, and involves its application in the form of an insistence on God's transcendence of every created thing. Perhaps the most instructive evidence of this position is given in that part of Calvin's christological doctrine that asserts that the second person of the Trinity, although united to the human nature in the incarnation, is not restricted to the flesh of Jesus Christ. This teaching, the socalled extra Calvinisticum, represents Calvin's effort to conserve the notion that the divine life (and therefore the divine power) is unbounded and thus can never be conceived of as limited by its selfrevelation within or through physical matter.65 In negotiating a balance between sacramental efficacy and divine potency, Calvin is attempting to preserve the same principle. Working with these axioms, he concludes that it would be theologically unsound to assign to the corporeal elements in the sacrament a potency that might be construed as not directly and continually dependent on the active willing of God and the communicative action of the Holy Spirit. Such a potency would be one that inheres in the sacrament, residing in the elements in a static, nondynamic way. This brings us back again to Calvin's opposition to the notion of the local or bodily presence of Christ in the eucharist, which can now be seen as his protest against what he interprets as a misuse of the idea of divine power: if God is the source of all potency and if the divine power can never be conceived of as "enclosed" on created matter, then God cannot be thought to reside locally in the signs of the eucharist. Calvin finds a resolution to the antinomy of sacramental efficacy and divine power in the idea of instrumentality. The sacraments are "inferior instruments," as the catechism has it. The value of identifying the sacraments in this way is that they can be seen to be efficacious without being viewed as repositories of divine power. As instruments, the Spirit may utilize their signifying capacity, and the Spirit's power may be said to operate in and through them. Their efficacy is therefore not a function of a kind of communicative potency that has been assigned to them but rather "proceeds entirely from the Spirit of God." God's power acts through the sacramental signs, while never residing in them; and, indeed, it can be said that it is this power of God that is the efficacy of the sacrament. The Supper then truly communicates the body of Christ to believers because God has chosen to use this sign as a means by which to unite believers with Christ and because in the celebration of the sacrament the unbounded power of God's Spirit joins things that are spatially separated: the body of Christ in heaven and believers on earth. For the skeptical, Calvin offers an apt analogy:
Page 71 The bond of this connection is the Holy Spirit, by whom we are united together and who is as a channel or conduit through which all that Christ is and possesses descends to us. For if we perceive by the eye that the sun, shining on the earth, by its rays in some fashion sends its substance to generate, nourish and vivify its fruits, why should the glimmer and radiance of the Spirit of Jesus Christ be less in bringing to us the communication of his flesh and blood? 66
Beyond this appeal to the power of the Spirit to communicate Christ, Calvin refers to God's faithfulness. God promises to make available in the Supper Christ's body; therefore, those who receive the eucharist with faith are assured that they partake of Christ's body and that their souls are fed by his flesh and blood: And in fact the faithful must always hold to this rule: every time and as often as they see signs ordained by God they should likewise conceive as certain that the truth of the thing represented is there joined to it, and have a sure persuasion of this. For to what end would the Lord place into the hand the sign of his body if not to make one certain of the true persuasion of this? Now if it is true that the visible sign is shown to us to seal in us the gift of the invisible thing, we must have the unshakeable confidence that when we take the sign of the body we likewise receive the body.67
Calvin does not further specify the mechanics of communion and in fact announces a reluctance to do so. He is content to say that the signification given in the Supper is such that the believer who eats the bread and drinks the wine truly receives the body and blood of Christ. In the notion that the sacraments are instruments of God's grace we have the real hallmark of the Calvinist doctrine. Calvin invokes instrumentality as a way of distinguishing sacramental signs from the communicative power that proceeds from and is the exclusive prerogative of God. The signs are efficacious not because of an inherent capacity but in the sense that they are instruments God has chosen to attest to the genuine operation of the Spirit's power to unite believers with the body of Christ. In keeping with traditional conceptions of the sacrament, then, the notion of divine power remains a prominent feature, while every hint of the physical sign being imbued with power is removed. With such a dynamic understanding of the relationship of signs to their efficacy, Calvin intended to maintain the notion of the Supper as an efficacious symbol in which the body of Christ is truly offered to the faithful, while safeguarding the idea of the Spirit's transcendent power as the efficient cause of this communication. The Theology of the Eucharist and the Calvinist Economy of Power In devising this particular interpretation of sacramental efficacy, Calvin drew upon a variety of sources. A number of scholars have argued with varying
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degrees of success that particular aspects of Calvin's doctrine may be traced to ideas and emphases articulated earlier by Luther, Zwingli, Melanchthon, and the Strasbourg reformer Martin Bucer. 68 Without doubt the largely polemical French writings of Farel and Marcourt also exerted an influence. The evidence of this indebtedness suggests that Calvin was no great innovator in the theology of the eucharist. But such a conclusion would be deceptive if it led us to discount the importance of what Calvin's synthesis achieved, especially in his vernacular writings. His formulation of the theory of sacramental signification marks a turning point in the history of the discourse over the eucharist in the sixteenth century largely because he was able to present a lucid, persuasive, and accessible argument for holding together emphases others had considered incompatible. Calvin adopted, in modified form, the representational view already taken over by a number of French Reformed from the Swiss reformers Zwingli and Oecolampadius. At the same time, in a manner reminiscent of Lutheran critics of the socalled sacramentarian position, he insisted on preserving a sense of the sacrament as a genuine vehicle of God's grace by emphasizing a true reception of the whole Christ and his benefits in the eucharist. In fact, the rhetoric he used in arguing for the true presence of Christ's body suggested sufficiently strong affinities with traditional conceptions of the "real presence" to provoke the interest of some Roman Catholics hoping for CatholicProtestant rapprochement in the Gallican church.69 This accomplishment in eucharistic theology was driven by two distinct and complementary principles: the principle—already familiar from earlier Reformed treatments of the sacrament—of God's absolute freedom and the principle of the true communication of Christ's body to believers.70 No concern is more central to the shaping of Calvin's thinking about the operation of grace in the eucharist than the need to maintain the idea of God's freedom. At least two aspects to the concept of divine freedom can be discerned in Calvin's eucharistic writings. The first involves the notion that God is free from containment within the physical world. Freedom in this sense is more or less identical to transcendence. Calvin's emphasis on God's freedom in the sense of transcendence is most clearly in evidence in those passages in which he ridicules the prevalence of attempts to reify God by locating the divine presence in an inanimate object such as the eucharistic wafer. We have already seen that for Calvin the effort to "enclose" God within a physical object is tantamount to idolatry, since it contradicts "the glory of Christ" and in some sense compromises God's majesty or "otherness." The concern to maintain the notion of the divine as distinctly other than the finite and temporal order is similarly reflected in the distinction Calvin seeks to preserve between spirit and matter, the invisible and the visible. Although Calvin's theology is not predicated on a rigid metaphysical dualism, he does insist that the God who is spirit necessarily transcends the material creation, while thoroughly active in that creation. The second aspect of the principle of divine freedom is expressed in the idea that God is free from any external compulsion. For Calvin, God is all determining and
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undetermined. God's activity is always the result of God's free willing or God's good pleasure. The slightest suggestion that God might be constrained to act in response to human whims is theologically inadmissable, since it appears to compromise the conception of God as unconditioned. This kind of limiting of divine freedom jeopardizes the qualities so frequently ascribed to the divine in Calvin's idiom: majesty, glory, honor. The connection between the notion of absolute freedom and what Calvin calls God's glory can be appreciated if we consider how an account of God's activity suggesting a diminution in God's freedom implies that God's glory is also diminished. For example, when Calvin argues against regarding the eucharist as a sacrifice offered by the priest to God, his judgment that God's glory is injured by this conception is based on the idea that if a divine response is elicited through actions human beings initiate, then God's freedom is less than absolute. 71 This idea of God's absolute freedom is the primary theological warrant for Calvin's insistence on the distinction of sign and reality. From his point of view, the medieval identification of sign and transcendent signified in the eucharist—the belief that the eucharistic signum becomes the res, Christ's body—amounts to a reification of divine power. God's power is, for Calvin, preeminently transcendent and free; hence, the medieval Catholic view misrepresents divine power to the extent that it imagines it coming to dwell within a physical object and introduces the prospect of God becoming the object of human constraint. Were this emphasis on God's freedom the sole determinant of Calvin's eucharistic thought, his doctrine would look little different from that produced in the 1530s under the influence of Farel and his Zwinglian sponsors. What is noteworthy about Calvin's achievement is that he places equal emphasis on the idea of divine communication. The word "communication" itself is especially important in the exposition of Calvin's theory. The frequency with which he uses the term indicates the importance to Calvin of the notion that by means of the sacrament God effectively unites believers with Christ and makes them participants in his body. Whereas the principle of divine freedom influences Calvin's emphasis on the distinction between the signs and the transcendent reality, the principle of divine communication leads him to stress their connection. The weight placed on the relation of signum and res was certainly a product of Calvin's sensitivity to the charge that the Reformed interpretation produced a sacrament devoid of any unique efficacy. In fact Calvin echoed criticisms of the Zwinglian doctrine in his judgment that "to deny the true communication of Jesus Christ to be offered us in the Supper is to render this holy sacrament frivolous and useless."72 His desire to understand the signification at work in the eucharist in a way that neither implied a "carnal eating" of Christ's body nor equated communion with the cognitive exercise of faith led him to stress the efficacious, "true" communication of the sacramental reality in terms much more emphatic than his French Reformed predecessors. Rather than suggest, as they had, that the eucharist was a symbol attesting to the presence of faith in Christ's atoning work, and thereby shift the focus from the liturgical act to
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the subjective cognitive and affective condition of the believer, Calvin was concerned to establish an understanding of the eucharist as an actual and unique offering of Christ to the faithful, a communication in his body and blood accomplished by the mysterious power of the Holy Spirit. Calvin's account of sacramental signification, combining the twin emphases of God's freedom and God's unique and efficacious communication of Christ, involved the construction of a distinctive economy of power that exerted considerable influence over subsequent thinking about the relationship of the divine to the natural and social orders. As Calvin's theory denied to physical signs any power independent of the agency of the Holy Spirit, the eucharistic elements were in effect degraded from their position as media for the appearance of divine power—bearers of God's body—and reduced to the status of mere instruments of the Spirit without any subsistent virtue. The importance of this change can be better assessed when we consider the significance of eucharistic symbols for common people in the late medieval and early modern periods. As the most powerful symbol of the divine presence in the social world of Calvin's contemporaries, we have seen that the eucharist could be put to a variety of social and political uses. Among the more important of these was its use as the symbolic basis for social unity and integration. The Corpus Christi processions provide vivid examples of the way the sacrament, by conveying a sacred aura to the orders with which it was brought into contact, authorized the social arrangements that constituted the communities of late medieval Europe. 73 We have also seen the ways in which the symbol of God's appearance in the midst of the social and natural orders was taken over by political authorities to support their claims to temporal power. By association with the most vital symbol of divine potency, rulers were in effect claiming to possess analogous power in their own realms and to stand as the authorized protectors of social wellbeing.74 The sacramental paradigm, or, more precisely, the paradigm of the immanence of divine power in the social world, was then one of the most important symbols constituting the political life of most of the people of late medieval and early modern Europe. Given the importance of the predominant sacramental paradigm for political life, we might very well expect the Reformed attack on that paradigm and Calvin's proffering of a new paradigm of eucharistic signification to significantly affect the way people thought about their social world. This supposition is, of course, based on the assumption that Calvin's ideas were in fact disseminated to a substantial popular audience. It has been my argument in this chapter that Calvin's eucharistic writings are especially important precisely because they were intended to be accessible to a broad, public readership and because they succeeded in reaching that readership. If Calvin's readership was as extensive as I have suggested, his interpretation of eucharistic signification ought to have contributed to a seismic shift in popular thinking about the relationship between the sacred and society, at least for the constituency favorable to Protestant ideas. What shape, then,
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can we give to this new thinking about the social world Calvin's readers inhabited? For the convert to Calvin's sacramental view, the social world ceased to be organized by the idea of an immanental power proceeding from the presence of God's body in the eucharist. In a sense we might say that the social order lost its sacred ground. Since the relation Calvin established between sign and transcendent reality precludes the idea of an unequivocal investment of power in any determinate, finite locus—a person, thing, or institution—the very idea that divine power can be discerned in the created order with any degree of certainty was called into question. According to the economy posited by Calvin's eucharistic theory, whatever potency can be discovered in temporal experience is the result not of a divine assignment of power but of God's deployment of power through instruments. Calvin's reader would then be less likely to be impressed by claims to political authority and social coherence based on the notion of immanental power. The Reformed worshiper who was instructed at each celebration of the Lord's Supper to ''raise our spirits and our hearts on high" was likely to have gleaned the basic elements of Calvin's theocentric and transcendentally concentrated conception of power. In the Reformed Sursum corda one was in effect reminded of a critical distinction between the God who transcends all creation and physical signs and temporal orders that impinge upon and organize everyday life. To an extent, then, the world inhabited by readers receptive to Calvin's view was becoming "rationalized" or "disenchanted," to use Max Weber's terminology, as the symbols of immanental potency were displaced. 75 But as Calvin's eucharistic doctrine sought not simply to dissociate divine power from physical signs but rather to relate them through the notion of divine instrumentality, we cannot simply assume that for Calvin's reader the orders previously authorized and given coherence by the medieval eucharistic paradigm were now thought to be entirely secular, radically independent of the transcendent, wholly other God. We must remember that the God portrayed in Calvin's writings, although free from containment within the created world, is nonetheless intimately involved in the temporal causal nexus. Rather than being regarded as either sacred or secular, political and social orders, by analogy with the sacramental elements, were likely seen by the attentive reader of Calvin's writings as God's instruments, possessing no inherent or abiding virtue and exercising power only as a result of the active determination of God. This shift in paradigms, it should be stressed, was no subtle change in emphasis. To the extent that the paradigm of instrumentality stressed a distinction between the physical medium and the power deployed through it, it facilitated a critical approach to representations of power. Just as the physical media of the eucharist were subject to critical scrutiny, regarded in the Calvinist scheme as merely "earthly and corruptible elements," so too were those temporal instrumentalities laying claim to authority over the body politic, especially when a particular exercise of power appeared to conflict with any given theological norm. The paradigm of in
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strumentality could then supply a basis not only for the claim to exercise authority but also for criticism of such a claim. Calvin's eucharistic writings, contributions to an ongoing controversy over the nature of the sacrament of the Lord's Supper, may therefore be seen as part of a volatile struggle to define what was without doubt the most important political symbol of the sixteenth century. In the strife of representations, Calvin presented an understanding of sacramental signification and an economy of power that departed in a fundamental way from the dominant representations of the medieval period and of emergent Tridentine Catholicism. I have indicated in very general terms what effect Calvin's theory might have had upon popular perceptions not only of God and the eucharist but also of the social body and the power deployed upon it. Obviously, a more complete view of Calvin's influence and an appreciation for the variety of ways in which his ideas were appropriated must rest on an examination not only of Calvin's own writings but also of the full range of popular literature produced on the subject of the eucharist, much of it in response to Calvin's writings of the 1540s, as well as the evidence of popular responses to this literature. In the two decades following the publication of Calvin's Petit traicté de la saincte Cene, the market for Protestant literature in France was fed by a steady stream of tracts and treatises attacking the Roman Mass and explaining the Reformed doctrine of the Supper. In these works, themes highlighted by Calvin were portrayed in vivid, popular images, designed to appeal to the same kind of audience Calvin had tried to reach in his vernacular writings. I now turn to an examination of these writings and the popular dissemination of Calvin's theory of sacramental signification in France.
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4— Seeds of Discord: The Diffusion of the Reformed Doctrine, 1540–1560 The devil is abroad in the land, warned the Catholic controversialist Gentian Hervet in a treatise on the eucharist published in 1562. The evidence for this was more than apparent: the ''unruly disobedience of subjects toward their superiors," envy, hate, rancor, discord, and dissension in all places—even within families. The Protestant ministers, "ministers of the devil," were accomplishing Satan's work by attempting to abolish the holy sacrifice of the Mass, cause "the simple people" to rebel against "their prince and sovereign lord," and reduce the commonwealth to a state of confusion. Their strategy was to prey on the most vulnerable—people of low estate and women—and the "most attractive means that these miserable ministers of Satan have to corrupt and ruin the simple people and these little women is principally by these wicked books written in vernacular French which are full of impiety and blasphemy against the Holy Mass.'' Of these works Hervet noted that there was an abundant supply. By flooding the country with their pestilent and poisonous ideas, these ministers had become "the cause that the subjects revolted against their lord," the king of France. 1 Hervet was hardly alone in this opinion. A few years earlier, in 1558, Henry II himself declared in a letter to the Protestant princes of Germany that the Protestants in his country were in no sense religious reformers but rather "disturbers of the public peace and enemies of the tranquillity and unity of Christians."2 Many other Catholic writers joined him in denouncing the Protestant publications, which seemed so attractive to an ever larger segment of the population as cynical attempts to turn the sentiments of people against the sacrament of the altar and their ancient faith and so to cause society to descend into an abyss of anarchy and confusion.3
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In this chapter I shall examine the content of some of the eucharistic writings published between 1540 and 1560 that seemed to observers such as Hervet to be the cause of enormous social and political unrest. In order to assess the impact of the nascent Reformed doctrine and evaluate the Catholic charges of sedition, I turn to the eucharistic ideas of those writers who, after Calvin, exercised the greatest influence upon the popular discourse in France on the sacramental question—the reformers Guillaume Farel, Pierre Viret, and Theodore Beza. Their writings, which were produced specifically with the aim of shaping popular understandings of the eucharist, provide an important clue to the substance and shape of a growing public discourse on the nature of the sacrament and the symbolization of power in the years in which the Reformed movement in France made its greatest gains. Before we turn to an examination of their ideas, however, we must first attend to the circumstances that explain how a Reformed doctrine of the sacramental presence came to be formed and this public discourse constructed. The first of these is the rise of a Reformed printing industry and the production, principally in Geneva, of very large quantities of religious printed matter for the French market. The second concerns the achievement of a common Reformed position on the eucharist through the adoption of the Consensus Tigurinus in 1549. Genevan Books and French Readers The effort to spread Reformed ideas in France faced considerable obstacles in the 1540s. There were numerous incidents of local persecution of Protestants or persons suspected of heresy, the most brutal and notorious being the massacre of the Vaudois of Provence in April 1545 and the burning of fourteen members of the Reformed community at Meaux in October 1546. Both episodes came to figure prominently in Protestant martyrologies as symbolic of the travails the movement experienced in this period. 4 While these incidents are best explained by particular local circumstances, the general pattern of repression in the mid1540s can be seen to correspond to policies pursued in Paris. Francis I, never favorably disposed toward those reformers who would break with the Holy See, authorized toward the end of his reign a more stringent policy of repression than had been in force previously. Over the question of the official response to the prospect of reform, then, the balance of power began to shift away from those who advocated a moderate reform of the Gallican church and toward the rigid conservatism of the Sorbonne. The movement in this direction continued after Francis's death in March 1547. Francis's son, Henry II, pursued a policy of even more rigorous repression by establishing a special inquisitorial body, the Chambre ardente, which very quickly handed down a remarkably large number of sentences against persons suspected of heresy.5 When the archCatholic Guise family assumed power during the brief reign of Henry's son Francis II, from
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July 1559 to December 1560, these repressive measures became, if anything, more strenuously enforced. The chief engine of repression, however, was censorship. I have already noted the degree to which the threat of the spread of heresy by means of the printed text constituted a primary source of anxiety for Parisian officials in the early years of the movement for ecclesiastical reform. Despite the evident signs of this anxiety, however, censorship measures were initially rather haphazard. The first systematic mechanisms to control the production or importation of books and their sale in France are not in evidence until the early 1540s, and these measures apparently did not have the full force of law until 1545. 6 In 1551 the struggle to rid the kingdom altogether of heretical literature undertaken by the Parlement of Paris culminated in the comprehensive royal Edict of Chateaubriant. The edict confirmed the position of the Faculty of Theology of the University of Paris as the arbiter of the orthodoxy of all printed matter, whether produced in France or imported from abroad, and prohibited the printing or sale of any work censured by the faculty.7 It banned the production of anonymous works or works with false imprints and required that all writings dealing with religious matters receive the Sorbonne's imprimatur before being granted a privilege to print. With an eye toward stemming the flow of literature from abroad, the edict provided for the official inspection of all shipments of imported books. More significantly, the edict forbade the importation of all books from Geneva, regardless of their content. In this provision the authorities acknowledged what had by this time become apparent to all those concerned to stem the tide of the Protestant heresy—that Geneva was the main source of the proscribed literature.8 A small printing industry producing works of evangelical content was first established in Geneva in the mid1530s. Its output, at first minuscule, began to increase significantly in the 1540s, a rise coinciding with the return of Jean Calvin to the city and his somewhat more secure establishment as its principal reformer. Figure 2 demonstrates the gradual increase in the volume of printings from Geneva, which reached a peak in 1561, a year in which Protestants in France were granted a degree of toleration and the public controversy over the eucharist became a particular focus of attention.9 This increase in the production of books not only testifies to the commitment of a relatively small group of reformers and printers to spread evangelical teachings but also supplies indirect evidence of a growing Frenchspeaking market for the ideas propagated by the Genevan reform. The rise in the supply of Genevan books can only reasonably be explained in terms of a growing demand for these books. Although it is perhaps conceivable that committed publishers could for a short time produce works for which there was no guaranteed market, it is not likely that an entire industry could be sustained for an extended period while ignoring basic market principles. There are also indications from within France that Genevan books were finding a readership. We know, for example, based on the Sorbonne's list of
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Figure 2. Genevan book production, 1540–1570.
censured works, that books printed in Geneva were available in Parisian bookshops in the early 1540s. In 1545, in response to the publication by the Parlement of Paris of the Sorbonne's list, the booksellers of Paris submitted a petition in which they argued against the measures being imposed and maintained that the banning of these works would lead to their financial ruin. 10 Since the books on the list were overwhelmingly of Genevan provenance, we must conclude that such an agitated response indicates an already established and reliable market for Reformed literature.11 The growing Genevan output also tells us something about the mechanisms of censorship in France. If the methods put in place in the 1540s and given definitive shape in 1551 were effective, one would expect to see a decrease in the volume of works produced as censorship was imposed. In fact, one does see a decline in production after 1544, but the trend is reversed after 1548, and printings increase at a more or less steady rate for the next fifteen years.12 This suggests that Genevan printers did initially adjust their output to the new circumstances introduced by the implementation of censorship, but that ultimately the efforts of the Parlement of Paris and the Sorbonne to cut off the supply of heretical literature were ineffectual. The increasingly rigorous policies pursued in Paris might even have abetted the Reformed cause. At first undertaken in response to the threat posed by the Genevan presses, the repression of the 1540s led to an exodus to Geneva of many Reformed from all over France.13 Among the new emigrés were many prominent printers and booksellers who immediately set up shop in the Reformed city.14 Ironically, then, increasingly rigorous censorship contributed not only to Geneva's image as a refuge for the faithful and a beacon of Reformed faith but also to its position as the leading producer of Reformed propaganda. Moreover, although Protestant books no doubt disappeared from many bookshops, particularly in Paris, the clandestine trade in books was unaffected by the new measures and in fact became more extensive than ever.15
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An analysis of the literature that emanated from Geneva in the period 1540–1560 confirms the notion that the city's printing industry served the aim of propagating the Reformed faith among Frenchspeaking people. As might be expected, very few works were printed that did not have an express connection with the religious questions of the day. 16 The majority of printings were in French, although one notices an increase in Latin and other vernacular printings as time progresses, a development that corresponds to Geneva's growing role as a center of international reform.17 Many different writers are represented in Geneva's published output. Calvin was by far the most printed author, his writings accounting for 27 percent of Frenchlanguage impressions. Following Calvin in contributions to Frenchlanguage printings are Pierre Viret (10%), Theodore Beza (5%), and Guillaume Farel (3%).18 The ends publicists of reform sought to achieve through printed texts are indicated by some of the categories of writing represented in Geneva's output. Bible translations (not including the Psalms in verse) account for 11 percent of French impressions in this period. Slightly more biblical commentaries were produced; they account for 12 percent of total French printings. Obviously, the movement that represented itself as founded upon the rediscovery of Scripture required the text itself in plenty of vernacular editions; and, since Scripture might easily be misunderstood by those accustomed to the views of their Catholic teachers and who consequently lacked the evangelical point of view, reformers were eager to provide summaries, interpretations, and elaborations to help the reader discern the true meaning of God's word. One also finds a substantial portion of devotional, catechetical, and liturgical writings, constituting 11 percent of all printings. Twentysix percent of writings fall into the category of controversial or polemical works. As for theological issues addressed, a wide variety of topics are treated, and while no single topic can be said to predominate, there is none that arises with more frequency than the eucharist. Works on eucharistic theology or those that include a substantial and comprehensive treatment of the question of the Mass and the Reformed Supper amount to 17 percent of works printed in Geneva from 1540 to 1560. This figure testifies to a persistent interest on the part of French reformers in eucharistic doctrine. As Pierre Viret wrote in 1554, "[T]he Mass is today the principal part and the main foundation of the entire papal rule and the whole worship of the papal church and of all its religion."19 Reformers like Viret, who regarded papal hegemony and the devotional beliefs and practices associated with the Roman church as an invention of the devil and the source of a spiritual depravity contributing to the ruin of the whole world, believed it to be vitally important to publicize the true nature of the Mass, its moral and theological errors, and its distinction from the Lord's Supper, as well as their own, biblically derived, understanding of the eucharist. Writing on the eucharist was, then, a central component of the Reformed strategy to undermine the rule of the papal Antichrist, deliver Christians from the spell of priestly idolatry, and summon them to return to biblical faith and practice.
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As I undertake to examine the sacramental ideas of Farel, Viret, and Beza—some of the more influential publicists of the Reformed doctrine—I shall have occasion to note the considerable influence of the most prolific of French Reformed authors, Jean Calvin. In the company of French reformers Calvin came quickly to enjoy a special stature, and one unequal to his years spent laboring on behalf of the cause. Both Farel and Viret, one should note, preceded Calvin into the work of evangelical reform and had the opportunity to produce fully formed understandings of the sacrament before Calvin first began to write in support of the Reformed faith. Nonetheless, the versions of the evangelical doctrine they produced in the period 1540–1560 bear the unmistakable imprint of Calvin's thinking about the eucharist as this is expressed in his writings of the 1540s. But other significant influences are equally worthy of note. Even Calvin's own expression of his sacramental ideas was not unaffected by the practical concern to consolidate broader backing for his own conception of the Supper. The efforts undertaken in the 1540s to produce a unified statement on sacramental doctrine by Geneva and the Reformed cities of the Swiss confederation and the negotiated agreement produced as a result of those efforts bore significantly upon the attempts of writers such as Farel, Viret, and Beza to propagate the Reformed sacramental doctrine in France. Before I begin to explore their sacramental ideas, then, I need to assess the impact this document made on the many articulations of the French Reformed doctrine. Reformed Confessional Agreement on the Sacrament Through the 1540s Calvin was in regular contact with Heinrich Bullinger, Zwingli's successor in Zurich and the foremost defender of the Swiss Reformed position on the Lord's Supper against Lutheran critics. It was Calvin's hope that despite the absence of Protestant confessional agreement, concord on the matter of the eucharist could at least be achieved between Geneva and the Swiss churches whose doctrine had been shaped by Zwingli's sacramental understanding. Following a long correspondence and protracted negotiation, Calvin, accompanied by Farel, made the journey to Zurich in May of 1549 and concluded what came to be known as the Consensus Tigurinus, or Zurich Agreement. 20 It was a compromise document, a statement of eucharistic belief that was acceptable both to Calvin and to the Germanspeaking Swiss, although it did not say everything either side would have been inclined to say. Calvin, for example, accommodated the Swiss by relinquishing his penchant for underlining the reality of the communication of Christ in the eucharist in the claim that believers receive the "substance" of Christ's body. On his side, Bullinger withdrew the expression that believers participate with Christ "sacramentally" in the Supper, since Calvin regarded this as opening the Reformed to the criticism that a sacramental reception is less than a real participation in Christ's body and blood.
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It is clear from examining the agreement that it is a more or less genuine reflection of Calvin's own sacramental thinking, although the language is moderated so as not to offend Swiss sensibilities regarding the distinction between Christ's transcendent body and the material sacramental signs. The sacrament is called God's "instrument," and divine power is held to proceed from God alone through the Spirit and does not dwell in the sacrament itself. 21 The distinction of sacramental sign and reality is maintained, and although the connection Calvin in other writings sought to establish between them is not conveyed in the way he might have wished, he did manage to include the assertion that we are to understand the expression "eating Christ's body and drinking his blood" as signifying "that we draw life from the flesh once offered in sacrifice and the blood shed in expiation."22 This was clearly Calvin's way of asserting that the sacramental signs are not ''bare and empty" and that Christ is truly received in the Supper by believers; God "truly performs inwardly by his Spirit'' that which is figured in the sacrament.23 As one might expect, the agreement reiterated the characteristic Reformed contention that Christ's body remains in heaven and retains its finite, human properties, and hence "is necessarily as distant from us in point of space as heaven is from earth."24 Although the Consensus Tigurinus was strictly speaking a Swiss and Genevan matter, it indirectly affected the discourse concerning the sacrament in France. First, a French translation of the agreement was published in 1551, presumably to present to a French Protestant readership the teaching that could now be said to represent normative Reformed doctrine.25 Second, the publication of the Consensus touched off a long dispute with the Lutheran pastor Joachim Westphal of Hamburg and later with Tilemann Hesshus of Heidelberg and Magdeburg.26 Although the debate was carried on in Latin, and as a consequence did not have a direct popular impact, the first of Calvin's responses to Lutheran criticism was translated into French and was published along with the Consensus in 1555.27 Finally, and perhaps most significantly, the conclusion of an agreement that bound Geneva in confessional agreement with Zurich and other Swiss cities was an achievement of considerable psychological importance to French Protestants. The position on the eucharist Reformed Protestants had been preaching in various guises since the late 1520s and early 1530s had been particularly vulnerable because, as neither Catholic nor Lutheran, it was susceptible to the charge of "sacramentarianism"—a label connoting a radical and revolutionary doctrine that threatened the social wellbeing. With the arrival of Calvin's writings of the 1540s, in which he distanced himself from both the Zwinglian and the Lutheran positions, the standing of French Protestants was little improved. Although he hoped his own conception would prevail, winning converts from both the Lutherans and the Swiss, the confessional divisions were not so easily overcome, and Calvin's eucharistic doctrine was said by some opponents to be indistinguishable from that of the sacramentaires. The Consensus Tigurinus did not by any means immunize French Protestants against
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this kind of criticism, but it did help clear up the confusion somewhat by bringing the Genevan and Swiss positions closer together. The Reformed in France could also take some comfort in the knowledge of their solidarity with a significant bloc of Protestants in Switzerland. And if this solidarity tended to lend credence to the charges of sacramentarianism, they could point to Calvin's maintaining in the face of criticism that their position on the Supper entailed a real participation with Christ in the present and not simply a commemoration of his death in the past. As Calvin wrote in response to Westphal, "The flesh of Christ gives life, not only because we once obtained salvation from it, but because now while we are made one with Christ by a sacred union the same flesh breathes life into us or, to express it more briefly, because ingrafted into the body of Christ by the secret agency of the Spirit we have life in common with him." 28 Through the 1540s and 1550s French Protestants had come to be familiar with the doctrine that stressed that although Christ is not present bodily in the Supper, he is truly offered and received in it by the faithful. The propagation of this understanding was accomplished through Reformed preaching and worship, but perhaps even more significantly through the writings on the Mass and the Supper that emanated from Geneva. I now turn to the ideas concerning the sacrament presented in some of the most influential of those works. Farel's Later Writings on the Eucharist Among the influential publicists of the Reformed doctrine of the eucharist, Guillaume Farel is particularly interesting because of the wide span of time his career covered.29 By the time Calvin's Petit traicté de la saincte Cene appeared in 1541, Farel had already had nearly two decades of experience in the movement for reform and had been instrumental in the elaboration of the sacramental doctrine popularized in Marcourt's polemical writings and Farel's own liturgical handbook. His Le Pater noster et le Credo en françoys, published in 1524, was the first published writing of the Frenchspeaking reform, and he continued to turn out writings for publication until 1560. Because of his long career and the number of significant vernacular writings he produced, Farel is a very important figure for gauging what kinds of ideas about the eucharist circulated among the French Reformed in the course of his lifetime. It is instructive, then, to note the lines along which Farel's sacramental thinking developed and the changes in emphasis that appeared over time. While we should not assume a direct link between Farel's doctrine and popular beliefs about the eucharist in France, Farel is a sufficiently important publicist of the Reformed message to be a reliable indicator of the kind of doctrine Protestant leaders hoped to impart to the faithful and the kinds of sacramental ideas that were receiving the greatest public exposure. It is therefore not unreasonable to suggest that the movement in Farel's own thinking on the eucharist and the changes that appear in his articulation of
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his doctrine reflect ideological shifts in the French reform movement as a whole. Of Farel's later writings the works that deal most directly with the eucharist are the revised editions of the Sommaire et briefve declaration and his newly composed treatise on the eucharist, De la saincte Cene de nostre Seigneur Jesus (On the Holy Supper of Our Lord Jesus). 30 The Sommaire is without doubt Farel's most important work, both because it presents the full range of his theological thinking in a fairly systematic and concise form and because, published in at least six separate editions over a span of twentythree years, its influence was probably more broadly felt than any of his other writings. The Sommaire is also a particularly useful source for delineating Farel's eucharistic doctrine and the changes it underwent through the course of his career. In 1542 Farel thoroughly revised and expanded the work, largely in response to the appearance of unauthorized editions of the work in its earlier version. That he was no longer satisfied with the way he had first treated the sacrament is clear from the substantial changes introduced in the discussion of the eucharist in this revised edition. In the final edition of the work, brought out ten years later, these changes are maintained, suggesting that Farel was comfortable with this new position. Just one year later his most fully articulated discussion was published in the form of the treatise De la saincte Cene de nostre Seigneur Jesus. In contrast to the several occasional writings of the 1540s and 1550s in which Farel referred briefly to the Reformed doctrine of the sacrament, in De la saincte Cene he was able to develop in some depth the understanding that was now commonly held by both the Swiss and the French Reformed. Largely free of polemics, using simple language, and with a pastoral tone aimed at supporting the faith of the growing number of Frenchspeaking Protestants, many suffering from official or unofficial persecution, the treatise marks Farel's attempt to give his doctrine of the Supper classic expression.31 I have already given a brief account of Farel's early understanding of the Lord's Supper as a "visible communion of the members of Jesus Christ."32 The doctrine Farel presented from the late 1520s through the mid1530s highlighted the distinction between the sacraments and the heavenly realities to which they refer. However, although we find in Farel's initial definition of a sacrament that it is a "sign and protestation," in his popular writings he did not make much use of the classical distinction between the sign and the thing signified in the sacrament.33 A version of the dichotomy is certainly implied in his work, but the characteristic language is missing. This changes in his later writings. In the revised edition of the Sommaire of 1542, Farel describes the sacraments as "signs, seals, confirmations and protestations of the things which our Lord accomplishes and gives to his own."34 The revised statement conveys a notable change in emphasis. In earlier editions Farel emphasized the role of the sacrament as a public proclamation of the faith of a Christian, which had the particular use of increasing love for one's neighbor. The new definition, with its addition of the terms "seals"
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and "confirmations," shifts the emphasis from the notion of the sacrament as a badge of faith and an encouragement to charity to a conception of the sacrament as God's instrument which effectively confirms a promise: it is a sign of the things that Christ "accomplishes and gives to his own." The focus in the new expression is on the divine promise of redemption and its accomplishment in the faithful, and the sacrament is understood as a sign of promise and fulfillment. In a number of places Farel makes this shift in emphasis apparent. He maintains that just as in baptism believers are "moved to rely upon and await from God that which he has promised to give," so the sacrament of the Supper is celebrated "in confirmation and assurance that our Lord accomplishes what he promised." 35 The central problem for eucharistic doctrine, then, is to articulate the precise relationship that obtains between God's work to fulfill and confirm the promise of redemption and the efficacy of the eucharist. Farel attempts to do this by elaborating upon the notion of signification, a concept that received scant attention in his early attempts to publicize the Reformed doctrine. Beginning with his revision of the Sommaire and thereafter, Farel made it quite clear that the eucharist cannot be understood except as a visible sign that signifies a spiritual reality. In attempting to explain the kind of signification operative in the sacrament, he suggests that it is analogous to the way, in the preaching of the gospel, the minister's voice represents Jesus to the congregation: But as the voice signifies Jesus to us and by its signification represents him to our understanding, and the one who believes what is said about Jesus by the voice truly receives Jesus, so the bread and the wine in the Supper of our Lord represent to us Jesus' body and blood, and those who believe in Jesus and in what he said in his Holy Supper truly receive what the bread and wine represent. And as the voice is not changed into Jesus, nor is Jesus enclosed in the voice, so also the bread is not changed into the body, nor is the body enclosed in the bread. But by the faith one has in Jesus the soul and spirit of the believer receive the spiritual thing, as the body receives the physical thing.36
In maintaining that faithful communicants "truly receive" what the sacramental signs represent, Farel demonstrates that he has moved very near to the doctrine of Calvin. However, the analogy of preaching and the sacrament seems to belie this, since many readers might take this to mean that Christ is apprehended only cognitively in the sacrament. After all, Farel does stress the representation of Jesus "to our understanding" in preaching, even though he no doubt means to suggest that those who believe receive something more than a mental apprehension of Christ. In employing the analogy, Farel is attempting, somewhat clumsily perhaps, to convey an understanding of sacramental signification according to which one receives the thing as one receives the sign but not in the sign. He thus asserts a parallelism between the reception of the sign and that of the thing signified: the signifying relation
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that obtains between sign and thing guarantees that just as the body receives the physical sign, the spirit of the believer receives the spiritual thing, namely, the benefits of Christ's suffering and death. 37 But like Calvin, Farel is careful to emphasize that this involves no necessary connection; despite this relation, the sign and thing are to be sharply distinguished: Many who make use of the sacraments are indeed far from having the thing which is signified by the visible things of the sacraments, which are common to both the good and the wicked, inasmuch as they are known and received in the church. Thus every external and outer thing, in which our salvation cannot lie, as if we were saved or not on the basis of having it, is condemned. Nevertheless one must not despise them, but take and use them according to the ordinance of our Lord Jesus.38
Farel is concerned to stress that the efficacy of the sacrament is in no way bound up with everything that is external in the sacrament—the elements, the words spoken, the actions of the minister—but is entirely independent of them. That this involves him in an apparent contradiction is made plain by his rhetoric. On the one hand, he wants to assign a positive and highly significant role to the eucharist; he therefore can speak highly of sacramental signs as representations of redemption and regeneration for those who believe in Jesus Christ. On the other hand, he wants to fend off the notion that the gift of saving grace is directly attributable to the visible sacramental act, and he is sufficiently intent on directing readers away from this notion that he announces that the external aspect of the sacrament is "condemned"!39 As if to underline the distinction between the sacrament and God's gracious accomplishment of salvation, Farel asserts that coming to Christ's table, in and of itself, is of no use whatsoever apart from faith and union with Christ. Like Calvin, for Farel the effect of the sacrament follows from its use: only when the eucharist is received with faith in Christ's redemptive act can one conceive of its conveying some benefit to those who communicate.40 Emphasizing a point that had always been central to his conception of the eucharist, he asserts that the gift of justifying grace is entirely dependent on the work of the Holy Spirit "who works in us and joins us to Jesus" and the faith that we have as a consequence of that work: For our sins are forgiven by this alone: that we believe that our Lord died for us. And believing, we have life in him and are made certain by the testament given to us by the Holy Spirit, who testifies with our spirit that we are sons of God, as scripture holds, showing that everything rests in the heart by the work of God and by his gift, when he illumines us and gives us true faith.41
It is not unreasonable to assume that placing such stress upon the instrumentality of faith and the impotence of the visible element in the eucharist would tend to reduce the value of the sacrament in the eyes of Farel's
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readers. It is no doubt because of this implication that Farel goes to some length to convey a positive sense of sacramental efficacy in his description of the eucharist. Continuing an emphasis on union with Christ that one sees in his earlier writings and adopting Calvin's terminology of participation to express this notion, he insists that those who communicate in the sacrament partake of, or are made participants in, Christ—"in his body and blood." 42 Also like Calvin, Farel sees in the institution of the sacrament an element of divine condescension. The visible element of the sacrament is an accommodation to human weakness: "Inasmuch as we are, as long as we are in this material world, sensual, bodily, and carnal, it pleases [God] to use visible signs and material things with which, by his grace, he accomplishes great things in us in confirmation of his grace and his goodwill toward us."43 the note of an actual, objective working of God in the lives of believers is pronounced: in the eucharist God "touches us," "works in us," and ''gives us to understand our salvation.''44 This kind of language is employed to convey a sense of the sacrament as a unique and indispensable instrument of God's grace. For Farel's reader, however, accustomed to the traditional teaching that managed to give a powerful account of the conveyance of grace in the eucharist without relying on the language of representation, we may assume that the idea of the Reformed Supper being the occasion for the reception of supernatural grace was a point of some difficulty.45 Farel, then, faces the problem common to all Reformed articulations of eucharistic doctrine—to demonstrate how God's grace can be effective through signs that never become one with the signified reality. Farel wants to say that Jesus is conveyed through the sacrament while not being physically present in the elements and also that the conveyance of Jesus is independent of the visible aspect of the sacrament. He thus echoes Calvin on the unique character of sacramental signs: "For the holy sacraments are not naked, vain, and empty signs but by the power of the Holy Spirit who is their author they are efficacious and of great power and benefit and increase for the children of God who use them and receive them as they should."46 Farel, like Calvin, wants to give an account of the eucharist that understands it to be an instrument of the Holy Spirit through which divine power is operative. One way that Farel attempts to resolve the problem of the nature of sacramental efficacy is through the notion that the sacrament is a divine act. One finds in Farel's later writings on the eucharist frequent use of terms portraying the gracious character of the sacrament as a consequence of the divine initiative understood in terms of direct action (act, action, operation, accomplishment, working). This emphasis, together with his adoption of Calvinian notions of power and efficacy in the sacrament, suggests a dynamic view of the eucharist that was not apparent in Farel's earlier thinking. Evidence of this appears both in the revised Sommaire and in the treatise on the Lord's Supper. In the Sommaire, for example, he contrasts the Mass with the Supper by highlighting the dynamic quality of the true administration of the Supper and opposing it to the Catholic notion of divine inherence in the elements:
Page 89 For the holy sacraments consist in an action, when they are administered and received according to God. But by the Mass, after the priest breathes upon the bread, though he distributes it to no one, and even when the bread is enclosed in the box and is about half eaten, that which remains is no longer bread, but is the whole sacrament, consummate and perfect, as the beasts dare to assert, saying that it must be worshiped and considered not only as a visible sign of an invisible thing, but that one must believe in it as the true and almighty God, which they pull out of the cupboard, taking it down to carry about against the weather, storms, fires and floods. . . . 47
Similarly, in De la saincte Cene Farel tells his readers that the Holy Supper "is instituted for us to be a spiritual action," and thus communicants should not stop at sounds and syllables nor give account to words proceeding from the mouth of man, but we must hear, understand and remember with our heart what our good shepherd Jesus says and speaks by his own mouth. . . . Also we must not stop at the hand of man, nor at what he distributes—that is, the visible bread—but above all we must have regard for the hand of the one who first distributed it to his apostles, and we must take from him not only what we see with the eyes, but above all that which we hear and believe in our heart, which is the precious body which was given for us and which our Lord gives to us, indeed he alone gave himself once for us.48
Here the notion of the sacrament as a "spiritual action" is employed as justification for Farel's characteristic insistence on transcending tangible, earthly things. The use of the idea in this context demonstrates the connection in Farel's thought between the distinction of signum and res sacramenti and the notion of the sacrament as a dynamic spiritual act. Maintaining the distinction of the sign and the transcendent matter of the sacrament has the benefit of preserving the notion of the sacrament as God's unconstrained action, which operates through but is not dependent on the visible signs or ceremonies. Farel's treatise on the Supper accordingly reiterates the theme of divine freedom and transcendence characteristic of his early doctrine but with an added emphasis on an actual reception of Christ by believers through a divine, gracious operation, which is the work of the Spirit: Who will not have regard here for the Holy Spirit, by whom this precious body was conceived in the belly of the Virgin and by whom Jesus offered it to the Father for our salvation and who makes us participants of this precious body? For by the power of the Holy Spirit we receive this precious body and blood and are participants in it. By the Holy Spirit and through his power is preached and proposed all that belongs to salvation and without him nothing is done or said, for it is necessary that he teach and guide everything that happens for good. This Holy Supper cannot be accomplished except by the Holy Spirit, who makes us rejoice by all the promises, gifts and benefits that the Father has promised us and has given to us and
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will give until the end. For this purpose the Holy Spirit joins us to our Lord Jesus as our head, to take and receive from him every benefit, life and salvation.
In pointing to the work and the power of the Holy Spirit, Farel presents a much stronger defense of the efficacy of the sacrament and the notion of a true presence of Christ in the eucharist than one sees in the earlier writings, which tend to avoid discussion of any manner of divine presence in the Supper. This new emphasis is apparent even when he is stressing the transcendental character of communion. Farel maintains that although "it is necessary to search and take from heaven and beyond the world, if one must not disdain to do here on the earth what Jesus commands us," nevertheless we may be completely assured that Jesus truly is in the midst of those who assemble in his name and that he truly gives us his precious body and blood and that we truly receive it, not by fantasy or thinking but really, indeed as much as and more than if we held it and had it visibly and all the senses of our body—hearing, sight, taste, smell, and touch—felt it and had it present, and we heard him speak by his own mouth, seeing him entirely present and opening his mouth and giving himself to us, and our hands and mouth touched him in receiving him, having the true taste and smell.50
Concerning this we have certain testimony in Christ's own ordinance, the words of institution, which assure us "that we truly have the precious body and blood of Jesus and that we truly receive him and partake of him, being nourished and supported in eternal life which he has given and which we attain by virtue of this heavenly food."51 The distance between our bodies on earth and Jesus' body in heaven is no impediment to this participation, for "since this true presence and this true eating and drinking is spiritual and a spiritual operation, everything is truly accomplished in us and in our soul and spirit by the power of the Holy Spirit and by his work."52 Farel thus maintains the theme so characteristic of his early writing on the eucharist of the distinction between visible and invisible, material and spiritual, earthly and heavenly, and the need to transcend earthly things "seeking the heavenly things in heaven"53 while presenting a much more compelling portrait of a true, spiritual reception of and participation in the body of Christ in the sacrament. It is no doubt to lend credence to this notion of Christ's presence and the spiritual efficacy of the eucharist that Farel turns his concentration to the evidence of this operation in the interior life of the believer. He suggests that when the faithful receive the sacrament as Jesus commands "they feel a power of God in them and an efficacy of the body and blood of Jesus working in their heart."54 In focusing on the experiential aspect of communion, Farel hopes to convey a sense of the reality of Christ's spiritual
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presence in the Supper but also to counter the Catholic notion of the transubstantiation of the elements. In an interesting rhetorical twist, he takes the notion of transmutation and applies it to the faithful who receive Christ's body in the sacrament. Rather than being amazed at a miraculous, supernatural change in the elements, one ought instead to marvel at the true miracle of the change God accomplishes in the lives of believers: And it is the height of wonder that when, according to God's holy command and following and having regard for the word of the Gospel, one takes a piece of material bread and corruptible wine, and in taking it and doing as Jesus commands, that the whole man, soul and body, feels one thing that he himself cannot express. He sees no change in the bread he takes, nor in the wine, no more than in what is left over, and he well understands concerning that which he feels and which works in his heart that nothing of it comes from the power of the bread or the wine. Nevertheless in the right and pure action of the Supper, man, when he takes and eats, feels no small change in himself and an affection which is different and greater than before. And insofar as he, before he comes to the Holy Supper, has had Jesus in his heart and has benefited more in faith and love by the word of the Gospel and even more by the communication of the Supper, so much more does he sense in it its efficacy and power. Does one not see here the great and wonderful power of God in his Holy Supper? 55
The rhetorical force of Farel's assertions of sacramental efficacy demonstrates the degree to which his doctrine in its later manifestation has been transformed under the influence of Calvin's thinking on the eucharist. Certain earlier emphases, of course, remain. Farel is consistent in guarding the notions of prevenient grace and the freedom of God, and one notices no diminution in his insistence on the need to transcend bodily and material things in order to communicate with heavenly realities. After 1542, however, there appears a marked concentration upon the sacrament as an occasion for divine action and an instrumental understanding of the Supper that was not presented to readers of Farel's earlier writings. Those initial expressions of his eucharistic thought, influenced as they were by the reform movements in the Germanspeaking Swiss cities, were strongly colored by Farel's perception of the need to challenge the Catholic notion that the sacrament's effects proceeded from divine power present within the visible sign. Rather than presenting an alternative conception of the way power is conveyed in the sacrament, in his early vernacular writings Farel was reluctant to stress any association of power with the sacrament for fear of compromising the notion of God's freedom and God's free bestowal of justifying and sanctifying grace. It is apparent, however, that by the early 1540s and with the publication of Calvin's French writings on the eucharist, Calvin's ability to combine an emphasis on divine freedom with the notion of the Supper as an instrument through which the power of the Spirit is effective and his willingness to defend the idea of a "true" communication of Christ's body and
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blood changed the intellectual options available to Farel. Farel's writings of this later period testify, then, to a significant impact among the French Reformed of Calvin's reformulation of the doctrine of sacramental signification. Pierre Viret's Polemical Writings on the Mass and Christ's Supper While Farel's later writings were remarkably free of polemics, the same cannot be said of Pierre Viret. 56 Viret specialized in systematic and rhetorically flamboyant assaults on what he understood to be idolatrous religious dogma and practice. Although his targets were numerous, none focused his polemical energies so much as sacramental doctrine. From the first writing that we know with certainty to have come from Viret's pen, De la difference qui est entre les superstitions et idolatries des anciens gentilz et payens, et les erreurs et abuz qui sont entre ceux qui s'appellent chrestiens (On the Difference Between the Superstitions and Idolatries of the Ancient Gentiles and Pagans and the Errors and Abuses That Exist Among Those Who Call Themselves Christians),57 which was published in 1542, until the publication in 1565 of his Des principaux poincts qui sont aujourd'huy en different, touchant la saincte Cene de Jesus Christ, et la Messe de l'Eglise Romaine, et la resolution d'iceux (On the Principal Points That Are in Dispute Today Concerning the Holy Supper of Jesus Christ and the Mass of the Roman Church and Their Resolution), Viret produced six separate treatises whose central theme was the dispute over the eucharist.58 His favorite form was the chronicle or genealogy—an account of the historical development of doctrinal error that either traced its institution to particularly dissolute ecclesiastical figures or displayed its roots in pagan belief and practice. The aim was to discredit the religion practiced by Catholics by demonstrating that it had its origin not from God but from the devil. Viret also tried his hand at polemical commentary, and with particular success. Les cauteles et canon de la Messe (The Cautels and Canon of the Mass), which first appeared in 1554 as part of a longer treatise, Des actes des vrais successeurs de Jesus Christ (On the Acts of the True Successors of Jesus Christ), reproduced the Roman missal in French translation with extensive annotations ridiculing and providing refutations for every detail of the ideological edifice supporting Catholic eucharistic belief and practice. While to modern eyes a polemical production of this sort may seem relatively unimportant as a contribution to theological discourse when compared to more positive statements of the Reformed understanding of the sacrament, the fact that this commentary outsold all of Viret's other works, appearing in at least six impressions between 1554 and 1564, suggests that it exercised considerable influence over popular thinking about the eucharist.59 In addition to his polemical writings, Viret's eucharistic understanding is also an important feature of the catechetical works produced in the late 1550s, which also appeared in several subsequent editions through the mid1560s.60 Here the discussion in naturally more concise and the tone considerably less polemical.
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As writings intended for popular instruction, these works are particularly important as reflections of what Viret considered most important to convey to his readers about the nature and efficacy of the sacrament. Viret concentrated his attentions on eucharistic doctrine and its abuse in the Roman Mass because he believed it to be the central and instrumental feature of the religious problems of his time. The Mass, he insisted, was the principal means by which a corrupt ecclesiastical structure was maintained and the world led astray into idolatry. 61 One of his treatises begins with the declaration that the Mass is "the chief of all idolatries which, without comparison, surpasses and exceeds all superstitions, idolatries and blasphemies of the Jews and pagans that ever existed since the beginning of the world."62 Viret goes on to suggest that it poses a particularly dangerous threat to the spiritual wellbeing of both individuals and the social body because it disguises the gravest blasphemy under the appearance of holiness.63 In perhaps his most telling phrase Viret discloses the dimensions of his concern with sacramental theory and practice when he maintains that "without the abolition of the Mass the reign of the Antichrist cannot be abolished."64 He believed that the attack on the Mass was indispensable to the struggle to prevent Satan from succeeding in destroying the knowledge of God among all people. It is this struggle that Viret undertakes in his polemical writings. In his commentary on the missal, in particular, but also in several other treatises, Viret did as much as any Protestant publicist to popularize the notion that Catholics worshiped a "God of paste," referring to the Catholic understanding of Christ's presence in the sacrament and the practice of venerating the consecrated host. Les cauteles et canon de la Messe takes as its central theme the theological incongruity of the claim that Christ becomes present bodily in the bread and wine of the sacrament. In support of this theme Viret lampoons almost every instruction given to the priest and every liturgical act performed in the Mass, from the priest's confession, which prepares him, as Viret says, to blaspheme God, to the consecration of the elements, in which the priest is said to make a god, which he then worships.65 He becomes particularly exercised over regulations regarding hosts that are dropped, eaten by vermin, or vomited by those who receive them. What kind of a God is worshiped in the Mass, he asks, who would allow himself to be "consumed and eaten by mice, spiders, and worms and reduced to nothing"?66 Those who promulgate and perpetuate such teachings are the true heretics who deserve to be burned, even though it is people who believe as Viret does who live under the threat of this kind of punishment. The representation of God presented in the Mass amounts to blasphemy because it suggests that God becomes subject to all kinds of mundane perils, which Viret takes some pleasure in ridiculing: "[I]t should be noted that it is necessary for this god to have bodyguards, or otherwise he would be always in great danger; that is, at least, if the box and the cupboard were not closed and sufficiently strong to sustain the assaults of such combatants."67 In portraying the object of eucharistic devotion as a god of flour, ''white and round as a lovely piece of turnip,'' Viret takes aim at the very heart of traditional
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Catholic piety, endeavoring to make it appear farcical. 68 He has a special eye for irony when it comes to commenting on the eucharistic ceremony itself. Noting the practice of illuminating the sanctuary during mass, he suggests that this is especially odd in view of the "great darkness" occasioned "when they worship there a wafer and a morsel of paste and flour instead of Jesus Christ, the true Son of God."69 And he observes with particular delight the instructions to the priest regarding his handling of the elements before consecration: "Because this wafer is not God before the sacramental words are pronounced in their entirety, our masters diligently and deliberately admonish Mr. Godmaker to hold this wafer in such a way that the people cannot see it until it is consecrated and converted into God, in view of the danger that certain simple and ignorant persons might worship it before it was God, and that by this means they would be idolaters."70 The fastidiousness of the writers of these instructions with regard to the false worship of God strikes Viret as absurd given that the very conception of God being present in a piece of bread constitutes blasphemy. The keystone of Viret's sacramental theology is his assertion that a sacrament includes two things—"one earthly, material and visible, the other heavenly, spiritual and invisible."71 In the eucharist the material elements are the bread and wine, and the spiritual thing is the living bread, Jesus Christ, who is in heaven.72 Like Calvin, Viret insists in the strongest possible terms that in the sacrament "we truly receive the body and blood of Jesus, and we eat his flesh and drink his blood there."73 According to a "great analogy, proportion, fitness, and similitude" that exists between the earthly elements of bread and wine and the heavenly food of Christ's body and blood, we are instructed that our very life depends on our partaking of the spiritual nourishment of Christ's flesh, which is very food for our souls.74 The nourishment of Christ's flesh and blood is communicated to believers "by the power of the Spirit."75 While he insists on a true communication of Christ's body and blood, Viret is nevertheless concerned to close the door to any interpretation of the sacrament that might suggest a local presence of Christ: [W]e deny that Jesus Christ is enclosed in this bread and this wine, or that the bread and wine are transformed and transubstantiated into his flesh and his blood. Instead, we believe that the bread remains bread, the wine remains wine, and that with the bread and the wine, if we have faith in Jesus Christ, we truly receive his body and blood. And we feel the power and efficacy in our souls and consciences as well as, indeed better than our bodies feel that bread and wine of which they make use.76
Viret elaborates upon this dynamic understanding of Christ's presence using an analogy that Calvin first employed in the revised Institutio of 1539:77 It is not necessary that Jesus descend to us bodily, no more than the sun, which, while it is in the sky, is nonetheless present to us so as to illuminate
Page 95 us; there is no need for it to descend to the earth to impart to us its light and warmth, which it communicates to us by its force and power which extends to us and illumines all the earth and its fullness, even though it remains at all times in the sky. For if we could not have participation with Jesus Christ and he could not extend his force and power to us unless he were bodily with us, this would show his impotence rather than his power. But in this is declared his power and force: that he pulls us, and causes us to climb through faith; he makes us go beyond all created things to attain unto the glory of God the Father, who is beyond all human capacity. Indeed, he makes us climb higher than all the heavens, above which he is exalted. In this way he is joined with us by the power of his Spirit living in our hearts through faith, who is in our midst until the end of the world. 78
This passage displays features characteristic of the sacramental teaching that was beginning to take shape in the early 1540s under the influence particularly of Calvin, but also of writers such as Farel. There is an uncompromising assertion of divine transcendence together with an insistence on Christ's physical presence being limited to heaven until the last day. Furthermore, we see in Viret's rhetoric a marked concentration on the notion of power and its conveyance. God's power to unite believers with Jesus Christ, the limits of human potency, and union with Christ as an effect of the power of the Holy Spirit are all given special emphasis through the use and repetition of particular words and images—power, force, virtue, pulling, and climbing—designed to highlight a dynamic understanding of the sacrament. We also find here the theme introduced and popularized by Farel of sacramental communion consisting in transcending earthly things in order to attain to heavenly realities. Viret casts the theme in a Calvinian light by referring to the power of the Spirit as the agent of communion who overcomes spatial distance and unites believers with Christ. In presenting a theoretical foundation for this sacramental view, Viret, like Calvin, draws on the Augustinian symbolist tradition and identifies the sacrament as a kind of sign or figure that represents to the bodily senses things that are properly communicated only to the soul and spirit, or the "inner senses."79 The earthly and the heavenly things in the sacrament, then, correspond to the signs of the sacrament and the things that they signify. According to a "common and customary manner of speaking" that Holy Scripture employs in referring to sacraments, the name of the thing signified is given to the sign "by reason of the agreement that one has with the other."80 This explains why Jesus called the bread and wine of the Supper his body and blood. He did not by any means mean to suggest that they were identical to his natural body and blood, but simply that they were signs of the body and blood.81 Viret attempts to explain the relationship between sacramental sign and signified by the example of someone who is given possession of a house by being offered the keys to the house. The act is a symbolic one. In the act of giving the keys, the keys represent the house, but they are of course not to be confused with the real matter of the gift, which is the house itself. Nonetheless, even though the keys are distin
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guished from the house, in this symbolic act, when one takes the keys, one does more than simply receive small metal objects; one really receives what they represent. This is the way we must look at Christ's offering of his body and blood by giving us bread and wine: "In the same way we see that the sacraments offer us with the signs the thing represented by them. So the faithful receive both things, even though one thing is not what the other is, since the grace of God is not bound or enclosed by corruptible elements and signs." 82 The signs must therefore be distinguished from the sacramental thing. Failing to maintain the distinction leads to idolatry, as in the case of those who wish to "seek Jesus Christ among corruptible elements and to worship him in bread and wine rather than in spirit and in truth."83 But the signs of the sacrament are not "bare and sterile signs without the truth of the thing which they represent."84 Instead they "serve us as instruments for the communication of the things which are signified and represented to us by them."85 And so Viret can assure his readers that the whole Christ, the divinehuman hypostatic union, is truly offered in the sacrament of the Lord's Supper and truly received by those who come to the table with faith to eat his flesh and blood.86 Viret contrasts this representational understanding of the Supper with the views of those who find fault with the Reformed understanding. Against those who "despise the sacraments," Viret presents a defense of the great dignity of the eucharist as a means God employs to confirm in the hearts of believers God's promises and to increase their faith in them.87 Those who adhere to the Roman Catholic understanding, on the other hand, "have more greatly esteemed" the sacraments "than is fitting."88 While the sacraments are to serve as instruments, as signs, seals, and confirmations of God's grace toward the faithful, the proponents of the Catholic teaching "have so elevated and magnified the dignity of the instruments and visible things that they have completely placed in oblivion the worker who works through them and have destroyed the grace and the power of God, attributing to the instruments and visible and material signs that which belongs to God alone."89 This is accomplished by the claim that the sacraments ''have the power of themselves and by their nature to bring and convey grace and salvation to those who receive them by the power of the work which is accomplished in them."90 The notion of sacramental efficacy ex opere operato is incompatible with the teaching that it is God who works in us by the power of the Holy Spirit, Viret maintains; it also contradicts the biblical teaching that faith alone justifies. The Catholic doctrine, then, misrepresents the way God acts to save human beings and the way the sacraments are employed as signs of God's grace: ''This is to put the instrument in the place of the worker and the messenger in the place of the one who sends him. It is also to bind and tie the Spirit, the grace, and the power of God to visible and material things, and to rob him of his freedom, as if he could not justify and save men nor communicate his gifts and benefits except by these visible signs and was subject to them."91
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Viret finds the epitome of the assault on God's grace and freedom in the doctrine of transubstantiation and its corollary doctrines. Aside from offering a brief technical argument (that affirming that the sign is changed into the heavenly reality of the sacrament leaves the sacrament without the sign that is indispensable to a sacrament), 92 Viret concentrates almost entirely on the religious consequences of the doctrine. To claim that the substance of the elements is replaced by Christ's body and blood is, in Viret's view, to change the sacrament into "magic and sorcery." By this doctrine the greatest error and blasphemy has been introduced to induce people to worship Christ's body and blood "as God in these visible and corruptible things."93 The error is sufficiently grave to lead Viret to suggest that ''it would almost be better to despise the sacraments and not to have them at all, since it is quite foreign and contrary to the word of God to make of the sign the thing signified and to make God out of the creature, and convert them into such idolatry, abomination, and blasphemy."94 In the conception of sacramental efficacy Viret discerns in this doctrine he finds an echo of ancient pagan understandings of the relation of earthly and heavenly realities. On the assumption that ''there is such correspondence and such agreement of heaven with earth, and of celestial things with earthly things, and of all creatures one with another, that whoever can make an application of one upon the other will get out of this marvelous effects which are considered miracles," the ancients attempted to harness celestial power and apply its influence to earthly affairs.95 This same conception lies behind the approach to the sacraments of those Catholics who believe that Christ becomes physically present by the invocation of the sacramental words, "as if they wished to bring down heaven by them, not only the power and efficacy of the Spirit of God, but also the body of Jesus and his blood, to apply them and join them with the bread and wine, and afterward to communicate them to men, as the magicians wish with their signs and characters to attract the influences of planets and other celestial bodies to apply them to their own endeavors."96 The eucharist as celebrated by the church of Rome amounts, then, to a denial of divine freedom and an attempt to subject the divine will to human whims. The Mass cannot be confused with Christ's Supper, to the extent that "whoever would be taken as a Christian and would participate at the true table of the Lord cannot at all communicate or assist in the Mass or any such Supper of the papists if he does not wish to be at one time both a participant in the table of the Lord and the table of devils."97 Viret means to alert his readers not only to the heinous blasphemy and idolatry committed every time the Mass is celebrated but also to the inadmissibility of compromise: one cannot hold private evangelical beliefs while continuing outwardly to satisfy the requirements of Roman Catholic piety. As if to highlight the importance of separating oneself visibly from the church of Rome, Viret began increasingly to emphasize the use of the sacraments as public protestations of fidelity to God, a theme more characteristic of Zwingli than of Calvin. He maintains, for example, that God has established the
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sacraments "in order to separate us in the matter of religion from the whole assembly and from all persons who follow a doctrine and religion contrary to his and in order to make public and solemn profession and protestation of the faith that we have in him and of the doctrine and religion that we follow." 98 These words, part of a catechetical work first published in 1558, perhaps reflect the increasing boldness of Protestants in France who more and more were willing to demonstrate publicly their separate identity. They are certainly evidence of the eagerness of Protestant leaders to encourage among the Reformed faithful a sense of separateness, chosenness, and sanctity based on a rejection of all forms of idolatry and an acceptance of the free grace of God. Reformers were of course concerned that if those persuaded by their evangelical writings did not begin to constitute a separate community of faith but continued to attend the Mass, the movement for reform could make no headway, and, as Viret puts it, "one will not prevent the devil from being triumphant, as he is accustomed."99 It is for this reason that Viret attempts to portray in vivid colors the full extent of the injury done to God and to the faithful who are led astray by the Mass. If the world is held in enchantment by this greatest of blasphemies, and if the social body is polluted by such great idolatry, the solution is for individuals to hear the word of God and to cultivate the knowledge and service of Christ in fellowship with other faithful Christians. It is necessary, Viret asserts, that "each one who wishes to know Jesus Christ for his salvation come to his school, leaving outside all carnal affections, stripping himself completely naked, without bringing anything of his own to Jesus Christ beyond a desire to know him, to serve him and honor him as he ought to.''100 This, Viret believes, is the way one makes an end of the Mass and defeats Satan and his surrogate, the papal Antichrist.101 As in the case of Farel, Viret's writings present compelling evidence of Calvin's influence on French Reformed eucharistic thought. In all of his attacks on the Mass and his expositions of the Reformed doctrine of Christ's Supper one sees reflected the basic theological conception that shaped Calvin's approach to the sacrament. No publicist of the evangelical doctrine offered a stronger or more passionate defense of the notion of God's freedom in relation to the sacrament than Viret. Certainly few of his contemporaries could match the violence of the language he employed to expose and attack the "idolatry" of Catholic devotion to the eucharist. Viret believed this assault on idolatry and blasphemy to be the best strategy for vindicating the truth of the Gospel and the transcendent freedom and majesty of God and Christ. His polemics are best understood as an attempt to unmask the devil's work, to disclose the full extent of the outrage of confusing the divine with corruptible matter and worshiping the creator in created things. We see, then, in Viret's attacks on Catholic beliefs the employment of a strategy we might call "rhetorical profanation," the attempt to demonstrate through relentless rhetorical assaults that objects regarded as sacred by the majority of Catholics—the relics of saints, holy images, but most especially the consecrated elements of the eucharist—are no more than corruptible things that
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have no capacity to convey divine power to those who come into contact with them. Viret accordingly focuses on the mundane origins of the object of devotion: the various parts of the Mass came into being through the innovations of the bishops of Rome; the "god" of the Mass is "made" first by a baker, from paste and flour, and then by the priest. This attempt to portray the thoroughly profane character of the symbols that had come to be viewed as the dwelling of divine power in the midst of the visible world served to underline the conception of the eucharist Calvin had presented after 1540. Viret was, then, an important ally for Calvin in his efforts to disseminate his understanding of the sacrament. Viret's importance as a critic of Catholic eucharistic symbolization and a popularizer of Calvin's sacramental position should therefore not be underestimated. The number of polemical attacks on the Mass he produced and the popularity of these writings testify to a significant influence over popular conceptions of the Catholic Mass and its supposed incompatibility with scriptural teaching. But Viret's importance lies not only in this critical dimension of his thought but also in his ability to convey in popular writings the understanding of divine power and its relation to temporal potency that we see also in Calvin's conception of the sacrament's efficacy. Viret follows Calvin in attempting to resist the tendency to divest the sacrament altogether of a kind of communicative efficacy. In terms as emphatic as Calvin's, and with perhaps even less hesitation than one sees in Farel, Viret maintains that Christ's body and blood are in the sacrament and are truly received by the faithful, and that the power of the Holy Spirit works through the sacramental instruments to effect this communication. Viret's unquestionably popular writings thus served as important vehicles through which to convey to popular readers not only the rudiments of Calvin's interpretation of the efficacy of the Supper but also the broader and equally significant conception of the freedom and transcendence of divine power and the critical distinction to be maintained between God's power and the material instruments through which that power is deployed. Theodore Beza: Reformed Doctrine as Catholic Doctrine Unlike Farel and Viret, Théodore de Bèze, or Beza, came to the Reformed faith after Calvin's position as one of the prime engineers of reform had already been established. 102 For this reason we should not be surprised to find signs of Calvin's influence in Beza's thinking on the sacrament. Indeed, Beza habitually deferred to Calvin's authority on all theological questions. In part because of his fidelity to Calvin's theological views but also because of his literary and diplomatic skills, he was frequently called upon to act as Calvin's surrogate in a number of disputes, notably the controversy with the Lutherans over the manner of Christ's presence in the eucharist. His participation in a number of international matters as a representative of Calvin and the Genevan reform in discussions with the Germans and the German speaking
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Swiss affected his literary output in the 1550s: most of his early writings were treatises in Latin, and compared with his Reformed associates he was relatively slow to produce much in the way of vernacular literature. However, in the late 1550s he composed an extended presentation and defense of Reformed doctrine in French to which he gave the title Confession de la foy chrestienne (Confession of Christian Faith). 103 Not especially intended for general catechetical use—it is much too long and its discussion too detailed for this—Beza's Confession was designed to present a fully elaborated though still somewhat concise summation of the chief points of Reformed doctrine, much along the lines of Farel's Sommaire or Calvin's first vernacular attempt in the genre, the Instruction et confession de foy.104 As one of Beza's first popular vernacular works, the Confession de la foy chrestienne by itself places him in the top rank of French evangelical publicists. First published in Geneva in 1559, the work went quickly through several editions for a total of sixteen printings before 1565—a remarkably large number of printings in a relatively short period for a work of this kind.105 The volume in which it was produced testifies to a remarkable degree of success in the market for Reformed literature. As a consequence, it must be considered one of the most influential French Reformed treatises of the late 1550s and early 1560s. We may be fairly confident, then, in assuming that the doctrine espoused and defended by Beza in the treatise represents an understanding to which a large number of Frenchspeaking readers were exposed. In the Confession Beza presents extended discussions both of the sacraments in general and of the sacrament of the Lord's Supper.106 Early in the presentation he establishes the representative character of the sacraments as "visible signs, marks or testimonies" which God has instituted for the use of the church. He also emphasizes the close connection between the sacraments and God's word. The sacraments are "added to the word of the Gospel . . . to better represent to our external senses both what God gives us to understand by his word and what he accomplishes in our hearts."107 They are secondary to the word, which is the sole means by which God calls the faithful into the fellowship of Christ and through which the Holy Spirit creates faith in those who are called.108 It is this faith, moreover, that is the necessary condition of sacramental efficacy. In the case of the sacraments, Beza maintains, "if we do not come with faith, which is the only means of receiving what is preached, represented and offered by them, they do not by any means serve us for salvation."109 In emphasizing the position of sacraments "as accessories and dependencies of the word,'' Beza means to establish that the sacraments are valid only where God's word is truly and effectively communicated, and thus are improperly administered wherever the gospel is not preached or understood.110 The word, then, is the sine qua non of the sacraments, since only through it does the Spirit communicate the faith requisite for properly receiving the sacraments; the word can be administered without the sacraments, but not the other way around.111 The natural outcome of this kind of emphasis would seem to be a questioning of the role of the sacraments as a necessary part of the life of faith. If the preaching of the
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word is the sufficient condition for the creation of faith in Christ, why do Christians need the sacraments? Beza attempts to present a justification of the sacraments as instruments of reconciliation by reference to the way in which they act upon the senses: [S]ince the simple word only strikes one of our senses, while the sacraments involve in addition sight and the other bodily senses, and also are distributed with very significant and distinct ceremonies, it is easy to recognize how necessary to us is the help of the sacraments to maintain our faith, since, in a manner of speaking, they cause us to touch with the finger and the eye, and as it were to already taste and actually feel the outcome of that which we await, as if we had it and possessed it already. For this reason, far from despising the holy sacraments, we confess that we cannot sufficiently magnify their dignity and legitimate use. 112
Equally important in this context is Beza's understanding of both the word and the sacraments as instruments. The Holy Spirit employs these means "to unite us more and more with Jesus Christ and so to work out our salvation," but in such a manner that the Spirit "does not communicate his power to them, but rather all efficacy proceeds from him alone."113 Similar to Calvin's emphasis on the instrumental character of the sacraments, Beza's language here betrays his concern to counter the notion that by the use of these means of reconciliation some aspect of the divine power is transferred to them.114 Beza's sacramental doctrine, then, aims to protect the idea of the transcendence of divine power by giving an account of sacramental efficacy that distinguishes the signifying instruments from this efficacy. As a means of accomplishing this end, Beza presents what is perhaps the most thorough discussion of sacramental signification offered from the Reformed side. Submitted as a defense of the position articulated by Calvin, Beza nonetheless draws upon a common catholic tradition of interpretation. Like Calvin, Beza identifies the signs and the thing signified as the relevant elements in the sacrament, but in a move reminiscent of scholastic discussions he also considers in a separate section the conjunction of sacramental sign and thing, and he is even willing to contemplate the occurrence of a change in the sacramental elements.115 He does this, however, without conceding anything to Catholic opponents regarding the distinction between signum and res maintained by Calvin, suggesting that what Beza is offering here is a kind of accommodation for apologetic purposes of a Catholic form of presentation of the notion of sacramental efficacy, but with thoroughly Reformed content. In beginning his exposition of the representative character of the sacraments, Beza identifies the sacramental signs as "not at all . . . completely bare and empty signs," as in "a painting or some simple memorial," but rather as representations with which "the very thing which is externally represented by them is offered spiritually and truly."116 In this opening definition he attempts to tread a fine line between conceiving of the sign as a simple
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mental representation, on the one hand, and as the medium for a miraculously indwelling divine power, on the other. The matter of the sacrament is "offered" with the signs as opposed to being present in them, although Beza maintains that what is offered is offered "truly" and is "full of efficacy." The suggestion is that signs are effective as representations precisely by pointing away from themselves to the transcendental thing they represent; or, stated another way, when in attending to them their representational quality is acknowledged. This is particularly apparent in Beza's discussion of Christ's intention in settling on the particular signs of "water, bread, wine; sprinkling, eating, and drinking." These signs are taken from ''the simplest and most ordinary signs and ceremonies that are among men" because of Jesus' recognition of a natural human impulse to dwell upon the signs as objects of devotion rather than raising oneself on high and attending to the ''heavenly mysteries" that are represented by them. 117 The signs do, however, have a "singular agreement with that which is represented by them," and this agreement and proportion depend upon the signs remaining as they are—bread and wine—and not being deprived of their substance through the notion of a miraculous transmutation.118 Nevertheless, some change in the sacramental signs does occur, according to Beza, but it is not a transference of the substance of the thing to the signs but rather the commencement of their true signification: "The signs, therefore, are in no way changed in the sacrament in respect of their substance, natural quality, or quantity, but only in respect of the use and the end for which they are proposed, insofar as they begin to signify and represent to the eye spiritual things. This occurs not from their nature but by the ordinance of Jesus Christ."119 To illustrate the nature of this change Beza offers the analogy of the seal placed upon a public document. The wax used for the seal is no different from any other wax except for the use to which it is put, and it is by virtue of this particular use and common agreement over its representational nature—or, as Beza says, "by the ordinance of men"—that it effectively testifies to the document's authenticity. The signs of the sacrament undergo a similar change according to their use in the celebration of the sacrament and by God's own ordinance.120 The transformation is the result, then, not of a supernatural change in the physical or substantial nature of the signs but of the end to which they are destined. Beza attributes the accomplishment of this change to the work of the Holy Spirit in accordance with "the ordinance and good pleasure of God," and those who receive the sacrament are assured that the elements have taken on special significance because of the promise of the gospel to which the sign is added as a seal. It is this promise, then, upon which worshipers must concentrate, and not the priestly "pronunciation of words in the manner of magicians"—as if the mere pronunciation of the words of institution and not the content of the promise effected a change in the elements.121 The promise, as Beza says, "is as the soul of the signs, inasmuch as according to the content of the promise the water, bread and wine become sacraments, that is, true signs of what the word promises and of that which is represented
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by them." 122 It is then only within the context of the proclamation of God's promised redemption, a proclamation that is properly made in the celebration of Christ's Supper in the company of the faithful, that signifying efficacy can be attributed to the sacraments. Or, in Beza's more concise construction, "The sacraments are not sacraments outside of their use."123 The sacraments point the faithful toward Jesus Christ as their only redeemer. Hence Beza identifies Christ "with all his benefits and treasures" as the thing signified in the sacraments.124 The central problem for Beza in his presentation of sacramental doctrine is how to articulate the means by which Christ becomes available to the faithful in communion. We have already noted that in his discussion of this point he makes what appears to be a formal concession to Catholic ways of articulating the relationship between sacramental sign and sacramental thing. The medieval tradition of eucharistic thought had posited a third element mediating between the sign alone, conceived of as the visible elements, and the thing alone, regarded as Christ's mystical body; this third element was said to be the sign and thing together, which was Christ's true body and blood.125 In examining the question of "how Jesus Christ is conjoined with the signs," Beza seems to be conceding to this tradition a good deal more than one might expect of someone influenced by Calvin's refusal to overcome the distinction of sign and sacramental thing.126 The appearance, however, is somewhat misleading given Beza's elaboration upon this notion of sacramental conjunction: "The thing signified, that is, Jesus Christ with all his benefits, is always truly presented and without any deceit on the part of God, who is trustworthy in his promise, in such a way that the sign and the thing signified are always conjoined in this respect: that is, that God truly offers both."127 Beza is using the idea of conjunction in a somewhat idiosyncratic way to express coincidence rather than natural union: the conjunction or sacramental union is evident from that fact that when God offers the sign God also offers the thing it signifies. It is therefore not "a natural and local conjunction,'' a concept that is inconceivable to Beza because of the finite and fully human character of Christ's body (it "is not a fantastical body which is invisible and does not occupy space").128 The simultaneous offering of both sign and thing is attributable, then, not to something in the nature of the sign, the efficacy of certain words, or the sanctity of the one who administers the sacrament but rather to ''the power of the Holy Spirit, who causes Jesus Christ, notwithstanding that insofar as he is man he is bodily absent from us in heaven as Scripture bears witness, to be truly present to us, insofar as our faith, which contemplates him spiritually and internally just as the signs represent him externally to us, ascends by this means unto heaven to more closely embrace him and to join us to him."129 In the notion of the union of sign and thing, then, Beza gives away nothing of the Reformed insistence that Christ's body is not present in the signifying elements, since it is, until the day of judgment, nowhere else but in heaven. Moreover, by invoking the image of spiritual ascension by faith that unites believers with Christ, Beza illustrates the degree to which the notion of "seeking heavenly things in heaven," Farel's Sursum corda formula,
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had become common Reformed currency. Its presence in this context makes it quite plain that although Beza is willing to speak of a kind of conjunction of sign and signified, he clearly means to maintain a distinction between Christ's body and the sacramental elements, and he is explicit on the point: "Notwithstanding such a conjunction, we do not confuse the signs with the thing signified and do not abolish the substance of the signs, but rather we distinguish that which is joined together." 130
Beza's discussion of the ways in which the faithful communicate with both sign and thing underlines this distinction. Both believers and unbelievers receive the external signs "in a natural and bodily manner." Believers, however, receive the thing signified in addition to the sign, and they "perceive an augmentation of their faith unto salvation and eternal life," whereas unbelievers receive the sign alone to their condemnation, since "by refusing the thing signified which God offers to them with the sign they pollute and dishonor it."131 This is the case because faith is the only means of communicating with the transcendent matter of the sacrament. The worshiper who comes to the sacrament with faith, then, truly receives Jesus Christ, ''but not by the teeth, nor in the stomach in a bodily manner, but rather by faith and in a spiritual fashion," and by virtue of embracing what is offered in the sacrament by faith ''he joins himself even more closely than before to Jesus Christ. For the power of faith is such that instead of causing Jesus Christ to descend here below . . . it raises itself from the earth even unto heaven to unite and incorporate itself with Jesus Christ, which is the reason we chant 'Sursum corda.'"132 Although it is evident that this discussion of the signification operative in the sacraments is largely a response to questions regarding the nature of eucharistic communion, Beza presents the discussion as relating to both Reformed sacraments, Baptism and the Holy Supper. When he turns to an exposition of Reformed eucharistic doctrine proper, he simply applies to the specific case of the sacrament of the Lord's Supper the ideas regarding the unique character of sacramental representation already developed. In presenting a summary of Beza's position it will suffice, then, simply to note the points regarding the Supper that receive significant amplification in this separate treatment. Beza, maintains, for example, that the transcendent matter of the Supper, or the thing the signs signify, is Jesus Christ, "conceived, born, crucified, dead, buried, raised, and ascended into heaven to be made our whole wisdom, righteousness, sanctification and redemption."133 In this affirmation Beza illustrates a significant feature of the Reformed understanding of the eucharist in its connection with christological understandings. In contrast to competing conceptualizations, Beza does not identify the sacramental thing as the mystical or glorified body of Christ but rather as the incarnate Christ.134 The sacrament, then, refers to the very body in which Christ suffered and died and which is presently in heaven at the right hand of God. If we are to understand rightly the way in which our salvation is accomplished, we must acknowledge that after the incarnation that body retains
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its integrity as a continuing hypostatic union in a body precisely like the bodies we also possess. Without such an understanding, Beza and his Reformed associates argue, the notion of Christ's sacrifice as efficacious for all embodied human beings becomes incomprehensible. With this understanding of Christ's body as spatially limited, Beza can affirm that "the true body and the true blood of our Lord . . . are truly and without any deception offered to us" 135 only by referring us to the body which is in heaven and asserting that the Holy Spirit, through the faith that is within believers, accomplishes an invisible communication of our hearts and spirits with that transcendent body: For by the bond of faith the Spirit can certainly join and bind things which of themselves are quite far apart in respect of spatial distance. That is to say, as truly as we take and eat the bread and take and drink the cup in a natural manner, which afterwards by the digestion which occurs turn into our substance to be nourishment for our bodily life, just as truly, I maintain, (though it be by a spiritual and heavenly manner and not by the mouth and the teeth) Jesus Christ himself, who is now in heaven at the right hand of the Father, is communicated to us, so that we might be flesh of his flesh, bone of his bones; that is, so that being united and incorporated with him by faith our souls and our bodies attain unto life eternal. . . .136
However, in addition to his focus on communication with the incarnate body of Christ, Beza also asserts that believers participate in Christ's mystical body. Repeating a theme enunciated by Farel more than thirty years earlier, Beza affirms that the fact that communicants share in one bread and one cup and simultaneously participate in one Christ indicates "the bond and union which must be among us as the mystical body of Jesus Christ our head, according to the public and common confession we make of him."137 As in the case of Farel's affirmation, Beza places the greatest emphasis on this union with Christ as both the condition and the effect of the eucharist. For those who come to Christ's table with faith and trusting in God, "the union they already have with Christ by their faith is more and more confirmed and sealed by the Holy Spirit, through receiving the true sign and seal of this conjunction and union."138 The sense of the practical effect of this union in the experience of the believer is very strong in Beza's writing. Those who receive the eucharist with faith experience the work of regeneration and sanctification in such a way that Christ's Spirit ''governs our bodies and our souls to dedicate and consecrate our life to his service and the love of our neighbors for the love of him."139 In maintaining the true nature of sacramental communion Beza invokes the analogy of sign and signified to assert that just as surely as the bread and wine are received by our physical senses, Jesus Christ is received by us internally and in faith. It is because of this close connection, agreement, or conjuction of sign and referent, says Beza, that the signs of bread and wine are called Christ's body and blood.140 In the Confession de la foy chrestienne
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Beza does not specifically entertain the question of how Christ's words of institution are to be interpreted. He does, however, speak of the reasons certain signs are given the names of the things they represent: For it is a common manner of speaking in the matter of the sacraments to give to the sign the very name of the thing signified by it. Thus it is said that the cup or chalice is the new covenant, which is to say, the true mark and sign of the new covenant made by the shedding of the blood of Jesus Christ. Thus also it is said that circumcision is the covenant, that is, the true sign and ratification of the covenant. Likewise that the lamb is the passover; likewise, that the rock in the desert was Christ, that is, it truly represented Christ. 141
It is not unlikely that Beza's readers would have taken this as an indirect reference to the Reformed symbolic or figurative interpretation of the sacramental words "This is my body. This is my blood." But whether they would have understood them this way or not, on the basis of the history of this kind of exegesis we can see that Beza intended this account of biblical tropes to be used to counter the argument that Christ's words of institution provide proof of his bodily presence in the eucharist. As early as the mid1530s, Marcourt, following both Zwingli and Oecolampadius, had used the very same argument and cited the same biblical passages to support a symbolic understanding of the sacramental words.142 Beza, then, is employing here an interesting apologetic strategy. Without calling attention to what was perhaps the strongest argument used by the opponents of the Reformed, making no mention whatsoever of the words Jesus spoke when offering the bread and wine to his disciples, he nonetheless supplies the Reformed response concerning the biblical habit of attaching figurative language to signs. However, Beza's defense of Reformed doctrine is not without a polemical edge. In a concluding summary of his eucharistic position he contrasts Reformed affirmations concerning the sacrament with what he takes to be the incongruities and inanities of Catholic doctrine and practice. Thus his understanding of the conjunction of sign and thing based on the divine ordinance and promise is contrasted with the Catholic notion of the sacrament as effective by virtue of the pronunciation of certain words—a conception, he insists, that equates sacramental change with sorcery and denies Christ's human nature.143 The Reformed idea of God's promise as the animating principle of the sacrament, and which must on this account be announced to all those who receive it, is contrasted with the priest's practice of saying the Mass in an incomprehensible language and deliberately whispering the instrumental words of the sacrament.144 While the Reformed Supper brings the believer into communion with Christ and the neighbor, the profusion of votive and private masses in the Catholic system militates against a sense of unity in Christ.145 The Reformed maintain that believers receive Christ's body and blood in the eucharist, while Catholics who attend the Mass frequently do not receive either bread or wine, believing that they benefit
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through the priest's eating. 146 In the Supper, believers receive the benefits won by Jesus' unique sacrifice, while the priests, by claiming to offer Jesus Christ to the Father for the sins of the living and the dead, destroy and make a mockery of Christ's onceforall selfoffering.147 The Reformed regard the sacrament "as a ladder with which to ascend to heaven by faith and to embrace there the one who is represented in the Supper by visible signs and ceremonies." In the Mass, priests continue to acknowledge the necessity of attending to heavenly realities when they chant "Sursum corda," "that is, that one ought not to stop on earth at visible signs, but that one should lift up one's heart on high, so as to avoid all idolatry." Nevertheless, they do quite the opposite: ''[T]hey wish that one should stop at that which they hold in their hands and that one worship it as the true God, which is indeed a thing so detestable that it is a wonder that the earth does not open to swallow them up.''148 Moreover, while the Reformed assert that the sacrament is determined by its liturgical use in accordance with God's word, their opponents reserve the sacrament, "worshiping it as the true God, even though it be eaten by worms," and display it or carry it about on feast days.149 Finally, the Reformed claim that the reception of Christ's body and blood depends on faith, whereas Catholics teach that believers and unbelievers alike receive Christ, which is tantamount to equating God and the devil, life and death.150 Such "buffooneries" demonstrate how great a distance separates the ceremonies of papists from the Supper instituted by Jesus. Beza concludes his portrait of Catholic errors in the matter of the sacrament by noting the irony in the way the Reformed are regarded by their opponents: "[W]e who hold to the simple institution of Jesus Christ in all fear and reverence are [called] sacramentarians, and they, who make a mockery of God and the world, who live to abolish the sacrifice of Jesus Christ, . . . are the prelates of Christendom."151 Beza's strategy of juxtaposing Reformed teaching and Catholic abuses—a strategy that by the late 1550s had enjoyed a long history in Protestant propaganda— culminates, then, in a protest against the victimization of Protestants and misrepresentations of their beliefs. Like his fellow polemicists, Beza intends to depict the full repugnance of Catholic religion and the epitome of idolatry found in the Mass as part of an apology for the Reformed doctrine and those who adhere to it. To serve his apologetic purpose he first presents a clear and succinct discussion of the central issues concerning the sacrament with an argument for the Reformed position supported by a wealth of scriptural citations. This is in keeping with a central motive of the treatise: to demonstrate that the doctrine Protestants hold is congruent with the teaching of the Bible.152 It is therefore orthodox and eminently catholic doctrine. Having established the orthodoxy of his position, he then turns to "the doctrine of the papacy" and its practices that compare unfavorably to the doctrine of the Reformed or, in Beza's terminology, to the teaching of "the Catholic Church."153 His point is that the church of Rome, by abandoning the teachings of Christ and supporting doctrine and practices antithetical to the teaching of Scripture, has forfeited the right to the title
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"Catholic"—a term now more appropriately assigned to the community of believers who confess the evangelical beliefs Beza defends. In the context of this comparison, the members of "the church of our Lord" are portrayed as an oppressed and unjustly maligned community who suffer precisely for the reason that they remain faithful to Jesus' own institution of the Supper as taught in God's word and so pose a challenge to those who profit by suppressing the truth of the gospel. In the Confession, then, Beza has taken the sacramental doctrine articulated by Calvin, Farel, and Viret with its concern for maintaining the notion of a true communication of Christ's body and blood in the Supper through the power of the Holy Spirit and the spiritual ascent of faith; he emphasizes the catholicity of the doctrine and attempts to focus attention on the unscriptural and sacrilegious character of Roman eucharistic beliefs. Polemics are introduced to serve a larger pedagogical and apologetic purpose. For the Reformed in France who supplied the market for Genevan literature, such a presentation no doubt helped lend coherence to their own theological understandings and confirmed the belief that their faith found its polar opposite in the objectionable practices of their papist neighbors. Judging from the success of the treatise, among these Reformed Beza found a ready and receptive audience. Doctrinal Trajectories: Subjectivity, the Sacred, and Society Our reading of the most important of the French Reformed writings treating the Mass and eucharistic doctrine in the years 1540–1560 makes apparent just how successful was Calvin's attempt in the early 1540s to influence understandings of the Supper. Although he did not win over the Lutherans (even though the irenical Philipp Melanchthon remained sympathetic) and the Germanspeaking Swiss required some further adjustments in language, Calvin's conception very quickly became normative among the French. By 1542, just a year after the publication of Calvin's Petit traicté de la saincte Cene, two highly significant treatises, Farel's Sommaire and Viret's De la difference, reflected Calvin's unmistakable influence. After the mid1540s churches in France began to report to Geneva that they had adopted Calvin's position on the sacrament. By 1559, when the churches established a national organization and met in the first national synod, the sacramental doctrine they approved was that of Calvin. 154 In the early 1560s, amidst efforts at religious reconciliation and a concomitant intensification of the eucharistic debate in France, Calvin would again have to confront the challenge of the Lutheran alternative to his understanding of the sacrament when certain Catholic opponents attempted to introduce the Augsburg Confession as the basis for doctrinal discussion, but by this time there could be no doubt that Calvin's position was the prevailing understanding of the eucharist among the French Reformed. However, the Calvinist position that came to be established and accepted in the late 1550s, although generally faithful to the spirit of Calvin's
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first mature expressions of his eucharistic ideas, displayed some significant though occasionally subtle shifts in emphasis. Some of these involved rhetorical modifications. We have noted Calvin's withdrawal in the negotiations that led to the Consensus Tigurinus of his characteristic assertion that in the Supper believers receive the "substance" of Christ's body. Significantly, the expression appears nowhere in the writings of Calvin's Reformed colleagues. Calvin had employed substantial language to underline his contention that what believers receive in the Supper is truly Christ's flesh with all its benefits. That others did not follow his rhetorical lead might be seen to have introduced a note of ambiguity into the Reformed sacramental discourse. Although the French Reformed wanted to maintain the sense that Christ's body is really communicated in the sacrament, they frequently resisted using terms to express this communication that might have encouraged the realistic and immanental understanding of the sacramental presence they opposed. A reluctance to employ realistic images of Christ's presence is particularly apparent in vernacular writings; frequently this peculiar caution vanishes in Latin productions. 155 The notion that the eucharist conveys "the substance of Christ's body and blood" did not, however, disappear from French Reformed writings. Calvin continued to employ the locution in many of his popular works, and it gained powerful support after his death.156 But the evident pressure to suppress it that appears in the Consensus Tigurinus and in the writings of Farel, Viret, and Beza indicates some subtle resistance to elements in Calvin's eucharistic conception and a tendency to concentrate more strongly than Calvin had done on the subjective aspect of communion. In his eucharistic writings of the 1540s Calvin had been especially concerned to maintain the notion that the sacrament of the Lord's Supper constitutes an objective offering of Jesus Christ to the faithful. While maintaining early Reformed criticisms of the medieval Catholic tendency to identify the potent matter of the sacrament with the visible signs, he rejected those aspects of the Reformed teaching that he believed minimized the conception of an objective sacramental presence and that emphasized instead the subjective condition of the believer. Calvin's intention was to establish a balance between the focus on the sacrament's objective dimension (the true presence and actual reception of the body and blood of Christ) and its subjective dimension (the faith that enables the believer to receive the objectively offered body and blood and the internal assurance of the genuineness of this participation). Is the intended balance upset in the popular writings of Calvin's Reformed associates? There are occasional indications that it was. Jettisoning Calvin's substantial language, Farel, Viret, and Beza sought other ways to convey the Calvinian sense that the body of Christ is truly communicated in the sacrament. The most persuasive way to accomplish this, they believed, was to concentrate on the interior experience of Christians who receive the eucharist with faith.157 Subjectively experienced transformations thus provided the warrant for the objective efficacy of the sacrament. This concen
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tration on interiority was not in any sense posed as a challenge to Calvin's eucharistic conception but as support for it. Nevertheless, the effect of this kind of concentration in writings designed for a popular readership would very likely have been to deflect attention away from the liturgical sacramental act and toward the believer's cognitive and affective state. The Reformed insistence on faith as a precondition for communion already provided a basis for this movement, since it could be seen to privilege an interior condition that was entirely independent of any liturgical performance. Of course, the tendency to interiorize eucharistic piety was also a feature of certain forms of medieval and postTridentine Catholicism, but in these cases the focus on interior states was based on the rockfirm reality of Christ's bodily presence in the elements and so was not likely to compromise the notion of the sacrament's objective efficacy. Losing the sense of the sacrament's objective dimension was a hazard one might expect to emerge whenever the "dignity" of the medieval realistic doctrine came under attack. Thus the kinds of developments that we may discern in popular Reformed writings of the 1540s and 1550s—the increasing focus on interior transformations, together with the violent attacks on the structures of practice and belief supporting Catholic eucharistic piety—merely magnified tendencies inherent in the Reformed approach to the sacrament. The interior concentration, as much as the strategy of attacking devotion to the visible signs as potent forces, removed from the sacrament its air of mystery. Those who accepted the arguments of the Reformed writings no longer needed to come to terms with a belief that Christ was swallowed by those who took the consecrated wafer in which he was concealed. The power and presence of Christ might be understood to be invisible because what is conveyed of Christ in the sacrament is fundamentally immaterial. 158 One would not focus, then, on the impotent visible signs but on the spiritual effect Christ's presence produced in one's subjective experience. Union with Christ could not, in any case, be achieved by means of persons or material things external to oneself but only through the work of the Spirit acting within. If in the matter of the eucharist's efficacy, as Farel maintained, "everything rests in the heart," the great power of the sacrament as a vehicle for transforming grace would seem to be undermined. Needless to say, these tendencies were very worrying to defenders of the Catholic eucharistic doctrine, for the sense of immanence, inherence, and objectivity of the divine presence in the sacrament was, from their point of view, of the very essence of the faith. IN seeming to grant a special privilege to the believer's subjective consciousness, the faith was being destroyed and in the estimation of many, society turned upside down. Catholics could simply look at Reformed eucharistic writings and the behavior of the people who read them to find evidence for this interpretation. In the Protestant abandonment and sometimes very public disparaging of Catholic sacramental and hierarchical structures one could see the effect of the Reformed valorization of subjectivity and individual persuasion. If, as the Reformed seemed to be arguing, sacramental efficacy does not proceed
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from the elements that are the sole possession of the church but is instead bound up with faith, a possession of the individual, then what need is there for the institution of the church or, for that matter, for any hierarchical institution? For the Reformed, as it seemed, power was no longer vested in those overarching institutions, the church and the civil authority, that stood as God's representatives to guarantee the unity and integrity of the social body. Instead, in the temporal sphere power seemed to be located in individuals who come into relationship with God with no assistance from any finite intermediaries. According to the opponents of the Calvinist sacramental doctrine, empowering individuals in this way destroyed the bonds of social unity and produced chaos and rebellion. 159 But Reformed writings not only had the effect of empowering individuals at the expense of institutions; they also aimed to render profane the holy objects and sacred centers that organized religious and communal life. In attacking the Mass as a betrayal of Jesus' free selfoffering represented in the Holy Supper, publicists of the Reformed sacramental doctrine produced a devastating critique of the conception that power might inhere in temporal loci. The visible signs of the sacrament could not be understood as bearers of power and hence were portrayed as no more than finite, created, and corruptible things to which no religious or other potent effects could be attributed. When Protestants in French cities went about destroying objects of devotion and desecrating altars, Catholics could identify ample provocation in the writings of reformers like Pierre Viret and their attempts to demystify practices and objects popularly regarded as sacred. If, as the Reformed taught, these objects were merely profane things the worship of which amounted to idolatry, should one be surprised when zealous adherents of the new faith attempted to demonstrate visibly their profane character? The charge, repeated frequently in the 1550s and 1560s, that Calvinism was inherently seditious found some substantiation in vernacular Reformed sacramental writings.160 Farel, Viret, and Beza, in attacking the Mass and presenting an interpretation of the sacrament in which Christ's presence was independent of the visible elements, faithfully reflected the reconceptualizing of power and the relation of the divine to temporal orders I have identified in Calvin's doctrine of the eucharist. Those who absorbed the Reformed teaching were, as a consequence, exposed to a powerful critique of the notion that authority stems from an immanental potency and were provided an account of the operation of power that posited a critical distinction between the divine and ultimate source of power and the temporal instrumentalities that claim authority over spiritual and secular affairs. As a result, they were less inclined to be restrained from active, sometimes iconoclastic, expressions of their beliefs—expressions many of which might constitute rebellion against clerical and temporal authority—by the notion that a Christian owes obedience to all established authority. With the spectacular growth of the Reformed movement in the late 1550s, its establishment as a potentially powerful political force, and the seeming ubiquity of Protestant literature attacking the traditional faith,
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Catholic writers like Gentian Hervet warning of a diabolical plot to dismember the social body had good reason to feel the French nation imperiled. For, as all agreed, there was no stronger bond of unity, no surer pledge of public peace, no truer sign of divine favor than the sacrament of Christ's body and blood. Even the Reformed believed that the eucharist was the principal means by which God might "reconcile those divided, making all as one." 161 But Catholic and Reformed were poles apart in the content they gave to this symbol of unity. French Protestants could not conceive of the social body prospering when the sacrament was turned into an instrument of idolatry. Catholics could not envisage the survival of society if Christ was not acknowledged to be immanent in the eucharistic elements, and they regarded Protestant charges of idolatry as no more than an attempt to destroy the sacrament, expel from the realm all media of divine grace and power, and overturn the social order. In communities whose members could not subscribe to a common understanding of the eucharist, then, the sacred center lost its integrative and unifying capacity and no longer could resist the centrifugal forces threatening to issue in social chaos.
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5— The Catholic Riposte: Defenses of the Real Presence at the Beginning of the Religious Wars From the onset of the controversy over the eucharist in the mid1530s, Catholic leaders had been extremely critical not only of Reformed interpretations and arguments but also of their habit of appealing to public opinion. By discussing complex and delicate theological matters in vernacular writings designed for a mass readership, they seemed to be placing the resolution of theological differences in the hands of an audience hardly equipped for the task. Without rescinding their condemnations of the Reformed tactics and despite a certain distaste for writing in French on theological issues, Catholic writers eventually were forced to adopt the very strategy Protestants had pioneered. By the early 1560s the need to stem the tide of Protestant propaganda successes provoked an extraordinarily large number of Catholic responses, in vernacular pamphlets and treatises, to the by now familiar Reformed claims regarding the Mass and the Holy Supper. New rhetorical methods were adopted for a literate readership attuned to some of the basic terms of the controversy. The controversial task required more than the sloppy caricature of the first defenses against the Protestant assault; the ideas of Calvin and his associates had to be taken seriously and refuted convincingly. Many points of attack were identified, from the shortcomings of Reformed hermeneutics to their misconstrual of christological doctrine. But on no issue were the Reformed more vulnerable than that of the political effect of their doctrine. Catholic controversialists concentrated their attention on presenting in the most vivid of terms the looming threat posed by the Reformed. Reformed teaching was portrayed as an incitement to social revolution and the authorized Catholic doctrine defended as the sole basis for the spiritual and material wellbeing of the French nation.
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Prior to 1560 only a handful of Catholic authors had undertaken to engage in the controversy in the vernacular. If one examines the rate at which works in French concerned with eucharistic doctrine were published in the period 1541–1570 (Figure 3), one notices that in the two decades prior to 1560 the printing of Catholic works fell well behind Protestant printings. The quantity of Catholic printings rose dramatically after 1560, keeping pace with a simultaneous increase in printings of works by Protestant authors, and then overtook Protestant printings in the second half of the 1560s. The decisive year for publication of writings on the eucharist was 1561 (Figure 4), a year in which both Catholic and Protestant printings on the sacrament reached an alltime high. However, while Protestant printings saw a more or less steady decline through the decade, Catholic printers continued to produce a fairly large volume of works. 1 Since publication data provide indirect evidence of readership, the fact that Catholic presses outproduced their Protestant rivals at this time testifies to significant Catholic successes in the struggle to garner more fervent popular support for the suppression of heresy. This increase in publications of the early 1560s coincided with a change in political regimes in France. The death of Francis II in December 1560 removed the Guises from power and signaled an end to their policy of vigorous persecution of Protestants in France. The queen mother, Catherine de' Medici, assumed the regency for herself and, feeling that the policy of repression had proved a failure and fearing the prospect of civil war, embarked on a new policy of limited toleration while a rapprochement of the religious and political parties was sought. This new policy seemed to some Catholics to represent the real threat of the legitimation of the Reformed faith and its establishment as an authorized religion. Some even feared that France's historic faith would be abandoned by the royal family. Evidence to fuel these kinds of anxieties was not lacking. Late in 1561 Protestant sermons were preached in the royal household, and it was reported that some members of
Figure 3. Publications of eucharistic treatises, 1541–1570.
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Figure 4. Publications of eucharistic treatises, 1560–1570.
the family had even converted to the new faith. 2 In October the very unusual step was taken of granting a royal privilege to Antoine Vincent of Lyon to publish the versified Psalms of Marot and Beza, the popular hymnbook of the Protestants, the singing of which was especially offensive to most Catholic sensibilities. The threat of Protestant incursion into traditionally Catholic France had seemed real enough in the years prior to 1560. With the change of regimes, the growing strength of the Protestant party, and the apparent abandonment of resistance to heresy from the royal family, those who were committed to the retention of the old doctrines in their traditional form seemed to have good reason to regard the outlook as ominous. Indeed, from both sides of the religious and political divide a great social disruption seemed to be imminent. Protestants believed all of France was on the verge of rising up to defend the Reformed religion.3 Catholics, looking to the books of Daniel and Revelation, were convinced that these were the last times, in which the predicted apocalyptic ordeals were being fulfilled in the experience of political and religious turmoil.4 Widespread iconoclastic rioting and the outbreak of war in March of 1562 only served to confirm Catholic interpretations and encouraged those who wrote on affairs of public concern to give free rein to their apocalyptic imaginations. Dialogue and Division: The Colloquy of Poissy Amid the many political developments that contributed to the turbulence of public life in this period, one event above all others provided a particular impetus to the public debate in print—the Colloquy of Poissy of September 1561. The chief instrument for achieving Catherine's aim of overcoming religious division, this council of theologians and representatives of the Gallican church met in the Dominican convent at Poissy to discuss the religious troubles and to hear from Protestant representatives, who were given safe
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passage to appear and present their views. Although the Protestant delegation was prepared to take up a range of topics, discussion very quickly came to focus on the most divisive issues—the eucharist and the doctrine of the real presence. The initial ReformedCatholic confrontations in advance of Poissy appeared propitious for Catherine's designs. Theodore Beza, who headed the Protestant delegation to the colloquy, received a cordial welcome at court a few days before the proceedings were to begin. In his first meeting with the cardinal of Lorraine he disabused the cardinal of some false preconceptions regarding the Reformed position and declared an interpretation of the real presence to which the cardinal said he could adhere. 5 The first session of the colloquy, on September 9, progressed somewhat differently, however. Beza addressed the assembly of prelates, the royal family, princes of the blood, and other notables on a number of points of Reformed belief, but the centerpiece and, all agree, the climax of the "harangue" came when he turned to the matter of the eucharist. Beza denied that in the Reformed conception Christ is made to be absent from the Supper but, on the other hand, he averred, "[I] f we regard spatial distance (as we must when it is a question of his corporeal presence, and of his humanity considered separately) we say that his body is as far removed from the bread and wine as is heaven from earth."6 With these words the peace of the gathering was immediately disrupted, the prelates exclaiming ''Blasphemavit!" When order was restored, Beza continued with an interpretation of the offending expression in which he maintained that the distance between Christ's glorified body in heaven and our bodies on earth is no impediment to a genuine participation in Christ, and that the communication in Christ's body and blood is spiritual and accomplished by faith. In his concluding remarks he stated that while the primary allegiance of the faithful was to "the King of Kings and Lord of all Lords," the Reformed, following the injunction of the apostle Paul (Rom. 13:1), were obedient to all established authority, and consequently pledged their loyalty to the young French king, Charles IX.7 Beza's address was followed at a second session by a response from the Catholic principal, the cardinal of Lorraine. The cardinal, at this point, represented a relatively moderate Catholic position. He had attempted to reach out to the German Protestant princes by reviewing the Augsburg Confession and had expressed approval for much of its contents.8 He apparently hoped that its position on the sacraments might be used to solve the dispute with the Reformed, although Protestants regarded the attempt to introduce the Augsburg Confession as a ploy to isolate the Calvinist position and paint the Reformed as sectarians. Lorraine had also viewed favorably the emergence of a third, irenical party headed by Georg Cassander and his newly won disciple François Baudouin, an erstwhile Calvinist. This was the party Calvin referred to derisively as "mediators," and Baudouin's influence with Lorraine simply heightened Protestant suspicions regarding the objective of Lorraine's maneuverings.9 Whatever his motivations, the cardinal was more conciliatory than the overwhelmingly conservative French bishops. In his address to the congregation he avoided, for example, any mention of the
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transubstantiation of the elements, an apparent concession to Lutheran doctrine. However, he politely but forcefully repudiated Beza's contention that Christ's body, according to its natural dimensions, could be nowhere else than in heaven and argued for a corporeal presence of Christ's body in the sacrament based on the authority of Scripture and the church fathers, and even included a reference to the ''German Protestants" in support of his contentions. 10 Since the majority of the prelates were considerably more rigid than Lorraine, the possibility of achieving some agreement between the parties seemed remote. Beza had proclaimed the Reformed position in terms that, while offensive to the ears of almost all Catholics, accurately reflected Calvin's understanding of the location of Christ's natural body, and that in fact amounted to an approximate quotation of the penultimate article of the Consensus Tigurinus.11 Thus, while some modern interpreters have characterized Beza's locution regarding the distance between Christ's natural body and the elements of the Supper as a "blunder," he could hardly have been expected to represent Reformed doctrine in any other way without either conceding a central theological tenet of the French Protestants or dissembling.12 For the conservative Catholics at Poissy, discussions could not be expected to continue unless the ministers would confess a presence of the body of Christ in the way the cardinal of Lorraine had outlined. Much to the consternation of the Protestants, attempts were made to require them to subscribe to the Augsburg Confession as a condition for the resumption of discussions. With matters at a virtual impasse the queen mother approved an alternate forum—a less public venue with a much smaller group of interlocutors, first twelve from each side, then five. Lorraine ceded his position as principal negotiator to his theologian and protégé, Claude d'Espence, a Paris doctor of theology but remarkably liberal, as flexible as his sponsor on certain eucharistic matters and entirely opposed to coercion in questions of religious conscience. At the smallest and final conference, the socalled petit colloque, the parties came very close to agreement. D'Espence offered a formula that confessed a true and substantial presence of Christ's body, given that "the word and promise of God, on which our faith is based, makes and renders present the things promised." The Reformed approved the formula with one decisive change: rather than ''the word" being assigned the instrumental role, they wished to maintain that "faith based on the word of God makes and renders present the things promised, and that by this faith we truly and really take the true and natural body and blood of our Lord by the power of the Holy Spirit." This formula was taken to the assembly of prelates (who had not authorized the smaller Catholic contingent to represent them), where it met with outright rejection. The theologians who formulated their response to the proposed formula would clearly have rejected even d'Espence's original formula. Thus, whatever opportunity there had been for overcoming division at the beginning of the colloquy had now vanished.13 But, as the remainder of this chapter will endeavor to show, Poissy was only the beginning of very broad attempts, especially from the Catholic side, to state clearly the opposing issues on the eucharistic question while painting
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the position of the opponent in the most unfavorable light. The conclusion of the colloquy, therefore, may be viewed as the tragic end of a noble attempt to forge an ecumenical alliance in France and restore Christian unity or, alternatively, as one more, more or less inevitable, step in the entrenchment of the opposing theological camps—inevitable given the now apparent strength of conservatism among the French prelates, the institutionalization of the French Reformed communities and their Calvinist doctrine, and the inability of the crown to force a settlement. The difference in interpretations is decisive. For when one highlights a certain irenical ideal as the goal of the experiment in dialogue, an ideal that was apparently dashed by the time the council adjourned, the aftermath is likely to appear a degeneration into redundant disputation that merits little attention from the historian. This interpretation has been placed upon the events surrounding the colloquy by the majority of scholars who have focused on Poissy. 14 However, when viewed within the context of the debate in print that swirled around it and that sought to sway public perceptions of the contending issues, the Colloquy of Poissy can be seen not only as a tragic failure to reconstitute Christendom but also as what it became in the partisan propaganda: a symbol, in fact, of division and the bad faith of the opponent. For the Catholic side, in particular, the colloquy supplied evidence of the real intentions of the Protestants. Focusing on Beza's comments regarding the great distance between the elements of the eucharist and Christ's natural body, Catholic controversialists contended that the heretics intended to remove Christ from the sacrament, destroy the most potent Christian symbol of the redeeming and reconciling power of God, and plunge all of France into spiritual, social, and political chaos. Subsequent Catholic discussion therefore concentrated on sacramental efficacy and the necessity of maintaining in the understanding of the eucharist a strong sense of immanental potency. In the public debate the contrasts drawn between Catholic and Reformed teachings were stark, with no opportunity envisaged for bridging the ideological gap. Poissy, of course, had played a part in strengthening the sense that the opposed theological conceptualizations were in fact irreconcilable. The practical effect of the colloquy was the elimination of the middle, returning France to the very situation of tense and militant confrontation from which Catherine de' Medici had hoped a conference would deliver her. Thereafter, compromise options were revealed to be entirely unfeasible from a political point of view. As the publicists on both sides went immediately to work to present their own interpretations of the meetings, voices representing a mediating solution were almost entirely silent. Claude d'Espence wrote his own apologies for his role at the conferences, but these were not published until some years afterward, when Poissy was no longer the burning issue of the day.15 The real importance of the colloquy lies, then, not simply in what transpired within the walls of the convent at Poissy but, more important, in the portrayal of the defining issues discussed there in the wealth of literature produced before, during, and after the failed dialogue. The discussions at Poissy served as a useful catalyst for controversial writing, since they dram
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atized the ideological divisions of the day and helped to delineate with some degree of clarity the most important divisive issues. Among other things, Poissy demonstrated the pivotal issue to be the manner of Christ's presence in the eucharist. This conclusion was borne out by the popular literature. Although the question of whether the sacrament was properly conceived of as a sacrifice offered to God became a significant subsidiary issue in the mid1560s, 16 most Catholic writers engaged in the religious debate would likely have agreed with this assertion made in 1562 by Antoine Cathalan: "[T]he entire dispute over this Holy Sacrament . . . consists in nothing other than whether one is to confess that our Savior is there or not there."17 Catholic Hermeneutics in the Sacramental Debate In the face of the intractable opinions of their theological adversaries, Catholic controversialists gave themselves over to explaining to their readers how the Protestant errors arose. "The whole difficulty" on the matter of the eucharist, wrote the Paris doctor of theology René Benoist, "is of the interpretation of holy scripture, which the Christian interprets in one way and the heretic in another."18 Hermeneutical deviations accounted for the Protestant inclination to dispute a doctrine the Catholic Church had held for so long. Ironically, in countering Reformed arguments many Catholic publicists came to champion the plain sense of the biblical text—at least when discussing the critical sacramental words spoken by Christ at the Last Supper—taking on the role assumed by Protestants such as Luther and Zwingli in debates over authority and doctrine in the early years of the reform movement. Thus Benoist's assertions regarding "the clarity of the biblical witness" seem entirely compatible with Luther's early responses to critics like Erasmus who insisted that Scripture was obscure in many places. However, the words of institution presented a special case, in which Catholics relied on a literal interpretation against the spiritualizing tendencies in Reformed exegesis. If some Catholic writers felt that arguing on the basis of the sensus litteralis served them well in that part of the debate concerned with Christ's words "This is my body," they recognized that an apparent capitulation to the Protestant sola scriptura doctrine would not stand them in good stead in the controversy more broadly conceived. Thus Gentian Hervet repeated the familiar dictum that Scripture is not selfinterpreting in order to raise the fundamental interpretive question with which Catholics hoped to confound their opponents: If Scripture requires interpretation, how is it to be interpreted, and what assurance has one that a given interpretation is correct?19 The strategy involved portraying Protestant interpretation of Scripture either as simply one of a number of possible interpretations—and one which lacked an authorizing ground—or, in many instances, as a particularly poor and unfaithful interpretation. As Benoist laid out his argument against the Reformed exegetical grounds for their conception of the Supper, he attempted to show that a legitimate interpretation
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of Scripture must accord not only with the apparent meaning of the biblical text but also with the teaching of the doctors of the church that has guided Christians in the past and with "the universal consensus and teaching of the Catholic Church." 20 Even though writers such as Benoist argued that on the matter of the sacrament Scripture is quite plain, the apparent meaning by itself was not considered sufficiently firm ground on which to establish doctrine. The appeal to Scripture served as an apologetic tool, but it stood in some tension with hermeneutical arguments that claimed that not everyone is able properly to interpret Scripture and with assertions that not all doctrine is derived from the text of Scripture.21 The firm ground for interpretation to which Catholic writers wished to lead their readers was the authority of the Catholic Church. The church alone, they argued, serves to guarantee the truth of doctrine. Protestants lack this authorizing ground because they have broken with the union of the Catholic Church and have contended against her teachings. Protestant doctrine, in contrast to Catholic teaching, is based on the authority of "some particular man."22 Emphasizing the schismatic, sectarian, and parochial quality of the Protestant formulation of doctrine, the Jesuit Emond Auger suggested that the Reformed behave "as if the word of God had issued forth from Germany and Geneva."23 The opposition of the catholic consensus of the Church of Rome, supported by more than a thousand years of approved teaching, to the private opinion of certain persons who wish to impose their own "particular and affected sense" of Scripture's meaning on the mass of common Christians is a central component of Catholic arguments against Reformed interpretations.24 The rule of faith, as Catholic meant to portray it, is entirely firm and objective, given to the church by God. Although Scripture serves as a guide for confirming Christians in the right understanding of Christian doctrine, it is not to be confused with the rule of faith that is the teaching of the church, safeguarded to it by God through the Holy Spirit prior to the gift of the canonical Scriptures.25 In order to give this argument added force, Catholic writers brought to bear on the issue some potent ecclesiological claims. The authority of the Catholic Church, because it is directed by the Holy Spirit, stands in marked contrast to the authority of those who hold opposing views. The church therefore is not properly conceived of as a body guided by erring and imperfect human beings but must be understood as a quasidivine institution in which the Holy Spirit dwells. In the church one discovers the presence of God, and that presence serves to guarantee the faith of Christians in the presence of Christ in the sacrament.26 Because it is guided by the Holy Spirit, the church is infallible.27 One should be on very firm ground indeed, then, in assenting to a belief in Christ's presence in the sacrament that the church has always taught. But on the chance that this should not suffice, Ren Benoist attempted to present an additional incentive to confess what the church confesses, and that is the command of Christ to follow the teachings of the church. The command of obedience places the believer in a secure position when confronted with competing doctrines, because even were the
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church to err, one would be absolved of the guilt for any error by virtue of submitting to this command. Benoist even goes so far as to assert that a man "would sin if he left the church universal to follow a particular person, even if he spoke the truth." 28 Consideration even of the apparent truth of particular propositions that are opposed to the traditions of the Catholic Church is insufficient justification for pursuing a course of religious devotion that deviates from the clear path illuminated by the church's authorized doctrine.29 Protestant interpretation is determined to be faulty in the arguments made by Catholic controversialists because it departs from the teaching of the church and the intention of the Holy Spirit who is the author of Scripture, who has delivered Scripture to the church, and who, dwelling in and directing the church, assures that within its unity and only there is correct interpretation and understanding possible. But Catholics found other grounds for objecting to Protestant hermeneutical methods, and one in particular came to characterize Catholic polemics against the Reformed doctrine. Protestant errors concerning the presence of Christ's body in the sacrament proceeded, Catholics writers claimed, from unbelief and an illegitimate reliance on human reason instead of faith in the trustworthiness of revelation.30 The effort to portray the Reformed as rationalists is evident in almost every Catholic contribution to the eucharistic controversy. It was a contention given an air of plausibility by many of the arguments put forward by Protestant publicists, particularly the discussions of the nature and limitations of Christ's human body following the resurrection and ascension. When the Reformed engaged in argumentation of this kind, Catholics maintained, they were inappropriately applying rational criteria to the suprarational data of revelation. If Protestants were attempting to argue that Catholic beliefs were nonsensical, many Catholic polemicists were willing to concede the point. From the point of view of rational analysis, much of revealed truth does indeed appear absurd, but with Tertullian they argued that absurdity ought to be no impediment to belief in matters that transcend the ability of the mind to grasp.31 If Protestants suggested that God's revelation was an accommodation to human ways of knowing, Catholics tended to emphasize the obscurity of the truths one must believe for salvation and brought their readers back to the foundational hermeneutical rule: right doctrine is that which accords with the church's teaching. In attempting to undermine claims for the capacity of reason in theological argumentation, Catholics came to embrace a radical form of skepticism that, they hoped, would yield to fideism, or an unquestioning reliance on the church's teaching authority as the only possible foundation of truth in religious matters. The adoption of the instrument of skepticism was formalized in Gentian Hervet's publication of the Pyrrhonist doctrines of Sextus Empiricus in 1569, a work that came to exercise a formative influence over CounterReformation ideology for some time to come,32 but it is clear that the move toward Pyrrhonism was already begun in the assault on reason's capacity in the popular controversial writings on the eucharist of the early
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1560s. René Benoist was already contending in 1561 that the citation of axioms derived either from sense experience or from rational deliberation had no place in discussions of the mysteries of faith, which "can only be understood truly and salutarily by simple and humble Christians obeying the commandments of God in his Catholic Church." 33 Others went farther, saying that the mystery of the eucharist was not susceptible to understanding at all, even the understanding of the saints and the angels in heaven, and so one had no option other than to "stop" at "the faith of our mother Church."34 Hervet, similarly, expressed his disapproval of Protestant rationalism in writings published as early as 1561.35 In 1565 he went so far as to turn his critical attention to the medieval scholastics, who, he argued, "had a bit too much curiosity" in theological matters and served as poor models for Christians "who must only believe without examining how.'' This ''too great curiosity" and misplaced confidence in the power of reason, although employed within the bounds of orthodoxy by the schoolmen, bred a certain arrogance that was easily exploited by the devil to produce the heresy of Protestant sacramental doctrine.36 In Hervet's understanding, as indeed in the arguments of his Catholic colleagues, the interpretive errors of the Reformed stemmed from diabolical design in league with the moral and religious failings of heretics who did not recognize that all earthly perception is vision "through a glass and as an enigma." True piety proceeds from an acceptance of the limited capacity of human knowledge and obedient submission to the truth revealed by God in the teaching of the Catholic Church.37 The Fictions of Reformed Eucharistic Doctrine In their indictment of the interpretive methods of the Reformed, Catholic authors tended to portray Protestant writers on the eucharist as misguided and, in some cases, unwitting pawns of the devil, willing to abandon the traditions of the church for the sake of private opinions. However, when Catholics turned their attention to the substance of Reformed doctrine, the same writers were credited with possessing formidable diabolical powers of their own. Calvin especially was singled out for the seductive character of the language he used in expositions of his doctrine. Almost all of Calvin's opponents remarked on his eloquence, but they noted that his exceptional talent for persuasion was employed not to lead readers to the truth but "to fool the simple and credulous."38 Several Catholic writers and preachers maintained that Calvin's writings on the Supper were confusing and full of contradictions. Simon Vigor attributed this not to the complexity of the subject matter but to a deliberate attempt to mislead and to evade the objections of his opponents.39 René Benoist likened Calvin to a magician who dazzled the eyes of his audience with his rhetorical legerdemain so that they did not notice that he promises more than he actually delivers.40 It was a judgment with which the prelates present at Poissy concurred. In their published Catholic Confession of the Holy Sacrament of the Altar they pronounced
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the language of the Reformed ministers on the manner of Christ's presence in the Supper "ambiguous and obscure" and crafted with the intention of deceiving innocent Christians so as to "abuse the world and maintain their sectaries in their errors." 41 The principal target of these objections was Calvin's doctrine of sacramental signification. Although the idea that the sacrament is a sign of divine grace was, since Augustine, a traditional element of Catholic teaching, Calvin's critics charged that his employment of the concept was no more than an attempt to divest the eucharist of its defining element—"the personal presence of Jesus Christ." Calvin was in effect eviscerating the sacrament, it was claimed, by proposing that it is "only a sign which dispatches us to seek Jesus Christ on the cross and to participate in heaven."42 The distinction Calvin sought to make between the sign and the signified reality in the eucharist is unwarranted, Catholics argued, because of Christ's own testimony (Jn 6:53–55): first, that in this sacrament the sign and reality are so united that Christians receive his very flesh and blood and, second, that this flesh is truly food, "which is contrary and opposite to that which is in signification only."43 Contrary to Calvin's protestations, then, his doctrine was depicted as an effort to reduce the sacrament to a mere sign distinct from and unconnected to the divine reality to which it points, and which consequently cannot convey that reality to those who seek it. Calvin's concentration on signification, it was suggested, constituted a regression to the old dispensation to the Jews who lived before the birth of Jesus. In the Old Testament, Christ was known only through enigmatic signs and figures; even those who stand as models of faith did not apprehend the promised Messiah in reality. Yet Calvin would have his followers join the company of those who had not benefited from the incarnation by offering in the sacrament of Christ's body and blood no more than figures of Christ's saving flesh, given for the salvation of the world. René Benoist addressed his adversary directly on this point: "We are not Jews, Calvin, to be content with signs and empty figures, but rather seek and stop at the thing itself, in order from it and by means of it to have life, which you would have us lose when you attempt to dazzle us with your dreams and vain imaginations."44 Benoist was perhaps intending to call to mind the images evoked by Calvin and Farel when they urged the faithful not to "stop" at "earthly and corruptible elements" but to be content only with the reality in heaven.45 According to Benoist, however, it is the Reformed who stop at the earthly sign without apprehending the divine thing—Christ's body and blood—since they sever the necessary connection between the two and empty the sacrament of Christ's ''personal" presence. As a consequence, Calvin and his followers were labeled "judaizers" who failed to recognize that the incarnation of the Son of God signaled an end to the era of signs and figures and the beginning of communion with the true body and blood, offered to all in the sacrament of the altar.46 Catholic controversialists understood the Reformed focus on the signifying aspect of the eucharist to be a product of their opposition to confessing
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a corporeal presence of Christ in the sacrament. Because they insisted that Christ's body can be nowhere but in heaven, they effectively removed Christ from the sacrament celebrated on earth. With this interpretation of the Calvinist position, the opponents of the Reformed asked how it was possible to continue to maintain that participants in the Supper really receive the body and blood of Christ. Claude de Sainctes summarized the essence of the Catholic objection: "[T]hey want to make believe that we receive it really and actually, without it being here or anywhere other than in heaven, things which are completely incompatible. For before we receive it really and actually, whether in our bodies or in our souls, which are here, it is necessary that it be here really and actually, not only in heaven, considering that I cannot receive here really and actually something that is not here. I also cannot receive it in heaven, for I am not there except by apprehension and affection, not really and actually." 47 For de Sainctes, the claim of the Reformed that Christ was received in reality although his body remained only in heaven was hollow and illusory. Christ's institution of the sacrament of the altar had effectively overcome the gulf between heaven and earth.48 The Protestant heretics were attempting to recreate the divide and yet assert that somehow the distance is miraculously bridged, but without admitting the necessary miracle of the real presence of Christ upon the eucharistic altar. As Catholics saw it, once it was accepted that Christ's body was nowhere but in heaven the only way the Reformed could maintain their position that believers commune with the transcendent body of Christ was to introduce the notion of a spiritual communication of the body to replace the real communion asserted in Catholic doctrine. The habit of opposing the spiritual to the real was a central feature of almost all Catholic polemics against the Reformed doctrine of the Supper. The complaint René Benoist addressed to Calvin illustrates the tactic: "[Y]ou wish to fool us and under the pretext of a spiritual participation and fanciful reality of the body of Jesus Christ you rob us of the means of our salvation, completely necessary, which is to partake really and truly."49 This is little more than a variation on the criticism of the socalled sacramentarian position that even Calvin had employed, asserting that the denial of Christ's true presence in the sacramental meal reduces the concept of communion to a mere conceptual apprehension of Christ. But Benoist's objection, unlike Calvin's concerning the Zwinglian position, equates Calvin's description of a true, spiritual participation with the risen Lord with simple fantasy. The Catholic Confession of the French prelates specifies this point in a slightly different way. Since the Reformed believe Christ's natural body to be nowhere other than in heaven, when they speak of Christ's body being present in the sacrament "they can only mean by power and efficacy and not by real presence."50 Here the dichotomy is a real presence as over against a virtual presence, or a presence defined by its effects. But the aim of the authors of the Confession is the same as Benoist's—to demonstrate that the kind of genuine presence the Reformed claim their doctrine teaches
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is not in fact a real presence so long as Christ's body is said to be only in heaven. If Christ's body cannot be confidently located in the elements consecrated, exhibited, offered, and received in the eucharist, it cannot be said to be really present, and as a consequence one must resort to qualifying that presence in other ways—as spiritual or virtual. 51 This, Catholics insisted, was the source of the peculiar metaphors the Reformed employed—speaking of sacramental communication as a "pouring" of Christ's life into us, the Holy Spirit operating as a conduit or channel, and likening the power of the eucharist to the effect of the rays of the sun upon the earth.52 Calvin, of course, did not admit that a spiritual or virtual presence was opposed to a real or true presence. In fact, a central feature of Calvin's sacramental conception was the challenge he posed to the habit of thought that treated the real and the spiritual as dichotomous and in some sense antithetical. But clearly he was operating with a fundamentally different conception of a real or true presence and reception than were his opponents. In their conceptual scheme the real presence of the body of Christ is hardly distinguishable from its corporeal presence in the consecrated sacramental elements. The fundamental condition that must be met, from the Catholic side, is that Christ's body and blood be acknowledged to be immanent in the species of bread and wine.53 This explains why suspicions were aroused when Protestants spoke of the communication of Christ with the faithful as a spiritual participation. Even the notion that the Holy Spirit secures the union of believers with Christ came in for criticism, since the notion of Christ's immanental presence in the sacrament required that communion with Christ's body be understood to be unmediated.54 Some Catholic writers perhaps did not intend to denigrate the spiritual, but when engaging in polemical exchanges with the Reformed almost all of them defined spiritual participation as inferior to the real participation that is the fruit of the sacrament. This is particularly apparent in the contrast highlighted between the sacraments of the Old Testament and those bequeathed to the church in the New Testament. The Jewish passover, which was an analogue to the sacrament of Christ's body and blood, was no more than a spiritual and figurative partaking of Christ. By contrast, in the more perfect sacrament of the altar Christ is eaten not only spiritually but also truly.55 The participation that Calvin offered his followers, then, marked a regression to a fictive or imaginary communication and so did not constitute a real partaking of Christ's body and blood. But Calvin's critics also discerned a threat to their understanding of the sacrament in the efforts of the Reformed to make Christ's presence dependent on the liturgical use of the sacrament and the faith of the recipient. Here the central issue was the objective dimension of sacramental efficacy. Protestants who wanted to limit the offering and exhibition of Christ's body and blood in the sacrament to the celebration of the Supper and who denied that the sacrament possessed any potency in extraliturgical contexts seemed to their opponents to be resisting the recognition that the sacrament possesses an efficacy independent of accidental circumstances. The idea that
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Christ's body remained present in the consecrated elements extra usum was regarded by Catholics as a bulwark against what they regarded as a dangerously subjective conception of the efficacy of the eucharist, which threatened to weaken the notion that the sacrament was a vital and concrete medium of grace. 56 The same concern underlay the vehement opposition Catholics offered to the apparent attempt of the Reformed to posit an instrumental role for faith in determining Christ's presence in the sacrament. Catholic writers became especially exercised over Beza's refusal in the negotiations at Poissy to affirm that "the word of God . . . makes and renders present the things promised" and the claim of the ministers in response that "faith based on the word" accomplishes this.57 Such a conception was regarded as making a mockery of the notion of sacramental efficacy. Simon Vigor suggested that the notion that Christ's body and blood is received only by those who come to the table with faith gave to the cognitive decision of Protestants an illegitimate and unwarranted power over the divine presence: ''[I]f it pleases the Huguenot, the body of our Lord will be present in the sacrament, and if it does not please him it will not be present."58 Such an apparent subjection of divine potency to human whims was regarded as the epitome of theological perversity: "Have you no shame to attribute to the infirm and imperfect faith of the man who receives . . . the cause and reason of the presence of the body and blood of our Lord in this sacrament and to give more force to the said faith than to the word of God which is perfect, true and all powerful?"59 This not only is impious but also misconstrues the nature of faith and results in a nonsensical claim when coupled with the assertion of the Reformed that Christ's body is physically present only in heaven. Faith enables one to apprehend something that is true and present but invisible. The Reformed maintain that even after the consecration of the eucharistic elements Christ's body not only is invisible to those who come to the Supper but also is not present in the sense that it is physically in heaven. Faith may render the invisible or incomprehensible in some sense present to the one who believes, but it cannot render present something that is not present. The only human capacity that might be taken to accomplish this is not faith but "error and false persuasion."60 But for the Catholic critics who probed more deeply into the Reformed concentration on the centrality of faith for those who would receive Christ's body and blood, this very emphasis raised disturbing questions: If faith was required in order to receive Christ and if the presence of faith was independent of and prior to the celebration of the sacrament, why is the sacrament necessary? Might one not receive Christ as well by the faith that precedes sacramental communion as in the celebration of the Supper itself? What benefit does the Supper convey if through the faith that one has prior to coming to the Supper one already possesses what the sacrament signifies?61 The Reformed, by concentrating on faith as the indispensable condition of union with Christ, seem to have made the eucharist superfluous. This discovery tended to confirm Catholic suspicions that the Reformed doctrine of
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the Supper was intended to divest the sacrament of any sense of objective and immanental potency. To the charge that they had made of the sacrament "something superfluous and that served nothing," the Reformed had no easy or convincing answer except to suggest that a "particular virtue" attached to the sacrament, even though the reality conveyed through it was available without it as well. 62 In the face of the traditional doctrine that posited an objective and real presence of Christ's body uniquely available in the sacrament, it was particularly difficult to allay Catholic anxieties on this point. The Miracle of the Bodily Presence I have noted that Catholic writings on the eucharist were in large measure driven by the aim of maintaining an understanding of the sacrament that emphasized the objective dimension of its efficacy and the immanence of the power that produced its redemptive and reconciling effects. In serving this aim Catholic authors placed a great deal of stress on the opus operatum doctrine—or the teaching that the effect of the sacrament proceeds directly from the performance of the sacramental rite, ex opere operato—and they offered strenuous resistance to every effort to deflect attention away from the visible elements of the sacrament, as though the cause of the sacrament's effects could not be attributed to any of its tangible aspects. Their concentration on the eucharist's visible and objective dimensions focused discussion on two particularly important elements of eucharistic belief. The first of these was the belief that Christ's body was materially, though ineffably, present in the visible sacramental species, a tenet of Catholic faith that had the benefit of securing and giving support to the idea that divine power was present in and proceeded from the consecrated elements themselves. The second concerned traditional affirmations regarding the efficacy of the consecration of the elements, a doctrine Catholics expected would establish in a convincing manner the means according to which Christ became truly present through the ministrations of the priest celebrating the Mass.63 In the case of both of these components of eucharistic faith, the discussion centered on the meaning and significance of the sacramental words of institution. We have already given some attention to the way the publicists of counterreform came to concentrate on the plain and literal meaning of Jesus' words of institution as evidence of the corporeal presence of his body in the eucharist. The words "This is my body" and so on, it was argued, were plain enough in their meaning, especially when considered in the context of Jesus' discourse to his disciples at the Last Supper, to put the whole question of the manner of Christ's presence to rest.64 But since the flowering of heresy had caused innumerable challenges to this plain meaning to be disseminated by certain "blind figurians" "who understand poorly the scriptures,'' further arguments were necessary to establish that Jesus' intention was literal and not figurative.65 Catholics were ready to concede that Scripture frequently employs tropes, but they were adamant in asserting that the pres
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ence of figurative language in other passages does not by any means establish that the sacramental words must be interpreted in the same way. Would the sacramentarians also suggest that such basic biblical affirmations as "the Word was God," "the Word was made flesh," or "God is spirit" are tropes? 66 Heretics in the past, Catholics pointed out, had attempted to bend Scripture to accord with their own heterodox prejudices, such as that Jesus did not really die, that the divine Word was not truly embodied, or that the Son of God was not consubstantial with the Father, precisely through this means of asserting the necessity of a figurative reading of crucial passages.67 Fortunately, on the question of the eucharistic presence, Christ's meaning in instituting the sacrament is placed beyond doubt by complementary passages. The obvious eucharistic associations of Jesus' discourse in Capernaum concerning "the living bread descended from heaven" ''which he explains to be his flesh and body," and which flesh was explained to be ''truly food" (Jn. 6:51, 53–55), though denied by the Reformed, supplied powerful evidence for the traditional realistic interpretation of Christ's presence, Catholics maintained.68 Moreover, the counsels of Saint Paul regarding the participation of all in the "one bread" and his warnings concerning unworthy reception, "without discerning the body" (1 Cor. 10:16–17, 11:27–29), were adduced as evidence for the Roman church's position.69 Catholics could also point to the Old Testament sacrament of Passover, which was a figure of the Passover of the New Covenant in which the sacrifice of the Lamb of God made satisfaction for the sins of the human race. In order for the analogy of that figurative sacrament to the true sacrament of Christ's flesh to hold, Christ's natural body must be held to be present and to be eaten in the consecrated elements, just as the paschal lamb was present and truly eaten.70 However, the interest of Catholic defenders of the real presence in the sacramental words extended beyond what these words signify to what they actually accomplish in the context of the eucharistic rite. In their concern to establish an understanding of the consecration of the elements that would give adequate support to the real presence and the opus operatum conception, they focused on the instrumentality of Jesus' words, which were themselves held to be conveyers of power. As Simon Vigor averred (with a certain sense of urgency), they do not only signify "but are effective in their mode and as instruments of the power and will of our Lord."71 By analogy with the creative divine word which in the first chapter of Genesis is said to have made a world out of nothing, Christ's presence was held to be "made and completed by the power and efficacy" of these words—an accomplishment equal in mystery and unsearchableness to that first creation.72 The significance of the notion that the utterance of these particular words in the eucharist properly celebrated accomplishes a miracle of tremendous import is indicated by the frequency with which the expressions "the power of the word of God" or "the omnipotent word of Jesus Christ," applied to the sacramental words, appear in Catholic writings on the eucharist.73 If the immanental, bodily presence of Christ signified a divine power to be present in the midst of the Christian community, certainly the instruments that effect this presence—
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these words which the faithless "Capernaites mock as charms"—must be understood themselves to possess such a magnitude of power that one might justifiably describe them as "allpowerful." 74 The attribution of power to the words spoken by the priest indicates that in referring to the sacramental words as instruments Catholic authors had in mind something quite different from the notion of instrumentality invoked by the Reformed, who insisted on a critical distinction between the only divine source of potency and the instrumental vehicles through which power is deployed. That this dynamic understanding was not intended is indicated by the concomitant assertions of Catholics that power is also conferred upon the priest who is authorized to speak the sacramental words and so to bring the hypostatic union into the presence of the Christian communion. The power of God is indeed at work through the instruments of Jesus' words and the ordained successors to the apostles, but their instrumental status is accomplished through a "conferring" of power upon them, so that this power may be seen to inhere and abide unambiguously in them.75 Through the notion of an absolute investiture of divine power in "the power of the words and the ministry of the priests," Catholics hoped to protect the notion of the objective efficacy of the sacrament.76 The failure of the Reformed ministers at Poissy to agree to the formula asserting that ''the word" accomplishes the presence of Christ and their insistence that only the preaching of the word that awakens faith makes possible participation in Christ's body were consequently taken by these Catholic writers as part of an attempt to render meaningless the real presence and to replace it with an unacceptably subjective understanding of Holy Communion.77 If the Catholic interpretation of the meaning and efficacy of the sacramental words supported the understanding of the eucharist as an objectively potent instrument of divine grace, the doctrine of transubstantiation lent further credence to the conception by specifying the nature of the miraculous transformation by which Christ comes to dwell bodily in the consecrated species. Because of this particular use to which the doctrine might be put, most Catholic writers invoked it, even though its scholastictheological associations and its reliance on Aristotelian categories—both of which had been roundly criticized by Protestants—would seem to detract from its usefulness as a tool for popular persuasion. On the other hand, some avoided the doctrine, perhaps because it was felt to open the door to more trouble in public discussion than it was worth, but also in keeping with the apparent policy of moderate Catholics—the cardinal of Lorraine being the most prominent among these—of attempting to offer some gesture of conciliation to the Lutheran princes of Germany. Gentian Hervet accordingly remained largely silent on the matter of transubstantiation until after the conclusion of the Council of Trent in 1564, by which time any hope of moderation on the issue would seem to have been obviated.78 Hervet was early on content to speak of a "supernatural" transformation of the elements into Christ's body and blood at the moment of consecration.79 This is not, it should be noted, the same as the doctrine of transubstantiation, although
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one might imagine that to most Reformed ears the difference was inconsequential. The more conservative Catholics, however, wasted no time in asserting the legitimacy of the authorized teaching, attacking both the Augsburg Confession and the more radical Calvinist position—both of which maintained that the substance of bread and wine remain on the altar after consecration—as unfaithful interpretations of Christ's institution of the sacrament. 80 René Benoist described the transformation wrought in the visible matter of the eucharist at the time of consecration as the most wonderful and magnificent of the works of God. It was a work of divine power, a miracle surpassing in grandeur all other of God's acts, including the work of creation.81 In the rhetorical displays Catholics used to assert the magnificence and majesty of the sacramental miracle, they intended not only to heighten the sense of reverence for the sacrament but also to draw attention to the power of God as the foundation of all arguments for the immanental presence of Christ's body. The miraculous and powerful working of God, they argued, is able to accomplish things far beyond the power of human understanding to comprehend. Those who have doubts concerning the bodily sacramental presence may then approach the teaching of the church with their rational objections, but these count for nothing in the face of God's infinite power, which overcomes all apparent obstacles to Christ's body being both in heaven and in every place the consecrated elements are displayed. This one must simply believe, seeing that human reason has only "a finite and determinate capacity."82 However, asserting that divine truth is beyond the grasp of reason was not felt to be incompatible with attempts to portray belief in the corporeal presence as not of itself unreasonable. And so, although many claimed that the mystery could never be understood, apologists for the traditional doctrine supplied illustrations from the realm of natural experience that might be taken as in some way analogous to the miraculous appearance of Christ in the sacrament. That the essence of a chicken may be taken in quite a different form, as broth; that a voice may be in several places simultaneously; that the image of a person may appear in several mirrors at the same time—these do not present proof of the substantial presence of Christ's body in the eucharist, but they may help to accustom the mind to such a possibility and so remove conceptual blinders preventing those who would rely on reason from accepting in faith the church's teaching.83 As part of the defense of Christ's immanental presence Catholic authors also felt constrained to argue for the legitimacy of the popular practice of displaying devotion to the sacrament. Protestants had leveled criticism at the practice of worshiping the consecrated elements as tantamount to idolatry and expressed particular outrage at the practice of displaying the consecrated host in extraliturgical contexts in order to encourage popular devotion. I have noted that the notion that lay behind the practice, that Christ remained present indefinitely in the consecrated species, was regarded by Catholics as powerful support for the idea of an objectively efficacious presence. The adoration of the sacrament, whether in the liturgy or outside of it, was taken to be an equally useful instrument for persuading an audience
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of the truth of this conception. The practice naturally followed from the central tenet of Christ's real presence in the sacramental elements, which Catholic writers believed their arguments had adequately established. Christ, whom Christians confess to be both human and divine, is deserving of our worship and complete devotion on account of his divinity, went the Catholic argument; therefore, when he comes to dwell truly and really in the consecrated species and is exhibited in them, we owe him adoration. 84 Augustine was quoted to counter the Protestant charge of idolatry and in support of the contention that "we not only do not sin when we worship [Christ's flesh], but we would sin if we did not worship it."85 Catholic writers were also quite fond of adducing the precedent of the ark of the covenant, which for the Hebrew people was held to be the very dwelling place of God. If the kings of Israel worshiped God in the form of this "figure of the humanity of Jesus Christ united to divinity" that was carried from place to place, it is only appropriate that those who confess Jesus to be the Son of God render him the same service when he shows himself to them hidden under the form of bread and wine.86 Whether at the time of the elevation in the Mass, at the moment of reception, or when carried through the streets, there is no better way of demonstrating one's faithfulness to God, devotion to the Son, and obedience to the ordained authorities that convey God's ineffable truth to humble Christians, Catholics asserted, than to prostrate oneself and kneel before the sacred host.87 The Sacred Humanity of Christ Catholics who responded to the Reformed challenge to the doctrine of the bodily presence recognized that their arguments, however cogent, would ultimately fail to convince those persuaded by Protestant criticisms unless they could reconcile the traditional doctrine with certain apparently troublesome christological affirmations. From the very earliest attacks on the Mass, Protestants had focused on Christ's divine glory, his ascension, and the nature of his body—all of which seemed to undermine Catholic claims. One might assume from the energies Catholics devoted to refuting the charges that the criticisms had located some points of vulnerability. In most of the treatises published in the 1560s, discussion of issues pertaining to the person and work of Christ occupies such an important place in the overall argument that one is tempted to say that the entire question of the eucharistic presence might have been reduced to a question of christological definition. It is worthwhile, then, to give special attention to the discussion of these issues by Catholics because the various arguments and rhetorical tactics employed illustrate in a particularly clear fashion the ideological fissures the controversy created and the great difficulty faced by any who might wish to overcome them. For Catholic writers the great threat of Reformed sacramental teaching was summed up in Beza's remark at Poissy that, when one is concerned with physical distance, the body of Christ "is as far removed from the bread and
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wine as is heaven from earth." I have suggested that this pronouncement was neither an error on Beza's part nor an effort to provoke his opponents but was rather a faithful expression of some central theological concerns of the Reformed. In their view the distance between Christ and the physical elements needed to be emphasized to protect the idea of Christ's sovereign majesty, a conception they held to be threatened by the supposition that his body is enclosed within material signs. But there were other, equally compelling motives behind Beza's assertion. The testimony of Scripture regarding Christ's ascension made it necessary to hold that he remained bodily in heaven until the Last Judgment. And because it was felt to be necessary that Christ's body be like our human bodies in every respect, even after his death and resurrection, the Reformed argued that his body could not be in several places at once. 88 The conception constructed on the basis of these theological arguments is what Beza was attempting to express candidly before the assembly at Poissy. The horror of this conception, from the Catholic point of view, was that it seemed to posit an unbridgeable chasm between Christ and those who seek him and to remove a most necessary presence of Christ with the faithful. Since Catholic writers were intent on defending the belief that the gulf between the human and divine was overcome by a genuine bodily presence of Christ in the visible sacrament, they needed to contend, first, with the charge made repeatedly in the Reformed polemical literature that Catholics made a mockery of the majesty of Christ by holding that a priest, mumbling words over bread and wine, caused the very body of Jesus to descend from heaven. Catholics responded with a simple denial that Christ was made to descend in the Mass because, as they also insisted, he does indeed remain in heaven in his visible and natural body. They shared the belief in the ascension and were as unwilling as any Christian to deny that Christ dwells bodily in heaven until his return in judgment.89 But they were more than willing to deny that such an affirmation was incompatible with the confession that he also comes to dwell bodily in the consecrated elements.90 Christ is in heaven visibly, and in the sacred elements invisibly and mysteriously. Calvinists erred, then, in citing the ascension as an impediment to belief in the bodily sacramental presence. They began correctly by noting that he ascended to heaven, but then they seemed to "confine Jesus Christ to the right hand of the Father and hold him there as if in prison . . . as the poets of old imagined that Prometheus was tied to Mount Caucasus."91 Catholics tried to use to their own advantage a charge of the Reformed that in the sacrament of the altar Christ was imprisoned in the host, or in the ciborium or monstrance that held it. In fact (went the Catholic countercharge), Protestants were the ones who imprisoned Christ by binding him to heaven and denying his capacity to become present when the words of institution were spoken in the Mass. To the Reformed claim that this act of consecration seems to constrain Christ to be present, Catholics noted that the words that accomplish the real presence are Christ's own, delivered by him to the apostles in instituting the sacrament. He can therefore not be thought of as being under
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any constraint, since he is the author of the means of achieving this presence. 92 It is, they maintained, clearly in accordance with Christ's intention that he be present under the appearance of bread and wine, and such an appearance, contrary to Calvinist claims, does not derogate from his majesty, any more than the divine Word's assumption of a human body in the incarnation compromised his divine status. In fact, it is all the more evidence of his divine power and majesty that his words accomplish the miracle of his bodily presence.93 According to Catholics, it is this very power of Christ's divinity that the Reformed called into question when they focused on the human nature of Christ and asserted that because his body is subject to the limitation of all human bodies it can only be in heaven. The argument was judged entirely inappropriate when applied to the miracle of the real presence. First, as I have noted, Catholics discerned in it an illegitimate reliance on rational categories in approaching a mystery that is essentially incomprehensible. Arguments similar to the one employed by the Reformed against this kind of bodily presence could be used to reject the incarnation, the virgin birth, or the ascension.94 When it is a question of God's miraculous working, Catholics maintained, one must simply stand before the mystery and respond with gratitude, rather than seek to understand it. But on the other hand writers like René Benoist, once they had made this kind of a charge against Protestant "rationalism," could immediately blame Protestants not simply for trying to understand the mystery but for failing to consider all the available information about Christ's person.95 Christ's body, they argued, is in fact not subject to the same kinds of limiting conditions as are other human bodies. One must consider the "prerogatives and singularities" of Christ's body.96 In a line of argument that seems to be in some tension with the fideistic approach (in which the miracle of Christ's presence is held to be beyond explanation), some Catholics suggested that indeed one could make sense of the miracle if one remembered that because Christ's human body was "joined inseparably to divinity" it came to possess a certain miraculous potentiality by virtue of which it might be present in several places simultaneously. Thus "by singularity and privilege, the humanity which is personally united to divinity can be, not everywhere as is divinity, but rather in several places miraculously, as it pleases God."97 This does not mean that it is not truly a human body, nor is Christ's human nature called into question by such an affirmation; but Christ must be understood to possess a body that, unlike ours, may be both in heaven and in the sacrament by virtue of its association with divinity and by the infusion of divine potency.98 Catholic apologists for the real presence also charged that the Reformed theory concerning the nature of Christ's body overlooked the important distinctions between his body before and after the resurrection. Scripture attests to Christ being raised with a glorified body—one that was capable of extraordinary feats, such as passing through closed doors and appearing to people at will, things impossible for ordinary mortal bodies.99 Some writers pointed out that even before the crucifixion Jesus was able to make himself
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disappear when in the midst of a crowd, giving evidence of an unusual capacity to transcend physical laws well before he was glorified. 100 Benoist, summing up a Catholic consensus on distinctions among the ways that Christ is embodied, suggested that Scripture proposes Christ to us in three distinct circumstances, which correspond to three different bodily conditions. On the cross and in his earthly existence Jesus' body was visible and passible. Under the species of bread and wine his body is present substantially, but it is invisible, impassible, and immortal. In heaven at the right hand of the Father his body is visible, impassible, immortal, and glorious.101 These distinctions, which Catholics argued the Reformed ignored, would clear up the supposed difficulties identified in popular polemical writings against the Catholic doctrine. Those who suggested that Christ's body, present in the host, was subjected to the indignity of being eaten by rats and consumed by fire had failed to consider that it is not present in a natural condition—it does not occupy space, and it is entirely impassible—hence no real injury can be sustained on the part of Christ himself by any mishandling of the elements. They had also failed to consider the difference between the substance and the accidents of the consecrated species, the latter only being subject to physical effects. This notion was supported by analogy with the difference between Christ's human and divine natures. Just as on the cross Christ's human nature suffered but not his divine nature, so also when the host is damaged the accidents are affected but not the divine substance.102 These arguments were common to almost all Catholic writers on the sacrament, who generally shared a common theological frame of reference. There was room, however, for slight differences in emphasis and approach. Gentian Hervet provides one particularly important example of some of these differences and illustrates the problems in theological articulation that appeared under the pressure of the public controversy. Hervet was somewhat more moderate than most other Catholic controversialists who wrote on the eucharist, although he was an ardent defender of the bodily presence of Christ in the sacrament. Deviations from the positions of his coreligionists are apparent in several areas. First, he displayed a degree of openness to Lutheran doctrine by seeming to admit a doctrine of the ubiquity of Christ's resurrected body, a teaching explicitly rejected by other Catholics.103 Hervet acknowledged that he had read the Lutheran criticisms of Calvinist sacramental doctrine and cited them approvingly.104 Second, in attempting to distinguish between the respective conditions of Christ's body in heaven and in the sacrament, he employed some categories not characteristic of other Catholic authors. For him the overriding conceptual dichotomy was that of the natural and the supernatural. Christ, Hervet contended, is in one place naturally, but supernaturally he "is able to be everywhere it pleases him to be."105 This emphasis on the naturalsupernatural dichotomy led him to speak of what is present in the sacrament as the "mystical and spiritual flesh of Jesus Christ." This is contrasted with his natural flesh, which remains in heaven.106 It is not entirely clear whether Hervet really intended to suggest that the natural body of Christ can only be in heaven and as a consequence
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cannot be present and eaten in the sacrament, something all other Catholic publicists categorically rejected. Even the Calvinists were concerned to affirm that the body of which believers partake is the very flesh of Christ in which he suffered and died. 107 But Hervet's language seems to suggest that the natural body is not present in the sacrament. How did Hervet come to this manner of describing Christ's presence? Like all Catholic writers on the sacrament, he was attempting to respond to a barrage of Protestant popular literature (some directed specifically at his own writings) that used vivid terms and provocative images to convince common people of the absurdity of believing that the true body of Christ could exist in a wafer and a cup. In answering Protestant claims Hervet, it is clear, did not by any means want to deny that Christ's flesh is really present and really eaten in the eucharist. But in the effort to account for a nonlocal, nonspatial, substantial presence of Christ's true, glorified body, he went beyond the assertions of writers such as Benoist and de Sainctes that the natural body of Christ is present in the sacrament, but not in a natural manner, and stated instead that what is present is not Christ's natural body but his spiritual body. Hervet eventually became aware of problems with this attempted terminological solution. In a corrigendum inserted at the end of his lengthy published response to the criticisms of the Reformed minister Hugues Sureau du Rosier, published in 1567, Hervet explained that "where the natural body of Jesus Christ is spoken of, it is necessary to understand the body of creation, that is, which has in it the dimension and circumscription of a natural body."108 Obviously, the very presence of a correction is evidence of some discomfort with the way the term has been used, and the correction itself seems to bring Hervet closer to the meaning of his Catholic colleagues that Christ's natural body is present but not in its natural condition—that is, without being visible or occupying space. Nonetheless, the implied denial of the notion that "the body of creation" is present in the sacrament left Hervet open to the charge that Catholics posit different bodies of Christ, calling into question the continuity of Christ's bodily existence and therefore suggesting that Christians do not receive the true body of Christ that bore the sins of the world.109 Hervet was not inexperienced in religious controversy, and he was not unaware of all of these troubling issues, and yet in the giveandtake of polemical charge and countercharge, and especially when one was under pressure to put a response into print as quickly as possible, it was certainly possible to be led to a statement of one's position that seemed to concede more than one was willing to. Especially given the stridency of the debate, these were difficult rhetorical and conceptual waters to navigate. What is particularly interesting about Hervet's navigation is that it illustrates in unusually clear fashion the fundamental, nonnegotiable claim of Catholics that the sacrament must be understood to possess an inherent potency. Hervet's apparent, if only temporary, willingness to relinquish claims for the presence of Christ's natural body in the sacrament under pressure from Protestant criticism suggests that a christologically and soteriologically significant
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affirmation—that Christians partake of the very body in which the divine Word was incarnate—might be sacrificed for the sake of maintaining the presence, in an immanent and inherent manner, of some form of divine, and hence powerfully efficacious, flesh, even if it must be characterized as spiritual and not natural flesh. The strategy Catholics employed in addressing the christological problems posed by Protestant criticism was more or less dictated to them by the logic of the discourse. Two particular christological emphases were required in order to combat the Reformed charges. First, in order to assert that Christ's body was capable of being both in heaven and on earth, a capacity denied to our human bodies, they had to accentuate the distinction between Christ's human nature and ours. Calvin had already protested that this opens "a large window to Marcion"—that is, it calls into question the genuineness of Christ's human nature, the reality of his suffering and death, and the efficacy of his sacrifice for those whose condition he has apparently not fully shared. 110 In the face of these kinds of criticisms, Catholic apologists proceeded boldly to claim that it was blasphemy to suggest that Christ's bodily condition was undifferentiated from that of the common lot of humanity. The miracle of the incarnation points, they maintained, to a qualitative difference between Christ's humanity and ours, his human body and ours, even though he is truly human and his body is a true body. The qualitative difference derives from the fact that he alone is "joined inseparably to divinity."111 Pierre Doré asserted that "the flesh of Jesus Christ our blessed Savior is not a simple or common flesh, as that of others, but it is a deified flesh, as Saint John said. 'Verbum caro factum est [The Word was made flesh].' It is, in short, the flesh of the one who alone has been separated and set apart from sinners, as Saint Paul said" [Heb. 7:26].112 In the effort to accentuate the difference between Christ and ordinary mortals, Doré could even make the assertion of Hebrews 4:15 that Christ shared the human condition to the extent of having been tempted "as we are, yet without sin" appear a declaration not of the commonality of Christ's experience and ours but primarily of his distinctiveness. René Benoist's denunciation of Calvin's writings on this matter sum up the Catholic position. Benoist noted the many miracles performed by Christ even while in his mortal body before drawing what he understood to be the inevitable conclusion: "[H]e was divinely conceived and formed and you say that he is like unto our impure and miserable bodies! This is too much, Calvin, my friend.''113 The second christological emphasis required to buttress Catholic claims for the sacramental presence, and especially appeals to divine power as an answer to the allegedly rationalist objections of Protestants, was a concentration on the unity of the human and divine natures in Christ (as opposed to their distinction, the emphasis more typical of Calvinist christology). Stressing the personal union of the dual natures could be used as a metaphor for the union of sign and signified in the sacrament,114 but it had the added benefit of seeming to convey something of the divine potency and potentiality to Christ's humanity. The divine, it was argued, naturally has prece
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dence and priority over the human in Christ; hence, the human nature takes on certain prerogatives and privileges. The doctrine of the communicatio idiomatum supplied the necessary conception, and Catholics all but invoked the technical terminology in attempting to make the point that Christ's human nature is a "sacred humanity" and that "divinity has compensated for the imperfections in the body of Jesus Christ." 115 The Reformed consistently argued that these Catholic arguments tended to threaten the integrity of Christ's human nature, but Catholics were less concerned with the integrity of the respective natures than with their union, which yielded an unlimited potentiality in the one divine person, Jesus Christ. More support was found for this notion in the doctrine that Christ, as the Son of God, is consubstantial, and hence equal in status, to the Father. If one ought not deny the power of the Father to accomplish works of great power, one can neither think of Christ as incapable of overcoming the laws of nature. The heretics who denied that Christ's body could be really present in the sacramental elements were simply re creating the heresy of Arius regarding Christ's status, "ranking him with the creatures and denying his divinity."116 With this emphasis on Christ's overwhelming power derived from his fully divine status—"the omnipotence of his divinity inseparable from his humanity"—Catholics believed they had overcome all possible Protestant objections based on the nature of Jesus' body.117 Christ Divided: Calvinist Doctrine Ramifies The faith in the sacrament of the altar, held for centuries by Christians, yielded many practical benefits. It was, all agreed, the preeminent symbol of Christian unity, and its faithful and regular celebration guaranteed political stability, social order, peace, and prosperity.118 By the same token, Catholics argued, when the authorized faith was tampered with, or when through the audacity of socalled reformers attempts were made to completely dismantle it, the result was likely to be discord, dissension, and violence.119 Catholic authors did not have to remain in the realm of the theoretical to make this point. They pointed, first, to the experience of the German nation, divided and weakened by religious differences, and they warned that the zealots for radical evangelical reform were attempting to create the same conditions in France.120 In the early 1560s and thereafter, with more regular public demonstrations of the Protestant presence, eruptions of popular religious violence, and the onset of the wars that would occupy the nation for most of the remainder of the century, the opponents of Protestant reform had no need to look beyond France's borders for evidence of the devastation wrought by heresy. They argued that the disease of erroneous religious persuasion, when allowed to prey upon the social body, destroyed every structure that made for the wellbeing of the commonwealth. This recognition was in no sense novel. Francis I, responding in 1535 to the first threatening signs of attack on the Catholic faith through the
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Reformed criticism of the Mass, determined that when the body politic was threatened by the infection of one or several of its members the only cure was amputation—the forceful and merciless extirpation of heresy. 121 The corporeal metaphor employed by Francis was a commonplace in sixteenthcentury discussions of politics and law, deriving ultimately from the Pauline conception of the church as the body of Christ and its frequent use in interpretations of eucharistic communion. It was quite natural, then, for Catholic thinkers to make the leap from the idea that the social body was infected and internally conflicted to the idea that Christ's body was itself torn asunder by the incursion of foreign and malignant religious notions. To Paul's question ''Is Christ divided?" (1 Cor. 1:13), Antoine du Val could answer in the affirmative: "[W]e say that he is divided when his body, which is the church, is cut and separated, or when the head is divided from the body, or when the members, who are the Christians, are divided and separated among themselves."122 The integrity of Christ's mystical body—as represented in both the church and Christian society—had been destroyed, and Catholic polemicists had little trouble laying the blame for this outcome upon the Reformed and their controversial and divisive doctrines. Charges such as these are to be expected in a time of religious and social unrest, especially given the eruption of military conflict in the 1560s. But what is especially striking is the extent to which one finds accusations of this kind and explorations of the roots of social division and political unrest in tracts and treatises given over to discussion of eucharistic doctrine. As Catholic writers came to attribute responsibility for France's troubles to errors in the conception of the sacrament, one notices in their writings a remarkable interweaving of political and eucharistic theology. In light of the role the sacrament played as a symbol of power and its already heavy political investment, this increasing interest in interpreting eucharistic doctrine politically is not surprising. From the Reformed side, however, the connections between eucharistic understandings and political commitments were generally not specified, primarily because such a concentration would make the movement more vulnerable to charges of sedition. Catholics, by contrast, were only too eager to point to the political advantages of orthodoxy and to portray Reformed sacramental teaching as having exploded the delicate balance of social and metaphysical relations on which France's peace and social wellbeing depended. Orthodox faith and practice were understood to produce peace and prosperity not only because maintaining public piety secured divine favor but also for the very practical reason that a uniform religious confession kept social antagonisms to a minimum.123 The necessary condition for this religious uniformity, Catholics suggested, was the presence of faith, something that was possible only within the communion of the Roman church. They therefore protested against the Reformed habit of referring to those of their number as "the faithful" because, as they claimed, the "socalled Reformed religion" was founded on the rejection of faith in favor of experimentation with ideas derived from reason and sense experience.124 Here the difference
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in Reformed and Catholic perspectives hinges, obviously, on the definition of "faith." For Catholics who believed that Protestants were doggedly rationalist because they refused to accept the miracle of the divine presence in the eucharistic wafer, faith and faithfulness were defined primarily in terms of assent to church dogma. Conceptions founded either on the experience of natural phenomena or on rational speculation stood in no productive relation to this faith. On this account, then, faith entailed the suppression of doubts arising from rational understanding and capitulation of one's own judgment to that of a higher authority. As Antoine Cathalan explained it, faith "signifies three things: credulity, loyalty, and assurance." Credulity means "while believing, to obey." The examples Cathalan used to support this are telling: ''[T]he son believes the commandments of his father." (That is, as we would say, he obeys them.) ''The subject and servant believes and obeys his lord or master, as the good captain Uriah did toward his king David." 125 In this typical characterization faith is indistinguishable from simple, unquestioning obedience. The trustworthiness of the one who commands belief cannot be at issue. Protestant eucharistic teaching, on the other hand, was corrosive and ultimately destructive of this faith. Critical of the authorities who had supported and defended the authorized teaching for centuries, the Reformed intended for "everyone to be a theologian"—that is, to judge for themselves the admissibility of doctrines. They therefore tore down the structures and traditions that supported belief, and in the place of faithful obedience they taught people to question inherited conceptions according to their own impressions or their "fantasy." But social harmony, suggested Emond Auger, depended on the subordination of one's "particular opinions to the resolutions and decisions of the spiritual magistrate that God established in his republic."126 The consequences were apparent: in destroying faith the Reformed opened the door to general lawlessness. Disobedience in the matter of religious assent was but a short step from, and inevitably yielded to, open rebellion against all constituted authority.127 If it is not entirely clear how Reformed eucharistic theology in particular, as opposed to other Protestant reforming doctrines, was implicated in this progression of consequences, we must first simply note the extent to which Catholic writers made and repeated the charge that it was implicated. Auger, maintaining that "the Supper of the Calvinists" "brings all species of troubles and revolts," found evidence for its culpability in apocalyptic predictions of altar desecrations which will lead to tremendous tumult at the end of time.128 Many Catholics took up this theme, pointing out that the interruption of the continuous sacrifice was a sign that the last troubles had begun.129 Protestant iconoclastic disturbances, involving desecration of altars, served as evidence for this interpretation. Since much iconoclastic activity was motivated by Protestant accusations of Catholic idolatry, Auger suggested that Reformed rebellion was founded on their equation of the Mass with the worship of false gods decried by the prophets of the Old Testament. Reformed rhetoric quite naturally elicited expressions of popular resentment directed "against superiors and others" on the part of people who were con
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vinced that their rulers "have held them in idolatry and impiety, as under Baal." 130 Gentian Hervet also pointed to Reformed attacks on idolatry to interpret the relation between eucharistic belief and political attitudes. In the aftermath of the Colloquy of Poissy, Hervet suggested that it was incongruous that the Reformed delegates to the assembly who declared themselves the king's "most humble servants and vassals, and gave to understand that they detest sedition, should kneel and protrate themselves, they who expressly forbid that one should worship Jesus Christ" in the consecrated elements of the Supper.131 Hervet was accusing the Reformed of dissembling in pledging their loyalty. Something basic to Reformed teaching—the iconoclastic impulse expressed in strictures on idolatry and given its most potent symbolism in the denial of Christ's bodily presence in the eucharist—produced an obstacle to their rendering homage to any temporal sovereign. At the first popular rioting and military engagements that ushered in the religious wars, Hervet again focused his aim on the Reformed eucharistic doctrine. The aim of the Protestants, Hervet claimed, was to bring an end to the Catholic religion, "to drive the king from his kingdom and to kill all the priests." The particular strategy they employed was to destroy "this firm faith that the precious body and blood of Jesus Christ which is offered to God by the church for the sins of the living and the dead, the priest being the minister, is really and in fact in the eucharist." Having ''persuaded many in this kingdom" that Christ is not really in the sacrament, they "have caused them to take up arms against their prince and against the whole church.'' Here again, denial of Christ's bodily presence in the eucharistic species was held to lead inexorably to revolution, although in this instance Hervet did not specify the precise nature of the causal relationship.132 Among those who sought to assert such a causal relationship between Protestant sacramental claims and political resistance, none presented as precise and complete a case as Esprit Rotier, inquisitor and dean of the Faculty of Theology in the University of Toulouse. In a dedicatory epistle to Charles IX that served as a preface to his treatise in defense of the Mass, he produced the full panoply of arguments taken from the French "royal religion" to establish the intimate connection between the royal line and the Catholic faith.133 There were numerous signs to indicate God's approval of the kings of France, from the direct conveyance by the Holy Spirit to Clovis, the first Christian king of France, of the chrism for the royal anointing to the bestowal of "the king's miracle," the power to heal the disease of scrofula simply by touch. The association of miraculous power with the French royal line is a strong argument for divine approbation of the Catholic faith of the French kings, each of whom is, after all, "most Christian" and "the first son of the Roman church."134 Moreover, the conferring of special power upon the French king did not take place except through the Mass, in which he received Christ's body and blood after having been anointed and consecrated (sacré) "with heavenly oil, created by divine power."135 The efficacy of this sacred elevation depended on the efficaciousness of the sacrament of the
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altar in which the king was imbued with extraordinary, miraculous power. In Rotier's view, this explained the exemplary devotion French monarchs have shown for the eucharist. 136 Given these close ties between the sovereign and the Catholic faith, and the eucharist in particular, the doctrines of the Reformed—those who "have wished to drive Jesus Christ from his church, from his sacred pavillion and sanctuary, saying that he is not at all really present in the holy sacrament of the altar and blaspheming the most holy Mass"—could be seen to constitute treason, or the crime of lèze majesté divine et humaine.137 The Protestant claims that all France that worshiped Christ present in the sacrament was guilty of idolatry reflected directly upon the king, "the head of the body," who must also have been an idolater and worse, since he was the instigator of the idolatry of all his people.138 Far from being "the most Christian king," he would be a great deceiver of those in his care. Moreover, his rule would be illegitimate, if the Protestant arguments hold, for his coronation and consecration would be ineffectual if the Mass were in error. Consequently, Rotier asserted, in attacking this central Christian rite, Protestants attacked the person of the king and revealed their aim to be the elimination of all temporal princes.139 In these several arguments that sought to portray the eucharistic doctrine of the Reformed as seditious and productive of political unrest, Catholic writers needed to identify the unexpressed conceptual connections in Reformed teaching that served to undermine existing political arrangements. We have noted that in their hunt for clues implicating Reformed sacramental ideas many writers cast blame upon the supposed rationalism of writers like Calvin. Although Calvin was not a rationalist in the modern sense, he was far from inclined to embrace the fideism for which his opponents became such fervent apologists. Certain elements of his thought—his criticism of traditional authorities, his enthusiasm for science and the liberal arts, and his assumption that the physical world is trustworthy and that divine revelation does not regularly or without reason contravene its laws—did in fact lend themselves to interpretation by critics as components of a rationalist critique of revealed religion.140 In their view Calvin's demystification of the central tenet of Catholic sacramental belief—the immanental, corporeal presence of Christ in the species—was part of an effort to reduce the knowledge of faith to ratiocination and remove all authorities external to the individual, who may give assent to proffered doctrines solely on the basis of her own opinion concerning the truth. Such a development signaled the advent of complete social chaos and the breakdown of all political order.141 Alongside what they considered to be a disguised rationalism contributing to social upheaval, Catholics also discerned at the foundations of Calvinist sacramental doctrine an improbable and radical metaphysical conception. They were alerted to this by the claim of Calvin and his followers that they held to a real communication of Christ in the Supper, even though Christ's body could not be located in the visible elements. This suggested a conception of the real wholly out of accord with common linguistic usage.
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René Benoist made this point in suggesting to Calvin that his notion that believers may partake of the real body of Christ, even though Christ's body remains in heaven and is not present in bread and wine, appears "to all persons of good and sound intelligence more absurd and inept than the vain Ideas of Plato ever were." 142 Benoist's reference to the Platonic Ideas was meant to accuse Calvin of proffering a vision of reality in which the ultimately real lies only in a conceptual realm, beyond the world of sense experience. By placing the participation of Christians with Christ outside of the sensual realm, Calvin deprived them of Christ's clear intention to make himself really available, that is, available immanentally and corporeally, as well as spiritually. Since the presence of Christ was removed from the material realm and confined to a transcendent spiritual or conceptual realm, as Benoist would have it, this presence became increasingly nebulous, and no longer subject to the definition or control of the visible, temporal instrumentalities—Christ's earthly representatives—to which it had been entrusted. Such a development, once again, had the the effect of giving license to the individual to determine the truth and the manner of his or her participation in Christ's body. For now, having dismissed the notion of an objective presence, the subjective condition of the believer is the crucial factor upon which communion depends. This, Catholics argued, gave to the individual a false sense of his capacity to receive Christ outside of the ministration and mediation of the church, thereby improperly empowering individual opinion and judgment at the expense of the firm authority of the church. Those who followed Calvin's teachings, then, no longer considering it necessary to submit their own judgments to higher and more qualified authority, had in fact rejected the belief in the necessity of authority as such. Calvin's peculiar redefinition of where the ultimately real lies led ineluctably to a dismantling of the whole conception of authority and the ordered social and political system founded on obedience to a superior authority. Closely corresponding to the relation between the real and the realm of sense experience was the Reformed propensity to portray communion as primarily a spiritual matter. A similar unease regarding the ramifications of the Protestant conceptual scheme may be seen to underlie Catholic objections to Calvinist claims regarding a spiritual presence and the role of the Holy Spirit in effecting the union of believers with the body of Christ. In the Catholic view, the Protestant doctrine, posited on a conception not simply of divine transcendence but of divine remoteness, needed to account for the efficacy of the sacrament and the efficacious presence of the divine by focusing on divine power or virtue which is made effective through the work of the Spirit. This pneumatological emphasis, together with the apparent identification of the faith of the believer as the instrumental cause of Christ's presence and the rejection of attributing sacramental efficacy to the intention of the priest to consecrate and his utterance of the powerful sacramental words, signaled an unacceptable challenge to the church's authority over the sacrament. The Spirit, like the wind, "bloweth where it listeth" (Jn 3:8 KJV),
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thereby resisting the definitional and disciplinary efforts of institutions. It was quite natural, then, for Catholics to regard the Reformed concentration on the work of the Spirit in sacramental communication as fundamentally at odds with the institutional interests of the church. Calvin's interest in the freedom of God's power and the work of the Spirit indicated that the aim of the Reformed was the spiritualization of the preeminent symbol of power, and hence its democratization. Such a prospect was viewed with considerable alarm by most French Catholics. In the Catholic depiction, the Protestant sacramental option could appear quite a radical and dangerous tool of social and cultural revolution. There were, of course, political advantages to representing Reformed ideas in this way, and we cannot overlook the likelihood that Catholic interpretations were colored both by the experience of religious and political conflict in the 1560s and by the need to appeal to particular political leaders and the Catholic public. But there is no strong evidence suggesting that Catholic writers on the eucharist deliberately set out to misrepresent the views of their opponents, even though Protestants made this charge. The logic of controversial rhetoric required that the reader or listener recognize elements of truth in the Catholic attacks. In fact many of the Catholic criticisms derive from insightful readings both of the French Protestant teachings and of the volatile social and political situation into which they ventured. The doctrine proposed by Calvin and given shape in Reformed liturgy and popular pamphlets did pose a powerful threat to the symbolic system on which certain interests had relied, the church and the crown being the most conspicuous among these. While the dangers were often exaggerated and certain ideas occasionally reduced to caricature, in identifying the practical social and political consequences of Reformed sacramental thought—apart from consideration of other mitigating doctrines—the Catholic polemicists were essentially correct. In the popular ideological struggle, then, it appeared an urgent task for those whose interests were bound up with the traditional faith and the Roman church to expose the full dimensions of this threat to social order. In serving this aim, the clerics who labored to respond to the Reformed doctrines presented themselves as defenders of ancient and hallowed tradition—the faith and pious practice that had stood the nation in good stead, as they claimed, for centuries. In some cases they might appear as advocates of ecclesiastical reform, enthusiastically supporting measures to provide the populace with knowledgeable, competent, and effective ministers. 143 But no reform of doctrine was in order because it was this doctrine—and in particular the doctrine of Christ's corporeal presence under the bread and wine and in the midst of the church—that safeguarded the spiritual and material wellbeing of the whole of society. In the propaganda war, as Protestants appealed to those dissatisfied with the spiritual offerings of the old faith and the political interests allied with it, Catholics had simply to point to the violent social and political disruption of the present and attempt to evoke images of a peaceful and secure past in
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order to show that any deviation from the unequivocal confession of a real and bodily presence was an invitation to a general cataclysm. The apocalyptic thinking then current supplied the necessary context in which to make such an argument. "Consider that we are in the last times," wrote René Benoist in 1568, "of which Jesus Christ warned us that all iniquity and error would abound while virtue and truth failed." In these circumstances one must not "receive a new faith and law but rather hold on to the old one, following the counsel of Jesus Christ who said that whoever should persevere until the end will be saved." 144 It was a potent rhetorical strategy that Catholic authors were able to employ to their great advantage in the early years of the Wars of Religion, as their writings turned the tide of the struggle for public opinion and mobilized the Catholic faithful to resist the spread of the new ideas.
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6— The Eucharist, Reformed Social Formation, and the Ideology of Resistance Jean Calvin began his career as a reformer defending Reformed Protestantism against the charge of sedition. Reflecting more than twenty years later on his initiation into the world of public religious controversy, Calvin gave as his reason for writing his Institutes in 1535 not only the persecution in France of his religious comrades but, more important, their misrepresentation in the court of public opinion as "Anabaptists and seditious persons, who by their dreams and false opinions were overturning not only religion but the whole political order." 1 This impression had to be corrected through a persuasive presentation of the heads of Reformed doctrine that would show it to be an eminently pure and faithful expression of Christian piety that posed no danger to the established political order. It was with this end in view that Calvin inserted into his book the dedicatory epistle to the French king Francis I. He acknowledged in that letter the difficulty of his task, seeing the advantage the opponents of the Reformed enjoyed by virtue of their ability to falsely define for the king the teaching of the Protestants. Their reports were extremely damaging: "It is as if this doctrine looked to no other end than to subvert all orders and civil governments, to disrupt the peace, to abolish all laws, to scatter all lordships and possessions—in short, to turn everything upside down!" This portrayal, Calvin insisted, corresponded not at all with the real matter of evangelical doctrine and with the real persons suffering persecution who were in fact godly, peaceloving, and obedient. To make this point with particular force he aligned himself with those who opposed any expression of political resentment in the guise of religious reform by conceding that the harshest measures would be justified against the Protestants if in fact their preaching was politically disruptive: "If these [charges]
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were true, the whole world would rightly judge this doctrine and its authors worthy of a thousand fires and gibbets." 2 That Calvin's writings evince a certain political conservatism, that Calvin firmly supported the notion that all Christians are duty bound to obey superior authority, and that he repeatedly denied that the aim of his teaching was "to wrest the scepters from the hands of kings" is well known.3 It is also well known that following Calvin's death Calvinist leaders became some of the most influential proponents of the right of resistance to tyranny and formulated political doctrines that greatly limited the power of rulers over their subjects.4 The apostles' declaration, "We ought to obey God rather than men" (Acts 5:29 KJV), became the hallmark of Reformed arguments in favor of the right of rebellion.5 Absolute power, it was argued, belonged only to God, and therefore absolute obedience might be rendered to none other than God. Kings were no more than God's lieutenants, deserving to be obeyed only when they upheld God's laws.6 Royal power therefore did not proceed from an innate or inherited power but from God's good pleasure by which God assigns to the ruler the task of upholding true religion.7 The king was not in any sense imbued with an aura of sacred majesty, for to elevate earthly rulers to an unnaturally exalted status was to be guilty of idolatry.8 A king was, after all, merely a human being whose subjects were his brothers and whose unique status derived from the function he was called to perform—to establish civil order and righteousness and secure the public good.9 If Calvin was firmly opposed to any doctrine that might unduly compromise the authority of earthly rulers, one might certainly argue that these intentions were frustrated by the efforts of his successors. But, as has often been indicated, Calvin's heirs were responding to the vastly different circumstances of a Protestant movement that had suffered the devastation of the massacres of Saint Bartholomew's Day in 1572. One might very well then expect a change in political attitudes and ideology given the Calvinists' changing experience of their relationship to the power of the state. It cannot be denied that Saint Bartholomew's Day marked a decisive moment for the French Reformed, and one that profoundly affected the selfunderstanding of members of the movement. But it has also been recognized that basic elements of the arguments for political resistance that came to be formulated in the 1570s can be detected earlier. In the effort to trace the origins of revolutionary Calvinism, scholars have suggested several possible sources. Many have focused on Calvin's own thought, and particularly his discussion of the role subordinate magistrates might play to restrain the power of tyrants.10 Some have concentrated on early Lutheran theories of resistance and on one particularly influential document, the Magdeburg Bekentniss of 1550.11 Others have focused on Pierre Viret's and Theodore Beza's reflections of the 1540s and 1550s on the limits of obedience to ungodly rulers.12 For the most part these investigations have been concerned primarily with Protestant political theory and have centered on explicit statements concerning the nature of civil government and possible conflict between religious and
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secular duty. Could it be, however, that a more fundamental theological source, a source overlooked by most of those concerned with the question, explains the revolutionary turn taken by the Reformed? 13 In the preceding chapters I have argued that the sacramental doctrine propounded in a variety of forms by French Protestants following 1530 possessed the potential to undermine the symbolic foundations on which claims to political authority had traditionally rested. Given the fact that the opponents of the Reformed in France, from the very beginning of the public dissemination of their eucharistic ideas and even more insistently and pointedly in the 1560s, identified this doctrine as tantamount to treason, it seems worthwhile to entertain the notion that Reformed understandings of the eucharist provided a key conceptual basis for Calvinist resistance in the late sixteenth century. This chapter takes up the question of how precisely affirmations and denials in the realm of eucharistic theology might be seen to have produced fundamental reconstructions of the nature of society and the political order. I am suggesting that a link between Calvinist sacramental understandings and political ideology can be established on two grounds. First, given the symbolic landscape within which Reformed criticisms of the prevailing sacramental ideology were articulated and particularly the influence of the medieval doctrine of the eucharist upon symbolizations of political power, the Calvinist doctrine of sacramental signification with its criticism of the notion that power might inhere in temporal loci may be seen as a paradigm upon which criticisms of political authority might be based. The second aspect of the argument is less speculative. The eucharistic thinking of the Reformed, because it was publicly deployed and widely disseminated through printed matter aimed at a popular, nonspecialist audience, was actually in a position to influence directly public discourse and popular understandings of the sacred, society, and the nature of temporal power. Depending, then, on how Reformed writings were interpreted by their readers, the ideas for which they argued could certainly have had an impact on political understandings and commitments. In the pages that follow I shall examine the available understandings and likely interpretations of the most influential "texts" concerning the sacrament with which French Protestants were presented in the period of their greatest strength.14 This examination will allow us to see the ways in which the Reformed messages of the midsixteenth century helped to form a popular ethos and a public discourse concerning the constitution of society and relations of power that prepared the ground for the fully elaborated theories of resistance of the 1570s. The Quest for a Holy Commonwealth One of the distinguishing features of Reformed Protestantism in the sixteenth century was its stress on individual and social sanctification. In a certain sense, this emphasis was not new since the pursuit of sanctity and particularly the notion that Christian societies were sacred and had to be
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constituted around a sacred center were characteristic of the medieval outlook. The Reformed theology, with its criticism of Catholic forms of piety, however, precluded a simple reproduction of medieval social ideals. Whereas Catholic communities tended to utilize sacred symbols of the immanence of divine power—the eucharist in particular—to establish communal wholeness and sanctity, for the Reformed, with their understanding of divine power as entirely free and transcendent, no concrete, material locus of sacred potency was available. In the Calvinist scheme, the true holy of holies—ultimately the only sacred center and repository of sacred power—was heaven, into which Christ had entered for the benefit of humanity and where he remained bodily until the day of judgment (Heb. 9:24). 15 On the other hand, the Reformed did concede that the influence of that sacred potency was made available in the finite experience of Christians through the work of the Holy Spirit, notably in the sacrament of the eucharist. And so while properly speaking the temporal order was divested of sacred objects, one could point to the Spirit's sanctifying work and the evidence of this work in the lives of believers as testimony to a powerful, spiritual divine presence. At the same time the instruments the Spirit was held to use to accomplish individual sanctification, while in no sense repositories of sacred power, could be identified as holy and deserving of reverence and deep respect.16 As a consequence, Reformed efforts to establish holy communities tended to focus on the symbol that historically had represented Christian social formation—the sacrament of Christ's body and blood—and on the dynamic regenerating and sanctifying work of the Spirit in the lives of the faithful.17 The Reformed social ideal was the communion of the saints, which the eucharist was supposed to achieve.18 The sharing of Christ's body and blood joined all those with faith in Christ into one body: the mystical body of Christ. Like the ecclesiastical and political leaders of medieval communities, Calvin and his Reformed contemporaries hoped to extend this spirit of social integration and ordering beyond the churches where the sacrament was celebrated so as to influence the ordering of the social body. But in contrast to his medieval forbears, Calvin did not view the body of Christ created by the eucharist as coextensive with society at large. Society, as the Reformed experienced it, was not in any sense sacred; in fact, as a reflection of the fallen human beings who constituted the secular community, it was believed to be naturally chaotic and resistant to the kind of ordering the Spirit imposed on the church through the sacrament of Christ's Supper.19 Nevertheless, profane society might be remade to reflect the divine redemption of life and so provide a suitable context for the community of the faithful and a place in which all lives might serve to glorify God. This could be seen as being accomplished through the individual transformations of life for which Christians hoped in their celebration of the eucharist as they prayed that Christ, through the Spirit, might cause them no longer to "live in ourselves and according to our nature" and might lead them to "a life that is holy, blessed and everlasting" and in which God's glory would be exalted and the neighbor edified.20 But it was not understood to be sufficient to await the work of the
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Spirit in individual persons in order to make society holy. Individual, innerdirected efforts were deemed significant in the endeavor to reform society, but communal striving was equally so. 21 These communal efforts to constitute communities conforming to the ideal of the communion of the saints have come to be recognized as characteristic of the Calvinist political project. Nowhere was the effort to create a holy community more evident than in the liturgy Calvin composed for Geneva, which exercised a broad and deep influence over worship in all Frenchspeaking Reformed congregations. Calvin's eucharistic celebration, following the earlier example of Farel's liturgy, made of the Supper that symbolized the unity of Christ's mystical body a communion limited to the faithful.22 The theme of exclusivity was especially emphasized. From the beginning of the celebration the minister was to announce that children and "outsiders" (estrangiers) whose background and state of understanding were unknown were not welcome at Christ's table.23 The account of Jesus' first administration of the Supper and his words of institution were recited to demonstrate that "our Lord instituted his Supper among his disciples," and hence "outsiders and those who are not of the company of his faithful must not be admitted there."24 This was followed by what came to be called the fencing of the table, in which all those deemed unworthy of participation in the sacrament were excommunicated by the minister: Therefore, following this rule, in the name and by the authority of our Lord Jesus Christ I excommunicate all idolaters, blasphemers, despisers of God, heretics, and all persons who create separate sects to destroy the unity of the church, all perjurers, all those who are rebels against fathers and mothers and their superiors, seditious and disobedient persons, batterers, quarrelsome persons, adulterers, fornicators, thieves, abductors, those who are avaricious, drunkards, gluttons, and all those who lead a scandalous and dissolute life. I declare to them to abstain from this holy table for fear of polluting and contaminating the holy food which our Lord Jesus Christ gives only to those who belong to his household and who are among his faithful.25
The act of excommunication was hardly incidental to the Reformed celebration of the Supper. Most of the leaders of the church regarded it as essential to the right ordering of worship and the life of the community.26 In at least one important sense, the very efficacy of the sacrament depended on the successful exclusion of all those who were manifestly unworthy to be numbered among "the household of Christ." This derived from the judgment of Calvin and his colleagues in ministry that the liturgical act of communion at Christ's table must serve as a faithful and genuine reflection of the mystical body that was actually constituted through the instrument of the sacrament. The symbolic efficacy of this meal of common union in Christ, that is, the capacity of the Supper to truly represent the unity of Christ's body, would be compromised if the ignorant, the faithless, and unrepentant sinners shared
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the meal with believers. 27 In such an event the sacrament would be profaned and God would be dishonored. Moreover, and perhaps more to the point, the faithful would be ''scandalized'': believers could not for long reconcile their perception of a rite that failed to distinguish sinners from saints with their belief that the sacrament was truly a sharing in Christ's body and blood joining together the whole communion of the saints in union with Christ.28 With the high priority given to maintaining the integrity of sacramental communion through excommunication, leaders of the Reformed movement disclosed their intention to make of the evangelical eucharist an instrument of social definition. In the sacrament the boundaries of the holy community were delineated and made secure from the incursion of outsiders and the unworthy whose presence would profane the holy table—the sacred symbol that constituted the community as holy— and as a consequence contaminate the communal whole. And so the eucharist served as the symbolic center of the Reformed project of ecclesiastical discipline. Through a variety of measures members of Reformed congregations who deviated from specified behavioral norms were to accept correction, strive to reform their lives, and so "live a Christian life, joined together in good peace and fraternal unity as members of one body."29 Those who were not receptive to the admonitions of pastors and elders were barred from the Supper and faced expulsion from the church. Thus the ecclesial community marked itself off from the broader society that included both the faithful and the unregenerate by attempting, within certain limits,30 to maintain itself as a society of the saints, and it employed the social symbol of the eucharist as the table of Christ and persuasive and coercive techniques centered about this symbol to achieve that end.31 In this system of Reformed ecclesial definition and social formation devised by Calvin and given support by other French Reformed leaders, the power of the church to discipline the morally deviant did not extend beyond its own ecclesial ranks. For Reformed communities in jurisdictions not under the control of evangelical political leaders, then, the church's effort to establish its own communal sanctity could have no direct influence on the sanctity of the larger society. On the other hand, in cities where the Reformed controlled the government the power of the civil administration was enlisted to considerably broaden the church's influence on social sanctity. Since the Reformed believed it to be the duty of magistrates to support religion and promote the civil righteousness conducive to its welfare, secular rulers were called upon to employ their powers of coercion in attempting to create a social body that might aspire to correspond to the order of peace and righteousness that prevailed in Christ's spiritual kingdom.32 In some sixteenthcentury cities rigorous enforcement of codes of moral behavior, support of the church's judgments concerning excommunication, and particularly the practice of banishing all those implacably opposed to efforts to reform behavior were thought to have achieved nearly unprecedented instances of communal holiness.33
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In the cities that employed these methods of Calvinist discipline, the interest of the Reformed in creating a holy community that encompassed the secular world and the whole of life—to establish a "public manifestation of religion"—was disclosed. 34 It was an ambition and a social ideal that, as I have said, had as its model the holy communion of the saints with Christ through the sacrament of his body and blood. To the extent that the French Reformed shared a particular understanding of that communion and its social application, the sacrament helped to shape among the members of the movement a common understanding of the nature of society and common expectations regarding the transformation of a disordered and ungodly community into a holy commonwealth. This can be said to have been true even of French Protestants who lived in communities under Catholic control. There may have been no immediate means available to establish the kind of civil righteousness they held to be in accord with God's will for human life, but in every celebration of the Lord's Supper they testified to an ecclesial ideal that might serve as a model for the redemption and sanctification of the public sphere. It was an ideal that differed sharply from the one to which Catholic communities aspired because its symbolic center involved the explicit rejection of the notion that sacred power might inhere in material signs—the idea at the heart of Catholic symbolizations of social coherence and wellbeing. Thus, whenever the Reformed received the signs of Christ's body and blood and heard the minister emphasize that these were "earthly and corruptible elements" that had no inherent power to mediate divine grace, but that all power and authority derived from "on high where Jesus Christ is in the glory of the Father,'' they appropriated and associated themselves with a vision of the sacred and the sacred foundation of society that was inimical to Catholic social and political ideals.35 Believers and Idolaters: Constructing a Reformed Identity Reformed understandings of the holy community were reinforced by the efforts of the leaders of the movement to create among Protestants a consciousness of their distinct identity as members of a community set apart from the Catholic societies that claimed their allegiance. Here also the Reformed interpretation of the eucharist and Reformed liturgical practices played an important role. When Pierre Viret suggested in 1558 that God had established the sacrament of Christ's Supper "in order to separate us in the matter of religion from the whole assembly and from all persons who follow a doctrine and religion contrary to his," he was voicing an opinion regarding the proper constitution of the church in Catholic territories that had become familiar to French readers of the many Protestant writings produced mainly in Geneva.36 Several of the leaders of the movement for reform had taken the position that those who were persuaded of the truth of evangelical teachings could not continue to take part in the Mass or to publicly
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represent themselves as adherents of the papal religion. The most vigorous arguments for this position were put forward in writings against persons identified as Nicodemites—those who believed that in the face of persecution some religious dissembling was permissible. 37 As early as 1537 Calvin had advised Protestants in France to avoid at all costs any appearance of lending support to idolatry through participation in "the abominable sacrilege and Babylonical pollution" of the Mass.38 Vehement admonitions of the same sort continued to be directed at French Protestants over the course of the following two decades, and these were supported by the fundamental opposition proposed by the Reformed between the Roman Mass and Christ's Supper. As Viret warned, "[W]hoever would be taken as a Christian and would participate in the true table of the Lord cannot at all communicate or assist in the Mass or such Supper of the papists if he does not wish to be at one time a participant in both the table of the Lord and the table of devils."39 Those who served as guiding forces behind the evangelical movement in France were concerned, particularly when the faithful were threatened with persecution, to maintain the integrity of the movement and its viability in the form of a community that adhered to certain nonnegotiable theological principles. Sacramental doctrine could be enlisted in this effort to convey a sense of God's condemnation of idolatry and requirement that the members of Christ's body remain free from its taint. Thus the sacrament was for the Reformed a mark of the sanctity and integrity of the community that claimed to be a genuine representation of that body, and it served as an opportunity, as Viret said, "to make public and solemn profession and protestation of the faith that we have in [God] and of the doctrine and religion that we follow.''40 Reformed worship underlined the notion that those who believed in Christ and followed the gospel found themselves in fundamental opposition to those who participated in the Mass. In the minister's excommunication of all those unworthy to take part in the Supper, which I have suggested served as a socially defining act, the long list of persons excluded begins with "idolaters"—a word that in Reformed writings invariably referred to Catholics who worshiped God under the form of a wafer of bread. To be sure, in the Reformed conception idolatry could take other forms than eucharistic devotion, but from the early 1530s on, Reformed writings portrayed the Mass and the practices of devotion derived from it as the principal symbol of idolatry. That Catholics and all defiled by contact with the offensive papal ceremony were the first to be named among those excluded from the community of the faithful and that in this rite in which the holy community constituted itself it was defined, in at least one important respect, over against people who were very likely their neighbors testifies to a powerful sense of separation and alienation from the majority Catholic communities to which most Protestants in France nominally belonged. The language Calvin and others used when speaking of French Catholic society further fed this feeling of alienation. The faithful who lived in a godless society that lent support to the Mass were to regard themselves as
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living in Babylon, and, with respect to the symbol regarded as "the chief of all idolatry," they were encouraged to emulate the biblical types of the faithful Jews who under pressure would not bow down to idols. 41 For the Reformed in France, steeped in the language of the Psalms, this identification of the communities in which they lived with Babylon had a very specific meaning. Babylon, as they sang in worship, was "the foreign land" in which it was impossible for "our sad hearts to sing praises to God'' (Ps. 137:3–4).42 It was also the land that stood under God's judgment and whose destruction was inevitable, as the psalmist warned: ''You also Babylon, will be in ashes. Happy is the one who returns to you the evil that comes too near to touching us."43 Such a land could not claim the loyalty of faithful Calvinists. Instead, they longed for the overthrow of the order that held the gospel and its adherents captive to an antireligion in which God's transcendent freedom was denied. As Calvin said, for those in France "who love and practice pure religion, even their native land is foreign territory when they live under that tyranny" that pressures them to conform to the practice of idolatry.44 Their allegiance belonged instead to Jerusalem, which in their interpretation of the Psalms meant the true church, God's "holy city," concretely symbolized in the sacrament of Christ's Supper.45 That city, although under siege by nations that lacked the knowledge of God and although its members were mocked and despised by their own neighbors, was not defeated and would emerge in its true glory from the ruins of Babylon, when God's wrath would be poured out on "kingdoms that do not call upon your power" (Ps. 79:1–6).46 This depiction of the Protestants in France as "exiles in a polluted land," outcasts who "sigh and groan for the promised deliverance,"47 and the use of the Lord's Supper to underline for those in the movement a sense of loyalty to the Reformed church and of alienation from the symbolic forms that organized Catholic societies had important social and political consequences. Protestant minorities in predominantly Catholic communities possessed in their celebration of the Supper a symbol of social holiness that contrasted sharply with representations of a society defiled by the idolatry of the Mass. Thus the symbol that had once performed a unifying and integrative function for many late medieval communities became in Protestant usage a badge of group identification. This development necessarily weakened the ties that historically bound together those groups with competing interests and that subsumed particular aims and aspirations under the eucharist's representation of an organic, communal union and a common good.48 As Protestants came to constitute a significantly large minority population in France in the late 1550s and 1560s, many French cities lacked the means of overcoming the hostile impulses of the two religious communities, each of which regarded the presence and the religious practices of the other as detrimental to social wellbeing. Catholic judgments that the presence and the activity of heretics in society was analogous to a disease that imperiled the whole social body merely reinforced for the Reformed the notion that within majority Catholic communities they were in fact outsiders.49
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The alien status of the Reformed might be made quite apparent on those occasions Catholics traditionally used to establish or reaffirm social sanctity. On Corpus Christi Day, in particular, Protestants along the route of the eucharistic procession who refused to decorate their houses with the requisite hangings or show proper respect to the sacrament of God's body deliberately testified to their rejection of a particular way of symbolizing the relationship between the sacred and society and their refusal to accept membership in a society that organized itself about such a symbolic center. 50 Both in their own perception and in the perceptions of Catholics who took offense at their defiance, the Reformed marked themselves as, in effect, foreigners who would not feel the pull of civic or national allegiance so long as the civil orders subscribed to the religious and social symbol of Christ's body enclosed in the transubstantiated host. That they in fact hoped for the overthrow of these orders and envisaged the establishment of a holy society (regardless of whether they advocated acts of rebellion to accomplish these aims) suggested to many of their Catholic opponents a potential for social revolution.51 Catholics found further evidence for the judgment that the Reformed were a destabilizing influence in French society in the increasingly aggressive posture assumed by many Reformed in France in the years following 1550. The Protestant presence as a group set apart from the larger community was made apparent in cities and towns where the Reformed were strong enough or bold enough to worship publicly or march through the streets, surrounded for protection by armed men, singing the Psalms and other songs that expressed their particular form of piety.52 On many occasions they used public processions through towns, often to their places of worship, to advertise their rejection of the symbolic forms so important to Catholic life.53 Frequently the songs they sang in these processions would be directed against the Mass and the Catholic belief in Christ's presence in the sacred host, demonstrating for all who could see and hear their opposition to this symbol in which, as they sang, the priest turns a piece of bread into a god who, after being worshiped, is eaten, digested, and delivered to the bottom of a latrine.54 Catholic witnesses were particularly scandalized by the Protestant habit of ridiculing the holy sacrament by calling the host "Jean le blanc" ("Jack White"), a "god of flour,'' who is created by his father, the priest "Jean le noir'' ("Jack Black").55 As offensive as these rhetorical assaults were to Catholic sensibilities and Catholic notions of communal sanctity, they paled in comparison to the more violent challenge of Protestant iconoclasm. Sporadic incidents of attacks on objects of local devotion—images of the Virgin Mary and the saints, crucifixes, reliquaries, and altars—demonstrated to Catholics who chronicled the religious troubles of the time the destructive power of the "socalled Reformed religion."56 Popular acts such as these began as early as the mid1540s and increased in frequency as the Reformed movement made dramatic gains in the late 1550s.57 On the eve and at the outbreak of the religious wars, popular violence against Catholic cultic objects became so frequent and widespread as to elicit several important Catholic publications denounc
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ing Protestant leaders for inciting the people to commit acts of vandalism. 58 In these assaults the host was a particular target. Heroic individuals might throw themselves on the monstrance in a Corpus Christi procession in order, as they said, to "destroy this God of paste" or, at mass, grab the consecrated host from the hands of the priest and throw it to the ground.59 Mobs of Protestants might break into churches, desecrate altars, steal the ornaments used in the Mass and the vessels that held the holy wafer, and dispense with the host in an appropriately sacrilegious manner—such as feeding it to animals.60 Attacks on these objects, which for Catholics signaled God's presence in the midst of their community and which as a consequence symbolized communal wholeness, sanctity, and wellbeing, demonstrated powerfully and unequivocally the extent to which Protestants not only were alienated from the dominant, Catholic symbolic forms but also were prepared to engage in a public, political struggle to subvert these important religious and social symbols. In adopting a more aggressive stance toward objects of Catholic devotion, then, Protestants indicated that they were not simply to be regarded as foreigners, whose influence on Catholic societies might be benign, but rather as invaders or insurgents in the sevice of an alien ideology who would disrupt the social body as currently constituted. Public displays of Protestants' feelings toward their Catholic surroundings may be understood, I am suggesting, as in part a reflection of the efforts of Reformed leaders to define and constitute the holy community of the faithful in France over against its "polluted" and idolatrous environment. A very important result of this kind of definition was a weakening of Protestants' feelings of loyalty to communities and political regimes identified as supporting idolatry and a concomitant strengthening of their feelings of ecclesial identity and solidarity. This potentially revolutionary result is sensed still more clearly when we consider the even more obvious background to Protestant assaults on Catholic "idolatry," namely, the many vernacular Reformed writings on the Mass and Christ's Supper in which Catholic eucharistic piety was portrayed as a fundamental perversion of Christian faith in an absolutely free and unconditioned God. In declarations such as that of the iconoclast Louis de Vallois of Lyon that he wished to rid his community, and indeed the whole world, of the pestilential influence of the "god of paste,'' we have convincing evidence that the rhetoric of the Reformed pamphlets and treatises that used this very language to attack Catholic sacramental belief made a deep impression on at least some Protestant readers.61 When Calvin and his fellow publicists insisted on God's freedom in relation to the material elements of the sacrament and when they portrayed sacramental signs as created, corruptible, and ultimately impotent things that could not of themselves convey God's transcendent power, they provided a critical component of the ideological justification for the efforts of Protestants in France to free their society from the influence of idolatry by demonstrating the impotence of those things to which Catholics assigned a sacred power.62
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The Reformed reputation for sedition did not then proceed from simple exaggerations of the facts. In Protestants' selfpresentation as a holy community, set apart from Catholic idolatry, and in the socially and politically disruptive acts by which they sought to remove objects and practices they judged to be offensive to God—all profoundly influenced by the sacramental ideas of Calvin and his colleagues—Catholic opponents could find grounds for viewing the Reformed as dangerous partisans who owed allegiance not to political rulers in France but to Protestant leaders beyond France's borders and who were intent on achieving their particular aims by subverting existing religious and political orders. Rhetoric, Representation, and Resistance After a series of Protestant uprisings and iconoclastic riots in a number of French cities and towns in late 1561, Calvin wrote to Beza, then at the French court, concerning "the preposterous fervor of our people." He was at a loss over how to proceed in the effort to moderate the violent energies of the Reformed in France because, as he said, "they pay no attention to sound judgments." His position was perfectly clear on these matters, and the perpetrators of violence must certainly have known it: ''Everywhere I announce that if I were a judge I would punish these violent attacks no less severely" than the royal authorities had threatened. 63 In fact Calvin could point to a consistent record of opposition to all popular rebellion. He and the more influential of his fellow propagandists had repeatedly made clear that obedience was owed to all governments, and that even "a wicked tyrant" deserved "such honor which our Lord has deigned to bestow upon him."64 In extraordinary circumstances Calvin, and Viret and Beza following him, made allowance for offering resistance to kings who had clearly betrayed God's trust to deal justly with the people, but this resistance could be initiated only by magistrates whose office was to defend the people, and not by "private persons."65 The same rule applied in the matter of allegedly idolatrous practices that gave offense to Protestants. Regulation of religious practice in the public realm was the responsibility of those God ''arms with authority." Therefore, Protestants who exercised no public office could not take it upon themselves to rise up against idols without going beyond their proper vocation and becoming participants in illegal and punishable acts.66 The final emphasis in Calvin's thinking was on obedience, and he reserved the sternest admonitions for those who would contemplate undertaking to overthrow political orders which he believed God had established. He never withdrew the concise formula in which he stated this position in 1536: "[O]ne cannot resist magistrates without resisting God."67 The argument for obedience was given further weight by Calvin's insistence on maintaining an absolute distinction between "Christ's spiritual kingdom" and civil government. It was inappropriate, he argued, to attempt to recreate in the world at large the conditions that are to prevail in the
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holy community of Christ's body, for this was to misconceive the nature of the spiritual kingdom, confusing it with temporal and material circumstances. In fact, as he declared, "spiritual freedom can exist very well alongside civil bondage." 68 Thus the identification of the church as a "holy and free community," a communion of equals, and a body constituted on the basis of democratic principles—identifications that had gained some currency among the French Reformed at midcentury— according to Calvin's view should have played no role in motivating Christians to engage in the political struggles of which the uprisings of 1561 and 1562 were a reflection.69 And yet, as the preceding chapters have demonstrated, the rhetoric the Reformed employed in attacking Catholic abuses—particularly the abuse of the Mass—might be taken to point in a very different direction. As early as 1534 Antoine Marcourt's Declaration de la messe prescribed for Protestant readers the task of removing, resisting, and abolishing the idolatry of the Mass "by any available means."70 Subsequent Reformed writings on the eucharist continued the iconoclastic theme by attempting to demystify practices and objects Catholics regarded as sacred and by denouncing all those who lent support to the Mass. Confronted with a wealth of vivid images designed to create in them a loathing of the idolatry epitomized by the Mass, many Protestants in France either missed or intentionally disregarded the admonitions of some of their leaders to limit their response to idolatry to passive resistance of regimes founded on what they regarded as a perversion of the church's holiest rite. The efforts undertaken through popular Protestant literature to create for the Reformed an identity as a people set apart, the seed of God's "holy city" in the midst of Babylon, simply added fuel to the already volatile mix created by Reformed propaganda against the Mass. But perhaps the most important ideological impetus to rebellion derived from the understanding of representation that was most fully developed in Calvin's doctrine of the eucharist. As discussed in chapter 3, Calvin's vernacular writings of the 1540s presented a view of sacramental signification that attempted to explain the efficacy of the eucharist by defining its visible signs as instruments through which God's power was effective but which possessed no inherent potency. Calvin therefore insisted on a critical distinction between sign and signified, between the sacrament and the divine power that operated through it and to which it pointed. I have suggested that in the immediate context in which these ideas were elaborated, when the elements of the eucharist had been employed to provide symbolic justification for temporal hierarchies and to support the dynastic ambitions of French royalty, this Calvinist understanding of representation might serve to undermine an important component of the officially sanctioned ideology of political authority, weaken the conceptual basis for the traditional injunction to obey all rulers, and thereby create some room for the elaboration of theories of resistance. The cogency of this argument depends, of course, on an assumption that the understanding of the relationship between sacramental sign and sacramental thing—the bread and wine of the eucharist and Christ's body and
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blood—had a direct bearing on conceptions of the nature of temporal power and the status of secular rulers. We have found evidence to support this assumption in the political use to which the symbol of Christ's body and blood was put both in local, municipal rituals—Corpus Christi being the most important—and in the Catholic "royal religion" that came to prominence in France in the late Middle Ages. 71 But what of Reformed thinking on political authority? Was it also subject to the influence of eucharistic ideas? In fact our suspicion that the theory of representation operative in Calvin's sacramental doctrine might apply equally to interpretations of political power finds some substantiation in Calvin's own writings. Calvin took over from a long tradition of political thought the notion that the ruler in some sense represents or stands in the place of God. Rulers are, in Calvin's characteristic expression, God's "vicars" or "lieutenants" whose office it is to ''represent to men, through all they do, an image of the providence, protection, bounty, benevolence, and justice of God."72 However, alongside assertions of a ruler's capacity to "execute the office of God,'' Calvin placed declarations that seemed to contrast temporal claims to authority with divine sovereignty, to which they might be seen to compare rather unfavorably.73 The most significant place where this was done—considering its impact on popular conceptions of sovereignty—was in the prayer that followed the proclamation of the word in Calvin's liturgy. There the christological formula identifying Christ as "King of kings and Lord of lords," to whom was given "all power in heaven and on earth," was used in the context of expressing the hope that rulers might "recognize Jesus Christ" as the source of all power, subordinate their interests to Christ's, and "serve him and exalt his Kingdom by their dominion." As Calvin expressed it in his Institutes, princes were expected to "submit their authority and the power they hold to our Lord Jesus, so that he alone might have preeminence over all."74 In Calvin's prayer the congregation was reminded, as the minister prayed that God "communicate to them they Spirit," that whatever status may be claimed by rulers, it is the Spirit "who alone is good and truly sovereign."75 This kind of juxtaposition of statements attesting to the capacity of the ruler to bear divine power and in a sense represent God to his subjects with statements that posit a critical distinction between the divine source of power and the rulers who are called to serve as instruments of God's good pleasure testifies to a view of the representative nature of secular authority that departed in a fundamental way from the understandings preferred by apologists for the absolutist claims of the French monarchy.76 What is new in the Reformed understanding reflected in Calvin's expressions is the tendency to stress the distance between heavenly and mundane realities, to carefully distinguish temporal and divine power, and, by way of extension, to emphasize the functional and instrumental character of political authority. The prince, for example, is consistently identified in Reformed discussions as an instrument of divine providence, who owes his position and his relative success or failure to God's good pleasure. In Calvinist worship he is defined
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as the one to whom God has entrusted the administration of justice and the care of God's people: Calvin has little to say about rulers apart from this function. 77 By contrast, earlier Catholic representations of the French monarch tended to rely on the symbolism of the consecration to emphasize that kingship entailed not simply the assumption of an office but the possession of royal dignity by virtue of an infusion of divine power.78 The primary focus was the sacred status of the king; his function took second place.79 This shift in emphasis in Reformed language about political authority seems clearly to bear the imprint of the central emphases of Calvin's thinking on sacramental signification. The prayer for rulers in Calvin's handbook for Reformed worship contained some of the basic elements of that view: the idea of a communication of divine power, grace, or virtue by means of the Holy Spirit and an insistence on regarding power as belonging, properly, to God alone. In Calvin's writings on the eucharist these ideas were used to balance the demands of the principle that God is free from containment in the created things of the sacrament and the need to stress that God's power is nonethess communicated by means of instruments God freely uses. As Calvin was concerned in those writings to deny to visible signs an inherent and independent potency and so identified them as "inferior instruments," so in some very influential language about political rulers the same concern to avoid identifying a locus of power potentially free of divine control surfaces.80 Sovereignty resides properly with God. It is exercised—never possessed—by those whom God appoints to serve particular ends. Furthermore, the petition in which God is asked to "communicate to [rulers] thy Spirit" no doubt reinforced the strong sense of limitation upon a ruler's claim to power. The kings of France, for example, desired and solicited the prayers of their people, but, as members of a line in which was already invested a sacred dignity and potency, they had no desire for their subjects to regard them as requiring anew the special communication of the Holy Spirit.81 Such a view would imply that the temporal authority already entrusted to them did not confer the special sacred and spiritual status they claimed to possess. The notion of God bestowing the Spirit on a ruler might also convey a sense of the fragility of a ruler's claim to authority. The Reformed knew, after all, that the Spirit that came upon rulers might also depart from them, as it had from King Saul (1 Sm. 16:14). A ruler viewed in the light of the biblical story of Saul and the young David, anointed by the prophet Samuel while Saul was still king, was not by any means immune from God's judgment and the withdrawal of authorization to rule over God's people.82 The central premise of this kind of thinking, that divine power transcends and is free of all temporal loci, was conveyed most powerfully to Frenchspeaking Protestants in their celebration of the Lord's Supper. There they were repeatedly reminded that the power disclosed through sacramental signs is never to be confused with the "earthly and corruptible elements" one sees with the eyes.83 Calvin's brief mention of rulers in a prayer to be used in the same worship in which communicants were exhorted to carefully distinguish between visible sign and transcendent signified not only dem
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onstrates the pervasiveness in Calvin's thinking of the idea of divine freedom; it also suggests the ease with which the Calvinian understanding of sacramental signification could be applied to other pertinent loci of temporal power and by such an application substantially diminish for ordinary Reformed worshipers the persuasiveness of the claim that temporal authority derives from a permanent investiture of power. Pierre Viret's reflections on the vulnerability of princely power exemplify the potential impact of the sacramental paradigm: rulers "are mortal men like their subjects. They can err as other men and fall from their dominion into servitude and subjection by the just judgment of God." 84 This judgment of Viret's is not untypical of Reformed attitudes toward political rulers at midcentury. Calvin himself was concerned to counter the effect of "flatterers of princes who magnify their power without end or measure," and in the 1560s considerably more radical attacks on the notion that rulers possessed a semidivine status appeared in a number of Reformed writings.85 These attitudes and the functional and instrumental view of political authority that supported them would reappear as basic motives in Reformed writings of the 1570s advocating active resistance of tyranny. The characteristic features of the portrayal of civil authority in those writings—that kings are raised up and brought low according to the will of God, that they are appointed to serve the public welfare, that they are guardians and procurators of the public domain rather than its proprietors, and that they are brothers to their subjects—can all be discovered in Protestant writings published well before 1570.86 Moreover, the idea most basic to those discussions of the right and duty of rebellion—that power subsists in no temporal object or person but is the proper possession of God and proceeds from God alone—was at the very heart of arguments about the eucharist that the Reformed had disseminated widely among their adherents in France. Thus, already before the outbreak of the religious wars in France, the Reformed had begun to create a public discourse on the nature of power—a discourse in large measure shaped by writings on the eucharist—that was deeply informed by Calvin's attempt to articulate the relation between divine and temporal orders in such a way that a critical distance was maintained between the two. In this discourse the aura of sacredness and inviolability associated with monarchical rule was a primary casualty: rulers were regarded as mere human beings who were distinguished from those under their care simply by virtue of their governing office.87 Calvin himself acknowledged in some places that such a demise was not unwelcome,88 but he apparently did not appreciate the extent to which his implied criticisms of temporal power, in combination with his own and others' published attacks on Catholic religious culture, might contribute to the unleashing of the rebellious energies of many of the Reformed in France and the popular uprisings he so vehemently opposed. For many of those who claimed to follow Calvin's teachings, civil regimes whom they believed to be in opposition to Christ's kingdom did not deserve to be obeyed, and they considered their acts of open rebellion
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religiously and morally justifiable. 89 Calvin regarded these people as simply confused zealots who would not heed the informed judgments of their leaders concerning their religious and political duty. The irony of the matter is that they probably attended only too well to the many Protestant writings in which power was represented as directly traceable to God's agency and as preeminently free of all persons, things, or institutions—and which as a consequence tended to diminish the stature of rulers whose authority had been portrayed as proceeding from an immanental potency. This French Reformed propaganda, for much of which Calvin could claim direct or indirect responsibility, very likely, then, played a most significant role in undermining the constraint of the injunction to obedience Calvin was concerned to uphold. This became apparent when, on the eve of the religious wars, religious discontent in many parts of France exploded into a largescale, popular Protestant revolt against the ancient faith, local governments, and even the king. In several places the insurrections had a decidedly political, and specifically antimonarchical, flavor. In Cléry, for example, the tomb of Louis XI, whom Calvinist polemicists blamed for initiating a policy of royal absolutism, was attacked and destroyed. In Orléans Protestants burned the heart of Francis II. Elsewhere, as in Agenais and Quercy, Calvinist artisans and peasants rose up against the local seigneury, not only attacking and occupying churches but also raiding and pillaging châteaux and making attempts on the lives of the Catholic gentry.90 The charges that surfaced immediately—that Calvin himself bore direct responsibility for the uprisings and that his primary instruments of sedition were printed attacks and preaching against traditional eucharistic belief—were hard to fend off.91 Calvin, of course, had no wish to claim paternity of what at the moment appeared to be a movement of political and social revolution. His comments to Beza at the time convey the situation of frustration and embarrassment in which he found himself. Although he and the other leaders of the Genevan reform had designed a superb organization for the churches in France, he discovered that the activity of the rank and file in the movement could be enormously difficult to control.92 No doubt it also occurred to him that the way these common people selected among his theological ideas, interpreted them, and applied them to their public activity was equally resistant to his efforts at control. Having endeavored from the inception of his public ministry to portray the evangelical movement as peaceful and unthreatening to the existing political hierarchy, Calvin was confronted in the early 1560s with an unsettling suggestion: the theological emphases characteristic of his thinking on the sacrament of Christ's body and blood—the constitution in the Supper of a holy community, the uncompromising rejection of idolatrous belief in divine immanence and the societies that subscribed to that belief, and the notion of a critical distinction between divine power and the earthly instruments through which it is deployed—could contribute to mobilizing a disaffected segment of the population to rebel against dominant religious and political
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orders. Despite his own intentions, then, the doctrine of the eucharist he articulated and helped to popularize prepared the way for political revolution by proffering a conceptual framework for resistance and inculcating upon the Protestant faithful in France an ethic of religious and political defiance against which protestations of the impermissibility of popular rebellion were largely ineffectual.
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Conclusion With what intention do they fashion their sects, or at what end do they hope to arrive with their seditions and innovations, if not to provoke rebellion and civil war? Antoine du Val, Mirouer des Calvinistes (1567) God is not the God of division, but of peace; and the Son of God, who came to shatter and destroy the works of the devil, is not the servant of sin. As for us, we are unjustly accused of undertakings of which we have never given the world the least suspicion. Jean Calvin, Institution (1560)
People in the sixteenth century had their own ideas about the impact change in patterns of religious symbolization might have on society. We may note one view as preserved in the comments of an observer who stood just outside the fray of the eucharistic controversy in France, the Venetian ambassador Michele Suriano. Writing in 1561, before the outbreak of civil war, Suriano considered that the change in religion had set the French nation on a path that led to "the reduction of this land to a popular state like Switzerland and the destruction of the monarchy and the kingdom." Protestant teachings not only had caused apparently irreparable divisions in the fabric of society but also had lessened the fear of God, upon which rested
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"the rule of life, the concord of men, the preservation of the state, and all greatness." Suriano attributed the actual accomplishment of these injurious effects to the capacity of the new ideas to disrupt "the usual habits and customs of life." The first of these habits to come to mind was the customary obedience to law, magistrates, and the prince—a habit basic to maintaining social order. Protestants, by creating an ethos in which "everyone dares to conceive of God after his own fashion," had dispensed with the mystique of authority and introduced a revolutionary ideology. The consequence, in Suriano's view, was that "nature is turned upside down: where the head was wont to rule the members, the members now rule the head." 1 Suriano's judgment that the social effect of religious change springs from the influence of religion upon habit and custom bears closer examination. One can imagine that the publicists of evangelical reform in France, facing the challenge of a set of religious beliefs deeply embedded in popular cultural practices, might very well have conceived of their task as consisting in precisely this kind of disruption of habitual ways of thinking and acting. They were no doubt aware that beliefs operate most powerfully to direct the behavior of individuals, establish communal norms, and organize social life when they are vested in habits of thought and action that have not become the object of reflection or critical scrutiny. Protestant propaganda endeavored to make people aware of their habits of belief and through a thoroughgoing criticism of those beliefs to bring about a complete restructuring of their religious orientation. In fact, some of the most popular and effective of Reformed writings were little more than attempts to take inventory of customary religious practices and bring to light the theological conceptions preserved in them.2 It was possible, of course, that the act of exposing unexamined beliefs might, for a certain audience, simply reinforce their customary religious allegiances. For many, however, it had the opposite effect: longheld beliefs were jettisoned as incompatible with a new way of perceiving their world and their religious situation and a new interpretation of their vital interests. Among the most important of these items of habit deserving inspection, in the view of the Reformed, was the complex of customary beliefs, attitudes, and actions relating to the sacrament of Christ's body and blood. The importance of the eucharist for Reformed publicists stemmed from their judgment that in its Catholic embodiment it served as the principal vehicle for preserving and conveying an incorrect conception of the operation of divine power in and through temporal media and a perversion of the proper relation between the power of God and human agency. Catholic critics, however, pointed to the teaching of the Reformed on the eucharist as a principal cause of social and political anarchy. Nature, to use Suriano's expression, was turned upside down, and it was clear to most of the opponents of the Reformed that responsibility for this inversion could be laid at the door of the publicists of the "socalled Reformed" sacramental doctrine.3 In leveling this charge, Catholic controversialists became the first of many interpreters who would attempt to determine an ideological source for
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the alleged social radicalism of Calvinists. The difficulty of making such an identification becomes apparent simply from examining the variety of connections Catholics construed between Calvinist writings on the sacrament and the socially disruptive conduct of Protestants in France. Many, of course, concentrated on the Reformed valorization of private opinion. This could be seen in the very act of submitting church doctrines to public scrutiny through discussion of complex theological matters in the popular forum made possible by the massproduced printed text. Protestant propaganda brought to the fore the issue of authority, elevating the capacity of individuals to decide for themselves what theological interpretations ought to be accepted, to the detriment of the ecclesiastical and secular powers traditionally entrusted with the definition and enforcement of orthodoxy. Such a reduction in the influence of the institutions of authority was said to contribute to social disorder. The same tendency could be discerned in the eucharistic doctrine itself. Catholics could rightly point, in the wide array of Reformed literature, to a weakening of the sense of an objective presence of the divine connected to the liturgical act of the sacrament, over which the church exercised control, and a growing concentration on a private, subjective experience of communion with Christ that was represented as spiritual and hence not dependent on the mediation of authoritative persons or institutions. In any case, the Reformed version of the eucharist eliminated the concentration in Catholic doctrine on the priest's role in effecting the miracle of transubstantiation and subverted clerical authority by asserting the laity's more or less direct access to God. In a slight variation on this theme, some Catholics could suggest that the attack on ecclesiastical and clerical authority in Reformed writings on the eucharist led to the Huguenot cries of "Kill all the priests," and generally undermined respect for all constituted authority. 4 All of these emphases could be interpreted by Catholics as pointing to a program for radical social change, in which existing relations of power might give way to new arrangements based, in some way, on the decision and determination of common people. The problem, however, with identifying eucharistic doctrine as the central ideological component of such a program is that many of the themes identified as politically subversive are not peculiar to the Reformed doctrine of the Supper. If the subversive character of Reformed sacramental ideas is to be found primarily in their capacity to undermine the teaching authority of the church and empower individual opinion, then one could easily locate other potential sources of radicalism in the classic Reformation themes enunciated by the Reformed in France—the principle of Scripture alone, justification by faith, Christian freedom, the priesthood of all baptized Christians—all of which were in a position to contribute in an equally effective way to subverting institutional authority.5 Why, then, did Catholics come to concentrate to such an extent on Reformed eucharistic doctrine as a spur to rebellion? One reason was that the eucharist was such an important theme in the Reformed writings that circulated in France, and thus it came to dominate much of the public dis
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course about the reform of religious life. Catholics noted that the discourse shaped by what the Reformed had to say about the Mass and the Supper could have socially and politically subversive consequences. We should take this observation seriously. But their explanations of the precise manner in which Reformed messages about the sacrament facilitated Calvinist insurgence against the authority of ecclesiastical and secular government supply us with only a partial picture of the effect upon society of changes in religious discourse. A more adequate account is possible when we focus on the aspects of the Reformed message the eucharistic symbol was uniquely well equipped to communicate: namely, the redefinition of the relation of temporal sign to transcendent signified, the parallel reconstrual of the connection between temporal instrumentalities of power and the sacred potency that constituted their authorizing ground, and the new ways of representing the ideal of the holy community and the imperative of social transformation. From one point of view, the ReformedCatholic controversy over the eucharist in France was fundamentally about the nature of symbols and symbolization (or, in the language of the principal disputants, signs and signification). The dispute hinged on questions such as, What does it mean to speak of a physical object becoming the sign of something else? What kind of relation between sign and signified is established by virtue of the signifying function? What kind of capacity, virtue, or power can be properly assigned to something that operates as a signifier? In what sense can a sign be said to make its referent present, and what kind of presence might such signification entail? If this semiotic language appears excessively arcane, we must remind ourselves that this language and these questions furnished the means by which people determined and specified the nature of their access to God and their participation in the redeeming and sanctifying power that mediated salvation. Laypeople had a large stake in the outcome of this kind of questioning. But the interests of ordinary people in the question of the sacrament's symbolizing capacity extended also into the realm of social or political affairs. The eucharistic symbol, after all, had served to represent the unity and the ordered and integrated wholeness of both the Christian and the political community as it established and reinforced social and political hierarchies. As a social symbol reflecting as well as governing the social disposition of power, the eucharist was likely to become the focus of practically every member of society with an interest in negotiating her role within the social network of power. In these circumstances, questioning the symbolic relations established in the eucharist as traditionally conceived appeared especially attractive to persons or groups in society whose secular as well as spiritual aspirations were in some way inhibited by these established relations. A new view of the eucharist as sign could therefore respond to certain social needs and serve particular social interests. But new symbolic forms, once adopted, might also profoundly influence one's perception of the social world and one's interests in relation to it. 6 In fact, it is not going too far to suggest that the French Protestants who adopted new ways of relating the
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eucharistic signs to the divine body they conveyed came to inhabit an entirely different world of meaning from that of their Catholic neighbors. In such a world, where the nature and the circulation of power were represented in radically new ways, a variety of customary, symbolically laden social practices were imbued with very different religious and political meanings. We have seen the extent to which this was true in the case of Protestants, for whom the identification of the body of Christ and the sacred host could no longer serve as the basis of social sanctity, and who as a consequence publicized their opposition to "idolatrous" practices during eucharistic processions, thus marking themselves as outsiders to the social and political body created by the Catholic religious ritual. But a new religious and political consciousness could also come to expression in relation to other symbolic deployments in which power configurations were articulated. The frequency of attacks on images of the Virgin Mary and the saints, as well as against representations of royal and seigneurial authority suggests the extent to which Protestant perceptions of basic components of the socialsymbolic world could be influenced by the symbolization of power communicated most clearly in the Reformed sacramental doctrine. Thus the symbolic world constructed on the basis of the new eucharistic symbol established new ways of relating to one's social world and made possible a new and revolutionary political praxis. Such a recognition of the political impact of eucharistic ideas is possible if we accept the view of the way religious conceptions operate upon patterns of acting in the world suggested by the comments of Michele Suriano with which this chapter began. Reformed writings concerned with the eucharist might produce the shock necessary to disturb habits of thought and action that tended to support traditional conceptions of the constitution of society and social configurations of power. But they might also serve as aids in the creation of new habits of belief, which in turn might generate new patterns of response to particular social experiences. And if indeed these beliefs were, as I am suggesting, in a certain sense habitual, then their ability to produce the variety of political conduct that Catholics viewed as an inversion of the natural social order would not necessarily depend on Protestant insurgents consciously connecting their activity to ideas conveyed through teaching about the eucharist. Those French Protestants who attacked the host as a "god of paste" and destroyed and desecrated altars were clearly guided in their actions by conscious attention to the new symbolic relations. But these actions were only the most conspicuous examples of Reformed resistance of the dominant social and symbolic world. The minor insurrections of reading a proscribed work, attending Reformed worship, or singing Psalms in public were practices that were no doubt enhanced and supported by the reformation of the relation of sacramental sign to signified, but they could be carried out without any direct or conscious association with eucharistic ideas. 7 It is then possible to make the claim that may seem extraordinary to the modern interpreter, but that was commonly rendered by sixteenth
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century persons: the disruption of social life, the creation of new social relations and allegiances, and the opening up of new possibilities for political action were indirectly attributable to the decisive break the Reformed made with Catholic representations of the corpus Domini, the body of the Lord made present in and through the eucharist. Indeed, it was the very decisiveness of this break that contributed to the violence of language and action associated with the eucharistic controversy. Naturally, controversial exchanges had the effect of heightening and exaggerating differences between Catholic and Reformed. Catholic writings by and large reduced the teaching of the Calvinists to the declaration of Theodore Beza at Poissy that Christ's body ''is as far removed from the bread and wine as is heaven from earth.'' Reformed polemics against the Mass portrayed Catholics as worshiping God in a mere wafer of bread; by concentrating more on the impotence of the visible sign than on the efficacy of the sacrament, they tended to confirm Catholic suspicions that they wished to tear down the bridge linking heaven and earth without providing a suitable and reliable replacement. Many readers of the vernacular controversial literature were then probably exposed to caricatures of the alternative views in which the threat of the Reformed doctrine to traditional symbolic structures was magnified. But the decisiveness of the Reformed break with Catholic symbolization would have been just as apparent to the more engaged and attentive reader of Calvinist writings. For this reader, the dialectical element in Calvin's thinking would have been apparent—his attempt to preserve both distinction and conjunction, absence and presence, distance and proximity in explaining the relation between Christ's body and the sacramental signs. Such a reader would not have believed that the Reformed intended to rid the world of God's presence. Instead he would have understood that they meant to qualify the sense in which God might be said to be present and the means through which God's power was effective in the world. It was a significant qualification. As a consequence of the Reformed revision, the divine presence was not nearly so easily identified as it had been in the symbolic structure of medieval Catholicism. The emphasis the Reformed gave to the representational character of the sacrament (which connotes both similarity and difference, presence and absence) called attention to the critical distinction between the power of the divine life and the signs that point to or convey it (an element largely suppressed in the medieval doctrine as popularly received). When they took great pains to focus on the theological claim that God was preeminently free in relation to all created things, this did not mean that for them God was absent from the created order. But in contrast to the Catholic emphasis on the concrete and real character of the presence of God's body, the Reformed spiritualization of that presence could be translated into the assertion that in an important sense God was indeed absent from the world, since they regarded the presence of God as fundamentally intangible and not identifiable with any material or finite locus. The Protestant critique of Catholic symbolization and proposal of alternative ways of symbolizing God's presence thus tended to call into question
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the reliability of the signifying or symbolizing function of signs, and in particular of the sign that stood at the center of the Catholic symbolic order. It accomplished this by introducing elements of arbitrariness and subjectivity into the signsignified relation. Those who were persuaded by Reformed arguments could no longer take for granted that the referent of a sign was conveyed consistently and objectively. The mediation of a referent by a sign might depend on a divine decision that was not bound by any convention of signification, and it might depend on something that the observer or receiver of the sign brings to his relation to the sign and its signified meaning. 8 This critical assault of the Reformed thus called into question the entire medieval Catholic symbolic structure that posited a stable relation of correspondence between material signs and spiritual realities and between temporal and divine orders. It was a structure, as I have suggested, that had served as a very useful device in the late medieval and early modern periods for ordering the universe—and the social world in particular—and rendering it meaningful. Because the Reformed questioning of this symbolic system was directed to and assimilated by a broad audience of laypeople with no specialized theological training, its effects extended deep into society and across a fairly broad spectrum of the population. It was in society, among the communities of people who received the eucharist and understood it in different ways, that the Reformed and Catholic eucharistic symbols were experienced, grew and changed, and were transformed. This is the reason for my interest in those ideas about the sacrament that were likely conveyed to popular readers. I set out to understand the life of the symbol not simply as it existed in the imagination of a handful of authors but also in the social contexts into which eucharistic ideas ventured. This task is made more complicated by the fact that most of those who served as the audience for the eucharistic writings I have examined left little in the way of written records testifying to their peculiar ways of interpreting what they read, outlining their own theological innovations, or explaining their actions and mode of life in relation to their beliefs. We do, however, have useful evidence in the practices of people who were actively engaged in the ideological and political struggles associated with the eucharistic symbol, and this evidence allows us to draw some tentative conclusions about the variety of ways eucharistic ideas were popularly appropriated in sixteenthcentury France. In a general way, we have seen that the fact that the proper context of the life of a symbol is a social context accounts for its instability and mutability, as well as its independence from the control of even those authors who are most successful in inscribing their own interpretations upon it. There is a democratic element in the formation, maintenance, and transformation of a symbol because the form of the symbol depends upon its interpretation and assimilation by those persons to whom it is addressed. In France, as we have seen, the development of the eucharistic symbols in the context of their reception by their respective audiences contributed to the formation of two hostile religious cultures. Among Catholics one finds
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evidence of tremendous anxiety over the potential loss of the sacrament's objective efficacy and a powerful reaffirmation of the reality of the bodily presence of Christ in the sacramental elements. 9 When the movement for Catholic reform achieved momentum in the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries, eucharistic piety was a central feature, and the eucharist was frequently invoked as the symbol of victory over heresy.10 Among Protestants, the characteristic concentration on the freedom of God in relation to the visible signs supported a form of revolutionary politics that opposed as idolatry the elevation of rulers to a semidivine status. Of course, the Reformed denial of the immanence of divine power within any temporal medium had other effects of considerable consequence, some of which are connected to the development of distinctively modern discourses about the natural and social orders.11 In this respect Max Weber's impulse of turning to the Reformation in search of the origins of what he considered a process of rationalization predicated upon the "disenchantment of the world" was correct.12 But among the variety of effects to which Calvinist eucharistic ideas might be linked as a contributing cause, none was more immediate or profound than the production of a discourse on the limitation of secular power and the right of resistance to governing powers that violate their sacred contract. However, a number of factors blunted the hard edge of this revolutionary doctrine late in the course of the religious wars. Calvinist leaders—always reluctant, chiefly for prudential reasons, to capitalize on the subversive capacity of their eucharistic doctrine—had even stronger reasons to minimize the oppositional role of France's Protestant party after 1584 when their political leader, Henry of Navarre, became the presumptive heir to the throne. Not only did their apparently more favorable position in relation to governmental power influence their political stance: Calvinist opinion leaders were also sensitive to the public mood toward the end of the religious wars. Weariness over the protracted civil strife and fear of the anarchy into which the nation seemed to have descended had produced a strong attraction for the doctrines of royal absolutism. When Henry of Navarre succeeded in gaining the throne and pacifying the kingdom, in part by means of his conversion to the old faith, he eagerly embraced absolutist tenets and invoked the images and gestures of the royal religion. The king's healing miracle of touching for scrofula on Easter Sunday, 1594—an event that drew an unusually large crowd and was featured prominently in royal propaganda—signified the deep political significance for France of the conversion of Henry IV.13 As CounterReformation works of art asserted in visual terms, at the dawn of the seventeenth century the eucharist (as the immanental presence of the divine) had indeed triumphed in France—both in the Bourbon reiteration of Catholic doctrine as the basis of France's wellbeing and in the assertion that France's "most Christian king" bore in his person a sacred potency analogous to the divine presence in the elements of the eucharist. In the new political context French Calvinists had to choose between continued opposition both to the Catholic symbols employed to reconstruct the kingdom and the regime that was now committed to such a redeployment
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or support for this regime and acceptance of the status of a protected religious minority within an officially Catholic society. In accepting the Edict of Nantes of 1598, which supplied the terms for the latter option, Protestants in France were converted into a mostly compliant body in relation to the royal regime, dependent as they now were upon a strong monarch to enforce the terms of the edict and uphold their privileges against the hostile intentions of their enemies. Although the Reformed did not entirely lose their capacity for rebellion in the early seventeenth century (as a series of Protestant uprisings after the death of Henry IV demonstrated), the nearly universal acquiescence among Calvinists to the language and the tenets of royal absolutism deprived the party of any coherent rationale for militant resistance in times of political crisis. In political affairs, then, French Calvinists were forced to live with the debilitating tension between the oppositional and critical stance their eucharistic doctrine entailed and the perceived need to represent themselves as loyal subjects of the king who guaranteed their safety in the realm. 14 Yet the legacy of the Calvinist semiotic revolution and its reconceptualization of power was not confined to the French Reformed and did not simply dissipate with the pacification of Protestantism in France in the early seventeenth century. Lines of influence extend in a variety of directions. If the French context ultimately undermined Calvinist militancy, elsewhere the movement was a potent source of revolutionary energy. Calvinism in Scotland galvanized the revolt against the regency of Mary of Guise and provided symbolic and conceptual support for the deposition of Mary Stuart. Calvinists in the Netherlands threw off Spanish rule and established a republic. In England Calvinists deposed and executed a king and temporarily abolished the monarchy. In each of these contexts popular sacramentarianism, brought under the discipline of Calvin's conception of sacramental signification, was a central feature of the revolutionaries' depiction of and response to the authority of the regimes against which they struggled.15 Moreover, even within France Calvinist political ideas put in an unexpected appearance in the French Catholic League's articulations of opposition to the rule of the last of the Valois line, Henry III. League publicists borrowed freely the arguments and even the very language of their Protestant opponents in arguing for the legitimacy of political resistance and tyrannicide. Aspects of the Catholic arguments—their denial that authority is intrinsic to the person of the monarch or that he holds power directly from God, and their emphasis on the vesting of sovereignty in the people by virtue of a gift from God—reflect the influence not only of certain formal features of Reformed political thought but also of the reconstrual of sacred and secular economies of power on which it was based. Thus the Catholic League's rejection of absolutism, although it served a fundamentally different religious vision, benefited significantly, albeit indirectly, from the critical approach to political power Calvinist eucharistic doctrine facilitated.16 There is considerable irony in this last development, as there is in any association of revolutionary politics with a figure as politically conservative as Jean Calvin. In fact, a number of historians have resisted identifying the
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revolutionary inheritance of Calvinism with the specifically theological framework of the Reformed precisely because of this political conservatism, frequently expressed by Calvin and many sixteenthcentury Calvinist leaders. Late Reformation developments in political theory and the tumults of the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries (so the argument goes) owe more to the circumstances in which Calvinists found themselves than to the religious orientations articulated earlier in the sixteenth century; the radical aspect of Calvinism could emerge only after the death of the founder; Reformed theology is not "intrinsically revolutionary." 17 This investigation into a line of Reformed thinking has mounted a good deal of evidence to support quite a different picture. At the heart of the Calvinist theological vision was an economy of power that challenged existing political arrangements. This genuinely revolutionary insight appeared in nascent form in the earliest Reformed attacks on the Mass and later in Calvin's own reconstruction of the idea of sacramental signification. But indeed, Calvin and other Reformed leaders did not intend to contribute to social revolution, and they struggled to contain the influence of this insight within the sphere of the specifically religious or "spiritual." Christians, who were encouraged to rebel against the authority of the church of Rome, were not to strive against the political orders instituted by God for their wellbeing.18 However, despite the best efforts of Calvinist leaders, the force of the new account of power could not be contained. It spilled over into the realm of politics. Here we have the source of a Reformed "Radical Reformation": a nonsectarian form of religious radicalism that supplied a new political framework and laid the foundation for the forms of political praxis that profoundly disturbed social and political relations through most of the societies of early modern Europe. Was Calvin unaware of the revolutionary potential of the new semiotic paradigm? Or does his support of existing social and political arrangements give evidence of an anxious awareness of this potential, an anxiety heightened by his experience that the life of ideas "among the peoples" is a highly volatile life? Whether an unwitting or reluctant revolutionary, Calvin, as the principal articulator and popularizer of the new approach to sacramental signs, must receive substantial credit for a symbolic transformation of enormous significance for the social and political experience of Europe at the dawn of the modern era. As the argument of this book has demonstrated, that accomplishment also depended on the contributions of a large number of willing and active accomplices.
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Notes Introduction 1. Michael Walzer's The Revolution of the Saints: A Study in the Origins of Radical Politics (Cambridge, Mass., 1965) is perhaps the best known of a substantial body of writing on Calvinism and the origins of modern political forms and modes of activity. See also Hans Baron, "Calvinist Republicanism and Its Historical Roots," Church History 8 (1939): 3042; Winthrop S. Hudson, "Democratic Freedom and Religious Faith in the Reformed Tradition," Church History 15 (1946): 177194; John T. McNeill, "The Democratic Element in Calvin's Thought," Church History 18 (1949): 153171; Robert M. Kingdon, ''The First Expression of Theodore Beza's Political Ideas,'' ARG 46 (1955): 8899; idem, "The Political Resistance of the Calvinists in France and the Low Countries," Church History 27 (1958): 220 233; Robert D. Linder, The Political Ideas of Pierre Viret (Geneva, 1964); Quentin Skinner, "The Origins of the Calvinist Theory of Revolution," in After the Reformation: Essays in Honor of J. H. Hexter, ed. Barbara C. Malament (Philadelphia, 1980); idem, The Foundations of Modern Political Thought (Cambridge, 1978), vol. 2, pp. 189358; Carlos M. N. Eire, War Against the Idols: The Reformation of Worship from Erasmus to Calvin (Cambridge, 1986); and Ralph Hancock, Calvin and the Foundations of Modern Politics (Ithaca, N.Y., 1989). 2. As a consequence of this concentration, Latin writings play a fairly small role in this study. For the early modern period, writings in Latin are quite rightly considered to represent an author's most careful and reliable expression of thought for his intellectual peers. But, of course, they tell us virtually nothing about the public impact of this thought in a time when only a tiny percentage of the population could read Latin. 3. For an approach similar to the one used here, applied to the early Reformation in Germany, see Mark U. Edwards, Jr., Printing, Propaganda, and Martin Luther (Berkeley, Calif., 1994), esp. pp. 110. 4. There is a large body of work dealing with questions of literacy, the transmission of ideas, and the effectiveness of print as a medium of communication in early modern Europe. For the debate with reference to Germany one may consult the contributions of Bernd Moeller, Robert Scribner, and Steven Ozment to Wolfgang J. Mommsen, ed., Stadtbürgertum und Adel in der Reformation: Studien zur Socialgeschichte der Reformation in England
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und Deutschland (Stuttgart, 1979); Robert Scribner, "Oral Culture and the Diffusion of Reformation Ideas," History of European Ideas 5 (1984): 237256; and Edwards, Printing, Propaganda, and Martin Luther, pp. 3740. For the situation in early modern France, see Roger Chartier, "Publishing Strategies and What the People Read, 15301660," in The Cultural Uses of Print in Early Modern France, trans. L. G. Cochrane (Princeton, N.J., 1987); idem, ''The Practical Impact of Writing," in A History of Private Life, vol. 3, ed. Philippe Ariès and Georges Duby (Cambridge, Mass., 1989); and Francis M. Higman, La diffusion de la Réforme en France, 15201565 (Geneva, 1992), pp. 17ff. 5. See Mircea Eliade, The Myth of the Eternal Return or, Cosmos and History, trans. Willard R. Trask (Princeton, N.J., 1971), pp. 3ff., 3448; and idem, The Sacred and the Profane: The Nature of Religion, trans. Willard R. Trask (New York, 1959), pp. 136ff.: "History cannot basically modify the structure of an archaic symbolism." 6. For useful examples of particular aspects of this understanding of symbol, see Charles Sanders Peirce, Collected Papers of Charles Sanders Peirce, ed. Charles Hartshorne and Paul Weiss (Cambridge, Mass., 1960), vol.2, pp. 156173, §274308; Alfred North Whitehead, Symbolism: Its Meaning and Effect (New York, 1958), pp. 210, 73ff.; Susanne K. Langer, Philosophy in a New Key: A Study in the Symbolism of Reason, Rite, and Art (Cambridge, Mass., 1942), pp. 41ff.; and idem, "On a New Definition of Symbol," in Philosophical Sketches (New York, 1979), p. 63. 7. This approach is suggested by Gadamer's image of a "fusion of horizons." HansGeorg Gadamer, Truth and Method (New york, 1984), pp. 267ff., 337f. 8. For examples of such an approach see Paul T. Fuhrmann, ed. and trans., in Jean Calvin, Instruction in Faith (1537) (Philadelphia, 1949; reprint, Louisville, 1992), p. 90, and John T. McNeill in Institutes (1559), p. 1277 n. 2. 9. For examples of the relation between signum and symbolum, cf. Institutio (1536), OS 1:138, and Institutio (1559), 4.17.3; and for signe (along with figure) and symbolum, among a number of examples, compare the Institutio (1559) and the Institution (1560) at 4.17.3, 4.17.10, and 4.17.21, as well as the Latin and French versions of Calvin's Catechism: Le catéchisme de l'eglise de Genève: C'est à dire le formulaire d'instruire les enfans en la Chrestienté, in CO 6: 125 126. One of the most instructive uses of symbolum occurs in Calvin's commentary on 1 Corinthians (11:24), in which the signifying relationship established in the sacrament makes of the sign a symbolum, "by means of which the reality (res) is exhibited." The French translation (authorized, but not Calvin's own) uses "un gage et tesmoignage externe" ("an outward pledge and attestation") in place of symbolum. CO 49:486. For the medieval employment of the terms signum and symbolum, which formed an important background to Calvin's usage, see Gerhart B. Ladner, ''Medieval and Modern Understanding of Symbolism: A Comparison," Speculum 54 (1979): 223256. 10. The massacre of Saint Bartholomew's Day, 1572, is not a subject of consideration in this account. To include this would involve us in the consuming question of the relation of religious ideas and popular violence, a topic already well covered in recent literature. On the subject see especially Janine Estèbe, Tocsin pour un massacre: La saison des SaintBarthélemy (Paris, 1968); Denis Crouzet, Les guerriers de Dieu: La violence au temps des troubles de religion (vers 1525vers 1610) (Seyssel, 1990); and Barbara B. Diefendorf, Beneath the Cross: Catholics and Huguenots in SixteenthCentury Paris (New York, 1991); as well as the classic study by Natalie Zemon Davis, "The Rites of Violence," in Society and Culture in Early Modern France (Stanford, Calif., 1975). 11. See, for example, the very different studies of Guy Swanson, Religion and Regime: A Sociological Account of the Reformation (Ann Arbor, Mich., 1967); Donald R. Kelley, The Beginning of Ideology: Consciousness and Society in the French Reformation (New York, 1981); and Eire, War Against the Idols. Cf. also the comments of Natalie Zemon Davis in response to Swanson in "Missed Connections: Religion and Regime," Journal of Interdisciplinary History 1 (1971): 38ff. Although I use the interpretive categories of immanence and transcendence upon which these authors rely so heavily, I suggest that the Calvinist perspective is conveyed more reliably by the notion of divine freedom and by attending
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to the theories of signification and symbolization Calvin and others developed to preserve this notion. 12. As a description of the kind of task to which a study of this kind might contribute, I find very congenial Sarah Coakley's notion of théologie totale, a term she has employed most recently in a series of lectures entitled "God, Sexuality, and the Self: Trinitarian Reflections for the Contemporary Church." The allusion here is to a particular component of the historical method associated with the Annales school founded by Marc Bloch and Lucien Febvre. The term l'historie totale was popularized by Fernand Braudel and Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie. See Coakley's use of a related term in Christ Without Absolutes: A Study of the Christology of Ernst Troeltsch (Oxford, 1988), pp. 192ff. The methodological concerns of Ernst Troeltsch, particularly those that surfaced in and following his writing of The Social Teachings of the Christian Churches (first published in 1912; English translation by Olive Wyon [London, 1931; reprint, Louisville, Ky., 1992]) are a particularly important influence on the approach for which I argue here. Chapter 1 1. Pierre Viret, Des principaux poincts qui sont aujourd'huy en different, touchant la saincte Cene de Jesus Christ, et la Messe de l'Eglise Romaine, et de la resolution d'iceux (Lyon, 1565), pp. 158161. 2. See, e.g., the admonition of Olivier Maillard concerning the adoration of the sacred host in a short work first published in 1493 and which appeared in several sixteenthcentury editions, Historie de la passion de JésusChrist (Paris, 1835), p. 53, as well as the testimony of the fourteenthcentury villagers studied by Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie in Montaillou: The Promised Land of Error trans. Barbara Bray (New York, 1981), pp. 265ff. 3. For studies of the theologies produced in the wake of the ninthand eleventhcentury disputes, see Wilhelm Auer, Das Sakrament der Liebe im Mittelalter: Die Entwicklung der Lehre des hl. Altarsakramentes in der Zeit von 8001200 (Mergentheim, 1927); Hans Jorissen, Die Entfaltung der Transsubstantiationslehre bis sum Beginn der Hochscholastik (Münster, 1965); A. J. MacDonald, Berengar and the Reform of Sacramental Doctrine (London, 1935); Gary Macy, The Theologies of the Eucharist in the Early Scholastic Period (Oxford, 1984); and Jean de Montclos, Lanfranc et Berengar: La controverse eucharistique du XIe siècle (Louvain, 1971). 4. The passage, from the socalled Confession of Berengar of 1059, which was prepared for him by Humbert Cardinal of Silva Candida, is quoted in Macy, The Theologies of the Eucharist in the Early Scholastic Period, p. 36. 5. As, e.g., the term corpus mysticum, which in its initial use was applied to the eucharist but in the twelfth century came to mean the fellowship of believers created by the sacrament of communion. See Henri de Lubac, Corpus mysticum (Paris, 1949), pp. 116ff., 162188. 6. Quoted by Adolph Franz, Die Messe im deutschen Mittelalter (Freiburg im Breisgau, 1902), p. 18. The reference is to Gottschaulk Hollen, a fifteenthcentury Westphalian preacher, but this kind of complaint appears in other sources as well. See also Edouard Dumoutet, Le désir de voir l'hoste et les origines de la dévotion au SaintSacrement (Paris, 1926), p. 69. 7. On this see Rudolf Otto, The Idea of the Holy, trans. John W. Harvey (New York, 1958), pp. 1319; and Gerardus van de Leeuw, Religion in Essence and Manifestation, trans. J. E. Turner (Princeton, N.J., 1986), p. 28. For a contrary view, see the interpretation of Gerald G. Grant, "The Elevation of the Host: A Reaction to Twelfth Century Heresy," Theological Studies 1 (1940): 230, in which "awe" is taken to be much more typical of the Eastern approach to the sacrament than the Western, in which an aspect of intimacy with the elements is cultivated. 8. See Macy, The Theologies of the Eucharist in the Early Scholastic Period, p. 119; John Bossy, "The Mass as a Social Institution, 12001700," Past and Present 100 (1983): 32ff.
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9. Joseph A. Jungmann, The Mass of the Roman Rite: Its Origins and Development, trans. Francis A. Brunner (New York, 1951), vol. 1, p. 128. 10. Peter Browe, Die Verehrung der Eucharistie im Mittelalter (Munich, 1933), p. 66ff.; Jungmann, The Mass of the Roman Rite, p. 121; Johan Huizinga, The Waning of the Middle Ages (New York, 1954), p. 155. 11. See the many studies of Caroline Walker Bynum on the devotion of holy women to the eucharist. "Women Mystics and Eucharistic Devotion in the Thirteenth Century," in Fragmentation and Redemption: Essays on Gender and the Human Body in Medieval Religion (New York, 1992); "Fast, Feast and Flesh: The Religious Significance of Food to Medieval Women," Representations 11 (1985): 125; Holy Feast and Holy Fast: The Religious Significance of Food to Medieval Women (Berkeley, Calif., 1987). See also Richard Kieckhefer, Unquiet Souls: FourteenthCentury Saints and Their Religious Milieu (Chicago, 1984), pp. 170ff. 12. For discussions of the many types of miracle tale, see Peter Browe, Die eucharistischen Wunder des Mittelalters (Breslau, 1938); and Miri Rubin, Corpus Christi: The Eucharist in Late Medieval Culture (Cambridge, 1991), pp. 108129. For the implication of Jews in stories of the attempted abuse of the sacrament, see R. PoChia Hsia, The Myth of Ritual Murder: Jews and Magic in Reformation Germany (New Haven, Conn., 1988), pp. 1012, 5056. 13. Accounts of eucharistic miracles would receive renewed attention in the sixteenth century, especially when the sacrament was under attack. See, for example, the series of works produced by Jean Boulaese on a miracle that occurred in Laon in 1566: L'abbregée histoire du grand miracle par nostre Suaver at Seigner Iesus Christ en la saincte Hostie du Sacrement de l'Autel, faicte à Laon 1566. Escrite et augmentée avec sa Carte representant le tout au vif, et 1570 dediee a monseigneur le Reverendissime George Cardinal d'Armignac Collegue en Avignon (Paris, 1573); Le manuel de l'admirable victoire du Corps de Dieu sur l'Esprit maling Beelzebub obtenue à Laon, 1566 . . . prins pour l'extraict et souverain sommaire de tout l'histoire notoire par les heretiques impugnée et publiquement averée par la veuë de plus de cent cinquante mil personnes (Paris, 1575); Le thresor et entiere histoire de la triomphante victoire du corps de Dieu sur l'esprit maling Beelzebub, obtenue à Laon l'an 1566 (Paris, 1578). 14. Rubin, Corpus Christi, pp. 334ff. 15. Trans. H. T. Henry, in Eucharistica: Verse and Prose in Honour of the Hidden God (Philadelphia, 1912), p. 41. Dogma datur Christianis, Quod in carnem transit panis, Et vinum in sanguinem. Quod non capis, quod non vides, Animosa firmat fides, Praeter rerum ordinem. 16. Henry, Eucharistica, p. 45. Verbum caro, panem verum Verbo carnem efficit, Fitque sanguis Christi merum, Et si sensus deficit, Ad firmandum cor sincerum Sola fides sufficit. 17. "O dulcis Jesu, Fili Mariae!" 18. The unique exception to this rule is the case of Genoa, where, in the fifteenth century, the sacrament came to be carried by the Doge. See Rubin, Corpus Christi, p. 257. 19. For a helpful description and analysis of the procession, see ibid., pp. 243271. A suggestive interpretation of the procession in England is given by Mervyn James, "Rit
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ual, Drama and Social Body in the Late Medieval English Town," Past and Present 98 (1983): 329. 20. On this point see especially Bernd Moeller, Imperial Cities and the Reformations, trans. H. C. Erik Midelfort and Mark U. Edwards, Jr. (Philadelphia, 1972), pp. 4549. 21. While in the later fourteenth century Corpus Christi came under the control of the secular power, for the great majority of urban areas, the claim of the church that the sacred character of the host meant that it could only be handled by clergy was almost universally respected, and this by itself represents an important concession of secular to ecclesiastical authority. The clergy, it is true, assume the role of functionaries performing only one of the offices required for the observance, but it is the central, essential, and defining office without which the allimportant representational spectacle would have no meaning. And so while the Corpus Christi symbolism could be exploited by local authorities, this was an exploitation to which the church could not object so long as the ecclesiastically supported sacramental meanings and definitions were maintained under the church's control. 22. See on this general point Émile Durkheim, The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life, trans. Joseph Ward Swain (New York, 1965), pp. 262267. Van der Leeuw, Religion in Essence and Manifestation, pp. 41ff., notes several examples of this particular function of material symbols from the history of religion: the ark of the covenant in ancient Israel, the palladium in Troy, the ancile in Rome, and the mamchali among the Amandabele of southern Africa. 23. See Peter Browe, "Die eucharistische Flurprozessionen und Wettersegen," Theologie und Glaube 21 (1929): 742755; N. Coulet, "Processions, espace urbain, communauté civique," Cahier de Fanjeaux 17 (1982): 381397. 24. The notion of society having the characteristics of a body did not originate with the Christian tradition and its Pauline theology. In the classical period the idea is found in both Aristotle and Seneca. See D. G. Hale, The Body Politic: A Political Metaphor in Renaissance English Literature (The Hague, 1971), pp. 1820; James, "Ritual, Drama and Social Body in the Late Medieval English Town," pp. 6f. Nevertheless, the understandings that came to be applied to the social body in the late medieval period are thoroughly christological and bear the clear imprint of the long tradition of Christian thinking about Christ and the church and the relation between them. 25. Ernst H. Kantorowicz, The King's Two Bodies: A Study in Mediaeval Political Theology (Princeton, N.J., 1957), pp. 196ff. 26. See Bossy, "The mass as a Social Institution," pp. 32ff. 27. Much of this interpretation of the social meaning of Corpus Christi processions is dependent on the analysis offered by James, "Ritual, Drama and Social Body in the Late Medieval English Town," pp. 412. 28. There are numerous examples of this, but of particular interest is the practice of the k9ngs of France who assigned to princes of the blood the task of carrying the canopy while reserving for themselves a position immediately following the host. See A. N. Galpern, The Religions of the People in SixteenthCentury Champagne (Cambridge, Mass., 1976), pp. 16f.: and the description of the January 1535 eucharistic procession in Paris found in chapter 2. 29. To this social aim corresponds the practice in many cities and towns of routing the Corpus Christi procession through the urban area in such a way as to signify the uniting of the various quarters, their occupants, and characteristic economic pursuits into the unitary urban whole. See Natalie Zemon Davis, "The Sacred and the Body Social in SixteenthCentury Lyon," Past and Present 90 (1981): 56f. 30. On this question I take issue with Miri Rubin's criticism of Mervyn James on the effectiveness of the Corpus Christi ritual in establishing a social bond. See Rubin, Corpus Christi, pp. 263, 265f. Rubin is correct to note that the procession could not accurately reflect the full complexity of urban life and to emphasize the fact of exclusion, but she makes too much of the event as an occasion for disorder. Her claim that "[b]y laying hierarchy bare [the procession] could incite the conflict of difference ever more
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powerfully sensed in a concentrated symbolic moment" would be worthy of consideration were it backed by solid evidence, but the only citation offered in support is Natalie Zemon Davis's study of violence between Catholics and Protestants in France in the 1560s ("Rites of Violence," Past and Present 59 [1973]: 73f.). Davis's connection of violence with Corpus Christi at this late date and in a time when new symbolic forms had arisen to challenge the Catholic means of symbolizing the social body and its relation to the sacred can hardly be taken as an argument against the interpretation James proffers. In fact, it seems to bolster the contention that the eucharist served a socially unifying and stabilizing purpose in the late medieval period. It was only when a competing symbolization of the body of Christ came to prominence that urban areas were deprived of Corpus Christi Day's benefit of social pacification. I would also suggest that it is very difficult to conceive of "subjugated knowledges'' finding effective means of resisting the dominant representations in the medieval period when few compelling, alternative ways of symbolizing the social body were offered. Thus, while Rubin wonders whether scholars like James might "have been deceived by the rhetoric of the organizers of the Corpus Christi processions'' (p. 266), she offers no credible reasons to explain why these organizers would have displayed such an interest in deploying a social symbol that did not produce the desired effects. 31. Kantorowicz, The King's Two Bodies, p. 48ff.; Van der Leeuw, Religion in Essence and Manifestation, pp. 24f., 34. 32. Hugh of Fleury, Tractatus de regia potestate et sacerdotali dignitate, in Monumenta Germaniae Historica: Libelli de Lite, vol. 2 (Hanover, 1897), p. 468; Anonymous of Rouen, De consecratione pontificum et regum, in Monumenta Germaniae Historica: Libelli de Lite, vol. 3 (Hanover, 1899), p. 665. For analyses and interpretation of theological images applied to kings, see Kantorowicz, The King's Two Bodies, pp. 4261; and George H. Williams, The Norman Anonymous of 1100 A.D.: Toward the Identification and Evaluation of the Socalled Anonymous of York (Cambridge, Mass., 1951), pp. 127203. 33. Anonymous of Rouen, De consecratione pontificum et regum, p. 664; Williams, The Norman Anonymous, pp. 158ff. 34. Williams, The Norman Anonymous, pp. 128ff.; Kantorowicz, The King's Two Bodies, p. 48. The idea that the king is "god on earth" received renewed support in midsixteenthcentury France in a number of printed apologies for royal absolutism. See especially Charles de Grassaille, Regalium Franciae, libri duo: Jura omnia et dignitates christianissimi Galliae regis continentes (Lyon, 1538), pp. 63f., 71, 77; Barthélemy de Chasseneuz, Consuetudines ducatus Burgundiae (Paris, 1547), ff. 3r, 62r, 287rv; and Guillaume Budé, Annotationes in quatuor et virginti pandectarum libros (Basel, 1557), p. 67. 35. Marc Bloch, Les rois thaumaturges (Strasbourg, 1924), trans. J.E. Anderson as The Royal Touch: Sacred Monarchy and Scrofula in England and France (London, 1973), pp. 108116; Williams, The Norman Anonymous, pp. 157ff. 36. See M.D. Chenu, "The Symbolist Mentality," in Nature, Man, and Society in the Twelfth Century (Chicago, 1957); and Ladner, "Medieval and Modern Understandings of Symbolism," 223256. 37. Aloise Dempf, Sacrum Imperium: Geschichtsund Staatsphilosophie des Mittelaters und der politischen Renaissance (Munich, 1929), pp. 199ff.; Williams, The Norman Anonymous, p. 155f. 38. The term "la religion royale" appears in late medieval sources as a description of the complex of beliefs and ceremonies that testify to the king's assumption of a sacred, royal dignity. See, for example, the discussion of the Carmelite Jean Golein in his translation of the Rationale Divinorum Officiorum of Guillaume Durand, undertaken in 1372, which appeared in print in 1503 as Le racional des divine offices, excerpted in Bloch, The Royal Touch, p. 278. On the development of the royal religion, see Bloch, The Royal Touch, pp. 108ff.; Colette Beaune, The Birth of an Ideology: Myths and Symbols of Nation in LateMedieval France, trans. Susan Ross Huston (Berkeley, Calif., 1991), pp. 172193 and passim; Anne D. Hedeman, The Royal Image: Illustrations of the Grandes Chroniques de France, 12741422 (Berkeley, Calif., 1991), pp. 145ff. On the notion of a gens sancta see Williams, The Norman Anonymous, pp. 160f.
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39. Beaune, The Birth of an Ideology, pp. 172ff. 40. Ibid., pp. 214ff. 41. Richard A. Jackson, Vive le Roi! A History of the French Coronation from Charles V to Charles X (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1984), pp. 31ff.; Bloch, The Royal Touch, pp. 130ff.; Beaune, The Birth of an Ideology, pp. 78ff. 42. By the sixteenth century this notion had become an established feature of Gallican political theory and is reflected in the writings of theorists who held constitutional views that were in other respects opposed. See especially Claude de Seyssel, La grande monarchie de France (Paris, 1558), ff. 29r33r; Barthélemy de Chasseneuz, Catalogus gloriae mundi (Lyon, 1546), ff. 105v106r.; and Grassaille, Regalium Franciae, p. 71. Cf. also the discussion of William Farr Church, Constitutional Thought in SixteenthCentury France: A Study in the Evolution of Ideas (Cambridge, Mass., 1941), pp. 45ff. 43. Beaune, The Birth of an Ideology, pp. 180f.; Williams, The Norman Anonymous, p. 166. 44. For the connection between the "king's miracle" and royal unction, see especially Bloch, The Royal Touch, pp. 128ff, 277f.; and Ralph E. Giesey, "Models of Rulership in French Royal Ceremonial," in Rites of Power: Symbolism, Ritual, and Politics Since the Middle Ages, ed. Sean Wilentz (Philadelphia, 1985), p. 44f. 45. Gilles de Paris, Carolinus, in Recueil des historiens des Gaules et de la France, vol. 17 (Paris, 1818), p. 289; cited in Beaune, The Birth of an Ideology, p. 190. On the concern that emphasizing the ceremonial anointing might make royal power dependent on the ministrations of the church, see Bloch, The Royal Touch, p. 126f. 46. As when the coronation could not be held in a timely manner. See Giesey, "Models of Rulership in French Royal Ceremonial," pp. 46ff. 47. Saint Louis was the model of this aspect of French kingship. See Beaune, The Birth of an Ideology, pp. 97ff. 48. Galpern, The Religions of the People in SixteenthCentury Champagne, pp. 16f. 49. Bernard Guenée and Françoise Lehoux, Les entrées royales françaises de 1328 à 1515 (Paris, 1968), pp. 1418. Cf. Lawrence M. Bryant, The French Royal Entry Ceremony (Geneva, 1985). 50. On the kings as vicar of Christ, see Williams, The Norman Anonymous, pp. 166ff. Chapter 2 1. The quotation is from a contemporary manuscript describing the event, printed in BSHPF 11 (1862): 256f. There are several other contemporary accounts of the procession: Cronique du roy Françoys premier de ce nom, ed. Georges Guiffrey (Paris, 1860), pp. 113130; Procession generale faict à Paris, le Roy estant en personne. Le XXii jourt de Janvier. Mille cinq centz trente et cinq (Paris, 1535); Registres des délibérations du Bureau de la ville de Paris, vol. 2, 15271539, ed. A. Tuetey (Paris, 1886), pp. 195199. VictorLouis Bourrilly and Nathanael Weiss, "Jean du Bellay, les Protestants, et la Sorbonne (15291525)," BSHPF 53 (1904): 118124, contains a helpful synthesis. The most complete modern account is in Gabrielle Berthoud, Antoine Marcourt, réformateur et pamphlétaire du "Livre des marchans" aux placards de 1534 (Geneva, 1973), pp. 190199. 2. Cronique du roy Françoys premier de ce nom, p. 118. 3. Ibid., p. 121. 4. Registres des délibérations du Bureau de la ville de Paris, p. 198. 5. Cronique du roy Françoys premier de ce nom, p. 127: "They will perish, but you endure" (Ps. 102:26); "The bread which I give is my flesh, I shall grant delights unto kings" (Jn. 6:51, last phrase unidentified); ''I will clothe his enemies with shame" (Ps. 132:18); ''A powerful king shall rule over them" (Is. 19:4); "They will look upon the one they have pierced" (Jn. 19:37); "Those who eat this bread unworthily, not discerning the body of the Lord, will be put to shame" (1 Cor. 11:26, 29, altered). 6. The text is given in Cronique du roy Françoys premier de ce nom, pp. 127f.
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7. On the legend see Beaune, The Birth of an Ideology, pp. 214218. 8. Both are attibuted to Saint Thomas Aquinas. O salutaris hostia includes an image of the embattled faithful which was particularly appropriate to the occasion: "O salutaris hostia,/Quae coeli pandis ostium,/Bella premunt hostilia,/Da robur, fer auxilium." ("O saving host, that opens the gate of heaven, hostile assults oppress us, give us strength, bring us aid.") The Pange lingua supplies a picture of the kind of piety for which Corpus Christi provided an outlet: "Pange lingua gloriosi/Corporis mysterium,/Sanguinisque pretiosi, . . . '' ("Sing, O my tongue, the mystery of the glorious body and the precious blood . . .") The fifth verse conveys a sense of the heightened devotion encouraged by the hymn: "Tantum ergo Sacramentum/Veneremur cernui:/Et antiquum documentum/Novo cedat ritui:/Paestet fides supplementum/Sensuum defectui.'' ("Let us therefore, prostrate, adore so great a sacrament, and let the old law give way to the new ordinance; let faith supplement the weakness of the senses.") The texts are given in Matthew Britt, ed., The Hymns of the Breviary and Missal (New York, 1922), pp. 183f., 188. 9. Cronique du roy Françoys premier de ce nom, p. 121. 10. Ibid., p. 110f. 11. [Antoine Marcourt] Articles veritables sur les horribles, grandz et importables abuz de la Messe papalle: Inventee directement contre la saincte Cene de Jesus Christ [Neuchâtel, 1534]. For the complete text of the placard, see Berthoud, Antoine Marcourt, pp. 287289. The text, somewhat altered, appeared again in pamphlet from in an edition entitled Conclusion de la messe ([Lyon], 1563). 12. Some sources suggest that placards were posted in "almost the whole of France"; others specify Paris, Orleans, Blois, Amboise, Tours, and Rouen. That one of the posters was affixed to the door of the king's bedchamber was regarded as a particularly serious offense. See Berthoud, Antoine Marcourt, pp. 181, 205f. 13. [Antoine Marcourt,] Petit traicte tres utile et salutaire de la saincte eucharistie de nostre Seigneur Jesuchrist ([Neuchâtel], 1534). The treatise was reprinted in Geneva in 1542. 14. A smaller procession held in October 1534, following the first posting of the placards, also included the sacrament, but in Paris it was still unusual for the host to be carried on any occasion other than the feast of Corpus Christi. 15. Cronique du roy Françoys premier de ce nom, p. 113; see also Registres des délibérations du Bureau de la ville de Paris, 2:195. 16. Registres des délibérations du Bureau de la ville de Paris, 2:195. 17. Cronique du roy Françoys premier de ce nom, p. 113. 18. Robert Ceneau, bishop of Avranches, makes the charge of sedition explicitly in a work defending Catholic eucharistic doctrine against Marcourt's writings: Appendix ad Coenam dominicam (Paris, 1535), f. A4v. See also the charge of rebellion made by Francis I himself in a letter to the Protestant princes of Germany, reproduced in A.L. Herminjard, ed., Correspondance des réformateurs dans les pays de langue française (Geneva, 1874), vol. 3, pp. 249f. 19. Luther himself expressed amazement that his Ninetyfive Theses "went throughout the whole of Germany in a fortnight." Kurt Aland, ed., Martin Luther's 95 These with the Pertinent Documents from the History of the Reformation (St. Louis, 1967), p. 35. On the spread of Luther's message through print, see Edwards, Printing, Propaganda, and Martin Luther. The publishing of Luther's works reached enormous proportions in the early 1520s, achieving a peak of 390 total editions printed in 1523. J. Benzing, Lutherbibliographie: Verzeichnis der gudruckten Schriften Martin Luthers bis zu dessen Tod (BadenBaden, 1966). 20. Lucien Febvre and HenriJean Martin, The Coming of the Book (London, 1976), pp. 295312; Higman, La diffusion de la Réforme en France, pp. 3361. For Luther's influence in France, see W.G. Moore, La Réforme allemand et la littérature française: Recherches sur la notoriété de Luther en France (Strasbourg, 1930); Francis Higman, "Les traductions françaises de Luther, 15241550," in Palaestra typographica, ed. J.F. Gilmont (Aubel, Gason, 1984); and idem, "Luther et la piété de l'église gallicane: Le Livre de vraye et parfaicte oraison," Revue d'Histoire et de Philosophie religieuses 63 (1983): 91111. Guillaume Farel,
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who figured prominently in the propaganda campaign emanating from Neuchâtel, was responsible for some of this literature, most notably Le Pater noster et le credo en françoys (Basel, 1524), the first writing of the Frenchspeaking reform, and his Sommaire et briefve declaration d'aulcuns lieux fort necessaires à ung chascun chrestien, pour mettre sa confiance en Dieu, et ayder son prochain (Lyon, 1529). 21. Vingle was active in Neuchâtel from August 1533 to July 1535. On Vingle see Eugenie Droz, "Pierre de Vingle, l'imprimeur de Farel," in Aspects de la propagande religieuse, ed. G. Berthoud et al. (Geneva, 1957), pp. 3878; J. Guinchard, L'introduction de l'imprimerie à Neuchâtel et Pierre de Vingle, 1533 (Neuchâtel, 1933). Théophile Dufour, Notice bibliographique sur le Catéchisme et la Confession de foi de Calvin (1537) et sur les autres livres imprimés à Genève et à Neuchâtel dans les premiers temps de la Réforme (15331540) (Geneva, 1878), pp. 104131, provides an account of works known to have been published by Vingle while in Neuchâtel. 22. In the early 1520s Farel had been a member of a somewhat more moderate, "évangélique" reform party, the socalled Lutherans of Meaux, headed by Cardinal Briçonnet and the humanist scholar Jacques Lefèvre d'Etaples. In the 1530s the évangéliques were distinguished from the Reformed by their refusal to contemplate separation from the church of Rome. 23. Visual images were also employed, although to a lesser extent. In Les faitz de Jesus Christ et du Pape, par lesquelz chascun pourra facilement congnoistre la grande difference dentre eulx (Neuchâtel, c. 1534), a translation of Luther's Passional Christi und Antichristi, Vingle published copies of Lucas Cranach's woodcuts attacking the ecclesiastical hierarchy and the pope in particular. Woodcuts had proved an especially popular propaganda tool in the German Reformation. It is noteworthy that prior to Vingle's arrival in Neuchâtel, printers of evangelical works in French had generally refrained from publishing translations of Luther's polemical works. 24. Marcourt, Articles veritables. On this point see especially Marcourt, Petit traicte de la saincte eucharistie, f. A6r.: "For this reason, with confidence in the Almighty, I have greatly desired to touch upon certain points concerning the holy eucharist and to do so in our mother tongue in order to better and further aid the understanding of the lowly (l'intelligence des moindres)." 25. The term "sacramentarian" was coined probably by Martin Luther in his controversy with the Swiss over the manner of Christ's presence in the eucharist and the interpreation of Christ's words of institution as a derogatory description of the position of those who denied the bodily presence of Christ in the sacrament. Although I point to Vingle's publications as the first introduction of sacramentarian ideas into the vernacular printed literature of the French Reformation, it should be noted that an earlier treatise, De la tressaincte cene de nostre seigneur Jesus et de la messe qu'on chante communement, published in Basel perhaps around 1532, contains very similar, socalled sacramentarian ideas. Francis Higman has argued that it was probably written by Guillaume Farel and Pierre Viret. See his "Les débuts de la polémique contre la messe: De la tressaincte cene de nostre seigneur et de la messe qu'on chante communement," in Le livre et la Réforme, ed. Rodolphe Peter and Bernard Roussel (Bordeaux, 1987), pp. 3592. 26. Whether the official response was proportionate to the actual threat is difficult to determine. We do know, from the evidence of the two affairs, that in 1534 the reform already had a fairly wellorganized network of committed partisans who were sufficiently adept at smuggling Protestant literature into France. Although the evidence for the extent of a readership for this literature is scanty, we may suppose that at least the Articles veritables, owing to their widespread and very public distribution, drew the attention of a sizable audience to the Reformed objection to the Mass. The speedy appearance of Catholic responses to Marcourt's writings— Jérôme de Hangest's De Christifera Eucharistia adversus nugiferos symbolistas (Paris, 1534), his Contre les tenebrions, lumiere evangelicque (Paris, 1535), and Robert Ceneau's Appendix ad Coenam dominicam—is good evidence at least of a strong perception that the writings had circulated sufficiently widely to necessitate published refutations, even one in the vernacular!
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The trial of the Genevan merchant Baudichon de la Maisonneuve in April 1534 (before the affair of the placards) in Lyon gives some indication of the diffusion of Vingle's publications outside of Paris. The inquisitors, who asked Baudichon about Vingle, about specific texts published by Vingle in Geneva and Neuchâtel, and about the funneling of heretical books into Lyon, betray a surprising degree of familiarity with these works and with Vingle's whereabouts and activity. (In addition to works known to have been published by Vingle, the authorities also asked Baudichon about a treatise they referred to as La cenne de Jesuchrist, in all likelihood a reference to the treatise published in Basel with the title De la tressaincte cene de nostre seigneur Jesus et de la messe qu'on chante communement.) This evidence suggests that these works had appeared in sufficient quantity, at least in Lyon, to cause considerable concern to the local authorities. It is also not unlikely that works intended for distribution to Paris and other parts of France would have come first to Lyon. See Droz, "Pierre de Vingle," pp. 71f. 27. For an interpretation of the Reformed emphasis on the cultic aspects of religious life, see Eire, War Against the Idols. 28. See Marcel Royannez, "L'eucharistie chez les évangéliques et les premiers réformés français (15221546)," BSHPF 125 (1979): 548576. 29. The Articles veritables were probably printed shortly before their first posting on October 17, 1534. The Petit traicté gives November 16, 1534, as its date of publication. The Declaration is without date, but Berthoud (Antoine Marcourt, pp. 223227) has argued convincingly that it is in effect an expanded version of the Petit traicté and must have been published sometimes between November 16 and December 23, 1534. It was reprinted at least five times between 1542 and 1566. 30. [Antoine Marcourt,] Le livre des marchans, fort utile à toutes gens, nouvellement composé par le sire Pantapole, bien expert en tel affaire, prochain voysin du seigneur Pantagruel ([Neuchâtel], 1533) (The Book of Merchants, Very Useful to All Persons, Newly Composed by Sir Pantapole, Close Neighbor to the Lord Pantagruel). The title indicates Marcourt's interest in Rabelais (whose recently published Pantagruel, censured by the Sorbonne, was selling well in France); the influence of Rabelais's rhetorical style is evident throughout. Le livre des marchans was frequently reprinted, once by Vingle in 1534 and at least six more times between 1541 and 1582. English and Dutch translations were also published. For a complete bibliography, see Berthoud, Antoine Marcourt, pp. 291 297. 31. The full title is La maniere et fasson qu'on tient en baillant le sainct baptesme en la saincte congregation de dieu, et en espousant ceulx qui viennent au sainct mariage, et à la saincte Cene de nostre seigneur, es lieux lesquelz dieu de sa grace a visité, faisant que selon sa saincte parolle ce qu'il a deffendu en son eglise soit rejecté, et ce qu'il a commandé soit tenu. Aussi la maniere comment la predication commence, moyenne et finit, avec les prieres et exhortations qu'on faict à tous et pour tous, et de la visitation des malades (Neuchâtel, 1533) (The Manner and Method of Performing Holy Baptism in the Holy Congregation of God, and of Marrying Those Who Come for Holy Marriage, and in the Holy Supper of our Lord, in the Places which God by his Grace has Visited, Performed so that according to his Holy Word that which he has Forbidden in his Church might be Rejected and that which he has Commanded might be Retained. Also the Way in which Preaching Begins, Proceeds, and Ends, with the Prayers and Exhortations Made to All and for All, and of the Vistiation of the Sick). A revised edition was published in Geneva in 1538. 32. Summaire et briefve declaration d'aucuns lieux fort necessaires à ung chascun Chrestien, pour mettre sa confiance en Dieu et ayder son prochain ([Neuchâtel], 1534) (Summary and Brief Declaration of Certain Places Most Necessary to Each Christian, to Place His Trust in God and Help His Neighbor). The first edition of the work was published by Vingle in Lyon in 1529; a second edition, with the imprint "Turin, 1525," was published by Simon Du Bois (in Alençon) sometime between 1530 and 1534. For the dating of editions of the Sommaire, see Elfriede Jacobs, Die Sakramentslehre Wilhelm Farels (Zurich, 1978), pp. 29ff.; and Lucien Febvre, "Une édition de 1529 du Sommaire de Farel," BSHPF 60 (1911): 184f. Also worthy of note in connection with the development and popular diffusion of the Reformed doctrine is the treatise, probably authored by Farel and Pierre
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Viret, but not published by Vingle, De la tressaincte cene de nostre seigneur Jesus et de la messe qu'on chante communement (Basel, c. 1532). 33. We have some evidence of the public singing of these songs in the early period of the Frenchspeaking reform in the case of Geneva. In March 1534, following a religious riot, the Genevan city council issued an ordinance forbidding speaking out against the sacraments of the church, preaching without a licence, or singing religious songs. Registres du Conseil de Genève, ed. Emile Rivoire (Geneva, 19001940), vol. 12, pp. 250f. The ordinance was described by the Franciscan nun Jeanne de Jussie as an attempt to proscribe the activity of "Lutherans" by enjoining them "not to sing ballads against the Sacrament of the Altar, as they had done previously." Jeanne de Jussie, Le levain du calvinisme ou commencement de l'hérésie de Genève (Geneva, 1865), p. 61. Interestingly, a pamphlet discovered in the possession of one Benoît Dada in August 1534, described as a small book "containing several songs against the honor of priests and the sacraments of the church," sounds very much like the collection Chansons nouvelles. Registres du Conseil de Genève, p. 497. 34. Chansons nouvelles demonstrantz plusieurs erreurs et faulsetez: Desquelles le paovre monde est remply par les ministres de Satan [Neuchâtel, c. 1533], reprinted by Wigand Koeln in Geneva, c. 1534, and again by Jean Girard in 1545; S'ensuyvent plusieurs belles et bonnes chansons, que les chestiens peuvent chanter en grande affection de cueur [Neuchâtel, c. 1533]; Noelz nouveaulx [Neuchâtel, c. 1533]. 35. In dealing with the work of several authors, we are faced with the dilemma of attempting to portray a single "doctrine" while at the same time giving adequate attention to the peculiar emphases of individual thinkers. Since the literature printed in Neuchâtel was designed to present a common Reformed front attacking the Roman Mass and presenting an alternative picture of the sacrament in the simple institution of Christ's Supper, we are justified in treating these writings as a single body of work with a common frame of reference. In fact, this is precisely the way this literature—all published anonymously—was viewed by contemporary readers, whether supporters or opponents of the Reformed program. In examining this material for the ideas concerning the eucharist presented to the public, I am trying to ascertain the position of those readers and to determine the general contours of the theology of the sacrament they would likely have derived from these writings. This approach, it should be emphasized, departs significantly from the kinds of interpretive methods normally applied to material such as this and will, as a consequence, lead us to conclusions that differ from conventional interpretations. For example, Jacobs, Die Sakramentslehre Wilhelm Farels, examing Farel's thought in the same period I am attending to, understands his sacramental position to be considerably distant from the Zwinglian position and links him instead to the mediating theologians Bucer, Capito, and Oecolampadius. This interpretation would clearly militate against associating Farel's thought with the undoubtedly Zwinglian Marcourt. But for her analysis Jacobs uses sources such as letters and records of disputations that were either unpublished in the sixteenth century or enjoyed a very narrow circulation. This results in an adequate picture of Farel's thought, but not necessarily an accurate picture of his ideas as publicly presented and popularly received. On the other hand, reading the material I have chosen to focus on and asking quite different questions of it, although certainly not disguising certain minor differences in emphasis, tends to place Marcourt and Farel much closer together. The recommendation of Marcourt's Declaration de la Messe in the 1534 edition of Farel's Sommaire (and in all subsequent editions, including those thoroughly revised and expanded by Farel himself!) is but one example of the links between these writings likely created in the minds of readers. 36. Marcourt, Articles veritables. 37. As early as 1520, in his Treatise on the New Testament, that is, the Holy Mass and in the more wideranging On the Babylonian Captivity of the Church, Luther sharply criticized the understanding of the Mass as a sacrifice as a fundamental perversion of the sacrament. Zwingli expressed the same conclusion in the eighteenth of his Schlussreden (Concluding Statements) of 1523 (Z 1:460).
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38. Marcourt, Articles veritables. The Reformed songs share this point of view of the sacrifice of priests, who are likened to greedy "caphars" in the song "Mon dieu sauve moi" from Plusieurs belles et bonnes chansons, f. B2r: Caphars, remplis de fiction Ont l'honneur de dieu abbatu Nous promettant remission, Mais tout compte, et rabbatu: Par Christ, Satan est combatu Et non point par leur sacrements. . . . Caphars, full of fiction, have overthrown the honor of God by promising us remission (of sin). But, when all is carefully examined, it is Christ who contends with Satan, and not their sacraments . . . Other songs, referring to the "stinking Mass" of the papists, urge listeners to "be content with a single Redeemer" and proclaim Christ to be "my only mediator." See Chansons nouvelles, f. A6r, and Plusieurs belles et bonnes chansons, f. C6v. 39. An indication of the relative weight given to these topics is the space devoted to each in Marcourt's treatises. The Petit traicte de la saincte eucharistie, which deals almost entirely with the two themes of the sacrifice of the Mass and the presence of Christ, devotes 19 pages to the notion of sacrifice and almost twice as many pages, 34, to the question of Christ's presence. Marcourt's Declaration de la Messe, while it takes up a greater number of themes, devotes more space to the bodily presence than to any other topic: Christ's presence is allotted 26 pages, the sacrifice of the Mass is treated in 14 pages, transubstantiation in 5, the origins of the Mass in 7, the fruits of the Mass in 11, and "why and how it must be maintained" in 9 pages. 40. Marcourt, Petit traicte de la saincte eucharistie, f. B8r. 41. Ibid., f. C1r. 42. Ibid., f. C2r. 43. Ibid., f. C3r. 44. Chansons nouvelles, f. A4v. The writer of this song continues his argument against the doctrine of the real presence in the following two stanzas: O prebstres, prebstres, voz erreurs sont bien grandz Que Dieu se laisse manger a telz galandz Aussi que entre voz mains II face tant des tours; Tant des dieux que des pain Vous mangez tous les jours. O prebstres, prebstres, lysez moy au premier Sainct Luc aux Actes, et saint Marc au dernier Jesus est à la dextre Du pere tout puissant. . . . O priests, priests, your errors are indeed great: that God allows himself to be eaten by such gallants; also that he takes a turn in your hands: every day you eat as many gods as wafers of bread. O priests, priests, read in the first chapter of Saint Luke, in Acts, and in the final chapter of Saint Mark: Jesus is at the right hand of the Father almighty . . . . 45. Farel, Summaire et briefve declaration, f. G6r. Cf. De la tressaincte cene de nostre seigneur Jesus, ff. G4vG5r: "Et ce faict, il leve le pain et l'adore, et le faict adorer à ung chascun comme son Dieu; venant contre la saincte doctrine de Jesus, qui commande qu'on
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adore en esperit et verité, pourtant que Dieu est eperit, lequel n'a ne chair ne os. Et pourtant est accomply sur les prestres ce que Jesus a predict des faulx prophetes et faulx oingtz, qu'on appelle Christz, lesquels tromperoyent plusieurs, disans et faisans entendre: 'Ici est Christ, il est là, il est au lieu secret'; lesquelz on ne doit point croyre; car Jesus ne viendra qu'en grosse majesté." 46. Marcourt, Declaration de la Messe, ff. A7rv. 47. Marcourt, Petit traicte de la saincte eucharistie, ff. C2vC3r. 48. Ibid., f. C5v. 49. Farel, La maniere et fasson, ff. C7r. 50. Marcourt, Petit traicte de la saincte eucharistie, f. C2v. 51. Ibid., ff. D6rv. 52. Ibid., ff. D3vD4r. Cf. De la tressaincte cene de nostre seigneur Jesus, ff. H5rv: "Car Jesus n'a point dit à ses apostres 'Vous ferez adorer le pain, vous le leverez', ne aussy à personne 'Vous adorerez': mais Prenez, mangez, prenez et beuvez de cestuy tous.'" 53. Marcourt, Declaration de la Messe, f. E7v. 54. Chansons nouvelles, f. A6r. 55. Marcourt, Declaration de la Messe, f. B8rv. 56. Ibid., f. C1r. 57. Ibid., f. C1v. 58. Ibid., f. B8v. 59. Marcourt, Petit traicte de la saincte eucharistie, f. C3v. 60. Ibid., f. C3v. 61. Ibid., f. C3v. 62. Ibid., ff. C3vC4r. Cf. the argument made by Oecolampadius in his De genuina verborum Domini expositione. Against Luther he maintained that, in the case of the sacramental words, the figurative meaning is the plain meaning of the text. See Alexander Barclay, The Protestant Doctrine of the Lord's Supper: Luther, Zwingli, Calvin (Glasgow, 1927), p. 63. 63. Marcourt, Petit traicte de la saincte eucharistie, f. C3v. 64. Ibid., f. C4r. 65. Ibid. 66. Ibid., f. C5r. 67. Ibid., f. C6v. 68. Ibid., f. C8v. 69. Ibid., f. D2r. 70. Ibid., f. D1v. Cf. De la tressaincte cene de nostre seigneur Jesus, f. H7v: "Car ce manger et ce boyre, dequoy nostre Seigneur parle en sainct Jehan 6, n'est que croyre et avoyr vraye foy que Jesus a porté noz pechez en son corps, et nettoyé noz ames et conservees. . . . il fault que manger la chaire de Jesus et son sang soyt une mesme chose que croyre en luy. . . ." 71. Marcourt, Petit traicte de la saincte eucharistie, f. C5r. 72. Plusieurs belles et bonnes chansons, f. B4v: "Le diable donc, la mis dessus / Trompant le monde, et l'enchantant." 73. Marcourt, Declaration de la Messe, f. A7r. 74. Farel, Summaire et briefve declaration, f. D1r. 75. Marcourt, Declaration de la Messe, f. E8v: "N'est ce pas une source de souppe grasse? n'est ce point une bonne vache à laict?"; idem, Articles veritables: "Par icelle ilz vivent sans soucy, ilz n'ont besoing de faire rien, d'estudier encore moins, que voulezvous plau? Il ne se fault donc esmerveiller se bien fort ilz la maintiennent. . . ." 76. Marcourt, Declaration de la Messe, f. A6v. Note the similar terminology employed in the treatise De la tressaincte cene de nostre seigneur Jesus, f. H2vH3r: "C'est la memoire, la representation, le refreschement en vous coeurs; et ce que mengeant l'ung avec l'autre, aurez souvenance de mon corps, qui est livré pour vous; et qu'il soit ainsy, faictes cecy, le mangez ensemble en memoire de moy, annunceant ma mort et passion, jusquesà ce que je viengne."
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77. Farel's liturgical handbook also betrays a dependence on the liturgy in use in Berne from the late 1520s. See Henri Vuilleumier, Histoire de l'Église réformée du pays de Vaud sous le régime bernois (Lausanne, 1927), pp. 311ff. 78. Farel, La maniere et fasson, f. D2rv. 79. Ibid., f. D3r. 80. Ibid., f. D3rv. 81. Ibid., f. C5r. 82. Ibid., ff. C5rv. 83. Ibid., ff. C5vC6r. 84. See Farel, Summaire et briefve declaration, ff. D1rD3v. 85. Farel also includes here the "fencing" of the table, which gave rise to the Reformed practice of excommunication. This practice was an attempt to preserve Farel's sense of the sacrament as a holy communion of the members of Christ's body. 86. Farel, La maniere et fasson, ff. D8vE1r. 87. Ibid., ff. E1rv. 88. Ibid., f. E1r. 89. Marcourt, Petit traicte de la saincte eucharistie, f. D3v. 90. Plusieurs belles et bonnes chansons, f. A7r. 91. In the writings with which we are concerned, the distinction Luther made between the Word of God and the written word of Scripture is not emphasized. Perhaps for the purpose of strengthening their arguments against their opponents, who held up the church's tradition as equal in authority to Scripture, the reformers placed the greatest stress on the biblical text itselfcontrasted with a bewildering variety of fantastic opinionsas the only possible means of determining "sure and certain" rules of faith and life. 92. In his Sommaire Farel places his discussion of the contrast between the "doctrine and tradition of men" and Holy Scripture immediately before his discussion of the church and its sacraments. Jesus' own contraposition of the commandment of God and human tradition in Mark 7:513 forms the biblical basis for Farel's own reading of church practice. 93. Marcourt, Petit traicte de la saincte eucharistie, f. A2r. 94. Marcourt, Declaration de la Messe, f. A7v. 95. It is important to distinguish here between the approach taken by Reformed thinkers to visible things in the context of worship and their attitudes toward material reality generally. The tendency to accentuate the division of visibleinvisible, spiritflesh does not translate into a rejection of the world or the assignment of a negative value to matter. Even in the context of worship, reformers such as Farel were willing to grant some positive representational value to the visible. Note, for example, his understanding of the Supper as the visible, symbolic instantiation of the mystical union of the body of Christ. 96. It should not be assumed that the principle of distinguishing visible from invisible things and the claim that God is not disclosed in material things function as philosophical axioms from which Reformed doctrines are derived. The reformers with whom we are concerned did not proceed from general philosophical principles but rather from their reading and interpretation of the Bible. In the Bible they found a very strong iconoclastic tradition, especially in prophetic literature and the writings of the Deuteronomic historian. Moreover, in the New Testament they discovered the categories of "spirit" and "flesh," and, for the most part, they tended to interpret these categories ontologically. A favorite passage of the Reformed was John 6:63 ("It is the spirit that gives life; the flesh is of no avail"), which they interpreted to mean that the divine is generally conveyed only through spiritual reality and not through material things. (The Incarnation is the only exception to this rule.) This interpretation might have been influenced by the Renaissance Platonic revival, mediated especially by the writings of Erasmus. It would nonetheless be a mistake to attribute the Reformed criticism of medieval Catholic piety exclusively to Platonic categories without giving adequate weight to the influence of ideas derived from readings of Scripture. While the dictum finitum non est capax infiniti may indeed reflect the sentiment expressed in a great many Reformed writings, including the writings on the eucharist, the reformers did not understand themselves to be constructing a philosophical system so
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much as faithfully interpreting God's word. For a discussion of some of these themes, especially the Platonic influence on Reformed thinking, see Eire, War Against the Idols. 97. Marcourt, Declaration de la Messe, ff. E6vE7r. Cf. Zwingli's assertion that "Christ sits, properly speaking, either in heaven at the right hand of God, or on earth in the hearts of believers." Z 8:85f. 98. Farel, Summaire et briefve declaration, ff. E5rv. Cf. Summaire, f. A8r: Jesus Christ is God's "holy temple, his habitation, his tabernacle, the holy of holies, the propitiatory where all the treasures of knowledge and wisdom are. In him dwells the fulness of divinity, not as a shadow or figure but bodily [comme au corps] and truly." For Farel, the incarnation is the single, unique example of a physical, bodily presence of God in the realm of sense experience. It is noteworthy that in describing Christ he uses metaphors such as the tabernacle and the holy of holiesthe same images frequently applied to the sacrament. The understanding of a wide division between the spiritual and the carnal worship of God is a consistent theme in Farel's writings. Indeed, we find it present in the very earliest of his works, Le Pater noster et le credo en françoys of 1524. Speaking there of Paul's injunction that everything said in the congregation of the faithful be spoken in a language comprehensible to all, he writes, "If this command had been observed, never would such darkness have come upon us, for one would still pray to God in himself, in heaven, in spirit and in truth, and not in creatures, in the earth, carnally, and vainly." Farel, Le Pater noster et le Credo en françoys, ed. Francis Higman (Geneva, 1982), p. 37. 99. Plusieurs belles et bonnes chansons, f. B6v. 100. Ibid., ff. A6rA8v, B6rv; Marcourt, Petit traicte de la saincte eucharistie, f. C2v.; idem, Declaration de la Messe, ff. A7rv. 101. See Marcourt, Petit traicte de la saincte eucharistie, f. E2v. 102. However, the affair did not mark as decisive a turning point in the approach to reform as has sometimes been supposed. Although a tremendously important event psychologically, forcing many of those whose view of reformation necessitated a break with the church of Rome to flee the country, the policy of strenuous repression was relatively shortlived. Gabrielle Berthoud's study of Marcourt and Francis Higman's work on censorship have demonstrated that in the period 1535 1540 moderate reformers were gaining strength in France and that royal policy remained somewhat receptive to a moderate program of reform of the Gallican church. The kind of reform envisaged by the socalled sacramentarians was, however, bitterly opposed by Francis I. See Berthoud, Antoine Marcourt; and Francis Higman, Censorship and the Sorbonne (Geneva, 1979), pp. 3745. 103. Christianae religionis institutio (Basel, 1536), the first edition of Calvin's Institutes, which included a prefatory epistle to Francis I. 104. See Berthoud, Antoine Marcourt, pp. 211f. 105. See especially Chansons nouvelles, ff. A1vA3r, A7r. 106. Marcourt, Declaration de la Messe, ff. F4vF5r. 107. Marcourt, Petit traicte de la saincte eucharistie, f. E6v. 108. Ibid., f. E7r. 109. Ibid., f. D6v 110. Ibid., ff. D8rv. 111. Ibid., f. E3v. 112. Farel, La maniere et fasson, f. E5r. 113. Ibid. The reference is to Romans 13:17, the locus classicus of all Christian theological discussion of the topic. 114. Ibid., f. E5v. 115. Ibid., ff. E5vE6r. 116. Ibid., f. E5v. This is an adaptation of a theme developed in Luther's On the Freedom of a Christian. 117. See the discussion of French royal religion in chapter 1 and the works cited in its note 38. 118. Plusieurs belles et bonnes chansons, f. A3r. 119. See especially Luther's Betbüchlein, first published in 1522, WA 10/2, (339) 375
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406; English translation: Luther's Works, ed. Helmut T. Lehman and Jaroslav Pelikan (Philadelphia, 1955), vol. 43, pp. 15, 18f., 22. 120. Luther, Betbüchlein; Luther's Works, vol. 43, p. 15. 121. Obviously, the doctrine of obedience to constituted authority was defensible on scriptural grounds, but it tended to run counter to the premises I have identified in Reformed eucharistic theology, as well as the activist impulse present in a good deal of evangelical preaching. 122. Kelley, The Beginning of Ideology, p. 19, also notes a connection between the Reformed Protestant sacramental attack and a kind of revolutionary impulse. However, he locates the connection in a Protestant rejection of the visible church. In discussing this point his language is not always as clear as it might be. In fact, the Reformed rejection of the legitimacy of the church of Rome was never presented as a rejection of the visible church per se. Reformers simply argued that the Roman Catholic communion was not the true church, led as it was by the Antichrist! Although Kelley suggests that Protestant anticlericalism and antiecclesiasticism led inexorably to "social revolution," and that the Reformed rejection of "immanence" formed the basis for this movement, he does not explain why it is that such a rejection of immanence should result in a rejection of authority in general, and not simply ecclesiastical authority. The perspective on this matter that I am pursuing suggests that rather than focusing on antiecclesiasticism by itself, or generalized conceptions of "immanence" and ''transcendence," success in identifying the connection between eucharistic thought and attitudes toward authority depends upon examining the individual characteristics of the eucharist as a social, political, and religious symbol and the effects a public reinterpretation of this symbol might have had in the context of sixteenthcentury political communities. On the basis of our reading of Reformed eucharistic thought, it appears that the transcendental impulse in the Reformed theology, epitomized by the approach to the eucharist and popularized in attacks on the Catholic Mass, tended to authorize a critical attitude toward all identifiable orders of temporal authority. Chapter 3 1. Jean Calvin, Petit traicté de la saincte Cene de nostre Seigneur Jesus Christ. Auquel est demonstré la vraye institution, proffit et utilité d'icelle: ensemble la cause pourquoy plusieurs des modernes semblent en avoir escrit diversement (Geneva, 1541). The treatise was reprinted by Jean Girard with only minor changes in 1542, 1545, and 1549. The evidence of an inventory of books seized in 1545 at the home of Lazare Drilhon of Toulon suggests that there was also a 1544 edition of the work, but to date no exemplar has been found. See Francis M. Higman, "A Heretic's Library: The Drilhon Inventory, 1545," in Book Production and Letters in the Western European Rennaissance: Essays in Honour of Conor Fahy, ed. Anna Laura Lepschy et al. (London, 1986). A Latin translation, executed not by Calvin but by the Genevan pastor and Calvin's assistant Nicolas des Gallars, was issued in 1545. Two further French impressions were produced in 1561 and 1562, without printers' marks, although it is likely they were produced in France. 2. While Calvin's Instruction et confession de foi (Geneva, 1537), a brief explication of matters treated in the Institutio, included a short section on the Lord's Supper, the format of that earlier work did not allow for the kind of comprehensive discussion Calvin produced in the treatise of 1541. 3. Institution de la religion chrestienne: En laquelle est comprinse une somme de pieté, et quasi tout ce qui est necessaire a cognoistre en la doctrine de salut. Composée en latin par Jean Calvin, et translatée en françois, par luymesme ([Geneva: Michel du Bois], 1541). The 1541 Institution is based on the Latin Institutio christianae religionis, published in Strasbourg in 1539, the second and greatly expanded edition of the work first published in Basel in 1536 with the title Christianae religionis institutio. In translating the title "Institutes of the Christian Religion," I follow the convention established by roughly the last two hundred years
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of English translation of the work. A better translation would be something along the lines of "Instruction in Christian Religion" or "Grounding in Christian Piety." See the discussion by John T. McNeill in his introduction to the Library of Christian Classics edition of the Institutes, p. xxxi n. 3; as well as Wilfred Cantwell Smith's brief but illuminating treatment in The Meaning and End of Religion (San Francisco, 1978), pp. 3537. For the purpose of my discussion, I have chosen to refer to the work using the initial words of the Latin and French versions, Institutio and Institution, so as to avoid confusion about which form of the work is under discussion. 4. In addition to these editions in which the work was significantly revised and enlarged, there were intermediate publications of the Institution in 1553, 1554, and 1557. The final edition, that of 1560, appeared in at least ten impressions in the period 15611564. 5. La forme des prieres et chantz ecclesiastiques avec la maniere d'administrer les sacremens, et consacrer le mariage, selon la coustume de l'Eglise ancienne (Geneva, 1542). Another edition appeared the same year, printed in Strasbourg but claiming "Rome" as its place of publication. Subsequent editions (with varying titles and some slight modifications) appeared in 1545, 1547, 1549, 1552, and 1553, and in combination with the catechism in 1558, 1562, and 1563. Most of the later editions were incorporated into the Genevan Psalter (see Pierre Pidoux, Le psautier huguenot du XVIe siècle, 2 vols. [Basel, 1962]). The Drilhon inventory studied by Higman lists an edition of 1543 (Higman, "A Heretic's Library," p. 201). Many of the extant editions of the French Bible published in Geneva from midcentury on have bound with them the Forme des prières and the Catéchisme, suggesting that the works frequently circulated together. See Bettye Thomas Chambers, Bibliography of French Bibles (Geneva, 1983), pp. 235, 270, 290, 292, 303, 313, and passim. 6. Le catéchisme de l'eglise de Genève: C'est a dire le formulaire d'instruire les enfans en la Chrestienté: faicte en maniere de dialogue ou le ministre interrogue et l'enfant respond (Strasbourg, 1545). Calvin wrote the new catechism for the Genevan church upon his return to the city, late in the year 1541. In his farewell to the company of pastors of Geneva he remembered composing it "in haste": "while I was writing it they came to fetch pieces of paper the size of my hand and carry them to the printer's." CO 34:421. From these remarks it would appear likely that an edition of the second catechism appeared as early as late 1541 or (more likely) early 1542, even though the earliest exemplar we have dates from 1545. The Sorbonne's list of censured books for 1542 also supplies evidence for an earlier appearance of the catechismus posterior, giving the title of the Genevan catechism in a form remarkably close to the title given to the 1545 edition: Catéchisme de l'Eglise de Geneve; c'est à sçavoir la forme d'instruire les enfans en la Chrétienté. It is hard to conceive that the work referred to by this 1542 list could be either the Instruction et confession de foy dont on use en l'Eglise de Genève ([Geneva], [1537]) or its Latin translation, Catechismus, sive Christianae religionis institutio (Basel, 1538). Farel's Confession de la foy ([Geneva], [1536], [1537]) seems an equally unlikely candidate. See Francis M. Higman, Censorship and the Sorbonne (Geneva, 1979), p. 112. Impressions of the French catechism appeared rather regularly: in addition to the Strasbourg edition of 1545, there was a 1545 Genevan edition, with subsequent impressions appearing in 1548, 1549, 1552, 1553, 1554, 1556, 1558, 1561, 1562 (two impressions), and 1563 (two impressions). The Sorbonne list of censured books of 1547 also lists an edition of 1546. A Latin version first appeared in 1545 and was reprinted steadily through the end of the century; synoptic LatinGreek and LatinFrench editions appeared also. A variety of vernacular translations were prepared, including versions in Spanish, Italian, English, and German. 7. This is evident from comments he makes in the introduction to the Latin edition of the catechism, first published in Strasbourg in 1545. CO 6:58. 8. In my discussion of the influence of Calvin's eucharistic writings I am using, for convenience, the terms "readers" and "readership." It should be understood that under these terms I also include the nonliterate audience for Calvin's ideas. The influence of works such as Calvin's was undoubtedly broader than the evidence of literacy rates alone
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might suggest, since works of a popular nature were frequently intended to be read to those who could not read for themselves. For a summary of the issues see Chartier, ''The Practical Impact of Writing," pp. 111159. For a discussion of the impact of print culture on the unlettered see Chartier, "Publishing Strategies and What the People Read," pp. 152ff. 9. While many indications exist of Calvin's concern for the fate of the reform movement within France, perhaps the most obvious is his attachment of the dedicatory epistle to Francis I to the first edition of the Institutio. In the epistle he sought to gain legitimacy for the movement and plead the cause of those who were undergoing persecution with the assent of the king. That each subsequent edition of the Institutes included the same epistle of 1535 suggests the consistency of Calvin's interest. 10. The first blast of the evangelical propaganda assault in 15331535, the product primarily of the presses of Pierre de Vingle, was followed by a period of relative calm until roughly the time that Calvin returned to Geneva, in September 1541. Figure 1 shows the growth of the Genevan publishing industry in the years with which we are concerned. Figures are derived from the inventory given by JeanFrançois Gilmont et al., "Bibliotheca Gebennensis: Les livres imprimés à Genève de 1535 à 1549," Genava 28 (1980): 229251. Higman, Censorship and the Sorbonne, pp. 47ff., argues that the deluge of printed material coming chiefly from Geneva was an important factor leading to the establishment of a rigorous method of censorship in France in the 1540s. 11. CO 12:316. 12. CO 21:130. 13. Institution (1541), 1:4. 14. CO 12:316. 15. OS 2:15. 16. Geneva's population in 15401550 was probably no more than twelve thousand. Lausanne and Neuchâtel in midcentury each had no more than four thousand inhabitants. If we assume a French literacy rate in these areas of somewhere around 15 percent, we may estimate the market for books in these three cities to be no more than 3000 persons. This estimate is probably somewhat high, considering that in Geneva through much of the century French was considered the language of foreigners; the local dialect was much closer to Savoyard than the language spoken by Calvin. Working nonetheless with this (probably inflated) figure, if we estimate the size of an edition of a work like the liturgy or the catechism (typically printed in larger editions than scholarly writings) conservatively at fifteen hundred, we can see that two editions of each of these works would easily exhaust the local market. As the Forme des prières went through at least five and the Catéchisme through no fewer than four, and probably more than five, editions before 1550, it is easy to see that their publication in such quantity could only have been intended for the French market. See, on population estimates, R. Mols, Introduction à la demographie historique des villes d'Europe du XIVe au XVIII siècle, vol. 2 (Louvain, 1954), pp. 509517; Louis Blondel, La développement urbain de Genève à travers les siècles (GenevaNyon, 1946), p. 117. On the size of editions in sixteenthcentury Europe, see Febvre and Martin, The Coming of the Book, pp. 216219. 17. While Calvin was in Strasbourg, the French congregation numbered only about four or five hundred members. François Wendel, L'Eglise de Strasbourg, sa constitution et sa organisation (Paris, 1542); Émile Doumergue, Jean Calvin, les hommes et choses de son temps (Lausanne, 18991927), 2:357f. 18. La manyere de faire prières aux eglises Francoyses, tant devant la predication comme apres, ensemble pseulmes et canticques francoys qu'on chante aus dictes eglises, apres s'ensuyt l'ordre et facon d'administrer les Sacrementz de Baptesme, et de la saincte Cene de nostre Seigneur Jesu Christ, de espouser et confirmer le mariage devant l'assemblée des fideles, avecques le sermon tant du baptesme que de la cene. Le tout selon la parolle de nostre Seigneur ([Strasbourg], 1542), p. 159: "Imprimé à Rome par le commandement du Pape, par Theodore Brüss Allemant, son imprimeur ordinaire. Le 15 de febvrier." In a letter of March 25, 1542, to the Strasbourg council, Calvin's successor, Pierre Bruly, gives an indication of
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plans to send some seven hundred copies of this edition for the use of the evangelical congregation in Metz and for distribution in France. See Pidoux, Le psautier huguenot du XVIe siècle, 2:10f. 19. Jean Girard brought out a small 16° edition with the title Le Catéchisme de Genève in 1548, and Adam and Jean Rivery produced a 16° in 1553. The Rivery and Estienne editions of 1553 both omit the "de Genève" in the title, as do all subsequent sixteenthcentury editions. None of these later editions give a place of publication. OS 2: 6571. 20. Higman, Censorship and the Sorbonne. 21. The text is given in N. Weiss, "Un Arrêt inédit du parlement contre l'Institution chrestienne," BSHPF 33 (1884): 1621. 22. Higman, Censorship and the Sorbonne, p. 52. Higman concludes that the books were discovered in visits to Parisian bookshops because the first comprehensive lists follow closely the July 1, 1542 edict of the Parlement in which the practice of visitations was reaffirmed; these lists, when compared with what was produced previously by the Sorbonne, represent a huge increase in the number of works scrutinized for their theological content; and because the works listed were, for the great majority, recently published. 23. Ibid., pp. 107116: A 15, A 22, A 23, A 25. 24. Ibid., pp. 116133: B 46, B 47, B 48, B 49, B 82, B 83, B 124, B 129. 25. Ibid., pp. 133141: C 170, C 201. 26. An account of the means employed to introduce Protestant literature into France is given in Febvre and Martin, The Coming of the Book, pp. 296304. Studies of the dissemination of Genevan books in France have tended to focus on the period after 1550, even though the evidence analyzed by Higman and others points to a significant impact of Calvinist ideas earlier than this. For an instructive examination of methods employed to facilitate the trade in Protestant books in the later period, see HeidiLucie Schlaepfer, "Laurent de Normandie," in Aspects de la propagande religieuse (Geneva, 1957), pp. 176230. 27. Higman, Censorship and the Sorbonne, pp. 141159: D 217, D 218, D 219, D 220, D 227, D 278, D 279, D 333, D 341, D 377. 28. See Higman, "A Heretic's Library." 29. JeanJacques Hémardinguer, "Les femmes dans la réforme en Dauphine," Bulletin de Philosophie et Histoire Jusqu' à 1610 (1959): 387; Ulysse Chevalier, "Annales de la ville de Romans pendant les guerres de religion," Bulletin de la société d'archéologie et de statistique de la Drôme 9 (1875): 7374. 30. Herminjard, Correspondance des réformateurs dans les pays de langue française, 8: 338f., 9:310. 31. CO 6:111. 32. Augustine's most expansive discussion of signs is in De doctrina Christiana, in which his principal concern is biblical interpretation. See, for treatments of signification and symbolization with reference to sacraments, Contra Faustum Manichaeum, Book 10 (PL 42:357; NPNF 4:244f.); and De catechizandis rudibus xxvi.50 (PL 40:344; The First Catechetical Instruction, trans. Joseph P. Christopher, Ancient Christian Writers, vol. 2 [Westminster, Md., 1946], p. 82). Cf. also R. A. Markus, "St. Augustine on Signs," in Augustine: A Collection of Critical Essays (Garden City, N.Y., 1972); and Tzvetan Todrov, Theories of the Symbol, trans. Catherine Porter (Ithaca, N.Y., 1987). 33. OS 1:509; cf. La forme des prières, OS 2:4344. The way in which Calvin appropriates Augustine involves him in an implicit rejection of another, competing appropriation of Augustine's distinction, viz., the Scholastic tradition positing, in effect, three elements in the eucharist: the sign alone, the thing alone, and the sign and thing together. See Peter Lombard, Sententiarum libri quaturo, 4.8.7 (PL 192:857f.); and cf. Elizabeth Frances Rogers, Peter Lombard and the Sacramental System (New York, 1976), p. 123. 34. OS 1:504. 35. OS 1:509. 36. The theme of divine condescension or accommodation (accommodare or attem
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perare) is a common one in Calvin's writings. See E. David Willis, "Rhetoric and Responsibility in Calvin's Theology," in The Context of Contemporary Theology: Essays in Honor of Paul Lehmann, ed. Alexander J. McKelway and E. David Willis (Atlanta, 1974); and Ford Lewis Battles, "God Was Accommodating Himself to Human Capacity," Interpretation 31 (1977): 1938. 37. Institution (1541), 4:18; emphasis mine. Cf. the similar locution in the Short Treatise (OS 1:508): "Maintenant, si on demande à sçavoir neantmoins si le pain est le corps de Christ, et le vin son sang, nous respondrons que le pain et le vin sont signes visibles, lesquelz nous representent le corps et le sang: mais que ce nom et tiltre de corps et de sang leur est attribué, pource que ce sont comme instruments par lesquelz le Seigneur Jesus nous les distribue." 38. Institution (1541), 4:18. 39. OS 1:509. 40. OS 1:521f. The christological point at issue here is the nature of the resurrected body of Christ. For Calvin it is important, not least of all for soteriological reasons, to maintain that Christ's resurrected body retains the nature of a human body, except for its mortal condition. Claiming otherwise calls into question the nature of the resurrection, perhaps undermining the belief that the very body that suffered and died for humans was itself raised from death, or might, on the other hand, encourage a docetic christology, in which the incarnate Word is not understood genuinely to share the condition of human beings. The soteriological issue is indicated by the fact that both of these options raise the question of whether God's redemptive work in Christ extends to all humans, whose bodies are subject to limitations. Naturally, Calvin's position on this matter rules out the idea of the ubiquity of the resurrected body. 41. OS 1:521f. 42. OS 1:520f. 43. OS 1:521f. Cf. Calvin's graphic characterization of the "gross" view of the local presence in the Institution ([1541], 4:24): "Neantmoins si ne nous la faultil pas imaginer telle que les Sophistes l'ont songée, comme si le corps de Christ descendoit sur la table, et estoit là posé en presence locale, pour estre touché des mains, mâché des dens et englouty du gosier. Car comme nous ne doubtons point qu'il n'ayt sa mesure comme requiert la nature d'un corps humain, et qu'il ne soit contenu au Ciel, auquel il a esté receu, jusques à tant qu'il viendra au Jugement; aussi nous estimons que c'est une chose illicite de l'abaisser entre les élémens corruptibles, ou imaginer qu'il soit par tout present." ("Nevertheless we must not imagine it to be as the Sophists have dreamed it, as if the body of Christ descended onto the table and was placed there with a local presence, to be touched by the hands, chewed by the teeth, and swallowed by the mouth. For as we do not doubt that it has its measure as the nature of a human body requires and that it is contained in heaven, where it was received, until Christ returns in judgment, so we esteem it as unlawful to lower it [to a place] among the corruptible elements, or to imagine that it is present everywhere.") 44. OS 1:524, 522. 45. OS 2:48. 46. OS 1:521, 529f.; CO 6:115, 129; Institution (1541), 4:31. 47. OS 1:509. For Calvin's discussion of metonymy in relation to the words of institution, see Institution (1560), 4.17.21. 48. CO 6:123. 49. OS 1:527f. 50. OS 1:509. 51. Institution (1541), 4:18f. 52. Institution (1541), 4:25. 53. OS 1:509f. 54. OS 2:43, 48. 55. CO 6:127: ". . . ie ne doubte pas qu'il ne nous face participans de sa propre
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substance, pour nous unir avec soy en une vie." Cf. also CO 6:123124, in which there is an interesting variation in the wording of the Latin text. Whereas the French version asks, "Entenstu qu'il nous faille communiquer vrayement au corps et au sang du Seigneur?" the Latin is much more explicit about the kind of communication envisaged: "Ergone corpore Domini et sanguine vescimur?'' It may be that Calvin regarded the risk of misinterpretation of the image of actual eating too great to be included in the more broadly accessible vernacular text. 56. OS 1:142f.: "Docendi causa, dicimus vere et efficaciter exhiberi, non autem naturaliter. Quo scilicet significamus, non substantiam ipsam corporis, seu verum et naturale Christi corpus illic dari: sed omnia, quae in suo corpore nobis beneficia Christus praestitit." ("By way of teaching, we say he is in truth and in effective working shown forth, but not in nature. By this we obviously mean that the very substance of his body or the true and natural body of Christ is not given there; but all those benefits which Christ has supplied us with in his body." Institutes [1536], p. 107.) See also the following expression from the dedicatory epistle of 1536, subsequently changed (OS 1, 28): "Ex Patribus erat . . . qui negavit in sacramento coenae esse verum corpus, sed mysterium duntaxat corporis, sic enim ad verbum loquitur; igitur modum praetereunt, cum faciunt reale et substantiale." ("It was one of the fathers who said the true body was not in the sacrament of the Supper, but only the mystery of the body: for thus he speaks to the word. Therefore they overstep the bounds when they make it real and substantial." Institutes [1536], p. 7.) 57. On this matter I take issue with Helmut Gollwitzer (Coena Domini: Die altlutherische Abendrahlslehre in ihrer Auseinandersetzung mit dem Calvinismus dargestellt an der Lutherischen Frühorthodoxie [Munich, 1937], p. 120f.), who attempts to distinguish different meanings of the word "substance'" in Calvin's usage, so as to suggest that over the course of his career Calvin's meaning and emphasis with regard to the real or substantial presence of Christ remained constant. The argument appears to me to be strained. It is more reasonable to assume that Calvin had early on not favored the use of the term "substance" because of its Scholastic associations but later on elected to use it in a specialized sense to indicate true communion with the body of Christ. 58. See David Willis, "Calvin's Use of Substantia," in Calvinus Ecclesiae Genevensis Custos, ed. Wilhelm Neuser (Frankfurt am Main, 1984), p. 299f. 59. CO 6:127. 60. CO 6:111113. 61. See Gerhard Kittel, Theological Dictionary of the New Testament, vol. 2 (Grand Rapids, Mich., 1964), p. 310ff. 62. See Institution (1541), 4:24f. 63. OS 1:530. Cf. the similar passage in the Catechism, CO 6:127. 64. See Institution (1541), 4: 22. Even the flesh of Christ "takes its power from beyond itself." Other instructive examples of this principle can be found in the Institutes (1559), 1.16.13, Calvin's treatment of the doctrine of providence and its relation to creation. God, Calvin asserts, is called omnipotent "not because he can indeed act, yet sometimes ceases and sits in idleness, or continues by a general impulse that order of nature which he previously appointed; but because, governing heaven and earth by his providence, he so regulates all things that nothing takes place without his deliberation" (1.16.3). Within creation, inanimate objects are "nothing but instruments to which God continually imparts as much effectiveness as he wills, and according to his own purpose bends and turns them to either one action or another" (1.16.2). The locus par excellence of this concept, however, is found in Calvin's discussion of sin as the result not merely of divine permission but of God's determination (1.18.1). 65. On the "extra Calvinisticum" see E. David Willis, Calvin's Catholic Christology (Leiden, 1966). 66. Institution (1541), 4:24. 67. Institution (1541), 4:25f. 68. The literature dealing with the sources of Calvin's eucharistic thought is voluminous. For a brief and helpful bibliographic summary, see B. A. Gerrish, "Gospel and
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Eucharist: John Calvin on the Lord's Supper," in The Old Protestantism and the New (Chicago, 1982), pp. 320f. n. 1. 69. At the Colloquy of Poissy, held in September 1561, Claude d'Espence suggested that Calvin's acknowledgment of the presence of the substance of Christ's body in the eucharist might provide a foundation for Catholic and Reformed agreement. See D'Espence, Apologie contenant ample discours, exposition, response, et deffense de deux conférences avec les ministres extraordinaires de la religion prétendue réformée en ce royaume (Paris, 1568), p. 479; see also my discussion of Poissy in chapter 5. 70. Kilian McDonnell takes a similar approach to understanding the principles at work in Calvin's doctrine, although he places less emphasis than I do upon the concept of divine freedom, preferring the notion of transcendence. See his John Calvin, the Church, and the Eucharist (Princeton, N.J., 1967), pp. 156205. 71. OS 1:517520. 72. OS 1:508. 73. See chapter 1. 74. See chapter 1. 75. The process Weber denotes by the terms "rationalization" and "the disenchantment of the world" is the displacement of socalled magical elements of thought by ways of thinking deemed consistent with the natural order, and the subjection of nature to systematic, rational scrutiny. The idea appears in a variety of places in Weber's work; for a typical example, see the essay "Science as a Vocation," in From Max Weber: Essays in Sociology, trans. H. H. Gerth and C. Wright Mills (New York, 1946), p. 155. For a more recent example of the Weberian approach, see Keith Thomas, Religion and the Decline of Magic (New York, 1971). Chapter 4 1. Gentian Hervet, Les Ruses et finesses du diable pour tascher à abolir le saint sacrifice de Jesus Christ: Où sont apertement monstrez et descouverts les moyens inventez par Satan pour renverser et mettre bas le saint sacrifice de la Messe (Reims, 1562), pp. 105113. 2. CO 17:172. 3. For writings concentrating on the seditious character of Reformed sacramental doctrine, see Esprit Rotier, Responce aux blasphemateurs de la Saincte messe avec la confutation de la vaine et ridicule cène des calvinistes (Paris, 1563), ff. 2r6r; Antoine du Val, Mirouer des Calvinistes et armeure des Chrestiens (Paris, 1567; first edition 1559; revised edition 1560), f. 60r; Emond Auger, Sommaire des heresies, abus, impietez et blasphemes qui sont en la cene des Calvinistes, et nouvelle Religion pretendue reformee: Extraict des oeuvres de M. Emond Auger, touchant la vraye, reale et corporelle presence de Jesus Christ au S. Sacrement de l'Autel. Par Antoine du Val (Paris, 1568), f. Flr. 4. See especially Jean Crespin, Histoire des Martyrs persecutez et mis à mort pour la Verité de l'Evangile, depuis le temps des Apostres jusques à present (1619; first edition, 1564), ed. D. Benoît (Toulouse, 18851889), vol. 1, pp. 381419, 493500; and Histoire ecclésiastique des églises réformées ([Geneva], 1580; Paris, 18831889; reprint, Nieuwkoop, 1974), vol. 1, pp. 5264, 6770. The account of the massacre of the Vaudois of Provence included in Crespin's martyrology was first published as a separate tract: Histoire mémorable de la persécution et saccagement du peuple de Mérindol, Cabrières et autres circonvoisins ([Geneva], 1555). 5. On the Chambre ardente see Nathanael Weiss, La Chambre ardente (Paris, 1889). Between 1548 and 1550 the court handed down 450 decrees against heresy, including 60 death sentences. 6. See Higman, Censorship and the Sorbonne, pp. 4772. 7. The edict also reaffirmed the royal approbation of the Sorbonne's Articles of Faith, drawn up in 1543. It is worthy of note that of the twentysix articles, no fewer than five relate directly to eucharistic doctrine. On the Articles see James K. Farge, Orthodoxy and
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Reform in Early Reformation France: The Faculty of Theology of Paris, 15001543 (Leiden, 1985), pp. 208213. 8. On the terms of the edict dealing with censorship, see Higman, Censorship and the Sorbonne, pp. 64ff. Higman's study of the Sorbonne's lists of censured books shows a heavy preponderance of Genevan literature among the texts deemed objectionable. 9. Figures for book production are taken from JeanFrancois Gilmont, "Bibliotheca Gebennensis: Les livres imprimés à Genève de 1535 à 1549," Geneva 28 (1980): 229251; and Paul Chaix, Alain Dufour, and Gustave Moeckli, Les livres imprimés à Genève de 1550 à 1600 (Geneva, 1966). For a telling account of the influx of Protestant literature, from a Catholic point of view, see Claude Haton, Mémoires de Claude Haton contenant le récit des événements accomplis de 1553 à 1582, principalement dans la Champagne et la Brie, ed. Félix Bourquelot (Paris, 1857), pp. 160f. 10. See Febvre and Martin, The Coming of the Book, p. 306; and Higman, Censorship and the Sorbonne, p. 62. 11. Genevan books accounted for 76 percent of the works on the list. 12. The diminishing production evidenced after 1561 is owing largely to the advent of the religious wars and the establishment of the other centers of Protestant printing on French soil. See Robert Kingdon, Geneva and the Coming of the Wars of Religion in France, 15551563 (Geneva, 1556), p. 101. 13. Paul Geisendorf, Livre des habitants de Genève (Geneva, 1957). See also the discussion of the emigration and its ramifications in E. William Monter, Calvin's Geneva (New York, 1967), pp. 165190; idem, "Historical Demography and Religious History in Sixteenth Century Geneva," Journal of Interdisciplinary History 9 (1979): 399437; and Henry Heller, The Conquest of Poverty: The Calvinist Revolt in Sixteenth Century France (Leiden, 1986), pp. 133f. 14. Monter, Calvin's Geneva, p. 66, estimates that more than two hundred printers and booksellers entered Geneva between 1550 and 1559. 15. See HeidiLucie Schlaepfer, "Laurent de Normandie," in Aspects de la propagande religieuse, ed. Gabrielle Berthoud et al. (Geneva, 1957), pp. 176230; and Febvre and Martin, The Coming of the Book, pp. 315317. 16. The works that were not explicitly religious include editions of the Corpus juris civilis, a very few preChristian classical texts, and a variety of pedagogical and lexicographical writings; most of these, however, were not without some evident ideological connection to the new religious thinking. 17. The statistical analysis presented here is derived from the bibliographies supplied in Jean François Gilmont, et al., "Bibliotheca Gebennensis: Les livres imprimés à Genève de 1535 à 1549"; and Chaix, Dufour, and Moeckli, Les livres imprimés à Genève de 1550 à 1600. The increase in nonFrench printings does not seem to have compromised the production of Frenchlanguage works, which rose at a steady rate into the 1560s. In the early 1540s most of Geneva's output consisted of French works; French printings represented 80 percent of the total in 1540, and 100 percent in 1546. While there is some fluctuation in the yearly ratios of French to nonFrench works over the period with which we are concerned, over the whole period this ratio is approximately 2 to 1; that is, French printings amounted to about 65 percent of total printings. 18. The figure supplied for Beza includes his translations in verse of the Psalms, printed together with Marot's versifications. Several of the other authors worthy of mention as significant contributors to Geneva's Frenchlanguage production did not write in French, but their works were translated for the French market. Figures for percentage of all Frenchlanguage writings, 15401560, are as follows: Luther2 percent; Melanchthon2 percent; the histories of Johannes Sleidan—2 percent; revised editions of Antoine Marcourt's writings of the 1530s—2 percent; and Bernadino Ochino—1 percent. 19. Pierre Viret, Des actes des vrais successeurs de Jesus Christ et de ses apostres, et des apostats de l'eglise papale (Geneva, 1554), f. B1r. 20. On the agreement see especially Karl Ulrich Gäbler, "Das Zustandekommen des Consensus Tigurinus in Jahre 1549," Theologische Literaturzeitung 104 (1979): 322332.
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21. OS 2:250. 22. OS 2:252. 23. OS 2:249. 24. OS 2:253. It was Beza's restatement of this notion at the Colloquy of Poissy in September 1561 that elicited cries of "Blasphemavit!" from the prelates in attendance. 25. L'accord passé et conclud touchant la matiere des sacremens entre les ministres de l'Eglise de Zurich et maistre Jehan Calvin (Geneva, 1551). The Latin version of the agreement appeared in the same year: Consensio mutua in re sacramentaria ministrorum Tigurinae ecclesiae et D. Ioannis Calvini (Geneva, 1551; Zurich, 1551). Although the Consensus might have been considered an outline of a "normative" Reformed position, it should be noted that the language of compromise did not prevent further minor stresses from appearing in the relationship between Zurich and Geneva, particularly over Beza's and Farel's attempts in the late 1550s to achieve concord with the Lutherans. On this affair see Jill Raitt, The Eucharistic Theology of Theodore Beza (Atlanta, Ga., 1972), pp. 3ff. 26. Of the many studies of Calvin's debate with the Lutherans, see Jan Rohls, "Calvin, Bullinger und die Einigung zwischen Zürich und Genf," in his Theologie reformierter Bekenntnisschriften (Göttingen, 1987); Wilhelm Jenny, "Die Kontroverse WestphalCalvin," in Johannes Comander (Zurich, 1970); Herwarth von Schade, "Das fünfte Verbrechen: Joachim Westphal, Johannes Calvin und die Perikopen frage im 16. Jahrhundert," Jahrbuch für Liturgik und Hymnologie 22 (1978): 124129; Joseph N. Tylenda, "Calvin and Christ's Presence in the Supper—True or Real," Scottish Journal of Theology 27 (1974): 6575; and idem, ''The CalvinWestphal Exchange: The Genesis of Calvin's Treatises Against Westphal,'' Calvin Theological Journal 9 (1974): 182209. 27. Brieve resolution sur les disputes qui ont esté de nostre temps quant aux Sacremens (Geneva, 1555). Two printings appeared in the same year from different presses. The work is a translation, perhaps by Calvin himself, of the Latin original: Defensio sanae et orthodoxae doctrinae de sacramentis (Geneva, 1555). 28. OS 2:282. 29. The best biographical study of Farel, despite its sometimes narrow focus, idiosyncratic interests, and some errors in the dating of works, is still Guillaume Farel, 14891565: Biographie nouvelle écrite d'après les documents originaux par un group d'historiens, professeurs et pasteurs de Suisse, de France et d'Italie (Neuchâtel, 1930). The studies included in Pierre Barthel, Rémy Scheurer, and Richard Stauffer, eds., Actes du Colloque Guillaume Farel (Geneva, 1983) may serve to supplement and update the Biographie. 30. Farel, Summaire: C'est une briefve declaration d'aucuns lieux fort necessaires à un chacun Chrestien, pour mettre sa confiance en Dieu, et à eyder son prochain (Geneva, 1542), hereafter Sommaire (1542); De la saincte Cene de nostre Seigneur Jesus et de son testament confirmé par sa mort et passion: Traicté tresutile à tous Chrestiens pour cognoistre la vraye institution et administration d'icelle Cenne selon la vraye doctrine de l'Evangile (Geneva, 1553). 31. In focusing on the changes that become apparent in Farel's doctrine after his acquaintance with Calvin's fully elaborated understanding, I am presenting a slightly different interpretation from the one given in Jacobs, Die Sakramentslehre Wilhelm Farels. Jacobs is right to challenge an older view of Farel as Zwinglian up until 1536 and Calvinist thereafter. As she demonstrates, his early thought does indeed display features characteristic of Bucer as well as Oecolampadius. It was no doubt owing to the influence of these thinkers that Farel had an affinity for the view of Calvin. And any changes in Farel's doctrine are not apparent until the revision of the Sommaire in 1542. However, Jacobs, while perfectly justified in searching for the roots of Farel's later position in his early writings, does not give quite as much weight as one might wish to the movement that takes place in Farel's conception of the sacrament and to the influence of Calvin upon this conception. 32. Farel, La maniere et fasson, f. C5r. See the discussion of Farel's understanding of communion in chapter 2. 33. Jacobs, Die Sakramentslehre Wilhelm Farels, pp. 260270, locates the distinction of signum and res in Farel's early sacramental thought, but the sources she utilizes are
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unpublished writings and the records of disputations that, for obvious reasons, would not have had an extensive popular impact. 34. Sommaire (1542), p. 108. Cf. Calvin, Institutio (1536), OS 1:138: the sacraments "seal and confirm that promise by which [Christ] testifies that his flesh is food indeed and his blood is drink, which feed us unto eternal life." Farel is adopting here specifically Calvinian language. 35. Sommaire (1542), pp. 108, 119. 36. Ibid., p. 124. 37. This conception is rather close to the mature position of Heinrich Bullinger, described by Brian Gerrish as "symbolic parallelism." B. A. Gerrish, "Sign and Reality: The Lord's Supper in the Reformed Confessions," in The Old Protestantism and the New (Chicago, 1982), pp. 118130. 38. Sommaire (1542), pp. 110f. 39. One sees the same tension in the expression of the value and the limits or dangers of the signifying element in the sacrament in Farel's early writings. See chapter 2. 40. See Calvin, Catéchisme de l'église de Genève, CO 6:113ff. 41. Sommaire (1542), p. 112. 42. Ibid., p. 115f. 43. Ibid., p. 112f. 44. Ibid., p. 113. 45. While the scholastic sacramental understanding certainly did employ the concepts of sacramental signum and res, and official church doctrine also used the Augustinian categories as interpreted in the scholastic tradition, the notion of representation was not a feature of the teaching communicated to the broad mass of people. The emphasis in the sacramental thinking and practice that was accessible to ordinary Christians was Christ's presence in the sacrament and not the sacrament's signifying capacity. 46. Sommaire (1542), p. 113. 47. Sommaire (1552), p. 98. This aspect of Farel's thinking about the Supper is strikingly similar to the description of Calvin's eucharistic theory given by August Ebrard. According to Ebrard, Calvin's characteristic emphasis is on an actus in actu, God's act within the context of the liturgical act, in contradistinction to the Catholic concentration on the divine substance coming to dwell in the visible elements, or extensum in extenso. See Ebrard, Das Dogma vom heiligen Abendmahl und seine Geschichte (Frankfurt am Main, 18451846), vol. 2, p. 459f. 48. Farel, De la saincte Cene, p. 16f. 49. Ibid., pp. 25f. 50. Ibid., p. 30f. 51. Ibid., p. 31. 52. Ibid. 53. Farel, La maniere et fasson, f. D8v. 54. Ibid., p. 126. 55. Ibid., pp. 126f. 56. There has been remarkably little scholarship on Pierre Viret. The only complete biographical study is Jean Barnaud, Pierre Viret, sa vie st son oeuvre (Saint Aman, 1911). Although an updated Viret bibliography has not yet been produced, a serviceable bibliographic study is Charles Schnetzler and Jean Barnaud, Notice bibliographique sur Pierre Viret (Lausanne, 1905). 57. Two earlier anonymous works, De la tressaincte Cene de nostre seigneur Jesus et de la Messe qu'on chante communement (Basel, c. 1532?) and Epistre consolatoire envoyée aux fideles qui souffrent persecution (Geneva, 1541), were possibly produced by Viret, the former likely in collaboration with Farel. 58. The following are Viret's writings that are directly concerned with eucharistic doctrine: De la difference qui est entre les superstitions et idolatries des anciens gentilz et payens, et les erreurs et abuz qui sont entre ceux qui s'appellent chrestiens: et de la vraye manière
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d'honnorer Dieu, la Vierge Marie, et les Saincts (hereafter, De la difference) ([Geneva], 1542). De la vertu et usage du ministere de la parolle de Dieu et des Sacremens, dependans d'icelle, et des differens qui sont en la chrestiente a cause d'iceux (Geneva, 1548). The work reappeared in an amplified Latin version as De origine, continuatione, usus, autoritate atque praestantia Ministerii verbi Dei, et sacramentorum et de controversiis ea de re in christiano orbe, hoc praesertim seculo excitatis: ac de earum componendarum ratione (Geneva, 1554). Des actes des vrais successeurs de Jesus Christ et des ses apostres, et des apostats de l'eglise papale, contenans la difference et conference de la saincte Cene de nostre Seigneur et de la Messe: Item La naissance, le bastiment et la consommation de la Messe, et de la Papauté, et du mystere de l'Antechrist (Geneva, 1554). A second Genevan printing appeared also in 1554, and a new edition was produced in 1559 with a change of title: Des actes des apôtres de Jesus Christ et des apostats de l'Eglise et des successeurs tant des uns que des autres: contenans: la difference et conference de l'ancienne Eglise chrestienne et de l'Eglise papale, et des conciles et canons de l'une et de l'autre, et de la saincte Cene de nostre Seigneur et de la Messe laquelle maintenant aucuns appellent faussement Messe évangelique. Item. La naissance, le bastiment, la consommation et anatomie de la Messe et de la Papauté et des mysteres de l'Antechrist. Le tout revu et augmenté (Geneva, 1559). Du vray ministere de la vraye eglise de Jesus Christ, et des vrais sacremens d'icelle; et des faus sacremens de l'eglise de l'Antechrist, et des additions adioustées par les hommes, au sacrement du baptesme (Geneva, 1560). Les cauteles et canon de la Messe, ensemble la Messe du corps de JesusChrist, le tout en latin et en françois avec certaines annotations (Lyon, 1563). A revised edition appeared the following year with a slight change of title: Les cauteles, canon et ceremonies de la Messe. Ensemble la Messe intitulé, Du corps de Iesuchrist. Le tout en Latin et en François: Le Latin fidelement extraict du Messel à l'usage de Rome imprimé à Lyon par Iean de Cambray l'an mil cinq cens vingt (Lyon, 1564). Two printings appeared in 1564, and a final edition was produced in 1605! The work first appeared as Books 9 and 10 of Des actes des vrais successeurs de Jesus Christ et des ses apostres. Presumably demand for this segment of the work justified its separate appearance. Des clefs de l'Eglise, et de l'administration de la Parole de Dieu, et des sacremens selon l'usage de l'Eglise romaine, et de la transsubstantiation, et de la vérité du corps de Jésus Christ, et de la vraye communion d'iceluy (Geneva, 1564). A second printing appeared the following year. Des principaux poincts qui sont aujourd'huy en different, touchant la saincte Cene de Jesus Christ, et la Messe de l'Eglise Romaine, et de la resolution d'iceux (Lyon, 1565; Lyon, 1566). 59. In making the judgment that Les cauteles et canon de la Messe outsold Viret's other writings, I am relying on the not unreasonable supposition that the number of printings in which a work is produced is a relatively accurate gauge of its success or failure in the book market. 60. Viret, Sommaire des principaux poincts de la Foy et Religion chrestienne et des abus et erreurs contraires à ceux (Lausanne, 1558); and idem, Brief sommaire de la doctrine chrestienne, fait en forme de dialogue (Lausanne, 1558). Subsequent Genevan editions of both works appeared in 1561 and 1564. The texts are reproduced in Viret's collection of opuscula, Instruction chrestienne en la doctrine de la loy et de l'évangile: et en la vray philosophie et theologie tant naturelle que supernaturelle des chrestiens: et en la contemplation du temple et des images et oeuvres de la providence de Dieu en toutl'univers: et en l'histoire de la création et cheute et réparation du genre humain (Geneva, 1564), vol. I, pp. 114ff. 61. See Viret, Des actes des vrais successeurs de Jesus Christ et des ses apostres, f. B1r. 62. Ibid., p. 1. 63. Ibid., p. 2. 64. Ibid., p. 7. 65. Referneces are to the edition of 1564: Les cauteles, canon et ceremonies de la Messe, pp. 8, 155.
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66. Ibid., pp. 55f. 67. Ibid., p. 49. 68. Ibid., p. 155. 69. Ibid. 70. Ibid. 71. Viret, De la vertu et usage du ministère de la parolle de Dieu, p. 86. Cf. De la difference f. R2v. 72. Viret, De la difference, f. R2r. 73. Ibid., f. Q7v. 74. Ibid., ff. Q7vQ8r. 75. Ibid., f. Q8r. 76. Ibid., ff. R1rv. 77. Jean Calvin, Institutio (1539), CO 1:1004; Institutio (1559), 4.17.12. The same passage is included in the first French edition. See Institution (1541), 4:24. 78. Viret, De la difference, ff. R1vR2r. Cf. Des actes des vrais successeurs de Jesus Christ et des ses apostres, pp. 16f. 79. Viret, De la vertu et usage du ministère de la parolle de Dieu, p. 66f. Cf. ibid., p. 217. 80. Ibid., p. 86. 81. Ibid., p. 88. 82. Viret, De la difference, ff. R2vR3r. 83. Ibid., f. R3r. 84. Ibid. 85. Viret, De la vertu et usage du ministère de la parolle de Dieu, p. 88. 86. Viret, Des actes des vrais successeurs de Jesus Christ et des ses apostres, p. 14. 87. Viret, De la vertu et usage du ministère de la parolle de Dieu, pp. 90ff., 159169. 88. Ibid., p. 95. 89. Ibid. 90. Ibid. 91. Ibid., p. 96. 92. Ibid., p. 224. 93. Ibid., pp. 98f. 94. Ibid., p. 99. 95. Ibid., pp. 102f. 96. Ibid., p. 104. 97. Sommaire des principaux poincts de la foy et religion chrestienne, in Instruction chrestienne (Geneva, 1564), p. 10. 98. Ibid., pp. 7f. 99. Viret, Des actes des vrais successeurs de Jesus Christ et des ses apostres, p. 7. Reflected here is the concern expressed by reformers such as Calvin, Farel, and Viret over the problem they labeled "Nicodemism," or the practice of religious dissimulation. Many antiNicodemite writings were printed in Geneva in the 1540s and 1550s, owing to the circumstance of repression in France and the effect it had on many inclined to support Protestant ideas. While Calvin's writings against the Nicodemites (at least five separate works on the subject produced over a period of twentyfive years) have received considerable attention, Farel also wrote a treatise against religious compromise (Epistre exhortatoire à tous ceux qui ont congnoissance de l'Evangile [Geneva, 1544]), and Viret produced more writings on the subject than any of his contemporariesno fewer than seven treatises between 1541 and 1559. On the question of Nicodemism see Albert Autin, La crise du nicodémisme, 15351545 (Toulouse, 1917); Carlo Ginzburg, Il Nicodemismo: Simulazione e dissimulazione religiosa nell'Europa del 1500 (Turin, 1970); and for a critique of Ginzburg and an alternative view of the phenomenon, see Carlos M. N. Eire, "Calvinism and Nicodemism: A Reappraisal," Sixteenth Century Journal 10 (1979): 4569; and idem, "Calvin Against the Nicodemites," in his War Against the Idols (Cambridge, 1986), pp. 234275. 100. Viret, Des actes des vrais successeurs de Jesus Christ et des ses apostres, pp. 7f.
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101. Ibid. 102. The best biographical study of Beza is Paul F. Geisendorf, Théodore de Bèze (Geneva, 1949). 103. Confession de la foy chrestienne, faite par Theodore de Besze, contenant la confirmation d'icelle, et la refutation des superstitions contraires (Geneva, 1559). A revised edition was produced the same year, and six printings were made in 1561, two in 1562, five in 1563, and one in 1564. A Latin translation was made in 1560, and ten printings of this version were issued between 1560 and 1595. See Fréderic Gardy, Bibliographie des oeuvres théologiques, litteraires, historiques et juridiques de Théodore de Bèze (Geneva, 1960). 104. Jean Calvin, Instruction et confession de Foy dont on use en l'eglise de Geneve (Geneva, 1537). In the preface to the Confession Beza expresses his intention in publishing the work to be to present his own understanding of the faith so as to impart "a summary knowledge of the whole of Christian religion" for the benefit of "the lowly of the church of the Lord (aux moindres de l'Eglise du Seigneur)." Confession de la foy chrestienne, pp. 8f. 105. Production figures such as we have for the Confession are more typical of devotional or liturgical works, such as the Geneva Psalter, which were in great demand in this period. 106. On Beza's understanding of the eucharist, see Raitt, The Eucharistic Theology of Theodore Beza, which includes a chapter devoted to the exposition of his sacramental position in the Confession. Raitt, however, uses the Latin version of the work, presumably as a more reliable gauge of Beza's most careful thinking on theological questions. And while she covers a fairly broad span of time, considering the continuation of ReformedCatholic controversy into the 1590s, she does not consult any of Beza's French writings, notably the many writings connected to the Colloquy of Poissy that appeared in 1561. Accordingly, Raitt's aim is somewhat different from the one I am pursuing, since she is not concerned with Beza's appeal to a popular readership or with the manner in which his ideas might have been received and interpreted. 107. Beza, Confession de la foy chrestienne, pp. 89f. 108. Ibid., p. 95. 109. Ibid., p. 93. 110. Ibid., p. 94. 111. Ibid., p. 95. 112. Ibid., pp. 96f. 113. Ibid., pp. 92f. 114. See especially Calvin, Catechisme de l'eglise de Genève, CO 6:111113; see also chapter 3. 115. See Beza, Confession, pp. 100103. 116. Ibid., p. 98. 117. Ibid., p. 99. 118. Ibid., pp. 99f. 119. Ibid., p. 100. 120. Ibid. The analogy of sacramental signs and sealing wax was by this time commonplace in Reformed discussions of sacramental efficacy. Cf. Pierre Viret, Sommaire des principaux points (first published 1558) in Instruction chrestienne (Geneva, 1564), pp. 9f. 121. Beza, Confession, p. 101. 122. Ibid., 123. Ibid., 124. Ibid., p. 101f. 125. See Peter Lombard, Sententiarum libri quatuor 4.8.7 (PL 192:857f.). 126. However, Calvin himself was capable of using similar language on occasion (see Commentarii in priorem epistolam Pauli ad Corinthios [Strasbourg, 1546], CO 49:487). In the claim he makes in the Petit traicté de la saincte Cene that the "internal substance of the sacrament is joined with the visible signs," he clearly is willing to talk of a kind of conjunction of sign and thing, although this sort of expression is not emphasized in his later writings. He does, however, continue to speak of the "substance" of Christ's body as
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the thing believers receive in the sacrament, thus giving a somewhat forceful account of the reality of communication than Beza offers. OS 1:509f. 127. Beza, Confession, p. 102. 128. Ibid. 129. Ibid., pp. 102f. 130. Ibid., p. 103. Beza is here apparently trying to follow closely Calvin's doctrine. It is worthwhile noting, however, that to the extent that Beza accounts for the efficacy of the sacrament solely by reference to God's offering of Christ to the believer coincident with the reception of the visible signs—an understanding that is found in Calvin's own writings—he nonetheless does not go as far in expressing sacramental instrumentality as Calvin sometimes does, namely, in the notion that Christ is given in and by the sacrament. 131. Ibid. 132. Ibid., p. 104. 133. Ibid., p. 109. 134. For alternative views, see Peter Lombard, Sententiarum libri quatuor 4.8.7 (PL 192:857f.); and Gentian Hervet, L'Antihugues, c'est à dire, Responce aux escrits et blasphemes de Hugues Sureau, soy disant ministre Caluiniste à Orleans, contre les principaux points de la foy et religion Catholique (Reims, 1567), pp. 8390. 135. Beza, Confession, pp. 109f. 136. Ibid., pp. 111f. 137. Ibid., p. 112. 138. Ibid., pp. 113f. 139. Ibid., p. 112. 140. Ibid., pp. 111f. 141. Ibid., p. 110. 142. See chapter 2, pp. 3940. 143. Beza, Confession, pp. 211f. 144. Ibid., p. 212. 145. Ibid., p. 213. 146. Ibid., p. 213f. 147. Ibid., p. 213. 148. Ibid., pp. 214f. 149. Ibid., pp. 215f. Beza here cannot resist pointing out that the feast of Corpus Christi, authorized by the church for less than three hundred years, is evidence of the Roman church's attraction to novel practices. 150. Ibid., p. 217. 151. Ibid., p. 218. 152. See Beza's comments in his preface to the work. Ibid., pp. 3ff. 153. Ibid., p. 2. 154. The letter to Calvin of the church of Nîmes, CO 12:549f.; L. B. Gardes, Essai sur les commencements de la réforme à Uzès (Uzès, 1885), p. 52; Confession de foy faite d'un commun accord par les eglises qui sont dispersées en France, et s'abstienent des idolatres papales, OS 2:322f. 155. One of the most telling examples of this tendency comes from Calvin's own catechism. In the Latin version an affirmative answer is given to the question "Are we therefore fed with the body and blood of the Lord?" The French does not include the image of actual eating, asking instead if "it is necessary for us to communicate truly in the body and blood of the Lord." CO 6: 123124. 156. The Confession de foy of the French churches, approved at the first national synod in 1559 and submitted to the king of France, Charles IX, at Poissy in September 1561, maintained that although Jesus remained in heaven, nonetheless "by the secret and incomprehensible power of his Spirit he nourishes and vivifies us with the substance of his body and blood." OS 3:322f. This position was reasserted and strengthened by the national synod of La Rochelle in 1571, with some qualifications introduced in the following year at Nîmes in response to objections from Bullinger and the Swiss. Jean Aymon,
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Tous les synodes nationaux des Eglises Réformées de France (The Hague, 1710), vol. 1, pp. 99f., 112f.; and John Quick, Synodicon in Gallia Reformata (London, 1692), vol. 1, pp. 92, 104. For background on controversy over the use of the word "substance" in France, see Henri Meylan, "Bèze et les Italiens de Lyon (1566)," BHR 14 (1952):235249. 157. See especially Farel, De la saincte Cene, pp. 30f., 126f.; Viret, De la vertu et usage du ministère de la parolle de Dieu, pp. 66f.; Beza, Confession, p. 112. 158. Reformed writings did in fact maintain that Christ's true body was communicated in the sacrament, but most of the discussion over sacramental efficacy focused on the union with Christ accomplished by the invisible and incomprehensible work of the Spirit, characterized as an infusion of "spiritual life into our souls." See OS 2:259f. Readers of these writings, especially as a consequence of the rhetoric that preferred a "spiritual" to a "carnal" eating, would naturally have been inclined to think of what was to be received in the sacrament as in no sense material or physical. 159. See the discussion of these Catholic arguments in chapter 5, pp. 137143. 160. This criticism is nearly ubiquitous in Catholic controversial literature and even appeared in the writings of those advocating some mediating religious position. In addition to the works listed in note 3, see especially [François Baudouin?], Religionis et regis adversus exitiosas Calvini, Bezae, et Ottomani coniuratorum factiones defensio prima (Cologne, 1562; Paris, 1562), translated into French as Defense premier de la Religion et du Roy, contre les pernicieuses factions et entreprises de Calvin, Beze, et autres leurs complices conjurez et rebelles (Paris, 1562); Gentian Hervet, Discours sur ce que les pilleurs voleurs, et brusleurs d'eglises disent qu'ilz n'en veulent qu'aux moines et aux prestres (Reims, 1562), (reimpression 1563; new edition Paris, 1563); Claude de Sainctes, Discours sur le saccagement des eglises Catholiques par les Heretiques anciens, et nouveaux Calvinistes en l'an 1562 (Verdun, 1562), (subsequent editions: Paris, 1562, 1563, 1567; Toulouse, 1564). The statement of the Lutheran Duke Christoph of Württemberg expresses the commonly held view: "Calvinism, as is proved by many examples, is seditious in spirit, and wherever it enters it is determined to usurp dominion, even over magistrates." August Kluckhohn, ed., Briefe Friedrichs des Frommen (Braunschweig, 1868), vol. 1, p. 271. 161. HenriLéonard Bordier, ed., Le chansonnier huguenot du XVIe siècle (Paris, 1870; reprint, Geneva, 1969), p. 40f. Chapter 5 1. Figures for printing of Catholic and Protestant treatises are based on searches in the Bibliothèque publique et universitaire, Geneva, the Bibliothèque Nationale, and the British Library. Professor Francis Higman very generously supplied me with the results of his searches for sixteenthcentury Catholic Reformation printed works in European libraries, and this has contributed to making my own analysis of publishing on the eucharist considerably more complete than it might otherwise have been. The National Union Catalogue of North American holdings and Wilbirgis Klaiber, Katholische Kontroverstheologen und Reformer des 16. Jahrhunderts (Münster Westfallen, 1978), although unfortunately very incomplete especially in its listing of works by French authors, also supplied information on some editions not available elsewhere. 2. See Theodore Beza, Correspondance, ed. Henri Meylan, Alain Dufour et al. (Geneva, 1960), 3:226, 242. 3. Letter of François Hotman to Calvin, CO 18:19f. 4. Among many examples, see René Benoist, Manifeste et nécessaire probation de l'adoration de JesusChrist, Dieu et homme en l'hostie sacrée tant en la messe que en tout autre lieu auquel elle est présentée aux chestiens (Paris, 1562; reprint, 1566), f. 5r; and Hervet, Discours sur ce que les pilleurs voleurs, et brusleurs d'eglises disent, f. E4v. 5. See Donald Nugent, Ecumenism in the Age of the Reformation: The Colloquy of Poissy (Cambridge, Mass., 1974), pp. 8588. 6. The text of Beza's address is given in a number of contemporaneous published
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accounts of the colloquy, with some slight variations among them. The offending expression is given in Ample discours des actes de Poissy (n.p., 1561), f. B3r; and in La premiere harangue faicte par M. Theodore de Besze ministre de la parolle de Dieu, en l'assemblee de Poissy (n.p., 1561), E8vF1r. Neither of these sources makes reference to a disruption following Beza's pronouncement of these words. The Histoire ecclésiastique des églises réformées au royaume de France (Antwerp, 1580), published nearly twenty years after Poissy, also includes the full text of the harangue, and gives as well an account of the response of the prelates. See Histoire ecclésiastique, ed. G. Baum, E. Cunitz, R. Reuss (Paris, 18831889; Nieuwkoop, 1974), 1:574, 578. 7. See La premiere harangue faicte par M. Theodore de Besze, f. F8vG1v; and Histoire ecclésiastique, p. 576f. 8. See H. Outram Evennett, "The Cardinal of Lorraine and the Colloquy of Poissy," Cambridge Historical Journal 2 (1927): 133150; and Nugent, Ecumenism in the Age of the Reformation, ch. 8. 9. See especially Mario Turchetti, Concordia o tolleranza? François Bauduin (15201573) e i "Moyenneurs" (Geneva, 1984), pp. 233315. 10. Histoire ecclésiatique, pp. 588613. 11. Consensio mutua in re sacramentaria (Geneva and Zurich, 1551), OS 2:253. 12. See especially the characterizations of Nugent, Ecumenism in the Age of the Reformation, pp. 100, 103, 110. 13. Accounts of the petit colloque are given in Histoire ecclésiastique, pp. 606608; and H. Outram Evennett, "Claude d'Espence et son 'Discours' au Colloque de Poissy," Revue Historique 164 (1930): 6772. 14. Poissy has attracted considerable attention in scholarship on French Catholicism at midcentury. See Evennett, "The Cardinal of Lorraine and the Colloquy of Poissy"; idem, The Cardinal of Lorraine and the Council of Trent (Cambridge, 1930); Henri Klipfel, Le Colloque de Poissy (Paris, 1867); Julien Laferrière, Le contrat de Poissy (Paris, 1905); Napoléon Peyrat, Le Colloque de Poissy et les conférences de Saint Germain en 1561 (Paris, 1932); Lucien Romier, Catholiques et Huguenots à la cour de Charles IX (Paris, 1924). The most recent and best study of the colloquy is Donald Nugent's Ecumenism in the Age of the Reformation. Nugent especially emphasizes the irenical efforts and the lost opportunity for common understanding on the sacrament. Mario Turchetti, Concordia o tolleranza?, deals more briefly with the colloquy in his study of the competing visions for the outcome of religious division of moderate Catholics and Calvinists in the 1560s. For the greater part, these scholars have concentrated on the private discussions of the assembly and the smaller group of interlocutors, and their interest in the dialogue has only occasionally extended to its impact on ordinary French people. 15. D'Espence defended himself against Catholic and Protestant critics in the brief Traicté en forme de conférence avec les ministres de la religion prétendue réformée, touchant l'efficace et vertu de la parole de Dieu aux ministère et usage des saincts sacrements de l'église (Paris, 1566), and more amply in two subsequent writings, Apologie contenant ample discours, exposition, response, et deffense de deux conférences avec les ministres extraordinaires de la religion prétendue réformée en ce royaume (Paris, 1568; 2d ed. Paris, 1569); and Continuation de la tierce conference avec les ministres extraordinaires de la religion prétendue réformée en ce royaume, touchant l'efficace et vertu de la parole de Dieu ès saincts sacremens de l'eglise (Paris, 1570). 16. The most notable exchange was between the Protestant Jean de l'Espine and the Catholic René Benoist. L'Espine's Discours du vray sacrifice et du vray sacrificateur. OEuvre monstrant à l'oeil, par tesmoninages de la saincte Escripture, les abus et resveries de la Messe, et l'ignorance, superstition et impostures des prebstres (n.p., 1563), provoked Benoist's Brieve et facile réfutation d'un livret divulgué au nom de J. de l'Espine, se disant ministre de la parole de Dieu, auquel, violentant et détorquant l'Escripture saincte, il blasphème malheureusement le saincte sacrifice évangélique, dict vulgairement la Saincte Messe (Paris, 1565), which was then answered by l'Espine's riposte, Défense et confirmation du traicté du vray sacrifice et sacrifice et sacrificateur (Geneva, 1567), to which was appended a reimpression of the first treatise.
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The exchange was apparently brought to a close with Benoist's second response, Premier tome des réfutations des impiétez et apertes ignorances proposées contre la religion chrestienne par Jean de l'Espine, soy disant Ministre de la parole de Dieu: Contenant la response aux blasphêmes et cavillations qu'impudemment il a escrit contre le sainct et divin sacrifice de la messe (Paris, 1568). 17. Antoine Cathalan, Epistre catholique de la vraye et reale existence du precieux corps et sang de nostre Sauveur Iesus Christ au sainct Sacrement de l'Autel, soubz les especes de pain et de vin (Lyon, 1562), f. B2v. 18. René Benoist, Claire probation de la nécessaire manducation de la substantielle et réale humanité de Jesus Christ, vray Dieu et vray homme, au S. Sacrement de l'autel (Paris, 1561), f. 14r. 19. Gentian Hervet, Sermon de Gentian Hervet, apres avoir ouy prescher un predicateur suspect d'heresie, in Willem van der Lindt, Recueil d'aucunes mensonges de Calvin, Melancthon, Bucere, et autres nouveaux Evangelistes de ce temps, par lesquelles seduisant et donnant faux à entendre aux simples, ils taschent d'introduire et farder leurs venimeuses et fauses doctrines (Paris, 1561), ff. 45rv. 20. Benoist, Claire probation, f. 9v. 21. See Benoist, Brieve et facile response aux objections d'une damoyselle par lesquelles elle rejecte la saincte Messe (Paris, 1565), f. 6. "For even though the testament of our redeemer Jesus Christ is for all, it is nonetheless not licit for all to give themselves over to its exposition, creating for themselves a profession of Christian faith and religion for their fantasy, but rather it is necessary to follow that which God has given and ordained concerning it in his church, without going off to the right or left for whatever reason." The charge made by Antoine du Val, Mirouer des Calvinistes et armeure des Chrestiens, ff. 42v43r, that "Calvin wants everyone to be a theologian" is representative of the kinds of anxieties stirred up by arguments from Scripture. See also Hervet's defense of the notion of extrabiblical revelation in the teaching of the church. Hervet, Sermon, f. 39v. Cf. Benoist, Seconde epistre à Jean Calvin, dict ministre de Genéve: En laquelle de poinct de poinct est refutée, par la parole de Dieu, une vaine et pernicieuse imagination de la participation du corps et sang de Iesus Christ, par un decoulement spiritual: Laquelle il a defendue et proposée en son Institution, qu'il dict, Chestienne (Paris, 1564), f. aa7r. 22. Benoist, Claire probation, ff. 14v15r. 23. Emond Auger, De la vraye, reale et corporelle presence de Jesus Christ au saint sacrement de l'autel, contre les fausses opinions et modernes heresies tant des Lutheriens, Zwinglinens et Westphaliens que Calvinistes (Lyon, 1565), p. 15: "Or c'est trop grande outrecuidance se mocquer de Dieu et de son Escriture, de la faire servir à ses opinions particulieres . . . , comme si la parole de Dieu fust yssue d'Allemagne et de Genève." 24. Benoist, Seconde epistre à Jean Calvin, f. 18v. 25. Du Val, Mirouer des Calvinistes et armeure des Chrestiens, ff. 30v31r. Cf. Benoist, Seconde epistre à Jean Calvin, f. aa7r. 26. The Pauline metaphor for the church as the bride of Christ was frequently employed to establish the notion of the union of the church with Christ and hence its quasidivine character. Catholic controversialists pointed to this union as supplying authorization for belief in the church's teaching regarding the real presence, and at the same time suggested that this union itself was accomplished in the sacrament of Christ's body and blood in which Christ comes to dwell bodily in the church. A particularly vivid example of the circularity of the argument is given in Benoist, Claire probation, f. 38r., and its invocation of the Song of Songs as a representation of the marriage of Christ and the church. 27. Benoist, Claire probation, ff. 16rv; idem, Seconde epistre à Jean Calvin, f. 10r; Benoist, Manifeste et nécessaire probation, f. 34v.; Du Val, Mirouer des Calvinistes et armeure des Chrestients, f. 31r. 28. Benoist, Claire probation, ff. 16rv. 29. The command to obey the church's traditions is sufficiently clear and firm that Benoist, in a variation on Paul's warning regarding the preaching of "another gospel"
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(Gal. 1:8), insists that "were an angel from heaven to tell me the contrary I would not believe him." Benoist, Claire probation, f. 16v. 30. See especially Gentian Hervet, Une epistre de Gentian Hervet, par laquelle est monstré qu'en l'Eucharistie est reallement et de faicte le precieux corps et sang de Iesu Christ, et que c'est le sacrifice qui s'offre à Dieu par l'eglise pour les pechez, in Willem van der Lindt, Recueil d'aucunes mensonges de Calvin, Melancthon, Bucere, et autres nouveaux evangelistes de ce temps (Paris, 1561), ff. 52v53r; and Benoist, Claire probation, ff. 32rv. 31. Benoist, Claire probation, ff. 19r20r. 32. Sextus Empiricus, Adversus Mathematicos, ed. Gentian Hervet (Paris, 1569). On the impact of Hervet's discovery of Sextus, see Richard H. Popkin, "Skepticism and the CounterReformation in France," ARG 51 (1960): 5886; and idem, The History of Skepticism from Erasmus to Descartes (New York, 1964). 33. Benoist, Manifeste et nécessaire probation, f. 52r: "[Les mysteres divins] ne peuvent estre entenduz veritablement et salutairement que par les simples et humbles Chrestiens obeissans aux commandemens de Dieu en son Eglise catholique"; and see also Benoist, Claire probation, f. 8r. Cf. the arguments of Simon Vigor put forward in sermons preached in the cathedral of Notre Dame de Paris in the 1560s. Simon Vigor, Sermons et predications chrestiennes et catholiques de S. sacrement de l'autel, accommodées pour tous les jours des octaves de la feste Dieu (Paris, 1577), pp. 269271. 34. Cathalan, Epistre catholique, ff. C3vC4r: "Telle est la foy de nostre mere Eglise. / Il ne faut point t'esbahir de cela, / Ne demander comment cela se faict, / Pour ton salut arrester te faut là, / Sur peine d'estre accusé du forfaict: / Car il n'y a sainct au Ciel si parfaict, Soit Cherubim, Seraphim, ou Archange, Soit confesseur, Martyr, Prophete, ou Ange, / Qui sceut comprendre en son entendement, / Ce haut mistere (à ton esprit estrange) / Lequel se faict en ce dict Sacrement." 35. Hervet, Une epistre de Gentian Hervet, par laquelle est monstré qu'en l'Eucharistie est reallement et de faicte le precieux corps et sang de Iesu Christ, ff. 52v53r. 36. Hervet, L'Antihugues, p. 106: "Ceste trop grande curiosité a esté possible cause de beaucoup de maux, entant que voulants quelques uns cercher les causes de si grands mysteres par raisons naturelles, ce que n'est pas possible, leur esprit humain y a succombé, et puis l'esprit diabolique s'y est entremeslé, qui a tant fait, qu'eux par leur trop grand orgueil s'efforçans se monstrer plus sçavants que tous autres, se sont monstrez vrais fols naturels. De là est venu l'erreur de Berengarius. . . ." 37. Ibid. 38. Du Val, Mirouer des Calvinistes et armeure des Chrestiens, ff. 42v43r: "Voila comment, s'aidans de la saincte escriture . . . ilz prennent à la pipée les simples et legers à croire, et les enveloppent en leur filets, ainsi comme est prins le poisson à l'ameçon." 39. Vigor, Sermons et predications chrestiennes et catholiques de S. sacrement de l'autel, pp. 225, 229. 40. Benoist, Seconde epistre à Jean Calvin, f. 39v. 41. Confession catholique du sainct sacrement de l'autel, faicte par Messieurs les Prelatz de France en l'assemblée de Poissy. Avec la censure de celle que presenta Theodore de Besze et ses adherens. L'advis des docteurs theologiens de Paris, et de ceux de Reverendissime et illustrissime Cardinal de Ferrare, Legat du saint siege Apostolique en France, touchant l'usage des images (Paris, 1562), f. 8r. 42. Benoist, Seconde epistre à Jean Calvin, f. 7r. 43. Ibid., f. 13r. Cf. Briefve declaration de l'auctorité des Escriptures, et du S. Sacrement de l'autel (Paris, 1561), p. 6. 44. Benoist, Seconde epistre à Jean Calvin, f. 44v: "Nous ne sommes pas Juifs, Calvin, pour nous contenter de signes et vaines figures: ains nous cherchons et nous nous arrestons à la chose mesme, pour d'icelle, et par le moyen d'icelle, avoir la vie, laquelle vous nous voulez faire perdre, quand nous taschant esblouir par voz songes et vaines imaginations. . . ." Cf. Jean Talpin, Resolution et accord des difficultés, lesquelles sont aujourd'huy en controverse touchant la sainte Messe. Là où responses sont faites tant generales que speciales aux adversaires, qui ont escrit contre la Messe: et est contenu le supplément des omissions faites
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par ceux qui ont escrit de la Messe, iusques à ce temps (Reims, 1565), p. 97f.; and Hervet, L'Antihugues, pp. 81, 97. 45. Jean Calvin, OS 2:48; 1:521, 529f; CO 6:115, 129; and Farel, La maniere et fasson, f. D8v. 46. Cathalan, Epistre catholique, f. C2r. Cathalan, in making this point, brings as evidence the words of Jesus on the cross, ''It is finished,'' which he interprets to mean that the work of making his flesh really accessible to all, obviating the need for figures and signs, was perfectly accomplished. 47. Claude de Sainctes, Confession de la foy catholique contenant en brief la réformation de celle que les ministres présentèrent au roy, en l'assemblée de Poissy, addressée au peuple de France (Paris, 1561), ff. 29v30r: "Et neantmoins veulent faire à croire que nous le recevons reallement et de faict, sans qu'il soit icy, ou en aultre part qu'au ciel, choses du tout incompatible. Car au paravant que nous le receivions reallement et de faict, soit en noz corps, soit en noz ames qui sont icy, il est necessaire qu'il soit icy reallement et de faict, non seullement au ciel, attendu que je ne puis recevoir icy reallement et de faict ce qui n'y est pas. Je ne puis aussie le recevoir au ciel, car je n'y suis que par apprehension et affection, non pas reallement et de faict." 48. For a striking example of this conception of the sacrament having brought heaven and earth together, see René Benoist's appropriation of Augustine's discussion of Psalm 99:5, "worship his footstool, for it is holy." Benoist, Manifeste et nécessaire probation, ff. 50r51r. 49. Benoist, Seconde epistre à Jean Calvin, f. 20r: "vous nous voulez tromper, et soubs le pretexte d'une spirituelle participation, et realité ideique du corps de Jesus Christ, vous nous privez du moyen de nostre salut, du tout necessaire: qui est participer realement et veritablement." 50. Confession catholique du sainct sacrement de l'autel, ff. 6v7r; emphasis mine: "ilz ne le peuvent entendre que par vertu et efficace, et non par presence reale." 51. See Vigor, Sermons et predications chrestiennes et catholiques de S. sacrement de l'autel, p. 232. 52. Benoist, Seconde epistre à Jean Calvin, f. 40r; Vigor, Sermons et predications chrestiennes et catholiques de S. sacrement de l'autel, p. 232. Cf. Esprit Rotier, Responce aux blasphemateurs de la Saincte messe, ff. 89rv.; Gentian Hervet, Epistre aux ministres, prédicans et supposts de la nouvelle église de ceux qui s'appellent fidèles et croyans à la parolle (Lyon, 1561), f. A4r; idem, L'Antihugues, p. 93f. 53. Here, as elsewhere, I am of course referring to the Catholics who contributed substantially to the popular discourse on the eucharistic presence and not to moderates such as Claude d'Espence wh appear for a time to have been willing to settle for something less than such an immanental presence in the elements themselves. See H. O. Evennett, "Claude d'Espence et son 'Discours' au Colloque de Poissy," Revue historique 164 (1930): 4078. 54. Benoist, Seconde epistre à Jean Calvin, f. 43r. Benoist challenges assigning a mediating role to the Holy Spirit, since the office of mediator is peculiarly that of the Son. Moreover, the reception of the Holy Spirit is a consequence of belief in Christ and participation in his divine humanity through sacramental eating. It is therefore improper to imagine that the Spirit might be the vehicle of this participation. 55. Hervet, L'Antihugues, p. 81. 56. Vigor, Sermons et predications chrestiennes et catholiques de S. sacrement de l'autel, p. 233; Sainctes, Confession de la foy catholique, f. 31r.; Confession catholique du sainct sacrement de l'autel, f. 7r. 57. Vigor, Sermons et predications chrestiennes et catholiques de S. sacrement de l'autel, p. 259; Confession catholique du sainct sacrement de l'autel, ff. 6rv; Rotier, Responce aux blasphemateurs de la Saincte messe, f. 89v. 58. Vigor, Sermons et predications chrestiennes et catholiques de S. sacrement de l'autel, p. 256: "s'il plaist au Huguenot, le corps de nostre Seigneur sera present au sacrement: et s'il ne luy plaist, il n'y sera point present."
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59. Ibid., p. 256f.: "As tu point de honte d'attribuer à la foy informe et imparfaicte de l'homme qui reçoit . . . la cause et raison de la presence du corps et sang de nostre Seigneur en ce sacrement: et donner plus de force à ladite foy, qu'à la parole de Dieu, laquelle est parfaicte, veritable, et toute puissante?" 60. Confession catholique du sainct sacrement de l'autel, f. 6v: "ne les peult apprehender autrement estre qu'elles sont, pour autant que ce ne seroit pas foy, ains erreur, et faulse persuasion." Cf. Hervet, Sermon de Gentian Hervet, apres avoir ouy prescher un predicateur suspect d'heresie, f. 31r; idem, Epistre aux ministres, f. A4r; Sainctes, Confession de la foy catholique, ff. 34r35v. 61. Hervet, L'Antihugues, p. 91f. 62. Ibid., p. 91: "S'ainsi estoit, y a il homme qui ne dist que Jesus Christ, qui est la vraye sapience, auroit fait une follie, en ordonnant une chose superflue, et qui ne sert de rien?" 63. See Confession catholique du sainct sacrement de l'autel, f. 8r, for an illustration of the tendency to link these two tenets of eucharistic belief. 64. See especially Benoist, Claire probation, ff. 10r11v, 13v14r; Hervet, Une epistre de Gentian Hervet, par laquelle est monstré qu'en l'Eucharistie est reallement et de faicte le precieux corps et sang de Iesu Christ, f. 48v; and Talpin, Resolution et accord des difficultés, p. 216f. 65. Benoist, Claire probation, f. 10v. 66. Briefve declaration de l'auctorité des Escriptures, et du S. Sacrement de l'autel, p. 13; Benoist, Manifeste et nécessaire probation, ff. 28v29r. 67. Benoist, Manifeste et nécessaire probation, ff. 28v29r. 68. Benoist, Claire probation, ff. 11v12r: "Voila comment il promect donner à ses esleus pour les faire vivre eternellement, le pain vif qui est descendu du ciel, lequel il expose estre sa chair et son corps, lequel sera crucifié. . . ." Cf. Talpin, Resolution et accord des difficultés, p. 213; and Cathalan, Espistre catholique, f. B3r. 69. Benoist, Claire probation, f. 12v.; idem, Seconde epistre à Jean Calvin, ff. 13v14r; idem, Manifeste et nécessaire probation, ff. 29v31v; Talpin, Resolution et accord des difficultés, pp. 214215. 70. Hervet, Une epistre de Gentian Hervet, par laquelle est monstré qu'en l'Eucharistie est reallement et de faicte le precieux corps et sang de Iesu Christ, ff. 50rv. 71. Vigor, Sermons et predications chrestiennes et catholiques de S. sacrement de l'autel, p. 267: "telles paroles sont signes non seulement signicatifs, mais effectifs en leur mode, et comme instrumens de la vertu et volonté de nostre Seigneur." 72. Ibid., p. 267; Hervet, Une epistre de Gentian Hervet, par laquelle est monstré qu'en l'Eucharistie est reallement et de faicte le precieux corps et sang de Iesu Christ, f. 48v. Cf. Benoist, Claire probation, ff. 4rv. 73. Hervet, Discours sur ce que les pilleurs voleurs, et brusleurs d'eglises disent, f. E3v; Benoist, Seconde epistre à Jean Calvin, f. 16r; idem, Manifeste et nécessaire probation, f. 20v; Sainctes, Confession de la foy catholique, ff. 29r. 34r; Hervet, Sermon de Gentian Hervet, apres avoir ouyr prescher un predicateur suspect d'heresie, f. 31r; Confession catholique du sainct sacrement de l'autel, f. 8r; Cathalan, Epistre catholique, ff. B3v4r; Vigor, Sermons et predications chrestiennes et catholiques de S. sacrement de l'autel, pp. 259f., 267. 74. Cathalan, Epistre catholique, B4r. Cf. Vigor, Sermons et predications chrestiennes et catholiques de S. sacrement de l'autel, p. 260. 75. Cathalan, Epistre catholique, ff. B4rv; Confession catholique du sainct sacrement de l'autel, ff. 5r; Sainctes, Confession de la foy catholique, ff. 28r29r. 76. Confession catholique du sainct sacrement de l'autel, f. 8v. 77. See especially ibid., ff. 8rv; and Vigor, Sermons et predications chrestiennes et catholiques de S. sacrement de l'autel, pp. 26of., 267. 78. Although the decrees concerning transubstantiation were produced at the thirteenth session of the Council of Trent, in 1551, it was not entirely clear in the early 1560s what weight the council's earlier decrees would finally have, expecially given the views of many Gallicans who were opposed to the reconvening of the council in 1562.
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Gentian Hervet himself published a French translation of the canons and decrees of the council in 1564; it appeared in several new editions and impressions in subsequent years. 79. Hervet, Sermon de Gentian Hervet, apres avoir ouyr prescher un predicateur suspect d'heresie, f. 42r; idem, Discours sur ce que les pilleurs voleurs, et brusleurs d'eglises disent, f. E3v. For Hervet's later, postTrent position see L'Antihugues, pp. 101f, 109110. 80. Benoist, Seconde epistre à Jean Calvin, ff. 16v17r, 21rv; Sainctes, Confession de la foy catholique, ff. 30rv; Briefve declaration de l'auctorité des Escriptures, et du S. Sacrement de l'autel, p. 8f.; Cathalan, Epistre catholique, f. B4r. 81. Benoist, Claire probation, ff.4r9r. Cf. Christophe de Cheffontaines, Traité de l'exercice de la vraye religion qu'on doit tenir estant au sacrifice de la divine Messe (a Corpus Christi sermon preached in 1561), in Benoist, Sermon, sur le cantique O Salutaris Hostia (Paris, 1577), p. 27f. 82. Benoist, Claire probation, f. 8v: "par laquelle il peult plus faire que nostre entendement (lequel a une capacité finie et determinée) ne peult entendre ny comprendre." 83. Benoist, Seconde epistre à Jean Calvin, ff. 69rv. Cf. Briefve declaration de l'auctorité des Escriptures, et du S. Sacrement de l'autel, p. 11f. 84. Hervet, Epistre de Gentian Hervet, à un predicant sacramentaire (Paris, 1561), ff. 66rv; Talpin, Resolution et accord des difficultés, pp. 285288. 85. The reference to Augustine is taken from Enarratio in Psalmum 98 (PL 37:1265), which is cited both by Benoist, Manifeste et nécessaire probation, ff. 50r 51r, and by de Sainctes, Confession de la foy catholique, f. 32r. 86. Rotier, Responce aux blasphemateurs de la Saincte messe, f. 66v: "Car si le Roy David, ainsi qu'il est escript au second livre des Roys, honnora de si grande affection et solemnité l'arche nommée Archa foederis, et de l'aliance (laquelle n'estoit que image, et figure de l'humanité de Jesuschrist unie à la divinité) . . . s'humiliant devant elle . . . , que devons nous faire à la realité et verité par icelle figure signifiée?" See also the most extensive elaboration of the theme in Pierre Doré, L'arche de l'alliance nouvelle, et testament de nostre Saulveur Iesus Christ, contenant la manne de son precieux corps, contre tous sacramentaires heretiques, Au Roy treschrestien, Henry second de ce nom (Paris, 1549), passim. 87. Benoist, Manifeste et nécessaire probation, f. 47v. 88. Discussions of these issues may be found in Calvin, Institution (1560), 4.17.2630; and Beza, Confession de la foy chrestienne, pp. 109111. 89. Benoist, Seconde epistre à Jean Calvin, f. 42r. 90. Benoist, Manifeste et nécessaire probation, ff. 19v20r; Benoist, Seconde epistre à Jean Calvin, f. 42v; Hervet, Une epistre de Gentian Hervet, par laquelle est monstré qu'en l'Eucharistie est reallement et de faicte le precieux corps et sang de Iesu Christ, f. 54r; Briefve declaration de l'auctorité des Escriptures, et du S. Sacrement de l'autel, p. 10f.; Pierre Doré, Anticalvin, contenant deux défenses catholique de la vérité du saincte Sacrement, et digne sacrifice de l'Autel, contre certains faulx escrits, sortiz de la boutique des Sacramentaires, Calvinistes, Heretiques, mis au vent, et semez par certains lieux de ce Royaume, au scandale des fideles et pusilles. Avec un nouveau traicté de nature et grace (Paris, 1568; first edition, 1551), ff. 12v13r, 20v. 91. Hervet, Une epistre de Gentian Hervet, par laquelle est monstré qu'en l'Eucharistie est reallement et de faicte le precieux corps et sang de Iesu Christ, f. 53v: ". . . vous confinez JesuChrist à la dextre de son pere, et là le tenez presque en prison, et en telle sorte qu'il ne s'oseroit remuer jusques au jour du jugement, somme les poetes faignoyent anciennement que Prometheus estoit attaché au mont Caucasus." Cf. Hervet, L'Antihugues, p. 117; Doré, Anticalvin, f. 21v; and René des Freuz, Briefve response aux quatre execrable Articles contre la saincte Messe, escriptz par un auteur incogneu, et publiez à la foyre de Guybray (Paris, 1561), f. B1v. 92. Benoist, Claire probation, ff. 7v8r. 93. Benoist, Seconde epistre à Jean Calvin, ff. 42v, 46v. 94. Ibid., ff. 51r.; Doré, Anticalvin, f. 12r. 95. Benoist, Seconde epistre à Jean Calvin, ff. 50v51r.
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96. Ibid., ff. 59r. 97. Ibid., f. 47r: ". . . par singularité et privilege, elle qui est personellement unie à la divinité, peut estre non par tout comme la divinité, ains en plusieurs lieux miraculeusement, ainsi qu'il plaist à Dieu." 98. Ibid., ff. 56v57r; Hervet, L'Antihugues, p. 123; Talpin, Resolution et accord des difficultés, p. 245; Doré, Anticalvin, f. 11v. 99. Benoist, Seconde epistre à Jean Calvin, ff. 50rv. 100. Vigor, Sermons et predications chrestiennes et catholiques de S. sacrement de l'autel, p. 288. Cf. Benoist, Seconde epistre à Jean Calvin, f. 50r. 101. Benoist, Seconde epistre à Jean Calvin, f. 67v. 102. Ibid., ff. 61r62r. 103. Hervet, Une epistre de Gentian Hervet, par laquelle est monstré qu'en l'Eucharistie est reallement et de faicte le precieux corps et sang de Iesu Christ, f. 54r.; idem, L'Antihugues, pp. 84, 119f. Cf. Benoist's criticism of the Lutheran doctrine in Seconde epistre à Jean Calvin, ff. 14r, 47r; and Manifeste et nécessaire probation, ff. 19v20r. 104. Hervet, L'Antihugues, p. 91. The Lutheran arguments to which Hervet referred were presented in a series of antiCalvinist treatises (in Latin) by Joachim Westphal and Tilemann Hesshus in the 1550s and 1560s. For discussions of their arguments see Tylenda, "The CalvinWestphal Exchange," 182209; and David Steinmetz, "Calvin and His Lutheran Critics," in Calvin in Context (Oxford, 1995). 105. Hervet, L'Antihugues, p. 84: "Car en quelque part qu'il soit naturellement, il peut estre par tout où il luy plait supernaturellement." 106. Ibid., p. 89: "La chair, dyje, mystique et spirituelle qui est au Sacrement, et non pas la naturelle qui est au cieux. . . ." 107. See, e.g., Beza, Confession de la foy chrestienne, p. 109f. Cf. Calvin, Institution (1560), 4.17.17. 108. Hervet, L'Antihugues, p. 298: "là où il est parlé du corps naturel de Jesus Christ, faut entendre le corps de creation, c'est à sçavoir, qui a en luy la dimension et circonscription d'un corps naturel." 109. This was the standard objection of the Reformed. See especially Calvin, Institution (1560), 4.17.29; and Hugues Sureau du Rosier, Sommaire resolution de quelques points de la religion chrestienne, En forme d'Espistre responsive aux escrits publiez par M. Gentian Hervet contre les fideles de l'Eglise d'Orleans (n.p., 1564), ff. 81v85r. 110. Institution (1560), 4.17.17. 111. Talpin, Resolution et accord des difficultés, p. 246: "Si tant peut une simple creature et paravanture miserable, sans aucune speciale grace, ne fait miraculeux, mais ordinaire et naturelle puissance, que pourra faire ce Seigneur tout puissant, createur de son humanité, unie par inseparable conjonction à sa divinité, et en icelle deifiée? Si le fer pour estre mis au feu, prend la nature du feu, et autant brusle que le feu mesme: combien qu'il ne soit feu et soit d'autre nature, et fort differente, que fera ceste humanité de Jesus Christ ainsi parfaitement conjointe avec la divinité . . . ?" 112. Doré, Anticalvin, ff. 11v12r: "la chair de Jesus Christ nostre benoist Sauveur n'est pas une simple ou commune chair, comme des autres, mais c'est une chair deifée selon que dit saint Jean: Verbum caro factum est. C'est brefvement la chair de celuy seul de qui a esté (comme dit sainct Paul) separé et segregé des pecheurs." 113. Benoist, Seconde epistre à Jean Calvin, f. 50v: "Bref, il a esté conceu et formé divinement, et vous le direz semblable à noz corps impurs et miserables! c'est trop s'abuser, Calvin, mon amy." 114. Briefve declaration de l'auctorité des Escriptures, et du S. Sacrement de l'autel, p. 7. 115. Benoist, Claire probation, f. 37v: "la sacrée humanité de JesusChrist, laquelle nous recevons en ce sainct Sacrement . . ."; Briefve declaration de l'auctorité des Escripture, et du S. Sacrement de I'autel, p. 11: "celle divinité a supplié ces imperfections de corps, en ce corps de Jesuschrist . . ." 116. Auger, Sommaire des heresies, abus, impietez et blasphemes qui sont en la cene des
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Calvinistes, ff. E2rE2v: "om luy oste toute sa puissance et sa verité aussi . . . par lesquelles il est esgal au pere: l'on vient donc à le renger avec les creatures, et nier sa divinité." Cf. Briefve declaration de l'auctorité des Escriptures, et du S. Sacrement de l'autel, p. 13. 117. Briefve declaration de l'auctorité des Escriptures, et du S. Sacrement de l'autel, p. 11: "Et ce fait il par l'omnipotence de sa divinité inseparable de son humanité." 118. Benoist, Seconde epistre à Jean Calvin, ff. aa5vaa6r; Auger, Sommaire des heresies, abus, impietez et blasphemes qui sont en la cene des Calvinistes, f. F1r; idem, De la vraye, reale et corporelle presence de Jesus Christ au saint sacrement de l'autel, pp. 3233. 119. Du Val, Mirouer des Calvinistes et armeure des Chrestiens, f. 28r; Auger, Sommaire des heresies, abus, impietez et blasphemes qui sont en la cene des Calvinistes, f. F1r; idem, De la vraye, reale et corporelle presence de Jesus Christ au saint sacrement de l'autel, p. 24; Hervet, Les Ruses et finesses du diable pour tascher à abolir le saint sacrifice de Iesus Christ, pp. 105ff. 120. Du Val, Mirouer des Calvinistes et armeure des Chrestiens, f. 29r; Auger, De la vraye, reale et corporelle presence de Jesus Christ au saint sacrement de l'autel, p. 15f. 121. Guiffrey, ed., Cronique du roy Françoys premier de ce nom, p. 125. 122. Du Val, Mirouer des Calvinistes et armeure des Chrestiens, f. 60r: "Mais alors nous dison iceluy estre divisé quand son corps (qui est l'Eglise) est couppé et separé, ou quand la teste est divisée du corps, ou quand les members (qui sont est Chrestiens) sont par entr'eux divisez et separez." 123. See especially the discussion of Auger, De la vraye, reale et corporelle presence de Jesus Christ au saint sacrement de l'autel, pp. 518, which approaches a utilitarian argument for confessional uniformity. Cf. Benoist, Seconde epistre à Jean Calvin, ff. aa5raa6v. 124. Cathalan, Epistre catholique, f. A2r: "[Foy] signifie trois choses, assavoir Credulité, Loyauté, et Asseurance. Or premierement Credulité, qui signifie en croyant, obeir: ainsi qu'il appert par exemple, quand le filz croit aux commandemens de son pere, comme faisoient Jacob à son pere Isaac, ou Joseph à Jacob. Ou bien comme le subjet et serviteur croit et obeit à son seigneur ou maistre: ainsi que faisoient le bon Capitaine Urie à son Roy David, et l'obeissant serviteur à son maistre Abraham." 125. Ibid., ff. A2rv. 126. Auger, De la vraye, reale et corporelle presence de jesus Christ au saint sacrement de l'autel, p. 12: "Que si l'on cherche bien la cause de tout ce mal, on treuvera qu'il est advenu, non pas par faute d'avoir la Loy, mais . . . pour ne vouloir soubmettre et assugetir les opinions particulieres aux resolutions et arrests du magistrat spirituel, que Dieu avoit estably en sa Republique." 127. Ibid., de p. 32f.; du Val, Mirouer des Calvinistes et armeure des Chrestiens, ff. 28v29r; Cathalan, Epistre catholique, passim. 128. Auger, Sommaire des heresies, abus, impietez et blasphemes qui sont en la cene des Calvinistes, f. E4v: "Elle ameine toutes especes de troubles et revoltes. . . . Car selon la prophetie de Jesus en S. Matthieu 24: estant l'abomination au temple, Daniel 12. toute sera en sedition et combustion, comme il est vray, par ce morceau carré au lieu de Jesus." 129. See Hervet, Discours sur ce que les pilleurs voleurs, f. E4v; idem, Les Ruses et finesses du diable pour tascher a abolir le saint sacrifice de Iesus Christ, pp. 111f. 130. Auger, Sommaire des heresies, abus, impietez et blasphemes qui sont en la cene des Calvinistes, f. F1r: "De là est venue la fureur des subjects contre les superieurs et autres, ayant opinion qu'on les avoit maintenus en Idolatrie et impieté, comme soubs Baal." 131. Hervet, Les Ruses et finesses du diable pour tascher a abolir le saint sacrifice de Iesus Christ, p. 108f.: "Je ne puis faire que je ne die ce que dernierement me vint en fantasie à Poissy, quand ces gentils douze ministres (la harengue ayant esté faicte devant le Roy, en laquelle ils se disoient ses treshumbles serviteurs et vassaux, et donnoient à entendre qu'ils hayoient sedition) s'agenouillerent et se prosternerent à terre, eux qui defendent expressement qu'on n'adore pas Jesus Christ." 132. Hervet, Discours sur ce que les pilleurs voleurs, ff. D2rv: ". . . ils voudroient que l'Eglise Catholique, c'est à dire la congregation universelle des fideles, qui croient en Jesus Christ, fust totalement abolie." Ibid., f. E2r: ". . . la cause finale pour laquelle ils ont
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entreprins ceste guerre, c'est assavoir pour chasser le Roy de son royaume, et de tuer tous les prestres." Ibid., ff. E2rv: "Car asseurez vous, que si on n'a ceste ferme foy, qu'en l'Eucharistie est reallement et de faicte le precieux corps et sang de Jesus Christ, qui s'offre à Dieu par l'Eglise, le prestre en estant le ministre, pour les pechez des vivants et des trespassez, on peu bien dire qu'on est hors de la nef de l'eglise catholique, et qu'on ne puet estre sauvé. . . . Et neantmoins se sont de nostre temps levez des apostats, qui avecques leurs esprits sataniques ayans persuadé le contraire à plusieurs en ce royaume, leur ont faict prendre les armes contre leur prince et contre toute l'eglise." 133. Rotier, Responce aux blasphemateurs de la Saincte messe, ff. 2r9v. 134. Ibid., ff. 3r5r. 135. Ibid., ff. 4r5r. 136. Ibid., f. 3r. 137. Ibid., f. 2v: ". . . ils ont voulu chasser Jesus Christ de son Eglise de son sacré pavillon et sanctuaire, disant luy n'estre point reallement present au sainct Sacrement de l'autel, et blasphemant la tressaincte Messe (qui est le refuge et consolation principale du peuple Chrestien et nerf de la Religion) n'ont eu crainte la nommer invention du Diable, et une idolatrie, affermans tous ceux qui luy donnent foy et veneration estre infidelles et idolatres. Laquelle injure et blaspheme (Sire) j'ay estimé contenir crime de leze majesté, non tant seullement divine, mais aussi de la vostre et de telle lezion et blasme, qu'il ne pourroit estre plus grand." 138. Ibid., f. 3r. 139. Ibid., f. 6r: "Car certainement eux, comme fils de Belial, et sans joug ne veullent sur eux aucun Prince ne spirituel ny temporel. . . ." In making these arguments Rotier was trying to encourage the king to "use the power given to him by God for the extirpation of heretics" (f. 5v). Publicists of the Catholic sacramental doctrine were concerned to emphasize and argue for a natural allegiance between the crown and the Catholic church, based on shared interests in maintaining the traditional faith, religious and political obedience, and social stability. The majority favored an unequivocal endorsement of the ancient religion by the crown and a policy of vigorous repression of heresy. The policy initiated by Catherine in the early 1560s of limited toleration and her signs of welcoming some version of Protestant reform had shaken most Catholic leaders. And so, while the main Catholic writers of popular literature were undoubtedly strong supporters of the monarchy, they could on occasion express some veiled criticism of the policy of a particular regime. For the most part, however, Catholic writers were less interested in provoking opposition to the rule of a king who seemed to support the Catholic faith less than wholeheartedly, than in goading the regime to perform its legitimate office of defending the faith against the assault of heretics. 140. See Advertissement contre l'astrologie qu'on appelle judiciaire (Geneva, 1549), CO 7:523, 528ff., 563ff.; Institution (1560), 2.2.16, 4.17.1213. Calvin's criticism of the Catholic doctrine of implicit faith also serves as evidence of the kind of commitment to intellectual rigor in matters of faith that appeared so threatening to his opponents. On Calvin's intellectualism see William J. Bouwsma, John Calvin: A SixteenthCentury Portrait (New York, 1988), pp. 98109. 141. Auger, De la vraye, reale et corporelle presence de Jesus Christ au saint sacrement de l'autel, p. 32f.; du Val, Mirouer des Calvinistes et armeure des Chrestiens, ff. 28v29r; Cathalan, Epistre catholique, passim. 142. Benoist, Seconde epistre à Jean Calvin, f. 19v: "vous proposez et promettez une participation reale du corps de Jesus Christ, lequel toutes fois ce pendant voulez n'estre en son corps et substance, qu'au ciel. Certes, c'est une chose plus absurde et inepte à toutes personnes de bon et sain entendement, que n'ont jamais esté les vaines Idées de Platon. . . ." 143. See, e.g., ibid., ff. aa4raa5v. 144. Benoist, Premiere tome des refutations des impietez et apertes ignorances proposées contre la religion chrestienne par Jean de l'Espine, p. 74.
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Chapter 6 1. Le livre des Pseaumes exposé par jehan Calvin (Geneva, 1558), translation of Calvin's In librum Psalmorum commentarius (Geneva, 1557), CO 31:24. 2. Institutio (1536), OS 1:22; Institutes (1536), p. 2. 3. Institutio (1954), CO 1:258. 4. Classic formulations of the Reformed doctrine of resistance are François Hotman, Francogallia (Geneva, 1573); Theodore Beza, De jure magistratuum in subitos (n.p., 1576), and its French version, Du droit des magistrats sur leurs subjets ([Geneva], 1574; five additional editions, 15741581); and Stephanus Junius Brutus (a pseudonym), Vindiciae contra tyrannos ([Basel], 1579), and its French translation, De la puissance legitime du prince sur le peuple, et du peuple sur le prince (n.p., 1581), attributed to Philippe du PlessisMornay and Hubert Languet. Several other French Reformed tracts supporting a right of rebellion also deserve mention: La defense civile et militaire des innocents et de l'eglise de Christ ([Lyon], 1563); Eusèbe Philadelphe Cosmopolite, Le Resveille matin des Françoys et de leurs voisins ([Strasbourg], 1574); and Le politique: Dialogue traitant de la puissance, autorité, et du devoir des princes ([Geneval], 1576). 5. Both Beza and du PlessisMornay make reference to the biblical passage in the first paragraph of their treatises (Beza twice!). Beza, Du droit des magistrats, ed. Robert M. Kingdon (Geneva, 1970), p. 4; and Vindiciae contra tyrannos, ed. and trans. George Garnett as Vindiciae, Contra Tyrannos: or Concerning the Legitimate Power of a Prince over the People, and of the People over a Prince (Cambridge, 1994), p. 14. Calvin gave the passage a prominent place in both the first and the last edition of his Institutestoward the very end of the final paragraphbut with the comment that our duty toward God is performed "when we suffer anything rather than turn aside from his holy word." 6. Beza, Du droit des magistrats, pp. 44, 64f.; Vindiciae contra tyrannos, pp. 16ff. 7. Beza, Du droit des magistrats, p. 64; Vindiciae contra tyrannos, pp. 1534. 8. Beza, Du droit des magistrats, pp. 4f.; Vindiciae contra tyrannos, pp. 1416. 9. Beza, Du droit des magistrats, pp. 64ff.; Vindiciae contra tyrannos, pp. 107, 125. Cf. the considerably earlier liturgical manual of Farel in which he admonished kings to treat their subjects as their brothers: La maniere et fasson, ff. E5vE6r. 10. See especially McNeill, "The Democratic Element in Calvin's Thought," Baron, "Calvinist Republicanism and Its Historical Roots," 3042; Hudson, "Democratic Freedom and Religious Faith in the Reformed Tradition,'' 177194; and Walzer, The Revolution of the Saints, pp. 57ff. 11. Oliver K. Olson, "Theology of Revolution: Magdeburg, 15501551," Sixteenth Century Journal 3 (1972): 5679; Kingdon, "The Political Resistance of the Calvinists in France and the Low Countries," 220233; and Skinner, "The Origins of the Calvinist Theory of Revolution." See also the more expansive treatment of the question in Skinner, The Foundations of Modern Political Thought, 2:189358. Skinner's analysis is particularly significant for his insistence that there was nothing peculiarly Calvinist in "Calvinist" justifications of resistance. 12. Linder, The Political Ideas of Pierre Viret; Kingdon, "The First Expression of Theodore Beza's Political Ideas," 8899. 13. An exception to the general rule concerning the interpretation of the rise of resistance theories is Eire, War Against the Idols, pp. 282310. Eire argues for a religious basis for Calvinist revolutionary ideology and identifies the struggle against idolatry founded on Calvin's theology of worship as the basic motive underlying the sixteenthcentury revolutionary movements. While I find some sympathy for this approach, my interpretation differs from Eire's in important respects. He locates the primary impulse for rebellion in a general Reformed critique of Catholic devotion, which proceeds from the philosophical dictum finitum non est capax infiniti. While it seems to me that the criticism of idolatry played a significant role in the development of a culture of resistance, I think the more important critique was that reserved for the Mass. There can be little doubt, based on what was published, that eucharistic concerns were a primary fo
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cus of Reformed propaganda and that the treatises addressing these concerns exercised an extraordinary influence over lay readers of Protestant literature in France. Eire does not really examine Reformed eucharistic doctrine in any sustained way, and he seems not to recognize the unique status of the eucharist as a highly influential social and political symbol. 14. In the understanding of "text" as used here, I am including certain ecclesiastical practices (liturgical and disciplinary) that were elaborated in published writings but the influence of which did not necessarily depend upon these writings being conveyed directly to a popular audience. 15. See Calvin's Commentarii in epistolam ad Hebraeos, CO 55: 117f. 16. Calvin, Institution (1560), 4.17.40, 43; idem, La forme des prières et chantz ecclésiastiques, OS 2:47; ideam, Le catéchisme de l'eglise de Genève, CO 6:133. 17. The classic analysis of this aspect of Calvinist social doctrine remains Ernst Troeltsch's seminal The Social Teaching of the Christian Churches, 2:590602. Troeltsch's understanding of the Reformed holy community is based entirely on Calvin's own writings, and his interpretation is strongly influenced by his tendency to understand the doctrine of predestination as the central principle of "primitive Calvinism." This judgment has been called into question by many more recent studies of Calvin. Moreover, if one examines the publication history of Calvin's vernacular writings on predestination and compares it to publications on other topics of concern to Calvin (the eucharist, for example, or the Nicodemite controversy), the older assumption of the doctrine's status among Calvin's audience is hard to maintain. However, although Troeltsch nowhere examines the history of Reformed publications to establish his argument, he does correctly note that the Lord's Supper "becomes the central point of the life" of Reformed congregations (p. 593). 18. See Calvin, Institution (1560), 4.1.3; Viret, De l'estat, de la conference de l'authorité, puissance, prescription et succession tant de la vraye que de la fausse eglise, depuis le commencement du monde et des ministres d'icelles et de leurs vocations et degrez (Lyon, 1565), pp. 96, 228f.; and idem, Instruction chrestienne, 1:85f. 19. Calvin, Institution (1560), 4.12.1, 4.20.13; idem, In librum Psalmorum commentarius, CO 32:322; idem, Praelectiones in duodecim Prophetas quos vocant minores (Geneva, 1559), CO 43:347f.; Pierre Viret, De l'auctorité et perfection de la doctrine des sainctes escritures et du ministere d'icelle, et des vrais et faux pasteurs, et de leurs disciples, et des marques pour cognoistres et discerner tant les uns que les autres (Lyon, 1564), pp. 181183. The dichotomy discerned in these writings of the holy community ruled over by Christ and ordered by the Holy Spirit and the society beyond, which was experienced as "turbulent and confused," suggests the opposition identified by Mircea Eliade in traditional societies between two kinds of space—cosmos and chaos: the former is "our world," the known, inhabited territory of the group, and the latter is "a foreign, chaotic space, peopled by ghosts, demons, 'foreigners.''' Eliade, The Sacred and the Profane, p. 29ff. Yet in an interesting way the attempt to apply Eliade's conception of religion to Reformed ways of defining communal boundaries points to the limits of his approach. The notion of opposed spaces—one of the hallmarks of Eliade's understanding of distinctively religious experience—is not terribly helpful in explicating the Reformed view, since the theology that shaped the conception of communal identities was particularly critical of the tendency to view earthly space as heterogeneous and to identify particular spaces as sacred. What becomes holy (the cosmos) for the Reformed is not a space per se but a condition of life in which God is glorified, and to this condition of life they opposed another (chaos) in which God was disavowed or dishonored. 20. Calvin, La forme des prières, OS 2:25f., 47. 21. Ibid., OS 2:47; Catéchisme, CO 6:133; Institution (1560) 4.12.12. 22. Calvin, La forme des prières, OS 2:4447; Farel, La maniere et fasson, ff. D4rD5r. Farel's liturgy and particularly his notion of the Supper as a communion whose efficacy would be compromised unless unbelievers and the disobedient were excluded was deeply influenced by the liturgy prepared for the church of Basel by Johannes Oecolampadius:
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Form und Gstalt wie das Herren Nachtmal der Kinder Tauff der Krancken haymsüchung zu Basel gebraucht und gehalten werden (Basel, 1525). 23. Calvin, La forme des prières, OS 2:44. 24. Ibid., OS 2:46f. 25. Ibid., OS 2:47. 26. See especially Calvin's (and quite possibly Farel's) Articles concernant l'organisation de l'Eglise et du culte à Genève of 1537, OS 1:372f.; idem, Institution (1560) 4.12.45; and Viret, Du vray ministere de la vraye eglise de Jesus Christ, et des vrais sacrements d'icelle; pp. 142ff. 27. Calvin, Catéchisme, CO 6:133. 28. Calvin, Catéchisme, CO 6:133. Troeltsch, The Social Teaching of the Christian Churches, pp. 593ff., 885, notes the extent to which Calvinism in this respect approaches the ecclesial ideal of the Anabaptists. In his estimation, however, Calvin's attempt to build connections in Geneva between the ecclesiastical and secular governments for the purpose of maintaining discipline, his rejection of a congregational form of polity, and his positive view of culture suggest that Calvinism remains linked to the churchtype (according to Troeltsch's typology), despite its obvious affinities with the secttype which Anabaptism represents. As for the Reformed in France, who ultimately were unsuccessful in establishing ties to secular governments, the sectarian quality of the movement tended to be more strongly emphasized. 29. Calvin, Articles concernant l'organisation de l'Eglise et du culte à Genève, OS 1:370, 372: ". . . à vivre chrestiennement, estans conjoincts ensemble en bone payx et unité fraternelle comme membres d'ung mesme corps." 30. Calvin and most of his colleagues advocated a rational system of discipline to correct all those within the church who displayed visible signs of spiritual or moral error, but they rejected a too severe or overzealous pursuit of secret but suspected error. They also recognized that "hypocrites"persons who successfully disguised their unworthiness to be counted among the faithfulcould not practically and should not be dismissed from the church. Calvin, Catéchisme, CO 6:133; Institution (1560), 4.12.612; Confession de foy, faite d'un commun accord par les Eglises qui sont dispersées en France, et s'abstienent des idolastres papales (1559), OS 2:319f.; Viret, Instruction chrestienne, 1:88. 31. For an interpretation of Reformed excommunication as a means of social definition, see Raymond A. Mentzer, "Marking the Taboo: Excommunication in French Reformed Churches," in Sin and the Calvinists: Morals Control and the Consistory in the Reformed Tradition, ed. Mentzer, Sixteenth Century Essays and Studies, 32 (Kirksville, MO., 1994). 32. Calvin, Institution (1560), 4.20.26. 33. John Knox's oftenquoted judgment that Geneva was "the most perfect school of Christ that ever was on the earth since the days of the Apostles" is only the most well known of encomiums for Reformed discipline. For more recent and less partisan assessments, see Robert M. Kingdon, "The Control of Morals in Calvin's Geneva," in The Social History of the Reformation, ed. L. P. Buck and J. W. Zophy (Columbus, Ohio, 1972), pp. 316; E. William Monter, ''The Consistory of Geneva, 15591569," in Renaissance, Reformation, Resurgence, ed. Peter de Klerk (Grand Rapids, Mich., 1976), pp. 6384; and Raymond A. Mentzer, "Disciplina Nervus Ecclesiae: The Calvinist Reform of Morals at Nîmes," Sixteenth Century Journal 18 (1987): 89115. 34. Calvin, Institution (1560), 4.20.3. 35. Calvin, La forme des prières, OS 2:84. 36. Viret, Sommaire des principaux poincts de la Foy et Religion chrestienne, reproduced in Instruction chrestienne (1564), 1: 7. 37. At least thirteen writings against Nicodemism were published in Geneva after 1535. Calvin produced five separate published works on the question over the course of twentyfive years, the first appearing not long after the first edition of the Institutio: Epistolae duae de rebus hoc saeculo cognitu necesariis (Basel, 1537). The first of the two letters included in the treatise, De fugiendis impiorum illicitis sacris et puritate christianae religionis
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observanda, is directly concerned with the question of Nicodemism. The first of Calvin's French writings on the subject was published in Geneva in 1543: Petit traicté, monstrant que doit faire un homme fidele congnoissant la verité de l'evangile: quand il est entre les papistes. It was reprinted in 1544, 1545, 1551, and 1558. The Excuse à Messieurs les Nicodemites (Geneva, 1544), in which Calvin responded to criticisms of the first French antiNicodemite treatise, leveled further accusations against particular types of dissemblers. The Quatre sermons traictans des matieres fort utiles pour nostre temps (Geneva, 1552, 1555) also concentrates on the question of Nicodemism, this time in the context of sermons. Calvin's final pronouncement on the question of religious dissimulation was the 1562 treatise Response à un certain Hollandois, lequel sous ombre de faire les Chretiens tout spirituels, leur permet de polluer leur corps en toutes idolatries, although here he does not use the term "Nicodemism" to describe the phenomenon against which he argues. For the recent debate over the nature of Nicodemism and the antiNicodemite writings of Viret and Farel see chapter 4, note 99. 38. Calvin, De fugiendis impiorum illicitis sacris, OS 1:289. 39. Viret, Sommaire des principaux poincts, p. 10. 40. Ibid., p. 7f. A mark of the French Reformed church's selfunderstanding is given in its Confession de foy, adopted at the first national synod in 1559 and presented to King Charles IX at Poissy in September 1561. In its title, those who make the confession are referred to as "the churches which . . . abstain from papal idolatries," and in discussing the sacrament as performed in "the synagogues of the papacy" the confession declares that "all those who take part in such acts and communicate there separate themselves and cut themselves off from the body of Jesus Christ.'' OS 2: 310, 320. 41. See Calvin, Petit traicté, monstrant que doit faire un homme fidele, CO 6: 576; idem, De fugiendis impiorum illicitis sacris, OS 1: 289; Viret, Des actes des vrais successeurs de Iesus Christ et des ses apostres, p. 1. 42. In the verse translation of Clément Marot, included in the popular Calvinist hymnbook, first published with the title Cinquante pseames en francois (Geneva, 1543) with Marot as author and later expanded to include Beza's additional versifications and published in many editions and with a variety of titles. Clément Marot and Theodore Beza, Les Psaumes en vers française avec leurs mélodies. Facsimilé de l'édition genevoise de Michel Blanchier, 1562, ed. Pierre Pidoux (Geneva, 1986), p. 457: Las, dismesnous, qui pourroit inciter Nos tristes coeurs à chanter la louange De nostre Dieu en une terre estrange? Pidoux, Le psautier huguenot du XVIe siècle, vol. 2, presents a bibliography of the more than two hundred sixteenthcentury editions or impressions of the work. The Psalms were frequently printed together with Calvin's liturgical manual, La forme des prières. 43. Marot and Beza, Les Psaumes en vers française, p. 457: Aussi seras, Babylon, mise en cendre: Et tresheureux qui te saura bien rendre Le mal dont trop de pres nous viens toucher. 44. Calvin, In librum Psalmorum commentarius (Geneva, 1557), CO 32: 369. Calvin's commentary on the Psalms likely had a significant influence over the French Reformed in the late 1550s and early 1560s. It was translated into French and published in at least three separate vernacular editions between 1558 and 1563. In addition, extracts from the commentary were published together with the Genevan Psalter by Jean Crespin in 1558. 45. See Marot and Beza, Les Psaumes en vers française, pp. 424426 (Ps. 122): Jerusalem is God's "saincte cité" and "lieu choisi pour le service de Dieu, et figure de l'Eglise." Cf. Ps. 147, p. 485; Ps. 51, pp. 164ff. 46. Marot and Beza, Les Psaumes en vers française, pp. 266f:
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Ceux qui nos voisins ont, En opprobre nous ont, Nous moquent, nous despitent: Ores sommes blasmez, Et par ceux diffamez Qui entour nous habitent. * * * Ce mal viendroit à point Aux royaumes qui point N'invoquent ta puissance. 47. Calvin, In librum Psalmorum commentarius, CO 32: 369. 48. See chapter 1. It is, on the other hand, quite true that the changes in religious ideology in many sixteenthcentury French communities could create new and unusual social alliances, as those among Reformed nobles, notables, merchants, and artisans. For a valuable study of these developments, see Heller, The Conquest of Poverty. 49. A useful account of Catholic popular preaching and its impact on Catholic conceptions of Protestants is given in Barbara B. Diefendorf, Beneath the Cross: Catholics and Huguenots in SixteenthCentury Paris (New York, 1991), pp. 147158. 50. Davis, ''The Rites of Violence," pp. 171f.; Philip Benedict, Rouen During the Wars of Religion (Cambridge, 1981), p. 61; and Neil Galpern, The Religions of the People in SixteenthCentury Champagne, pp. 158ff, provide accounts of incidents of violence provoked by Protestants' refusals to perform the simple acts of respect for the sacrament that Catholics regarded as the duty of every member of the social body. Histoire ecclésiastique des églises réformées au royaume de France, 1:352, gives a description, from a Protestant point of view, of an apparently typical incident, that of Rouen in 1560. 51. On Catholic perceptions of Protestants as foreigners, see Davis, "The Rites of Violence," pp. 174f.; and Janine GarrissonEstèbe, Tocsin pour un massacre: La saison des SaintBarthélemy (Paris, 1968), pp. 196f. For the judgment that Protestants threatened social revolution, see the discussion of Catholic polemical writings in chapter 5. 52. On the importance of Reformed Psalm singing, see the work of Natalie Zemon Davis: "Strikes and Salvation at Lyon," in Society and Culture in Early Modern France (Standord, Calif., 1975), pp. 4f.; "City Women and Religious Change," pp. 86ff.; "Rites of Violence," pp. 171f. A valuable recent study of the impact of the Psalms on reformed identity is Barbara Diefendorf, "The Huguenot Psalter and the Faith of French Protestants in the Sixteenth Century," in Culture and Identity in Early Modern Europe (Ann Arbor, Mich., 1993). 53. Jean Guéraud, La chronique lyonnaise de Jean Guéraud, 15361562, ed. Jean Tricou (Lyon, 1929), pp. 54f., attests to Protestants marching and singing publicly in armed groups in Lyon as early as June 1551. Other contemporary descriptions of Protestant demonstrations and their impact on the Catholic public may be found in Jacques Gaches, Mémoires sur les guerres de religion à Castres et dans le Languedoc (15551610) et Suite des mémoires (16101612) (Paris, 1879 1894; reprint, Geneva, 1970), p. 10f.; and Flrimond de Raemond, L'histoire de la naissance, progrez et decadence de l'heresie de ce siècle (Rouen, 1647), chs. 1417. Haton, Mémoires de Claude Haton, 1: 150f., 160f., gives a valuable account, from a Catholic point of view, of the influence of the Huguenot Psalter. 54. Bordier, Le chansonnier huguenot du XVIe siècle, pp. 152f. 55. Ibid., pp. 158161. The Catholic Claude Haton attests to Protestants invoking the epithet in 1561. Mémoires, p. 150. 56. Eugène Giraudet, Histoire de la ville de Tours (Tours, 1873), vol. 1, p. 337; Guéraud, La chronique lyonnaise, p. 65f.; Galpern, The Religions of the People in SixteenthCentury Champagne, p. 123. 57. There were earlier incidents of popular iconoclasm—notably, in Meaux in the
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early 1520s—but these, which antedated by some ten years the establishment of effective Reformed propagandizing efforts, represent a phenomenon somewhat separate from the one I am investigating. On the events at Meaux see Henry Heller, "Famine, Revolt and Heresy at Meaux: 152125," ARG 68 (1977): 133157. For summaries of later iconoclasm, see Louis Réan, Histoire du vandalisme: Les monuments destruits de l'art Français (Paris, 1959); J. H. M. Salmon, Society in Crisis: France in the Sixteenth Century (New York, 1975), p. 136; Eire, War Against the Idols, pp. 279f.; and Henry Heller, "Protestantism on the Eve of the Religious Wars: The Revolt of Valence," in The Conquest of Poverty, pp. 204233. Owing in part to Genevan missionary efforts following 1555, the Reformed movement could claim in 1561 to have over a thousand established churches in French territory, with a total membership of more than 2 million, roughly 10 percent of the total population of France. Gaspard de Coligny's claim of 2,150 Reformed churches, made in 1561, is generally regarded to have been a great exaggeration. Emile G. Léonard, A History of Protestantism (London, 1967), p. 127; Samuel Mours, Le Protestantisme en France au XVIe siècle (Paris, 1959), pp. 154f. 58. See especially Hervet, Discours sur ce que les pilleurs voleurs; and Sainctes, Discours sur le saccagement des eglises Catholiques par les Heretiques anciens. 59. Guéraud, La chronique lyonnaise, pp. 133f., gives an account of the attack in 1561 on a Lyon Corpus Christi procession by Louis de Vallois, a Protestant stainedglass artist. For the attack on the host in the Sainte Chapelle in Paris during Lent 1563, see Haton, Mémoires, p. 375. Both men were executed for their crimes. Cf. also Crespin, Histoire des Martyrs, 3: 651. 60. Guéraud, La chronique lyonnaise, pp. 58, 133f.; Haton, Mémoires, p. 150; Histoire ecclésiastique, 2: 221. 61. Guéraud, La chronique lyonnaise, pp. 133f. 62. See the discussions in chapter 3, pp. 74ff., and chapter 4, pp. 111f. 63. Letter to Theodore Beza, 19 November 1561, CO 19: 120f. 64. Institution (1560), 4.20.2226. Cf. Viret, Instruction chrestienne, 447454; idem, Des principaux poincts qui sont auiourd'huy en different, p. 4; Theodore Beza, Traitté de l'authorité du magistrat en la punition des heretiques (Geneva, 1560), pp. 41ff. 65. Institution (1560), 4.20.31; Viret, Remonstrances aux fideles qui conversent entre les Papistes, et qui ont offices publiques, touchant les moyens qu'ilz doivent tenir en leur vocation, à l'exemple des anciens serviteurs de Dieu (Geneva, 1547), pp. 236, 331338; Beza, Traitté de l'authorité du magistrat, pp. 207f. 66. Calvin to the Consistory of the church at Sauve, July 1561, CO 18: 580f. Cf. Pierre Viret, L'Interim, fait par dialogues (Lyon, 1565), pp. 396f.; Linder, The Political Ideas of Pierre Viret, pp. 137f. 67. Institution (1560), 4.20.23. 68. Ibid., 4.20.1. 69. See especially Viret, Instruction chrestienne, 1:8587; and Linder, The Political Ideas of Pierre Viret, pp. 6381. 70. Marcourt, Declaration de la messe, ff. F4vF5r. 71. See chapter 1. 72. Institution (1560), 4.20.4, 6. Cf. Beza, Traitté de l'authorité du magistrat, p. 41; and Viret, Instruction chrestienne, 1:454f. 73. Institution (1560), 4.20.6. 74. Ibid., 4.20.5. 75. La forme des prières, OS 2.21. 76. For representative views of the proponents of absolutism among French legists and the most influential of the defenses of the king's semidivine status, see Grassaille, Regalium Franciae, pp. 63f., 71, 77; Charles du Moulin, Commentarii in consuetudines Parisienses (Paris, 1539); Chasseneuz, Consuetudines ducatus Burgundiae, ff. 3r, 62r, 287rv; and Budé, Annotationes in quatuor et virginti pandectarum libros, p. 67. For studies of the development of absolutist views in sixteenthcentury France, see Church, Constitutional Thought
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in SixteenthCentury France pp. 4373; Julian H. Franklin, Jean Bodin and the Rise of Absolutist Theory (Cambridge, 1973); and Skinner, The Foundations of Modern Political Thought, 2: 254267. 77. Institution (1560), 4.20.4; La forme des prières, OS 2:21. Cf. Viret, Instruction chrestienne, 1: 448454, 604f. That Calvin consistently regarded temporal authority as functional suggests an important parallel to his conception of sacramental efficacy. We would not be very far off the mark if we asserted that for Calvin (to paraphrase Beza on the sacraments) rulers are not rulers outside of their use. 78. See chapter 1. The question of when this infusion occurred—at the moment of the king's consecration, at the death of the previous king, or at some point in the past by God's election of the royal line as a whole—remained open in the sixteenth century, although most royal apologists were moving toward a conception of power residing in the line itself. See Church, Constitutional Thought in SixteenthCentury France, pp. 4373. 79. When the image of the king as willing servant and subject of the "King of kings" was employed by Catholics, it served neither to diminish the sense of connection between God and king nor to emphasize his ordinary humanity but rather to stress the king's capacity to bear the mantle of power and the title of "most Christian king" and so represent to other nations the unique, sacred vocation of the French nation. See Guiffrey, Cronique du roy Françoys premier de ce nom, p. 122; and Beaune, The Birth of an Ideology, 172193. 80. See Calvin, Catéchisme, CO 6: 111113. 81. Galpern, The Religions of the People in SixteenthCentury Champagne, pp. 1620. 82. Calvin, Institution (1560), 3.4.33. It is not unlikely that this biblical story, in which the notion of the Spirit's coming upon (and departing from) one anointed to rule was such a prominent theme, would have come to the minds of those who prayed for the communication of the Spirit to rulers. Calvin, in fact, referred to the story several times in the Institutes (1.14.17; 1.18.2; 2.4.5; 4.10.17; 4.18.9). The relationship between Saul and David, and David's rebellion against Saul's "tyranny" were important features of some of the discussions in Reformed treatises advocating a right of political resistance. See Beza, Du deoit des magistrats, pp. 9, 22, 31, 56; and Vindiciae contra tyrannos, pp. 23f., 33, 4048, 56f., 68ff., 100, 170. 83. Calvin, La forme des prières, OS 2:48. 84. Viret, Instruction chrestienne (1564), 1: 123. 85. See Calvin, Institution (1560), 4.20.1; and the revolutionary pamphlets published in Lyon in 1563: La defense civile et militaire des innocents et de l'eglise de Christ and La juste et saincte defense de la ville de Lyon. The latter is reprinted in L. Cimber and F. Danjou, ed., Archives curieuses de l'histoire de France, 1st ser., vol. 1 (Paris, 1835), pp. 195214. The argument of the former, which is apparently no longer extant, can be determined from the detailed refutation of Charles du Moulin, Apologie contre un livret intitulé: La deffense civile et militaire des innocens et de l'eglise de Christ (Lyon, 1565). See Robert M. Kingdon, Geneva and the Consolidation of the French Protestant Movement, 15641572 (Geneva, 1967), pp. 153ff. For further examples of popular attitudes toward rulers and the royal family, see the poems and songs reproduced and cited in Bordier, Le chansonnier huguenot au XVIe siècle, pp. 204ff., 233ff.; and F. Charbonnier, La poésie française et les guerres de religion, 15601574 (Paris, 1920; reprint, Geneva, 1970), pp. 268271. 86. For these themes in the socalled Calvinist monarchomach writings, see Beza, Du droit des magistrats, pp. 38, 42ff.; and Vindiciae contra tyrannos, pp. 92 129. 87. Despite Calvin's singular declaration that God has conferred an "inviolable majesty" upon the "estate" in which rulers are established (a significant equivocation: majesty is attributed to the office, not the person), the preponderant themes of Reformed discussions of the nature of political authority tended to undermine such an attribution. See Institution (1560), 4.20.29. 88. See Institution (1560), 4.20.1, 4.20.3132. 89. Guéraud, La chronique lyonnaise, p. 134; Haton, Mémoires, p. 375; Crespin, Histoire des Martyrs, 3: 651; Histoire ecclésiastique, 2:221.
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90. Protestant rebels who ransacked the tombs of William the Conqueror and Matilda in Caen, of Jeanne de France (daughter of Louis XI) in Bourges, and ancestors of the Bourbons in Vendôme clearly seem to have been directing their fury at local symbols of a political authority viewed as oppressive. For resentment against the king and royal policy as an aspect of the Protestant revolts in 15601562, see Sainctes, Discours sur le saccagement des eglises Catholiques par les Heretiques anciens, f. 67r; Haton, Mémoires, p. 277; Blaise de Monluc, The Commentaries of Blaise de Monluc, ed. and trans. Ian Roy (London, 1971), pp. 199209; Pierre Courteault, Blaise de Montuc, historien (Paris, 1908), pp. 408f.; Salmon, Society in Crisis, pp. 137ff.; Heller, "Protestantism on the Eve of the Religious Wars," p. 206; and Crouzet, Les guerriers de Dieu, 1: 756ff. 91. Gentian Hervet, Discours sur ce que les pilleurs voleurs, ff. D2rv, E2rv; Sainctes, Discours sur le saccagement des eglises Catholiques par les Heretiques anciens, f. B1r. 92. CO 19: 120f. Conclusion 1. Michele Suriano, Commentarii del regno di Francia, in Relations des ambassadeurs vénetiens sur les affaires de France au XVI siècle, ed. M. N. Tommaseo (Paris, 1838), pp. 517541; abridged trans. by James Bruce Ross as "The Strength and Weakness of France," in The Portable Renaissance Reader, ed. James Bruce Ross and Mary Martin McLaughlin (New York, 1967), pp. 319322. 2. See, e.g., one of Calvin's most popular short vernacular writings: Advertissement tresutile du grand proffit qui reviendront à la Chrestienté s'il se faisoit inventoire de tous les corps sainctz, et reliques, qui sont tant en Italie, qu'en France, Allemaigne, Hespaigne, et autres Royaumes et pays (Geneva, 1543), (seven French editions, three German, and one English in Calvin's lifetime); and Pierre Viret's bestseller, Les Cauteles et canon de la Messe, which appeared in eight impressions before 1605. 3. For the Catholic arguments, see chapter 5. 4. Interestingly, the vagueness of the connection suggested here also appears in more recent analyses of the contribution of Calvinist thought to movements for social change. Henry Heller, for example, traces the radical element in Calvin's thought to his redefinition of what constituted "the religious sphere": "i.e., the extrusion of the Church from control over economic life and a sharp reduction in its temporal powers. It is no wonder then that the monarchy persisted in refusing to see [Calvin's] follows as anything but a threat to the monarchical and seigneurial regime." The leap from the threat to ecclesiastical power to a (supposed) threat to the monarchy and seigneury is not explained. Heller, The Conquest of Poverty. See also Kelley, The Beginning of Ideology, p. 19, for a similar leap; and my discussion in chapter 2, note 122. 5. In fact, in other contexts these Protestant teachings were identified as the source of social unrest. See, on the Reformation in Germany, David V. N. Bagchi, Luther's Earliest Opponents: Catholic Controversialists, 15181525 (Minneapolis, Minn., 1991); and Mark Edwards's reading of Catholic writings in German on Luther's responsibility for the peasants' revolt of 1525, in Printing, Propaganda, and Martin Luther, pp. 149162. 6. This point concerning the capacity of symbols to create new worlds of meaning within which social interests might be very differently constructed deserves more attention than it has typically received in the work of sociologically minded historians of early modern France. Among those studies that have sought to determine what kinds of social experience were conducive to the propagation and spread of new religious ideas, see especially the work of Natalie Zemon Davis collected in her Society and Culture in Early Modern France; Benedict, Rouen During the Wars of Religion; Heller, The Conquest of Poverty; and David L. Rosenberg, "Social Experience and Religious Choice: A Case Study, the Protestant Weavers and Woolcombers of Amiens in the Sixteenth Century" (Ph.D. diss., Yale University, 1978). 7. The significance of this notion of an indirect or unconscious relation between the
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symbolic order that organizes perception and political praxis may perhaps be appreciated when we consider the frequently articulated consternation of scholars of sixteenthcentury Calvinism when confronting the expressed social conservatism of many Reformed leaders. How does one reconcile the conservative intentions of the Reformed with the revolutionary outcome to which the movement seems to have contributed? The solution I offer involves moving beyond expressions of intention to a closer analysis of the function of symbols and the relation between habits of belief and patters of practice. For one statement of the problem see Phyllis Mack Crew, Calvinist Preaching and Iconoclasm in the Netherlands, 15441569 (Cambridge, 1978), p. 3. 8. It was, of course, not Calvin's intention to in any way undermine the reliability of the sacrament as a vehicle conveying Christ to communicants, and he appealed to God's own trustworthiness as the basis for believing that Christ is truly offered and exhibited with the sacramental elements (Institution [1541], 4:25f.). In this respect, Calvin's thinking about the power of God in relation to the sacrament seems to place the emphasis on God's ordained rather than absolute power, to use the distinction characteristic of late medieval nominalism. On this question, see David C. Steinmetz, "Calvin and the Absolute Power of God," Journal of Medieval and Renaissance Studies 18 (1988): 6579. Nevertheless, the stress placed upon divine freedom both in Calvin's own theology and in Reformed writings generally, and particularly in the polemical attacks on the Mass, are in some tension with Calvin's efforts to ensure a reliable and objective sense of the divine presence mediated through the sacramental signs. Moreover, emphasizing the presence of faith as a necessary condition for the reception of Christ in the eucharist merely reinforced the subjective dimension in the Reformed Supper. 9. It should also be recognized that this anxiety over the loss of the eucharist's objective meaning could appear in a pronounced way in the thought of many Protestant writers. Calvin supplies just one of many possible examples. 10. For the rise of confraternities devoted to the sacrament and trends in pictorial depiction of the eucharist, see Philip Benedict, "The Catholic Response to Protestantism: Church Activity and Popular Piety in Rouen, 15601600," in Religion and the People, 8001700, ed. J. Obelkevich (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1979); The Frick Collection: An Illustrated Catalogue, vol. 8, Enamels, Rugs and Silver (New York, 1977), pp. 121129; Robert Harding, "The Mobilization of Confraternities Against the Reformation in France," Sixteenth Century Journal 11 (1980): 85109; Paul Hills, "Piety and Patronage in Cinquecento Venice: Tintoretto and the Scuole del Sacramento," Art History 6 (1983): 3043; Frederick J. McGinness, "Roma Sancta and the Saint: Eucharist, Chastity, and the Logic of Catholic Reform," Historical Reflections 15 (1988): 99116; and C. Scribner, The Triumph of the Eucharist Tapestries Designed by Peter Paul Rubens (Ann Arbor, Mich., 1982). 11. For discussion and evaluation of possible connections between Reformed conceptualizations and new approaches to the natural world, see B. A. Gerrish, "The Reformation and the Rise of Modern Science: Luther, Calvin, and Copernicus," in The Old Protestantism and the New (Chicago, 1982), pp. 163178; and Eire, War Against the Idols, pp. 311ff. 12. See Max Weber, "Science as a Vocation," in From Max Weber, Essays in Sociology p. 155; idem, The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism, trans. Talcott Parsons (New York, 1958); as well as the discussion of the relation between changes in belief and the development of modern technologies, particularly in medicine, in Thomas, Religion and the Decline of Magic, pp. 656ff. 13. Bloch, The Royal Touch, pp. 193f. 14. Myriam Yardeni, "French Calvinist Political Thought, 15341715," in International Calvinism, 15411715, ed. Menna Prestwich (Oxford, 1985); and James S. Valone, Huguenot Politics: 16011622 (Lewiston, N.Y., 1994). 15. I. B. Cowan, The Scottish Reformation: Church and Society in SixteenthCentury Scotland (London, 1982); Alastair Duke, Reformation and Revolt in the Low Countries (London, 1990); Andrew Pettegree, Emden and the Dutch Revolt (Oxford, 1992); F. D. Dow, Radicalism in the English Revolution, 1640 1660 (Oxford, 1985).
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16. The most wellknown of Catholic League borrowings is in Jean Boucher's De justa Henrici Tertii abdicatione e francorum regno, libri quatuor (Paris, 1589), but there are several other similar examples in which indebtedness to Protestant texts, particularly the Vindiciae contra tyrannos, is openly acknowledged. See the discussion in Frederic J. Baumgartner, Radical Reactionaries: The Political Thought of the French Catholic League (Geneva, 1975), pp. 109ff., 168ff. William Barclay (De regno et regali potestate, adversus Buchanuanum, Brutum, Boucherium, et reliquos monarchomachos, libri sex [Paris, 1600]) implicated Protestant writings as the principal source of Catholic radical ideas. Jean Baricave (La defense de la monarchie françoise et autres monarchies contre les detestables et execrable maximes d'estat des ministres Calvinistes par eux mises en lumière en l'an 1581 sous le nom d'Estienne Junius Brutus, et de nouveau publiées en l'an 1611 par Louys de Mayerne Turquet Calviniste sous le titre de la Monarchie aristodémocratique [Toulouse, 1614]) also blamed Protestants, and particularly the Vindiciae, for Catholic sedition, and for the assassination of Henry IV. For a discussion of this development and Catholic charges, see Baumgartner, Radical Reactionaries, pp. 129ff., 142ff.; and George Garnett, ed., Vindiciae, Contra Tyrannos: or Concerning the Legitimate Power of a Prince over the People, and of the People over a Prince (Cambridge, 1994), p. xx. It should be noted that several of the League arguments included an appeal to papal power and the imperative of obedience to the pope. In this respect League political theory departs sharply from its Protestant cousin. Naturally, radical Catholic theorists did not apply to the hierarchical church the critical hermeneutic Protestants did. The church, in their view, was the locus of God's activity on earth. But the semiotic paradigm furnished (indirectly) by Calvinist sacramental theory was useful for League propagandists in supplying a critical perspective on the nature and the use of secular power. 17. Elements of this argument may be seen in a number of writers. See especially Skinner, "The Origins of the Calvinist Theory of Revolution"; and idem, The Foundations of Modern Political Thought, 2:189358; Francis Oakley, "Christian Obedience and Authority, 15201550," The Cambridge History of Political Thought, ed. J. H. Burns (Cambridge, 1991); Robert Kingdon, "Calvinism and Resistance Theory, 15501580," in The Cambridge History of Political Thought; and Crew, Calvinist Preaching and Iconoclasm in the Netherlands. Michael Walzer's The Revolution of the Saints serves as an interesting counterpoint to these perspectives, since he argues that later Calvinist radicalism was grounded in Calvin's thought, but he views this source as specifically nontheological. Naturally Walzer overlooks entirely the impact of Calvin's sacramental thinking. See the insightful criticism of these perspectives in Eire, War Against the Idols. 18. See especially Calvin's extended discussion in Institutes (1559), 4.20.
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Baricave, Jean. La defense de la monarchie françoise et autres monarchies contre les detestables et execrable maximes d'estat des ministres Calvinistes par eux mises en lumière en l'an 1581 sous le nom d'Estienne Junius Brutus, et de nouveau publiées en l'an 1611 par Louys de Mayerne Turquet Calviniste sous le titre de la Monarchie aristodémocratique. Toulouse, 1614. [Baudouin, François.] Ad leges de transfugis desertoribus epistolae ad Calvinum. 1562. [Baudouin, François.] Religionis et regis adversus exitiosas Calvini, Bezae, et Ottomani coniuratorum factiones defensio prima (Cologne, 1562). French translation: Defense premier de la Religion et du Roy, contre les pernicieuses factions et entreprises de Calvin, Beze, et autres leurs complices conjurez et rebelles. Paris, 1562. [Baudouin, François.] Responsio ad Calvinum. Cologne, 1562. [Baudouin, François.] Responsio altera ad Ioannem Calvinum. Cologne, 1562. [Baudouin, François.] Responsio ad Calvinum et Bezam, cum refutatione calumniarum de scriptura et traditione. Paris, 1564. [Baudouin, François.] Advis sur le faict de la reformation de l'eglise, avec response d'un predicateur calumniateur. Paris, 1578. Beauxamis, Thomas. Histoire des sectes tirees de l'armee sathanique, lesquelles ont oppugné le sainct Sacrement du corps et sang de IesusChrist, depuis la promesse d'iceluy faicte en Capernaum iusques à present. Et la victoire de la verité et parole de Dieu contre le mensonge. Paris, 1570. Beauxamis, Thomas. Remonstrance au peuple françois, qu'il n'est permis à aucun subiet, sous pretext que se soit, se rebeller ne prendre les armes contre son Prince et Roy, ny attenter contre son Estat, le tout prouvé par l'Ecriture saincte. Paris, 1575. Beauxamis, Thomas. Déclaration dernier de feu F. Thomas Beauxamis, . . . sur le livre par luy jadis mis en lumiere souz le titre: "Remonstrance au peuple françois qu'il n'est permis à aucun subject souz quelque prétexte que ce soit prendre les armes contre son prince." Paris, 1589. Benoist, René. Claire probation de la nécessaire manducation de la substantielle et réale humanité de Jesus Christ, vray Dieu et vray homme, au S. Sacrement de l'autel. Paris, 1561. Benoist, René. Manifeste et nécessaire probation de l'adoration de JésusChrist, Dieu et homme en l'hostie sacrée tant en la messe que en tout autre lieu auquel elle est présentée aux chestiens. Paris, 1562. Benoist, René. Du Sacrifice évangélique, où manifestement est prouvé que la saincte messe est le sacrifice éternel de la nouvelle loi, que JesusChrist le premier l'a célébrée et commandée aux ministres de son Eglise, avec un petit traité de la maniere de celebrer la S. Messe en la primitive Eglise. Paris, 1564. Benoist, René. Epistre à Jean Calvin pour luy remonstrer qu'il repugne à la parole de Dieu, en ce qu'il a escrit des Images des Chrestiens. Avec un Chrestien advertissement à luy mesme, de se reunir à l'Eglise Catholique et Romaine. Paris, 1564. Benoist, René. Response à ceux qui appellent idolatres, les chrestiens et vrays adorateurs. En laquelle est familierement monstré que c'est qu'adoration: à qui est deuë adoration, et quelle difference il y a entre l'adoration des creatures, et la vraye et souveraine, laquelle est deue à Dieu seullement. Paris, 1564. Benoist, René. Seconde epistre à Jean Calvin, dict ministre de Genéve: En laquelle de poinct de poinct est refutée, par la parole de Dieu, une vaine et pernicieuse imagination de la participation du corps et sang de Jesus Christ, par un decoulement spirituel: Laquelle il a defendue et proposée en son Institution, qu'il dict, Chestienne. Paris, 1564. Benoist, René. Brieve et facile response aux objections d'une damoyselle par lesquelles elle rejecte la saincte Messe. Paris, 1565. Benoist, René. Premier tome des réfutations des impiétez et apertes ignorances proposées contre la religion chrestienne par Jean de l'Espine, soy disant Ministre de la parole de Dieu: Contenant la response aux blasphêmes et cavillations qu'impudemment il a escrit contre le sainct et divin sacrifice de la messe. Paris, 1568. Benoist, René. Une brieve et succincte réfutation de la coene de Calvin. Antwerp, 1569. Benoist, René. Refutation des vains pretendus fondemens de certains lieux de l'escriture saincte desquels
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ordinairement les heretiques abusent pour corrompre la foy des simples, et impugner la presence reale du corps de Jesus Christ en l'hostie sacrée. Paris, 1569. Benoist, René. Resolution et familière exposition de certains lieux et principaux passages tant du vieil que des nouveau testament, desquels les heretiques de ce temps abusent contre la foy catholique, et la verité de l'evangile, pour seduire les simples gens, et donner couleur à leurs heresies. Paris, 1573. Benoist, René. Sermon, sur le cantique O Salutaris Hostia, recité en une procession de S. Eustache au convent des filles religieuses de saincte Claire, dit l'Ave Maria, à Paris, l'an 1577. apres Pasques. Paris, 1577. [Beyer, Hartmann.] Traicté de la Cene et de la Messe contenant vingtquatre Argumens, asçavoir, douze soustenans la Messe estre la Cene de Iesus Christ, Avec douze Responses à la fin d'un chacun d'iceux prouvons le contraire. Et douze autre arguments prins de la Sainte Escriture monstrans clerement que la Messe n'est la Cene de Iesus Christ. Par Andre Epicime. Lyon, 1564. Beza, Theodore. De Coena Domini, plana et perspicua tractatio. In qua Ioachimi Wesphali calumniae postremum editae refelluntur. Geneva, 1559. Beza, Theodore. Confession de la foy chrestienne, contenant la confirmation d'icelle, et la refutation des superstitions contraires. Geneva, 1559. Beza, Theodore. Traitté de l'authorité du magistrat en la punition des heretiques. Geneva, 1560. Beza, Theodore. Ample discours des actes de Poissy. Contenant le commencement de l'assemblee, l'entree et issue du Colloque des Prelats de France, et Ministres de l'Evangile: l'ordre y gardé: Ensemble la harangue du Roy Charles IX. Avec les sommaires, poincts des oraisons de Monsieur le Chancelier, Théodore de Besze et du Cardinal du Lorraine. N.p., 1561. Beza, Theodore. Kreophagia sive Cyclops. Onos syllogizomenos sive sophista. Dialogi duo de vera communicatione corporis et sanguinis Domini, adversus Tilemanni Heshusii somnia. Abstersio aliarum calumniarum quibus aspersus est Ioannes Calvinus ab eodem Heshusio, perspicua explication controversio de Coena Domini. Geneva, 1561. Beza, Theodore. La premiere harangue faicte par M. Theodore de Besze ministre de la parolle de Dieu, en l'assemblee de Poissy, le mardi neufieme iour de septembre mil cinq cens soixante et un: Fidelement recueillie et redigee par escrit ainsi que ledict de Besze la prononçoit. N.p., 1561. Beza, Theodore. La seconde Harangue de M. Theodore de Besze, prononcee à Poissy, en la presence de la Roine mere, les Roy et Royne de Navarre, et autres grans Princes et Seigneurs du Conseil du Roy, Presens Messieurs les Cardinaux, Prelats, et Docteurs: le vingtquatrieme iour du mois de Septembre 1561: Responsive a l'oraison de Monsieur le Cardinal de Lorraine. N.p., 1561. Beza, Theodore. La troisieme Harangue de M. Theodore de Besze, ministre du sainct Evangile, prononcee à Poissy, devant la Maiesté de la Roine, Les Princes du sang, et Seigneurs du Conseil, presens Messieurs les Cardinaux, Prelats, et Docteurs: ledict de Besze assisté de douze Ministres, et douze Deputez des Eglises reformees de ce Royaume. Le vingtsixieme iour du mois de Septembre, 1561. N.p., 1561. Beza, Theodore. Bref traitté des sacremens en genéral, fait en latin par Théodore de Bèze, et nouvellement traduit en françois par Louis des Masures. Lyon, 1564. Beza, Theodore. Apologia ad libellum Sorbonici theologastri F. Claudii de Xaintes, cui titulum fecit: "Examen Calvinianae et Bezanae doctrinae de coena Domini ex scriptis authorum ejusdem collectum." Geneva, 1567. Beza, Theodore. Adversus sacramentariorum errorem pro vera Christi praesentia in coena Domini, homiliae duae, auctore Nathanaele Nesekio. N.p., 1574. Beza, Theodore. De Coena Domini, adversus Iodoci Harchii Montensis dogmata. Geneva, 1580. Beza, Theodore. Pro corporis Christi veritate, adversus Ubiquitatis commentum, et Guilielmi Holderi convitia, responsio. Geneva, 1581. Beza, Theodore. Tractationum theologicarum, in quibus pleraque Christianae religionis dogmata adversus haereses nostris temporibus renovat ac solide ex verbo Dei defenduntur. 3 vols. in 1, 2d edition. Geneva, 1582. Beza, Theodore. De controversiis in Coena Domini. Per nonnvlos nuper in Germania partim renouatis, partim auctis, Christiana et perspicua disceptatio. Geneva, 1594.
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Beza, Theodore. Du droit des magistrats. Ed. Robert M. Kingdon. Geneva, 1970. Bordier, HenriLéonard, ed. Le chansonnier huguenot au XVIe siècle. Paris, 1870. Reprint, Geneva, 1969. Boucher, Jean. De justa Henrici Tertii abdicatione e francorum regno, libri quatuor. Paris, 1589. Boulaese, Jean. L'abbregée histoire du grand miracle par nostre Sauveur et Seigneur JesusChrist en la saincte Hostie du Sacrement de l'Autel, faicte à Laon 1566. Escrite et augmentée avec sa Carte representant le tout au vif, et 1570 dediee a monseigneur le Reverendissime George Cardinal d'Armignac Collegue en Avignon. Paris, 1573. Boulaese, Jean. Le manuel de l'admirable victoire du Corps de Dieu sur l'Espirt maling Beelzebub obtenue à Laon, 1566 . . . prins pour l'extraict et souverain sommaire de tout l'histoire notoire par les heretiques impugnée et publiquement averée par la veuë de plus de cent cinquante mil personnes. Paris, 1575. Boulaese, Jean. Le thresor et entiere histoire de la triomphante victoire du corps de Dieu sur l'esprit maling Beelzebub, obtenue à Laon l'an 1566. Paris, 1578. Boulenger, Jules César. Response catholique au traicté pretendu orthodoxe de l'eucharistie, imprimé à la Rochelle, pour l'opinion des ministres. Paris, 1598. Boulenger, Jules César. Response à l'examen des lieux alleguez par le Sieur Du Plessis Mornay en l'epistre liminaire du livre contre la Messe. N.p., 1598. Boulenger, Jules César. Response catholique au livre du Sieur Du Plessis Mornay de l'institution, usage et doctrine du saint sacrement de l'eucharistie en l'Eglise ancienne. Paris, 1599. Briefve declaration de l'auctorité des Escriptures, et du S. Sacrement de l'autel. Paris, 1561. Britt, Matthew, ed. The Hymns of the Breviary and Missal. New York, 1922. Brutus, Stephanus Junius. Vindiciae contra tyrannos: traduction française de 1581. Ed. H. Weber et al. Geneva, 1979. Brutus, Stephanus Junius. Vindiciae, Contra Tyrannos: or Concerning the Legitimate Power of a Prince over the People, and of the People over a Prince. Ed. and trans. George Garnett. Cambridge, 1994. Bucer, Martin. Apologia qua fidei suae atque doctrinae circa Christi Coenam. Strasbourg, 1526. Bucer, Martin. Novissima confessio Martini Buceri de coena Domini. Leipzig, 1553. Budé, Guillaume. Annotationes in quatuor et virginti pandectarum libros. Basel, 1557. Bullinger, Heinrich. Warhafte bekanntnus der dienernen der Kirchen zu Zürych. Zurich, 1545. Bullinger, Heinrich. Compendium christianae religionis. Zurich, 1569. Burlat, Hugues. Response au livret intitulé Sommaire des raisons que rendent ceux qui ne veulent participer à la Messe. Paris, 1596. Burlat, Hugues. Remarques des blasphemes, erreurs et impostures contenus au livre du ministre Loque publié sous titre des Abus de la Messe. Paris, 1598. Calvin, Jean. Christianae religionis institutio, totam fere peitatis summam, et quicquid est in doctrina salutis cognitu necessarium, complectens: omnibus pietatis studiosis lectu dignissimum opus, ac redens editum. Praefatio ad Christianissimum regem Franciae, qua hic ei liber pro confessione fidei offertur. Basel, 1536. Calvin, Jean. Instruction et confession de Foy dont on use en l'eglise de Geneve. Geneva, 1537. Calvin, Jean. Institution de la religion chestienne: en laquelle est comprinse une somme de pieté, et quasi tout ce qui est necessaire a congnoistre en la doctrine de salut. Composée en latin par Jean Calvin, et translatée en françois, par luymesme. Geneva, Michel du Bois, 1541. Calvin, Jean. Petit traicté de la saincte Cene de nostre Seigneur Jesus Christ. Auquel est demonstré la vraye institution, proffit et utilité d'icelle: ensemble la cause pourquoy plusieurs des modernes semblent en avoir escrit diversement. Geneva, 1541. Calvin, Jean. La forme des prieres et chantz ecclesiastiques avec la maniere d'administrer les Sacramens, et consacrer le mariage, selon la coustume de l'Eglise ancienne. Geneva, 1542. Calvin, Jean. Le catéchisme de l'eglise de Genève: C'est à dire le formulaire d'instruire les enfans en la Chrestienté faict en maniere de dialogue, ou le ministre interrogue et l'enfant respond. Geneva, 1545. Calvin, Jean. Commentarii in priorem epistolam Pauli ad Corinthios. Strasbourg, 1546. French translation: Commentaire sur la premier épistre aux Corinthiens. Geneva, 1547.
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Calvin, Jean. Acta Synodi Tridentinae cum Antidoto. Geneva, 1547. French translation: Les actes du Concile de Trente. Geneva, 1548. Calvin, Jean. Consensio mutua in re sacramentaria ministrorum Tigurinae ecclesiae et D. Ioannis Calvini. Geneva, 1551; Zurich, 1551. French translation: L'Accord passéet conclud touchant la matiere des sacremens entre les ministres de l'Eglise de Zurich et maistre Jehan Calvin. Geneva, 1551. Calvin, Jean. Institution de la religion chestienne. Composée en latin par M. Iean Calvin, et translatée en Françoys par luymesme, et puis de nouveau reveue et augmentée: en laquelle est comprinse une Somme de tout la chrestienté. Geneva, 1551. Calvin, Jean. Defensio sanae et orthodoxae doctrinae de sacramentis eorumque vi fine usu et fructu quam pastores et ministri Tigurinae ecclesiae et Genevensis antehac brevi Consensionis mutuae formula complexi sunt. Geneva, 1555; Zurich, 1555. French translation: Brieve resolution sur les disputes qui ont esté de nostre temps quant aux Sacrements, contenant l'approbation de l'accord faict par ci devant entre les ministres et pasteurs des Eglises de Zurich et Genève, touchant la nature, vertu, fin, usage et fruict des Sacremens. Geneva, 1555. Calvin, Jean. Secunda defensio piae et orthodoxae de sacramentis fidei contra Ioachimi Westphali calumnias. Geneva, 1556. Calvin, Jean. Ultima admonitio ad Ioachimum Westphalum. Geneva, 1557. Calvin, Jean. Institution de la religion chestienne, nouvellement mise en quatre livres, et distinguée par chapitres en ordre et méthode bien propre, augmentée aussi de tel accroissement qu'on la peut presque estimer un livre nouveau. Geneva, 1560. Calvin, Jean. Dilucida explicatio sanae doctrinae de vera participatione carnis et sanguinis Christi in sacra coena ad discutiendas Heshusii nebulas. Geneva, 1561. Calvin, Jean. Responsio ad Balduini convicia. Geneva, 1562. Calvin, Jean. Ioannes Calvini Opera Quae Supersunt Omnia. 59 vols. Ed. W. Baum, E. Cunitz, and E. Reuss. Corpus Reformatorum 2987. Brunswick and Berlin, 18631900. Calvin, Jean. Joannes Calvini Opera Selecta. 5 vols. Ed. Peter Barth and Wilhelm Niesel. Munich, 19261952. Calvin, Jean. Institution de la religion chestienne (1560). 4 vols. Ed. JeanDaniel Benoit. Paris, 1957. Calvin, Jean. Institutes of the Christian Religion. 2 vols. Ed. John T. McNeill. Trans. Ford Lewis Battles. Philadelphia, 1960. Calvin, Jean. Institution de la religion chestienne (1541). 5 vols. Ed. Jacques Pannier. Paris, 1961. Calvin, Jean. Institutes of the Christian Religion (1536). Ed. and trans. Ford Lewis Battles. Grand Rapids, Mich., 1975. Reprint, 1989. Capitis, Fremin. Briefve apologie contre Calvin et ses complices touchant l'administration des sacremens et la maniere de faire les prieres en l'Eglise, et que les traductions de Marot et Beze ne doivent estre appelées Psalmes de David. Reims, 1563. Cassander, Georges. De officio pii ac publicae tranquillitatus vere amantis viri. Basel, 1561. Cassander, Georges. Ordo Romanus de officio missae. Cologne, 1561. Cassander, Georges. Responsio ad calumnias quibus Georgius Cassander in Germanico quodam libello viae commonstrator inscripto, petulanter impetitut: in qua et de eucharistia, quae veterum sit sententia, obiter exponitur; a Bartholomaeo Nernio excepta. Cologne, 1564. Cassander, Georges. Traditionum veteris ecclesiae et sanctorum patrum defensio, adversus Ioanni Calvini importunas criminationes. Cologne, 1564. Cathalan, Antoine. Epistre catholique de la vraye et reale existence du precieux corps et sang de nostre Sauveur Iesus Christ au sainct Sacrement de l'Autel, soubz les especes de pain et de vin. Lyon, 1562. Ceneau, Robert. Appendix ad Coenam dominicam per Reverendum patrem Robertum Episcopum Abricensem doctorem theologum, ordine, et origine Parisiensi. Paris, 1535. Ceneau, Robert. Axioma catholicum, seu institutio christiana, que asseritur et probatur praesentia corporis Christi in eucharistia, adversus Bucerum Berengarianae haeresis instauratorem. Paris, 1534. Ceneau, Robert. Response catholique contre les heretiques de ce temps. Paris, 1562.
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Chandieu, Antoine de la Roche. Histoire des persécutions, et martyrs de l'Eglise de Paris. Lyon, 1563. Chasseneuz, Barthélemy de. Consuetudines ducatus Burgundiae. Paris, 1547. Cheffontaines, Christophe de. La Deffence de la foy de noz ancestres, Auquel la presence reale du corps de nostre Seigneur au sainct Sacrement, est prouvee par plus de 350 Raisons. Paris, 1571. Cheffontaines, Christophe de. Traité de l'exercice de la vraye religion qu'on doit tenir estant au sacrifice de la divine Messe. Paris, 1577. Cheffontaines, Christophe de. De la vertu des paroles par lesquelles se fait la consecration du sainct sacrement de l'autel. Paris, 1585. Cimber, L., and Félix Danjou, eds. Archives curieuses de l'histoire de France. Paris, 18341840. Cinquiesme Article accorde pour la doctrine de la Communion soubz les deux especes, et publié au sacrosainct oecumenique et general Concile de Trente, soubz nostre tressainct pere le Pape Pie IIII. Lyon, 1564. Cochlaeus, Johannes. Ioannis Calvini in Acta Synodi Tridentinae censura et eiusdem brevis confutatio. N.p., 1548. Concordia, libri symbolici ecclesiae evangelicae. Leipzig, 1584. English translation: The Book of Concord. Ed. Theodore G. Tappert. Philadelphia, 1959. Confession catholique du sainct sacrement de l'autel, faicte par Messieurs les Prelatz de France en l'assemblée de Possy. Avec la censure de celle que presenta Theodore de Besze et ses adherens. L'advis des docteurs theologiens de Paris, et de ceux de Reverendissime et illustrissime Cardinal de Ferrare, legat du saint siege Apostolique en France, touchant l'usage des images. Paris, 1562. Crespin, Jean. Historie des Martyrs persecutez et mis à mort pour la Verité de l'Evangile, depuis le temps des Apostres jusques à present (1619; first edition, 1564). Ed. D. Benoît. Toulouse, 18851889. Daneau, Lambert. Deux Traitez. L'un, de la Messe et de ses Parties. L'autre, de la Transsubstantiation de Pain et Vin de la Messe. La Rochelle, 1589. De la puissance des roys contre l'unsurpation du titre et qualité de roy de France faicte par le roy de Navarre. Paris, 1589. De la tressaincte Cene de nostre seigneur Jesus et de la Messe qu'on chante communement. [Basel], n.d. [c. 1532?]. In Francis M. Higman, ''Les débuts de la polémique contre la messe.'' Le livre et la Réforme. Ed. Rodolphe Peter and Bernard Roussel. Bordeaux, 1987. Des Freuz, René. Briefve response aux quatre execrable Articles contre la saincte Messe, escriptz par un auteur incogneu, et publiez à la foyre de Guybray. Paris, 1561. Dialogue du royaume. Paris, 1589. Doré, Pierre. L'arche de l'alliance nouvelle, et testament de nostre Saulveur Iesus Christ, contenant la manne de son precieux corps, contre tous sacramentaires heretiques, Au Roy treschrestien, Henry second de ce nom. Paris, 1549. Doré, Pierre. Anticalvin, contenant deux défenses catholique de la vérité du saincte Sacrement, et digne sacrifice de l'Autel, contre certains faulx escrits, sortiz de la boutique des Sacramentaires, Calvinistes, Heretiques, mis au vent, et semez par certains lieux de ce Royaume, au scandale des fideles et pusilles. Avec un nouveau traicté de nature et grace. Paris, 1568. Draskovics, György. Confutatio eorum quae dicta sunt a Ioanne Calvino super verbis Domini: Hoc est Corpus meum. Padua, 1551. Du Moulin, Charles. Commentarii in consuetudines Parisienses. Paris, 1539. Du Moulin, Charles. Apologie contre un livret intitulé, La deffense civile et militaire des innocens et de l'eglise de Christ. Lyon, 1565. Du Preau, Gabriel. Harangue sur les causes de la guerre entreprise contre les rebelles, et seditieux, qui en forme d'hostilité ont pris les armes contre le Roy en son Royaume: et mesme des causes d'on proviennent toutes autres calamitez, et miseres qui iournellement nous surviennent. Paris, 1562. Du Preau, Gabriel. Du souverain et unique sacrifice de l'Eglise catholique et apostolique. Qui est de la reale
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substantielle, et corporelle presence de l'humanité de Iesus Christ en la Messe, sous les especes de pain et de vin. Avec la confutation des principalles obiections, que les adversaires de l'Eglise de Dieu ont peu forges à l'encontre, pour l'impugner. Le tout fondé sur raisons et authoritez invincible, tant de l'escriture saincte, que des escrits des plus ancients et approuvez Docteurs de l'Eglise saincte, et reduit en forme de Dialogue. Paris, 1574. Dupuyherbault, Gabriel. Consolation des catholiques molestez par sectaires et schismatiques. Paris, 1560. Du Rosier, Hugues Sureau. Sommaire resolution de quelques points de la religion chrestienne, En forme d'Epistre responsive aux escrits publiez par M. Gentian Hervet contre les fideles de l'Eglise d'Orleans. N.p., 1564. Du Rosier, Hugues Sureau. Confession de foy faicte par H. S, Du Rossier avec abiuration et detestation de la profession Huguenotique: faicte tant par devant Prelats de l'Eglise Catholique et Romaine, que Princes du sang Royal de France et autres, ensemble la refutation de plusieus poincts, mis en avant par Calvin et Beze, contre la Foy et Eglise Apostolique. Paris, 1573. Du Val, Antoine. Les contrarietez et contredicts, qui se trouvent en la doctrine de Iean Calvin, de Luter et autres nouveau evangelistes de nostres temps. Demand à Calvin sur son livre de la prédestination. Catechism ou sommaire de la foi contre les heresies de ce temps. Paris, 1561. Du Val, Antoine. Mirouer des Calvinistes et armeure des Chrestiens (first edition, 1559; revised edition, 1560). Paris, 1567. Erastus, Thomas. Vraye et droite intelligence de ces paroles de la Saincte Cene de Jesus Christ, Cecy est mon corps, etc. Lyon, 1564. Espence, Claude d'. Traicté de l'efficace et vertu de la parole de Dieu au Ministere des saincts Sacremens de l'Eglise. Paris, 1563. Espence, Claude d'. Traicté en forme de conférence avec les ministres de la religion prétendue réformée, touchant l'efficace et vertu de la parole de Dieu aux ministère et usage des saincts sacrements de l'église. Paris, 1566. Espence, Claude d'. Apologie contenant ample discours, exposition, response, et deffense de deux conférences avec les ministres extraordinaires de la religion prétendue réformée en ce royaume. Paris, 1568. Espence, Claude d'. Continuation de la tierce conference avec les ministres extraordinaires de la religion prétendue réformée en ce royaume, touchant l'efficace et vertu de la parole de Dieu ès saincts sacremens de l'eglise. Paris, 1570. Espence, Claude d'. "Discours." In H. O. Evennett, "Claude d'Espence et son 'Discours' au Colloque de Poissy." Revue Historique 164 (1930): 4078. Extraict de plusieurs sainctz docteurs propositions dictz: et sentences contenant les graces fruictz, proffitz utilitez et louenges du tressacre et digne sacrement de lautel. Paris, 1568. Les faitz de Jesus Christ et du Pape, par lesquelz chascun pourra facilement congnoistre la grande difference dentre eulx: nouvellement reveuz, corrigez, et augmentez selon la verite de la saincte Escripture, et des droictz canons, par le lecteur du sainct Palais. [Geneva], [c. 1540]. Farel, Guillaume. Le Pater noster et le credo en françoys, avec une tresbelle et tresutile exposition et declaration sur chascun, faicte en forme de contemplation et oraison fort proufitable pour enflamber le cueur et l'esperit en l'amour de Dieu. [Basel, 1524]. Farel, Guillaume. La maniere et fasson qu'on tient en baillant le sainct baptesme. Neuchâtel, 1533. Farel, Guillaume. Summaire et briefve declaration daucuns lieux fort necessaires a ung chascun Chrestien, pour mettre sa confiance en Dieu, et ayder son prochain. Neuchâtel, 1534. Farel, Guillaume. Forme d'oraison pour demander a Dieu la saincte predication de l'Evangile, et le vray et droit usage des Sacremens. Geneva, 1545. Farel, Guillaume. De la saincte Cene de nostre Seigneur Jesus et de son testament confirmé par sa mort et passion. Geneva, 1553. Fontaine, Simon. Histoire catholique de nostre temps touchant l'estat de la religion chrestienne. Antwerp, 1558. Gaches, Jacques. Mémoires sur les guerres de religion à Castres et dans le Languedoc (15551610) et Suite des mémoires (16101612). Paris, 18791894. Reprint, Geneva, 1970.
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Hervet, Gentian. L'Antihugues, c'est à dire, Responce aux escrits et blasphemes de Hugues Sureau, soy disant ministre Caluiniste à Orleans, contre les principaux points de la foy et religion Catholique. Reims, 1567. Histoire ecclésiastique des églises réformées au royaume de France, en laquelle est descrite du vray la renaissance et accroissement di'icelles depuis l'an M.D.XXI. iusques en l'année M.D.LXXIII. leur reiglement ou discipline, Synodes, persecutions tant generales que particulieres, noms et labeurs de ceux qui ont heureusement travaillé, villes et lieux où elles ont esté dressees, avec le discours des premiers troubles or guerres civiles, desquelles la vraye cause est aussi declarée. 3 vols. Anvers[=Geneva], 1580. Modern edition: Ed. G. Baum, E. Cunitz, and R. Reuss. Paris, 18831889. Reprint, Nieuwkoop, 1974. Hotman, Francois. Francogallia. Geneva, 1573. Hugh of Fleury. Tractatus de regia potestate et sacerdotali dignitate. In Monumenta Germaniae Historica: Libelli de Lite. Vol. 2. Hanover, 1897. Jussie, Jeanne de. Le levain du Calvinisme ou commencement de l'hérésie de Genève. Geneva, 1865. La Boëtie, Estienne de. Memoire sur la pacification des troubles. Ed. Malcolm Smith. Geneva, 1983. La Response aux lettres de Nicolas Durant, dict le Chevalier de Villegaignon, addressées à la Reyne mere du Roy. N.p., n.d. Launoy, Matthieu de. Response chrestienne à XXIV articles pleins de blasphemes et absurdités dressés par P. Pineau, dit Desaignes, predicant Zwin Calvinian, contre l'articles de la surnaturelle et miraculeuse transsubstantiation. Paris, 1581. La Vacquerie, Jean de. Catholique remonstrance aux roys et princes chrestiens, à tous magistrats et gouverneurs de republiques, touchant l'abolition des heresies, troubles et schismes qui regnent aujourd'huy dans la chrestienté. Paris, 1560. Le Hongre, Jacques. Sermon prononcé dans l'eglise de Sainct Medard à Paris à la procession solennelle faicte le 14 mai 1562 en reparation des sacrileges commis dans la mesme eglise par les heretiques calvinistes contre le sainct Sacrement de l'autel. Paris, 1563. Le Hongre, Jacques. Ample declaration des trois points conteneus au sacré mistere de la messe, sçavoir de la consecration, oblation et communion du corps et sang du Sauveur Jesu Christ, divisé en trois livres. Rouen, 1566. Le Picart, François. Epistre contenant un traicté auquel est monstré combien est grande la charité de Jesus Christ en l'institution de la Saincte Communion de son pretieux corps et sang, au S. Sacrement de l'Autel. Paris, 1564. Le Picart, François. Sermons et instructions chrestiennes pour tous les dimanches et toutes les festes des saincts, depuis Pasques jusques à la Trinité, avec douze sermons du sainct Sacrement de l'autel et les constitutions de l'eglise catholique et autres sermons. Paris, 1564. L'Espine, Jean de. Discours du vray sacrifice et du vray sacrificateur. OEuvre monstrant à l'oeil, par tesmoinages de la saincte Escripture, les abus et resveries de la Messe, et l'ignorance, superstition et impostures des prebstres. N.p., 1563. L'Espine, Jean de. Dialogue de la cene de nostre seigneur Iesus Christ. N.p., 1565. L'Espine, Jean de. Défense et confirmation du traicté du vray sacrifice et sacrificateur. Geneva, 1567. L'Espine, Jean de. Opuscules théologiques. 2 vols. Stoer [=Geneva], 1598. Les lettres à Jean Calvin de la collection Sarrau. Paris, 1972. L'estrille de Nicolas Durant, dict le Chevallier de Vilegaignon. N.p., 1566. Lindt, Willem van der. Catechisme ou sommaire de la foy et devoir du vray Chrestien, selon la doctrine Evangelique, et sens de l'Eglise, et anciens Docteurs d'icelle: contenant en brief ce que tout Chrestien doit fermement croire, garder et maintenir contre les heresies de ce temps. Recueilly des oeuvres de Guillaume Lindan, Evesque Alleman: et faict François par Gentian Hervet, d'Orleans. Paris, 1561. Lindt, Willem van der. Recueil d'aucunes mensonges de Calvin, Melancthon, Bucere, et autres nouveaux Evangelistes de ce temps, par lesquelles seduisant et donnant faux à entendre aux simples, ils taschent d'introduire et farder leurs venimeuses et fauses doctrines. Paris, 1561. Lindt, Willem van der. Discours en forme de dialogue, ou Histoire tragique en laquelle est nayvement depeinte et descrite la source, origine, cause et progres des troubles, partialitez et differens qui durent
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Index A Absolutism, 2223, 146, 158159, 161, 171, 217 n.76 Acts 1:611, 184 n.44 5:29, 146, 212 n.5 Anabaptists, 145, 214 n.28 Anonymous of Rouen, 22, 23 Antwerp, 31 Apocalypticism, 115, 144 Aristotelianism, 129 Auger, Emond, 120, 139140 Augsburg, Confession of, 116, 117, 130 Augustine, 23, 39, 6263, 95, 123, 131, 191 n.32, 197 n.45, 206 n.48 Authority civil, 9, 51, 53, 75, 111, 116, 139, 146, 156157, 158160, 170, 172 ecclesiastical, 49, 111, 120122, 142, 165, 188 n.122, 219 n.4 of the individual, 910, 49, 109111, 138139, 141143, 164, 165, 204 n.21 of Scripture, 38, 4546, 49, 117, 120, 186 n.91 source of, 5254, 111, 151 symbolic foundations of, 2226, 147, 157, 166 B Basel, 31, 32 Baudouin, François, 116 Benoist, René, 119121, 123, 124, 130, 133, 134, 136, 142, 144 Berengar of Tours, 13 Berne, 29, 31, 32, 45, 186 n.77 Berthoud, Gabrielle, 182 n.102 Beza, Theodore, 59, 81 on Catholic doctrine, 107108 christology of, 104105, 132 Confession de la foy chrestienne, 100, 200 nn.103106 harangue at Poissy, 116117, 131132, 168, 196 n.24 polemics of, 106107 political thought of, 146, 156 and the psalter, 115, 195 n.18 relation to Calvin, 99 on signum and res, 101104, 105106 on union with Christ, 105 on word and sacrament, 100101
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Body of Christ ecclesial, 4243, 149151 mystical, 20, 21, 103, 104, 138, 148149 resurrected, 35, 64, 133135, 192 n.40 substance of, 65, 6768, 82, 109, 193 nn.5657, 194 n.69, 201202 n.156 ubiquity of, 133, 134, 192 n.40 Bourbon, Charles de, 27 Bourbon, house of, 170, 219 n.90 Briçonnet, Guillaume, 181 n.22 Bucer, Martin, 72 Bullinger, Heinrich, 82 C Calvin, Jean Catéchisme, 5960, 61, 189 n.6, 191 n.19 christological doctrine of, 6364 on the efficacy of the eucharist, 6364, 6671 and the extra Calvinisticum, 70 La forme des prieres, 57, 5960, 61, 189 n.5, 190191 n.18 influence of, 72, 86, 88, 9192, 95, 102, 108110 Institution de la religion chrestienne, 56, 59, 60, 61, 188189 nn.34 on instrumentality, 7071, 7576 interest in reform in France, 5860, 190 n.9 as "judaizer," 123 on metonymy, 65, 192 n.47 and perceptions of society, 7476 Petit traicté de la saincte Cene, 56, 5859, 61 political conservatism of, 145146, 156157, 171172 and the Reformed Sursum corda, 6465, 75 rhetorical skill of, 55, 72, 122123 on rulers, 158159, 218 n.77 on sacramental signification, 6171, 73, 7576, 172 on sacraments and power, 6871, 7476 Cassander, Georg, 116 Cathalan, Antoine, 119, 139 Catherine de' Medici, 114, 117, 118 Catholic controversialists on the bodily presence of Christ, 123131 christological ideas of, 131137 ecclesiology of, 120121, 204 n.26 on Protestant rationalism, 121, 133, 141 on Reformed sedition, 77, 137144, 164166 on the sacramental words, 126, 127129 Catholic League, 171 Ceneau, Robert, 180 n.18 Chambre ardente, 78, 194 n.5 Charles IX, 116 Chateaubriant, Edict of, 79 Christ. See also Body of Christ; Communicatio idiomatum; Corpus Christi ascension of, 35, 64, 103, 132, 148 communication of, 62, 66, 6768, 7071, 7374, 82, 91, 9596, 105, 109, 116, 124125, 141143 as divine Word, 128, 136 human and divine natures of, 47, 64, 70, 83, 103, 116, 121, 131137 incarnation of, 2324, 70, 104105, 123, 133, 136 mystical union with, 41, 44, 46 Christoph of Württemberg, 202 n.160 Clovis, 2324, 140 Coakley, Sarah, 175 n.12 Coligny, Gaspard de, 217 n.57 Colloquy of Poissy, 115119, 168 Communicatio idiomatum, 137 Consensus Tigurinus, 8284, 117 Corinthians, First 1:13, 138 10:4, 39 10:16, 67 10:1617, 18, 128 11:2629, 179 n.5 11:2729, 128
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Corpus Christi, 1518, 25, 158, 177 n.21. See also Processions D Daniel, 115, 152153 12:11, 210 n.128 D'Espence, Claude, 117118, 194 n.69, 206 n.53 Dietrich, Veit, 58 Discipline, ecclesiastical, 149151, 214 n.30 Doré, Pierre, 136 Du Bellay, Jean, 27 Du Rosier, Hugues Sureau, 135 Du Val, Antoine, 138, 163, 204 n.21 E Eire, Carlos, 212213 n.13 Eliade, Mircea, 213 n.19 Erasmus, Desiderius, 119, 186 n.96 Eucharist as Christ's Supper, 4144 devotion to, 1418, 130131 efficacy of, 22, 46, 6771, 8891, 94, 100102, 109110, 125127, 129, 140141, 149150 miracles, 1415, 28, 36, 176 n.13 and the opus operatum doctrine, 22, 41, 96, 128 and the real presence, 1218, 23, 3537, 3940, 4647, 72, 90, 94, 109110, 116117, 123125, 127137, 165 and sacrifice, 1819, 20, 3435, 41, 46, 73, 119, 128, 139 as social symbol, 1821, 30, 32, 74, 111112, 137138, 147156, 166169 as symbol of power, 4, 14, 1820, 2126, 52, 74, 157160, 164, 172 and triumph over heresy, 170 words of institution, 3841, 6566, 90, 9596, 106, 119, 127130 Évangéliques, 31, 32, 45, 181 n.22 Excommunication, 149151, 152, 186 n.85, 214 n.31 Exodus 12:11, 39 F Farel, Guillaume, 9, 31, 3637, 55, 72, 73, 78, 81, 82, 92, 181 n.22 career of, 8485 on clergy, 36, 41 on divine transcendence, 4748, 8990 influences on, 45, 86, 88, 9192, 213 n.22 on interiority, 9091, 109110 later writings of, 8492 La maniere et fasson, 33, 4244, 149 on political responsibility, 51, 52, 54 and the Reformed Sursum corda, 4344, 75, 90, 95, 103104, 123 De la saincte Cene, 85 on signification, 9688 Sommaire (1534), 33 Sommaire (1542), 85, 86, 8889, 108 on union with Christ, 4243, 88, 90, 105 on visible and invisible, 37, 4647, 90 First Corinthians. See Corinthians, First First Samuel. See Samuel, First Francis I, 27, 30, 78, 137138, 187 n.102 Francis II, 78, 114 Freedom, Christian, 51, 156157, 165, 172 Freedom, divine. See God G Gadamer, HansGeorg, 174 n.7 Galatians 1:8, 204205 n.29 Gallars, Nicholas des, 58, 188 n.1 Genesis 1:12, 128 17:10, 39 Geneva and religious refuge, 80 role in printing, 5758, 6061, 7981 Genoa, 176 n.18 God act of, 8889, 197 n.47 freedom of, 48, 51, 54, 7273, 74, 8990, 91, 9697, 9899, 143, 153, 155, 159160, 170, 174 n.11
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God (continued) judgment of, 153 power of, 7273, 220 n.8 prevenient grace of, 46 Guise, house of, 7879, 114 H Habits of belief, 164, 167, 219220 n.7 Hebrews, 34 4:15, 136 7:26, 136 9:24, 148 Heller, Henry, 219 n.4 Henry II, 77, 78 Henry III, 171 Henry IV, 170 Heresy, 2832, 137138, 153 and Lèse majesté, 30, 137143 Hermeneutics, biblical Catholic, 119122 Reformed, 3841, 6566, 95, 106 Hervet, Gentian, 77, 112, 119, 121122, 129130, 134136, 140 Hesshus, Tileman, 83, 209 n.104 Higman, Francis, 6061, 187 n.102, 191 n.22 Holy Spirit as agent of sacramental communion, 35, 6871, 74, 8890, 95, 96, 99, 101, 102, 105, 108, 117, 125, 142143 and the church, 120121 and faith, 100 and justification, 87 and power, 6871, 74, 8990, 101 and rulers, 23, 140, 159 and Scripture, 121 Host. See also Processions assaults upon, 154155, 167 as divine epiphany, 14 reservation of, 12, 15 as sacred center, 17, 1921, 154 veneration of, 30, 3637, 48, 64, 93, 107, 130131 Hugh of Fleury, 22 I Iconoclasm, 31, 4950, 111, 115, 139140, 154155, 156, 157, 167, 186 n.96, 216217 n.57 Idolatry, 12, 3637, 44, 4950, 9394, 96, 97, 9899, 107 and Catholic apologetics, 130131, 139140, 141 and Reformed identity, 151156, 157 Images, visual, 28, 98, 181 n.23 Immanence, 188 n.122 Investiture controversy, 22 Isaiah 19:4, 179 n.5 Ivo of Chartres, 22 J Jacobs, Elfriede, 183 n.35 James, Mervyn, 177 n.30 John, Gospel of 1:14, 136 3:8, 142 4:2124, 47 6:40, 40 6:50, 40 6:51, 40, 128, 179 n.5 6:53, 40 6:54, 40 6:5355, 123, 128 6:63, 40, 186 n.96 15:1, 39 19:37, 179 n.5 Jussie, Jeanne de, 183 n.33 K Kelley, Donald, 188 n.122 Kings and kingship coronation and anointing, 2224, 140 as figures of Christ, 22, 24, 25, 179 n.50 God's judgment of, 51, 159160 as God's lieutenants, 146, 158 powers of healing, 24, 140, 170 responsibility for religious life, 5051, 146 and tyranny, 52, 146, 156 Knox, John, 214 n.33
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L La Maisonneuve, Baudichon de, 182 n.26 Lefèvre d'Etaples, Jacques, 32, 45, 181 n.22 L'Espine, Jean de, 203 n.16 Literacy rates, 189190 n.8, 190 n.16 Lorraine, Charles de Guise, cardinal of, 116117 Louis VIII, 24 Louis XI, 161 Louis, Saint, 2425 Louis de Vallois, 155 Luther, Martin, 31, 38, 45, 72, 180 n.19, 183 n.37 Lyon, 31, 115, 182 n.26, 216 n.53 M Magdeburg Bekentniss, 146 Maillard, Olivier, 175 n.2 Malingre, Matthieu, 31, 33, 44 Marcourt, Antoine, 9, 31, 47, 55, 63, 72 Articles veritables, 2829, 33, 34 on Christ's Supper, 4142, 44 criticism of the Mass, 3441 Declaration de la messe, 33, 157 on divine priority, 46, 48 on godly rulers, 5051 influence of Zwingli on, 45, 66, 106 Petit traicte, 29, 33, 45 polemical style of, 33, 182 n.30 and popular activism, 4950, 157 Marcion, 136 Marot, Clément, 115, 195 n.18, 215 n.42 Mary of Guise, 171 Mary Stuart, 171 Mass Catholic defenses of, 127137 Protestant criticisms of, 12, 3441, 45, 5355, 66, 77, 81, 8889, 9394, 9798, 99, 106107 as sacrifice, 46, 119, 128, 139, 183184 nn.3739 songs against, 154, 183 n.33 Matthew, Gospel of 18:20, 39 24:15, 210 n.128 Meaux, 78, 216217 n.57 Melanchthon, Philipp, 72 Mornay, Philippe du Plessis, 212 nn.45 N Nantes, Edict of, 171 Neuchâtel, 29, 31, 32, 55 Nicodemites and Nicodemism, 151152, 199 n.99, 213 n.17, 214 n.37 Notre Dame de Paris, cathedral of, 28 O Obedience, duty of, 51, 146, 156157 Catholic assertions of, 7778, 137143, 163164 and faith, 139 Reformed questioning of, 5254, 111, 157, 158161, 170 Oecolampadius, Johannes, 39, 45, 72, 185 n.62 Opus operatum doctrine. See Eucharist P Paris book trade in, 6061, 7980 and heresy, 2730, 32, 79 Parlement of Paris, 2728, 60, 79, 80 Peirce, Charles Sanders, 3, 1011 Placards, affair of the, 2830, 4849, 55, 187 n.102 Platonism, 142, 186 n.96 Population figures, 190 n.16 Power discourse on, 5, 29, 3031, 147, 160162, 170 economy of, 7475, 111, 172 and sacramental efficacy, 6871 simplicity of, 2122 symbolization of, 45, 2125, 74, 142143, 147148, 157160 Printing and censorship, 30, 6061, 7980 circulation and popular reception, 67, 181182 n.26, 183 n.35, 191 n.35
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Printing (continued) of eucharistic treatises, 3233, 5960, 77, 81, 114115 and Genevan books, 5758, 7981 and public opinion, 113 and the spread of Reformation ideas, 57, 3132 statistics on, 58, 80, 81, 114115, 190 n.10, 195 nn.1718 vernacular and Latin, 6, 81, 113114 Processions Corpus Christi and eucharistic, 15, 1618, 19, 2021, 2728, 2930, 74, 154, 167, 177 n.29 royal entry, 25 Psalms 79:16, 153 99:5, 206 n.48 102:26, 179 n.5 132:18, 179 n.5 137:34, 153 and Reformed piety, 152153, 215 nn.4244, 216 n.53 singing of, 50, 115, 154, 183 n.33 Pyrrhonism, 121122 R Rabelais, François, 182 n.30 Radical Reformation, 172 Raitt, Jill, 200 n.106 Resistance, theories of Calvinist, 146, 157, 160, 170 Catholic, 171, 221 n.16 Revolution, 34, 10, 139, 167, 171172 Romans 13:1, 116 13:17, 51 Rotier, Esprit, 140141 Royal religion, 2324, 30, 158, 178 n.38. See also Kings and kingship Rubin, Miri, 177 n.30 S Sacral monarchy. See Royal religion Sacramentarians, 3132, 72, 8384, 181 n.25 Sainctes, Claude de, 124, 135 Saint Bartholomew's Day massacre, 146, 174 n.10 Saint Germain l'Auxerrois (church), 27 Saints communion of the, 148149, 150 relics of, 1920, 98 Samuel, First, 16:14, 159 Saunier, Antoine, 31 Scholasticism, 68, 101, 122, 129, 191 n.32, 193 n.57 Scripture. See Authority; Hermeneutics, biblical Semiosis. See Signs and signification Sextus Empiricus, 121 Signs and signification, 45, 166167. See also Beza, Theodore; Calvin, Jean; Farel, Guillaume and the Augustinian legacy, 191 nn.3233 language of, 68 and modernity, 170 producing empty figures, 123 reliability of, 168169 and sacramental language, 39 and the social world, 7476 and symbol, 8 Society as a body, 20, 177 n.24 medieval views of, 1718, 1921 Reformed views of, 7576, 147151, 213 n.19 as sacred, 1718, 2932 symbolic constitution of, 1921, 154, 163164 threats to, 50, 110112, 154155 Sorbonne. See University of Paris, Faculty of Theology Spirit. See also Holy Spirit and flesh, 40, 6970, 186 nn.9596 and matter, 4647, 5152, 6263, 70, 7273, 110 Strasbourg, 31, 56, 59, 190 n.17 Substance. See Body of Christ Suriano, Michele, 163164, 167 Symbol and symbolization, 78, 1011, 166168, 219220 nn.78. See also
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Body of Christ; Signs and signification T Thomas Aquinas, 15, 180 n.8 Transubstantiation, 14, 3738, 64, 91, 97, 116117, 129130, 165, 207 n.78 Trent, Council of, 129, 207 n.78 Troeltsch, Ernst, 175 n.12, 213 n.17, 214 n.28 U Ubiquity. See Body of Christ University of Paris, Faculty of Theology, 6061, 79 V Vaudois, 78 Vigor, Simon, 122, 126, 128, 205 n.33 Vincent, Antoine, 115 Vingle, Pierre de, 31, 33, 55, 181 n.21, 181 n.23, 182 n.26 Violence, popular, 156, 160162, 167, 170171, 216 n.50 Viret, Pierre, 31, 82 attacks on the Mass, 12, 2526, 81, 9394 catechetical writings, 9293 Les cauteles et canon de la Messe, 92, 9394 polemic against idolatry, 92 political thought of, 146, 156, 160 on Reformed separation, 9798, 151152 and rhetorical profanation, 9899, 111, 157 on sacramental presence, 9497 W Walzer, Michael, 221 n.17 Wars of Religion, 3, 115, 138, 140, 144, 160 Weber, Max, 75, 170 Westphal, Joachim, 83, 209 n.104 Worship eucharist and, 4144, 149 false, 3637, 41, 49, 51, 54 reform of, 31 spiritual, 32, 44, 4648, 52, 75, 96, 197 n.98 Z Zurich, 32, 8284, 196 n.25 Zwingli, Huldrych, 39, 45, 72, 183 n.37, 187 n.97