The Bloomsbury Handbook of Indian Cuisine 1350128635, 9781350128637

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Also Available from Bloomsbury: The Bloomsbury Handbook of Food and Popular Culture, Edited by Kathleen LeBesco and Peter Naccarato The Handbook of Food and Anthropology, Edited by Jakob A. Klein and James L. Watson The Handbook of Food Research, Edited by Anne Murcott, Warren Belasco and Peter Jackson

THE BLOOMSBURY HANDBOOK OF INDIAN CUISINE Edited by Colleen Taylor Sen, Sourish Bhattacharyya and Helen Saberi

CONTENTS BLOOMSBURY ACADEMIC Bloomsbury Publishing Plc 50 Bedford Square, London, WC1B 3DP, UK 1385 Broadway, New York, NY 10018, USA 29 Earlsfort Terrace, Dublin 2, Ireland BLOOMSBURY, BLOOMSBURY ACADEMIC and the Diana logo are trademarks of Bloomsbury Publishing Plc First published in Great Britain 2023

L ist

of

E ntries 

L ist

of

I llustrations 

P reface 

xviii

A cknowledgements  N otes

on

vi xvi

T ext 

xix xx

Copyright © Colleen Taylor Sen, Sourish Bhattacharyya, Helen Saberi and contributors, 2023

Introduction

1

Colleen Taylor Sen, Sourish Bhattacharyya, and Helen Saberi have asserted their rights under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act, 1988, to be identified as Editor of this work.

Entries

7

For legal purposes the Acknowledgements on p. xix constitute an extension of this copyright page. Cover image: Ramayana, Bala Kanda. Udaipur, 1712 © The British Library Board. Add. 15295, f.148. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage or retrieval system, without prior permission in writing from the publishers. Bloomsbury Publishing Plc does not have any control over, or responsibility for, any third-party websites referred to or in this book. All internet addresses given in this book were correct at the time of going to press. The author and publisher regret any inconvenience caused if addresses have changed or sites have ceased to exist, but can accept no responsibility for any such changes. A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. Library of Congress Control Number: 2022948392 ISBN: HB: 978-1-3501-2863-7 ePDF: 978-1-3501-2864-4 eBook: 978-1-3501-2865-1 Typeset by Integra Software Services Pvt. Ltd. To find out more about our authors and books visit www.bloomsbury.com and sign up for our newsletters

B iographies 

410

I ndex 

413

ENTRIES

ENTRIES

vii

25

Barley

42

26

Basil

42

27

Bene Israelis

43

28

Bengaluru

44

29

Ber

46

1

Achaya, K.T.

7

30

Berries

47

2

Agra Petha

7

31

Bihar

49

3

Ajmud

8

32

Bikaneri Bhujia

52

4

Ajowan

9

33

Biryani

53

5

Alcohol

9

34

Bohras

55

6

Amaranth

18

35

Bombay Duck

56

7

Amla

19

36

Breads

57

8

Ammal, S. Meenakshi

19

37

Butter Chicken

63

9

Amritsar

20

38

Buttermilk

65

10

Andhra Pradesh

21

39

Camphor

66

11

Anglo-Indians

23

40

Capsicum

67

12

Aniseed

26

41

Cardamom

67

13

Appam

26

42

Carey, William

68

14

Apple

27

43

Carrot

70

15

Apricot

29

44

Cassava

71

16

Arunachal Pradesh

30

45

Cassia

72

17

Asafoetida

31

46

Cheese

73

18

Ashoka

32

47

Chennai

74

19

Assam

33

48

Cherries

77

20

Aubergine

37

49

Chhana

77

21

Bael

38

50

Chhattisgarh

78

22

Bamboo Shoots

39

51

Chicken 65

79

23

Banana

41

52

Chicken Manchurian

80

24

Barfi

42

53

Chillies

81

viii

ENTRIES

ENTRIES

ix

54

Chinese Indian Cuisine

83

83

Drumstick

133

55

Chutney

86

84

East Indians

134

56

Cinnamon

88

85

Eggs Kejriwal

134

57

Citrus Fruits

89

86

Falooda

136

58

Clove

90

87

Fasting

136

59

Coconut

91

88

Fennel

139

60

Coffee

93

89

Fenugreek

139

61

Cookbooks, Early

94

90

Firni

140

62

Cooking and Dining

97

91

Firpo, Angelo

140

63

Coriander

102

92

Fish

141

64

Corn

103

93

Fish Koliwada

144

65

Country Captain

104

94

Flower Waters

145

66

Cucumber

104

95

Flurys

146

67

Cumin

105

96

Food and Medicine

147

68

Curry

106

97

Gandhi, Mohandas

150

69

Curry Leaves

108

98

Garlic

152

70

Curry Powder

109

99

Geographical Indication

153

71

Dabbawallahs

110

100 Ghee

153

72

Dairy Sector

111

101 Ginger

154

73

Dalal, Tarla

116

102 Goa

155

74

Dates

117

103 Gourds

157

75

de Orta, Garcia

118

104 Guava

159

76

Delhi

119

105 Gujarat

160

77

Devi, Pragyasundari

123

106 Haleem

162

78

Dhabas

124

107 Halwa

163

79

Dharwad Pedha

126

108 Haryana

163

80

Diaspora

127

109 Himachal Pradesh

165

81

Dorabjee & Sons

131

110 Honey

166

82

Dosa

132

111 Hyderabad

167

x

ENTRIES

ENTRIES

xi

112 Ibn Battuta

170

141 Lal, Premila

211

113 Ice

171

142 Landour Community Centre Cook book

211

114 Idli

174

143 Lassi

213

115 Irani Cafes

175

144 Ledikeni

214

116 Jackfruit

176

145 Lichens

214

117 Jaffrey, Madhur

177

146 Lotus

215

118 Jalebi

178

147 Lucknow

216

119 Jambu

179

148 Lychee

218

120 Jammu and Kashmir

180

149 Madhya Pradesh

218

121 Jamun

183

150 Maharashtra

222

122 Jharkhand

184

151 Manasollasa

227

123 Kachori

187

152 Mangaluru

228

124 Kanji

188

153 Mango

230

125 Karnataka

189

154 Manipur

232

126 Kebab

194

155 Mappilas

233

127 Kedgeree

197

156 Mathew, Mrs KM

235

128 Kerala

197

157 Mavalli Tiffin Rooms

235

129 Kheer

198

158 Megasthenes

236

130 Khichri

199

159 Meghalaya

237

131 Khoya

199

160 Melons

238

132 Khus Khus

200

161 Millets

239

133 Kodavas

200

162 Mint

241

134 Kofta

202

163 Mizoram

242

135 Kohinoor, Boman

203

164 Modaka

243

136 Kokum

204

165 Mughals

244

137 Kolkata

204

166 Mukhopadhyay, Bipradas

248

138 Kulfi

208

167 Mulberry

249

139 Ladakh

208

168 Mumbai

250

140 Laddu

210

169 Mushrooms

252

xii

ENTRIES

ENTRIES

xiii

170 Mustard

253

199 Poppy Seeds

288

171 Mysore Pak

254

200 Potato

289

172 Nagaland

254

201 Poultry and Eggs

290

173 Nairs

255

202 Puducherry

292

174 Neem

257

203 Pulao

293

175 Nigella

258

204 Pulses

294

176 Nihari

258

205 Punjab

297

177 Ni’matnama

258

206 Rabri

301

178 Nutmeg and Mace

260

207 Radish

301

179 Nuts

260

208 Railway Food

302

180 Odisha

262

209 Raita

304

181 Okra

266

210 Rajasthan

304

182 Onion

266

211 Rama Rau, Santha

307

183 Paan

267

212 Rampur

308

184 Pakora

269

213 Rasgulla

309

185 Palghat Iyers

270

214 Rice

310

186 Palmer, Edward

272

215 Riddell, Dr Robert Flower

314

187 Paneer

273

216 Rites of Passage

315

188 Panjabi, Camellia

274

217 Saffron

327

189 Papad

274

218 Sahni, Julie

328

190 Papaya

275

219 Salt

329

191 Parsis

276

220 Sambar

330

192 Peliti, Federico

280

221 Samosa

331

193 Pepper, Black

281

222 Sandesh

332

194 Pepper, Long

282

223 Sapodilla

333

195 Pickles

283

224 Sesame

334

196 Pineapple

285

225 Sev and Seviyan

335

197 Plums

286

226 Sheherwalis

336

198 Pomegranate

287

227 Sherbet

337

xiv

ENTRIES

ENTRIES

xv

228 Shrewsbury Biscuits

337

257 Vadas

395

229 Shrikhand

339

258 Varanasi

395

230 Sikkim

339

259 Vark

398

231 Sindhis

340

260 Vegetarianism

398

232 Singh, Mrs Balbir

341

261 Vindaloo

401

233 Singh, Raja Digvijaya

342

262 West Bengal

401

234 Soft Drinks

343

263 Wheat

406

235 Spice Box

348

264 Woodapple

407

236 Steel, Flora Annie

357

265 Wyvern

407

237 Stokes, Satyananda

358

266 Yam

408

238 Street Food

359

239 Sugar

363

240 Sweets

365

241 Syrian Christians

369

242 Tamarind

371

243 Tamil Nadu

372

244 Taro

375

245 Tea

376

246 Telangana

379

247 Temple Food

381

248 Thandai

385

249 Tiffin

385

250 Tomato

386

251 Tripura

387

252 Turmeric

387

253 Turnip

389

254 Udupi Restaurants

389

255 Uttar Pradesh

390

256 Uttarakhand

393

ILLUSTRATIONS

ILLUSTRATIONS

xvii

25

KEBAB. Shami kebabs

195

26

KEBAB. Seekh kebabs

195

27

KODAVAS. Women rolling kadambuttus, steamed rice dumplings

200

28

LADDU. Besan laddus

210

29

LASSI. Kolkata lassi shop

213

9

30

LUCKNOW. Shop making nihari

216

1

ALCOHOL. Rice beer of Assam

2

APPAM. Neyappam is a Kerala speciality

26

31

MAHARASHTRA. Vada pav

222

3

ASSAM. Tea smoked in bamboo tube – Shing Po tribe

33

32

MODAKA

243

4

BAEL

38

33

MUGHALS. Babur and a banquet of roast goose

244

5

BIHAR. Bihari thali

49

34

NUTS. Nutseller, Delhi

261

6

BIRYANI. Kolkata biryani

53

35

ODISHA. Chenna poda, a popular dessert

263

7

BOMBAY DUCK. Fried Bombay duck

56

36

PAAN. Paan in Varanasi

268

8

BREADS. Phulka

58

37

PAKORA

269

9

BREADS. Cooking rumali roti

58

38

RICE

311

10

CAREY, WILLIAM

69

39

SAMOSA. Samosas and chutney served at a roadside stand

331

11

CHILLIES. Chilli vendor, Mumbai

81

40

SPICE BOX. Turmeric on sale in the market

349

12

CHINESE INDIAN CUISINE. Sing Cheung sauce factory, Kolkata

84

41

STREET FOOD. Plate of momos

359

13

COOKING AND DINING. Idli pan

98

42

STREET FOOD. Students enjoying street food in New Delhi

360

14

COOKING AND DINING. Grinding stone

98

43

SUGAR. Sugarcane mill driven by bullock

363

15

CURRY LEAVES. Curry leaves (Murraya koenigii)

108

44

SWEETS. Sweet stall in Mathura, Uttar Pradesh

365

16

DABBAWALLAHS. Dabbawallahs tiffin carrier

110

45

TEA. The Colonel’s Morning Tea

376

17

DHABAS. Dhaba on a highway near Delhi

125

46

TEMPLE FOOD. Langar at the Gurdwara Bangla Sahib

382

18

DIASPORA. Menu in Doubles Shop, Santa Cruz, Trinidad

127

47

TEMPLE FOOD. Annakuta at a Swaminarayan temple

382

19

DOSA

132

48

VARANASI. Morning tea

396

20

EGGS KEJRIWAL

135

21

FISH. Fishing in village pond in Bengal

142

22

FLURYS. Iconic Kolkata restaurant

146

23

JAMMU AND KASHMIR. Rogan josh

180

24

KARNATAKA. Lunch on a banana leaf

189

PREFACE

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Editing and writing this book proved to be a challenge. How can the cuisine of a country as vast, as diverse and as ancient as India be summarized in a single volume? Every state of India, indeed every city (and perhaps even certain neighbourhoods) warrants a book of this scope and size. We see this book as the next iteration in the ever ongoing expansion of the body of knowledge of and writing on Indian food. While we have written much of the book ourselves, we have also drawn on the expertise of India’s leading food writers, whose names will be familiar to every aficionado of Indian food. These writers bring their own unique and personal perspective to their subjects. While striving for consistency in content and style, we have tried to retain the writers’ own voices. And to some extent the available expertise has determined what topics are covered. There are a great many areas of Indian cuisine that still await their chroniclers. The only works of a similar scope were written by the late K.T. Achaya more than twenty years ago. Achaya, a scholar of Sanskrit as well as a noted food chemist, focuses to a large degree on historical roots of Indian cuisine. Since then, much has changed. More states have been added to the Republic of India, including Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh and Uttarakhand, whose cuisines are different from what is mainstream. This work contains what may be the most comprehensive description yet of the ingredients that go into Indian cuisine, especially the individual spices and spice mixtures that give it its unique flavours. Furthermore, the history and usage of ingredients essential – potato, chilli, onion, garlic, paneer, pulses, ghee, etc. – and special – ajowan, kokum, lotus, etc. – are described. Iconic dishes such as butter chicken and dosas have their own separate entries. There are major entries on important topics such as alcohol, breads, spice mixtures and rites of passage. The book also features profiles of individuals who have had a major impact on the development of Indian food, including agriculturalists, restaurateurs, authors and rulers (Ashoka, the Mughals). The connections between food and medicine and food and worship are explored in separate entries. New creations such as chicken 65 have become international favourites. The Indian diaspora has been the source of exciting new dishes, such as roti, the national food of Trinidad and Tobago. And recent years have seen a surge in the writing of not only collections of recipes, but also articles and, even, entire books on regional and local cuisines in both English and Indian languages – some of them written by contributors to this work. The availability of such work was a great help in putting together this work which would have been much more difficult to write ten years ago.

This book could not have been written without the contributions of the twenty-seven writers who generously shared their expertise in their areas of speciality. We owe a great debt of gratitude to Jyotirmay Nirjhar who reviewed the copy and put it into its final form; Nirjhar is a paragon among editors. Thanks to our agent Max Sinsheimer who solved some of the knotty problems that arose during the book’s creation, and to Lily McMahon and Kaveya Saravanan, our editors at Bloomsbury Berg for their patience. Above all we thank our spouses – Ashish Sen, Kaveree Bamzai and the late Nasir Saberi – for their understanding and continuing support.

NOTES ON TEXT

Introduction Cross-references to other entries are indicated in the text in small caps but not for states and union territories, which have separate entries. We attempted to be as thorough as possible with the cross-referencing. Most entries are followed by suggestions for further reading. The English spelling of words in Hindi and other languages was a challenge since there is no recognized system of transcription; for example, laddu/laddoo, pakora/pakoda, etc. In these cases we have relied on common usage. We also had to make a decision about when to italicize ‘foreign’ words and have used the Oxford English Dictionary as a guide and, in some cases, also made our own calls about which words we thought would be ‘foreign’ to our non-Indian readers.

India is an extremely diverse country, virtually almost a universe by itself. Perhaps no other nation has such a multiplicity of languages, religions, communities, ethnicities – and cuisines. The seventh-largest country by area, the second largest in population and the most populous democracy in the world, India occupies most of the land mass called the Indian Subcontinent and stretches 3,214 km from north to south and 2,933 km from east to west. Some of India’s twenty-nine states (plus seven union territories, including the capital delhi) are larger than many countries. Indians speak eighteen official languages and more than sixteen hundred minor languages and dialects. More than 80 per cent of Indians are Hindus and 12 per cent are Muslims, making India the world’s third largest Muslim country after Indonesia and Pakistan. India also has 30 million Christians belonging to different denominations; 15 million Sikhs, plus small communities of parsis (Zoroastrians), Jains, Buddhists, Jews and Animists. A common belief is that Indians are overwhelmingly vegetarian but only 39 per cent of Indians are vegetarian (mainly Hindus and Jains). Many Indians practise varying degrees of vegetarianism: avoiding meat on certain religious holidays or during certain fasts, for example. Eating patterns are also rooted in moral and medical beliefs in Ayurveda, the ancient Indian school of medicine; Unani, the traditional Islamic medical system; and folk beliefs (see food and medicine). India is still predominantly a rural country, with 70 per cent of the population living in villages. Most rural Indians are engaged in farming, much of it on a subsistence level. As a result, even today most Indian food is produced regionally and locally and is highly seasonal. In urban areas, where incomes are higher, people have access to a wider variety of food. Eating out in restaurants is still a relative luxury but India has a vibrant street food economy which plays an important role in meeting people’s nutritional needs. Geographers divide India into three regions. In the North, the Himalaya Mountain range extends for 2,400 km from northern Pakistan to southern Tibet in China and the northeastern tip of India. This range has served as a barrier to both cold Arctic winds and invaders. Melting snows from the mountains and seasonal rains feed the three great river systems: the Indus, the Yamuna-Ganga and the Brahmaputra. Their basins form the 2,400 km long fertile Indo-Gangetic plains. The western portion, once covered with forests, is today a barren wasteland, the Great Thar Desert. The northern states of Punjab and Haryana are the breadbasket of Indian producing wheat and other grains, while the eastern states of West Bengal and Assam produce two or even three crops of rice a year. Thus, the basic staples are wheat-based breads in the West and rice in the East. The third region is the Deccan Plateau, sometimes called Peninsular India, which is separated from the plains by the Vindhyas and other mountain ranges of Central India. They served historically as a barrier to communication between southern and northern

2

THE BLOOMSBURY HANDBOOK OF INDIAN CUISINE

India and led to the development of distinct cultures, languages and cuisines in the southern states of Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Telangana and the union territory of Puducherry. The Western Ghats, a mountain range running down the southwest side of India, blocks the rain that blows from the Arabian Sea during the Monsoon season, giving the plateau, which lies on its leeward side, a hot dry climate. Between the Western Ghats and the Arabian Sea lies the narrow Malabar Coast, one of India’s most fertile regions and now part of the state of Kerala. This was the centre of India’s spice industry since Roman times and where the first Europeans arrived in the fifteenth century. The traditional Indian calendar had six seasons:

−− −− −− −− −− −−

Vasanta (spring), mid-March to mid-May. (Many festivals are held at this time.) Grishma (summer), mid-May to mid-July. Varsha (rainy or monsoon), mid-July to mid September. Sharad (autumn), mid-September to mid-November. Hemant (winter), mid-November to mid-January. Shishir (cool season), mid-January to mid-March.

In Ayurveda, the traditional Indian system of medicine, the seasons determined diet, with cooling foods recommended in the hot months, drying foods in the wet seasons and so on. Today the Indian Meteorological Department designates four official seasons: winter (December to early April), summer/pre-monsoon (roughly April to June), rainy/monsoon (June to September) and post-monsoon (October to December). The timing of the monsoons and the amount of rain they bring are critical for food supplies. Before modern methods of irrigation and the ‘Green Revolution’, the failure of the monsoon resulted in devastating famines. The heaviest rainfall (more than 2,000 mm a year) falls in Northeast India and along the western coastal strip. Here rice, which requires a lot of water for cultivation, is the main crop. The northern plain receives moderate rainfall, between 1,000 and 2,000 mm annually, but many crops, including wheat, can still be grown without irrigation. Wheat, a winter crop which is the dietary staple in northern India and Pakistan, is sown at the end of the rainy season and ripens in December. barley also grows in northern India. Much of India has two growing seasons: winter and summer. Winter crops, called rabi, are sown in the winter and harvested in the summer, while summer crops, or kharif, are sown in the summer and harvested in the winter. The low rainfall zone (500–1,000 mm) is home to dry-zone crops, including varieties of millets which can be grown without irrigation even when there is little rainfall. corn flourishes on the plains and in the hills and can thrive in both dry and moderately damp regions. Sugarcane is grown nearly everywhere but today most is grown in the irrigated lands of the Upper Ganges Basin and Punjab. The first humans probably came to India from East Africa around 65,000 years ago. The earliest known inhabitants lived all over the subcontinent but were, over the millennia, pushed into the forests. The staples of these early inhabitants included rice, millet, barley, lentils (moong, masoor and urad, see pulses), gourds, aubergine (eggplant), banana, jackfruit, citrus fruits and mangoes – all native to the Subcontinent. Ancient spices include long pepper (see pepper, long), turmeric, ginger, tamarind and the betel nut, while oil came from sesame and mustard seeds. Chickens (see poultry and eggs) were first bred by these early inhabitants, although probably for fighting and not for eating.

INTRODUCTION

3

The cradle of Indian civilization rose around 3000 BCE on the alluvial plains of the Indus Valley in a vast area today located in Pakistan and Northwest India, extending from Gujarat almost to the gates of Delhi. Called the Harappan or Indus Valley Civilization, this network of five cities and 1,500 towns had well-developed agriculture, with sophisticated irrigation and water storage systems; planned cities; and extensive trade with the Middle East. Its script has never been deciphered so much about it remains a mystery. It reached its height between 2600 BCE and 1900 BCE. Around 1300 BCE it began to gradually disintegrate, perhaps for environmental reasons, and its residents scattered throughout India, merging with local populations. Their diet included wheat and barley bread baked in tandoor-like ovens, chickpeas, lentils, river and ocean fish, baked tubers, dairy products including buffalo milk, melons, dates (used for sweetening), and spices such as turmeric, black pepper (see pepper, black), ginger and garlic. Around 1500 BCE, the speakers of an Indo-Aryan language related to Sanskrit and many modern Indian and European languages began migrating in small groups from the northwest into the Subcontinent. They were in search of better pastures for their cattle and also arable land; dairy products, including ghee, were an important part of their diet. The Rig Veda, an ancient text probably composed 1500–1200 BCE, alone contains seven hundred references to the cow. Their original staple was barley, which was parched and eaten whole, ground and made into cakes fried in ghee, or made into a porridge. Later they grew wheat and rice which they might have learned how to cultivate from the indigenous people. They also ate many kinds of pulses. Sugarcane, native to India, was grown and processed into jaggery and other forms of sugar. The Vedas (1500–900 BCE), collections of hymns, incantations, chants, prayers for life and prosperity, and philosophical speculations, were composed and passed down orally at this time. Their rituals centred around animal sacrifice performed by Brahmin priests and the meat from the animals killed was consumed. Some of the concepts and rituals were the basis for the religion today called Hinduism, although that name was not used until fairly recently. One of their most intriguing foods was a hallucinogenic drink called soma which was offered to the gods, but today no one knows what it was. In the Northeast, people in the so-called Seven Sister states (Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland and Tripura) belong to nearly 500 ethnic groups with distinct languages, customs and cuisines. Their ancestors came from southwestern China and South East Asia and arrived in several waves of migrations after the coming of the Indo Aryans. Because of these ties, their food has distinctive features such as minimal use of spices and oil, fish and sticky rice. In the South, farmers cultivated rice, sugarcane, black and long pepper, coconuts and other crops. The Sangam Age from 300 BCE to 300 CE (named after the Sangam academies of poems and scholars in Madurai) was a period of cultural and artistic refinement and culinary sophistication. Festivals, feasts and meals were abundant. The five traditional landscapes of mountains, forests, fertile plains, deserts and the coastal region each had their own food cultures. Clans and tribes morphed into states and the period starting around 600 BCE saw the rise of kingdoms, republics and cities. Ultimately one state, Magadha, with its capital in Pataliputra, conquered or assimilated the others to become the dominant power in northern and eastern India. Its centre in modern Bihar was home to large deposits of iron, which led to the production of iron tools and implements, including the plough. ashoka Maurya (r. c. 268 to 232 BCE), considered one of India’s greatest rulers, ruled over almost the entire Subcontinent as far as Persia. This period saw the rise of cities and the

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THE BLOOMSBURY HANDBOOK OF INDIAN CUISINE

development of urban culture which was accompanied by philosophical debates, the rise of ascetic movements and the emergence of two major religions, Jainism and Buddhism. These religions emphasized personal behaviour and asceticism, rejected animal sacrifice and advocated vegetarianism – ideas that were eventually adopted by the adherents of the Vedic religion. After the fall of the Mauryas around 183 BCE, smaller empires and kingdoms arose and eventually were consolidated under the Guptas who ruled much of India from the fourth to the late sixth century CE. This is called the Golden Age of Indian civilization when art and literature flourished. India was one of the wealthiest countries in the world, exporting spices and luxury goods to Europe and China. During this period, the technique of refining sugar was developed and spread to China and the Middle East. By the sixth century CE Christianity was firmly established in southwestern India (see syrian christians). Small communities of Jews were also established on the West Coast (see bene israelis). The Medieval Period (from the decline of the Guptas to the rise of the Mughal Empire in 1526) was characterized by the emergence of several strong regional centres. During this period the first collection of recipes appeared (see cookbooks, early). In the eight century CE, Arabs arrived on the West Coast, bringing Islam. Between 1200 and 1500, North India was ruled by various dynasties of Afghan and Turkic origin. They enriched native Indian dishes with dried fruits and introduced many new dishes from Central Asia and the Middle East, including samosa, halwa, haleem, biryani, kulfi and nihari. In the West, Rajput rulers in present-day Rajasthan established powerful small kingdoms. Regional dynasties such as the Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas flourished in the South. South Indian food was well documented as early as the tenth century CE and mentioned precursors of such dishes as idlis, dosas, vadas, papadums (see papad) and many kinds of pickles. By the fifteenth century Indian was fragmented politically. The power vacuum was filled by Babur, the ruler of a small kingdom in Central Asia, who invaded Punjab in 1526 and declared himself the ruler of all Hindustan. He founded what came to be called the mughal dynasty. By the end of his reign in 1605, his grandson Akbar had extended the empire over all northern India as well as parts of the Deccan Plateau. Akbar’s son Jahangir (1605–27) and grandson Shah Jahan (1627–58) preserved and extended the empire. The Rajput rulers were allowed to maintain their kingdoms in return for their loyalty. But by the early eighteenth century, the empire began to disintegrate. In 1738 the Persians invaded India and defeated the Mughal army. From their base in Western India, the Marathas took over major territories of the Mughal Empire. Meanwhile, foreign powers were making inroads, starting with the Portuguese who arrived on the West Coast in search of spices. They established a fortress at Goa which became a key link in the worldwide chain of Portuguese forts around the world and the hubs of a global exchange of fruits, vegetables and other plants between the Western Hemisphere, Africa, Oceania and the Indian Subcontinent – the so-called ‘Columbian Exchange’. As a result many new ingredients entered Indian cuisine, including the potato, tomato, chillies, peanuts, guavas and pineapples. Other European countries set up settlements, including the Dutch, the French (see Puducherry), the Danes and the British who eventually pushed out all their rivals and gradually came to dominate most of the Subcontinent. The British East India Company (EIC), a corporation founded in 1600, set up trading posts at sites that became kolkata and chennai. It had its own army and, in 1757, the EIC and its Indian allies defeated the Mughal army, installing puppet rulers in Bengal, Odisha and Bihar. The British

INTRODUCTION

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government established a civil service and in 1857, following a revolt by Indian troops, it took direct control, ruling from its capital in Calcutta, which in 1911 was moved to Delhi. Around two-fifths of India was left to quasi-independent rulers who were vassals of the British. Until the early nineteenth century, the EIC men in India lived much like the locals: speaking Indian languages, marrying Indian women and eating food prepared by local cooks. The meals eaten at British settlements were similar to those eaten by the Mughals, featuring heavily spiced pulaos and biryanis, curries, kebabs and khichri. But after 1857 many of the bridges between Indian and British cultures were destroyed. British wives, the so-called ‘memsahibs’, had no interest in exploring Indian cuisine and culture and dishes such as legs of lamb, boiled chicken and articles imported from England became the order of the day. However, a hybrid cuisine also emerged, such as mulligatawny soup, kedgeree and curries made with ready-made curry powder, first produced in London in the late eighteenth century. The British also introduced tea drinking to India after discovering tea growing in the Northeast and launching a tea industry in India. Indian influence also spread abroad. After slavery was abolished in the British Empire in 1833, the freed African slaves were replaced by people from the Subcontinent, especially Bihar and eastern Uttar Pradesh, and later from South India. They agreed to work as indentured labour for five years after which they could stay on or return home; most stayed on. Between 1834 and 1917 when the system was abolished, nearly 1.5 million Indians migrated to Trinidad, Guyana, Jamaica and Mauritius. Later the system was extended to South Africa, Malaysia and Fiji. Members of this diaspora brought their own religions, cultures and cuisines which were adapted to new soils and climates. In the process, new hybrid cuisines were created. Discontent with British rule grew and in the twentieth century, Mahatma gandhi led a nonviolent movement for independence. Independence was achieved in 1947 when the Subcontinent was partitioned into the independent nations of India and Pakistan (which in 1971 was further divided into Pakistan and Bangladesh). The decades since 1947 have seen many dramatic changes in the way Indians eat. The Green Revolution greatly increased Indian grain production, ending the famines that had plagued the country, while the White Revolution boosted the production of milk and dairy products. Although street food has been a part of Indian life from times immemorial (stands selling take-out food go back to the third century BCE, if not earlier), eating out in restaurants had not been a part of Indian culture. This changed dramatically in the second half of the twentieth century when fast food and restaurants serving both Western and Indian food proliferated. Television cooking shows helped spread awareness of other Indian cuisines. Hospitality and culinary institutes sprung up everywhere, and those who prepare food have been elevated from ‘bawarchi’ to ‘chefs’. Discussions of Indian food sometimes emphasize its diversity and the contribution of foreign influences. However, there is a historical continuity that makes Indian food ‘Indian’. The commonality of aubergine, mangoes and other ingredients native to the Subcontinent; the intensive use of spices (with a few exceptions, such as the Northeast); the importance of dairy products; a love of sweets; and the integration of food and medicine are threads that run through the history of Indian cuisine and make Indian food the brilliant palette of flavours it is today.

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Entries ACHAYA, K.T. Kollegal Thammu Achaya (1923–2002) was a pioneering food historian whose Indian Food: A Historical Companion, published by Oxford University Press India in 1994, was the first comprehensive history of Indian food. Born in Kollegal, Tamil Nadu (now in Karnataka), Achaya came from the kodava community. In 1942, he graduated in Chemistry (Hons) from Madras University and spent three years at the Indian Institute of Science in Bangalore researching oil, fats and foods. His first book (with K.S. Rangappa) was Indian Dairy Products (1974). After receiving his PhD from the University of Liverpool, Achaya established a School of Fat Chemistry and Technology in hyderabad (today the Indian Institute of Chemical Technology). In 1971, he moved to mumbai as Executive Director of the Protein Foods and Nutrient Development Association of India. In 1974, he wrote Your Food and You and in 1975, he co-authored Cottonseed Chemistry and Technology. In 1977, he moved to the Central Food Technological Research Institute in Mysore. In 1984, he published Everyday Indian Processed Food. After retiring in 1978, Achaya started writing about food from a historical standpoint. His works include Oilseeds and Oil Milling in India: A Cultural and Historical Survey (1990), Ghani: The Traditional Oil Mill of India (1997), The Food Industries of British India (1994), and The Story of Our Food (2000). In 1998, Oxford University Press published A Historical Dictionary of Indian Food – an alphabetical guidebook with entries on food items, regional cuisines, dishes, cooking techniques and other topics. A lifelong bachelor, Achaya was described by his editor Rukun Adavani as, ‘dapper, a bit like the actor David Niven’, and slim, despite his love of Indian flavours and preparations. Colleen Sen ●●

Sen, Mayukh. ‘Setting the Table: K.T. Achaya’s Pioneering Scholarship on Indian Food’. Caravan Magazine, 31 May 2018.

AGRA PETHA Petha is a candied sweet made from two main ingredients – ash gourd (Benincasa hispida, Hindi petha, kashiphal) and refined sugar. The ash gourd is widely grown in the region around Agra in Uttar Pradesh, with demand supplemented with supplies from Karnataka. Sugar, too, is abundantly processed in the region and transported to Agra. Some sugar is supplemented from Maharashtra. Family-owned cottage industries dominate petha production in Agra. The Noori Darwaza locality in Agra is an important production site and is also the largest petha market in the area.

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Ripe ash gourds are ideal for making petha. As they ripen on the vine, they get heavier and take on a thick layer of a whitish, waxy coating. Washing and scrubbing help remove the waxy coating from the harvested gourds. Care is taken to ensure the thorough removal of the thick skin, pith and seeds. The gourd is cut into smaller chunks. Workers use a wooden stamp with pinheads (gudai) to puncture holes in the ash gourd pieces. Pricking is a very vital step as it allows for better absorption of liquids during processing. The process starts by dissolving a paste of calcium hydroxide (chuna) in water. The ash gourd pieces are soaked in this water overnight. The salt tenderizes the ash gourd and helps reduce the cooking time in the next stage of processing. The pieces are thoroughly rinsed and boiled in fresh water. Some manufacturers add alum (phitkari) at this stage. The ash gourd pieces are cooked for about fifteen minutes or until translucent. The soaking of raw ash gourd pieces in lime, pricking and boiling in alum water help maximize the sugar solution’s osmotic diffusion. The ash gourd is then boiled in a simple syrup until the solution reduces and begins to crystallize. This process may take up to an hour. The sugar syrup is sometimes flavoured with rosewater or screw pine water (kewra) (see flower waters). The pieces are then separated and allowed to dry completely before being packed and sent to various points of sale. Manufacturers prefer canning petha in a semi-dry state for export. Petha flavoured with grapes, pineapple, saffron, rose, paan, mango and coconut have become available in recent years. The traditional coal-fired stoves used for cooking have come under scrutiny as a significant cause of air pollution in the area. Only about 40 per cent of the ash gourd is usable as there is much wastage when the skin, pith and seeds are removed. Because of the unorganized nature of the industry, large areas of decomposing organic waste are an additional source of air pollution. Priya Mani

ALCOHOL

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AJOWAN Ajowan (ajwain, ajowain), Trachyspermum ammi, is an umbelliferous plant which grows in Afghanistan and Iran but chiefly in India (largely in Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Punjab, Rajasthan, Bengal, Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh). Its Sanskrit name is yavani, meaning ‘the Greek spice’, which suggests that it may have arrived in India via one of the Greek kingdoms of the Middle East. It is related to ajmud, caraway and cumin, although its taste is quite different, having a close affinity to thyme. The small, tear-shaped, ochre coloured seeds, sometimes referred to as carom seeds or lovage, are aromatic and pungent. For centuries, ajowan has been used in cooking in India to flavour vegetables, especially root vegetables such as potatoes and radishes. Ajowan is also used sparingly in stews, rice dishes, pickle- and chutney-making and chaat masala (see spice box), as well as to flavour breads, biscuits and fried snacks such as sev (see sev and seviyan), pakoras and papads. Ajowan is mainly cultivated for its essential oil, the main ingredient of which is thymol, a germicide and antiseptic. It is also used for digestive purposes, either added to foods or made into an infusion. It alleviates flatulence, indigestion, colic and other bowel disorders. It is also used to help decongest the lungs. Helen Saberi ●●

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Dalby, Andrew. Dangerous Tastes: The Story of Spices. London: British Museum Press, 2000. Devi, Yamuna. The Art of Indian Vegetarian Cooking. London: Leopard Books, 1995.

ALCOHOL AJMUD

Ajmud, (Trachyspermum roxburghianum), is a plant related to celery and is sometimes called wild celery. It is widely cultivated in India. Its small dried fruits, commonly referred to as seeds, look similar to those of ajowan, celery and caraway. In fact, they are often confused with or substituted for celery seeds which are also, confusingly, often given the name of ajmud. The seeds have a strong flavour with a smell similar to parsley and taste like celery. They are used to flavour pickles, chutneys and preserves as well as curries and kormas and are often used to alleviate digestive problems. In West Bengal, where it is known as radhuni, it is commonly used in the famous Bengali dish of mixed vegetables and bitter gourd called shukto. It is also, sometimes, part of the Bengali spice mixture called panch phoron (see spice box). The leaves, which smell of carrots, are sometimes used as a substitute for parsley. Helen Saberi ●●

Facciola, Steve. Cornucopia II: A Source Book of Edible Plants. Vista, CA: Kampong Publications, 1998. FIGURE 1  ALCOHOL. Rice beer of Assam. Chiring Chandan/Wikimedia Commons.

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For a long time, India’s national identity was thought of as linked to a sense of abstinence from alcohol which was ‘corrupted’ by the coming of the Europeans. However, recent research shows that this is an invented tradition of colonial times. From early India, Sanskrit and Pali texts and texts from medieval India, Persian and other language contain information not just about abstinence, control and prohibition but also narratives of alcohol. While the exploration of drinks and drinking culture are important, there is a third aspect which is equally intriguing – the ambivalence of attitude towards drinking which changes with the setting. As the saying goes, a drink without the right accompaniments and company might not reveal all its flavours. Decisive evidence of liquor production in Harappan urban settlements (c. 3000–2200 BCE) is lacking even though starchy sources and utensils have been found in archaeological excavations. The earliest literary evidence of a drinking culture among Indians is in the ancient Vedic texts (c. 1500–1000 BCE) where two eponymous drinks – soma and sura – emerge as complementary and antithetical to the other. Soma is pure, clear and light with divine associations used for rituals while sura denotes the falsehood and darkness, debasing qualities of intoxicated individuals. The soma plant is elusive and has not been identified conclusively. Sura, on the other hand, had more tangible associations. This grain-based drink was a fermented brew made from barley, rice or wheat flour in a semi-solid state through saccharification. Sanskrit sources mention the fermentation of different ingredients to make sura which shows that this was a generic