The Bible in the Churches: How Various Christians Interpret the Scriptures [3 ed.] 0874626285, 9780874626285

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The BIBLE in the

CHURCHES How Various Christians Interpret the Scriptures

KENNETH HAGEN, EDITOR

rita BEBÍ

•MU

MARQUETTE UNIVERSITY PRliSS

Marquette Studies in Theology No. 4 Andrew Talion, Series Editor

Cover design by Joan Skocir Assistant to the Editor: Aldemar Hagen

Copyright © 1 9 9 8 by Joseph A. Burgess, Kenneth Hagen, Daniel J. Harrington, Grant R. Osborne, Michael Prokurat, Marion L Soards, George H . Tavard

Library o f C o n g r e s s C a t a l o g i n g - i n - P u b l i c a t i o n D a t a The Bible in t h e c h u r c h e s : h o w v a r i o u s C h r i s t i a n s i n t e r p r e t t h e S c r i p t u r e s / [edited b y K e n n e t h H a g e n ] . — 3 r d ed. p.

c m . — ( M a r q u e t t e s t u d i e s in t h e o l o g y ; 4)

I n c l u d e s b i b l i o g r a p h i c a l references a n d i n d e x . ISBN 0-87462-628-5(pbk.) 1. B i b l e — C r i t i c i s m , i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , e t c . — H i s t o r y . 2. B i b l e — H e r m e n e u t i c s . BS500.B5443

I. H a g e n , K e n n e t h . II. Series.

1998

220.6'09—dc21

97-45377

MARQUETTE UNIVERSITY PRESS

T h e A—ucialioii of Jesuit l/niver^ily P r e s s e s

Contents Preface: T h i r d E d i t i o n

iv

Preface: S e c o n d E d i t i o n

v

Preface: First E d i t i o n The History of Scripture Kenneth Hagen

vi in the

1

Catholic Interpretation of D a n i e l J. H a r r i n g t o n . S.J Orthodox

Interpretation

Church

Scripture 29

of

Scripture

Michael Prokurat Lutheran

Interpretation

61 of

Scripture

J o s e p h A . Burgess Evangelical Interpretation G r a n t R. O s b o r n e Reformed

Interpretation

101 of

Scripture 129

of

Scripture

M a r i o n L. Soards Scripture

as the Word of Cod and

159 the Ecumenical

Task

G e o r g e H . T a v a r d , A.A

175

Index and Scripture Citations

199

List o f C o n t r i b u t o r s

218

T H K BIBI.K IN THK C H U R C H E S

IV

PREFACE Third Edition Everything stated in the prefaces t o t h e first a n d s e c o n d edition c o n tinues t o pertain in t h e third edition. T h e t h i r d edition is revised a n d e x p a n d e d . A new c h a p t e r has been a d d e d for t h e Reformed tradition by M a r i o n L. Soards. A n index has been prepared a n d a d d e d by J o a n Skocir. A n o t e t o teachers u s i n g this v o l u m e for a text: page n u m b e r s have c h a n g e d . In t h e (initial) H i s t o r y C h a p t e r , s o m e h e a d i n g s have b e e n c h a n g e d a n d s o m e stylistic c h a n g e s have b e e n m a d e , b u t t h e s u b s t a n c e a n d m a t e r i a l covered are t h e s a m e . D a n i e l H a r r i n g t o n ( R o m a n C a t h o l i c ) has a d d e d s o m e p a r a g r a p h s a t t h e e n d of his treatm e n t of E p h . 2 : 1 - 1 0 , a n d s o m e b i b l i o g r a p h i c i t e m s . The O r t h o d o x c h a p t e r ( M i c h a e l P r o k u r a t ) is c o n s i d e r a b l y e x p a n d e d ; a fuller treatm e n t in t h e text a n d n o t e s has resulted. The following c h a p t e r s remain the same: L u t h e r a n (Joseph Burgess), Evangelical ( G r a n t O s b o r n e ) , a n d Ecumenical (George Tavard). The s e c o n d e d i t i o n o f T h e Bible in t h e C h u r c h e s , as d o e s t h i s e d i t i o n , c o n t a i n s c h a p t e r s t h a t are different in focus. Since t h e b e g i n n i n g of o u r u n d e r t a k i n g as an i n s t i t u t e in 1 9 8 2 , w e have b e e n aware of t h e different s h a p e t h e s e c h a p t e r s have t a k e n . In t h e s e c o n d a n d t h i r d e d i t i o n , I t h i n k it is fair t o say t h a t H a r r i n g t o n , O s b o r n e , a n d S o a r d s are m o r e historical a n d d e s c r i p t i v e in t h e i r a p p r o a c h e s ( h o w t h e Bible is u n d e r s t o o d a n d u s e d in t h e i r t r a d i t i o n s ) , w h i l e Burgess a n d P r o k u r a t are m o r e a p o l o g e t i c a n d assertive ( w h y t h e Bible s h o u l d b e u n d e r s t o o d as it is in t h e i r t r a d i t i o n s ) . I have felt all a l o n g t h a t these differences were a p l u s , in t h a t t h e y reflect t h e c h u r c h s c h o l a r at w o r k o n t h e sacred text. E a c h c h a p t e r c o n t i n u e s t o be confessional. Kenneth Hagen October, 1997 For t h e record: M a r q u e t t e U n i v e r s i t y Press in A u g u s t 1 9 9 6 ran a l i m i t e d , slightly revised r e p r i n t of t h e s e c o n d e d i t i o n o f T h e Bible in t h e C h u r c h e s . Revisions w e r e m a d e o n l y in t h e P r o k u r a t c h a p t e r . A n d t h e list o f c o n t r i b u t o r s was u p d a t e d t o give his n e w p o s i t i o n . T h e i n t e n t of t h e press was t o g e t a few h u n d r e d copies o u t q u i c k l y for fall class use. T h e q u i c k e s t w a y t o tell t h e difference b e t w e e n t h e s e c o n d a n d revised s e c o n d e d i t i o n ( b o t h b e a r i n g t h e i m p r i n t d a t e of 1 9 9 4 ) is t o l o o k at t h e List of C o n t r i b u t o r s : For t h e revised s e c o n d e d i t i o n [ 1 9 9 6 ] , P r o k u r a t ' s address is Texas. The v o l u m e is b e i n g u s e d as a text by an increasing n u m b e r o f professors.

T H E BIBI.F IN THK C H U R C H E S

v

PREFACE Second Edition In 1 9 8 5 I h e Bible in t h e C h u r c h e s (Paulist), w h i c h essentially was a text d e d i c a t e d t o h o w C a t h o l i c , L u t h e r a n , a n d Evangelical c h u r c h e s have u n d e r s t o o d a n d u s e d t h e Bible, was p u b l i s h e d . A h i s t o r y o f t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e Bible from t h e early c h u r c h t o t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y was also i n c l u d e d . The v o l u m e sold o u t by F e b ruary 1992. S i n c e t h e u n a v a i l a b i l i t y of T h e Bible in t h e C h u r c h e s , I have a c c e p t e d t h e c h a l l e n g e t o see w h a t c o u l d be d o n e t o b r o a d e n t h e a p p e a l o f a revised v o l u m e for college a n d s e m i n a r y use. A single v o l u m e serves a real n e e d for t h o s e i n t e r e s t e d in h o w t h e c h u r c h e s actually a p p l y t h e S c r i p t u r e s . N o o n e v o l u m e c u r r e n t l y exists in E n g l i s h — o n e t h a t engages t h e s t u d e n t w i t h t h e r e c e p t i o n o f t h e S c r i p tures in t h e m a j o r C h r i s t i a n t r a d i t i o n s w r i t t e n b y representatives of t h e living t r a d i t i o n s . I n c l u d e d in t h e revised e d i t i o n are representatives of t h e R o m a n C a t h o l i c , E a s t e r n O r t h o d o x , L u t h e r a n , a n d Evangelical t r a d i t i o n s o n t h e h i s t o r y o f t h e Bible in t h e i r c h u r c h e s p l u s a c o n c l u d i n g c h a p ter b y G e o r g e T a v a r d . In an effort t o m o v e b e y o n d a n o t h e r v o l u m e o n t h e h i s t o r y o f h e r m e n e u t i c s , each of t h e c o n t r i b u t o r s exegetes E p h e s i a n s 2:1 - 1 0 , w h i c h gives a c o n c r e t e e x a m p l e of h o w t h e c h u r c h e s r e a d t h e s a m e text so differently. I n t e r e s t in t h e h i s t o r y of biblical i n t e r p r e t a t i o n c o n t i n u e s t o i n crease in scholarly historical circles; p l u s w e c o n t i n u e t o h e a r challenges t o t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y historical-critical m e t h o d o l o g i e s . It is a m a z i n g a n d gratifying t h a t interest in c h u r c h h i s t o r y as t h e h i s t o r y of biblical exegesis ( G e r h a r d E b e l i n g ) is actually b e i n g d o n e t h r o u g h o u t E u r o p e a n d t h e U n i t e d States. M a r q u e t t e U n i v e r s i t y Press, A n d r e w T a l l o n , D i r e c t o r , b e c a m e a s t r o n g s u p p o r t t o press o n w i t h a n e w a n d revised e d i t i o n . A l d e m a r H a g e n did the hard technical work. Kenneth Hagen D e c e m b e r 10, 1 9 9 3

T H E BIBI.K IN THK C H U R C H E S

PREFACE First E d i t i o n The idea for this v o l u m e o n biblical i n t e r p r e t a t i o n in t h e c h u r c h e s g r e w o u t o f a n i n s t i t u t e c o n v e n e d b y K e n n e t h H a g e n a n d h e l d at M a r q u e t t e U n i v e r s i t y in M i l w a u k e e in t h e s u m m e r of 1 9 8 2 . The goal o f t h e p r o j e c t was t h e e x p l o r a t i o n o f t h e m u c h a c c l a i m e d "crisis" in biblical study. The i n s t i t u t e e x a m i n e d t h e e c u m e n i c a l significance of biblical s t u d y t o d a y a n d in h i s t o r y as a s o u r c e o f b o t h u n i t y a n d division a m o n g t h e c h u r c h e s . K e n n e t h H a g e n ( L u t h e r a n ) , professor of t h e o l o g y at M a r q u e t t e , b e g i n s b y t r a c i n g t h e h i s t o r y of biblical i n t e r p r e t a t i o n from early Christianity to the nineteenth century. T h e o t h e r three contributors assess h o w t h e Bible is i n t e r p r e t e d in their respective t r a d i t i o n s , give a n exegesis of a c o m m o n text ( E p h . 2 : 1 - 1 0 ) , a n d p r o v i d e s o m e b i b l i o g r a p h i c s u g g e s t i o n s . A l t h o u g h t h e basic f o r m a t o f t h e s e t h r e e c o n t r i b u t i o n s is t h e s a m e , t h e a u t h o r s were free t o discuss w h a t e v e r t h e y c o n s i d e r e d m o s t p e r t i n e n t a n d m o s t v a l u a b l e in a d v a n c i n g t h e c o n versation. D a n i e l J. H a r r i n g t o n , S.J. ( C a t h o l i c ) , professor of N e w Testam e n t at W e s t o n S c h o o l of T h e o l o g y in C a m b r i d g e , M a s s . , investigates t h e e x t e n t t o w h i c h C a t h o l i c biblical scholars have a c c e p t e d a n d a d a p t e d t h e critical m e t h o d s d e v e l o p e d largely in P r o t e s t a n t circles. G r a n t R. O s b o r n e (Evangelical), professor o f N e w T e s t a m e n t at T r i n i t y - E v a n g e l i c a l D i v i n i t y S c h o o l in Deerfield, 111., e x p l a i n s h o w t h e evangelical a p p r o a c h to S c r i p t u r e d e v e l o p e d o u t o f t h e h i s t o r y o f t h e C h u r c h in general a n d o u t of late n i n e t e e n t h a n d early t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y A m e r i c a n f u n d a m e n t a l i s m in p a r t i c u l a r . J o s e p h A. Burgess ( L u t h e r a n ) , executive d i r e c t o r o f t h e D i v i s i o n of T h e o l o g i c a l S t u d i e s for t h e L u t h e r a n C o u n c i l / U S A in N e w York, N.Y., deals w i t h s o m e of t h e u n d e r l y i n g theological issues from a L u t h e r a n p e r s p e c t i v e . T h e brief c o n c l u s i o n b y H a r r i n g t o n tries t o focus t h e areas o f c o n v e r gence and divergence. Kenneth Hagen organized the 1982 institute, directed the p r o g r e s s of t h e w r i t i n g p r o j e c t , a n d served as general e d i t o r of t h e v o l u m e . D a n i e l J. H a r r i n g t o n a c t e d as c o p y e d i t o r a n d w o r k e d o n relations w i t h t h e p u b l i s h e r . Kenneth Hagen March 1984

THE HISTORY OF SCRIPTURE IN THE CHURCH by

KKNNKTH HAGKX

PARI' O N K : EARLY C H U R C H TO THE REFORMATION

M

o d e r n biblical s c h o l a r s h a v e d e a l t w i t h S c r i p t u r e since t h e s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y in t e r m s of t h e v a r i o u s critical m e t h o d s . It was n o t always t h a t way. T h e c o n c e r n for " m e t h o d , "

w h e t h e r in t h e o l o g y o r m e d i c i n e o r logic, etc., b e c a m e i m p o r t a n t in t h e s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y a n d has c o n t i n u e d t o d o m i n a t e t h e intellectual s c e n e . T h e crisis t o d a y in s c r i p t u r a l s t u d y is d u e largely t o t h e develo p m e n t of t h e "historical-critical m e t h o d " after t h e s i x t e e n t h c e n tury. S i n c e t h a t m e t h o d has so d o m i n a t e d P r o t e s t a n t a p p r o a c h e s t o S c r i p t u r e for c e n t u r i e s a n d C a t h o l i c a p p r o a c h e s m o r e recently, P a r t Two will l o o k at t h e rise of t h e historical-critical m e t h o d . T o l o o k a t t h e h i s t o r y o f S c r i p t u r e before t h e m o d e r n c h u r c h , t h e m a t e r i a l in P a r t O n e will b e d i v i d e d i n t o four s e c t i o n s : (I) The Early C h u r c h , (II) T h e H i g h M i d d l e Ages, (III) T h e Late M e d i e v a l P e r i o d , a n d (IV) T h e Early R e f o r m a t i o n . In each case t h e s u b d i v i sions will t r e a t t h e place of t h e Bible in theology, t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e B i b l e , a n d a key figure ( A u g u s t i n e , A q u i n a s , E r a s m u s , a n d L u t h e r , respectively). I. T H E EARLY C H U R C H

A. T h e Place o f the Bible in T h e o l o g y For a b o u t t h e first t h o u s a n d years t h e o l o g y was sacrapagina

(sa-

c r e d p a g e ) . F r o m t h e age of t h e Fathers u p to t h e rise of t h e s c h o o l s ( S c h o l a s t i c i s m ) , t h e s o u r c e o f t h e o l o g y was t h e s a c r e d p a g e o f S c r i p t u r e . T h e o l o g y was all w r a p p e d u p in t h e s t u d y of G o d ' s s a c r e d i m p r i n t in H o l y W r i t .

T H E HISTORY OI SCRIPTURE IN THE C H U R C H

2 1

T h i n k of m o n a s t i c life. It was t h e m o n a s t i c c o m m u n i t y ( m o r e so in t h e W e s t ) t h a t p r e s e r v e d l e a r n i n g u p t o t h e t i m e o f t h e s c h o o l s or universities. They were t h e bearers of classical a n d C h r i s t i a n civilization. T h i n k o f t h e m o n k in t h e S c r i p t o r i u m w o r k i n g w i t h S c r i p t u r e before t h e m o v a b l e p r i n t i n g press a n d t h e p h o t o c o p i e r . T h e disc i p l i n e d life e n t a i l e d c o p y i n g S c r i p t u r e , s i n g i n g it in t h e h o l y office, p r a y i n g it, c a r r y i n g it in t h e h e a r t t h e w h o l e day. The m o n k a n d n u n lived in t h e w o r l d o f t h e Bible. Their w h o l e life was c o n n e c t e d w i t h S c r i p t u r e . It was s o m e t i m e in t h e R e n a i s s a n c e (different t i m e s for different places) t h a t p e o p l e b e g a n t o see a difference b e t w e e n t h e i r c o n t e m p o r a r y c u l t u r e a n d t h e age o f t h e Bible. The m o n a s t i c s c o u l d n o t disassociate t h e m s e l v e s f r o m S c r i p t u r e . It is h a r d for us t o i m a g ine t h a t b e c a u s e w e have t h e Bible in a black b o o k , w e can t a k e it off t h e shelf, r e a d it, a n d t h e n p u t t h e b o o k b a c k ( o u t o f s i g h t , o u t of m i n d ) . The m o n a s t i c c o u l d n o t p u t t h e Bible away. The Bible was n o t a b o o k . The Bible w a s in t h e h e a r t . F r o m t h e earliest t i m e s o n , t h e place o f t h e Bible in t h e o l o g y was t h a t t h e Bible was t h e o l o g y a n d t h e o l o g y was t h e Bible. The Fathers refuted heresies, t h e m o n k s p r e s e r v e d t h e S c r i p t u r e s a n d Traditions, all o n t h e basis o f t h e Bible. T h e o l o g y was n o t s o m e s e p a r a t e discip l i n e as it b e c a m e in t h e h i g h M i d d l e Ages a n d as it is today. For t h e early p e r i o d t h e Bible was t h e s o u r c e o f all t h a t i s — G o d ' s w o r k in his c r e a t i o n a n d in his C h u r c h , a n d t h a t w o r k is e n c a p s u l a t e d in t h e monastic community. B. T h e Interpretation o f the Bible 'The Bible was seen t o c o n t a i n v a r i o u s senses o r levels o f m e a n i n g , s o m e t i m e s m a n y levels. The Bible was so rich, so full of m e a n i n g , t h a t its d e p t h o f m e a n i n g c o u l d n o t be e x h a u s t e d b y a literal r e a d i n g . 'The early c h u r c h o n u p t o t h e d i s c o v e r y of A r i s t o t l e was i n f l u e n c e d b y P l a t o n i c p h i l o s o p h y . In P l a t o n i c p h i l o s o p h y t h e p a r ticular t h i n g (in S c r i p t u r e , t h e letter of t h e text) is a m i r r o r o f reality. 2

:

" T h e m o n a s t i c vocation was as m u c h for w o m e n as for m e n ; indeed, it is often w o m e n w h o may justly claim the priority as monastic pioneers" (Kallistos Ware, "Eastern C h r i s t e n d o m " in The Oxford History of Christianity, ed. J o h n M c M a n n e r s [Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993] 140). ' T h e literal approach of the Antiochene school in the early period was an exception. In fact t h r o u g h o u t the medieval church, m o r e so in manuscripts t h a n in w h a t later was printed, a literal approach can be found, a l t h o u g h very m u c h the exception.

Ki N \ : ri: HAGEN

3

The reality is t h e fuller m e a n i n g . As t h e m o n a s t i c s read S c r i p t u r e t h e y find s h a d e s o f m e a n i n g far b e y o n d w h a t first m e e t s t h e eye. " T h e letter kills, b u t t h e Spirit gives life" (2 C o r . 3:6) was N e w Testament w a r r a n t for t h e Fathers a n d t h e m o n a s t i c s t o d i s t i n g u i s h b e t w e e n t h e literal a n d t h e s p i r i t u a l m e a n i n g . T h e N e w T e s t a m e n t itself, in its i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e O l d , d i s t i n g u i s h e s b e t w e e n t h e literal a n d s p i r i t u a l m e a n i n g . T h e p a t t e r n for i n t e r p r e t i n g S c r i p t u r e is c o n t a i n e d w i t h i n S c r i p t u r e . I n t e r p r e t i n g S c r i p t u r e m e a n t explicati n g t h e s p i r i t u a l d e p t h s o f m e a n i n g expressed in t h e letter. F o r us, i n t e r p r e t a t i o n m e a n s b r i d g i n g t h e g a p b e t w e e n an a n c i e n t t e x t a n d t h e m o d e r n w o r l d . W h e n t h e r e is o n l y o n e w o r l d , t h e r e is n o s e p a r a t i o n . So i n t e r p r e t a t i o n m e a n t c o m m e n t i n g , a n n o t a t i n g , e x p l a i n i n g t h e v a r i o u s levels of m e a n i n g t h e Spirit leads o n e t o see. T h e m o s t f a m o u s o f t h e multilevel a p p r o a c h b e c a m e t h e quadriga, t h e fourfold sense: t h e literal tells w h a t h a p p e n e d (historical sense), t h e allegorical teaches w h a t is t o be believed, t h e t r o p o l o g i c a l o r m o r a l w h a t is t o b e d o n e , a n d t h e a n a g o g i c a l w h e r e it is g o i n g o r " t e n d i n g . " T h e usual e x a m p l e is J e r u s a l e m , w h i c h refers literally t o t h e city, allegorically t o t h e C h u r c h , tropologically to t h e soul, a n d anagogically to h e a v e n . T h e m o n k s p u t this t o r h y m e . T h e p o i n t is t h a t t h e letter of S c r i p t u r e is a m i r r o r o f t h e a l m o s t limitless d e p t h o f m e a n i n g . C . T h e Key Figure is St. A u g u s t i n e A u g u s t i n e p u l l e d t o g e t h e r t h e v a r i o u s s t r a n d s o f biblical s t u d y in t h e early p e r i o d a n d b e c a m e t h e pillar o n w h i c h m e d i e v a l t h e o l ogy was built, t h u s t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t t h e o l o g i a n for t h e entire ( t h o u s a n d year plus) m e d i e v a l era a n d well i n t o t h e s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y . N o w w e c o n s i d e r h o w A u g u s t i n e p u t S c r i p t u r e t o g e t h e r : t h r e e aspects of his u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f S c r i p t u r e . First, A u g u s t i n e , as w a s typical t h r o u g h o u t this p e r i o d , saw t w o eras o f salvation r e p r e s e n t e d by t h e t w o great b o o k s of S c r i p t u r e . T h e O l d a n d N e w T e s t a m e n t s r e p r e s e n t t h e o l d a n d n e w era of s a l v a t i o n . G o d h a d a p l a n for his p e o p l e ; h e gave revelation progressively as t h e p e o p l e w e r e p r e p a r e d a n d able t o a c c e p t w h a t it was t h a t G o d h a d in m i n d . A progressive revelation w e n t o n in S c r i p t u r e . T h e ages of S c r i p t u r e c o r r e s p o n d t o a p e r s o n g r o w i n g u p ; c o r p o r a t e l y it is t h e h u m a n race g r o w i n g u p . In t h e O l d Testament t h e h u m a n race was in its infancy o r in a d o l e s c e n c e , a n d o n l y as t h e h u m a n race (Israel) b e c a m e m o r e m a t u r e was it r e a d y t o receive C h r i s t a n d t h e h i g h e r revelation. By i m p l i c a t i o n t h e n t h e fuller u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f revelat i o n c o n t i n u e s in t h e C h u r c h .

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A n o t h e r c o n c e p t t h a t A u g u s t i n e u s e d was t h a t G o d is t h e " d o c t o r of m e d i c i n e " a n d is h e a l i n g his p e o p l e . Salvation is h e a l t h (wellb e i n g ) . T h e goal o f c r e a t i o n , revelation, a n d finally salvation is final a n d c o m p l e t e h e a l i n g . So G o d t h e d o c t o r p r e s c r i b e d m e d i c i n e to t h e e x t e n t t h a t t h e p e o p l e w o u l d r e s p o n d a n d g r o w u n t i l t h e c o m i n g of C h r i s t , w h o is b o t h t h e m e d i c i n e a n d t h e c u r e . C h r i s t is t h e c u r e as well as t h e curer. T h e h e a l i n g process c o n t i n u e s in t h e life of t h e C h u r c h . As A u g u s t i n e , t h e n , l o o k e d at S c r i p t u r e , h e saw G o d ' s p l a n , G o d ' s p r o v i d e n c e . H e s a w t w o eras of this p l a n , a n d in these t w o eras G o d is t h e d o c t o r h e a l i n g his p e o p l e . S e c o n d , A u g u s t i n e also w o r k e d w i t h t h e S c r i p t u r e s as b o o k s . As a theologian he h a d the Jewish a n d Christian manuscripts or books t o i n t e g r a t e . A great deal o f early h e r m e n e u t i c a l effort was s p e n t o n t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e t w o great T e s t a m e n t s . Very generally, t h e N e w w a s c o n s i d e r e d t o be t h e fulfillment o f t h e O l d . A u g u s t i n e e m p h a s i z e d t h a t w h a t w a s h i d d e n o r veiled in t h e O l d T e s t a m e n t was revealed o r u n c o v e r e d in t h e N e w Testament. W h a t was prefigu r e d in t h e O l d was m a d e clear in t h e N e w . This is a " b o t h . . . a n d " r e l a t i o n s h i p , t h u s t h e necessity of b o t h Testaments: t h e N e w is c o n cealed in t h e O l d , a n d t h e O l d is m a d e clear in t h e N e w . S i n c e t h e H o l y Spirit is t h e a u t h o r of b o t h , t h e r e is u n i t y a n d h a r m o n y b e t w e e n t h e m . 'The u n i t y of t h e Testaments a n d t h e progress of revelat i o n is t h e basis o f h o l d i n g t h a t t h e N e w ' T e s t a m e n t is s u p e r i o r t o t h e O l d Testament. The N e w is n e w in relation t o t h e O l d , a n d vice versa. B o t h are n e e d e d . The N e w is m o r e excellent. S o A u g u s t i n e l o o k e d at t h e Bible in t e r m s of s a l v a t i o n - m e d i c i n e a n d h e a l i n g . H e l o o k e d a t t h e Bible as a t h e o l o g i a n a n d s a w a u n i t y g e a r e d t o w a r d s t h e s u p e r i o r i t y of t h e N e w ' T e s t a m e n t as t h e fulfillm e n t of t h e Jewish S c r i p t u r e s . Third, w h e n A u g u s t i n e l o o k e d at Script u r e , h e d i d so in t e r m s of s a l v a t i o n ; h e saw t h e t w o Testaments as t w o types o f p e o p l e , t w o ways o f life. This is a n o t h e r level o n w h i c h h e l o o k e d a t S c r i p t u r e a n d s a w t h a t t h e r e is n o t o n l y t h e c h r o n o l o g i cal d e v e l o p m e n t of t h e w h o l e race a n d t h e w h o l e d o c t r i n e , b u t t h e r e is also t h e s i t u a t i o n t h a t s o m e p e o p l e o f faith b a c k in O l d T e s t a m e n t t i m e s were actually living a h e a d o f t h e m s e l v e s ( J o h n 8 : 5 6 , [JesusJ "Your father A b r a h a m rejoiced t o see m y day: a n d h e s a w it, a n d was g l a d " ) . The a n c e s t o r s o f faith were actually living t h e N e w Testament b e c a u s e t h e y believed C h r i s t i a n d o c t r i n e ( T h e y s a w t h e p r o m i s e , e m b r a c e d it, a n d d i e d in faith, H e b . 1 1 : 1 3 ) . It was c o m m o n in t h e early a n d m e d i e v a l c h u r c h t o say t h a t M o s e s w a s a C h r i s t i a n , a l o n g w i t h all t h e faithful d e s c r i b e d in H e b r e w s 1 1 . A u g u s t i n e also said t h a t in N e w T e s t a m e n t t i m e s t h e r e were p e o p l e w h o h a d n o t believed t h e

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message a n d w e r e srill l i v i n g t h e O l d T e s t a m e n t b e c a u s e t h e y w e r e living a c c o r d i n g t o t h e flesh a n d n o t a c c o r d i n g t o t h e Spirit. This is again A u g u s t i n e ' s f a m o u s l e t t e r / S p i r i t d i c h o t o m y , a n d ir b e c o m e s an i m p o r t a n t h e r m e n e u t i c a l tool t h r o u g h o u t t h e m e d i e v a l p e r i o d i n t o m o d e r n t i m e s . W e live e i t h e r a c c o r d i n g to t h e letter, o r a c c o r d i n g t o t h e Spirit. " T h e letter kills, t h e S p i r i t gives life." So if w e live a c c o r d i n g t o t h e letter, a c c o r d i n g t o t h e desires o f t h e flesh, w e are O l d Testament. It d o e s n o t m a t t e r w h e n w e live, c h r o n o l o g i c a l l y s p e a k i n g , b u t s o t e r i o l o g i c a l l y s p e a k i n g w e are o l d , A u g u s t i n e said. O r , if w e live a c c o r d i n g t o t h e S p i r i t a n d y o u see t h e S p i r i t in t h e letter of S c r i p t u r e a n d c a n see t h r o u g h t h e veil t o t h e p u r e light o f C h r i s t a n d C h r i s t i a n d o c t r i n e , t h e n w e b e l o n g to t h e N e w ' T e s t a m e n t a n d are new, n o m a t t e r w h e t h e r w e are A b r a h a m or s o m e o n e in t h e N e w T e s t a m e n t o r s o m e o n e today. S o , o n b a l a n c e , w h a t we h a v e f r o m A u g u s t i n e is a fairly c o m p l i c a t e d v i e w of S c r i p t u r e , a m u l t i n u a n c e d view o f S c r i p t u r e ; a n d it is t h e s e v a r i o u s s t r a n d s of p u t t i n g S c r i p t u r e together a n d interpreting Scripture that continued through the medieval p e r i o d . In b e t w e e n t h e early p e r i o d a n d t h e h i g h M i d d l e Ages is s o m e t h i n g o f a t r a n s i t i o n a l p e r i o d f o c u s e d o n t h e a b b e y o f S a i n t V i c t o r in Paris, n a m e l y , t h e t w e l f t h - c e n t u r y V i c t o r i n e s . In g o i n g f r o m A u g u s t i n e t o T h o m a s A q u i n a s via these V i c t o r i n e s , w e see t h a t s o m e t h i n g of a shift in t h e a p p r o a c h t o S c r i p t u r e was u n d e r w a y , a shift t h a t is d e v e l o p e d in ' T h o m a s . The i m p o r t a n t t h i n g a b o u t t h e V i c t o r i n e s is t h a t s o m e of t h e m w e r e o r i e n t e d t o w a r d s t h e literal sense o f S c r i p t u r e , t o w a r d t h e historical s e n s e , a n d u s e d J e w i s h exegesis for t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e O l d Testament. W h a t w e h a v e in t h e V i c t o r i n e s was n o t so m u c h a t h e o r e t i c a l c h a n g e ; t h a t is, t h e y w e r e really n o t d e v e l o p i n g a n e w h e r m e n e u t i c . They w e r e s i m p l y p r e o c c u p i e d w i t h t h e literal-historical sense a p a r t from t h e allegorical or s p i r i t u a l i z i n g senses. II. T H E H I G H M I D D L E AGES

A . T h e Place o f the Bible in T h e o l o g y F r o m t h e e l e v e n t h c e n t u r y o n it is i m p o r t a n t t o t h i n k of t h e s c h o o l , t h e university, for it is a t t h e s c h o o l s t h a t t h e o l o g y takes o n a n e w focus. This p e r i o d b e c a m e k n o w n as S c h o l a s t i c i s m b e c a u s e t h e o l o g y increasingly b e c a m e s c h o o l - t h e o l o g y at t h e n e w l y f o u n d e d u n i versities. T h e o l o g y a n d t h e s t u d y o f S c r i p t u r e u n d e r w e n t q u i t e a shift as t h e y m o v e d f r o m t h e m o n a s t e r y t o t h e u n i v e r s i t y c l a s s r o o m . W e

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have p i c t u r e d t h e m o n a s t i c s living, p r a y i n g , eating, a n d sleeping Script u r e , living their lives, as t h e y c o n t i n u e t o d o to this day, in t h e c o n text o f t h e life of S c r i p t u r e . W h e r e a s in t h e s c h o o l , n o t u n l i k e o u r c o n t e m p o r a r y colleges a n d universities, S c r i p t u r e b e c a m e a s u b j e c t of a c a d e m i c study. In t h e s c h o o l a p p r o a c h was a d i s t i n c t i o n or s e p a r a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e o l o g y a n d exegesis, a d i s t i n c t i o n o r s e p a r a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e d i s c i p l i n e of t h e o l o g y a n d t h e d i s c i p l i n e of biblical i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . This is p a r t l y b e c a u s e o f t h e i n f l u e n c e of A r i s t o t e l i a n p h i l o s o p h y a w a y from P l a t o n i c p h i l o s o p h y . W i t h A r i s t o t l e , reality is seen c o n t a i n e d in t h e t h i n g itself. H e n c e in s c r i p t u r a l study, a t t e n t i o n shifts t o t h e sense of t h e letter. W i t h t h e reality seen in t h e t h i n g itself, r a t h e r t h a n b e i n g m i r r o r e d i n t o s o m e o t h e r - w o r l d l y realm of t h e s p i r i t u a l , S c r i p t u r e itself b e c o m e s t h e o b j e c t o f study. W h a t t h e H o l y Spirit i n t e n d e d t o say is there in Scripture, a n d all t h e levels of m e a n i n g are in t h e letter of t h e text, n o t in s o m e o t h e r levels of m e a n i n g . W i t h a shift in s c r i p t u r a l s t u d y t h e r e is a shift in theology. W h i l e w o r k o n t h e Bible b e c o m e s m o r e "literal" a n d " h i s t o r i c a l " ( t h o u g h , r e m e m b e r , w e are still in t h e twelfth a n d t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s ) , t h e o l o g y b e c o m e s s p e c u l a t i v e . A n i m p o r t a n t i n f l u e n c e o n this shift in t h e o l o g y is t h e interest in dialectic (a p a r t of logic). In t h e u n i v e r s i t y s i t u a t i o n , dialectic is t h e analysis o f a q u e s t i o n . S p e c u l a t i o n is l o o k ing i n t o s o m e t h i n g . It c o u l d a n d d i d have mystical o v e r t o n e s b e cause t h e o l o g y first a n d f o r e m o s t is l o o k i n g i n t o G o d . A q u e s t i o n is p o s e d , alternatives a n a l y z e d , often followed b y a r e s o l u t i o n . The shift in t h e o l o g y is a shift a w a y from sacrapagina t o sacra doctrina (sacred d o c t r i n e ) . ' The first q u e s t i o n in Thomas's Summa theologiae is: W h a t is sacred d o c t r i n e ? W o r k o n t h e sacred p a g e is c o n t a i n e d in t h e Commentaries o n S c r i p t u r e . 'Theological q u e s t i o n s are dealt w i t h in t h e Summaries o f ' T h e o l o g y ( t h e r e were s u m m a r i e s in o t h e r disciplines as well). ' T h e o l o g y t h e n t o o k o n a life o f its o w n . S c r i p t u r e a n d t h e F a t h e r s are t h e a u t h o r i t i e s ( f o o t n o t e s ) . The m e t h o d is p h i l o s o p h i c a l , faith s e e k i n g u n d e r s t a n d i n g .

' Simon of Tournai (d. 1201), t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t Parisian (early Scholastic) theologian at the end of the twelfth century, wrote Inslitutiones in sacram paginam. Scripture is n o t the subject. W i t h the use of dialectic, the work consists of" a series of questions related to Christian doctrine: the w o r k begins " I n c i p i u n t Sententiae m a g i s t r i S i m o n i s T o r n a c e n s i s / ' See R i c h a r d H e i n z m a n n ' s e d i t i o n of Die "Instituliones in sacram paginam" des Simon von Tournai. Einleitung und Quastionenverzeichnis ( M u n i c h : Verlag Ferdinand S c h o n i n g h , 1967).

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B. T h e Interpretation o f t h e Bible A c c o m p a n y i n g t h e s e p a r a t i o n of Bible a n d t h e o l o g y is a differe n t a p p r o a c h t o t h e Bible (with A r i s t o t l e a n d reason in t h e b a c k g r o u n d ) . For a P l a t o n i s t , t h e soul (spirit) was seen h i d d e n o r i m p r i s o n e d in t h e b o d y (letter). T h e A r i s t o t e l i a n sees t h e s p i r i t expressed by t h e text. All m e a n i n g is c o n t a i n e d in t h e letter, a u t h o r e d b y G o d . The focus shifts a w a y from t h e m i r r o r o f universal t r u t h s t o t h e int e n t i o n of t h e a u t h o r (letter). T o u n d e r s t a n d t h e a u t h o r is t o d i s c e r n t h e w o r d s a n d t h e i r s i g n i f i c a n c e . T h e L a t i n w o r d to u n d e r s t a n d {intelligere) m e a n s t o r e a d w i t h i n , t o p e n e t r a t e t h e r a t i o n a l m e a n i n g . The t r u t h o f t h e m a t t e r is t h e r e in t h e Bible expressed by t h e letters. S o far in S c h o l a s t i c i s m w e h a v e t h e s e p a r a t i o n of biblical s t u d y from t h e s t u d y o f theology, a different a p p r o a c h t o t h e o l o g y {sacra doctrina), a n d a different a p p r o a c h t o S c r i p t u r e ( i n t e n t i o n of t h e letter). Also w e have s o m e t h i n g of a n e w h e r m e n e u t i c ; at least a great deal is m a d e o f t h a t in t h e l i t e r a t u r e . ( O n e is always s u s p i c i o u s o f n e w t h e o r i e s , b e c a u s e in t h e p r a c t i c e o f biblical i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , t h e t r a d i t i o n a l results usually p e r t a i n . ) T h i s n e w t h e o r y is seen develo p e d b y t h e i m p o r t a n t f o u r t e e n t h - c e n t u r y Franciscan biblical scholar, N i c h o l a s of Lyra, w h o in t u r n was t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t biblical c o m m e n t a t o r for t h e later M i d d l e Ages a n d early R e f o r m a t i o n . Nicholas's c o m m e n t a r i e s were often p r i n t e d in c o l u m n s a l o n g side t h e biblical text a n d t h e glosses of t h e Fathers in t h e later fifteenth a n d s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s . T h e n e w h e r m e n e u t i c is called t h e "double-literal sense": t w o senses o r m e a n i n g s expressed b y t h e o n e letter or w o r d . There is t h e historical-literal sense a n d t h e s p i r i t u a l - or p r o p h e t i c - l i t e r a l sense. The e x a m p l e given is t h a t S o l o m o n m a y refer t o S o l o m o n t h e m a n or be a figure o f C h r i s t or b o t h . If b o t h , b o t h were i n t e n d e d by t h e a u t h o r , t h e H o l y Spirit. As will be seen w i t h T h o m a s , g r o u n d i n g e v e r y t h i n g in t h e letter d o e s n o t p r e c l u d e t h e use of t h e t r a d i t i o n a l fourfold sense (literal, allegorical, t r o p o l o g i c a l , a n d a n a g o g i c a l ) . 'The t h e o r y of t h e double-literal sense is widely a c c e p t e d in t h e later M i d d l e Ages (via T h o m a s a n d N i c h o l a s ) . The result is an increasing a t t e n t i o n t o t h e text. C . T h e Key Figure is T h o m a s A q u i n a s In t h e m o d e r n p e r i o d T h o m a s is f a m o u s for his Summa theologiae ( S u m m a r y o f T h e o l o g y ) . In t h e c e n t u r y following his o w n , his c o m m e n t a r i e s o n S c r i p t u r e w e r e m o r e influential. N o t e t h a t t h e A r i s t o telian ' T h o m a s w r o t e o n S c r i p t u r e , a n d in a s e p a r a t e literary g e n r e h e

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8

w r o t e o n theology. As an A r i s t o t e l i a n t h i n k s in t e r m s o f causality r a t h e r t h a n reflection, T h o m a s t h i n k s o f G o d as t h e first a u t h o r o f S c r i p t u r e a n d t h e h u m a n a u t h o r s as i n s t r u m e n t s of d i v i n e revelat i o n , c h o o s i n g their o w n w o r d s . The letter c o n t a i n s t h e i n t e n t i o n of t h e i n s p i r e d writer. ' T h o m a s o u t l i n e d his a p p r o a c h t o biblical i n t e r p r e t a t i o n in t h e f o l l o w i n g s t a t e m e n t : T h e author of Holy Scripture is God, in whose power it is to signify his meaning, not by words only (as man also can do) but by things themselves. So, whereas in every other science things are signified by words, this science has the property that the things signified by the words have themselves also a signification. Therefore that first signification whereby words signify things belongs to the first sense, the historical or literal. T h a t signification whereby things signified by words have themselves also a signification is called the spiritual sense, which is based on the literal, and presupposes it. For as the apostle says (Heb. 10:1) the Old Law is a figure of the N e w Law, and (Pseudo-) Dionysius says: " T h e N e w Law itself is a figure of future glory." Again, in the New Law, whatever our Head had done is a type of what we ought to do. Therefore, so far as the things of the Old Law signify the things of the New Law, there is the allegorical sense; so far as the things d o n e in Christ or so far as the things which signify Christ are types of what we ought to do, there is the moral sense. But so far as they signify what relates to eternal glory, there is the anagogical sense. Since the literal sense is that which the author intends, and since the author of Holy Scripture is God, it is not unfitting, as Augustine says, if even according to the literal sense one word in Holy Scripture should have several senses.' 1

' T h o m a s p r e s e n t s a r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e O l d a n d N e w 'Testam e n t s a l o n g t h e lines of sign a n d fulfillment. The p a t t e r n is from O l d t o N e w t o "future glory." A u g u s t i n e is c i t e d t o s h o w t h a t in o n e literal sense t h e r e are several (spiritual) m e a n i n g s . (It is always a m a z i n g h o w c u r r e n t A u g u s t i n e is for t h e medievals o n i n t o t h e s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y . ) G o d is at w o r k in t h e O l d Testament t h r o u g h t y p e s a n d signs of t h e N e w . In s e e i n g t h e signs o n e sees t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n O l d a n d N e w , a n d in s e e i n g t h e s p i r i t u a l sense o f t h e N e w o n e sees t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e N e w ' T e s t a m e n t a n d t h e C h u r c h . In t h e allegorical, m o r a l , a n d anagogical senses, G o d uses visible w o r d s t o signify invisible t r u t h s . The p a t t e r n o f r e l a t i o n s h i p , fulfillment, d e v e l o p m e n t f r o m O l d t o N e w to C h u r c h is t h e p a t t e r n of T h o m a s ' s 4

Aquinas, Sumnui

tbeologiae

1.1.10.

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9

theology, a n d his i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of S c r i p t u r e fits w i t h i n t h a t o r g a n i c pattern. For T h o m a s , t h e r e is an o r g a n i c u n i t y b e t w e e n O l d a n d N e w . A u g u s t i n e ' s v i e w o f t h e p r o g r e s s of revelation is e x p a n d e d by T h o m a s t o i n c l u d e e v e r y t h i n g f r o m b e g i n n i n g t o e n d , from c r e a t i o n t o history, t h r o u g h t h e h i s t o r y of Israel, O l d a n d N e w , t o t h e e n d of t i m e . T h o m a s ' s v i e w of revelation is t h a t it is s a l v a t i o n h i s t o r y develo p i n g organically. G o d is w o r k i n g s a l v a t i o n in history, a n d so t h e h i s t o r y o f G o d ' s p e o p l e is s a l v a t i o n history. 'The h i s t o r y o f s a l v a t i o n in S c r i p t u r e is t h e d e v e l o p m e n t f r o m O l d t o N e w , o l d law t o e v a n gelical law. 'The u n i t y is b a s e d o n G o d . The o r g a n i c c o n t i n u u m goes o n in t h e C h u r c h t o " e t e r n a l glory." The m a i n focus o f T h o m a s o n t h e O l d a n d N e w T e s t a m e n t is o n t h e i r o r g a n i c d e v e l o p m e n t , a p a r t o f t h e larger focus o f s a l v a t i o n history. In t e r m s of A u g u s t i n e ' s a p p r o a c h a n d c a t e g o r i e s , Thomas's a p p r o a c h is a b l e n d of t h e p r o v i d e n t i a l a n d h e r m e n e u t i c a l foci. The b l e n d is s e e i n g T e s t a m e n t as b o t h era a n d b o o k . C e r t a i n t h i n g s c o n c e r n i n g C h r i s t are p r e f i g u r e d in t h e O l d T e s t a m e n t t h r o u g h figures like D a v i d a n d S o l o m o n . This is so b e c a u s e t h i n g s o f C h r i s t are of s u c h m a g n i t u d e a n d p o w e r t h a t t h e y c o u l d n o t have b e e n i n t r o d u c e d " s u d d e n l y " : " T h e t h i n g s o f C h r i s t are so g r e a t t h a t t h e y w o u l d n o t h a v e b e e n believed unless t h e y h a d first b e e n d i s s e m i n a t e d g r a d u a l l y t h r o u g h t h e g r o w t h of t i m e . "

5

The d e v e l o p m e n t in t i m e (era o f sal-

v a t i o n ) is t h e d e v e l o p m e n t f r o m i m p e r f e c t t o perfect. Also t h e O l d T e s t a m e n t is a "figure" of t h e N e w ' T e s t a m e n t . ' T h e N e w ' T e s t a m e n t C h u r c h is a "figure" of t h e g l o r y o f h e a v e n . W i t h t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f "figure," O l d t o N e w a n d N e w t o glory, t h e O l d T e s t a m e n t is a "figure of t h e figure." 'The d e v e l o p m e n t is t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f clarity. ' T h o m a s also refers t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f O l d a n d N e w L a w t o t h e relat i o n s h i p o f seed t o tree, i m p l i c i t t o explicit, fear t o love. The g r o w t h is c o n t i n u a l . III. T H E LATE MEDIEVAL PERIOD

A. T h e Place o f the Bible in T h e o l o g y The f o u r t e e n t h a n d

fifteenth

c e n t u r i e s w e r e a m i x t u r e of w h a t

w e n t before a n d n e w c u r r e n t s of t h o u g h t a n d p r a c t i c e . T h e s c h o o l s c o n t i n u e d t o b e t h e m a i n focus o f t h e o l o g i c a l a n d biblical s t u d i e s .

' C i t e d in K e n n e t h H a g e n , A Theology (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1974) 4 7 .

of Testament

in the Young

Luther

10

T H E HISTORY OI SCRIPTURE IN THE C H U R C H

The n e w c u r r e n t s o f s p i r i t u a l i t y (for e x a m p l e , G e r m a n m y s t i c i s m a n d Devotio modernd) approached Scripture more along the m o n a s t i c lines of sacra pagina. A m o n g t h e N o m i n a l i s t s (a n e w p h i l o s o p h y - t h e o l o g y ) a n d o t h e r s , a t t e n t i o n was p a i d t o t h e relation o f t h e S c r i p t u r e s t o t h e Traditions o f t h e C h u r c h . 'Tension a n d even c o n flict b e t w e e n t h e m w e r e p o s i t e d . The c o n c e n t r a t i o n o n S c r i p t u r e as an a n c i e n t b o o k a n d t h e use of S c r i p t u r e t o criticize t h e C h u r c h w a s intensified in t h e (very) late m e d i e v a l m o v e m e n t o f H u m a n i s m . The H u m a n i s t s were n o t t h e o l o g i a n s in t h e usual sense of t h e profession at t h e e n d o f t h e M i d d l e Ages, t h a t is, t h e y w e r e n e i t h e r m o n a s t i c s n o r scholastics. O f t e n t h e y were i n d e p e n d e n t s c h o l a r s , s o m e t i m e s lay, i n t e r e s t e d in c u l t u r e a n d l e a r n i n g a n d t h e effects of c u l t u r e a n d l e a r n i n g o n t h e r e f o r m of C h u r c h a n d society. I n t e r e s t in Bible a n d t h e o l o g y was a p a r t of a b r o a d e r c o m m i t m e n t t o reap t h e w i s d o m of t h e p a g a n classics a n d t h e C h r i s t i a n Fathers. The discip l i n e of biblical a n d theological s t u d y m e a n t l a n g u a g e study, classical L a t i n a n d G r e e k ( a n d H e b r e w for s o m e ) . The H u m a n i s t s were i n v o l v e d in all k i n d s of h u m a n e s t u d i e s . For o u r p u r p o s e s w e p e g their efforts a r o u n d t h e p r i n t i n g press a n d t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f s a c r e d l i t e r a t u r e (sacra littera). S o t h e a p p r o a c h e s t o S c r i p t u r e in t h e m e d i e v a l c h u r c h differed as it was h a n d l e d b y t h e m o n k s (sacrapagina), b y t h e s c h o o l m e n (sacra doctrina), a n d by t h e p r i n t e r s (sacra littera). 'That is a n e n o r m o u s d e v e l o p m e n t , t h e effects of w h i c h we are still appropriating: the relation of t h e H o l y B o o k t o t h e traditions of the C h u r c h , t o t h e s t u d y of theology, a n d to the life of faith. B. T h e Interpretation o f the Bible The fourfold m e t h o d c o n t i n u e d . The d o u b l e - l i t e r a l sense was used. The i m i t a t i o n o f C h r i s t was a n o t h e r e m p h a s i s . The use o f J e w ish resources for a m o r e historical u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e O l d Testam e n t increased. S t u d y o f H e b r e w a n d G r e e k g r e w t r e m e n d o u s l y . All of these interests a n d a p p r o a c h e s w e r e filtered i n t o t h e R e f o r m a t i o n t h r o u g h t h e H u m a n i s t s . The m o s t i m p o r t a n t w o r k o n S c r i p t u r e at the b e g i n n i n g of the sixteenth century was d o n e by the H u m a n i s t s . In t h e C a t h o l i c R e f o r m a t i o n t h e H u m a n i s t s led t h e w a y for critical e d i t i o n s o f S c r i p t u r e , v e r n a c u l a r t r a n s l a t i o n s , a n d t h e s t u d y of t h e G r e e k a n d Latin classics (as o p p o s e d t o t h e Scholastics). In these m a t t e r s t h e y w e r e d e f e a t e d a t t h e m i d - s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y C o u n c i l of Trent. It has b e e n in o u r c e n t u r y t h a t C a t h o l i c s have a d o p t e d H u m a n i s t a n d m o d e r n critical a p p r o a c h e s t o S c r i p t u r e . The P r o t e s t a n t s generally w e l c o m e d a n d u s e d H u m a n i s t s c h o l a r s h i p .

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The effect o f t h e H u m a n i s t s o n t h e place a n d i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f S c r i p t u r e in t h e C h u r c h c e n t e r e d a r o u n d t h e i r sense o f history, s t u d y of t h e classics, expertise in t h e biblical (original) l a n g u a g e s , p r e p a r a t i o n o f critical p r i n t e d e d i t i o n s of t h e Bible, a n d t h e use o f S c r i p t u r e for t h e r e f o r m of t h e C h u r c h . ( N o t e t h a t t h e i r effect o n t h e place a n d i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of S c r i p t u r e is o n t h e C h u r c h in g e n e r a l , n o t j u s t o n theology, since their p r o g r a m s w e r e b r o a d e r t h a n m o n a s t i c a n d s c h o lastic theology.) A g r o w i n g sense a m o n g t h e R e n a i s s a n c e t h i n k e r s ( s o u t h o f t h e Alps) a n d H u m a n i s t s ( n o r t h ) w a s t h a t t h e historical p a s t is d i s t a n t a n d different from p r e s e n t c u l t u r e . This sense w a s n o t universally a c c e p t e d , a n d it t o o k u n t i l t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y for historical c o n sciousness t o be w i d e l y a c c e p t e d a n d t h e n largely o n l y in W e s t e r n c u l t u r e . T h e i r sense o f h i s t o r y was t h a t t h e t i m e a n d place of classical c u l t u r e was in t h e a n c i e n t w o r l d — n o t t h e i r o w n . In general for t h e medievals t h e age of t h e Bible was t h e i r o w n , a timelessness t o it all. The H u m a n i s t s p e r s p e c t i v e was t h e s e p a r a t i o n o f p a s t from p r e s e n t . The H u m a n i s t s were s c h o l a r s , s t u d e n t s o f a n t i q u i t y . The general R e n a i s s a n c e o f t h e t i m e was a revival of t h e arts, l i t e r a t u r e , a n d l e a r n ing. The H u m a n i s t s were i n t e r e s t e d in t h e l e a r n i n g c o n t a i n e d in classical l i t e r a t u r e . T h e s t u d y o f t h e classics was t o g o a l o n g w i t h t h e s t u d y of S c r i p t u r e , w h i c h also was from t h e classical w o r l d , for t h e p u r p o s e of m o r a l a n d intellectual reform o f t h e C h u r c h , theology, p h i l o s o p h y , e d u c a t i o n — t h e w h o l e p r o g r a m . T h e critical s t u d y o f t h e past h a d t h e edge to it of i n f o r m i n g a n d often a t t a c k i n g t h e present. The s t u d y of t h e past i n c l u d e d t h e e d i t i n g , p r i n t i n g , a n d l e a r n i n g from t h e c h u r c h fathers. The H u m a n i s t s were a p a r t of t h e revival o f H e b r e w a n d G r e e k s t u d i e s . S t u d y of t h e a n c i e n t w o r l d m e a n t t h e recovery of t h e i r l a n g u a g e s . S t u d y o f t h e original l a n g u a g e s o f S c r i p t u r e raised q u e s t i o n s a b o u t t h e L a t i n Bible. T h e s t u d y o f t h e Bible in t h e original often led t o a c r i t i c i s m o f t h e w a y t h e Bible h a d b e e n t r a n s l a t e d i n t o L a t i n a n d i n t e r p r e t e d . S t u d y o f a n c i e n t l a n g u a g e s w a s n o t w h a t we w o u l d call strictly a n a c a d e m i c exercise. A n c i e n t l i t e r a t u r e — c l a s s i c a l a n d C h r i s t i a n — w a s p r e s u m e d t o have value. The H u m a n i s t s were often critical o f Scholastics a n d o t h e r s w h o c o n c e n t r a t e d o n l y o n t h e literal m e a n i n g o f t h e text. H u m a n i s t interest in original l a n g u a g e s i n c l u d e d an interest in original m a n u s c r i p t s a n d codices. W i t h t h e i r historical p e r s p e c t i v e o n t h e e d i t i n g , t r a n s l a t i n g , a n d t r a n s m i s s i o n o f texts, t h e y w e r e c o n c e r n e d t o g e t as far b a c k as p o s s i b l e t o t h e original version of a w r i t ing. F o r s c r i p t u r a l study, this c o n c e r n led t o t h e discovery, c o l l a t i n g ,

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a n d p r i n t i n g o f early H e b r e w a n d G r e e k codices o f t h e Bible. In 1 5 1 6 E r a s m u s p u b l i s h e d t h e first G r e e k N e w T e s t a m e n t . The sixt e e n t h c e n t u r y w i t n e s s e d several critical e d i t i o n s of t h e Bible, p r i n t e d by m o v a b l e t y p e . The n e w m e t h o d in p r i n t i n g m a d e possible t h e m u l t i p l i c a t i o n o f b o t h critical e d i t i o n s a n d v e r n a c u l a r t r a n s l a t i o n s . The s t u d y of t h e classics, t h e Bible, a n d c h u r c h fathers was critical a n d scholarly. T h e p u r p o s e of it was t o r e f o r m t h e p r e s e n t . The H u m a n i s t s w e r e a m o n g t h o s e w h o were d i s t u r b e d a b o u t c o r r u p t i o n , lack o f e d u c a t i o n , a n d t h e generally sorry state of society. The C h u r c h was often b l a m e d for m o s t o f it, b l a m e d for b e i n g t o o i n t e r e s t e d in m o n e y , politics, war, e v e r y t h i n g b u t t h e care o f souls. The a t t a c k s w e r e b i t t e r a n d sarcastic. T h e o l o g y ( S c h o l a s t i c i s m ) was r e p r o a c h e d for b e i n g i n t e r e s t e d o n l y in syllogisms a n d n o t t h e s i m p l e p i e t y of S c r i p t u r e . The goal o f t h e i r w o r k w a s t h e r e f o r m o f C h u r c h a n d society t h r o u g h e d u c a t i o n for t h e p u r p o s e of piety a n d k n o w l e d g e . C . T h e Key Figure is Erasmus o f R o t t e r d a m W r i t i n g at t h e t u r n o f t h e s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y ( d i e d in 1 5 3 6 ) , E r a s m u s was v e r y critical. H e l a m b a s t e d t h e s u p e r s t i t i o n s o f c u r r e n t m o n a s t i c practice, t h e ritualism a n d legalism c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e mass, S c h o l a s t i c t h e o l o g y (especially its p r e o c c u p a t i o n w i t h p r o p o s i t i o n s , corollaries, d e f i n i t i o n s , a n d c o n c l u s i o n s ) , t h e w o r l d l i n e s s of t h e P o p e (especially his p r e o c c u p a t i o n w i t h war, m o n e y , e x c o m m u n i c a t i o n s , a n d i n t e r d i c t s ) , t h e b e g g i n g o f m e n d i c a n t friars, clerical c o n c u b i n a g e , a n d so o n . The basis o f his a t t a c k s was a call to r e t u r n t o t h e s o u r c e o f S c r i p t u r e in its p u r i t y a n d original m e a n i n g for C h r i s t i a n living. T h e " p a g a n " classics a n d c h u r c h fathers were t o serve as an orientation to Scripture. E r a s m u s e d i t e d a n d p u b l i s h e d a n u m b e r o f t h e w o r k s of t h e F a t h e r s . A g a i n s t c r i t i c i s m , h e c o n t i n u e d to a d v o c a t e t h e s t u d y of t h e classics. "A sensible r e a d i n g o f t h e p a g a n p o e t s a n d p h i l o s o p h e r s is a g o o d p r e p a r a t i o n for t h e C h r i s t i a n life." H e d i s t i n g u i s h e d b e t w e e n t h e b a d m o r a l s o f t h e p a g a n s , w h i c h are n o t t o be followed, a n d t h e i r m a n y e x a m p l e s o f r i g h t living. " T o b r e a k in o n " S c r i p t u r e w i t h o u t t h e p r e p a r a t i o n o f t h e classics is " a l m o s t s a c r i l e g i o u s . " "St. C y p r i a n has w o r k e d w o n d e r s in a d o r n i n g t h e Scriptures w i t h t h e literary b e a u t y of t h e a n c i e n t s . " So g u i d e d b y t h e F a t h e r s o f t h e C h u r c h , classical studies were t a k e n as a necessary i n t r o d u c t i o n t o u n d e r s t a n d i n g C h r i s t i a n revelation. 6

6

Enchiridion (1503) cited in The Essential Erasmus, York: N e w American Library, 1964) 3 6 .

ed. J. P. D o l a n (New

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S c h o o l e d b y t h e B r e t h r e n of t h e C o m m o n Life (a p a r t of late m e d i e v a l Devotio moderna), Erasmus's o r i e n t a t i o n t o t h e o l o g y was a w a y from s p e c u l a t i o n t o w a r d piety. H i s o r i e n t a t i o n t o S c r i p t u r e , t h e s o u r c e o f C h r i s t i a n piety, was t o w a r d t h e e x a m p l e o f Jesus. The ethical life, p r e a c h i n g , a n d t e a c h i n g of Jesus c o m b i n e i n t o t h e p h i l o s o p h y of C h r i s t , t h e s o u r c e o f r e f o r m for e v e r y t h i n g f r o m t h e p a pacy t o p e a s a n t r y . E r a s m u s ' s m a i n interest a n d w o r k was o n t h e N e w Testament. H i s G r e e k N e w ' T e s t a m e n t w i t h critical a n n o t a t i o n s was a m i l e s t o n e in R e f o r m a t i o n w o r k o n t h e Bible. It was used b y L u t h e r i m m e d i ately. E r a s m u s c o u l d b e very critical o f t h e p e o p l e o f t h e O l d Testam e n t , for their s u p e r s t i t i o u s a n d b a r b a r o u s ways, in c o m p a r i s o n w i t h t h e " g o o d letters" from G r e e c e a n d R o m e . In m e d i e v a l t e r m s his a p p r o a c h t o t h e N e w ' T e s t a m e n t was largely t r o p o l o g i c a l — a s in C h r i s t , so in m e . Erasmus's sarcasm against Scholastic t h e o l o g y i n c l u d e d his charge o f s u p e r c i l i o u s s p e c u l a t i o n , especially t h e i r use o f dialectic. T h e o l o g y was t o o intellectually p r e o c c u p i e d w i t h d o c t r i n e , a n d n o t w i t h its m a i n t a s k — p e r s u a d i n g a n d b r i n g i n g p e o p l e t o t h e w a y o f C h r i s t . Practical p i e t y is t h e p o i n t of it all. W h e n c o n t e m p o r a r y c o m m e n t a tors d e a l t w i t h t h e N e w 'Testament, E r a s m u s c o m p l a i n e d t h a t t h e y c o n c e n t r a t e d o n l y o n t h e literal sense: Let me mention another requirement for a better understanding of Holy Scripture [the first being reading Scripture with a clean heart!. I would suggest that you read those commentators w h o d o not stick so closely to the literal sense. T h e ones I would recomm e n d most highly after St. Paul himself are Origen, Ambrose, Jerome, and Augustine. Too many of our modern theologians are prone to a literal interpretation, which they subtly misconstrue. T h e y do not delve into the mysteries, and they act as if St. Paul were not speaking the truth when he says that our law is spiritual. T h e r e are some of these theologians w h o are so completely taken up with these h u m a n commentators that they relegate what the Fathers had to say to the realm of dreams. T h e y are so entranced with the writings of Duns Scotus that, without ever having read the Scriptures, they believe themselves to be competent theologians. I care not how subtle their distinctions are; they are certainly not the final word o n what pertains to the Holy Spirit." In t h e i r t h e o l o g y t h e Scholastics w e r e t o o s p e c u l a t i v e ; in t h e i r c o m m e n t a r i e s o n S c r i p t u r e t h e y were t o o literal. So a l e a d i n g s c h o l a r Ibid., 3 7 .

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of t h e R e n a i s s a n c e calls for a p i o u s r e a d i n g of t h e Bible as t h e s o u r c e for C h r i s t i a n living. I V . T H K EARLY REFORMATION

A. T h e Place o f the Bible in T h e o l o g y T h e early r e f o r m e r s , for e x a m p l e L u t h e r , Z w i n g l i , C a l v i n , w e r e very c o n c e r n e d a b o u t t h e p l a c e of Bible in e v e r y t h i n g — C h u r c h , theology, a n d especially p r e a c h i n g . T h e m a i n p o i n t of t h e R e f o r m a tion was t h a t the G o s p e l m u s t be p r o c l a i m e d . T o c o n t i n u e o u r s c h e m a t i z a t i o n ( m o n a s t e r y — u n i v e r s i t y — p r i n t i n g press), n o w t h i n k p u l p i t , t h i n k o f t h e Evangelical cities ( W i t t e n b e r g , Z u r i c h , G e n e v a ) w h e r e t h e m e d i u m for i n f o r m a t i o n was t h e p u l p i t ( a l o n g w i t h t h e i m p o r t a n t p a m p h l e t s ) . T h e R e f o r m a t i o n was a m o v e m e n t o f t h e W o r d : C h r i s t , S c r i p t u r e , p r e a c h i n g — i n t h a t order. T h e y all are t h e W o r d o f G o d . The r e f o r m e r s used t h e p r i n t e d W o r d , s t u d i e d t h e W o r d , p r a y e d t h e W o r d . T h e i r c o n c e r n was t o b r i n g p r e a c h i n g b a c k i n t o t h e m a s s , p r e a c h i n g in t h e v e r n a c u l a r , a n d p r e a c h i n g o n t h e text of S c r i p t u r e . W h e n L u t h e r s a i d t h a t t h e C h u r c h is n o t a p e n - h o u s e b u t a m o u t h - h o u s e , he m e a n t t h a t the g o o d news c a n n o t properly be p u t in (dead) letters b u t is t o b e p r o c l a i m e d l o u d l y in G e r m a n . W h a t t h e Scholastics s e p a r a t e d — t h e o l o g y a n d c o m m e n t a r y o n S c r i p t u r e — t h e early r e f o r m e r s s o u g h t t o b r i n g t o g e t h e r a g a i n , a l o n g t h e lines of sacra pagina

( m i n u s t h e m o n a s t e r y ) . S c r i p t u r e a l o n e is

t h e sole a u t h o r i t y for t h e C h u r c h , t h e d i s c i p l i n e o f theology, a n d t h e life o f faith. The r e f o r m e r s c o n t i n u e d t h e call for t h e r e f o r m o f t h e C h u r c h o n t h e basis o f S c r i p t u r e . Every office a n d activity in t h e C h u r c h falls u n d e r t h e j u d g m e n t of S c r i p t u r e . All o f t h e o l o g y is c o n t a i n e d in S c r i p t u r e . G o d h a s revealed all t h a t we n e e d t o k n o w a b o u t h i m in C h r i s t . C a l v i n is especially s t r o n g o n t h e k n o w l e d g e o f G o d , t h e b e g i n n i n g p o i n t o f t h e Institutes

of the Christian

Religion.

God

is revealed in S c r i p t u r e , a n d t o see t h e revelation of G o d in n a t u r e w e n e e d t h e spectacles of S c r i p t u r e . T h e o l o g y m u s t b e biblical t h e o l o g y ; a n y o t h e r k i n d is h u m a n i n v e n t i o n . S c r i p t u r e is its o w n a u t h o r i t y b e c a u s e it is clear. N o o t h e r a u t h o r i t y is n e e d e d t o see t h r o u g h its m e a n i n g . The early r e f o r m e r s were n o t concerned a b o u t s o m e theory of inspiration. T h a t came later. The Bible is t h e W o r d . The r e f o r m e r s w e r e a w a r e o f t h e "critical" d i s c u s s i o n s a m o n g t h e H u m a n i s t s a b o u t t h e text, a u t h o r s h i p , l a n g u a g e , e t c . L u t h e r e n g a g e d in s o m e o f t h i s . The p o i n t o f t h e W o r d is t h e p r e s e n c e of t h e W o r d in S c r i p t u r e - C h u r c h - p r e a c h i n g . T h e H u -

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m a n i s t sense o f t h e d i s t a n c e o f S c r i p t u r e from t h e p r e s e n t was n o t a c c e p t e d . The scholastic s e p a r a t i o n of t h e o l o g y from S c r i p t u r e was a t t a c k e d . The p u r p o s e of t h e o l o g y is t o serve p r e a c h i n g , t h e m a i n task o f t h e C h u r c h . T h e vast a m o u n t o f t h e o l o g i c a l l i t e r a t u r e from t h e early R e f o r m a t i o n was i n t e n d e d t o clear t h e r o a d b l o c k s t o S c r i p t u r e a n d t o facilitate t h e p r o c l a m a t i o n of t h a t G o s p e l . B. T h e Interpretation o f t h e Bible The early reformers w e r e p r e m o d e r n ; t h e y c o n t i n u e d t h e g e n eral m e d i e v a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n as c o m m e n t a r y , a n n o t a t i o n , a n d e x p o s i t i o n . The m o d e r n i n t e r p r e t e r c o n t i n u e s t o d e v e l o p t h e H u m a n i s t p e r s p e c t i v e of t h e historical past; t h u s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n in m o d e r n t i m e is b r i d g i n g t h e g u l f b e t w e e n a n c i e n t l i t e r a t u r e a n d m o d e r n t h i n k i n g . T h e early r e f o r m e r s c o n t i n u e d t h e m o n a s t i c a p p r o a c h o f total i m m e r s i o n i n t o t h e t h i n k i n g a n d l a n g u a g e o f S c r i p t u r e so t h a t t h e r e is o n l y o n e l a n g u a g e , o n e biblical theology. In t h e i r C a t h o l i c c o n t e x t , t h e reformers e m p h a s i z e d t h a t S c r i p t u r e was its o w n i n t e r p r e t e r (a very o l d p r i n c i p l e , g r o u n d e d in S c r i p t u r e itself). L u t h e r a r g u e d t h a t t h e p a p a c y h a d b u i l t a wall of a u t h o r i t a t i v e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n a r o u n d itself so t h a t S c r i p t u r e c o u l d o n l y be read as t h e p a p a c y saw fit. O n e late m e d i e v a l synthesis h a d it t h a t S c r i p t u r e is t o Tradition as f o u n d a t i o n is t o i n t e r p r e t a t i o n ( O c c a m ) . S t r o n g in t h e s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y was t h e q u e s t i o n of an a u t h o r i t a t i v e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of S c r i p t u r e . The C a t h o l i c C o u n c i l of T r e n t d e c r e e d in m i d c e n t u r y : that no one, relying on his own skill, in matters ol faith, and of morals pertaining to the edification of Christian doctrine, wresting the Sacred Scriptures to his own senses, presume to interpret the said Sacred Scripture contrary to that sense which holy m o t h e r church, whose it is to judge of the true sense and interpretation of the Holy Scripture, has held and does hold. 8

For C a l v i n a t this t i m e , t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f S c r i p t u r e b y S c r i p t u r e a l o n e is a i d e d b y t h e i n t e r n a l t e s t i m o n y o f t h e H o l y Spirit. S c r i p t u r e itself attests to its message a n d m e a n i n g . C h r i s t a n d t h e Spirit are at w o r k in t h e W o r d . The r e f o r m e r s insisted t h a t p o s t a p o s t o l i c claims o f a u t h o r i t a t i v e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n were precisely t h e reason w h y t h e W o r d o f G o d lost its/his central place in t h e life o f t h e C h u r c h .

8 P Schaff, The Creeds of Christendom, Vol. 2 (New York: Harper, 1919) 8 3 .

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The R e f o r m a t i o n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f S c r i p t u r e was c a u g h t u p in theological polemics. T h e H u m a n i s t s used Scripture to attack the C h u r c h , b u t t h e y were n o t so m u c h i n t e r e s t e d in t h e p u r e d o c t r i n e s of S c r i p t u r e as t h e y were in e x p o s i n g t h e c o r r u p t i o n a n d folly of t h e p r e s e n t s i t u a t i o n in t h e l i g h t o f t h e p i e t y o f S c r i p t u r e . The early reformers f o u g h t for p u r e d o c t r i n e o n t h e basis o f S c r i p t u r e ( a n d t h e F a t h e r s ) . T h e d o c t r i n e o f justification b y faith a l o n e , b y grace a l o n e (by C h r i s t a l o n e ) , was seen as t h e c e n t r a l d o c t r i n e o f S c r i p t u r e . T h e d o c t r i n e o f justification b y faith is t h e c r i t e r i o n b y w h i c h all o t h e r d o c t r i n e s , offices, a n d p r a c t i c e s in t h e C h u r c h are j u d g e d . T h e criteriological p r i o r i t y of justification b y faith is e s t a b l i s h e d in S c r i p t u r e . T h e C h u r c h s t a n d s o r falls, said L u t h e r , o n t h e s c r i p t u r a l t e a c h i n g o f justification. T h e r e were o t h e r issues, o t h e r p o l e m i c s , b u t t h e p r o c e d u r e w a s t h e s a m e . D o c t r i n a l r e f o r m was forged a n d p l e a d e d o n t h e basis o f S c r i p t u r e . C . T h e Key Figure is M a r t i n Luther Basic for L u t h e r ' s u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f S c r i p t u r e is his d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n law a n d G o s p e l . T h e G o s p e l of Jesus C h r i s t is t h e fulfillm e n t a n d e n d o f t h e M o s a i c law. L a w a n d G o s p e l are in all b o o k s o f t h e Bible. T h e G o s p e l is t h e g o o d n e w s t h a t salvation is in C h r i s t a l o n e . A b r a h a m a n d o t h e r s s a w t h a t G o s p e l in t h e p r o m i s e s , believed, a n d w e r e justified. L u t h e r transposes A u g u s t i n e ' s d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n O l d a n d N e w T e s t a m e n t as ways o f salvation t o law a n d G o s p e l as ways o f salvation. T h e w a y o f t h e l a w is d o this . . . a n d d o n ' t d o t h a t . . . . T h e w a y o f t h e G o s p e l is believe . . . a n d it has a l r e a d y b e e n d o n e for y o u in C h r i s t . T h e law is c o m m a n d , t h e G o s p e l is gift, t h e gift of forgiveness. W h e n t h e law c o m m a n d s , failure results b e c a u s e o n e c a n n o t fulfill t h e law o n one's o w n p o w e r ( " T h e g o o d 1 w o u l d , I d o n o t , " said P a u l ) . T h e law h u m b l e s ; t h e G o s p e l picks u p . O n e c a n n o t be p i c k e d u p unless o n e is p u t d o w n to size. B e i n g b r o u g h t l o w (law) a n d b e i n g raised u p ( G o s p e l ) are t h e daily struggles of t h e C h r i s t i a n life, t h e e x p e r i e n c e of sin ( b r o u g h t by t h e l a w ) , a n d t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f forgiveness ( b r o u g h t b y C h r i s t ) . T h e d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n law a n d G o s p e l , t h e d o c t r i n e o f justification b y faith a p a r t from w o r k s , a n d t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e c o r e o f S c r i p t u r e are all t h e s a m e for L u t h e r . T h e c e n t e r o f S c r i p t u r e for L u t h e r is C h r i s t , p r e s e n t in b o t h t h e O l d a n d N e w T e s t a m e n t . C h r i s t is t h e e t e r n a l W o r d o f G o d , p r e s e n t in O l d T e s t a m e n t t i m e s in t h e form of p r o m i s e , p r e s e n t in N e w Test a m e n t times in t h e p e r s o n of Jesus, a n d p r e s e n t in t h e C h u r c h t h r o u g h W o r d a n d s a c r a m e n t . In all cases, C h r i s t t h e W o r d is t h e effective

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m e a n s o f grace ( h e a l i n g salvation for A u g u s t i n e ) . T h e c e n t e r o r c o r e of S c r i p t u r e is " w h a t drives C h r i s t " {was Christum treibet), i.e., w h a t p r e a c h e s C h r i s t , w h a t p r o m o t e s o r p o i n t s t o C h r i s t . C h r i s t is a t t h e c o r e of G o d ' s p l a n o f s a l v a t i o n . G o d p r o m i s e s t h r o u g h p r o p h e t s ; G o d delivers in p e r s o n . All of S c r i p t u r e leads t o C h r i s t , a n d Christ leads t o salvation. L u t h e r ' s r e s p o n s e t o t h e v a r i o u s senses of m e a n i n g in t h e M i d d l e Ages (fourfold, d o u b l e - l i t e r a l ) was t h a t S c r i p t u r e has o n e s i m p l e sense ( m o s t often, C h r i s t ) . The g r a m m a t i c a l sense is t h e s i m p l e s t sense a n d is t h e m e a n i n g of t h e text, t h e g r a m m a t i c a l m e a n i n g a n d t h e t h e o l o g i c a l m e a n i n g are t h e s a m e . L u t h e r availed h i m s e l f o f H u m a n ist s c h o l a r s h i p ( a n d H u m a n i s t s s a w a n early ally in L u t h e r ) a n d w a s a p a r t of a late medieval t r e n d t o h i g h l i g h t (once again) t h e christological m e a n i n g o f a text. L u t h e r also u s e d allegory, n o t t o establish a d o c t r i n e , h e said, b u t t o e m b e l l i s h it. H e also u s e d t h e o t h e r s p i r i t u a l senses. L u t h e r o n S c r i p t u r e is often p r e s e n t e d as a total b r e a k from t h e m e d i e v a l w o r l d . T h a t c a m e later. (You c a n t a k e t h e b o y o u t o f t h e m o n a s t e r y , b u t y o u c a n n o t take t h e m o n a s t e r y o u t of t h e boy.) In t h e area of t h e senses of m e a n i n g , L u t h e r is a p a r t of t h e m e d i e v a l t r e n d t o call for a r e t u r n t o t h e letter of t h e text, a n d t h e n , in p r a c t i c e , t o g o o n a n d find o t h e r senses of m e a n i n g . After all ( a n d all t h e m e d i e v a l s k n e w t h i s ) t h e N e w T e s t a m e n t itself uses allegory. L u t h e r ' s d i s t i n c t i o n is h i s c o n s t r u c t i o n o f S c r i p t u r e as c o n t a i n i n g a single t e s t a m e n t (will, p r o m i s e ) of C h r i s t . G o d ' s last a n d o n l y will a n d t e s t a m e n t is t h a t h e w o u l d d i e for o u r salvation. The p r o m ise is t h e d e c l a r a t i o n o f t h e will a n d t e s t a m e n t . T h e d e a t h o f t h e G o d - M a n validates his t e s t a m e n t . T h e i n h e r i t a n c e is t h e forgiveness of sins a n d e t e r n a l life. The ( n e w ) t e s t a m e n t o f C h r i s t is e t e r n a l . It is p l a y e d o u t in t i m e , b u t t h e r e is n o d e v e l o p m e n t in t h e e t e r n a l . A u g u s t i n e a n d t h e medievals generally s a w a d e v e l o p m e n t a n d t r a n s f o r mation within a n d between the O l d a n d N e w Testament. Luther h e l d t h a t t h e N e w T e s t a m e n t is o l d e r t h a n t h e O l d b e c a u s e it is t h e o l d e s t ( e t e r n a l ) . T h e O l d Testament b e g i n s a n d e n d s in t i m e . W e h a v e c o m e a l o n g w a y ( t o t h e s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y ) . O r have we? W h a t often is seen t o b e n e w is n o t so n e w after all. T h e m o n a s tery {sacra pagina), t h e university {sacra doctrina), t h e p r i n t i n g press {sacra littera), a n d t h e p u l p i t ( H o l y G o s p e l ) all r e p r e s e n t shifts a n d e m p h a s e s . T h e w h o l e e n t e r p r i s e , h o w e v e r , was still "sacred."

T H E HISTORY OI SCRIPTURE IN T H E C H U R C H

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PART T W O : T H E M O D E R N C H U R C H

In t h e m o d e r n p e r i o d t h e historical-critical m e t h o d d o m i n a t e s m o s t Protestant approaches to Scripture and, since 1943 Afflante

Spiritu),

{Divino

also m o s t C a t h o l i c a p p r o a c h e s . By t h e m i d d l e o f

t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y t h e historical-critical m e t h o d is in place. O n e w a y o f p i c t u r i n g t h e shift t h a t takes place b e t w e e n t h e m e d i e v a l a p p r o a c h ( i n c l u d i n g early R e f o r m a t i o n ) a n d t h e m o d e r n a p p r o a c h o f t h e later s e v e n t e e n t h a n d e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y is t o c o n s i d e r t h e i r views of t h e r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e letter a n d t h e real, t h e c o r r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e text of S c r i p t u r e a n d t h e events S c r i p t u r e d e s c r i b e s . In t h e m e d i e v a l a p p r o a c h t h e letter o f t h e Bible was read as h i s t o r i c a l a n d real; t h e r e was n e v e r a n y q u e s t i o n t h a t w h a t was s a i d actually t o o k place. S c r i p t u r e was read as religion, history, g e o g r a p h y , liturgy, prayer, a n d so o n . S c r i p t u r e is G o d ' s W o r d o n t h e s u b j e c t . The a p p r o a c h of historical c r i t i c i s m is first to q u e s t i o n t h e r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e letter a n d t h e real, t h e n t o p o s i t a s e p a r a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e t w o , a n d

finally

to see t h e text as a faith r e s p o n s e t o a s t i m u l u s , a n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f a n e v e n t b u t n o t t h e e v e n t itself. W h a t w e h a v e in t h e text are t h e r e s p o n s e s o f t h e c o m m u n i t i e s o f faith, n o t t h e s t i m u l i . In t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y it was s a i d t h a t w h a t we h a v e in t h e N e w T e s t a m e n t is t h e C h r i s t of faith a n d n o t t h e J e s u s o f history. In a n y case, it c a m e to b e p e r c e i v e d in historical c r i t i c i s m t h a t t h e Bible is t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f facts a n d n o t t h e facts t h e m s e l v e s . It was w r i t t e n f r o m faith t o (our) faith. The historical-critical m e t h o d is c o n c e r n e d a b o u t t h e o r i g i n of i n d i v i d u a l b o o k s of t h e Bible. M o d e r n s s t u d y i n d i v i d u a l b o o k s in t h e i r l i f e - s e t t i n g - i n - h i s t o r y , u s i n g h i s t o r y t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e Bible, n o t u s i n g t h e Bible t o u n d e r s t a n d history. C o n c e r n e d a b o u t t h e b o o k s as t h e o l o g i c a l l i t e r a t u r e a n d n o t history, it uses t h e b e s t critical ( o b jective, analytic) tools available for t h e s t u d y o f a n c i e n t l i t e r a t u r e . T h e m o d e r n a p p r o a c h d e v e l o p s s o m e o f t h e h u m a n i s t interests d e tailed earlier h e r e — i n t e r e s t in t h e h i s t o r i c a l past, t h e o r i g i n a l text, a n d language. There w e r e a n d are v a r i o u s m e t h o d s w i t h i n t h e h i s t o r i c a l - c r i t i cal m e t h o d . These will b e d e t a i l e d b y o t h e r s in t h i s v o l u m e . H e r e t h e c o n c e r n will b e t o t r a c e t h e rise o f t h e historical-critical m e t h o d , t o detail t h e shift f r o m m e d i e v a l - e a r l y R e f o r m a t i o n t o (early) m o d e r n a p p r o a c h e s (from t h e m i d d l e o f t h e s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y t o late e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y ) . 'The m e d i e v a l s t r e a t e d S c r i p t u r e as t h e C h u r c h ' s h o l y

Ki N \ : I i : HAGEN

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b o o k , a u t h o r e d b y G o d . The m o d e r n s t r e a t S c r i p t u r e as a p r o d u c t of h u m a n h i s t o r y w i t h t h e secular tools o f historical a n d literary criticism in o r d e r t o u n d e r s t a n d it b e t t e r in its a n c i e n t s e t t i n g . A m o n g t h e e l e m e n t s t h a t c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e rise o f t h e h i s t o r i cal-critical m e t h o d , in a d d i t i o n t o t h e s e p a r a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e letter a n d t h e real, i n c l u d e t h e following: (1) m e t h o d o l o g y , (2) D e i s m a n d r a t i o n a l i s m , (3) t h e disciplines of biblical i n t r o d u c t i o n a n d biblical theology, (4) t e x t u a l c r i t i c i s m , a n d (5) historical c o n s c i o u s n e s s . 1. M e t h o d o l o g y . T h e o l o g y b e c a m e i n t e r e s t e d in t h e q u e s t i o n s o f " m e t h o d " (way o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n ) in t h e s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y . In 1 5 5 5 Nils H e m m i n g s e n , a s t u d e n t of L u t h e r a n d M e l a n c h t h o n (especially t h e latter), p u b l i s h e d a b o o k On Methods, t h e first p a r t for p h i l o s o p h y , t h e s e c o n d for t h e o l o g i c a l m e t h o d . It was i m p o r t a n t because o f its s u b j e c t — m e t h o d u s . Earlier in t h e s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y m e t h o d as a t e c h n i c a l t e r m c a m e i n t o m e d i c i n e , a n d in t h e s e c o n d half o f t h e c e n t u r y lawyers d i s c u s s e d m e t h o d . S o t h e o l o g y j o i n e d t h e o t h e r b r a n c h e s o f l e a r n i n g in t h e i r c o n c e r n t o t i d y u p t h e i r d i s c i p l i n e . Also i m p o r t a n t is t h a t H e m m i n g s e n b r o u g h t logic (particularly dialectic) i n t o t h e o l o g y in t h e d i s c u s s i o n o f m e t h o d . F o r biblical s t u d y this m e a n t t h a t discussion of "exegetical m e t h o d " was c a r r i e d o n in t h e p a r t o n p h i l o s o p h i c a l m e t h o d , a n d t h e n c a r r i e d over a n d p r a c t i c e d in t h e o l o g y a n d "exegesis," t h e actual w o r d b e i n g used. 9

"Exegesis" was w i d e l y u s e d in t h e s e v e n t e e n t h a n d e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y as t h e a r t for i n t e r p r e t i n g S c r i p t u r e . Exegesis is an a n c i e n t a n d early m o d e r n w o r d , n o t t o be f o u n d in ecclesiastical L a t i n in t h e a n c i e n t or m e d i e v a l p e r i o d . M e d i e v a l w o r k o n S c r i p t u r e was d o n e in the genre of a n n o t a t i o n a n d exposition. "Interpretation" m e a n t the translation a n d e x p l a n a t i o n of obscure a n d e n i g m a t i c w o r d s or d r e a m s . M o d e r n " i n t e r p r e t a t i o n " p r e s u p p o s e s a historical s e p a r a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e i n t e r p r e t e r a n d t h e text; a n d in t h e case of t h e " m e t h o d ists," t h e r e is t h e necessity o f first d i s c u s s i n g t h e m e t h o d o r w a y of i n t e r p r e t i n g before t h e actual i n t e r p r e t a t i o n or exegesis takes place. For L u t h e r , S c r i p t u r e was its o w n i n t e r p r e t e r . T h e difference is t h a t t h e (early) m o d e r n b e c o m e s c o n s c i o u s o f t h e d i s c i p l i n e , o r p r o b l e m , of i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . W h a t c o m e s o u t of this w o r k o n m e t h o d o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n is reflection o n t h e n e e d for an i n t r o d u c t i o n t o a biblical b o o k . A l r e a d y '' K. H a g e n , ' " D e exegetica m e t h o d o , ' Niels H e m m i n g s e n ' s D e M e t h o d i s ( 1 5 5 5 ) , " The Bible in the Sixteenth Century, ed. David Sreinmerz ( " D u k e M o n o graphs in Medieval and Renaissance Studies," Vol. 1 1; D u r h a m , N . C . : D u k e U n i versity Press, 1990) 1 8 1 - 9 6 , 2 5 2 - 5 5 .

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T H E HISTORY OI SCRIPTURE IN THE C H U R C H

in t h e t h i r d q u a r t e r o f t h e s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y , t h i s is f o u n d in H e m m i n g s e n a n d M a t t h i a s Flacius Illyricus w h o is often c r e d i t e d w i t h b e i n g t h e father of m o d e r n h e r m e n e u t i c s . I n H e m m i n g s e n ' s m e t h o d o l o g y four q u e s t i o n s n e e d t o be asked in an i n t r o d u c t i o n t o a p a r t i c u l a r b o o k o f t h e Bible in o r d e r t h a t it will b e u n d e r s t o o d " m o r e explicitly," " m o r e skillfully a n d correctly," " m o r e easily," o r " m o r e clearly." In t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n t h e first q u e s t i o n o f authorship determ i n e s t h e a u t h o r i t y o f t h e w r i t i n g . The s e c o n d , t h e occasion, leads t o an u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e literary s t r u c t u r e s . The t h i r d , t h e status or p r i n c i p a l q u e s t i o n of t h e w r i t i n g , leads t o a p e r c e p t i o n of t h e u l t i m a t e goal a n d s c o p e of t h e w h o l e w r i t i n g . T h e f o u r t h is t h e method or o r d e r of p r e s e n t a t i o n . Flacius also reflected o n t h e n e e d for an i n t r o d u c t i o n , c o v e r i n g t h e s a m e four q u e s t i o n s , before o n e b e g i n s w i t h t h e biblical w r i t i n g itself. T h e shift a w a y from t h e m e d i e v a l - e a r l y R e f o r m a t i o n t o early m o d e r n a p p r o a c h e s , s o m e w h e r e in t h e m i d d l e o f t h e s i x t e e n t h c e n tury, is seen in t h e m o d e r n focus o n t h e p r o p e r o r d e r o f m e t h o d o l ogy, i n t r o d u c t i o n , exegesis, in o t h e r w o r d s , o n t h e p r o b l e m o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n ( h e r m e n e u t i c s ) . For t h e m e d i e v a l s t h e r e was n o p r o b l e m of i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . T h e r e were rules for r e a d i n g S c r i p t u r e , s u m m a r i z e d by L u t h e r as prayer, m e d i t a t i o n , a n d e x p e r i e n c e . For t h e m o d e r n , these b e c o m e h i n d r a n c e s r a t h e r t h a n h e l p s . T h e m o d e r n n e e d s a m e t h o d t o u n d e r s t a n d . L u t h e r often said he n e e d e d m o r e t i m e . 2 . D e i s m a n d rationalism. T o discuss t h e n e x t m a j o r a d v a n c e s in t h e rise of t h e historical-critical m e t h o d w o u l d m e a n j u m p i n g t o t h e late s e v e n t e e n t h a n d e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y , w i t h t h e d e v e l o p m e n t s in D e i s m a n d r a t i o n a l i s m . T o u n d e r s t a n d t h e attacks from these q u a r ters, generically all rationalists, o n e n e e d s t o see w h a t it was t h e y w e r e a t t a c k i n g , namely, w h a t is k n o w n w i t h i n ( W e s t e r n ) E u r o p e a n d P r o t e s t a n t a n t i s m as O r t h o d o x y a n d P i e t i s m . In t h e later s i x t e e n t h a n d s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y t h e q u e s t i o n of m e t h o d in t h e o l o g y was c e n t r a l in L u t h e r a n a n d R e f o r m e d O r t h o doxy. T h e c o n c e r n was for p u r e d o c t r i n e in its p r o p e r place in t h e d o g m a t i c s y s t e m . S c r i p t u r e is t h e s o u r c e for s y s t e m a t i c a n d d o c t r i n a l theology. In t h e give a n d take w i t h R o m a n t h e o l o g i a n s , t h e O r t h o d o x Protestants d e v e l o p e d n u a n c e d theories of t h e inspiration o f Script u r e , t h e o n l y infallible a u t h o r i t y . Revealed t h e o l o g y is d r a w n o n l y from t h e revealed W o r d . S c r i p t u r e is d i v i n e , s u p e r n a t i o n a l revelat i o n . It is t h e very W o r d of G o d in its letters, w o r d s , d o c t r i n e s , a n d p r e c e p t s . S c r i p t u r e is t h e i n s t r u m e n t a l s o u r c e of t h e o l o g y : G o d is t h e " p r i n c i p l e o f t h e b e i n g " o f t h e o l o g y — t h e first cause of t h e o l o g y ; a n d

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S c r i p t u r e is t h e " p r i n c i p l e of k n o w i n g " G o d — h e n c e t h e i n s t r u m e n t of theology. It is t h e O r t h o d o x t h e o r y of revelation a n d i n s p i r a t i o n t h a t d r e w t h e ire of D e i s m a n d r a t i o n a l i s m . T h e i r t h e o r y o f i n s p i r a t i o n is k n o w n as t h e d i c t a t i o n t h e o r y . The d e f i n i t i o n o f i n s p i r a t i o n w a s t h a t act of G o d w h e r e b y h e c o n veyed t h e c o n t e n t o f w h a t h e w a n t e d to be w r i t t e n a n d t h e very w o r d s expressing t h a t c o n t e n t . It is also t h e d o c t r i n e of p l e n a r y inspirat i o n — e v e r y t h i n g in S c r i p t u r e was i n s p i r e d a n d d i c t a t e d . If t h e ins p i r a t i o n o f o n e verse is d e n i e d , t h e i n s p i r a t i o n , a u t h o r i t y , a n d infallibility o f t h e w h o l e Bible falls. It is also t h e d o c t r i n e o f verbal i n s p i r a t i o n — e v e r y w o r d . The H o l y Spirit actually d i c t a t e d t h e very w o r d s . T h e biblical a u t h o r s were d e f i n e d as "secretaries," h a n d s of C h r i s t or p e n m e n o f t h e H o l y Spirit. It is also t h e d o c t r i n e o f i n e r r a n c y — t h e secretaries w e r e k e p t from e r r o r in t h e w r i t i n g by t h e H o l y Spirit. The m e t h o d o f i n s p i r a t i o n was discussed in m u c h detail. The effect was t o secure a s u p e r n a t u r a l revelation ( S c r i p t u r e ) t h a t was i n e r r a n t , a u t h o r i t a t i v e , sufficient, clear, a n d efficacious. T h e responses to O r t h o d o x y in t h e late s e v e n t e e n t h a n d eight e e n t h c e n t u r y w e r e as different as Pietism is from r a t i o n a l i s m . A n d O r t h o d o x y d i d n o t die. H e n c e a t h r e e - r i n g circus, w h i c h is still b e i n g played today. W h a t is a Pietist? He's o n e w h o hears t h e W o r d . A n d lives a h o l y life in t e r m s of w h a t he's h e a r d . There were Pietists in s e v e n t e e n t h - c e n t u r y E n g l a n d , H o l l a n d , a n d G e r m a n y . 'They were i n t e r e s t e d in n o n t h e o l o g i c a l s t u d y of t h e Bible for p e r s o n a l e x p e r i e n c e a n d h o l i n e s s . They were m o r e interested in t h e effect of S c r i p t u r e t h a n its o r i g i n . S c r i p t u r e was t h e s o u r c e of p r o v i d e n t i a l g u i d a n c e for t h e p i o u s . 'They e n c o u r a g e d d i r e c t access t o t h e Bible w i t h o u t p o s t b i b l i c a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . 'They w e r e ( a n d are) r e s p o n s i b l e for t h e massive d i s t r i b u t i o n of i n e x p e n s i v e e d i t i o n s of t h e Bible. The d e v e l o p i n g historical-critical m e t h o d was of little or n o interest. The Pietists w e r e in o p p o s i t i o n t o t h e r a t i o n a l i s m of t h e age. A Bible in everyone's h a n d . For t h e O r t h o d o x , the Bible was a source b o o k of doctrine; for t h e Pietist, it was t h e m i r r o r of holiness. A rival t o O r t h o d o x y a n d P i e t i s m , b u t w a y over o n t h e secular side o f t h i n g s w h e r e t h e historical-critical m e t h o d was d e v e l o p i n g , was E n l i g h t e n m e n t Christianity. E n l i g h t e n m e n t C h r i s t i a n i t y i n c l u d e d English D e i s t s , D u t c h s k e p t i c s , F r e n c h n a t u r a l i s t s , a n d G e r m a n rat i o n a l i s t s — a l l generically rationalists. A central c o n c e r n of t h e E n g l i s h D e i s t s (rational belief in t h e d e i t y ) , w h o w e r e m o r e influential in F r a n c e a n d G e r m a n y t h a n in E n g l a n d , was t o a t t a c k s u p e r n a t i o n a l views o f revelation a n d t o ar-

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g u c r a t h e r for n a t u r a l r e l i g i o n — t h e n a t u r a l , t h e r a t i o n a l , a n d t h e universal. T h e A n g l i c a n p h i l o s o s p h e r , J o h n L o c k e , p r o v o k e d m u c h c o n t r o v e r s y w i t h his b o o k The Reasonableness of Christianity (1695). O t h e r w o r k s , typical a n d i n f l u e n t i a l , f r o m t h e D e i s t s w e r e J o h n T o l a n d , Christianity Not Mysterious ( 1 6 9 6 ) ; a n d M a t t h e w T i n d a l , Christianity as Old as Creation ( 1 7 3 0 ) . R e a s o n is t h e j u d g e of revelat i o n . Belief in t h e C r e a t o r G o d ( D e i t y ) is r e a s o n a b l e ; b u t belief in G o d ' s s u b s e q u e n t i n t e r v e n t i o n — p r o p h e c i e s , miracles, a t o n e m e n t — is n o t r e a s o n a b l e a n d t h e r e f o r e rejected. The t r u t h o f C h r i s t i a n i t y m u s t be d i s c o v e r a b l e in all ages. N a t u r a l religion is t h e i n n a t e c o r e of all religion. The universality o f reason is t h e o n l y c r i t e r i o n o f t r u t h . T h e a u t h o r i t y of t h e biblical r e c o r d is d o u b t f u l . W h a t c o m e s t h e n from t h e D e i s t s , n a t u r a l i s t s , a n d rationalists is t h a t t h e e n l i g h t e n e d are freed f r o m t h e d o g m a t i c s o f O r t h o d o x y a n d a n y s u p e r n a t u r a l t h e o r y o f i n s p i r a t i o n . D o c t r i n e s like t h e d i v i n i t y of C h r i s t , original sin, a t o n e m e n t , s a c r a m e n t s , a n d miracles are p u t aside. T h e N e w Testament n e v e r m e a n t t h e m t o be t a k e n seriously. V i e w s of t h e s u p e r n a t u r a l were r e g a r d e d as s u p e r s t i t i o n . S c r i p t u r e was int e r p r e t e d historically a n d critically. The " u n w o r t h y , " " i m p o s s i b l e , " a n d " u n r e a s o n a b l e " parts o f S c r i p t u r e w e r e e x p l a i n e d away. 3 . T h e disciplines o f biblical i n t r o d u c t i o n a n d biblical theology. By t h e m i d d l e of t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y ( J o h n D . M i c h a e l i s , Introduction to the New Testament, 1 7 5 0 ) , t h e discipline o f biblical int r o d u c t i o n was in place. W e have seen w r i t i n g s a b o u t biblical i n t r o d u c t i o n s already in t h e s e c o n d half o f t h e s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y w i t h H e m m i n g s e n a n d Flacius. Their reflection o n t h e n e e d for an i n t r o d u c t i o n in o r d e r t o p r e p a r e t h e w a y for u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e b o o k m o r e clearly is n o t r e c o g n i z e d in s e c o n d a r y l i t e r a t u r e . R i c h a r d S i m o n , a F r e n c h C a t h o l i c in t h e s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y , is often c r e d i t e d w i t h b e i n g t h e " f o r e r u n n e r " of t h e discipline o f i n t r o d u c t i o n ( 1 6 7 8 , Critical History of the Old Testament; t h r e e v o l u m e s o n t h e N e w T e s t a m e n t , 1689-93). In this d i s c i p l i n e t h e Bible is t r e a t e d as a n c i e n t l i t e r a t u r e w i t h a historical s e t t i n g . T o u n d e r s t a n d a w r i t i n g is t o u n d e r s t a n d its s i t u a t i o n in t i m e a n d space, t h e book's setting-in-life. A n i n t r o d u c t i o n raises all t h e q u e s t i o n s necessary t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e b o o k . In o n e int r o d u c t i o n , M i c h a e l i s asks t h e f o l l o w i n g q u e s t i o n s : W h a t t y p e of l i t e r a t u r e is it? W h e r e is it c i t e d elsewhere? To w h o m is it w r i t t e n ? W h a t was its place in t h e c o m m u n i t y ? W h e n was it w r i t t e n a n d in w h a t language? W h a t q u e s t i o n s are t h e r e a b o u t t h e G r e e k translation? W h o w r o t e it? W h a t a b o u t t h e literary t e c h n i q u e ? Is it c a n o n i -

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cal? W h a t is its c o n t e n t ? In this I i n c - u p t h e r e are t e n q u e s t i o n s raised before t h e q u e s t i o n of c o n t e n t , b e c a u s e t h e message is l i n k e d t o its historical p l a c e . The d i s c i p l i n e o f i n t r o d u c t i o n p r e s u p p o s e s t h e relativity o f each b o o k . E a c h b o o k is u n i q u e u n t o itself a n d d e m a n d s a t h o r o u g h , o b jective (i.e., critical) s t u d y in o r d e r t o u n d e r s t a n d it. L a t e r in t h e eighteenth century, J o h n E i c h h o r n developed further the h u m a n i s t rationalist i n t r o d u c t i o n ( t h r e e v o l u m e s o n t h e O l d T e s t a m e n t , 1 7 8 0 8 3 ) . T h e O l d Testament m u s t be s t u d i e d like a n y o t h e r l i t e r a t u r e , free f r o m all a u t h o r i t i e s , d o g m a , a n d t r a d i t i o n . The discipline o f biblical t h e o l o g y followed closely o n t h e discip l i n e of biblical i n t r o d u c t i o n . The d i s c i p l i n e o f biblical theology, seen b y s o m e as t h e c r o w n o f biblical s c h o l a r s h i p , c o m e s o u t of t h e E n l i g h t e n m e n t a n d t h e critical m e t h o d o l o g i e s w e have b e e n d e t a i l i n g . M o r e p a r t i c u l a r l y , G o t t h o l d Lessing's Education of Mankind ( 1 7 8 0 ) c o n s t r u c t e d a view o f t h e Bible w h i c h p a r o c h i a l i / x d it as p r e p a r a t o r y t o t h e m a t u r a t i o n o f t h e h u m a n race. The O l d T e s t a m e n t c a m e at t h e stage of t h e c h i l d h o o d of t h e race, w h i c h was m o t i v a t e d by t e m p o r a l r e w a r d s a n d p u n i s h m e n t s (law). 'The N e w T e s t a m e n t fits i n t o t h e a d o l e s c e n c e o f t h e race, w h e r e o n e is w i l l i n g t o p u t u p w i t h t e m p o r a r y h a r d s h i p s w i t h t h e p r o m i s e o f g r e a t e r (spiritual) rew a r d s later ( r e s u r r e c t i o n ) . A n d finally t h e race m a t u r e d i n t o a d u l t h o o d by t h e t i m e of t h e E n l i g h t e n m e n t , w h e r e o n e lives in t h e h e r e a n d n o w g u i d e d b y reason a l o n e . In effect, t h e n , t h e Bible is p u t in its t i m e a n d p l a c e . Later in t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y t h e c o n c e r n was t o s e p a r a t e b i b lical t h e o l o g y from d o g m a t i c t h e o l o g y ( 1 7 5 8 , The Advantage of Biblical 'Theology over Scholasticism; 1 7 8 7 , 'The Difference between Biblical Theology and Dogmatic Theology). D o g m a t i c theology, perh a p s c o n n e c t e d t o p h i l o s o p h y , c o u l d have p e r m a n e n c e , w h i l e b i b l i cal t h e o l o g y is c o n n e c t e d t o its history. Late e i g h t e e n t h - c e n t u r y r o m a n t i c i s m , w i t h its e m p h a s i s o n e m p a t h y , a i d e d t h e d i s c i p l i n e of biblical theology. S o m e t h i n g like today's nostalgia, o n e c o u l d e m o t i o n a l l y i m m e r s e oneself i n t o t h e s p i r i t o f a past g e n e r a t i o n . Biblical t h e o l o g y is t h e t h e o l o g y o f a b o o k . If a b o o k has a h u m a n s i t u a tion—authorship, time, audience, language, purpose, content, m e t h o d — t h e n it also h a s a p a r t i c u l a r theology. As t h e r e are v a r i o u s b o o k s w i t h v a r i o u s historical s i t u a t i o n s , so t h e r e are various b o o k s w i t h v a r i o u s t h e o l o g i e s . As a result o f this e i g h t e e n t h - c e n t u r y develo p m e n t , t h e r e is n o s u c h t h i n g as biblical t h e o l o g y in t h e singular, o n l y biblical t h e o l o g i e s in t h e p l u r a l .

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R a t i o n a l i s m , c o n n e c t e d w i t h D e i s m , led to t h e rise of biblical i n t r o d u c t i o n s a n d t h e o l o g i e s , as well as w i t h a d v a n c e s in textual criticism, all a p a r t o f t h e d e v e l o p i n g historical-critical m e t h o d . 4 . Textual criticism. Textual criticism as a p p l i e d t o t h e Bible c o n cerns t h e analysis o f c o d i c e s , v a r i a n t r e a d i n g s , earliest m a n u s c r i p t e v i d e n c e , w i t h b o t h t h e o r y a n d p r a c t i c e . E r a s m u s ' s text o f t h e G r e e k N e w T e s t a m e n t , t h e first p u b l i s h e d in 1 5 1 6 , as m e n t i o n e d earlier, r e m a i n e d t h e "critical" e d i t i o n {textus receptus) u n t i l well i n t o t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y . A l t h o u g h t h e C o m p l u t e n s i a n Polyglot relied o n earlier m a n u s c r i p t e v i d e n c e , a n d was actually p r i n t e d earlier {New Testament, 1 5 1 4 ) t h o u g h m a d e p u b l i c in 1 5 2 2 , a n d is n o w r e g a r d e d as better, it was E r a s m u s ' s text, t h r o u g h s u b s e q u e n t e d i t i o n s , t h a t was "received by all" {textus receptus) a n d s e e m e d t o have an over t h r e e h u n d r e d year r i g h t t o be. R o b e r t S t e p h a n u s ' s text (Paris, 1 5 5 0 ) , w h i c h followed E r a s m u s ( 1 5 3 5 e d i t i o n ) , b e c a m e t h e textus receptus for B r i t a i n . The e d i t i o n of t h e p r i n t i n g firm, Elzevir ( L e i d e n , 1 6 3 3 ) , w h i c h followed S t e p h a n u s , b e c a m e t h e textus receptus for t h e C o n t i n e n t . R i c h a r d S i m o n , later in t h e s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y , e n g a g e d in a critical i n v e s t i g a t i o n i n t o textual v a r i a n t s . In 1 7 3 4 J o h a n n Bengel ( T u b i n g e n ) issued a critical text, n o t exactly t h e textus receptus, a n d is r e g a r d e d as i m p o r t a n t for m o d e r n scientific textual criticism b e cause o f his p r i n c i p l e s (e.g., t h e m o r e difficult r e a d i n g is preferred) a n d theories of m a n u s c r i p t families (groupings of manuscripts). J o h a n n Wettstein's Greek N e w Testament ( 1 7 5 1 - 5 2 , Amsterdam) contained m a n y i m p o r t a n t (new) variants. J o h a n n Griesbach (text, 1 7 7 4 - 7 5 ) agreed w i t h Bengel o n t h e g r o u p i n g of m a n u s c r i p t families. His theories have lived o n in textual criticism (e.g., a reading m u s t have an ancient witness, the shorter as well as t h e m o r e difficult is preferred). 10

A n d so o n w e n t t h e r e c e p t i o n o f t h e textus receptus u n t i l 1 8 3 1 , w h e n Karl L a c h m a n n set it aside a n d p u b l i s h e d a text b a s e d entirely o n a n c i e n t m a n u s c r i p t s . In 1 8 8 1 , W e s t c o t t a n d H o r t p u b l i s h e d The New 'Testament in the Original Greek, w h i c h has b e c o m e in effect a n e w textus receptus. Textual criticism, w i t h t h e t h o u s a n d s a n d t h o u s a n d s o f m a n u scripts a n d t h e tens of t h o u s a n d s of v a r i a n t r e a d i n g s , w a s c o m p l i c a t e d n o t o n l y b y t h e d i s c i p l i n e itself b u t also b y t h e t r a d i t i o n ( C h u r c h ) t h a t has received t h e biblical text. Critical i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e text d e v e l o p e d earlier u n d e r t h e aegis of r a t i o n a l i s m . C r i t i c a l r e n d e r i n g o f t h e t e x t itself was s l o w e r t o d e v e l o p n o t o n l y b e c a u s e x

Stephanus's 1551 N e w Testament introduced verse divisions still in use today.

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E r a s m u s ' s text was b a s e d o n late e v i d e n c e b u t also b e c a u s e it has s e l d o m b e e n r e g a r d e d as p u r e l y a scientific task. 5. Historical c o n s c i o u s n e s s . Historical consciousness is t h e d a w n i n g o f p e r s p e c t i v e o n t h e past a n d p r e s e n t , o n d i s t a n c e a n d differe n c e . W h a t d e v e l o p e d in H u m a n i s m , a sense of a n t i q u i t y ' s d i s t a n c e from t h e p r e s e n t , i n c l u d i n g S c r i p t u r e , c o n t i n u e d t o d e v e l o p in t h e early m o d e r n p e r i o d w i t h all t h e critical m e t h o d o l o g i e s . H i s t o r i c a l c o n s c i o u s n e s s is p a r t a n d parcel o f w h a t w e h a v e b e e n discussing. The p r o b l e m o f h e r m e n e u t i c s as t h e p r o b l e m o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g a n d l a n g u a g e is b r o u g h t i n t o t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y b y F r i e d r i c h S c h l e i e r m a c h e r a n d b e y o n d o u r s c o p e . H e r m e n e u t i c s as t h e p r o b l e m o f e x p r e s s i o n , i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , a n d t r a n s l a t i o n is b r o u g h t i n t o focus in t h e early m o d e r n p e r i o d w i t h t h e rise o f t h e historicalcritical m e t h o d . Key in this d e v e l o p m e n t is t h e s e p a r a t i o n b e t w e e n text a n d reader, n a m e l y , t h e c o n s c i o u s n e s s o f t h e s e p a r a t i o n . O n e w a y o f d e s c r i b i n g this d e v e l o p m e n t is t o use t h e d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n i n t e r n a l i z a t i o n a n d e x t e r n a l i z a t i o n u s e d in t h e s o c i o l o g y of k n o w l e d g e . In t h e m e d i e v a l - e a r l y R e f o r m a t i o n p e r i o d , as o u r a r g u m e n t has g o n e , t h e reader i n t e r n a l i z e d S c r i p t u r e , m o r n i n g , n o o n , a n d night. W i t h H u m a n i s m — p r i n t i n g , editing, translating, introd u c i n g — d e v e l o p e d t h e e x t e r n a l i z a t i o n o f t h e Bible as an a n c i e n t text. The c o n c e r n of m e t h o d o l o g y is t o find t h e way(s) o f b r i d g i n g t h e g a p b e t w e e n t e x t a n d i n t e r p r e t e r . O n c e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n (with h i s t o r i cal c o n s c i o u s n e s s ) b e c o m e s t h e focus of biblical study, t h e n t h e O r t h o d o x n e e d e d t o set u p a s y s t e m , w i t h logical c o h e r e n c e , t o m a k e t h e L u t h e r a n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n t h e c o r r e c t o n e vis-a-vis t h e R o m a n a n d t h e R e f o r m e d t r a d i t i o n s . T h e e m a n c i p a t o r from O r t h o d o x d o g m a t i s m is always d e s c r i b e d as reason ( a n d o n t o r a t i o n a l i s m ) . B u t O r t h o d o x y u s e d p h i l o s o p h y , a n d P i e t i s m c o n t r i b u t e d a n o t h e r crucial e l e m e n t in t h e e m a n c i p a t i o n — t h e subjective e x p e r i e n c e of t h e i n d i v i d u a l . So this p e r s p e c t i v e suggests t h a t o r t h o d o x p h i l o s o p h y p l u s pietist i n d i v i d u a l i s m h e l p e d create t h e a t m o s p h e r e for r a t i o n a l i s m , w h e r e t h e externalization process is a d v a n c e d . The Bible is t o b e treated as a n y o t h e r a n c i e n t d o c u m e n t , in n e e d o f historical i n t r o d u c t i o n a n d l i n g u i s t i c - l i t e r a r y analysis. The d i s t a n c e a n d task is e n o r m o u s . Biblical t h e o l o g y b e l o n g s t o t h e a n c i e n t w o r l d . D o g m a t i c t h e o l ogy, c o n s c i o u s o f its m e t h o d o l o g y a n d d i s t a n c e from S c r i p t u r e , is p a r t o f t h e C h u r c h ' s t r a d i t i o n , also past. If t h e r e is t o be a b r i d g e b e t w e e n biblical t h e o l o g y a n d c o n t e m p o r a r y t h i n k i n g , it is t h e task of h e r m e n e u t i c s (translation, i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , u n d e r s t a n d i n g ) t o b r i d g e t h e g u l f — a n d o n to t h e p r o b l e m s of t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y .

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T H E HISTORY OI SCRIPTURE IN THE C H U R C H

It is w i t h historical c o n s c i o u s n e s s t h a t p r o b l e m s are p e r c e i v e d t h a t w e r e n o t b e f o r e — m e t h o d , exegesis, critical text, i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , a n d h e r m e n e u t i c s — a l l w i t h t h e positive use o f reason. T h e rise o f t h e historical-critical m e t h o d itself is a historical p h e n o m e n o n . Its p o s t u r e t o d a y is t h a t it is p u r e l y objective a n d scientific. It d i d n o t b e g i n t h a t w a y n o r d e v e l o p u n t o u c h e d b y h u m a n historical e l e m e n t s . P r a c t i t i o n e r s of t h e historical-critical m e t h o d m a y w a n t t o use t h e m e t h o d o n itself a n d see it in its historical s e t t i n g , w h i c h this essay has t r i e d t o set o u t w i t h p u r e objectivity. T h e usual s u r v e y o f t h e historical-critical m e t h o d is d e s c r i b e d w i t h " a d v a n c e " l a n g u a g e , n o t totally a b s e n t from t h e foregoing. As o n e a u t h o r p u t it, g o i n g t h r o u g h t h e c e n t u r i e s , "It finally w o n out!" W h a t d i d it w i n , o u t s i d e o f c o n trol o f a c a d e m i c biblical studies? D i d it w i n a n y n e w o r b e t t e r o r clearer u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e text t h a t was u n a v a i l a b l e to St. A u g u s t ine, T h o m a s , L u t h e r , o r C a l v i n ?

Ki N \ : ri: HAGEN

27

RECOMMENDED

READINGS

A l d r i d g c , J o h n W. The Hermeneutic of Erasmus. R i c h m o n d : J o h n K n o x , 1 9 6 6 . Basic level; c o n c e n t r a t e s o n t h e p h i l o s o p h y o f C h r i s t , e r u d i t i o n , a n d philology. Cambridge History of the Bible, 3 v o l u m e s . C a m b r i d g e : U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1 9 6 3 - 7 0 . Reference v o l u m e s by specialists t h a t cover t h e early p e r i o d (I), m e d i e v a l (II), a n d m o d e r n (III). C h a u , W a i - S h i n g . The Letter and the Spirit: a History of Interpretation from Origen to Luther. N e w York: Peter L a n g , 1 9 9 5 . A s u r v e y o f historical a p p r o a c h e s t o S c r i p t u r e , f o c u s i n g o n law a n d G o s p e l in t h e P a u l i n e epistles. G r a n t , R o b e r t . A Short History of the Interpretation of the Bible. N e w York: M a c m i l l a n , 1 9 6 3 ; 2 n d e d i t i o n w i t h D a v i d Tracy, P h i l a d e l p h i a : Fortress, 1 9 8 4 . Basic i n t r o d u c t i o n t h a t starts w i t h t h e Bible itself. H a g e n , K e n n e t h . Luther's Approach to Scripture as seen in his "Commentaries" on Galatians. ' T u b i n g e n : J. C . B. M o h r (Paul S i e b e c k ) , 1 9 9 3 . Places L u t h e r in t h e c o n t e x t of t h e w h o l e h i s t o r y o f biblical interpretation. H a h n , H e r b e r t F. The Old Testament in Modern Research. P h i l a d e l p h i a : Fortress Press, 1 9 5 4 / 6 6 . Extensive s u r v e y of O l d T e s t a m e n t criticism; strong on the m o d e r n s . K o o i m a n , W i l l e n J. Luther and the Bible. Translated b y J o h n S c h m i d t . P h i l a d e l p h i a : M u h l e n b e r g , 1 9 6 1 . I n t r o d u c t o r y level a i m e d a t a b r o a d coverage of m a n y facets. K u m m e l , W e r n e r G . The New Testament: The History of the Investigation of its Problems. 'Translated by S. M . G i l m o u r a n d H . C . K e e . N a s h v i l l e : A b i n g d o n , 1 9 7 2 . E x t e n s i v e survey o f N e w Testam e n t criticism; several p r i m a r y s o u r c e s . E m p h a s i s o n t h e m o d e r n s . de L u b a c , H e n r i . The Sources of Revelation. Translated by L. O ' N e i l l . N e w York: H e r d e r a n d H e r d e r , 1 9 6 8 . A n a b r i d g m e n t o f his m o n u -

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T H E HISTORY OI SCRIPTURE IN THE C H U R C H

m e n t a l w o r k in F r e n c h o n p a t r i s t i c a n d m e d i e v a l exegesis; e m p h a sis o n t h e spiritual u n d e r s t a n d i n g of S c r i p t u r e . Smalley, Beryl. 'The Study of the Bible in the Middle Ages. O x f o r d : Blackwell, 1 9 5 2 . S c h o l a r l y a n d r e a d a b l e h i s t o r y from t h e Fathers o f t h e C h u r c h t o t h e friars o f t h e t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r y . S t u h l m a c h e r , Peter. Historical Criticism and Theological Interpretation of Scripture. T r a n s l a t e d b y R. Harrisville. P h i l a d e l p h i a : F o r tress, 1 9 7 7 . S h o r t o v e r v i e w from t h e a n c i e n t s t o t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y ; r e c o n s t r u c t i o n of t h e c u r r e n t d i l e m m a .

CATHOLIC INTERPRETATION OF SCRIPTURE by

DANIEL J. HARRINGTON, S.J.

I. T H E BIBLE IN CATHOLIC LIEE TODAY

A

friend w h o by u p b r i n g i n g a n d c o n v i c t i o n is a n evangelical

Christian m a d e a c o m m e n t s o m e t i m e ago that startled m e . H e said t h a t w h e n e v e r h e h a s h a d o c c a s i o n to a t t e n d R o m a n

C a t h o l i c liturgies recently, h e has b e e n s t r u c k b y h o w " P r o t e s t a n t " t h e y s o u n d e d . H e m e a n t t h a t as a c o m p l i m e n t , a n d h e w e n t o n t o

e x p l a i n t h a t w h a t m a k e s h i m feel a t h o m e in C a t h o l i c w o r s h i p t o d a y is t h e massive dose o f biblical l a n g u a g e — n o t o n l y in t h e r e a d i n g s t a k e n directly from t h e Scriptures b u t also in t h e s o n g s a n d t h e prayers. H i s c o m m e n t led m e , as a p r o f e s s i o n a l biblical s c h o l a r w h o also p r e a c h e s a n d presides regularly at w o r s h i p services in t h e C a t h o l i c C h u r c h , t o reflect o n a d r a m a t i c d e v e l o p m e n t in m y o w n c h u r c h . T h e f o u n d a t i o n s for t h i s d e v e l o p m e n t w e r e a l r e a d y laid in t h e 1 9 4 0 s a n d 1 9 5 0 s b y P o p e Pius XII's encyclical o n biblical s t u d i e s {Divino

Afflante

Spiritu)

a n d his revision o f t h e liturgical services

for H o l y W e e k . B u t t h e decisive t u r n i n g p o i n t was t h e S e c o n d Vatican C o u n c i l . B u i l d i n g u p o n t h e directives a p p r o v e d by P o p e Pius X I I a n d w o r k e d o u t in m o r e detail b y biblical s c h o l a r s a n d t h e o l o g i a n s , t h e C o u n c i l F a t h e r s affirmed in a p o w e r f u l w a y t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e Bible in t h e life o f t h e C a t h o l i c C h u r c h . Before w e l o o k at t h e key d o c u m e n t r e l a t i n g t o t h e Bible f r o m V a t i c a n II, it m a y b e useful t o c o n t r a s t t h e place o f t h e Bible in t h e C a t h o l i c C h u r c h before t h e C o u n c i l a n d its place today. T h e t h r e e areas for c o n t r a s t are liturgy, t h e o l o g i c a l e d u c a t i o n , a n d e c u m e n i s m . P r i o r t o Vatican II, S c r i p t u r e was c e r t a i n l y an integral p a r t of t h e M a s s . A s e l e c t i o n f r o m a N e w T e s t a m e n t epistle o r t h e O l d Testa-

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CATHOLIC INTERPRETATION OE SCRIPTURE

m c n t , as well as a passage from o n e o f t h e G o s p e l s , was read at every e u c h a r i s t i c service. T h e priest r e a d these biblical selections in L a t i n , w h i l e s o m e o f t h e laity followed a l o n g w i t h t h e h e l p o f an E n g l i s h t r a n s l a t i o n . O n S u n d a y s , t h e passages were also read a l o u d in E n glish, e i t h e r as an a c c o m p a n i m e n t t o t h e L a t i n o r after it. T h e r a n g e of S c r i p t u r e r e a d i n g s was n a r r o w a n d repetitive. M a t t h e w ' s G o s p e l w i t h its e m p h a s e s o n c h u r c h o r d e r a n d P e t r i n e a u t h o r i t y was especially p r o m i n e n t . Vatican II r e m o v e d t h e l a n g u a g e b a r r i e r b y d e c r e e i n g t h a t t h e sacred liturgy c o u l d n o w be c e l e b r a t e d in m o d e r n l a n g u a g e s as well as L a t i n . T h e Bible is n o w read in English (or w h a t e v e r l a n g u a g e is m o s t a p p r o p r i a t e ) , a n d t h e r e a d i n g s have a very p r o m i n e n t place. S h o r t l y after t h e c o u n c i l , t h e liturgists w o r k e d o u t a n e w a n d m o r e c o m p r e h e n s i v e cycle o f S c r i p t u r e r e a d i n g s . F o r S u n d a y s t h e r e is a t h r e e - y e a r cycle, each S u n d a y h a v i n g passages f r o m t h e O l d Testam e n t , t h e b o o k o f P s a l m s , t h e N e w Testament Epistles, a n d t h e G o s pels. For w e e k d a y s t h e r e is a t w o - y e a r cycle c o n s i s t i n g o f a passage from t h e O l d 'Testament or t h e N e w ' T e s t a m e n t Epistles, a p s a l m , a n d t h e G o s p e l s . This d e v e l o p m e n t m e a n s t h a t in t h e i r w o r s h i p services, C a t h o l i c s t o d a y are e x p o s e d t o large a m o u n t s o f S c r i p t u r e in t h e l a n g u a g e t h a t t h e y m o s t readily u n d e r s t a n d . P r i o r t o V a t i c a n II, t h e Bible was n o t o r d i n a r i l y read directly as p a r t o f t h e p r i m a r y - o r s e c o n d a r y - s c h o o l p r o g r a m in religious e d u c a t i o n . In C a t h o l i c colleges, t h e s t u d y of t h e Bible was s u p p l e m e n t e d by c o n s e r v a t i v e t e x t b o o k s t h a t g u i d e d s t u d e n t s a l o n g a p p r o v e d p a t h s . In t h e t r a i n i n g of C a t h o l i c priests, biblical courses were usually p l a c e d at t h e e n d o f t h e p r o g r a m , after t h e p r o p e r d o g m a t i c t h e o l o g i c a l f o u n d a t i o n s w e r e a l r e a d y in place. Professors of S c r i p t u r e in p r e Vatican II s e m i n a r i e s w e r e generally very c a u t i o u s n o t t o stray i n t o t h e realms o f d o g m a t i c t h e o l o g y o r m o r a l t h e o l o g y . They focused o n philological a n d historical m a t t e r s . W h a t t h e y t a u g h t were officially classified as " m i n o r c o u r s e s . " Vatican II m a d e clear t h a t biblical s t u d i e s are central in C a t h o l i c theology. In t h e m a n y years t h a t I h a v e t a u g h t in C a t h o l i c s e m i n a r i e s since 1 9 7 1 , 1 h a v e n e v e r h e a r d a s t u d e n t q u e s t i o n o r c o m p l a i n a b o u t t h e n e e d for S c r i p t u r e courses. These courses are t a k e n a t t h e b e g i n n i n g , m i d d l e , a n d e n d o f s e m i n a r y p r o g r a m s . The s t u d e n t s w o r k h a r d a t t h e s e courses a n d enjoy t h e m . 'The professors d i a l o g u e w i t h a n d even t e a c h courses w i t h t h e i r colleagues in s y s t e m a t i c a n d m o r a l theology. A t every level in t h e C a t h o l i c e d u c a t i o n a l s y s t e m — c o l l e g e s , h i g h schools, g r a m m a r schools, religious e d u c a t i o n c l a s s e s — t h e Bible is r e a d a n d discussed. C a t h o l i c s are b e c o m i n g increasingly familiar

D A N I K I . J . HARRINGTON, S.J.

31

w i t h t h e l a n g u a g e a n d t h e m e s of S c r i p t u r e a n d t h u s b e t t e r able t o appreciate their language of worship. M y P r o t e s t a n t friend's c o m m e n t a b o u t t h e m o r e " b i b l i c a l " c h a r acter o f C a t h o l i c life raises t h e issue a b o u t t h e e c u m e n i c a l signific a n c e of t h e Bible for C a t h o l i c s . P r i o r t o V a t i c a n II, m a n y C a t h o l i c s l o o k e d u p o n t h e Bible as a " P r o t e s t a n t " b o o k . Those C a t h o l i c s w h o r e a d it w e r e careful t o follow officially a p p r o v e d h a n d b o o k s a n d c o m m e n t a r i e s a n d loyally d e f e n d e d t h e n e e d for s u c h a u t h o r i t a t i v e g u i d a n c e f r o m t h e t e a c h i n g offices o f t h e c h u r c h . ' T h o s e w h o q u o t e d t h e Bible e x c e p t t o affirm t r a d i t i o n a l t h e o l o g i c a l p o s i t i o n s w e r e c o n s i d e r e d p e c u l i a r or e v e n d a n g e r o u s . V a t i c a n II has e n c o u r a g e d C a t h o l i c s t o c l a i m t h e Bible as t h e i r o w n b o o k . O n local, n a t i o n a l , a n d i n t e r n a t i o n a l levels, t h e Bible has e m e r g e d as t h e c o m m o n g r o u n d for C a t h o l i c s a n d P r o t e s t a n t s . B o t h g r o u p s h a v e b e c o m e sensitive t o t h e i r s h a r e d h e r i t a g e in S c r i p t u r e a n d h a v e r e c o g n i z e d t h a t m a n y o f t h e i r s h a r p e s t differences

come

f r o m p o s t b i b l i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t s . These differences are real a n d t o u c h o n g e n u i n e issues b u t m u s t n o t o b s c u r e w h a t C a t h o l i c s a n d P r o t e s t a n t s h o l d in c o m m o n . W i t h i n C a t h o l i c circles t h e r e is g r e a t e n t h u s i a s m for c o u r s e s a n d lectures o n t h e Bible. B o o k s a b o u t t h e Bible a n d t r a n s l a t i o n s of t h e Bible are b i g sellers. A w h o l e i n d u s t r y o f lectures o n t h e Bible t h a t are available in t h e f o r m of cassettes h a s s p r u n g u p . All t h e s e develo p m e n t s s h o w t h a t C a t h o l i c s n o w l o o k u p o n t h e Bible as " t h e i r " b o o k t o o , see it as a m e a n s t o w a r d C h r i s t i a n u n i t y , a n d w a n t to k n o w as m u c h a b o u t it as t h e y c a n . A very c o n c r e t e i n s t a n c e o f t h e e c u m e n i c a l possibility a n d p o w e r of t h e Bible is t h e fact t h a t w h e n t h e n e w C a t h o l i c l e c t i o n a r y was p r e p a r e d in r e s p o n s e to Vatican II, it was a d o p t e d (with m i n o r m o d i fications)

b y several m a i n l i n e P r o t e s t a n t c h u r c h e s — L u t h e r a n , E p i s -

c o p a l , M e t h o d i s t , a n d P r e s b y t e r i a n . 'This m e a n s t h a t o n a l m o s t every S u n d a y t h e s a m e set of S c r i p t u r e r e a d i n g s is read a n d p r e a c h e d u p o n in all t h e s e C h r i s t i a n c o m m u n i t i e s . The historical a n d t h e o l o g i c a l differences b e t w e e n t h e s e g r o u p s r e m a i n , b u t at least t h e y are d e a l i n g w i t h t h e s a m e basic texts o f t h e Bible. I I . VATICAN I I ' S CONSTITUTION O N DIVINE REVELATION

The m o s t c o m p a c t a n d a u t h o r i t a t i v e s t a t e m e n t o n t h e t h e o r y a n d t h e o l o g y o f t h e Bible's place in t h e C a t h o l i c C h u r c h is V a t i c a n II's C o n s t i t u t i o n o n D i v i n e R e v e l a t i o n ( k n o w n also b y its L a t i n title Dei Verbum. All q u o t a t i o n s are from A . F l a n n e r y , ed., Vatican

Council

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//: The Conciliar and Post Conciliar Documents, 7 5 0 - 6 5 ) . That d o c u m e n t was issued in N o v e m b e r 1 9 6 5 , b u t t h e w a y h a d b e e n p r e p a r e d for it by P o p e Pius XII's 1 9 4 3 encyclical Divino Afflante Spiritu a n d by several o t h e r official s t a t e m e n t s t h r o u g h t h e years. The conciliar d o c u m e n t s u m m a r i z e d t h e i m p o r t a n t p o i n t s in t h o s e earlier s t a t e m e n t s a n d p u s h e d C a t h o l i c biblical s t u d y o u t o f s o m e o l d r u t s a n d onto better paths. The first c h a p t e r o f t h e six c h a p t e r s in t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n deals w i t h " d i v i n e revelation itself." Before t h e C o u n c i l a n d even in t h e early stages of t h e d r a f t i n g o f t h e d o c u m e n t , t h e r e h a d b e e n a lively debate a b o u t the nature of divine revelation, with m a n y theologians (in t h e w a k e o f Vatican I's insistence o n t h e c o n t e n t of faith) stressi n g t h e p r i m a c y of t h e t h e o l o g i c a l p r o p o s i t i o n s revealed in t h e Bible. W i t h o u t d e n y i n g t h e c o n t e n t o f revelation a n d its p r o p o s i t i o n a l d i m e n s i o n , t h e final draft of t h e C o u n c i l ' s C o n s t i t u t i o n stresses t h e p r i m a c y o f G o d ' s revelation of h i m s e l f as a p e r s o n in r e l a t i o n s h i p to his p e o p l e . The p e r s o n a l d i m e n s i o n o f revelation m a k e s possible t h e p r o p o s i t i o n a l d i m e n s i o n : " B y d i v i n e revelation G o d w i s h e d t o m a n i fest a n d c o m m u n i c a t e b o t h h i m s e l f a n d t h e eternal decrees of his will c o n c e r n i n g t h e salvation of m a n k i n d " ( § 6 ) . B o t h d i m e n s i o n s are clearly affirmed, b u t t h e p e r s o n a l aspect o f revelation is given first place. T h e s e c o n d c h a p t e r , w h i c h c o n c e r n s t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n of d i v i n e revelation, takes u p t h e p r o b l e m of t h e r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n S c r i p t u r e a n d t r a d i t i o n . R e j e c t i n g t h e idea t h a t S c r i p t u r e a n d t r a d i t i o n c o n s t i t u t e t w o d i s t i n c t sources o f r e v e l a t i o n , t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n insisted t h a t t h e y flow from "the s a m e d i v i n e w e l l - s p r i n g " ( § 9 ) . It w e n t o n t o state t h a t "sacred t r a d i t i o n a n d sacred S c r i p t u r e m a k e u p a single sacred d e p o s i t o f t h e W o r d o f G o d , w h i c h is e n t r u s t e d t o t h e c h u r c h " ( § 1 0 ) . This e m p h a s i s o n t h e u n i t y o f S c r i p t u r e a n d t r a d i t i o n does n o t s i m ply a b s o r b t h e latter i n t o t h e f o r m e r : " T h e c h u r c h d o e s n o t d r a w h e r c e r t a i n t y a b o u t all revealed t r u t h s from t h e h o l y S c r i p t u r e s a l o n e " ( § 9 ) . A n d t h e task of "giving an a u t h e n t i c i n t e r p r e t a t i o n " of b o t h S c r i p t u r e a n d t r a d i t i o n is e n t r u s t e d t o " t h e living t e a c h i n g office of t h e c h u r c h a l o n e " ( § 1 0 ) , t h o u g h it is clearly s t a t e d t h a t t h e ecclesiastical m a g i s t e r i u m is " n o t s u p e r i o r t o t h e W o r d o f G o d , b u t is its servant" (§10). Thus the Constitution presents Scripture and tradit i o n as o n e s o u r c e o f d i v i n e revelation w h i l e affirming t h e existence of t r a d i t i o n a n d m a k i n g t h e ecclesiastical m a g i s t e r i u m (the P o p e a n d t h e b i s h o p s ) t h e u l t i m a t e arbiter. The t h i r d c h a p t e r is d e v o t e d t o d i v i n e i n s p i r a t i o n a n d its i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . The fact of i n s p i r a t i o n is s t a t e d at t h e o u t s e t : " T h e d i -

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vincly revealed realities, w h i c h are c o n t a i n e d a n d p r e s e n t e d in t h e text o f sacred S c r i p t u r e , h a v e b e e n w r i t t e n d o w n u n d e r t h e inspirat i o n o f t h e H o l y Spirit" ( § 1 1 ) . The s a m e s e c t i o n p r e s e n t s a d o c t r i n e of t h e i n e r r a n c y of S c r i p t u r e : " T h e b o o k s of S c r i p t u r e , firmly, faithfully, a n d w i t h o u t error, t e a c h t h a t t r u t h w h i c h G o d , for t h e sake of o u r salvation, w i s h e d t o see c o n f i d e d t o t h e sacred S c r i p t u r e s . " This m a y s o u n d like a s t a t e m e n t of l i m i t e d i n e r r a n c y ; t h a t is, o n l y w h a t p e r t a i n s t o o u r s a l v a t i o n , a n d n o t historical o r scientific m a t t e r s , in t h e Bible is free from error. B u t , in fact, t h e t h e o l o g i a n s w h o w r o t e this d o c u m e n t a n d t h e C o u n c i l F a t h e r s w h o v o t e d t h e i r a p p r o v a l d e l i b e r a t e l y s o u g h t t o a v o i d a p p r o v i n g e i t h e r c o m p l e t e i n e r r a n c y or l i m i t e d i n e r r a n c y as t h e church's t e a c h i n g . Since t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n w a s n o t a t h e o l o g i c a l treatise a n d since t h e C o u n c i l Fathers d i d n o t w a n t t o a b s o l u t i z e o r give official s a n c t i o n to o n e t h e o l o g i a n o r o n e s c h o o l , t h e r e is n o a t t e m p t t o e x p l a i n in detail how i n s p i r a t i o n a n d i n e r r a n c y f u n c t i o n o r w h a t s c o p e these t e r m s m i g h t have. It was m o r e a m a t t e r o f reaffirming v e n e r a b l e theological t e a c h i n g s w i t h o u t specifying w h i c h i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e m is best. T h e s e c t i o n o n t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f S c r i p t u r e ( § 1 2 ) is t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t p a r t for biblical s c h o l a r s . T a k i n g its c u e f r o m Divino Afflante Spiritu, t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n u r g e d biblical scholars a n d i n d e e d all C a t h o l i c s (1) t o p a y a t t e n t i o n t o t h e literary f o r m s in w h i c h d i v i n e revelation is expressed, (2) to l o o k t o t h e m e a n i n g t h a t t h e b i b lical a u t h o r i n t e n d e d in his o w n historical s i t u a t i o n a n d c u l t u r e , a n d (3) to c o n s i d e r t h e c u s t o m a r y a n d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c p a t t e r n s of p e r c e p t i o n , s p e e c h , a n d n a r r a t i v e p r e v a i l i n g at t h a t t i m e . Since this p a r t o f t h e d o c u m e n t s u m m a r i z e s so well t h e tasks u n d e r t a k e n by C a t h o l i c biblical s c h o l a r s , it deserves t o be q u o t e d in full: In determining the intention of the sacred writers, attention must be paid, inter alia, to "literary forms, for the fact is that ttuth is differently presented and expressed in the various types of historical writing, in prophetical and poetical texts," and in other forms of literary expression. Hence the exegete must look for that meaning which the sacred writer, in a determined situation and given the circumstances of his time and cultute, intended to express and did in fact express, through the m e d i u m of a contemporary literary form. Rightly to understand what the sacred author wanted to affirm in his work, due attention must be paid both to the customary and characteristic patterns of perception, speech and narrative which prevailed at the age of the sacred writer, and to the conventions which the people of his time followed in their dealings with one another.

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The f r e e d o m o f research expressed in this p a r a g r a p h is s o m e w h a t t e m p e r e d b y a r e m i n d e r t h a t biblical i n t e r p r e t a t i o n is "ultim a t e l y s u b j e c t t o t h e j u d g m e n t of t h e c h u r c h w h i c h exercises t h e divinely c o n f e r r e d c o m m i s s i o n a n d m i n i s t r y of w a t c h i n g over a n d i n t e r p r e t i n g t h e w o r d of G o d " ( § 1 2 ) . T h e c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e d o c t r i n e of t h e d i v i n e i n s p i r a t i o n of S c r i p t u r e a n d t h e task of i n t e r p r e t i n g S c r i p t u r e in its historical c o n t e x t is d r a w n by u s i n g t h e form u l a "the w o r d s o f G o d , expressed in t h e w o r d s of m e n " ( § 1 3 ) . In t h e f o u r t h c h a p t e r , t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n d e f e n d s t h e divinely ins p i r e d c h a r a c t e r a n d l a s t i n g value o f t h e O l d T e s t a m e n t ( § 1 4 ) . It does so b y a l l u d i n g t o s o m e of t h e ways in w h i c h t h e O l d T e s t a m e n t has b e e n v i e w e d in C h r i s t i a n t h e o l o g y : p r e p a r a t i o n for a n d p r o p h ecy of t h e c o m i n g o f C h r i s t , a s o u r c e for u n d e r s t a n d i n g G o d a n d his dealings w i t h his p e o p l e , a n d a s t o r e h o u s e o f s u b l i m e t e a c h i n g o n G o d a n d o f s o u n d w i s d o m o n h u m a n life ( § 1 5 ) . It also m e n t i o n s t h a t t h e b o o k s o f t h e O l d Testament c o n t a i n " m a t t e r s i m p e r f e c t a n d p r o v i s i o n a l , " w i t h o u t specifying w h a t these are (cultic rules, calls for v e n g e a n c e , ethically q u e s t i o n a b l e actions?) a n d w h a t C a t h o l i c s are t o d o w i t h t h e m . A g a i n it is i m p o r t a n t t o r e m e m b e r t h a t t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n is n o t a t h e o l o g y t e x t b o o k b u t r a t h e r a s t a t e m e n t o f d i r e c t i o n s agreed u p o n a n d a p p r o v e d b y t h e C a t h o l i c b i s h o p s of t h e w o r l d . 'The c h a p t e r o n t h e N e w ' T e s t a m e n t strikes a c a u t i o u s b a l a n c e b e t w e e n r e c o g n i t i o n of t h e c o m p l e x process b y w h i c h t h e four G o s pels c a m e i n t o b e i n g a n d a f f i r m a t i o n of t h e basic t r u t h o f t h e i r p o r traits o f Jesus: H o l y M o t h e r C h u r c h has firmly and with absolute constancy maintained and continues to maintain, that the four Gospels just named, whose historicity she unhesitatingly affirms, faithfully hand on what Jesus, the Son of God, while he lived among men, really did and taught for their eternal salvation, until the day when he was taken up (see Acts 1:1-2). For, after the ascension of the Lord, the apostles handed on to their hearers what he had said and done, but with that fuller understanding which they, instructed by the glorious events of Christ and enlightened by the Spirit of truth, now enjoyed. T h e sacred authors, in writing the four Gospels, selected certain of the many elements which had been handed on, either orally or already in written form, others they synthesi?.ed or explained with an eye to the situation of the churches, the while sustaining the form of preaching, but always in such a fashion that they have told us the honest truth about Jesus. W h e t h e r they relied on their own memory and recollections or on the testimony of those who "from the beginning were eyewitnesses and ministers of the Word," their purpose in writing was that we might know

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the "truth" concerning the things of which we have been informed (see Luke 1:2-4). This s t a t e m e n t in s e c t i o n 19 leaves r o o m a n d i n d e e d e n c o u r a g e s biblical scholars t o d o research o n t h e literary f o r m s , s o u r c e s , a n d final e d i t i n g o f t h e G o s p e l s . B u t it d e m a n d s t h a t t h e y n o t lose s i g h t of t h e historical p e r s o n o f Jesus of N a z a r e t h — t h e o n e t o w h o m t h e G o s p e l s bear w i t n e s s . The P a u l i n e epistles a n d t h e N e w T e s t a m e n t w r i t i n g s are said t o f o r m u l a t e m o r e precisely t h e a u t h e n t i c t e a c h i n g of C h r i s t , p r e a c h t h e s a v i n g p o w e r of his d i v i n e w o r k , a n d foretell its glorious c o n s u m m a t i o n (§20). T h e sixth c h a p t e r , w h i c h deals w i t h sacred S c r i p t u r e in t h e life of t h e C h u r c h , p r o v i d e s t h e d i r e c t i o n s t h a t h a v e b r o u g h t a b o u t t h e biblical r e n e w a l o f r e c e n t years. T h e o p e n i n g s t a t e m e n t in s e c t i o n 21 stresses t h e link b e t w e e n t h e S c r i p t u r e s a n d t h e e u c h a r i s t i e b o d y o f C h r i s t . Far from s e p a r a t i n g t h e t w o , t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n s p e a k s o f " t h e o n e t a b l e o f t h e w o r d of G o d a n d t h e b o d y of C h r i s t . " It insists t h a t "all t h e p r e a c h i n g o f t h e c h u r c h . . . s h o u l d b e n o u r i s h e d a n d r u l e d by sacred S c r i p t u r e " ( § 2 1 ) , t h a t access t o S c r i p t u r e " o u g h t t o be w i d e o p e n to t h e C h r i s t i a n faithful" ( § 2 2 ) , a n d t h a t s t u d y of t h e "sacred p a g e s h o u l d b e t h e very soul of sacred t h e o l o g y " ( § 2 4 ) . T h u s t h e p o s t - V a t i c a n II d e v e l o p m e n t s w i t h respect t o t h e Bible's place in t h e life of t h e C h u r c h are best seen as faithful responses to t h e s p i r i t of t h e C o u n c i l , n o t as d e v i a t i o n s from it or as a n e w m o v e m e n t a p a r t from it. If a n y d o u b t r e m a i n e d a b o u t t h e central role o f biblical s t u d ies in t h e s e m i n a r y c u r r i c u l u m a n d t h e p i e t y of t h e C h u r c h ' s m i n i s ters, t h e n e x t - t o - l a s t s e c t i o n of t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n speaks very clearly: "All clerics, p a r t i c u l a r l y priests o f C h r i s t a n d o t h e r s w h o , as d e a c o n s or catechists, are officially e n g a g e d in t h e m i n i s t r y of t h e w o r d , s h o u l d i m m e r s e t h e m s e l v e s in t h e S c r i p t u r e s by c o n s t a n t sacred r e a d i n g a n d diligent study" (§25). Vatican IPs C o n s t i t u t i o n o n D i v i n e R e v e l a t i o n has given i m p o r t a n t a n d fruitful d i r e c t i o n s t o t h e biblical m o v e m e n t in t h e C a t h o l i c C h u r c h . The m o s t significant d i r e c t i o n s are s u m m a r i z e d by t h e foll o w i n g list: t h e e m p h a s i s o n G o d ' s p e r s o n a l revelation as t h e basis for w h a t e v e r p r o p o s i t i o n a l revelation m a y b e c o n t a i n e d in S c r i p t u r e , t h e insistence t h a t S c r i p t u r e a n d t r a d i t i o n flow from " t h e s a m e d i v i n e w e l l - s p r i n g , " t h e f o r t h r i g h t a c c e p t a n c e o f t h e historical a n d literary s t u d y of t h e S c r i p t u r e s , t h e respect for t h e O l d T e s t a m e n t , t h e c a u tious b a l a n c e b e t w e e n t h e c o m p l e x i t y of o u r G o s p e l s a n d their essential t r u t h a b o u t Jesus, a n d t h e e n c o u r a g e m e n t for Bible r e a d i n g a n d s t u d y in every p h a s e o f t h e C h u r c h ' s life.

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There is m u c h o n this list w i t h w h i c h evangelical a n d L u t h e r a n C h r i s t i a n s c a n agree, t h o u g h t h e i r e m p h a s e s m a y b e slightly differe n t . B u t s o m e evangelicals m i g h t t a k e e x c e p t i o n t o w h a t m i g h t a p p e a r t o b e a d o c t r i n e o f l i m i t e d i n e r r a n c y expressed in t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n : " t h a t t r u t h w h i c h G o d , for t h e sake o f o u r s a l v a t i o n , w i s h e d t o see c o n f i d e d t o t h e s a c r e d S c r i p t u r e s " ( § 1 1 ) . B o t h evangelicals a n d L u t h e r a n s will n o d o u b t t a k e s t r o n g e x c e p t i o n t o t h e idea o f t h e ecclesiastical m a g i s t e r i u m as t h e final a r b i t e r of biblical i n t e r p r e t a t i o n ( § § 1 0 , 12). 'They m a y also b e s k e p t i c a l a b o u t h o w well C a t h o lics can m a n a g e t o k e e p t o g e t h e r S c r i p t u r e a n d t r a d i t i o n o n t h e o n e h a n d , a n d w o r d a n d s a c r a m e n t o n t h e o t h e r h a n d . B u t h o w e v e r valid t h e i r o b j e c t i o n s m a y b e , P r o t e s t a n t s w h o t a k e t h e t r o u b l e t o read V a t i c a n l i s C o n s t i t u t i o n o n D i v i n e R e v e l a t i o n c a n n o t fail t o recognize t h e " b i b l i c a l " c h a r a c t e r o f m u c h of t h e l a n g u a g e u s e d in t h e d o c u m e n t a n d t h e m a n y d i r e c t references t o S c r i p t u r e t h r o u g h o u t it. The C o u n c i l F a t h e r s o p t e d for t h e l a n g u a g e o f t h e Bible r a t h e r t h a n for t h e l a n g u a g e o f s c h o l a s t i c theology. III. T H E WAYS OE CURRENT BIBLICAL SCHOIARSHIP

U p t o t h i s p o i n t w e h a v e c o n s i d e r e d t h e practical i m p a c t o f b i b lical s t u d y o n C h u r c h life a n d a n official s t a t e m e n t a b o u t t h e place of t h e Bible in t h e C h u r c h . N o w is t h e t i m e t o focus o n t h e m e t h o d s used b y C a t h o l i c biblical scholars; t h a t is, w h a t t h o s e m e n a n d w o m e n w h o d e v o t e t h e m s e l v e s t o research o n t h e S c r i p t u r e s d o w h e n t h e y c o n f r o n t t h e biblical t e x t s . " C a t h o l i c biblical research" is o b v i o u s l y research d o n e b y C a t h o l i c scholars. U n t i l recently, m o s t biblical professionals w e r e also o r d a i n e d priests w h o t a u g h t in s e m i n a r i e s o r o n o n e of t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l b i b l i cal faculties in R o m e (Pontifical Biblical I n s t i t u t e ) o r J e r u s a l e m (Lcole B i b l i q u e , S t u d i u m B i b l i c u m F r a n c i s c a n u m ) . S i n c e V a t i c a n II, a n i n c r e a s i n g n u m b e r of C a t h o l i c l a y m e n a n d l a y w o m e n (as well as w o m e n religious) h a v e o b t a i n e d d o c t o r a l degrees in biblical s t u d i e s a n d are n o w t e a c h i n g at C a t h o l i c ( a n d o t h e r ) u n i v e r s i t i e s a n d p u b l i s h i n g b o o k s a n d articles. These lay professors are n o t as i m m e d i ately u n d e r ecclesiastical a u t h o r i t y as priests are, b u t u p t o t h i s p o i n t n o g r e a t conflict h a s arisen r e g a r d i n g this m a t t e r . C a t h o l i c biblical s c h o l a r s b r i n g t o t h e text of S c r i p t u r e t h e set of c o n c e r n s a n d p r o c e d u r e s t h a t h a s b e e n d e v e l o p e d over t h e c e n t u r i e s a m o n g s e r i o u s s t u d e n t s of t h e Bible. In m o d e r n t i m e s this set of c o n c e r n s is often called t h e historical-critical m e t h o d . This a p p r o a c h takes as its p r i m a r y t a s k t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e biblical text in its

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o w n t i m e a n d o n its o w n t e r m s . It applies t h e p o w e r s of t h e m i n d to t h e text in o r d e r t o u n d e r s t a n d it b e t t e r a n d t o a p p r e c i a t e it for itself. T h e m a j o r c o n c e r n s o f C a t h o l i c biblical s c h o l a r s h i p can b e p r e s e n t e d under ten headings. A. Literary C r i t i c i s m The Bible is basically an a n t h o l o g y of w r i t i n g s t h a t b e a r w i t n e s s to G o d ' s dealings w i t h his p e o p l e . In t h e O l d Testament t h e r e are narratives, law c o d e s , p r o p h e t i c oracles, p s a l m s , a n d w i s d o m b o o k s . In t h e N e w ' T e s t a m e n t t h e r e are stories of Jesus (the four G o s p e l s ) a n d t h e early c h u r c h (Acts) as well as epistles b y Paul a n d o t h e r figures a n d an a p o c a l y p s e ( R e v e l a t i o n ) . W i t h i n these large literary types, t h e r e are also s m a l l e r f o r m s s u c h as sayings, p a r a b l e s , a n d e x h o r t a tions. The Bible is m o s t obviously a collection of pieces of literature, a n d so t h e obvious starting p o i n t for any biblical scholar is literary criticism. L i t e r a r y criticism m e a n s a p p l y i n g t o S c r i p t u r e t h e q u e s t i o n s a n d c o n c e r n s u s e d in t h e s t u d y of a n y l i t e r a t u r e . The a i m b e h i n d t h e literary-critical a p p r o a c h t o t h e Bible is n o t t o r e d u c e it t o t h e level of o t h e r b o o k s , b u t r a t h e r t o h e l p us a p p r e c i a t e t h e ways in w h i c h t h e biblical writers c o m m u n i c a t e d t o t h e i r original a u d i e n c e s a n d still c o m m u n i c a t e t o us today. The first c o n c e r n o f literary criticism is t h e w o r d s a n d images of t h e t e x t s — t h e raw m a t e r i a l s o u t of w h i c h a n y w r i t t e n c o m m u n i c a t i o n is c o n s t r u c t e d . W h a t d o e s this o r t h a t w o r d m e a n ? Is t h e w o r d b e i n g u s e d literally or m e t a p h o r i c a l l y ? W h a t s y m b o l i s m is p r e s e n t in t h e passage? T h e n in a n a r r a t i v e text w e w a n t t o k n o w h o w t h e w o r d s are p u t t o g e t h e r to f o r m a s t o r y a n d h o w t h e c h a r a c t e r s in t h e s t o r y are related t o o n e a n o t h e r . In a d i s c o u r s e or an epistle t h e literary critic focuses o n t h e p r o g r e s s o f t h o u g h t — h o w t h e w o r d s a n d i m ages are p u t t o g e t h e r t o f o r m a n a r g u m e n t o r m o v e p e o p l e t o g o o d a c t i o n . O b v i o u s l y t h e literary critic p r o c e e d s from i n d i v i d u a l w o r d s a n d i m a g e s t o t h e c o h e r e n c e o f t h e w h o l e passage a n d t h e n b a c k to t h e w o r d s a n d images in light o f t h e w h o l e . The c i r c u l a r i t y i n h e r e n t in t h e s t u d y o f l i t e r a t u r e suggests t h a t a t e x t is always c a p a b l e o f r e c e i v i n g b e t t e r a n d m o r e a d e q u a t e r e a d i n g s a t v a r i o u s levels o f understanding. L i t e r a r y critics are also c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e literary f o r m o f a text. The larger f o r m s , or g e n r e s , in t h e N e w T e s t a m e n t are familiar: G o s p e l s , Acts, Epistles, a n d A p o c a l y p s e . B u t w i t h i n these larger forms t h e i n d i v i d u a l p a r t s use vehicles like p a r a b l e s o r p r o v e r b s or blessings a n d curses. The n o w familiar s a y i n g t h a t " t h e m e d i u m is t h e m e s -

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sage" m a k e s t h e p o i n t t h a t t h e c h o i c e o f a specific literary m o d e o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n already b e g i n s t h e process o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n . T h e c h o i c e of t h e literary form of t h e p e r s o n a l r e s u m e in t h e U n i t e d States t o d a y c o m m u n i c a t e s t h a t t h e p e r s o n is s e e k i n g a j o b . If t h e j o b a p p l i cant were t o present the personnel manager with a p o e m or a video, t h e o n l y h o p e for g e t t i n g t h e j o b w o u l d be t h e d i s p l a y o f i n g e n u i t y . T h e r e f o r e , t h o s e w h o s t u d y S c r i p t u r e from t h e p e r s p e c t i v e o f literary criticism m u s t a t t e n d t o t h e literary f o r m s used in t h e text a n d h o w the literary forms c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e expression of t h e message or c o n t e n t . In o n e sense, literary criticism is t h e m o s t basic a p p r o a c h t o t h e biblical t e x t a n d all t h e o t h e r m e t h o d s are really specialized o p e r a t i o n s w i t h i n this general m e t h o d . B u t literary criticism in t h e n a r r o w sense c o n c e n t r a t e s o n t h e a e s t h e t i c a p p r e c i a t i o n of t h e biblical t e x t as l i t e r a t u r e . C a t h o l i c biblical scholars generally have g o o d literary e d u c a t i o n s a n d are n a t u r a l l y a t t r a c t e d t o relating d e v e l o p m e n t s in literary criticism a n d literary t h e o r y t o S c r i p t u r e . The t o p i c of m a n y r e c e n t d o c t o r a l d i s s e r t a t i o n s a n d j o u r n a l articles b y C a t h o l i c s has b e e n t h e literary o u t l i n e o r s t r u c t u r e of a p a r t i c u l a r passage o r b i b l i cal b o o k . The d y n a m i c s a n d rhetorical t e c h n i q u e s of narratives a n d t h e a r g u m e n t s t r u c t u r e of t h e epistles have also b e e n i n v e s t i g a t e d b y C a t h o l i c ( a n d o t h e r ) scholars. In p a r t s o f E u r o p e a n d to s o m e e x t e n t in t h e U n i t e d States, C a t h o l i c scholars h a v e tried t o use s t r u c t u r a l i s t analysis t o u n d e r s t a n d biblical t e x t s — t h a t is, t o g o b e n e a t h t h e s u r face s t r u c t u r e s o f t h e text a n d arrive at t h e d e e p s t r u c t u r e s of m i n d a n d reality. O t h e r s use t h e a p p r o a c h o f d e c o n s t r u c t i o n , w h i c h l o o k s o n t h e text as m a i n l y an o c c a s i o n for creative i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . The literary-critical w o r k o f C a t h o l i c biblical scholars is p a r t o f a larger m o v e m e n t in biblical s c h o l a r s h i p t h a t seeks a b e t t e r a p p r e c i a t i o n o f t h e Bible as story. T h i s m o v e m e n t has also g e n e r a t e d a b r o a d e r t h e o l o g i c a l a p p r o a c h — t h e so-called n a r r a t i v e t h e o l o g y or t h e o l o g y o f story. T h e chief p r o b l e m c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e literary a p p r o a c h is its t e n d e n c y t o r e d u c e e v e r y t h i n g t o textual aesthetics. Since t h e m e t h o d s for i n t e r p r e t i n g fiction or p o e t r y w o r k well o n various s e c t i o n s o f S c r i p t u r e , s o m e c o n c l u d e t h a t e v e r y t h i n g in S c r i p t u r e is fiction or p o e t r y a n d t h u s w i t h o u t historical significance. S u c h a c o n c l u s i o n clearly goes b e y o n d t h e b o u n d a r i e s of t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n o n D i v i n e R e v e l a t i o n a n d o f C a t h o l i c t h e o l o g y in g e n e r a l . B u t it also raises an i n t e r e s t i n g q u e s t i o n : If o n e a d m i t s t h e O l d ' I e s t a m e n t b o o k s of J o n a h , T o b i t , Esther, a n d J u d i t h are literary fictions ( a n d m o s t C a t h o l i c biblical scholars t a k e this a p p r o a c h — a c o r r e c t a p p r o a c h , in m y o p i n i o n ) , w h e r e does o n e d r a w t h e line b e t w e e n literary fiction a n d b i b -

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lical history? This is a s e r i o u s p r o b l e m , b u t it s h o u l d n o t o b s c u r e or d e t r a c t f r o m t h e very positive results t h a t e m e r g e from b r i n g i n g t o t h e text of S c r i p t u r e t h e c o n c e r n s a n d m e t h o d s o f literary criticism a n d a p p r e c i a t i n g t h e Bible as l i t e r a t u r e . B. Textual Criticism S i n c e w o r d s are t h e materials o u t of w h i c h literary texts are c o n s t r u c t e d , it is essential t o be as sure as possible a b o u t t h e a c c u r a c y o f t h e w o r d s in t h e texts. The biblical texts have b e e n h a n d e d o n t h r o u g h t h e c e n t u r i e s a n d t h u s have b e e n s u b j e c t t o d i s t o r t i o n a n d h u m a n error. T h e goal o f t e x t u a l criticism is t o g e t b a c k as close as possible t o w h a t t h e biblical writers set d o w n in t h e i r original m a n u s c r i p t s . R e a c h i n g t h a t goal is n o t easy. Textual critics m u s t w o r k w i t h t h e H e b r e w , A r a m a i c , a n d G r e e k m a n u s c r i p t s of t h e Bible. They m u s t also m a k e use o f t h e earliest t r a n s l a t i o n s i n t o A r a m a i c , G r e e k , L a t i n , Syriac, E t h i o p i c , A r m e n i a n , etc. P r i o r t o t h e d i s c o v e r y o f biblical m a n u s c r i p t s a m o n g t h e D e a d Sea Scrolls at Q u m r a n , t h e earliest available H e b r e w m a n u s c r i p t s o f t h e O l d Testament were from t h e t e n t h a n d e l e v e n t h c e n t u r i e s A . D . 'The m o s t i m p o r t a n t m a n u s c r i p t s of t h e N e w Testament c a m e from t h e f o u r t h a n d fifth c e n t u r i e s A . D . , t h o u g h t h e r e are s o m e f r a g m e n t a r y m a n u s c r i p t s ( t h e so-called p a pyri) from t h e s e c o n d a n d t h i r d c e n t u r i e s . So textual critics m u s t learn m a n y a n c i e n t l a n g u a g e s a n d p r e p a r e t h e m s e l v e s to w o r k w i t h m a n u s c r i p t s far r e m o v e d in t i m e from t h e o r i g i n a l s . H a v i n g a s s e m b l e d t h e m a n u s c r i p t e v i d e n c e , textual critics c o m p a r e t h e texts to u n c o v e r textual v a r i a n t s . These variants are t h e n w e i g h e d in o r d e r t o d e t e r m i n e o n rational g r o u n d s w h a t was t h e r e a d i n g of t h e original text a n d w h a t c r e p t i n t o t h e t r a d i t i o n as t h e result o f c o n s c i o u s o r u n c o n s c i o u s a l t e r a t i o n . In m a k i n g s u c h d e c i s i o n s , textual critics m u s t take i n t o a c c o u n t t h e q u a n t i t y a n d qualify of t h e m a n u s c r i p t e v i d e n c e (external evidence) as well as t h e c o n t e x t , l a n g u a g e , a n d style o f t h e d o c u m e n t ( i n t e r n a l e v i d e n c e ) . 'The task o f t h e textual critic of t h e Bible is l i g h t e n e d s o m e w h a t b y t h e general reliability o f t h e process o f t r a n s m i s s i o n a n d t h e a b u n d a n c e o f m a n u script evidence. A large a m o u n t of t h a t m a n u s c r i p t e v i d e n c e is p r e s e r v e d at t h e Vatican L i b r a r y in R o m e a n d in o t h e r libraries a n d m o n a s t e r i e s o f t h e C a t h o l i c C h u r c h . These m a n u s c r i p t s are accessible t o all scholars e i t h e r for d i r e c t i n s p e c t i o n or by p h o t o g r a p h i c r e p r o d u c t i o n s . I n d e e d t h e i n s t i t u t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e s of t h e C a t h o l i c C h u r c h t h r o u g h o u t t h e ages have m a d e possible t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n o f t h e N e w ' T e s t a m e n t

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text from g e n e r a t i o n t o g e n e r a t i o n , a n d o u r k n o w l e d g e of t h e O l d T e s t a m e n t t r a d i t i o n w o u l d be far p o o r e r w i t h o u t t h e s e i n s t i t u t i o n s . M o d e r n C a t h o l i c biblical scholars are well p r e p a r e d for textual criticism t h r o u g h a g o o d g r o u n d i n g in a n c i e n t l a n g u a g e s . N e v e r t h e less, few are p r o m i n e n t in this d i s c i p l i n e . A n i m p o r t a n t e x c e p t i o n was C a r l o M . M a r t i n i , a n Italian J e s u i t w h o was a m e m b e r of an international a n d interconfessional panel charged with preparing a n e w s t a n d a r d e d i t i o n o f t h e G r e e k N e w Testament. B u t he is n o w t h e C a r d i n a l A r c h b i s h o p o f M i l a n , a n d his p a s t o r a l d u t i e s leave h i m n o t i m e for textual c r i t i c i s m . In a similar p r o j e c t for p r e p a r i n g a n e w e d i t i o n o f t h e H e b r e w O l d Testament, t h e D o m i n i c a n s c h o l a r D o m i n i q u e B a r t h é l é m y is a m a j o r figure. Several A m e r i c a n Jesuits have w o r k e d w i t h F r a n k M . C r o s s o f H a r v a r d in his r é é v a l u a t i o n o f O l d T e s t a m e n t textual criticism in l i g h t o f t h e Q u m r a n discoveries. The q u e s t i o n r e m a i n s : W h y are so few C a t h o l i c scholars p r o m i n e n t in this discipline? The reason is clearly n o t lack o f e d u c a t i o n , especially in t h e l a n g u a g e s . O n e c a n o n l y s p e c u l a t e o n this m a t t e r , b u t p e r h a p s o n e factor is a lack of t h e P r o t e s t a n t passion for d i s c o v e r i n g t h e exact w o r d i n g of t h e original m a n u s c r i p t as it c a m e from t h e h a n d o f t h e biblical writer. M a n y evangelicals l i m i t biblical ins p i r a t i o n t o t h e so-called a u t o g r a p h s ( t h e m a n u s c r i p t s w r i t t e n by t h e biblical w r i t e r ) , a n d so t h e r e is a p o w e r f u l religious m o t i v e t o g e t b a c k t o t h e original texts. The C a t h o l i c d o c t r i n e of i n s p i r a t i o n is n o t so n a r r o w a n d places m o r e t r u s t in t h e process o f t r a n s m i s s i o n . 'Thus t h e d i v e r g e n t u n d e r s t a n d i n g s o f biblical i n s p i r a t i o n m a y well b e a factor, h e r e , t h o u g h t h e r e are surely o t h e r factors: t h e p a s t o r a l d e m a n d s m a d e o n C a t h o l i c clerics, t h e so-called " t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y i n t e r l u d e " in N e w ' T e s t a m e n t textual criticism, a n d t h e intrinsically difficult a n d often t e d i o u s n a t u r e o f t h e research. C . T h e W o r l d o f t h e Bible 'The h e a v y e m p h a s i s o n biblical l a n g u a g e s in t h e t r a i n i n g o f C a t h o l i c scholars finds expression m o s t d r a m a t i c a l l y in research o n t h e w o r l d o f t h e Bible, especially o n t h e texts discovered in t h e M i d d l e East d u r i n g t h e p a s t t w o h u n d r e d years. These texts h a v e a l l o w e d us t o l e a p b a c k over t h e c e n t u r i e s a n d t o see w h a t t e r m s , ideas, a n d c u s t o m s were in t h e b a c k g r o u n d of t h e biblical w r i t i n g s . For t h e O l d Testament, t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t extrabiblical texts are in S e m i t i c l a n g u a g e s s u c h as A k k a d i a n , A r a m a i c , a n d U g a r i t i c , as well as S u m e r i a n a n d E g y p t i a n . These texts h a v e i l l u m i n e d o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e c r e a t i o n stories in G e n e s i s , t h e historical s e t t i n g

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of t h e biblical narratives from earliest t i m e s t o t h e postexilic p e r i o d , a n d t h e l a n g u a g e a n d literary f o r m o f t h e P s a l m s . For t h e N e w Testam e n t , t h e m o s t significant a n c i e n t texts are in H e b r e w , A r a m a i c , G r e e k , L a t i n , a n d C o p t i c ( N a g H a m m a d i d o c u m e n t s ) . These texts have s h e d light o n t h e eschatological c o n s c i o u s n e s s o f t h e early C h r i s tians a n d t h e e m e r g e n c e o f t h e early c h u r c h , t h e c u l t u r a l milieu(s) in w h i c h C h r i s t i a n i t y d e v e l o p e d , a n d s o m e of t h e p r o b l e m s a n d t h r e a t s t h a t it faced. M a n y o f these discoveries are so r e c e n t t h a t t h e y have still n o t b e e n a s s i m i l a t e d i n t o biblical c o m m e n t a r i e s . W h e n t h e y are, it is crucial for t h e exegete t o m a k e clear w h a t e l e m e n t s t h e biblical a n d extrabiblical texts share a n d w h e r e t h e y differ. It is also i m p o r t a n t t o specify t h e historical r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e t w e e n t h e t w o texts. O b v i o u s l y t h e best parallels are t h o s e b e t w e e n texts from r o u g h l y t h e s a m e t i m e a n d p l a c e , for t h e n we have a b e t t e r c h a n c e of k n o w i n g w h a t was "in t h e air." The Biblical I n s t i t u t e Press o f t h e Pontifical Biblical I n s t i t u t e in R o m e has p l a y e d a l e a d i n g role in t h e e d i t i n g a n d p u b l i s h i n g of text u a l m a t e r i a l f r o m t h e a n c i e n t N e a r East. M a n y d i s s e r t a t i o n s b y C a t h o l i c scholars in R o m e a n d elsewhere h a v e b e e n e x p l o r a t i o n s of biblical texts in light o f extrabiblical m a t e r i a l . The professors at t h e D o m i n i c a n Ecole B i b l i q u e in J e r u s a l e m have b e e n active p a r t i c i p a n t s in p u b l i s h i n g t h e Q u m r a n scrolls a n d in t h e archaeological excavat i o n s at Q u m r a n a n d e l s e w h e r e . The faculty a n d s t u d e n t s o f t h e S t u d i u m B i b l i c u m F r a n c i s c a n u m have m a d e m a n y c o n t r i b u t i o n s in t h e a r c h a e o l o g y o f early C h r i s t i a n i t y a n d in e x p l o r i n g t h e p h e n o m e n o n of J e w i s h C h r i s t i a n i t y . C a t h o l i c scholars have b e e n p r o m i n e n t in e d i t i n g t h e texts from U g a r i t , Q u m r a n , a n d N a g H a m m a d i . 'The fact t h a t m a n y o l d e r C a t h o l i c scholars w e r e well versed in t h e G r e e k a n d L a t i n classics has m e a n t t h a t t h e G r e c o - R o m a n s e t t i n g of early C h r i s t i a n i t y has r e m a i n e d a lively field o f research. The great interest of C a t h o l i c scholars in t h e w o r l d o f t h e Bible a n d in texts from a n t i q u i t y in p a r t i c u l a r m a y s t e m in p a r t f r o m t h e p e r e n n i a l C a t h o l i c fascination w i t h t h e r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n religion a n d c u l t u r e . C a t h o l i c t h e o l o g y e m p h a s i z e s t h e idea t h a t G o d expresses h i m s e l f in t h e m i d s t o f c r e a t e d realities a n d h u m a n c u l t u r e . If this is so in t h e p r e s e n t , it m u s t also h a v e b e e n so in a n t i q u i t y w h e n t h e b o o k s of t h e Bible w e r e b e i n g c o m p o s e d . Therefore, t h e m o r e t h a t s c h o l a r s h i p can reveal a b o u t t h e realities a n d c u l t u r e o f t h e biblical world, the richer a n d deeper will o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e Bible be. M y h u n c h is t h a t this theological emphasis underlies m u c h of the scientific research d o n e by C a t h o l i c scholars o n the w o r l d of the Bible.

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D . Word Study The serious t r a i n i n g in biblical l a n g u a g e s t h a t is d e m a n d e d of C a t h o l i c scholars also s h o w s itself in their research o n t h e w o r d s a n d ideas in S c r i p t u r e . The a r c h a e o l o g i c a l discoveries of r e c e n t years have b r o u g h t forth m a n y a n c i e n t texts, a n d t h o s e texts have greatly illum i n e d o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e languages of t h e Bible ( H e b r e w , A r a m a i c , a n d G r e e k ) . In O l d T e s t a m e n t research, t h e U g a r i t i c texts from R a s - S h a m r a have r e v o l u t i o n i z e d t h e s t u d y of H e b r e w p o e t r y , a n d t h e legal a n d m y t h i c texts in A k k a d i a n h a v e m a d e m o r e intelligible v a r i o u s c u s t o m s a n d t e r m s in t h e P e n t a t e u c h . N e w T e s t a m e n t scholars have l e a r n e d m u c h a b o u t t h e k i n d of G r e e k u s e d in Jesus' t i m e from the E g y p t i a n papyri a n d a b o u t t h e t e r m i n o l o g y a n d t h o u g h t of J e w i s h a p o c a l y p t i c i s m from t h e D e a d Sea Scrolls. The m o s t c o m m o n k i n d of w o r d s t u d y in t h e biblical field u s u ally b e g i n s w i t h a p a r t i c u l a r l y i m p o r t a n t o r p r o b l e m a t i c passage. In o r d e r t o g e t a b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f a difficult w o r d o r idea in t h e target passage, t h e s c h o l a r m a k e s a s u r v e y o f t h e i n s t a n c e s of t h e t e r m in o t h e r d o c u m e n t s . If a N e w Testament w o r d is u n d e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n , t h e n o n e looks at t h e G r e e k w r i t i n g s o f t h e classical a u t h o r s , t h e G r e e k t r a n s l a t i o n o f t h e O l d 'Testament ( S e p t u a g i n t ) , a n d t h e J e w i s h a u t h o r s P h i l o a n d J o s e p h u s . N a t u r a l l y o n e also searches o u t t h e H e b r e w O l d Testament, t h e D e a d Sea Scrolls, a n d o t h e r relevant d o c u m e n t s . In each o c c u r r e n c e of t h e w o r d , t h e focus of research is w h a t it m e a n s in its c o n t e x t in t h e h o p e o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g b e t t e r t h e target passage. In a d d i t i o n t o t h e extrabiblical e v i d e n c e , w o r d s t u d y m u s t also t a k e i n t o a c c o u n t parallels w i t h i n t h e Bible itself. In this s t e p an i m p o r t a n t c h a n g e has t a k e n place in C a t h o l i c biblical s c h o l a r s h i p in r e c e n t years. I n t h e p a s t t h e r e w a s a t e n d e n c y t o j o i n t o g e t h e r all t h e biblical instances of a t e r m or idea as if t h e Bible w e r e m a d e o u t o f w h o l e c l o t h . The t h e o l o g i c a l a s s u m p t i o n was t h a t t h e Bible is a u n i t y a n d t h a t its l a n g u a g e is a special t y p e of H e b r e w or G r e e k ( " H o l y G h o s t G r e e k " ) . N o w t h e m a j o r c o n c e r n a m o n g C a t h o l i c scholars is to let t h e d i s t i n c t accents w i t h i n t h e Bible be h e a r d . Their e m p h a s i s is o n p l u r a l i t y of views w i t h i n S c r i p t u r e a n d o n t h e p a r t i c u l a r c o n t r i b u t i o n s of t h e i n d i v i d u a l w r i t e r s . The p h r a s e "biblical t h e o l o g y " is p o p u l a r in C a t h o l i c circles, a n d a very c o m m o n w a y o f d o i n g biblical t h e o l o g y is t o trace t h e h i s t o r y of a w o r d or idea from earliest O l d Testament t i m e s , t h r o u g h i n t e r t e s t a m e n t a l J e w i s h w r i t i n g s a n d classic w o r k s , to t h e N e w 'Testam e n t . The a i m is to see b o t h c o n t i n u i t y a n d decisive shifts in m e a n -

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ing; t h e c o n c l u s i o n t o s u c h s t u d i e s usually involves a synthesis a n d an a s s e s s m e n t of challenges for t h e C h u r c h today. This k i n d o f s t u d y places detailed philological research o n individual biblical a n d extrabiblical texts in the broader f r a m e w o r k of t h e history of biblical ideas. Part of t h e p o p u l a r i t y of this a p p r o a c h t o biblical t h e o l o g y a m o n g C a t h o l i c scholars is d u e t o t h e C a t h o l i c c o n c e r n a n d f o n d n e s s for t r a d i t i o n . T h i s a p p r o a c h is really a c h a r t i n g o u t of t h e t r a d i t i o n o f a biblical w o r d o r idea. For a c h u r c h t h a t is i m m e r s i n g itself m o r e a n d m o r e in l a n g u a g e a n d ideas o f S c r i p t u r e , a n d t h a t is so eager t o h a n d o n t h e t r a d i t i o n o f faith, t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o n key c o n c e p t s a n d their d e v e l o p m e n t in biblical t i m e s a n d a g a i n s t t h e b a c k g r o u n d of t h e biblical w o r l d is a s o u n d a p p r o a c h a n d is s u r e t o p a y rich r e w a r d s . E. Source C r i t i c i s m T h e task o f d e t e c t i n g w h e r e a s o u r c e was u s e d in a biblical b o o k is called "source c r i t i c i s m . " S o m e t i m e s w e are t o l d explicitly b y t h e biblical a u t h o r t h a t h e was u s i n g a s o u r c e , a n d so t h e p r o c e d u r e is q u i t e s i m p l e . T h e m o r e difficult i n s t a n c e s are t h o s e in w h i c h t h e use of a s o u r c e is s u s p e c t e d b u t n e e d s t o be p r o v e d b y rational analysis. T h e i n t e r n a l criteria for d e t e r m i n i n g t h e p r e s e n c e o f a s o u r c e in t h e Bible (or in a n y o t h e r text) i n c l u d e t h e following: v o c a b u l a r y in a passage different from e v e r y t h i n g else in t h e b o o k , a shift in t o n e or literary style, an u n e x p e c t e d i n t e r r u p t i o n in t h e c o n t e x t a n d an a w k w a r d r e s u m p t i o n of it later, t h e p r e s e n c e of t h e s a m e s t o r y twice in slightly different f o r m s , a n d theological or ideological c o n t r a d i c t i o n s within the same book. T h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t areas of s o u r c e criticism in biblical research c o n c e r n t h e P e n t a t e u c h a n d t h e s y n o p t i c G o s p e l s . T h e classic fourd o c u m e n t h y p o t h e s i s used in e x p l a i n i n g t h e o r i g i n o f t h e first five b o o k s of t h e O l d T e s t a m e n t claims t h a t P e n t a t e u c h is t h e fusion of f o u r s o u r c e s : Yahwist (J), Elohist (E), Priestly (P), a n d D e u t e r o n o m i s t ( D ) . T h e t i m e s p a n from t h e earliest d o c u m e n t (J) t o t h e latest (P) is a b o u t four h u n d r e d years ( 9 5 0 B . C . t o 5 5 0 B . C . ) . The classic t w o source hypothesis of the synoptic Gospels maintains t h a t M a r k was t h e earliest G o s p e l (ca. A . D . 7 0 ) a n d t h a t M a t t h e w a n d L u k e (ca. A . D . 8 0 - 9 0 ) u s e d b o t h M a r k a n d a c o l l e c t i o n o f Jesus' sayings k n o w n a m o n g m o d e r n scholars as Q (ca. A . D . 5 0 ) . T h e s e h y p o t h e s e s were p o p u l a r i z e d in liberal P r o t e s t a n t circles in n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y G e r m a n y . T h e initial C a t h o l i c r e s p o n s e s were generally s u s p i c i o u s a n d n e g a t i v e . B u t as t h e a r g u m e n t s a n d their p r o p o n e n t s w e r e g r a d u a l l y s e p a r a t e d , t h e r e was i n c r e a s i n g a c c e p -

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t a n c c — t o t h e p o i n t t h a t b o t h of these h y p o t h e s e s are n o w p a r t of "scholarly o r t h o d o x y " a m o n g C a t h o l i c biblical scholars. In t h e b r o a d e r c o n t e x t of biblical s c h o l a r s h i p , b o t h s o u r c e - h y p o t h e s e s are u n d e r attack, a n d C a t h o l i c s c a n b e f o u n d o n t h e v a r i o u s sides of t h e d e b a t e . B u t t h e r e is s o m e i r o n y in t h e fact t h a t t h e m o d e r n s t r o n g h o l d of t h e classic t w o - s o u r c e h y p o t h e s i s o f t h e s y n o p t i c G o s p e l s is t h e C a t h o l i c U n i v e r s i t y of L o u v a i n in B e l g i u m . F. R e d a c t i o n C r i t i c i s m W h e r e it has b e e n possible t o isolate sources o n external or internal g r o u n d s , t h e w a y is cleared for r e d a c t i o n c r i t i c i s m — t h e exegetical m e t h o d t h a t focuses o n t h e p a r t i c u l a r e m p h a s e s o r views t h a t t h e biblical w r i t e r s have i m p o s e d o n t h e i r sources. Besides t h e literary task o f d e t e r m i n i n g t h e final w r i t e r o r redactor's d i s t i n c t i v e c o n t r i b u t i o n s , r e d a c t i o n criticism also involves a historical task since t h e redactor's e m p h a s e s a n d views c a n s h e d light o n his s i t u a t i o n w i t h i n t h e early c h u r c h a n d o n t h e p r o b l e m s t h a t t h e r e d a c t o r a n d his c o m m u n i t y w e r e facing. It is possible t o a p p l y t h e t e c h n i q u e s of r e d a c t i o n criticism t o a n y p a r t o f S c r i p t u r e , b u t t h e m o s t fertile g r o u n d for r e d a c t i o n criticism has b e e n t h e s y n o p t i c G o s p e l s . The p i o n e e r s of t h e r e d a c t i o n critical a p p r o a c h t o G o s p e l s t u d y ( G u n t h e r B o r n k a m m , H a n s C o n / x l m a n n , W i l l i M a r x s e n ) w e r e G e r m a n P r o t e s t a n t scholars b u t their w o r k in t h e late 1940s a n d 1 9 5 0 s was t a k e n u p w i t h great e n t h u s i a s m b y C a t h o l i c scholars in t h e 1960s a n d 1 9 7 0 s . In o n e sense, t h e a p p r o a c h has b e e n "played o u t , " since practically every G o s p e l text has b e e n t h e object o f close r e d a c t i o n - c r i t i c a l analysis. O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e c o n c e r n w i t h t h e final r e d a c t i o n of biblical b o o k s has b e c o m e so integral a p a r t of t h e exegetical task t h a t n o c o m m e n t a t o r can d i s r e g a r d it. As I have a l r e a d y o b s e r v e d , r e d a c t i o n criticism is p o p u l a r a m o n g C a t h o l i c biblical scholars. This is so in p a r t b e c a u s e C a t h o l i c s c h o l ars are p a r t o f t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l a n d i n t e r c o n f e s s i o n a l d i a l o g u e of biblical research today. B u t r e d a c t i o n c r i t i c i s m also has h a d a special attractiveness for C a t h o l i c s . T h e approach's u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e b i b lical w r i t e r s as t r a n s m i t t e r s a n d i n t e r p r e t e r s o f t r a d i t i o n strikes a res p o n s i v e c h o r d a m o n g t r a d i t i o n - c o n s c i o u s C a t h o l i c s . Its interest in early c h u r c h life a n d its view of t h e biblical a u t h o r s as w r i t i n g in a n d for p a r t i c u l a r c o m m u n i t i e s of faith parallel t h e p e r e n n i a l C a t h o l i c concerns with the C h u r c h .

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G. Form C r i t i c i s m U n d e r t h e h e a d i n g o f literary criticism, t h e r e was s o m e d i s c u s s i o n a b o u t t h e literary f o r m s in w h i c h t h e biblical w r i t e r s expressed t h e m s e l v e s a n d t h e e x t e n t t o w h i c h t h e c h o i c e o f a p a r t i c u l a r literary form a l r e a d y c o m m u n i c a t e s s o m e o f t h e writer's message. T h u s f o r m criticism is really an a s p e c t o f t h e general literary-critical task, a n d t h e first c o n c e r n o f t h e f o r m critic is t o d e t e r m i n e t h e literary f o r m of t h e b o o k ( n a r r a t i v e , letter, etc.) or of t h e passages w i t h i n a b o o k ( p r o v e r b , p a r a b l e , t h a n k s g i v i n g , etc.). B u t t h e r e is also a historical task in f o r m criticism just as t h e r e is in r e d a c t i o n c r i t i c i s m . T h e ass u m p t i o n is t h a t t h e p a r t i c u l a r literary f o r m can tell us s o m e t h i n g a b o u t t h e c o m m u n i t y in w h i c h t h e t r a d i t i o n was u s e d a n d a b o u t t h e p r o b l e m s t h a t t h e c o m m u n i t y faced. C a t h o l i c r e a c t i o n s t o f o r m criticism h a v e b e e n a m b i v a l e n t . N o o n e q u a r r e l s a b o u t t h e a t t e n t i o n p a i d t o literary f o r m s . I n d e e d t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e literary f o r m s has b e e n s t r o n g l y e n c o u r a g e d since Divino Afflante Spiritu ( 1 9 4 3 ) a n d e n d o r s e d e n t h u s i a s t i c a l l y in Vatican U s C o n s t i t u t i o n o n D i v i n e R e v e l a t i o n ( 1 9 6 5 ) . T h e a m bivalence involves t h e historical d i m e n s i o n . C a t h o l i c s are generally positive t o w a r d t h e effort to get b e h i n d t h e texts i n t o t h e life o f t h e c o m m u n i t y . In fact, t h e historical p r o g r a m o f f o r m criticism has s o m e t i m e s even b e e n u s e d apologetically to c o n f i r m t h e C a t h o l i c a p p r o a c h t o t h e Bible as t h e C h u r c h ' s b o o k . T h e C a t h o l i c p r o b l e m w i t h f o r m criticism arises from t h e feeli n g t h a t it is a p o o r historical t o o l . The a t t e m p t to c o n s t r u c t t h e h i s t o r y o f t h e early c h u r c h o n f o r m - c r i t i c a l g r o u n d s has never b e e n very successful. W h e r e it has b e e n tried, t h e r e has u s u a l l y b e e n a r a t h e r u n d i s c i p l i n e d m i x i n g of f o r m a n d c o n t e n t t o arrive at t e n d e n t i o u s ( M a r t i n Dibelius's p h r a s e "in t h e b e g i n n i n g was t h e s e r m o n " ) or skeptical c o n c l u s i o n s a b o u t t h e relation o f t h e t r a d i t i o n t o Jesus of N a z a r e t h ( R u d o l f B u l t m a n n ' s h i s t o r y o f t h e S y n o p t i c t r a d i t i o n ) . T h e t e n d e n c y of the form-critical p i o n e e r s to o v e r e m p h a s i z e t h e creativity of t h e c o m m u n i t y at t h e expense of historical f o u n d a tions w e n t b e y o n d the b o u n d a r i e s of C a t h o l i c theology a n d was sharply criticized. H . Historical C r i t i c i s m The task of r e l a t i n g t h e texts of S c r i p t u r e a n d t h e events b e h i n d t h e m is c a l l e d h i s t o r i c a l c r i t i c i s m . T h e t e r m " h i s t o r i c a l - c r i t i c a l m e t h o d " is generally t a k e n t o refer t o t h e w h o l e p r o j e c t o f i n t e r p r e t -

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i n g t h e biblical text in its historical s e t t i n g a n d o n its o w n t e r m s . B u t "historical criticism" is also u s e d in a m o r e n a r r o w sense t o describe t h e a t t e m p t to d e t e r m i n e w h a t really h a p p e n e d , for e x a m p l e , at Israel's escape from E g y p t o r o n Easter S u n d a y m o r n i n g . It was t h e h o p e of "scientific" h i s t o r i a n s in t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y t o peel a w a y t h e e n c r u s t a t i o n s o f t r a d i t i o n a n d arrive at t h e s o l i d c o r e o f g e n u i n e h i s tory. In liberal P r o t e s t a n t circles in G e r m a n y t h e r e s e e m s t o have b e e n an a s s u m p t i o n t h a t t h e g o o d n e s s o f Jesus h a d b e e n o b s c u r e d a n d d i s t o r t e d b y C h u r c h t r a d i t i o n ( i n c l u d i n g t h e c h u r c h of N e w Testament t i m e s ) . In his 1 8 9 8 essay o n historical a n d d o g m a t i c m e t h o d in t h e o l ogy, t h e G e r m a n P r o t e s t a n t t h e o l o g i a n E r n s t Troeltsch e n u n c i a t e d t h e t h r e e p r i n c i p l e s of historical criticism. The first w a s t h e p r i n c i p l e o f criticism o r methodological doubt. H i s t o r y o n l y achieves p r o b ability, a n d t h e religious t r a d i t i o n m u s t be s u b j e c t e d t o historical criticism. This first p r i n c i p l e presents few p r o b l e m s for C a t h o l i c t h e o logians; b u t t h e s e c o n d p r i n c i p l e d o e s . A c c o r d i n g t o t h e p r i n c i p l e o f anabgy, p r e s e n t experiences a n d o c c u r r e n c e s are t h e criteria o f p r o b ability in t h e past. That s o u n d s a c c e p t a b l e u n t i l o n e reflects t h a t since d e a d p e o p l e d o n o t rise at p r e s e n t , a n o t h e r e x p l a n a t i o n t h a n w h a t is in t h e G o s p e l s m u s t b e f o u n d for t h e events after Jesus' d e a t h . 'The p r i n c i p l e of correlation also causes p r o b l e m s for C a t h o l i c t h e o l o g y : All historical p h e n o m e n a are so i n t e r r e l a t e d t h a t a c h a n g e in o n e p h e n o m e n o n necessitates a c h a n g e in t h e causes l e a d i n g t o it a n d in t h e effects it h a s . S u c h a view o f cause a n d effect again s o u n d s initially a c c e p t a b l e , b u t a rigid view o f it rules o u t miracles a n d salvat i o n h i s t o r y (since t h e o l o g i c a l o r t r a n s c e n d e n t a l causes are n o t to be i n v o l v e d in historical c r i t i c i s m ) . 'The p r o b l e m s p o s e d by t h e p r i n c i p l e s o f a n a l o g y a n d correlat i o n are chiefly p h i l o s o p h i c a l , for t h e y p r e s u p p o s e a very different k i n d of u n i v e r s e from t h e o n e a s s u m e d in t h e Bible a n d t h e C h r i s t i a n t r a d i t i o n . 'This is n o t t o say t h a t t h e p h i l o s o p h i c a l a n d t h e o l o g i cal issues raised by t h e s e p r i n c i p l e s are i n s i g n i f i c a n t or can be w a v e d aside b y a p p e a l t o S c r i p t u r e . B u t it is i m p o r t a n t t o r e c o g n i z e t h a t these p r i n c i p l e s rest o n d e b a t a b l e p h i l o s o p h i c a l p r e s u p p o s i t i o n s a n d t h e n are elevated t o t h e status o f criteria for j u d g i n g w h a t really h a p p e n e d in biblical t i m e s . It is i m p o r t a n t also t o recognize t h a t C a t h o lic t h e o l o g i a n s s h o u l d have n o q u a r r e l w i t h historical criticism p r o v i d e d t h a t it d o e s n o t involve t h e n a r r o w u n d e r s t a n d i n g a s s u m e d in Troeltsch's t h r e e p r i n c i p l e s . T h u s t h e C a t h o l i c p r o b l e m w i t h historical criticism is t w o f o l d : (1) H i s t o r i c a l criticism has f r e q u e n t l y t a k e n a negative view of t r a d i -

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t i o n a n d C h u r c h ; (2) historical criticism has f r e q u e n t l y b e e n b a s e d o n u n a c c e p t a b l e p h i l o s o p h i c a l a s s u m p t i o n s . These p r o b l e m s , h o w ever, d o n o t absolve C a t h o l i c exegetes from t r y i n g t o d e t e r m i n e w h a t really h a p p e n e d w h e r e this m i g h t be possible. The t h e o l o g i c a l aberr a t i o n s of s o m e historical critics d o n o t d e s t r o y t h e validity of t h e e n t i r e historical-critical e n t e r p r i s e . I. Translations O n e very c o n c r e t e w a y in w h i c h t h e exegetical labors o f C a t h o lic biblical scholars reach t h e w i d e r c h u r c h m e m b e r s h i p is t h r o u g h t r a n s l a t i o n s o f t h e Bible. S i n c e Vatican II, it is a s s u m e d t h a t C a t h o l i c t r a n s l a t i o n s will be b a s e d o n t h e original l a n g u a g e s ( H e b r e w , Aram a i c , G r e e k ) r a t h e r t h a n o n t h e Latin V u l g a t e . The t w o m a j o r E n glish t r a n s l a t i o n s p r e p a r e d u n d e r C a t h o l i c a u s p i c e s are t h e J e r u s a l e m Bible a n d t h e N e w A m e r i c a n Bible. They are w i d e l y u s e d in l i t u r g i cal activity a n d in p r i v a t e r e a d i n g by E n g l i s h - s p e a k i n g C a t h o l i c s . The English J e r u s a l e m Bible was first p u b l i s h e d in 1 9 6 6 . In m a n y respects (especially in t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n s a n d notes) it is d e p e n d e n t o n t h e F r e n c h Bible de Jerusalem ( 1 9 5 6 ) . 'The British t e a m of t r a n s lators w o r k e d w i t h t h e original l a n g u a g e s b u t generally followed t h e F r e n c h t r a n s l a t o r s w h e n q u e s t i o n s a b o u t v a r i a n t r e a d i n g s or i n t e r p r e t a t i o n arose. The N e w A m e r i c a n Bible ( 1 9 7 0 ) is basically t h e w o r k of m e m b e r s o f t h e C a t h o l i c Biblical A s s o c i a t i o n of A m e r i c a , t h o u g h n o t all t h e c o l l a b o r a t o r s w e r e C a t h o l i c s . The fact t h a t these t w o E n glish t r a n s l a t i o n s a p p e a r e d s h o r t l y after Vatican II s h o u l d n o t d i s guise t h e fact t h a t t h e y w e r e already in p r e p a r a t i o n for m a n y years a n d c o n s t i t u t e an e l o q u e n t w i t n e s s t o C a t h o l i c biblical s c h o l a r s h i p b e t w e e n Divino Afflante Spiritu ( 1 9 4 3 ) a n d Vatican II. B o t h versions were t h o r o u g h l y revised in t h e 1 9 8 0 s — t h e e n t i r e J e r u s a l e m Bible a n d t h e N e w T e s t a m e n t a n d Psalms o f t h e N e w A m e r i c a n B i b l e — t o r e f l e c t d e v e l o p m e n t s in s c h o l a r s h i p , c h a n g e s in t h e English language (especially g e n d e r inclusiveness), a n d the c o n t i n u i n g s e a r c h for a c c u r a c y . There are t w o p h i l o s o p h i e s o f t r a n s l a t i o n o p e r a t i v e in biblical circles these days. A formal e q u i v a l e n c e t r a n s l a t i o n (like t h e Revised S t a n d a r d Version) a i m s t o b e intelligible t o p e o p l e t o d a y w h i l e m i r r o r i n g t h e v o c a b u l a r y , imagery, a n d s y n t a x of t h e original text. A d y n a m i c e q u i v a l e n c e t r a n s l a t i o n (like t h e G o o d N e w s Bible) is c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e total process of c o m m u n i c a t i o n a n d seeks t o p r o d u c e t h e s a m e effect in p e o p l e t o d a y as t h e biblical a u t h o r s d i d a m o n g their c o n t e m p o r a r i e s . T a k i n g t h e s e t w o p h i l o s o p h i e s as t h e far e n d s

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of a s p e c t r u m , w c can say t h a t t h e N e w A m e r i c a n Bible t e n d s t o w a r d f o r m a l e q u i v a l e n c e a n d t h e J e r u s a l e m Bible leans t o w a r d d y n a m i c e q u i v a l e n c e . N e i t h e r t r a n s l a t i o n is a " p u r e " r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f a strict p h i l o s o p h y ; b o t h m a n a g e t o e m b o d y a g o o d deal o f t e c h n i c a l b i b l i cal s c h o l a r s h i p in a m o d e s t fashion. J. H e r m e n e u t i c s The t e r m " h e r m e n e u t i c s " covers t h e e n t i r e process of biblical i n t e r p r e t a t i o n t h a t has b e e n e x p l a i n e d so far in this p a r t of t h e essay. B u t it is s o m e t i m e s also reserved for t h e s t e p t h a t takes place after t h e exegesis has b e e n d o n e a n d t h e s t u d e n t o f S c r i p t u r e tries t o a r t i c u l a t e w h a t t h e text m e a n s . The p r o d u c t m a y be a scholarly article, a h o m ily, or a p o p u l a r lecture. S i n c e n o o n e c o m e s t o t h e h e r m e n e u t i c a l task w i t h o u t special interests o r intellectual history, at this p o i n t I w o u l d like t o call a t t e n t i o n t o f o u r general characteristics o f C a t h o lic b i b l i c a l s c h o l a r s h i p t o d a y : its c o m m i t m e n t t o e c u m e n i s m , its s e n s e o f t r a d i t i o n , its r e l a t i o n t o t h e C h u r c h , a n d its i n t e r n a t i o n a l dimension. Biblical s c h o l a r s h i p has b r o u g h t C a t h o l i c scholars i n t o c o n t a c t w i t h p e o p l e of o t h e r religious c o m m i t m e n t s . M a n y A m e r i c a n C a t h o lic scholars h a v e b e e n t r a i n e d in l a n g u a g e s , history, archaeology, a n d exegesis at J o h n s H o p k i n s , H a r v a r d , Yale, C h i c a g o , a n d o t h e r s u c h i n s t i t u t i o n s . C a t h o l i c scholars play i m p o r t a n t a d m i n i s t r a t i v e a n d e d i torial roles in t h e Society of Biblical L i t e r a t u r e in t h e U n i t e d States, t h e Society of N e w Testament S t u d i e s , a n d t h e Society o f O l d Testam e n t S t u d i e s . F o r m a n y years, C a t h o l i c s h a v e w o r k e d t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e i r colleagues, t h u s c o n t r i b u t i n g t o w h a t has b e c o m e an i n t e r n a tional a n d i n t e r c o n f e s s i o n a l d i a l o g u e . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , C a t h o l i c s have m a d e available t h e i r t e c h n i c a l biblical j o u r n a l s (Catholic Biblical Quarterly, Revue Biblique, Biblische Zeitschrift, Biblica, Estudios Biblicos, Rivista Biblica) t o all c o m p e t e n t s c h o l a r s . For m a n y years also, P r o t e s t a n t scholars have given p a p e r s a t t h e m e e t i n g s of t h e C a t h o l i c Biblical A s s o c i a t i o n . T h i s r e m a r k a b l e level of e c u m e n i c a l c o o p e r a t i o n has b e e n carefully fostered b y biblical scholars repres e n t i n g t h e various confessions precisely b e c a u s e t h e y have seen h o w fruitful a n d h e a l t h y it can be for t h e C h u r c h at large. Yet t h e s t r o n g c o m m i t m e n t t o e c u m e n i s m b y C a t h o l i c biblical scholars does n o t m e a n a desire to d o a w a y w i t h a sense of C a t h o l i c t r a d i t i o n . 'The C a t h o l i c C h u r c h is very m u c h an i n s t i t u t i o n of t r a d i t i o n s , a n d this feature o f C a t h o l i c i s m leaves its m a r k o n C a t h o l i c biblical scholarship. 'This t e n d e n c y shows itself first in typically C a t h o -

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lie a p p r o a c h e s t o t h e relation b e t w e e n t h e e a r t h l y J e s u s , t h e early c h u r c h , a n d t h e N e w Testament w r i t i n g s . W h i l e a c k n o w l e d g i n g t h e c o m p l e x i t y of t h e G o s p e l t r a d i t i o n a n d even d e l i g h t i n g in it, t h e C a t h o l i c a p p r o a c h a s s u m e s a c o n t i n u i t y a n d rejects t h e idea o f an u n b r i d g e a b l e gulf. The a g e n t in this c o n t i n u i t y is t h e C h u r c h u n d e r t h e g u i d a n c e o f t h e H o l y Spirit. The C a t h o l i c c o n c e r n w i t h t r a d i t i o n also m a n i f e s t s itself in a lively i n t e r e s t in p h i l o s o p h y a n d general h e r m e n e u t i c a l theory. There is a s t r o n g awareness o f t h e c o m p l e x i t y i n v o l v e d in b r i n g i n g S c r i p t u r e t o bear o n c h u r c h life t o d a y a n d a c o n s c i o u s n e s s t h a t S c r i p t u r e has b e e n i n t e r p r e t e d in v a r i o u s w a y s at v a r i o u s p o i n t s in history. T h i r d l y , t h e r e is a s t r o n g sense o f C h u r c h in C a t h o l i c biblical s c h o l a r s h i p . The locus for m o s t C a t h o l i c biblical s c h o l a r s h i p is t h e C h u r c h r a t h e r t h a n t h e a c a d e m y . 'The a s s u m p t i o n is t h a t biblical exegesis is m o r e t h a n historical research a n d o u g h t t o c o n t r i b u t e positively t o t h e church's life. M a n y issues s t u d i e d by C a t h o l i c s — t h e N e w Testament d i v o r c e texts, m i n i s t r y in t h e early c h u r c h , t h e role of w o m e n — r e f l e c t t h e a g e n d a of c h u r c h p r o b l e m s today. This s t r o n g i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of biblical s c h o l a r s h i p w i t h t h e C h u r c h o c c a s i o n a l l y leads t o s i t u a t i o n s in w h i c h t h e results o f exegesis a n d c u r r e n t c h u r c h p o l i c y a p p e a r to collide. A n e x a m p l e is t h e o r d i n a t i o n o f w o m e n t o t h e ministerial p r i e s t h o o d . The c o n c l u s i o n o f a g r o u p of biblical scholars t h a t S c r i p t u r e p r e s e n t s n o obstacle to w o m e n ' s o r d i n a t i o n was d e e m e d insufficient t o justify d e p a r t u r e from t r a d i t i o n b y h i g h e r R o m a n a u t h o r i t i e s . W h e n s u c h a collision o c c u r s , " p u r e " exegesis s o m e t i m e s loses o u t a n d is s u b o r d i n a t e d t o t r a d i t i o n a n d t h e j u d g m e n t of t h e ecclesiastical m a g i s t e r i u m (the P o p e a n d t h e b i s h o p s ) . Finally, t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r o f t h e C a t h o l i c C h u r c h is h e r m e n e u t i c a l l y significant. The n e t w o r k o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n t h a t exists in t h e C a t h o l i c C h u r c h will n o t allow N o r t h A m e r i c a n o r W e s t e r n E u r o p e a n biblical scholars t o avoid for l o n g t h e challenges p o s e d by Third W o r l d exegetes. I n d i a n C a t h o l i c scholars h a v e b e e n e x p l o r i n g t h e r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e historical-critical a p p r o a c h t o exegesis a n d t h e t r a d i t i o n a l I n d i a n m e t h o d s of i n t e r p r e t i n g religious texts. Latin A m e r i c a n biblical t h e o l o g i a n s have e m p h a s i z e d t h e c e n t r a l i t y of t h e t h e m e o f l i b e r a t i o n , t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f b e i n g c o n s c i o u s o f t h e life-setting of Bible study, a n d t h e political significance of t h e b i b l i cal message in t h e past a n d today. Africans have d i s c e r n e d an affinity b e t w e e n t h e biblical w o r l d a n d t h e i r o w n a n d reject t h e idea t h a t they m u s t interpret Scripture t h r o u g h the m e d i u m of Western cult u r e . F e m i n i s t s in t h e U n i t e d States h a v e q u e s t i o n e d t h e usual r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f early C h r i s t i a n h i s t o r y a n d f o u n d i n d i c a t i o n s o f a sig-

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nificant role for w o m e n in early c h u r c h life. Their f e m i n i s t c o n c e r n s a n d m e t h o d s are b e i n g t a k e n u p in t u r n by E u r o p e a n a n d African scholars. By w a y o f c o n t r a s t h e r e , t h e m e t h o d e m p l o y e d by t h e L a t i n A m e r i c a n t h e o l o g i a n s of l i b e r a t i o n deserves an e x p l a n a t i o n , for its p r i n c i p l e s differ from a n d c h a l l e n g e t h e historical-critical a p p r o a c h o u t l i n e d in t h e p r e c e d i n g pages. The s t a r t i n g p o i n t for t h e l i b e r a t i o n t h e o l o g i a n s is t h e analysis o f c o n t e m p o r a r y sociopolitical e x p e r i e n c e , n o t t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f t h e a n c i e n t historical c o n t e x t . The life-sett i n g for this k i n d o f biblical i n t e r p r e t a t i o n is t h e so-called base c o m m u n i t y , w h i c h arose as a p o p u l a r m o v e m e n t in C a t h o l i c i s m . 'The biblical i n t e r p r e t e r s , w h e t h e r t h e y are p e a s a n t s or professors, p e r ceive clear parallels b e t w e e n t h e s i t u a t i o n o f p e o p l e in Latin A m e r i c a t o d a y a n d t h a t o f G o d ' s p e o p l e in biblical t i m e s . This parallelism leads b a c k logically t o t h e biblical texts as sources of e n l i g h t e n m e n t a n d e n c o u r a g e m e n t today. The l i b e r a t i o n t h e o l o g i a n s also c h a l l e n g e t h e ideal o f t h e h i s t o r i cal critic as t h e objective s p e c t a t o r o r t h e u n i n v o l v e d r e p o r t e r . A b o u t t h i r t y years ago t h e r e was a lively d e b a t e a m o n g E u r o p e a n a n d N o r t h A m e r i c a n exegetes a n d t h e o l o g i a n s a b o u t w h e t h e r it is possible t o have p r e s u p p o s i t i o n l e s s exegesis. The answer, o f c o u r s e , is n o . B u t nevertheless t h e a i m o f historical criticism is to p u t aside one's o w n p r e s u p p o s i t i o n s as m u c h as possible a n d take t h e text o n its o w n t e r m s . The l i b e r a t i o n t h e o l o g i a n s a r g u e t h a t this p s e u d o - o b j e c t i v e s t a n c e m e r e l y m a s k s a w h o l e set of h i d d e n a n d p o t e n t i a l l y d e s t r u c tive a s s u m p t i o n s a b o u t G o d , h u m a n i t y , a n d t h e w o r l d . Therefore t h e y call for t h e i n t e r p r e t e r ' s f o r t h r i g h t a d m i s s i o n of a political, s o ciological, o r theological p o s i t i o n . 'They criticize bitterly t h o s e l e a r n e d biblical c o m m e n t a r i e s t h a t issue from professors' desks, a p p a r e n t l y u n t o u c h e d b y social e x p e r i e n c e a n d d e v o i d o f h u m a n c o m m i t m e n t . 'The t h i r d c h a l l e n g e t o historical criticism raised b y t h e liberat i o n t h e o l o g i a n s involves w h a t c o n s t i t u t e s t h e a d e q u a t e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f S c r i p t u r e . The l i b e r a t i o n t h e o l o g i a n s a r g u e t h a t intellectual a p p r o p r i a t i o n is n o t e n o u g h . N e i t h e r is p r a y e r e n o u g h . Rather, t h e biblical texts n a t u r a l l y lead t o c o n c r e t e social a c t i o n s issuing from intellectual reflection a n d m e d i t a t i o n . F o r these l i b e r a t i o n t h e o l o g i a n s , biblical i n t e r p r e t a t i o n necessarily d e m a n d s sociopolitical a c tivity. G u i d e d b y t h e s o p h i s t i c a t e d h e r m e n e u t i c a l t h e o r i e s of Paul R i c o e u r , these l i b e r a t i o n t h e o l o g i a n s s p e a k of a h e r m e n e u t i c a l circle t h a t m o v e s from s u s p i c i o n a b o u t p r e s e n t - d a y e x p e r i e n c e ( " s o m e t h i n g is w r o n g " ) , t h r o u g h s u s p i c i o n a b o u t t h e ideologies a n d t h e o l o g i e s ( a n d exegesis) t h a t s u p p o r t t h e p r e s e n t - d a y political s t r u c t u r e s , t o

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t h e Bible as a s o u r c e of faith a n d of i n s p i r a t i o n for a c t i o n , to a c t i o n in t h e p r e s e n t t i m e . T h u s t h e Latin A m e r i c a n l i b e r a t i o n t h e o l o g i a n s differ f r o m t h e historical critics in t h e i r i n s i s t e n c e o n t h e p r e s e n t - d a y political s i t u a t i o n as t h e s t a r t i n g p o i n t for biblical i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , t h e i r a d m i s s i o n of p r e s u p p o s i t i o n s , a n d t h e i r e m p h a s i s o n a c t i o n as p a r t o f t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i v e process. T h e i r a p p r o a c h is clearly o p e n t o a b u s e s . B u t it d o e s i l l u m i n a t e b y c o n t r a s t s o m e o f t h e m a j o r features o f t h e h i s t o r i cal-critical m e t h o d . A l s o , t h e r e is still a place for historical c r i t i c i s m in l i b e r a t i o n t h e o l o g y . The l i b e r a t i o n t h e o l o g i a n s s i m p l y d e m a n d t h a t o t h e r aspects o f t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i v e p r o c e s s — p r e s e n t - d a y e x p e r i e n c e , t h e i n t e r p r e t e r ' s p r e s u p p o s i t i o n s , a n d political a c t i o n — b e ack n o w l e d g e d a n d celebrated. IV. FROM DEATH T O LIEE ( E P H . 2 : 1 - 1 0 )

T h e Epistle t o t h e E p h e s i a n s p u r p o r t s t o b e a letter w r i t t e n by Paul from p r i s o n . It is often classed w i t h t h e epistles to t h e P h i l i p p i a n s , C o l o s s i a n s , a n d P h i l e m o n as o n e of t h e C a p t i v i t y Epistles. B u t m o s t critical C a t h o l i c s c h o l a r s n o w agree w i t h t h e i r P r o t e s t a n t colleagues t h a t FLphesians is a n essay w r i t t e n b y an a d m i r e r o f Paul in t h e late first c e n t u r y A . D . (ca. A . D . 8 0 - 9 0 ) in o r d e r t o e m p h a s i z e t h e u n i t y in C h r i s t b e t w e e n J e w i s h C h r i s t i a n s a n d G e n t i l e C h r i s t i a n s . T h e case a g a i n s t P a u l i n e a u t h o r s h i p involves t h e m o r e S e m i t i c l a n g u a g e a n d style of FLphesians, its different use of c e r t a i n t h e m e s a n d m o t i f s , a n d its d i v e r g e n t o r m o r e d e v e l o p e d theology. T h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f c h u r c h s t r u c t u r e s a s s u m e d in t h e epistle a n d t h e p r o b l e m s facing t h e c o m m u n i t y are m o r e easily l i n k e d w i t h t h e late first c e n t u r y t h a n t h e late 50s o r early 6 0 s . T h e h y p o t h e s i s of n o n - P a u l i n e a u t h o r s h i p n o l o n g e r p r e s e n t s a s e r i o u s p r o b l e m a m o n g C a t h o l i c exegetes ( t h o u g h a few still a r g u e t h a t Paul w a s t h e a u t h o r ) . E p h . 2 : 1 - 1 0 deals w i t h t h e r e c o n c i l i a t i o n of sinful h u m a n i t y t o G o d . It p r e p a r e s for t h e d i s c u s s i o n of h o w n o n - J e w s c a n b e c o m e p a r t o f t h e p e o p l e o f G o d ( E p h . 2 : 1 1 - 2 2 ) . T h e Revised N e w A m e r i c a n Bible translates t h e passage as follows: 'You were dead in your transgressions and sins in which you once lived following the age of this world, following the ruler of the power of the air, the spirit that is now at work in the disobedient. 'All of us once lived a m o n g them in the desires of our flesh, following the wishes of the flesh a n d the impulses, and we were by nature children of wrath, like the rest. 'But God, w h o is rich in

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mercy, because of the great love he had for us, even when we were dead in our transgressions, brought us to life with Christ (by grace you have been saved), ''raised us up with him, and seated us with him in the heavens in Christ Jesus, 'that in the ages to come he might show the immeasurable riches of his grace in his kindness to us in Christ Jesus. T o r by grace you have been saved through faith, and this is not from you; it is the gift of God; 'it is not from works, so no one may boast. "Tor we are his handiwork, created in Christ Jesus for the good works that G o d has prepared in advance, that we should live in them. T h e N e w J e r u s a l e m Bible r e n d e r s E p h . 2 : 1 - 1 0 in this w a y : 'And you were dead, through the crimes and the sins V h i c h used to make up your way of life when you were living by the principles of this world, obeying the ruler w h o dominates the air, the spirit who is at work in those who rebel. We too were all among them once, living only by our natural inclinations, obeying the demands of h u m a n self-indulgence and our own whim; our nature made us no less liable to God's retribution than the rest of the world. 'But G o d , being rich in faithful love, through the great love with which he loved us, even when we were dead in our sins, brought us to life with Christ—it is through grace that you have been saved— 'and raised us up with him and gave us a place with him in heaven, in Christ Jesus. T h i s was to show for all ages to come, through his goodness towards us in Christ Jesus, how extraordinarily rich he is in grace. "Because it is by grace that you have been saved, through faith; not by anything of your own, but by a gift from God; 'not by anyt h i n g that you have d o n e , so that n o b o d y can claim the credit. W e are God's w o r k of art, created in Christ Jesus for the good works w h i c h G o d has already designated to m a k e u p o u r way of life. 3

s

f

l0

This s u m m a r y of Paul's G o s p e l first explains t h e state o f sin a n d s p i r i t u a l d e a t h in w h i c h t h e G e n t i l e C h r i s t i a n s lived before C h r i s t (vv. 1-3). By t h e i r i m m o r a l a c t i o n s t h e y s h o w e d t h e i r allegiance t o t h e p o w e r s of evil a n d t h u s d e s e r v e d G o d ' s anger. T h e i r l o r d was t h e " p r i n c e of t h e air," their w a y o f life w a s g u i d e d b y t h e "flesh," a n d t h e i r activities were sins a n d offenses. H a v i n g d e s c r i b e d t h e negative p e r i o d of t h e i r lives, t h e a u t h o r o f E p h e s i a n s develops t h e positive side in verses 4 - 1 0 . T h r o u g h his m o s t p o w e r f u l display o f mercy, love, a n d grace (vv. 4 - 5 ) , G o d in C h r i s t saved these G e n t i l e s from t h e i r s p i r i t u a l d e a t h a n d allowed t h e m to share in t h e g l o r y of t h e risen L o r d (v. 6 ) . The p r e s e n t a s p e c t o r

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realized a s p e c t o f e s c h a t o l o g y is s t r o n g l y e m p h a s i z e d : "you h a v e b e e n saved . . . he raised us u p w i t h h i m a n d s e a t e d us w i t h h i m in t h e h e a v e n s . " N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e f u t u r e a s p e c t o f e s c h a t o l o g y ("in t h e ages t o c o m e " ) is n o t i g n o r e d (v. 7 ) . T h e r e is so m u c h e m p h a s i s o n G o d in C h r i s t as t h e s o u r c e o f salvation a n d t h e u n m e r i t e d c h a r a c t e r of salvation (vv. 8-9) t h a t o n e can s u s p e c t s o m e c o n t r o v e r s y a b o u t this in t h e b a c k g r o u n d of t h e letter. 'The passage closes in verse 10 w i t h an e x h o r t a t i o n t o live t h e life t h a t befits t h o s e w h o m G o d in C h r i s t has saved. 'The s e c o n d half of E p h e s i a n s (chs. 4 - 6 ) spells o u t w h a t s u c h a life in c o n f o r m i t y w i t h salvation m e a n s . I w o u l d like to c o m m e n t o n t h r e e m a t t e r s a r i s i n g from this ext r a o r d i n a r i l y rich text: its theology, its r e l a t i o n s h i p t o t h e g e n u i n e P a u l i n e w r i t i n g s , a n d its transfer value. The passage d r a w s a c o n t r a s t b e t w e e n w h a t life for t h e G e n t i l e C h r i s t i a n s was before C h r i s t (vv. 1-3) a n d w h a t it is n o w ( w . 4 - 1 0 ) . 'The m o s t s t r i k i n g t h e o l o g i c a l feature is t h e e m p h a s i s o n salvation as already p r e s e n t (vv. 5 - 6 ) , t h o u g h t h e future d i m e n s i o n o f salvation is also m e n t i o n e d (v. 7 ) . In this respect t h e l a n g u a g e o f E p h e s i a n s is s t r o n g e r t h a n t h a t o f Paul in R o m a n s a n d G a l a t i a n s . A n o t h e r i m p o r t a n t feature is t h e stress o n t h e u n m e r i t e d n a t u r e of salvation (vv. 89) a n d t h e idea o f g o o d d e e d s flowing from G o d ' s gift of salvation (v. 10). Even t h o u g h s o m e P r o t e s t a n t s m i g h t t h i n k t h a t C a t h o l i c s seek salvation t h r o u g h w o r k s , t h e p o s i t i o n of C a t h o l i c t h e o l o g y is p e r fectly c o n s i s t e n t w i t h E p h e s i a n s o n this m a t t e r . 'These t w o t h e m e s — t h e p r e s e n t d i m e n s i o n of salvation a n d G o d ' s grace as t h e s o u r c e of g o o d d e e d s — w o u l d have great appeal to C a t h o l i c readers o f t h e Bible. H o w w o u l d C a t h o l i c s assess t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f this passage t o Paul's g e n u i n e letters? H o w w o u l d t h e y evaluate t h e E p h e s i a n e m phasis o n t h e p r e s e n c e of salvation in c o m p a r i s o n t o Paul's stress o n t h e f u t u r e d i m e n s i o n ? D e f e n d e r s of P a u l i n e a u t h o r s h i p o f E p h e s i a n s w o u l d see it as t h e m a t u r e s t a t e m e n t o f ideas t h a t w e r e g e r m i n a t i n g in G a l a t i a n s a n d R o m a n s . P r o p o n e n t s o f p s e u d o n y m o u s a u t h o r s h i p w o u l d h o l d t h a t it is an a u t h e n t i c d e v e l o p m e n t of Paul's t h o u g h t for a n e w s i t u a t i o n a n d t i m e . The idea of u s i n g G a l a t i a n s a n d R o m a n s as a c a n o n t o criticize a n d j u d g e o t h e r c a n o n i c a l w r i t i n g s w o u l d n o t be t h e usual a p p r o a c h for C a t h o l i c s . I n s t e a d o f seizing u p o n t h e c o n t r a d i c t i o n s a n d differences, t h e first i n s t i n c t of C a t h o l i c s w o u l d be t o focus o n c o n t i n u i t y a n d d e v e l o p m e n t . The a i m b e h i n d c h a r t i n g t h e course of a Pauline t h e m e like eschatology w o u l d be t o illustrate g r o w t h in i n s i g h t a n d a b i l i t y t o a d a p t t h e G o s p e l t o c h a n g e d c i r c u m s t a n c e s , n o t t o let t h e p o w e r a n d m a j e s t y o f t h e g e n u i n e Paul shine forth.

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M y final c o m m e n t involves t h e h e r m e n e u t i c a l transfer value o f E p h . 2 : 1 - 1 0 . The t e x t was clearly a d d r e s s e d t o n o n - J e w s w h o h a d t u r n e d from p a g a n i s m t o C h r i s t i a n faith. It deals w i t h t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f c o n v e r s i o n ("once . . . b u t n o w " ) . The k i n d of c o n v e r s i o n described implies that the converts were adults w h e n they t u r n e d from p a g a n i s m t o C h r i s t i a n i t y , a n d in t h a t t u r n i n g e x p e r i e n c e d w h a t is called "salvation." If o n e were t o p r e a c h o n this t e x t today, t h e a u d i e n c e t o w h o m it w o u l d m e a n m o s t w o u l d be a d u l t s w h o h a d c o n v e r t e d f r o m p a g a n i s m t o C h r i s t i a n i t y . For C a t h o l i c s a n d o t h e r s b a p t i z e d at infancy, this k i n d o f c o n v e r s i o n l a n g u a g e is o n l y partially a p p r o p r i a t e . Even C h r i s t i a n s b a p t i z e d as a d u l t s b u t h a v i n g been raised in C h r i s t i a n families a n d a C h r i s t i a n a t m o s p h e r e will have n o t u n d e r g o n e t h e k i n d of e x p e r i e n c e s k e t c h e d in E p h . 2 : 1 - 1 0 . T h e p r o b l e m of transfer is p o s e d b y t h e l a n g u a g e o f c o n v e r s i o n l e a d i n g t o b a p t i s m f o u n d in this a n d o t h e r P a u l i n e texts. Very often t h i s c o n v e r s i o n l a n g u a g e is t a k e n b y c o m m i t t e d C h r i s t i a n s as s o m e t h i n g t o be e x p e r i e n c e d a n e w everyday, as d e l i n e a t i n g t h e daily life o f every C h r i s t i a n . This h e r m e n e u t i c a l m o v e t r a n s f o r m s c o n v e r s i o n lang u a g e i n t o m a i n t e n a n c e l a n g u a g e . I h e s i t a t e t o use t h e w o r d " d i s t o r t i o n " b e c a u s e it is so s t r o n g . B u t a t least C h r i s t i a n s w h o use this text t o d a y s h o u l d be aware o f its original c o n v e r s i o n s e t t i n g in E p h e s i a n s a n d t h e o n l y partly justified m a i n t e n a n c e application they m a k e of it. B u t h o w t h e n m i g h t serious, l o n g - t i m e C h r i s t i a n s a p p r o a c h E p h . 2 : 1 - 1 0 in m a i n t a i n i n g a n d e n r i c h i n g t h e i r faith today? T h e task o f t r y i n g t o m a k e t h e S c r i p t u r e s c o m e alive a n d s p e a k t o o u r s i t u a t i o n is s o m e t i m e s called " a c t u a l i z a t i o n . " T h e m o s t familiar f o r m o f a c t u alization is t h e s e r m o n o r h o m i l y in w h i c h a p r e a c h e r tries t o b r i n g a biblical passage t o b e a r o n t h e life o f a c o n g r e g a t i o n today. O t h e r forms o f a c t u a l i z a t i o n i n c l u d e Bible d i s c u s s i o n g r o u p s , d r a m a t i c r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s (a "passion p l a y " ) , w o r k s of a r t (a s c u l p t u r e or p a i n t i n g of a biblical s c e n e ) , a n d d a n c e ( e n a c t i n g o r r e s p o n d i n g t o a biblical text). Each f o r m a t takes as its s t a r t i n g p o i n t a biblical passage a n d "actualizes" it in a d i s t i n c t i v e way. H o w e v e r , t h e m o s t c o m m o n a n d accessible f o r m o f actualizat i o n is p r a y e r b a s e d o n biblical texts. This c a n t a k e place o n a c o m m u n a l o r i n d i v i d u a l basis. O n e very o l d a n d still fresh m e t h o d o f a c t u a l i z i n g biblical texts in p r a y e r is called lectio divina ("spiritual [or, divine] r e a d i n g " ) . T h e m e t h o d has a l o n g h i s t o r y w i t h i n t h e c o n text o f C h r i s t i a n m o n a s t i c i s m . It has b e e n revived r e c e n t l y a n d m a d e accessible t o all t h e p e o p l e of G o d especially b y C a r d i n a l C a r l o M a r tini o f M i l a n , o n c e a d i s t i n g u i s h e d N e w 'I e s t a m e n t textual critic. It consists o f four steps: reverent r e a d i n g of t h e biblical text, m e d i t a -

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t i o n , prayer, a n d c o n t e m p l a t i o n a n d / o r a c t i o n . I will illustrate this a p p r o a c h w i t h reference t o E p h . 2 : 1 - 1 0 . Lectio. A r e v e r e n t r e a d i n g {lectio) a t t e n d s t o t h e c o n t e x t , w o r d s a n d i m a g e s , c h a r a c t e r s , progress o f t h o u g h t , a n d t h e m e s a l o n g t h e lines d e s c r i b e d i m m e d i a t e l y after t h e t w o t r a n s l a t i o n s o f E p h . 2 : 1 10. The goal o f this step is t o u n d e r s t a n d w h a t t h e text says o n its o w n g r o u n d s . W h i l e t h e critical Bible s t u d y d e s c r i b e d t h u s far can h e l p o n e t o read t h e text i n t e l l i g e n t l y a n d is f u n d a m e n t a l , t h e r e also n e e d s t o be a s a v o r i n g a n d p e r s o n a l a s s i m i l a t i o n of t h e t e x t o n b o t h t h e intellectual a n d t h e e m o t i o n a l levels. A s l o w a n d d e l i b e r a t e oral r e a d i n g can facilitate t h e a p p r o p r i a t e k i n d of p e r s o n a l e n g a g e m e n t . Meditatio. M e d i t a t i o n o n a biblical text c o n s i d e r s w h a t t h e text says t o m e (or us). B e g i n n i n g w i t h t h e biblical passage in E p h . 2 : 1 10, o n e m i g h t focus o n a t h e m e or t w o s u c h as t h e p r e s e n t d i m e n s i o n o f salvation o r o n g o o d w o r k s flowing from G o d ' s gift of salvat i o n . O r o n e m i g h t focus o n a certain p h r a s e s u c h as " G o d , w h o is rich in m e r c y " (2:4) or "we are his h a n d i w o r k " ( 2 : 1 0 ) , a n d r e p e a t it a n d m a k e it one's o w n . O r o n e m i g h t a p p l y t h e i m a g i n a t i o n a n d t r y t o visualize s o m e o f t h e p h r a s e s ("raised us u p w i t h h i m , " 2 : 6 ) . O r o n e m i g h t s i n g t h e h y m n " A m a z i n g G r a c e " a n d l u x u r i a t e in t h e m a n y parallels to (or influences from) E p h . 2 : 1 - 1 0 . H e r e t h e goal is to m a k e c o n n e c t i o n s b e t w e e n t h e passage a n d one's p r e s e n t s i t u a t i o n . Oratio. T h e s t e p k n o w n as oratio ("prayer") c o n c e r n s w h a t I w a n t t o say t o G o d o n t h e basis of m y r e a d i n g o f a n d m e d i t a t i o n o n a biblical text. O n t h e basis o f E p h . 2 : 1 - 1 0 , o n e m i g h t w a n t t o praise, t h a n k , a n d a d o r e G o d for G o d ' s m e r c y s h o w n in Jesus, o r for t h e gift of Jesus C h r i s t a n d his s a v i n g p o w e r . O r o n e m i g h t w a n t t o ask G o d for h e l p in u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e C h r i s t - e v e n t , in e x p e r i e n c i n g it p e r s o n a l l y a n d c o m m u n a l l y , in t r a n s l a t i n g G o d ' s gift i n t o a p p r o p r i a t e b e h a v i o r , o r in c o n t i n u i n g a l o n g t h e w a y o f C h r i s t i a n faith a n d practice. ContemplatiolActio. A final r e s p o n s e t o t h e process of r e a d i n g , m e d i t a t i n g , a n d p r a y i n g w i t h E p h . 2 : 1 - 1 0 m i g h t s i m p l y be to relish the experience a n d to c o n t e m p l a t e the mystery of G o d reconciling t h e w o r l d t h r o u g h C h r i s t . A n o t h e r possible r e s p o n s e m i g h t be t o use t h e o c c a s i o n t o c o n f r o n t s o m e t h i n g in one's life t h a t m i g h t n e e d d e l i b e r a t i o n , d i s c e r n m e n t , a n d d e c i s i o n . D o e s t h e lectio divina p r o cess reveal a n e e d for c h a n g e in s o m e area? W h a t are t h e o p t i o n s , a n d t h e reasons for t h e m ? W h a t d e c i s i o n d o 1 n e e d t o m a k e a n d t o act u p o n in o r d e r to find peace a n d t o b r i n g m y life a n d a c t i o n i n t o line w i t h m y beliefs a n d p u b l i c profession as a C h r i s t i a n ? D e a l i n g w i t h s u c h q u e s t i o n s m a y t h e n result in a c t i o n .

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V. SUMMARY

Since the Second Vatican C o u n c i l , Catholics have been reading t h e Bible w i t h e n t h u s i a s m a n d m a k i n g it t h e i r o w n b o o k . This develo p m e n t is especially d r a m a t i c in liturgy, religious e d u c a t i o n , a n d e c u m e n i s m . Vatican l i s C o n s t i t u t i o n o n D i v i n e R e v e l a t i o n p r o v i d e d s o m e helpful d i r e c t i o n s r e g a r d i n g t h e p e r s o n a l c h a r a c t e r of d i v i n e r e v e l a t i o n , S c r i p t u r e a n d t r a d i t i o n , t h e n e e d for i n t e r p r e t i n g S c r i p t u r e in its h i s t o r i c a l s e t t i n g , r e s p e c t for t h e O l d T e s t a m e n t , r e c o g n i t i o n o f t h e c o m p l e x i t y o f t h e G o s p e l s , a n d t h e Bible's p l a c e in c h u r c h life. C a t h o l i c biblical s c h o l a r s b r i n g t o t h e S c r i p t u r e s t h e q u e s t i o n s a n d c o n c e r n s t h a t c o n s t i t u t e t h e historical-critical m e t h o d . They w o r k in t h e areas o f literary c r i t i c i s m , textual c r i t i c i s m , t h e w o r l d o f t h e Bible, w o r d study, s o u r c e c r i t i c i s m , r e d a c t i o n c r i t i c i s m , f o r m critic i s m , historical c r i t i c i s m , a n d t r a n s l a t i o n . In i n t e r p r e t i n g t h e Bible, t h e y are c o m m i t t e d t o e c u m e n i s m , m a i n t a i n a s t r o n g sense of C a t h o l i c t r a d i t i o n , d o t h e i r research in t h e c o n t e x t o f today's C h u r c h , a n d are p a r t i c i p a n t s in a n i n t e r n a t i o n a l d i a l o g u e . A " C a t h o l i c " r e a d i n g o f E p h . 2 : 1 - 1 0 e m p h a s i z e s t h e p r e s e n t d i m e n s i o n o f salvation a n d G o d ' s grace as t h e s o u r c e o f g o o d a c t i o n s , sees t h e passage as a n a u t h e n t i c d e v e l o p m e n t o f Paul's theology, a n d recognizes t h e l i m i t a t i o n s i m p o s e d b y its o r i g i n a l c o n t e x t as a d u l t c o n v e r s i o n l e a d i n g to b a p t i s m . A C a t h o l i c a c t u a l i z a t i o n o f t h i s biblical text m i g h t p r o c e e d a c c o r d i n g to t h e m e t h o d o f lectio divina: contemplation and/or action.

r e a d i n g , m e d i t a t i o n , prayer, a n d

DANTKI.J.

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H A R R I N G T O N , S.J.

RECOMMENDED

READINGS

B c r g a n t , D i a n e a n d R o b e r t J. Karris, eds. 'The Collegeville Bible Commentary. Collegeville, M i n n . : The Liturgical Press, 1 9 8 9 . This o n e v o l u m e c o m m e n t a r y o n b o t h Testaments b y C a t h o l i c scholars transm i t s t h e best o f m o d e r n s c h o l a r s h i p t o a w i d e a u d i e n c e . B r o w n , R a y m o n d E. Biblical Exegesis and Church Doctrine. New Y o r k / M a h w a h , N . J . : Paulist Press, 1 9 8 5 . In a series o f essays B r o w n s h o w s t h a t C a t h o l i c N e w T e s t a m e n t exegesis is centrist ( r a t h e r t h a n liberal or conservative) a n d n o t d e s t r u c t i v e o f C a t h o l i c d o c t r i n e . . Responses to 101 Questions on the Bible. N e w Y o r k / M a h w a h , N . J . : Paulist, 1 9 9 0 . W r i t t e n b y o n e o f t h e best C a t h o l i c biblical scholars o f t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y , this v o l u m e r e s p o n d s t o frequently asked q u e s t i o n s o n such topics as f u n d a m e n t a l i s m , Mary, s a c r a m e n t s , a n d Peter. B r o w n , R a y m o n d E., J o s e p h A . Fitzmyer, a n d R o l a n d E. M u r p h y , eds. The New Jerome Biblical Commentary. FLnglewood Cliffs, N . J . : P r e n t i c e H a l l , 1 9 9 0 . This o n e - v o l u m e c o m m e n t a r y o n t h e e n t i r e Bible i n c l u d e s topical articles o n s u c h topics as i n s p i r a t i o n , h e r m e n e u t i c s , Jesus, a n d P a u l i n e theology. W r i t t e n b y C a t h o l i c s c h o l a r s , it is full o f reliable a n d u p - t o - d a t e i n f o r m a t i o n a n d is t h e best exa m p l e of m o d e r n C a t h o l i c s c h o l a r s h i p . C o l l i n s , J o h n J. a n d D o m i n i c C r o s s a n , eds. The Biblical Heritage in Modern Catholic Scholarship. W i l m i n g t o n , D e l . : Glazier, 1 9 8 6 . The essays in this v o l u m e deal p r i n c i p a l l y w i t h t h e e c u m e n i c a l reality of c o n t e m p o r a r y biblical s c h o l a r s h i p a n d locate w o r k s b y C a t h o l i c s in this f r a m e w o r k . F i t z m y e r , J o s e p h A . Scripture, the Soul of Theology. N e w York: Paulist, 1 9 9 4 . W r i t t e n b y o n e of t h e very best C a t h o l i c biblical s c h o l a r s , t h e essays in this c o l l e c t i o n c o n c e r n t h e historical-critical a p p r o a c h t o S c r i p t u r e , o t h e r a p p r o a c h e s , S c r i p t u r e as t h e soul of theology, a n d biblical s t u d y a n d e c u m e n i s m . Fogarty, G e r a l d P. American Catholic Biblical Scholarship: A History from the Early Republic to Vatican II. S a n F r a n c i s c o : H a r p e r

58

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SCRIPTURK

& R o w , 1 9 8 9 . In t r a c i n g t h e s t o r y o f A m e r i c a n C a t h o l i c biblical s c h o l a r s h i p from J o h n C a r r o l l t o Vatican II, a d i s t i n g u i s h e d c h u r c h h i s t o r i a n focuses o n t h e struggles r e v o l v i n g a r o u n d a c c e p t a n c e of a critical a n d historical a p p r o a c h to t h e Bible. H a r r i n g t o n , D a n i e l J. Interpreting the New Testament. Rev. e d . W i l m i n g t o n , D e l . : Glazier, 1 9 8 8 . This i n t r o d u c t i o n t o N e w Test a m e n t exegesis e x p l a i n s t h e m e t h o d s d e s c r i b e d in t h e p r e s e n t essay a n d p r o v i d e s e x a m p l e s h o w t h e y can be used in s t u d y i n g s p e cific biblical texts. Interpreting the Old Testament (Wilmington, D e l . : Glazier, 1 9 8 1 ) is s i m i l a r in s c o p e a n d c o n t e n t . The Interpretation of the Bible in the Church. B o s t o n : St. Paul P u b l i s h i n g , 1 9 9 4 . T o m a r k t h e anniversaries o f t h e encyclicals o n b i b lical studies b y P o p e Leo X I I I ( 1 8 9 3 ) a n d P o p e Pius X I I ( 1 9 4 3 ) , t h e Pontifical Biblical C o m m i s s i o n in 1 9 9 3 issued a m a r v e l o u s d o c u m e n t o n biblical i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . It deals w i t h m e t h o d s a n d a p p r o a c h e s , h e r m e n e u t i c a l q u e s t i o n s , C a t h o l i c biblical i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , a n d t h e Bible in c h u r c h life. L i e n h a r d , J o s e p h T . The Bible, the Church, and Authority. Collegeville, M i n n . : The Liturgical Press, 1 9 9 5 . This b o o k explains from a C a t h o l i c p e r s p e c t i v e t h e origins of t h e C h r i s t i a n Bible a n d its m e a n i n g for t h e c h u r c h t o d a y , a n d e l a b o r a t e s a C a t h o l i c u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the relations a m o n g the Bible, the c h u r c h , a n d authority. M e g i v e r n , J a m e s J., ed. Bible Interpretation. Official C a t h o l i c ' T e a c h ings. W i l m i n g t o n , N . C . : C o n s o r t i u m B o o k s / M c G r a t h P u b l i s h ing C o . , 1 9 7 8 . English t r a n s l a t i o n o f s i x t y - t w o d o c u m e n t s , i n c l u d i n g Vatican ITs C o n s t i t u t i o n o n D i v i n e R e v e l a t i o n , d e a l i n g w i t h t h e place o f t h e Bible in t h e C h u r c h . N e u h a u s , R i c h a r d J o h n , e d . Biblical Interpretation in Crisis. The Ratzinger Conference on Bible and Church. Grand Rapids: E e r d m a n s , 1 9 8 9 . P r e s e n t e d at a c o n f e r e n c e in 1 9 8 8 , t h e four p a pers by Joseph Ratzinger, R a y m o n d Brown, William Lazareth, a n d G e o r g e L i n d b e c k explore t h e value o f historical criticism a n d t h e role o f t h e Bible in t h e C h u r c h . S c h n e i d e r s , S a n d r a M . The Revelatory Text. Interpreting the New Testament as Sacred Scripture. San F r a n c i s c o : H a r p e r C o l l i n s , 1 9 9 1 .

DANTKI.J.

H A R R I N G T O N , S.J.

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This r e a d a b l e a n d c o m p r e h e n s i v e i n t r o d u c t i o n t o biblical h e r m e n e u t i c s takes a c c o u n t o f n e w ways of r e a d i n g texts a n d s h o w s h o w s o m e t r a d i t i o n a l theological t o p i c s t a k e o n fresh significance w h e n set in a different c o n t e x t . Senior, D o n a l d , ed. The Catholic Study Bible. N e w York: O x f o r d U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1 9 9 0 . The first p a r t ( a l m o s t 6 0 0 pages) consists o f general a n d i n t r o d u c t o r y articles, as well as r e a d i n g g u i d e s for t h e v a r i o u s p a r t s o f t h e Bible. The s e c o n d p a r t p r o v i d e s t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n s , t r a n s l a t i o n s , a n d n o t e s for t h e O l d T e s t a m e n t a c c o r d i n g t o t h e 1 9 7 0 e d i t i o n o f t h e N e w A m e r i c a n Bible a n d t h e t h o r o u g h l y revised N e w ' T e s t a m e n t ( 1 9 8 8 ) . S t u h l m u e l l e r , C a r r o l l , e d . The Collegeville Pastoral Dictionary of Biblical'Theology. Collegeville, M i n n . : 'The Liturgical Press, 1 9 9 6 . W r i t t e n b y C a t h o l i c biblical scholars k n o w n for t h e i r p a s t o r a l c o n c e r n , this Bible d i c t i o n a r y covers t h e o l o g i c a l topics s u c h as a t o n e m e n t , c h u r c h , eschatology, a n d f r i e n d s h i p w i t h reference t o O l d a n d N e w Testaments a n d to t h e o l o g y a n d c h u r c h life.

ORTHODOX INTERPRETATION OF SCRIPTURE by

MICHAEL PROKURAT

I. INTRODUCTION

T

h e t o p i c , t h e Bible a n d its i n t e r p r e t a t i o n in t h e E a s t e r n O r t h o d o x C h u r c h , is i m m e n s e a n d will be i n v e s t i g a t e d f r o m a p a r t i c u l a r p e r s p e c t i v e — f r o m w i t h i n t h e Tradition o f t h e O r -

t h o d o x C h u r c h a n d w i t h an eye t o w a r d c o n t e m p o r a r y q u e s t i o n s in

t h e W e s t r e l a t i n g t o " B i b l e . " ' W e d o n o t i n t e n d t o review p a t r i s t i c i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , t h o u g h an a p p r o p r i a t e o p t i o n , b u t c h o o s e a b r o a d e r historical o v e r v i e w o f t h e c a n o n . Similarly, n o e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e h i s torical-critical m e t h o d in t h e O r t h o d o x C h u r c h is c o n t a i n e d h e r e i n , since it has b e e n t w i c e r e v i e w e d in r e c e n t p u b l i c a t i o n s .

1

limit the topic by treating only the G r e e k / B y z a n t i n e a n d

We further Slavic/Rus-

sian c h u r c h e s , n o t o u t o f a sense o f exclusivity b u t s i m p l y b e c a u s e t h e y are m o s t accessible t o us liturgically, historically, linguistically, sociologically, etc. A fuller t r e a t m e n t i n c l u d i n g all e t h n i c (or " n a -

:

For m a n y O r t h o d o x Christians the Tradition of the O r t h o d o x C h u r c h is ultimately inseparable from that of the West a n d the whole of Christian history. Two of my teachers, rhe late Professor Georges Barrois and Professor Vicror R. Gold, b o t h of w h o m are probably best k n o w n for rheir c o n t r i b u t i o n s to the O x ford annotared Revised Standard Version (much of which was used again, with or w i t h o u t appropriate accrediring, in rhe N e w Revised Standard Version), have c o n tributed greatly to the approach taken in this chapter. Although they w o u l d b o t h identify themselves first with the Western C h u r c h — a n d each has a formidable k n o w l e d g e of t h e Eastern C h u r c h as w e l l — t h e a p p r o a c h itself goes b e y o n d geography. ' Veselin Kesich, The Gospel Image of Christ, rev. ed., (Cresrwood, N.Y.: St. Vladimir's Seminary Press, 1992) chs. 2 - 3 ; and J o h n Breck, The Power of the Word in the Worshiping Church (Cresrwood, N.Y.: Sr. Vladimir's Seminary Press, 1986) ch. 1.

62

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INTERPRETATION OE

SCRIPTURE

tional") O r t h o d o x c h u r c h e s is d e s i r a b l e b u t n o t w i t h i n t h e s c o p e o f this c h a p t e r . O u r p o i n t o f d e p a r t u r e takes as a p r e s u p p o s i t i o n — w h i c h s o m e m i g h t prefer t o view as a h y p o t h e s i s — t h a t S c r i p t u r e is, a n d ever has b e e n , liturgical. S e c o n d , O r t h o d o x C h r i s t i a n s e x p e r i e n c e S c r i p t u r e a n d its i n t e r p r e t a t i o n p r i m a r i l y as a liturgical c e l e b r a t i o n , o t h e r t h a n in t h e i r p r i v a t e r e a d i n g a n d study. O n t h e first p o i n t , S c r i p t u r e is liturgical, t h e s t a t e m e n t is m a d e in t h e s t r o n g e s t possible sense. T o say it in s i m p l e t e r m s , S c r i p t u r e o r i g i n a t e d as t h e l i t u r g y o f t h e p e o p l e of G o d . For t h e specialist, t h e Sitz im Leben o f S c r i p t u r e is t h e T e m p l e l i t u r g y o f J e r u s a l e m a n d t h e l i t u r g y o f t h e C h u r c h — a l o n g w i t h their respective h i e r a r c h i e s . ' In p o p u l a r t e r m s o n e m i g h t e x p a n d t h e l o n g u s e d a x i o m t h a t t h e Psalms are "the p r a y e r b o o k " o f t h e T e m p l e a n d C h u r c h t o i n c l u d e all t h e b o o k s o f t h e Bible in t h i s " p r a y e r b o o k . " In s a y i n g S c r i p t u r e is liturgical, w e d o n o t m e a n to say m e r e l y t h a t liturgy is s c r i p t u r a l ; b u t m o r e o v e r t h a t w h a t was originally liturgy b e c a m e S c r i p t u r e . S c r i p t u r e h a d its e m e r g e n c e a n d c o n t i n u e d existe n c e in t h e liturgy, t h e liturgical life o f t h e Temple a n d C h u r c h , t h e c o m m u n a l prayers of t h e p e o p l e of G o d . 3

The s e c o n d p o i n t , t h a t O r t h o d o x e x p e r i e n c e S c r i p t u r e a n d its i n t e r p r e t a t i o n p r i m a r i l y as a liturgical c e l e b r a t i o n , is p r o b a b l y less controversial b u t is offered in d i r e c t c o n t i n u i t y w i t h t h e first. As a s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d d e s c r i p t i o n , O r t h o d o x C h r i s t i a n s — s c h o l a r s , clergy, a n d l a i t y — r e c o g n i z e t h e p o i n t as t r u e . Even s o , o n e still m i g h t chal5

1

D u e to the rarity of English language materials o n the Bible in the O r t h o d o x C h u r c h , especially regarding questions on history and c a n o n , incredible statements can be found even in recent scholarly publications. For example, H a r r y M . Orlinsky and Robert G. Bratcher in A History of Bible Translation and the North American Contribution (Atlanta, Ga.: Scholars Press, 1991) 9, date the origins of the Slavic version of the Bible to the fifth c e n t u r y — 4 0 0 years before any historian would claim that a Slavic alphabet was invented! Similarly, R. F. Collins in t h e New Jerome Biblical Commentary (F.nglewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1990) 1043, makes the extraordinary statement that, "Since the n i n e t e e n t h century, however, Russian O r t h o d o x theologians generally have not accepted the deuterocanonical b o o k s . " T h e claim is erroneous o n g r o u n d s of liturgical and intellectual history. [It should be noted that in other regards both A History of Bible Translation and the NJBC are accurate and r e c o m m e n d e d books.] T h i s is nor to say that exceptions c a n n o t be found. For example, the imperial edict in Ezra does n o t lend itself to the same interpretation. ' See Breck, Power of the Word, " I n t r o d u c t i o n , " wherein this and the unity between "Word and Sacrament" are explained from an O r t h o d o x perspective. For a good recent survey of the c a n o n with similar conclusions regarding the Bible in the C h u r c h in worship, see Joseph T. I.ienhard, The Bible, the Church, and Authority (Collegeville, Minn.: T h e Liturgical Press, 1995). For an insightful comparsion of Orthodoxy and evangelical Protestantism o n Scripture, see Grant R. O s b o r n e , " T h e M a n y 4

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lenge t h e s t a t e m e n t , t o ask if this is as it s h o u l d b e . G i v e n t h e first p o i n t a n d t h e s e l f - u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e O r t h o d o x as b e i n g t h e p e o p l e of G o d p a r excellence w h e n p a r t i c i p a t i n g in d i v i n e service, t h e a n swer t o t h e c h a l l e n g e q u e s t i o n is yes. A liturgical u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e W o r d o f G o d involves m a n y difficulties a n d d a n g e r s , t w o of w h i c h are discussed below. First, t h e liturgical c e l e b r a t i o n gives revelatory a n d historical, salvific events by G o d a mysteriological o r " p o e t i c - m y t h i c " e x p r e s s i o n — a n d this is n o t easily u n d e r s t o o d . T o t h e s y m p a t h e t i c , it l o o k s as if t h e l i t u r g y a t t e m p t s t o "recreate" events from t h e Bible b y r e p e a t i n g t h e s c r i p tural a c c o u n t , e l a b o r a t e d as a c o m p l e t e story. T o t h e less t h a n s y m p a t h e t i c , it looks as if t h e s c r i p t u r a l a c c o u n t has b e e n e x p a n d e d t o s u c h a degree in t h e liturgical c e l e b r a t i o n t h a t it has g o n e far b e y o n d available e v i d e n c e a n d i n f o r m a t i o n , it is " o u t o f b o u n d s . " T o t h e O r t h o d o x , t h e liturgical c e l e b r a t i o n is u n d e r s t o o d as a participation in the event itself, i.e., every Easter is a d i r e c t p a r t i c i p a t i o n in t h e resurrect i o n o f C h r i s t , every E u c h a r i s t is a p a r t i c i p a t i o n in t h e o r i g i n a l Last S u p p e r , etc. T h e liturgy is n o t m e a n t t o b e a r e - c r e a t i o n o r r e p e t i t i o n , n o r is it m e a n t to b e a " r e w r i t e " of t h e s c r i p t u r a l a c c o u n t , b u t a d i r e c t p a r t i c i p a t i o n in t h e (scriptural) s a v i n g acts o f G o d . For R u s sian p h i l o s o p h e r s a n d t h e o l o g i a n s early in t h i s c e n t u r y , like N . Berdyaev a n d S. Bulgakov, t h e c a t e g o r y " t r a n s - h i s t o r i c a l " — a c a t e g o r y c a p a b l e of c a p t u r i n g h e r m e n e u t i c s a n d theology, o r t h e larger m e a n ings o f h i s t o r y — i n c l u d e s t h o s e timeless e v e n t s c e l e b r a t e d b y t h e m y s t e r i o l o g i c a l o r " p o e t i c - m y t h i c " l i t u r g y . T h i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e living, liturgical W o r d is q u i t e different from a c o m m e n t a r y a p p r o a c h o r confessional d e f i n i t i o n b a s e d u p o n a list of " T h e B o o k s of S c r i p t u r e " — t h o u g h it n e e d n o t b e s o . 6

T h e s e c o n d difficulty in a liturgical u n d e r s t a n d i n g of S c r i p t u r e is t h e historical q u e s t i o n — w h a t t h e text m e a n t w i t h i n its o w n c o n t e x t . Clearly, h i s t o r i c a l facticity is i m p o r t a n t . W e agree w i t h t h e A p o s t l e Paul t h a t if C h r i s t was n o t raised from t h e d e a d , t h e n o u r faith is in v a i n . T h e N i c e n e - C o n s t a n t i n o p o l i t a n C r e e d also m a i n tains a historical p e r s p e c t i v e , as does t h e general m a i n s t r e a m of t h e and rhe O n e : T h e Interface Between O r t h o d o x and Evangelical Protestant H e r m e neutics," St. Vladimir's Theological Quarterly, XXIX, 3 (1995) 2 8 1 - 3 0 4 . For us in the West, schooled in logical positivism, such a category simply could n o t exist. O n l y a "primitive religion" w o u l d repeat a cyclical liturgical celebration within linear time. Fortunately, the explanations of religion a n d m y t h by Mircea Eliade (sensitive to his O r t h o d o x b a c k g r o u n d ) , and recent recognition of the inadequacies of ratio rationaiis in describing the wholeness of the h u m a n being and society, have both further sensitized us to the validity of liturgical expression. 6

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J u d e o - C h r i s t i a n t r a d i t i o n . Still, it m i g h t b e o b j e c t e d t h a t s u c h a liturgical u n d e r s t a n d i n g of S c r i p t u r e b e t t e r p r e s e n t s t h o s e t r a n s - h i s torical e v e n t s t h a n it d o e s t h e h i s t o r i c a l . The o b j e c t i o n largely m i s construes the character of w h a t trans-historical means: Historical facticity is n o t t o b e e x c l u d e d , b u t i n c l u d e d . Besides t h i s , t h e Bible is t h e b o o k o f t h e p e o p l e o f G o d , a n d n o t vice versa; a n d it was n o t w r i t t e n t o satisfy m o d e r n p r e c o n c e p t i o n s s t e m m i n g from t h e p h i l o s o p h y o f logical p o s i t i v i s m . II. ORAL AND W R I I T E N

The first historical i n d i c a t i o n s of t h e w r i t t e n biblical t e x t t h a t w e h a v e f r o m w i t h i n t h e Bible itself are t h e f a m o u s e p i s o d e s of t h e f i n d i n g o f a b o o k in t h e Temple ( p r o b a b l y p a r t o f D e u t e r o n o m y ) d u r i n g Josiah's reign, a n d of t h e d i c t a t i o n b y t h e p r o p h e t J e r e m i a h t o B a r u c h in t h e sixth c e n t u r y B . C . The earliest scrolls a n d m a n u s c r i p t s of t h e biblical text ( Q u m r a n ) are from a t i m e m u c h later t h a n t h i s , closer to t h e b i r t h o f Jesus. D u e t o t h e fragility of w r i t i n g m a t e r i a l s , it is u n l i k e l y t h a t a n y s i g n i f i c a n t q u a n t i t y of earlier m a t e r i a l s will b e f o u n d , u n l e s s t h e y are i n s c r i b e d o n m e t a l or s t o n e . O u r c u l t u r a l p r e o c c u p a t i o n w i t h t h e w r i t t e n text s h o u l d n o t o b s c u r e o u r vision in s e e i n g a reality t h a t is foreign t o us: The Bible in its o w n t i m e was a p r o d u c t o f a n d existed w i t h i n oral c u l t u r e ( s ) . Even t h e w r i t t e n T o r a h or P e n t a t e u c h text, b r o u g h t f r o m B a b y l o n b y Ezra in t h e fifth c e n t u r y a n d c e r e m o n i a l l y read (i.e., r e a d a l o u d ) in its e n t i r e t y from a p l a t f o r m c o n s t r u c t e d n e a r t h e W a t e r G a t e ,

7

was

a c c o m p a n i e d b y a n oral t r a n s l a t i o n a n d / o r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n ( N e h . 8 ) . M a n y examples p o i n t toward the primacy of the spoken word: "Hear, O Israel: 'The L O R D is o u r G o d , t h e L O R D a l o n e . . . . R e c i t e t h e m t o y o u r c h i l d r e n a n d talk a b o u t t h e m w h e n y o u are at h o m e a n d w h e n y o u are away, w h e n y o u lie d o w n a n d w h e n y o u rise" ( D e u t . 6 : 4 f ) . For t h o s e needful o f m o r e e x a m p l e s , suffice it t o say t h a t s c h o l ars r e c o g n i z e t h a t t h e v e r b " t o r e a d " in t h e a n c i e n t w o r l d p r i m a r i l y m e a n t "to r e a d a l o u d . " T h u s , w e are o b l i g a t e d t o d o b u s i n e s s w i t h t h e fact t h a t t h e Bible w i t h i n its o w n t i m e was n o t e x p e r i e n c e d as a b o o k or scroll, b u t as t h e s p o k e n a n d p r o c l a i m e d w o r d . W h a t d o e s t h i s m e a n t o us t o d a y a n d w h a t difference d o e s it m a k e ? W h a t d o e s it m e a n ? ' T h e first c o n s e q u e n c e of "orality" in t h i s sense is t h a t t h e w o r d s h a v e a " l i v i n g " aspect. They are especially

•' T h e Water Gate is identified as the "east gate of the T e m p l e " in 1 Esd. 9:38, which connects Ezras reading with the T e m p l e area or thereabouts.

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"alive" w h e n e x p e r i e n c e d a n d s p o k e n , a n d t h e y are e n t r u s t e d t o a c o m m u n i t y of faith, often t e r m e d t h e p e o p l e of G o d . For A m e r i c a n s w h o b e l o n g t o "liturgical c h u r c h e s , " this s h o u l d n o t be a difficult c o n c e p t . The " h o l y w o r d s " are p a r t of t h e c o m m u n a l expression o f w o r s h i p , t h e n as n o w : "Assemble t h e p e o p l e — m e n , w o m e n , a n d c h i l d r e n , as well as t h e aliens r e s i d i n g in y o u r t o w n s — s o t h a t t h e y m a y h e a r a n d learn t o fear t h e L O R D y o u r G o d a n d t o o b s e r v e dilig e n t l y all t h e w o r d s o f this law . . ." ( D e u t . 3 1 : 1 2 f ) . W h e n c o d i f i e d these " h o l y w o r d s " (or W o r d of G o d ) are u n d e r s t o o d as t h e " B o o k of t h e P e o p l e . " F o r t h e O r t h o d o x C h r i s t i a n all of these e l e m e n t s — t h e salvific e v e n t s , t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f t h e c o m m u n i t y of t h e p e o p l e of G o d , a n d t h e liturgical expression o f this experience (the "holy words") in p r o c l a m a t i o n a n d p r e a c h i n g — a r e c o n s t i t u t i v e t o t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f S c r i p t u r e . For e x a m p l e , t h e d e l i v e r a n c e f r o m E g y p t , t h e form a t i o n of t h e p e o p l e delivered, as well as t h e S o n g o f M i r i a m cele b r a t i n g t h e e v e n t s , are all p a r t o f T r a d i t i o n — e v e n i n c l u d i n g t h e liturgical c e l e b r a t i o n of t h e e v e n t t h r o u g h t h e ages a n d t o d a y o n Pascha ( E a s t e r ) . T h e original oral t r a d i t i o n is intrinsically c o n n e c t e d to p r e s e n t - d a y liturgical usage, t h r o u g h the m e d i a t i o n of H o l y S c r i p t u r e a n d its i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , all a p a r t o f a l i v i n g , u n i n t e r rupted continuum. 8

W h a t difference d o e s it m a k e ? A n o r m a t i v e w a y o n e m a y p a r ticipate in H o l y T r a d i t i o n , especially t h e s a v i n g acts o f G o d , is in t h e liturgy, m e d i a t e d b y S c r i p t u r e . T h e r e f o r e , S c r i p t u r e a n d p r e a c h i n g have a s a c r a m e n t a l q u a l i t y in t h e b r o a d e r sense o f t h e w o r d . T h e Bible is n o t so m u c h history, l i t e r a t u r e , o r t h e o l o g y in t h e a b s t r a c t , as it is t h e liturgical b o o k of t h e C h u r c h . W h e n w e r e a d o u r privately o w n e d E n g l i s h - l a n g u a g e Bibles in o u r h o m e s , it is easy to forget t h a t t h a t literary m i l e s t o n e , t h e K i n g J a m e s V e r s i o n , was actually a t r a n s l a t i o n from B y z a n t i n e liturgical texts. T h e codices f r o m w h i c h m o d e r n English p r i n t e d texts are t r a n s l a t e d m i g h t best b e d e s c r i b e d as t h e liturgical b o o k s of t h e C h u r c h . W h y is t h e o r a l — a n d t h e l i t u r g i c a l — a s p e c t o f t h e Bible so diffic u l t for us t o grasp? First o f all, it is b e c a u s e all m o d e r n W e s t e r n c u l t u r e s are " w r i t t e n " ( a n d possibly " v i d e o " a n d " c o m p u t e r " ) before t h e y are "oral." As Fr. A. S c h m e m a n n was f o n d of p o i n t i n g o u t , m o r e w o r d s are p r i n t e d every w e e k in t h e S u n d a y e d i t i o n o f t h e New York Times t h a n t h e r e are in t h e w h o l e of t h e N e w T e s t a m e n t . W h a t w e 8

Conrrasr rhis u n d e r s t a n d i n g with the accurare Moslem self-identification, "People of the Book," since the Koran is primarily a literary work. Christians ignorant of Islam and their o w n history somerimes identify themselves as the "People of the B o o k " — a n u n f o r t u n a t e misrepresenration.

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h a v e e l s e w h e r e called t h e " p o s t - G u t e n b e r g i a n " B i b l e — a n i n d i v i d u ally affordable p r i n t e d c o l l e c t i o n o f all t h e b o o k s from G e n e s i s t o R e v e l a t i o n b o u n d u n d e r o n e c o v e r — h a s b e e n t h e n o r m for so m a n y c e n t u r i e s (in a c u l t u r e focused o n t h e i n d i v i d u a l ) t h a t w e h a v e forg o t t e n h o w e x c e p t i o n a l a n d rare a p r o d u c t i o n , in historical t e r m s , a p r i v a t e c o p y o f t h e B i b l e is. S i n c e i n d i v i d u a l s r e a d t h e

post-

G u t e n b e r g i a n Bible p r i v a t e l y a t will, a n d f r e q u e n t l y d e v o i d o f c o m m u n i t y c o n t e x t , t h e y risk b e i n g insensitive t o t h e c o m m u n a l mation

procla-

o f t h e W o r d . Even t h e classical m e m o r i z a t i o n o f biblical p a s -

sages has b e c o m e i n d i v i d u a l i z e d r a t h e r t h a n c o m m u n i t y - f o c u s e d in o u r A m e r i c a n c u l t u r e . The q u e s t for i n d i v i d u a l salvation h a s eclipsed t h e reality t h a t G o d usually saves t h e p e o p l e o f G o d first, a n d t h e n saves i n d i v i d u a l s b y i n c o r p o r a t i n g t h e m i n t o his p e o p l e . Private readings a n d i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s — w h i c h h a v e t h e i r place in T r a d i t i o n t o o — h a v e all b u t s u p p l a n t e d liturgical p r o c l a m a t i o n a n d i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . S e c o n d , it is difficult t o g r a s p t h e oral a n d liturgical c h a r a c t e r of t h e W o r d o f G o d b e c a u s e e v e n t h e n a m e s w e use p r e j u d i c e us in a d v a n c e . The w o r d " s c r i p t u r e " c o m e s f r o m t h e L a t i n scriptum

and

i n d i c a t e s s o m e t h i n g w r i t t e n . Similarly, t h e w o r d " B i b l e " c o m e s f r o m t h e p l u r a l G r e e k w o r d biblia

(related t o Byblos) a n d c o n n o t e s b o o k s

or a c o l l e c t i o n o f b o o k s . As a result, t h e p r i m a r y E n g l i s h t e r m s w e use for t h e W o r d o f G o d b o t h h a v e t o d o w i t h w r i t t e n b o o k s . O t h e r c u l t u r e s (e.g., G r e e k a n d R u s s i a n ) d o n o t always follow suit w i t h this usage. This o b s e r v a t i o n is n o t m a d e w i t h t h e i n t e n t o f c h a n g i n g t h e English language terminology, b u t rather with the aim of s h e d d i n g s o m e light o n o u r o w n American cultural p r e d i l e c t i o n s — o n e of the m o s t difficult tasks of exegesis. I I I . HEBREW AND GREEK

T h e history of the H e b r e w b o o k s a n d language from

the

B a b y l o n i a n Exile d o w n t h r o u g h t h e H e l l e n i s t i c a n d R o m a n p e r i o d s is a c o m p l e x a n d s h a d o w y o n e , a b o u t w h i c h s c h o l a r s c o n t i n u e to d e b a t e — n o r is it o u r p u r p o s e t o b r o a c h all t h e s e q u e s t i o n s . A few general observations s h o u l d suffice. A consensus exists a m o n g scholars t h a t t h e sixth c e n t u r y B . C . , a n d m o r e especially t h e time a n d place of t h e Babylonian Exile, was t h e matrix from w h i c h the T o r a h a n d m o s t of t h e p r o p h e t i c b o o k s e m e r g e d in their final w r i t t e n f o r m .

y

9

The reasons for

A m o r e radical position, e.g., van Scters' and others, holds that most o f these books were n o t only redacted, b u t moreover created, d u r i n g the Exile. I find this position t e n d e n t i o u s .

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this h a d to d o largely w i t h t h e cessation of social institutions, including liturgy, a n d t h e crises of the exiled c o m m u n i t y . P r i m a r y social i n s t i t u t i o n s for t h e s m a l l , pre-exilic J u d a h i t e state i n c l u d e d t h e m o n a r c h y a n d t h e J e r u s a l e m T e m p l e , b o t h of w h i c h b e c a m e m o r i b u n d d u r i n g t h e Exile. W i t h t h e e n d o f t h e Temple c a m e also t h e d e m i s e o f its l i t u r g y a n d liturgical i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , i.e., p r o p h e c y , all p a r t o f t h e fabric of life for c e n t u r i e s before t h e invasion. The cessation o f t h e Temple liturgy, defeat b y a foreign p o w e r ( a n d g o d ! ) , a n d t h e t e m p t a t i o n s o f c o s m o p o l i t a n B a b y l o n i a n life crea t e d a w e l l - r e c o g n i z e d religious crisis of g r e a t d e p t h . A m o n g t h e m e m o r a b l e responses t o this c r i s i s — a p o c a l y p t i c i s m , a h o p e for ret u r n , t h e " S e c o n d Isaiah," e t c . — w e r e t h e c o d i f i c a t i o n of t h e H e b r e w b o o k s a n d , q u i t e p o s s i b l y , t h e c o n t i n u a t i o n o f t h e l i t u r g y in B a b y l o n ( w i t h o u t sacrifice) in a s e t t i n g w h i c h e v e n t u a l l y b e c a m e the synagogue. Even after t h e (partial) r e t u r n of t h e Jews from B a b y l o n in 5 3 8 B . C . a n d following, t h e w o r k d o n e t h e r e ( B a b y l o n ) o n w h a t is n o w c o n s i d e r e d S c r i p t u r e m a i n t a i n e d a certain p r i m a c y . The B a b y l o n i a n J e w i s h c o m m u n i t y was n o t o n l y w e a l t h i e r a n d m o r e p o w e r f u l t h a n t h e J e r u s a l e m c o m m u n i t y , b u t it h a d l e a r n e d to t r a n s p o r t physically t h e liturgy a n d its b o o k s , b o t h o f w h i c h expressed t h e i d e n t i t y o f t h e p e o p l e o f G o d . Sacrifice r e m a i n e d t h e sole p r e r o g a t i v e o f t h e revivified J e r u s a l e m c o m m u n i t y in t h e r e b u i l t Temple, a fact m a d e plain by t h e A r a m a i c c o r r e s p o n d e n c e b e t w e e n t h e J e r u s a l e m T e m p l e c o m m u n i t y a n d t h e J e w i s h c o m m u n i t i e s at E l e p h a n t i n e in E g y p t a n d in B a b y l o n . O n l y t h e Temple a n d t h e p r i e s t h o o d w o u l d survive as i n s t i t u t i o n s in J e r u s a l e m , w h i l e t h e m o n a r c h y a n d its a c c o m p a n y i n g prophecy became silent—virtually non-extant. 10

'The intellectual p r e c e d e n c e o f t h e B a b y l o n i a n Jews is i l l u s t r a t e d in E z r a s r e t u r n a n d in t h e liturgical r e a d i n g of t h e b o o k s o f t h e T o rah o r P e n t a t e u c h . W h a t e v e r t h e d e g r e e of H e b r e w c o m p r e h e n s i o n , w h e n Ezra read t h e 'Torah in H e b r e w , it was necessary for t h e Levites (or Ezra h i m s e l f ) t o explain t h e i n c o m p r e h e n s i b l e w o r d s t o his list e n e r s ( N e h . 8) in J e r u s a l e m . Ezra's " B i b l e " (Torah) w a s a m a n i f e s t a tion of a religious a n d political alliance b e t w e e n Jerusalem a n d B a b y l o n ; a n d it was t h e liturgical b o o k o f t h e places w h e r e t h e h o p e s for liturgy h a d never ceased, w h e r e t h e p r i e s t h o o d w a s a u t h o r i t a tively r e p r e s e n t e d . These c o n s t i t u t e d Ezra's claims t o a u t h o r i t y , a l o n g w i t h t h e p o w e r o f Persian s u p p o r t . ° Michael P r o k u r a t , llaggai and Z.echariah 1-8: A Form Critical (University Microfilms International: Dissertation Abstracts International. J u n e 15, 1989) 121f., 173f., 360f.

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N o t e v e r y o n e was t o a c c e p t Ezra's a u t h o r i t y — o r his " B i b l e " — a n d t h e exclusivistic a u t h e n t i c i t y h e c l a i m e d for it. O n o n e h a n d , b y t h e first c e n t u r y B . C . t h e S a m a r i t a n s w o u l d codify their o w n s c r i p t u r e s a n d give p r e c e d e n c e t o t h e S h e c h e m i t e t r a d i t i o n o v e r t h e J e r u s a l e m i t e , p r e s e r v i n g a text in H e b r e w w i t h s o m e different spellings, b u t s u b s t a n t i a l l y t h e s a m e as t h e H e b r e w o f t h e later M a s o r e t e s . Historical questions relating to the Samaritans a n d the Samaritan P e n t a t e u c h are a p p r o p r i a t e to an i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f t h e h i s t o r y o f t h e Bible in t h e Persian, H e l l e n i s t i c , a n d R o m a n p e r i o d s , b u t are c o m p l e x . " O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e J e w i s h c o l o n i e s in E g y p t a p p e a r to have an u n i n t e r r u p t e d p r e s e n c e in t h a t c o u n t r y from t h e t i m e o f t h e Exile ( J e r e m i a h , E l e p h a n t i n e c o m m u n i t y , etc.) t h r o u g h t h e R o m a n d e s t r u c t i o n o f A l e x a n d r i a in t h e early s e c o n d c e n t u r y A . D . A l t h o u g h w e d o n o t k n o w as m u c h as w e m i g h t like a b o u t t h e i r liturgical p r a c tices a n d s c r i p t u r e s , t h e fact t h a t t h e y s e e m e d t o a p p e a l t o J e r u s a l e m from t i m e t o t i m e , a n d J e r u s a l e m a c c u s e d t h e m o f h e t e r o d o x y , w o u l d lead o n e t o d o u b t t h e i r full c o m p l i a n c e w i t h J e r u s a l e m liturgical a n d religious policy. ( I n d e e d , w h e n A l e x a n d r i a b e c a m e a l e a d i n g city of t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n , t h e J e w s t h e r e m i g h t have e n t e r t a i n e d an a t t i t u d e of c o s m o p o l i t a n s u p e r i o r i t y over t h e i r " s u b u r b a n " n e i g h b o r s in J e r u s a l e m . ) In this fluid c o n t e x t t r a n s l a t i o n s w e r e m a d e i n t o G r e e k and Aramaic. A c o m m o n l y voiced opinion regarding the H e b r e w a n d Greek Bibles, especially r e g a r d i n g t h e b o o k s of t h e First C o v e n a n t (i.e., O l d T e s t a m e n t ) , was a n d is t h a t t h e H e b r e w Bible was t h e J e w i s h Bible, w h i l e t h e G r e e k was t h a t o f t h e C h u r c h . This r a t h e r s i m p l e view is at best m i s l e a d i n g , if n o t o n e t o be entirely rejected. A b e t t e r d e s c r i p t i o n m i g h t be t h a t t h e H e b r e w a n d G r e e k S c r i p t u r e s were b o t h legitimate synagogue traditions, a n d the C h u r c h a d o p t e d the tradit i o n o f t h e G r e e k - s p e a k i n g s y n a g o g u e s — a l t h o u g h even as late as t h e f o u r t h c e n t u r y w i t h St. G r e g o r y N a z i a n z e n (leader o f t h e S e c o n d E c u m e n i c a l C o u n c i l ) a n d his c o n t e m p o r a r y , St. J e r o m e , we find s o m e C h r i s t i a n s e x p r e s s i n g a preference for t h e H e b r e w listing of b o o k s . H i s t o r i c a l i t e m s t h a t alert us t o a p a r i t y c l a i m e d for t h e t w o c o n t e m p o r a r y t r a d i t i o n s are t h e Letter o f Aristeas (ca. 1 0 0 B . C . ) , referring t o t h e G r e e k t r a n s l a t i o n of t h e H e b r e w , a n d Ben Sirach or Ecclesiasticus. The Letter of Aristeas resorts t o e x a g g e r a t e d m e a n s t o c o n v i n c e s u b s e q u e n t g e n e r a t i o n s t h a t t h e J e w i s h t r a n s l a t o r s were n o t o n l y qualified a n d w o r k i n g u n d e r E g y p t i a n i m p e r i a l t u t e l a g e , b u t :l

T h i s is largely d u e ro a terminological difficulty. All people living in the region of Samaria t h r o u g h o u t the three periods are n o t to be identified as Samaritan religious sectarians w h o advanced M r . Gerizim as a rival to M t . Z i o n .

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t h a t t h e i r p r o d u c t was c r e a t e d b y a fantastic u n a n i m i t y . B e n Sirach's g r a n d s o n in t h e P r o l o g u e t o his g r a n d f a t h e r s w o r k finds it necessary t o w a r n t h e reader t h a t t h e G r e e k d o e s n o t always t r a n s l a t e t h e exact sense of t h e H e b r e w — a n e x p l a n a t i o n necessary b e c a u s e m a n y p e o p l e a s s u m e d it d i d . N e v e r t h e l e s s , t r a n s l a t i o n a l difficulties d i d n o t p r e v e n t h i m f r o m p r e s e n t i n g t h e G r e e k o f his g r a n d f a t h e r s w o r k "for t h o s e living a b r o a d w h o w i s h e d t o g a i n l e a r n i n g , b e i n g p r e p a r e d in c h a r a c t e r to live a c c o r d i n g t o t h e Law." If t h e a b o v e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e e v i d e n c e is insufficient t o illustrate t h e p a r i t y c l a i m e d for t h e Greek translation with the H e b r e w original, one could a d d the witnesses of t h e N e w T e s t a m e n t w r i t e r s , a n d t o t h a t t h e voices o f P h i l o of A l e x a n d r i a a n d Flavius J o s e p h u s . G r e e k was h e r e t o stay. A t t h e s a m e t i m e as B e n Sirach t r a n s l a t e d w r i t i n g s from H e b r e w t o G r e e k ( a n d possibly before), o t h e r s t r a n s l a t e d biblical b o o k s , inc l u d i n g t h e P e n t a t e u c h , from H e b r e w i n t o A r a m a i c . K n o w n p r i m a rily from t h e medieval era as t h e A r a m a i c T a r g u m s ( T a r g u m i m ) , s o m e o f these w o r k s o r i g i n a t e d even before t h e t i m e o f t h e Talmud a n d t h e classical rabbis. Several d o c u m e n t s from Q u m r a n testify t o t h e early p r e - C h r i s t i a n d a t e o f A r a m a i c t r a n s l a t i o n efforts. A l s o , gospel q u o t e s of Jesus' w o r d s o n t h e cross are an A r a m a i c e q u i v a l e n t t o a H e b r e w p s a l m verse. A l t h o u g h t h e T a r g u m s h a v e a l o n g h i s t o r y o f t r a n s m i s sion, developing t h r o u g h the Byzantine period a n d beyond, the general p h e n o m e n o n r e p r e s e n t s a g o o d parallel t o t h e t r a n s l a t i o n s from H e b r e w to G r e e k a n d t h e w i d e s p r e a d interest in t h e t r a n s l a t i o n a n d i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e H e b r e w text in t h e a n c i e n t w o r l d t h r o u g h late antiquity. The political u n i t y o f t h e a n c i e n t w o r l d a c h i e v e d b y A l e x a n d e r , a n d again b y t h e R o m a n s , gave G r e e k an u n p r e c e d e n t e d e c u m e n i c a l s t a t u s a m o n g l a n g u a g e s . O n e c o u l d say t h a t R o m a n m i l i t a r y m i g h t , G r e e k c u l t u r e a n d l a n g u a g e , a n d J e w i s h religion fascinated t h e w o r l d for c e n t u r i e s . 'The G r e e k l a n g u a g e was c l a i m e d by t h e a n c i e n t s t o have s u p e r i o r i t y over t h e H e b r e w o n p u r e l y l i n g u i s t i c g r o u n d s : spelli n g in G r e e k was m o r e exact t h a n t h e u n p o i n t e d H e b r e w text; a n d v e r b tenses a n d forms in G r e e k w e r e m o r e specific t h a n t h e i r H e b r e w c o u n t e r p a r t s , n o t t o m e n t i o n t h e accessibility o f G r e e k t o a worldwide population. The t r a n s l a t i o n of t h e H e b r e w b o o k s i n t o G r e e k a c c o m p l i s h e d an u n a n t i c i p a t e d e q u i v o c a t i o n o f c u l t u r a l s t r u c t u r e s b e t w e e n t h e S e m i t i c a n d G r e e k w o r l d s , t h e c u r i o u s results o f w h i c h w e live w i t h today. T h a t is t o say, t h e " t r a n s c u l t u r a l " i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of T o r a h w i t h Law, t h e F o r m e r P r o p h e t s w i t h H i s t o r y , C o v e n a n t w i t h W i l l o r Test a m e n t , e t c . — h o w e v e r necessary a n d inevitable from t h e t r a n s l a t o r s '

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p o i n t of v i e w — h a v e given difficulty t o readers a n d scholars from medieval t i m e s until t h e p r e s e n t . For e x a m p l e , it is generally a c k n o w l e d g e d t h a t t h e H e b r e w w o r d " t o r a h " in m o s t c o n t e x t s is b e t t e r u n d e r s t o o d as " i n s t r u c t i o n " o r " t e a c h i n g " ; b u t w h e n given t h e sense o f R o m a n (or A m e r i c a n ) "law," it b e c o m e s s o m e t h i n g different. A g a i n , w h e n t h e T o r a h a n d F o r m e r P r o p h e t s were e n t i t l e d "writings a n d h i s t o r y " in t h e S e p t u a g i n t , in m e d i e v a l t i m e s t h e y s o o n b e c a m e "all t h e h i s t o r y o f t h e u n i v e r s e , " even t h o u g h t h a t m e a n i n g was never i m p l i e d by t h e H e b r e w t i t l e s — n o r d i d scholars t h r o u g h late a n t i q u i t y force t h a t u n d e r s t a n d i n g o n t h e m . Finally, a n d p r o b a b l y m o s t significantly, " c o v e n a n t " was c o n s i s t e n t l y r e n d e r e d " t e s t a m e n t " b y t h e S e p t u a g i n t translators, t h e Q u m r a n t r a n s l a t o r s , a n d t h e N e w T e s t a m e n t a u t h o r s — p o s s i b l y t h e result o f t h e lack of i n t e r n a t i o n a l (or s u z e r a i n t y ) c o v e n a n t s , m a d e o b s o l e t e in t h e H e l l e n i s t i c a n d R o m a n Periods b y t h e c o n q u e s t s o f A l e x a n d e r a n d R o m e . As t h e o l o g i a n s h a v e b e e n l e a r n i n g t h r o u g h o u t t h e t w e n tieth century, covenant n o t only had a millennium's w o r t h o f history b e h i n d it at the time of the Babylonian Exile, b u t r e p r e s e n t e d a significant, living r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n a k i n g a n d v a s s a l — m u c h m o r e t h a n a t e s t a m e n t o r d e a t h b e q u e s t . B o t h Jesus a n d Paul d o u b t l e s s h a d "berith" o r " c o v e n a n t " o n their lips a n d in their m i n d s for t h e "words of institution" a n d at other times, b u t the Greek translation does n o t readily c o n v e y this to u s . For c o n t e m p o r a r y q u e s t i o n s r e g a r d i n g H e b r e w a n d G r e e k Bibles in w h i c h O r t h o d o x p a r t i c i p a t e , a few r e m a r k s are in order. S i n c e b o t h t h e G r e e k a n d Russian c h u r c h e s use t h e L u c i a n i c S e p t u a g i n t , t h e r e is a t e n d e n c y a m o n g t h e faithful t o r o m a n t i c i z e t h e u n a n i m i t y of t h e liturgical w i t n e s s a n d b e a u t y o f l a n g u a g e , d e p i c t i n g t h e h i s t o r y o f t h e G r e e k S c r i p t u r e s as d e v o i d o f c o n t r o v e r s y a n d i n d e p e n d e n t of t h e H e b r e w . H i s t o r y reveals flaws in this a t t i t u d e . For example, d u r i n g the fourth century (considered by some O r t h o d o x to be a t h e o l o g i c a l a p o g e e ) t h e r e w e r e t h r e e different S e p t u a g i n t s in use in t h e m a j o r C h r i s t i a n c e n t e r s of t h e eastern M e d i t e r r a n e a n : (1) T h e c h u r c h e s in A n t i o c h a n d C o n s t a n t i n o p l e u s e d t h e L u c i a n i c r e c e n sion. (2) C a e s a r e a in Palestine utilized a t r a n s l a t i o n b y O r i g e n t h a t was u p d a t e d b y P a m p h i l u s a n d E u s e b i u s . (3) A l e x a n d r i a h a d a t h i r d r e c e n s i o n b y a c e r t a i n H e s y c h i u s a b o u t w h i c h little else is k n o w n . T h e C o n s t a n t i n o p o l i t a n p r a c t i c e , b a s e d o n a t r a n s l a t i o n d o n e by t h e P r e s b y t e r L u c i a n ( w h o preferred A t t i c forms) in t h a t s a m e c e n t u r y , finally w o n o u t . A n o t h e r e x a m p l e of t h e H e b r e w - G r e e k issue can b e f o u n d in t h e m a j o r w o r k s o f t h a t i n s t r u c t o r o f t h e C a p p a d o c i a n Fathers, O r i g e n .

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P r o b a b l y d u e t o his extensive influence in m a t t e r s christological, these c o n c e r n s eclipsed his p r i m a r y effort a n d t h a t of t h e e n t i r e A l e x a n d r i a n S c h o o l : S c r i p t u r e . It s h o u l d b e r e m e m b e r e d t h a t his g r e a t e s t research effort was a c o m p a r i s o n o f t h e H e b r e w o r i g i n a l , o c c u p y i n g t h e first c o l u m n of his S c r i p t u r e listings, w i t h t h e v a r i o u s G r e e k r e n d e r i n g s ; a n d his w o r k m a y b e c i t e d as a d i r e c t p r e d e c e s s o r t o t h e S e p t u a g i n t t r a n s l a t i o n w o r k of t h e f o u r t h c e n t u r y , m e n t i o n e d a b o v e . The p o i n t h e r e is t h a t O r i g e n b e g a n w i t h t h e H e b r e w o r i g i n a l , t r a n s l i t e r a t e d it i n t o G r e e k , a n d p r o c e e d e d t o list t h e v a r i o u s G r e e k t r a n s l a t i o n s as c o m p a r e d t o t h e H e b r e w . For O r i g e n , t h e H e b r e w text was t h e c o n t r o l l i n g factor t o w h i c h t h e G r e e k h a d t o b e c o m p a r e d . Today, the relationships between the various H e b r e w a n d Greek textual t r a d i t i o n s have t o b e t a k e n very seriously, as seriously as O r i g e n t o o k t h e m , especially in regard t o t h e m a n y n e w resources a n d t o o l s w e n o w h a v e a t o u r d i s p o s a l . T h i s was i l l u s t r a t e d in t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y by Patriarch Philaret of M o s c o w w h o oversaw the Russian Bible t r a n s l a t i o n (see b e l o w ) , w h i c h is n o w p u b l i s h e d a n d u s e d by t h e R u s s i a n c h u r c h . In a d d i t i o n , o n e of t h e g r e a t e s t resources i l l u m i n a t i n g t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e H e b r e w a n d G r e e k textual t r a d i t i o n s has b e e n given t o us this c e n t u r y b y t h e discoveries a t Q u m r a n . Q u m r a n has p r o v e d t h a t b o t h t h e H e b r e w M a s o r e t i c t e x t a n d t h e G r e e k S e p t u a g i n t are faithful a n d c r e d i b l e witnesses t o t h e a n c i e n t t r a d i t i o n s a n d m a n u s c r i p t s . In m a n y w a y s , c e r t a i n l y b e c a u s e of t h e d i s c o v e r y a n d availability o f n e w i n f o r m a t i o n , w e are p r e s e n t l y in a p o s i t i o n t o d o w o r k w i t h S c r i p t u r e t h a t was i m p o s s i b l e even a h a l f c e n t u r y ago. I V . T H E LANGUAGE OE THE COUNCILS

All ( " C h a l c e d o n i a n " ) O r t h o d o x c h u r c h e s l o o k t o t h e Seven E c u m e n i c a l C o u n c i l s , a n d related local c o u n c i l s , as definitive of H o l y Tradition, as a s t a t e m e n t o f faith over t i m e , as a n o r m o f " o r t h o p r axy," e t c . ; a n d t h e t r a d i t i o n s a n d d e c i s i o n s of these C o u n c i l s are very m u c h alive today, f r o m t h e N i c e n e - C o n s t a n t i n o p o l i t a n C r e e d t o icon o g r a p h y . Issues r e l a t i n g t o S c r i p t u r e existed at each o f t h e s e v e n , '

2

t h o u g h w e shall l i m i t o u r i n v e s t i g a t i o n t o s o m e g e n e r a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s , p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e t o p i c of t h e c a n o n o r list o f b o o k s t o b e r e a d — b o t h in c h u r c h a n d o t h e r w i s e . H e n r y C h a d w i c k , " T h e Status of E c u m e n i c a l C o u n c i l s in A n g l i c a n T h o u g h t , " The Heritage of the Early Church, David N e i m a n a n d Margaret Schatkin, eds., Orientalia Christiana Analecta 195 ( R o m a : P o n t . I n s t i t u t u m S t u d i o r u m O r i e n t a l i u m , 1973) 39.3-408.

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Even t h o u g h h i s t o r y has n o t given us t h e m i n u t e s o f t h e First C o u n c i l in A . D . 3 2 5 , w e d o k n o w from o t h e r w r i t i n g s a n d s u b s e q u e n t councils that questions a b o u t Scripture were on the agenda. T h e p r i m a r y t h e o l o g i c a l d e b a t e over S c r i p t u r e at t h e First C o u n c i l h a d t o d o w i t h its use w i t h i n a c o m m o n creed, a c r e e d w i t h r o o t s in C a e s a r e a , later called t h e N i c e n e C r e e d . O n e g r o u p insisted t h a t a creed c o u l d o n l y use w o r d s f o u n d in S c r i p t u r e , w h i l e t h e p r e v a i l i n g c o n s e n s u s c l a i m e d t h a t t h e w o r d s of S c r i p t u r e d o n o t e x h a u s t d i v i n e revelation a n d h u m a n e x p e r i e n c e ; a n d t h e h i s t o r y o f intellect a n d passage o f t i m e h a d raised n e w q u e s t i o n s w h i c h w o u l d best be a n swered by " c o n t e m p o r a r y language." Gnosticism a n d Arianism h a d c r e a t e d a crisis t h a t o n l y t h e G r e e k w o r d " h o m o o u s i o s " o r " c o n s u b s t a n t i a l " — a n o n b i b l i c a l w o r d — c o u l d address. T h e s a m e g r o u p m a i n t a i n e d t h a t t h e d e s c r i p t i o n of Jesus C h r i s t as " h o m o o u s i o s " or "of o n e essence w i t h t h e F a t h e r " was in fact " b i b l i c a l , " t h o u g h t h e w o r d itself d o e s n o t a p p e a r in t h e Bible. Briefly, t h e y a r g u e d t h a t t h e w o r d was n o t a new d e f i n i t i o n o r n e w revelation o f G o d , b u t m e r e l y a r e s t a t e m e n t of H o l y T r a d i t i o n u s i n g c o n t e m p o r a r y ( f o u r t h - c e n t u r y ) l a n g u a g e ; p a r a p h r a s i n g St. Paul in 1 C o r i n t h i a n s 11 a n d 1 5 , w h a t has b e e n received is b e i n g passed o n . St. A t h a n a s i u s of A l e x a n d r i a , r e c o g n i z e d as a m o t i v a t i n g t h e o logical force at N i c a e a a n d a u t h o r o f t h e "Life o f St. A n t h o n y , " iss u e d his 3 9 t h Festal Letter (Easter, A . D . 3 6 7 ) listing t h e b o o k s to be r e a d in his d i o c e s a n c h u r c h e s . A l t h o u g h t h e first definitive b o o k list c a m e from a h i e r a r c h as a n e d i c t , it was u n d e r s t o o d as r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f c h u r c h p r a c t i c e h a n d e d d o w n from t h e a p o s t l e s — t h e " C a n o n of T r u t h . " This was t h e first d o c u m e n t t o list t h e t w e n t y - s e v e n b o o k s of t h e N e w T e s t a m e n t w h i c h w e r e c o g n i z e today. T h e list h a d n o official a u t h o r i t y o u t s i d e A t h a n a s i u s ' s diocese b u t was p r o b a b l y given special r e c o g n i t i o n b e c a u s e o f h i s s t a t u s w i t h i n t h e c h u r c h a n d Alexandria's p o s i t i o n as a l e a d i n g city o f t h e E m p i r e . It is also p o s sible t h a t A t h a n a s i u s was r e s p o n s i b l e for p r e p a r a t i o n o f C o d e x V a t i c a n u s w h i l e exiled in R o m e , since t h e b o o k lists in t h e Easter letter a n d V a t i c a n u s are i d e n t i c a l . W e p r o c e e d t o an e x a m i n a t i o n of select c a n o n s from t h e c o n c i l i a r p e r i o d . A p o s t o l i c C a n o n 8 5 : T h i s earliest c a n o n i c a l reference t o a list of t h e b o o k s o f S c r i p t u r e is difficult t o d a t e , j u s t as a n y o n e o f t h e A p o s t o l i c C a n o n s is difficult t o d a t e i n d i v i d u a l l y ; b u t w e have d i s covered t h a t t h e b o d y o f eighty-five c a n o n s was c o m p i l e d b y t h e first h a l f o f t h e f o u r t h c e n t u r y , p r o b a b l y s h o r t l y after t h e First E c u m e n i cal C o u n c i l . It is u n n e c e s s a r y t o assert t h a t C a n o n 8 5 was w r i t t e n b y

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an a p o s t l e , b u t it has always b e e n given "apostolic a u t h o r i t y " w i t h i n t h e O r t h o d o x C h u r c h (even before t h e C o u n c i l o f T r u l l o ) . W e k n o w t h a t t h e A p o s t o l i c C a n o n s d o r e p r e s e n t t h e earliest c a n o n law o f t h e C h u r c h a n d p r o b a b l y o r i g i n a t e before t h e year 3 0 0 . It is t r a d i t i o n a l t o ascribe t h e greatest a u t h o r i t y t o this p a r t i c u l a r c a n o n w h e n e x a m i n i n g all t h o s e ecclesiastical rules t h a t p e r t a i n t o a d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f the books of Scripture. " L e t t h e f o l l o w i n g b o o k s b e c o u n t e d v e n e r a b l e a n d sacred b y all of y o u . . . ." S u c h a forceful b e g i n n i n g clause clearly s h o w s t h e h i g h s t a t u s of S c r i p t u r e . T h e first g r o u p w h i c h t h e c a n o n lists are t h o s e b o o k s o f t h e First C o v e n a n t ( O l d Testament). A m o n g these are c o n t a i n e d m a n y " d e u t e r o c a n o n i c a l b o o k s , " i.e., W i s d o m o f S o l o m o n , t h r e e B o o k s o f M a c c a b e e s , etc.' Besides these t h e C h u r c h r e c o m m e n d s t o t e a c h t h e y o u n g p e o p l e Ecclesiasticus ( W i s d o m of S i r a c h ) . W i t h this a d m o n i t i o n t h e C h u r c h recognizes t h e value of a c e r t a i n b o o k , a l t h o u g h o n e n o t r e c o m m e n d e d for liturgical usage. S u c h a p o s i t i o n is an i m p o r t a n t a t t i t u d e t o o b s e r v e : A n o n l i t u r g i c a l b o o k has a m a r k e d , r e c o g n i z e d value. 3

The s e c o n d list in t h e c a n o n e n u m e r a t e s b o o k s o f t h e N e w Test a m e n t . In a d d i t i o n to t h e G o s p e l s a n d Epistles o n e w o u l d e x p e c t , R e v e l a t i o n is m o s t n o t a b l y o m i t t e d , w h i l e t w o Epistles of C l e m e n t a n d t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n s of C l e m e n t are a p p e n d e d . The C o n s t i t u t i o n s are a d d r e s s e d t o t h e b i s h o p s a n d are n o t t o be read b y all, "on acc o u n t o f t h e mystical t h i n g s in t h e m , " p r o b a b l y r e f e r r i n g t o t h e disciplina arcani, i.e., r e t i c e n c e in revealing details of C h r i s t i a n m y s teries ( s a c r a m e n t s ) . W i t h this brief advice we can sense a p r i n c i p l e o f d i s c e r n m e n t a n d d i s c r e t i o n . N o t e v e r y o n e is able t o read a b s o l u t e l y everything a n d u n d e r s t a n d it properly. Both Scripture a n d liturgy bear a certain "gnosis," o r k n o w l e d g e , t h a t needs to be interpreted correcdy. T h e Metered P o e m s o f St. Gregory the T h e o l o g i a n : D a t i n g from t h e m i d d l e o f t h e f o u r t h c e n t u r y , this piece gives advice as to w h i c h are t h e " g e n u i n e b o o k s " o f S c r i p t u r e , a n d was later given t h e a u t h o r :1

Pace H a r o l d S c a n l i n , " T h e O l d T e s r a m e n r C a n o n in t h e O r t h o d o x C h u r c h e s , " New Perspectives on Historical Theology, ed. Bradley Nassif ( G r a n d Rapids, M i c h . : William B. F.erdmans Publishing C o m p a n y , 1996) 3 0 6 : "Virtually every k n o w n statement o n the canon from the East u p to the closing of the fourth c e n t u r y limits the O l d T e s t a m e n t canon to the H e b r e w c a n o n . . . ." Even w i t h o u t Apostolic C a n o n 8 5 , the s t a t e m e n t could n o t stand in the face of fourth-century translation efforts (e.g., the I.ucianic Septuagint et al.) and liturgical practice. Scanlin also appears to be unaware of the use of Hebrew in Slavic and Russian Bible translation (p. 311), for which see below, 'Slavic and Russian." (The Russian and Slavic churches comprise approximately two-thirds of the worlds Orthodox population.)

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ity o f a c a n o n . St. G r e g o r y r e m a r k s t h a t m a n y m a l i g n a n t b o o k s have b e e n c i r c u l a t e d a n d c a u t i o n s h o u l d b e s h o w n in c h o o s i n g s c r i p t u r a l r e a d i n g s . H e lists t w e n t y - t w o b o o k s of t h e O l d T e s t a m e n t . Those t h a t h e o m i t s are Esther, 1 Esdras, a n d all t h e d e u t e r o c a n o n i c a l b o o k s . 'This is t h e s h o r t e s t O l d ' T e s t a m e n t c a n o n ( a c c e p t e d a n d a p p r o v e d ) a n d is closest in c o n t e n t t o t h e " H e b r e w Bible." O f t h e b o o k s of t h e N e w T e s t a m e n t St. G r e g o r y m e n t i o n s t w e n t y - s i x . H e o m i t s t h e Reve l a t i o n . O f n o t e , t h e A p o s t l e J o h n is referred t o as " t h e e n t e r e r o f h e a v e n " ; a n d t h u s t h e r e s e e m s to be an i n d i r e c t reference t o Revelat i o n . It is i n t e r e s t i n g t h a t G r e g o r y has i n d i c a t e d a k n o w l e d g e of Reve l a t i o n a n d has n o t i n c l u d e d it in his c a n o n . I a m b i c s o f St. A m p h i l o c i u s , B i s h o p o f Seleucus: Later in t h e f o u r t h c e n t u r y Gregory's c o u s i n , St. A m p h i l o c i u s , w r o t e " t h e m o s t t r u e c a n o n of t h e d i v i n e l y g i v e n S c r i p t u r e s . " In t h e w o r d i n g o f this c a n o n w e find s o m e helpful a n d revealing i n f o r m a t i o n : " W e s h o u l d k n o w t h a t n o t every b o o k w h i c h is called S c r i p t u r e is to be received as a safe g u i d e . For s o m e are tolerably s o u n d a n d o t h e r s are m o r e t h a n d o u b t f u l . " O b v i o u s l y , t h e r e m u s t h a v e b e e n m a n y different a n d v a r i a n t b o o k s of S c r i p t u r e d i s s e m i n a t e d , possibly t h o s e o f t h e G n o s tic c o r p u s , w h i c h were labeled u n d e p e n d a b l e b y t h e m a j o r i t y o p i n i o n . It is n o t e w o r t h y t h a t A m p h i l o c i u s uses t h e t e r m i n o l o g y "tolerably s o u n d " in referring t o s o m e of t h e b o o k s . It s e e m s t h a t t h e r e was a very fine line t h a t d i v i d e d t h o s e b o o k s w h i c h were a c c e p t a b l e , yet d o u b t f u l , f r o m t h e o t h e r b o o k s t h a t w e r e u n a c c e p t a b l e , b u t still w o r t h y o f c o n s i d e r a t i o n . A d d i t i o n a l l y , h e e n u m e r a t e s t h e b o o k s as t h o s e " w h i c h t h e i n s p i r a t i o n of G o d h a t h given." In t h e O l d T e s t a m e n t c a n o n h e lists all o f t h e p r o t o c a n o n i c a l b o o k s b u t o m i t s t h e d e u t e r o c a n o n i c a l o n e s . A t t h e e n d o f this first list he c o n t i n u e s , "to these s o m e a d d E s t h e r . " In his list of b o o k s o f t h e N e w ' T e s t a m e n t c a n o n all t h e usual o n e s are i n c l u d e d e x c e p t R e v e l a t i o n . 'The c o m m e n t c o n c e r n i n g t h e R e v e l a t i o n o f J o h n is t h a t s o m e a c c e p t it, " b u t by far t h e m a j o r i t y say it is s p u r i o u s . " It s e e m s t h a t A m p h i l o c i u s c o n s i d e r s it in t h e c a t e g o r y of "very d o u b t f u l , b u t a c c e p t e d b y economiaT S u c h hazy d i s t i n c t i o n s a n d a willingness to m a k e plausible c o n c e s s i o n s s h o w t h a t t h e F a t h e r s of t h e C h u r c h u s e d a m e t h o d o l o g y t h a t was b o t h flexible a n d o p e n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n s o f rational d i s c o u r s e . S y n o d o f Laodicea, C a n o n 5 9 : D a t i n g f r o m t h e s e c o n d h a l f of t h e f o u r t h c e n t u r y , t h e text p r o p e r d o e s n o t h a v e t o d o d i r e c t l y w i t h e s t a b l i s h i n g a b o d y o f S c r i p t u r e , b u t r a t h e r w i t h c o n t r o l l i n g t h e texts

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t h a t arc r e a d in c h u r c h : " N o p s a l m s c o m p o s e d by p r i v a t e i n d i v i d u a l s n o r a n y u n c a n o n i c a l b o o k s m a y b e r e a d in c h u r c h . " A n e s t a b l i s h e d i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f this c a n o n reveals t h a t t h e rule a p p r o v e s o n l y t h o s e h y m n s a n d a n t i p h o n s w h i c h are s a n c t i o n e d . All r e a d i n g o f n o n s a n c t i o n e d p r i v a t e c o m p o s i t i o n s is p r o h i b i t e d . The c a n o n is n o t m e a n t to restrict h y m n s a n d r e a d i n g s solely t o t h a t of s c r i p t u r a l o r i g i n . T h e relevance this p o s i t i o n has t o o u r s t u d y is t h a t t h e C h u r c h herself exercised a u t h o r i t y t o j u d g e t h a t w h i c h was t o be r e a d w i t h i n h e r "ecclesia." She d i d n o t close t h e possibility o f f u r t h e r e x p a n s i o n o f t h e b o d y o f m a t e r i a l read, b u t t o o k t h e p o w e r t o d i s c e r n w h a t t h a t b o d y w o u l d be. W e well k n o w t h a t s h e later a p p r o v e d m a n y h y m n s of private composition a n d incorporated t h e m into the liturgical cycle. S y n o d o f L a o d i c e a , C a n o n 6 0 : The g e n u i n e n e s s o f this c a n o n is v i g o r o u s l y q u e s t i o n e d . Briefly, its text is a d e t a i l e d list of t h o s e b o o k s t h a t are t o be i n c l u d e d in t h e S c r i p t u r e s . T h e r e are significant o m i s sions o f s o m e of t h e m o r e controversial b o o k s , i.e., R e v e l a t i o n , all t h e B o o k s o f M a c c a b e e s , a n d W i s d o m o f S o l o m o n . As a result o f these i m p o r t a n t o m i s s i o n s a n d t h e q u e s t i o n a b l e a u t h o r s h i p of t h e text, m a n y c o m m e n t a t o r s ascribe little i m p o r t a n c e t o it. H i p p o ( 3 9 3 ) , C a n o n 3 6 : Briefly, this is t h e a n c i e n t e p i t o m e o f C a n o n 2 4 of t h e African C o d e ( b e l o w ) , e x c e p t t h a t H i p p o a l l o w e d t h e readings o f t h e "Passions o f t h e M a r t y r s " o n t h e anniversaries o f t h e m a r t y r s ' d e a t h s . It seems t h a t n o t h i n g aside from S c r i p t u r e a n d t h e " P a s s i o n s " was r e a d in t h e African C h u r c h before t h e African C o d e , w h i l e a n t i p h o n a l a n d n o n s c r i p t u r a l c o m p o s i t i o n s were s u n g r a t h e r t h a n read. In a n y case, w e can o n l y s p e c u l a t e as t o t h e reason t h a t t h e "Passions o f t h e M a r t y r s " was d r o p p e d from liturgical use in t h e African C h u r c h b e t w e e n A . D . 3 9 3 a n d 4 1 9 . A f r i c a n C o d e , C a n o n 2 4 : In this c a n o n o f t h e early fifth c e n t u r y w e find a d e t a i l e d list o f t h e c a n o n i c a l S c r i p t u r e s w h i c h t h e m e m b e r s o f t h e African c h u r c h " h a v e received from o u r fathers t o be r e a d in t h e c h u r c h . " It is t h e m o s t c o m p l e t e a n d l e n g t h y c o m p i l a t i o n o f b o o k s o t h e r t h a n A p o s t o l i c C a n o n 8 5 , a n d actually c o n f o r m s t h e closest t o t h e Bible p r i n t e d today, w i t h t h e d e u t e r o c a n o n i c a l b o o k s ( o m i t t i n g 3 M a c c a b e e s a n d t h e Prayer of M a n a s s e h ) a n d all t h e b o o k s of t h e N e w Testament. This list differs from t h e A p o s t o l i c C a n o n in its o m i s s i o n o f t h e C l e m e n t i n e w r i t i n g s a n d B e n Sirach, a n d its i n c l u sion of Revelation.

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SCRIPTURE

The w o r d i n g o f t h e i n t r o d u c t o r y clause, " t h a t besides t h e can o n i c a l S c r i p t u r e s n o t h i n g b e r e a d in c h u r c h u n d e r t h e n a m e o f d i v i n e S c r i p t u r e , " gives i n d i c a t i o n o f p r o b l e m a t i c factors in t h e ecclesiastical s i t u a t i o n . Clearly, o t h e r texts were read o r s u n g besides S c r i p t u r e . O f these t h e African c o u n c i l h a d n o fear. R a t h e r , t h e y were d e a l i n g w i t h t h e p r o b l e m of heretical o r s p u r i o u s b o o k s b e i n g r e a d in t h e c h u r c h w i t h t h e a u t h o r i t y , sanctity, a n d v e n e r a t i o n t h a t t h e y a c c o r d e d o n l y t o t h e d i v i n e S c r i p t u r e . A g a i n s t these p s e u d e p i g r a p h i c w r i t i n g s t h e C h u r c h of Africa w a n t e d t o p r o t e c t its m e m b e r s . Q u i n i s e x t , C a n o n 2: A t e n d o f t h e s e v e n t h c e n t u r y t h e C o u n c i l of T r u l l o ( Q u i n i s e x t ) gave b l a n k e t a p p r o v a l t o all c a n o n s previously r e c o g n i / x d in t h e C h u r c h , i n c l u d i n g t h e b u l k o f t h e a b o v e c a n o n s . Specific m e n t i o n is m a d e of t h e A p o s t o l i c C a n o n s in relation t o a d e t e r m i n a t i o n of a list of biblical b o o k s . Q u i n i s e x t c h o s e to o m i t t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n s of t h e H o l y A p o s t l e s w r i t t e n b y C l e m e n t b e c a u s e err o n e o u s teachers h a d i n t r o d u c e d heretical d o c t r i n e s i n t o t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n s , a n d t h e y were rejected "so as t h e b e t t e r t o m a k e sure o f t h e edification a n d s e c u r i t y o f t h e m o s t C h r i s t i a n flock." As a result o f this Q u i n i s e x t c a n o n , o n e is led t o c o n c l u d e t h a t t h e a p p r o v a l of t h e c a n o n o f S c r i p t u r e given was n o t specific, b u t g e n e r a l . This c o n c l u s i o n is t r u e in p a r t b e c a u s e t h e v a r i o u s c a n o n s c i t e d conflict as to t h e i r c o n t e n t . N e v e r t h e l e s s , a t t e n t i o n s h o u l d focus o n this s e c o n d c a n o n of T r u l l o , w i t h its e m p h a s i s o n A p o s t o l i c C a n o n 8 5 . W h e r e a s later c a n o n s are o n l y m e n t i o n e d b y n a m e , t h e r e are n o less t h a n ten lines o f d i s c u s s i o n a n d c o m m e n t a r y o n A p o s t o l i c C a n o n 8 5 . G i v e n t h e a u t h o r i t y o f a p o s t o l i c a u t h o r s h i p , it was also t h e first a n d m o s t d e t a i l e d c o m m e n t a r y f o u n d in ecclesiastical law c o n c e r n i n g t h e c a n o n of S c r i p t u r e . N o set criticism existed at this t i m e c l a i m i n g t h a t later c a n o n s s u p e r s e d e d t h e i r p r e d e c e s s o r s ; a n d in t h i s case it m i g h t b e a r g u e d t h a t t h e o p p o s i t e is t r u e , t h e earliest c a n o n was seen as t h e m o s t a u t h o r i t a t i v e . T h e r e f o r e , w e are left w i t h t h e conclusion t h a t Apostolic C a n o n 8 5 was accepted at Trullo as t h e principal c a n o n of Scripture, t h o u g h a "first a m o n g equals." ( O t h e r later c a n o n s a t Trullo reflected o n t h e character of individual books.) S e v e n t h E c u m e n i c a l C o u n c i l , C a n o n 1: This c a n o n accepted all the canons of the Sixth Ecumenical and the Quinisext Councils. As w e have seen, t h e s e c o n d c a n o n o f Q u i n i s e x t gave b l a n k e t a p p r o v a l t o m a n y differing t r a d i t i o n s c o n c e r n i n g t h e c o n t e n t of t h e Bible, a n d this a p p r o v a l was c o n f i r m e d b y t h e S e v e n t h C o u n c i l . W h e r e does t h a t leave us w h e n w e a t t e m p t t o describe t h e a t t i t u d e t o w a r d

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t h e listing of biblical b o o k s at Q u i n i s c x t a n d t h e S e v e n t h C o u n c i l ? T h e r e s e e m t o b e t h r e e t e n a b l e possibilities ( e n u m e r a t e d in a n asc e n d i n g o r d e r of preference): 1. T h e fathers a t t h e s e c o u n c i l s a c c e p t e d A p o s t o l i c C a n o n 8 5 as h a v i n g t h e greatest a u t h o r i t y a n d o m i t t e d t h e Constitutions b e c a u s e t h e y h a d b e e n heretically c o r r u p t e d . This c o m p r i s e d t h e c o n t e n t of t h e Bible t h e y used. 2 . E i t h e r t h e y d i d n o t c o n s i d e r t h e differences in t h e v a r i o u s c a n o n s o f S c r i p t u r e as i m p o r t a n t , o r t h e y s a w t h e m as c o n s t r u c t i v e criticism of t h e diverse b o o k s . 3 . T h e y were heir t o a liturgical cycle t h a t d e t e r m i n e d t h e readings in t h e c h u r c h e s , a n d this cycle m a d e t h e q u e s t i o n o f t h e c a n o n of S c r i p t u r e a n " e m p t y p r o b l e m " : Lex orandi est lex credendi. T h e several liturgical practices a d e q u a t e l y a n d a c c u r a t e l y r e p r e s e n t e d t h e faith of t h e C h u r c h . Based o n t h e t r a d i t i o n o f t h e Seven E c u m e n i c a l C o u n c i l s , it is l e g i t i m a t e t o assert t h a t t h e C h u r c h has c o n t i n u a l l y used d i s c e r n m e n t in h e r selection of scriptural readings. S h e has e n c o u r a g e d m e m bers t o utilize d i s c r e t i o n a n d u n d e r s t a n d i n g in t h e i r use o f a u t h o rized a n d u n a u t h o r i z e d b o o k s . A l s o , positive s p i r i t u a l value was oft e n a s c r i b e d t o n o n s c r i p t u r a l , a p o c r y p h a l , o r p s e u d e p i g r a p h i c texts t h a t w e r e ( a n d are) beneficial t o C h r i s t i a n readers, in s p i t e o f ecclesiastical p r o h i b i t i o n of liturgical r e c i t a t i o n . I m p o r t a n t t o m o d e r n scholarly historical p r e s u p p o s i t i o n s , it is i n a p p r o p r i a t e t o take late d e f i n i t i o n s o f t h e s c r i p t u r a l c a n o n (e.g., the W e s t m i n s t e r C o n f e s s i o n o r t h e C o u n c i l o f Trent) a n d a n a c h r o n i s t i c a l l y retroject m o d e r n a s s u m p t i o n s b a c k o n t o a n y p r e v i o u s era, as w i t h t h e " C o u n c i l " o f J a m n i a . ' The C h u r c h seems t o have a c c e p t e d regional differences in t h e listing o f b o o k s , as in t h e i n c l u s i o n o f t h e B o o k of R e v e l a t i o n in t h e W e s t a n d its exclusion elsewhere. It is u n d e r s t a n d a b l e h o w a n i n d i v i d u a l w h o s e p e r s p e c t i v e was l i m i t e d t o o n l y o n e M e d i t e r r a n e a n region w o u l d a s s u m e t h a t t h e regional list of b o o k s w a s n o r m a t i v e for all o t h e r places a n d for all t i m e , t h o u g h t h e a t t i t u d e a n d c o n c l u s i o n , u p o n e x a m i n a t i o n , are improper a n d inaccurate. 1

'•* Daniel J. H a r r i n g t o n , " I n t r o d u c t i o n to the Canon,™ The New Interpreter's Bible, ed. I.eander E. Keck, et al. (Nashville: A b i n g d o n Press, 1994) 7 - 2 1 . Both H a r r i n g t o n a n d I.ienhard, The Bible, simply dismiss a late date for t h e M u r a t o r i a n C a n o n . Cf. Lee M . M c D o n a l d , The Formation of the Christian Biblical Canon (Peabody, Mass.: H e n d r i c k s o n Publishers, Inc., 1995) 2 0 9 - 2 0 . M c D o n a l d s u p ports the view of canon established by Albert Sundberg, u p o n whose w o r k m u c h of c o n t e m p o r a r y canonical studies is based.

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The g l o r i o u s h i s t o r y of t h e t r a n s l a t i o n of t h e Bible i n t o L a t i n is well k n o w n from t h e w r i t i n g s of St. J e r o m e . As w e shall see below, o n e o f t h e first t r a n s l a t i o n s of t h e e n t i r e Bible i n t o C h u r c h Slavic was m a d e f r o m a L a t i n e d i t i o n s h o r t l y before t h e R e f o r m a t i o n . T h e w h o l e of t h i s t r a n s l a t i o n p r o j e c t f r o m L a t i n to Slavic h a d a p r o f o u n d affect o n R u s s i a n c u l t u r e in t h e f o l l o w i n g c e n t u r i e s . D u r i n g t h i s t i m e t h e o l o g i c a l e d u c a t i o n in Russia was c o n d u c t e d exclusively in L a t i n , b o t h s p o k e n a n d w r i t t e n . R u s s i a n t e x t b o o k s a n d t h e o l o g i c a l treatises d i d n o t exist. In s p i t e o f t h e fact t h a t L a t i n o c c u p i e s a special place as t h e l a n g u a g e o f t h e V u l g a t e a n d as t h e m e d i e v a l t h e o l o g i c a l l a n g u a g e of E u r o p e , t h e f o c u s o f O r t h o d o x a t t e n t i o n o n t h e L a t i n B i b l e lies e l s e w h e r e . O r t h o d o x c o m m e n t a r y o n t h e L a t i n o f St. A u g u s t i n e , especially in r e g a r d t o his a n t h r o p o l o g y , s p a n s o v e r fifteen h u n d r e d years, f r o m t h e t i m e o f his c o n t e m p o r a r i e s (see T h e o d o r e o f M o p s u e s t i a a n d J o h n Cassian) to the present.

15

The c o m m e n t a r y is q u i t e c o n s i s t e n t ,

b u t is negatively critical; a n d it has g o n e relatively u n h e e d e d b e c a u s e it u n d e r m i n e s A u g u s t i n e ' s t e a c h i n g o n o r i g i n a l s i n — f o u n d a t i o n a l t o W e s t e r n a n t h r o p o l o g y a n d soteriology, if n o t t o W e s t e r n c u l t u r e as a w h o l e . The a t t i t u d e of E a s t e r n t h e o l o g i a n s t o w a r d A u g u s t i n e a n d his p r e - V u l g a t e L a t i n Bible (or t o w a r d his 'Trinitarian t h e o l o g y ) p r o b ably a p p e a r s c u r i o u s t o W e s t e r n e r s , s i n c e t h e O r t h o d o x are h a p p y to recognize t h e man's sanctity, l e a r n e d a c h i e v e m e n t s , p r o f o u n d insights, etc., b u t t h e y t a k e e x c e p t i o n to p a r t i c u l a r t h e o l o g i c a l f o r m u l a t i o n s , l a b e l i n g t h e m e r r o n e o u s — f o r w h i c h t h e O r t h o d o x in t u r n are acc u s e d of b e i n g s e m i - P e l a g i a n . Reciprocally, t h e O r t h o d o x are s u r p r i s e d at t h e c o m p l e t e a c c e p t a n c e o f all o f A u g u s t i n e ' s t h e o l o g y b y W e s t e r n t h e o l o g i a n s . As V l a d i m i r Lossky h a s p o i n t e d o u t , t h e reasons for this m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g lie in t h e s t a t u s a c c o r d e d " D o c t o r s of t h e W e s t e r n C h u r c h " in m e d i e v a l t i m e s , i.e., if o n e s u b s c r i b e s t o all t h e t e a c h i n g s of a recogn i z e d d o c t o r , o n e will b e w i t h o u t t h e o l o g i c a l e r r o r ; a n d A u g u s t i n e enjoys this s t a t u s . The East c o n s i d e r s t h i s m e d i e v a l a t t i t u d e n o t o n l y u n c r i t i c a l f r o m a s c h o l a r l y p o i n t o f view, b u t also o u t s i d e o f C h r i s t i a n Tradition: D o c t r i n a l "infallibility" is a very specialized c o n c e p t :s

David Weaver, " P r o m Paul to Augustine: R o m a n s 5:12 in Early Christian Exegesis," St. Vladimir's Theological Quarterly, XXVII, 3 (1983) 187-206; XXIX, 2 (1985) 133- 59; XXIX, 3 (1985) 2 3 1 - 5 7 . Stanislas I.yonnet, S.J., 'T.e sens de ¿ 6 to en R o m . 5,12 et l'exegese des Peres Grecs," Biblica, 3 6 (1955) 4 3 6 - 5 6 and 'T.e Peche Originel en R o m . 5,12," RiblicaA\ (1960) 3 2 5 - 5 5 .

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t h a t is n o t a t t r i b u t e d t o i n d i v i d u a l s , b u t is m o s t often u s e d in h i s torical retrospect t o describe conciliar decisions of t h e w h o l e C h u r c h . ' F u r t h e r , lest o n e g e t t h e i m p r e s s i o n t h a t this a p p r o a c h is solely a c r i t i q u e of m e d i e v a l R o m a n C a t h o l i c theology, t h e O r t h o d o x see a s i m i l a r a t t i t u d e t o w a r d a u t h o r i t y in t h e c h u r c h e s o f t h e R e f o r m a t i o n . F o r e x a m p l e , if n o t t h e w r i t i n g s o f A u g u s t i n e , t h e n t h o s e of Luther, Calvin, or other of t h e Reformers are frequently accorded a d e facto—if n o t d e jure—"infallible status" by m a n y Protestants today. 6

A u g u s t i n e ' s a n t h r o p o l o g y , especially r e g a r d i n g c r e a t i o n , original sin, b a p t i s m , a n d g r a c e , is a n i n t e g r a t e d s y s t e m a n d is b a s e d t o a large e x t e n t o n his close exegesis o f R o m . 5 : 1 2 . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , t h e pre-Vulgate N o r t h African Latin Bible h e used ( a n d t h a t A m b r o s i a s t e r u s e d before h i m ) m i s t r a n s l a t e d St. P a u l ' a n d read, "Sin c a m e i n t o t h e w o r l d , a n d d e a t h t h r o u g h sin, a n d so d e a t h s p r e a d t o all m e n , t h r o u g h o n e m a n , in whom all m e n s i n n e d {in quo omnes peccaverunt)." T h e G r e e k p r e p o s i t i o n a l p h r a s e s h o u l d be t r a n s l a t e d , " b y which (death) all m e n s i n n e d . " [ H o w e v e r o n e translates t h e p h r a s e , t h e q u e s t i o n lies in t h e p r o p e r a n t e c e d e n t t o t h e p r o n o u n . G r e e k , like E n g l i s h , accepts t h e last o c c u r r i n g n o u n as t h e a n t e c e d e n t t o t h e p r o n o u n , w h i c h in this case is " d e a t h . " ] A u g u s t i n e ' s S c r i p t u r e t o l d h i m t h a t e v e r y o n e s i n n e d in A d a m , ergo original sin. Paul actually s a i d t h a t d e a t h c a m e i n t o t h e w o r l d b e c a u s e of A d a m ' s s i n , a n d resultingly all p e o p l e sin b e c a u s e of t h e i r fear o f d e a t h , s o m e t h i n g q u i t e different from the above, a n d also m o r e judicious for t h e rest of humanity.' 7

8

Nevertheless, the East a d m i t s of n o guarantees for conciliar doctrinal infallibility (which are c o n r e m p o r a n e o u s with the council being held). M a n y councils were convened which proclaimed themselves "Ecumenical" and were n o t so recognized. T h a t is to say, the classical question of authority is handled quite differently in the East from the way it is handled in the West. See also C h a d w i c k , " T h e Status of Ecumenical Councils." Remarkably, a translational a m b i g u i t y is maintained in English language Bibles at this p o i n t today: the Greek preposition is rendered "because" rather t h a n "by which (death)." H o w d o the O r t h o d o x u n d e r s t a n d R o m . 5:12? Since Paul's t h o u g h t can be schematized as typological parallelism in R o m . 5 : 1 2 - 2 1 , repeated in 6 : 1 5 - 2 3 , and a n o t h e r in 1 Cor. 1 5:40-49, there should be lirtle d o u b t as ro what he m e a n t . For example, for type-prototype read: A d a m - C h r i s t , sin-grace, dearh-life, etc., all of which are causally connected and run parallel. Again, the essence of R o m . 5:12-21 is summarized in 6 : 2 3 , "For the wages of sin is death, b u t the free gift of G o d is erernal life in Chrisr Jesus o u r Lord." T h i s typological parallelism, sometimes studied under the rubric of chiasm, compares favorably with the "descending and ascending" parrern long recognized in Phil. 2:5f, which is usually categorized as a pre-Pauline h y m n . :

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1

As J. Pclikan has s h o w n , ' A u g u s t i n e e x p a n d s this idea o f o r i g i nal sin, f o l l o w i n g A m b r o s i a s t e r at first ( w h o m A u g u s t i n e q u o t e s ) , t h e n r o o t i n g it in p r o c r e a t i o n ; b u t s u c h a view of sin a n d p r o c r e a t i o n is d a n g e r o u s l y c l o s e t o — i f n o t i d e n t i c a l w i t h — t h e s t a n d a r d M a n i c h a e a n v i e w A u g u s t i n e h e l d for n i n e years before his a d u l t c o n version t o C h r i s t i a n i t y , a n d for w h i c h his c o n t e m p o r a r i e s criticized h i m . Paul's view of t h e m a t t e r — w e r e m e m b e r Paul was t r a i n e d as a r a b b i — h a d n o t h i n g t o d o w i t h sexuality p e r se, o r i g i n a l sin, or original guilt. It m i g h t b e t t e r be c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y 2 Bar. 5 4 : 1 5 , 19: " F o r t h o u g h A d a m first s i n n e d a n d b r o u g h t u n t i m e l y d e a t h u p o n all, yet of t h o s e w h o w e r e b o r n from h i m each o n e o f t h e m has p r e p a r e d for his o w n soul t o r m e n t t o c o m e , a n d , again each o n e o f t h e m has c h o s e n for h i m s e l f glories t o c o m e . . . . A d a m is t h e r e f o r e n o t t h e cause, save o n l y o f his o w n s o u l , b u t each o f us has b e e n t h e A d a m of his o w n s o u l . " T h e g n o s t i c d o c t r i n e A u g u s t i n e read i n t o his Latin Bible i n c l u d e d n o t o n l y t h e sexually t r a n s m i t t e d sin a n d g u i l t o f o r i g i n a l sin, b u t also t h e d o c t r i n e of t h e " d i s t o r t e d h u m a n i m a g e , " w h i c h r e n d e r e d t h e i m a g e o f G o d in h u m a n b e i n g s " d e s t r o y e d . " T h i s m a y be c o n t r a s t e d w i t h a general insistence in t h e East o n t h e " u n d i s t o r t e d i m age of G o d " in m e n a n d w o m e n , w h e r e i n o n l y t h e likeness n e e d s to be recovered, w h i l e t h e i m a g e is l a t e n t l y p r e s e r v e d . N o n e t h e l e s s , A u g u s t i n e p u t t h e " n e w " C h r i s t i a n d o c t r i n e to w o r k w i t h great results, b u t w i t h a focus t h a t further s e p a r a t e d h i m from classical Pauline theology. 20

21

A u g u s t i n e used t h e revised d o c t r i n e p r i m a r i l y as a foil against t h e Pelagians w h o c l a i m e d t h a t b a p t i s m was u n n e c e s s a r y . H i s res p o n s e was t h a t b a p t i s m was a b s o l u t e l y necessary d u e to t h e h u m a n being's " d e s t r o y e d n a t u r e " w h i c h was in n e e d o f b a p t i s m a n d grace. T h i s a l m o s t m e t a p h y s i c a l a r g u m e n t m a y be c o n t r a s t e d w i t h Paul's e m p h a s i s o n b a p t i s m as a r e t u r n from i d o l a t r y a n d a false c r e a t u r e l y i n d e p e n d e n c e . Similarly, in d e a l i n g w i t h t h e b a p t i s m o f i n f a n t s A u g u s t i n e ' s focus is o n d e l i v e r a n c e from "original sin." For Paul b a p t i s m is c e r t a i n l y c h a r a c t e r i z e d as b e i n g for " r e m i s s i o n o f s i n s , " b u t

19

See Jaroslav Pelikan, The Emergence of the Catholic Tradition (¡00-600), Vol. I: The Christian Tradition (Chicago: T h e University of Chicago Press, 1971) 2 9 9 301. Ibid. ' It shotdd be sobering for theologians to recognize that w h a t was originally a H e b r e w parallelism, "image and likeness," has been dissected, been given distinct meanings, been passed through a gnostic filter, been served u p repeatedly d u r i n g the Reformation, and is still an object of ongoing debate in Christian anthropology. :

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t h e m a j o r i t y o f references deal w i t h b a p t i s m " i n t o C h r i s t . "

2 1

In b o t h

i n s t a n c e s r e g a r d i n g b a p t i s m A u g u s t i n e favors a m e t a p h y s i c a l , p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g a p p r o a c h a i m e d at i n d i v i d u a l salvation, w h i l e Paul speaks primarily a b o u t an imitation of the death a n d resurrection of Christ, w h i c h addresses a sinful w o r l d , b u t m o r e t h a n a n y t h i n g , i n c o r p o rates all m e m b e r s i n t o a life in C h r i s t a n d t h e C h u r c h . U l t i m a t e l y , for A u g u s t i n e this d o c t r i n e b e c a m e t h e e n t i r e p r o v i d e n t i a l r e a s o n i n g b e h i n d t h e i n c a r n a t i o n : s o m e o n e h a d t o b e b o r n virginally, w i t h o u t o r i g i n a l sin a n d w i t h an u n d i s t o r t e d n a t u r e , in o r d e r t o r e t u r n h u m a n i t y t o t h e s a m e "sinless" (asexual?) s t a t e . T h i s p o s i t i o n is a far cry f r o m Paul's i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e r o a d t o D a m a s c u s e p i s o d e , J o h n ' s r e p o r t i n g o f J e s u s ' first m i r a c l e at C a n a , o r A t h a n a s i u s ' s On the carnation,

In-

all of w h o m u n d e r s t o o d G o d as self-revealing by n a t u r e ,

a n d n o t p r o v i d e n t i a l l y c o n s t r a i n e d t o r e s p o n d t o a difficulty c a u s e d by h u m a n sexual b e h a v i o r . A l t h o u g h J e r o m e ' s V u l g a t e cleared u p difficulties w i t h differing O l d L a t i n e d i t i o n s t h a t c i r c u l a t e d in R o m e a n d N o r t h

Africa,

A u g u s t i n e ' s (forgivable) eisegesis r e m a i n s w i t h u s . T o d a y , if o n e asks a n y W e s t e r n e r w h a t A d a m a n d Eve's sin w a s , t h e a n s w e r "sex" is given unhesitatingly and u n a n i m o u s l y — t h e gnostic myth remains, the G r e e k s c r i p t u r a l text n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g . T h i s a t t i t u d e is n o t o n l y a p o p u l a r m i s c o n c e p t i o n , b u t f u n c t i o n s at " h i g h " t h e o l o g i c a l levels: w i t n e s s t h e r e c e n t N e w Revised S t a n d a r d Version r e n d e r i n g of Ps. 5 1 : 5 , " I n d e e d , I was b o r n guilty, a s i n n e r w h e n m y m o t h e r c o n ceived m e , " i n c o r p o r a t i n g A u g u s t i n i a n "original sin" a n d "original g u i l t " i n t o o n e line ( w h e r e i n t h e Revised S t a n d a r d Version h a d b e e n m o r e careful). The O r t h o d o x u n d e r s t a n d t h i s f o r m o f g n o s t i c i s m t o b e n o t o n l y m i s o g y n o u s , b u t m i s a n t h r o p i c , d e n y i n g a positive value 2

to h u m a n s e x u a l i t y — w h i c h is n o t d e n i e d in a n y biblical t e x t . ' V I . SLAVIC AND RUSSIAN

T h e t r a d i t i o n a l b e g i n n i n g s o f t h e t r a n s l a t i o n of t h e Bible i n t o Slavic are w i t h t h o s e fathers of Slavic literary c u l t u r e , Cyril ( + 8 6 9 ) , " From the available evidence ir does nor seem rhar infant baptism was an issue in Paul's time, since the baptism of households probably would have included all rhe d e p e n d e n t m e m b e r s , slaves, children, etc., just as the celebration o f Passover in Jewish households would have been inclusive of all household m e m b e r s . " This rheological affirmation is shared by some Wesrern biblical exegeres. See Erhard S. Gerstenberger, Psalms, Part I with an Introduction to Cultic Poetry, Vol. XIV: The Forms of the Old Testament Literature (Grand Rapids, Mich.: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1988) 214, and other references cired rhere.

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b a p t i z e d C o n s r a n t i n c , a n d his o l d e r b r o t h e r M e t h o d i u s ( + 8 8 4 ) . Cyril, k n o w n as " C o n s t a n t i n e t h e P h i l o s o p h e r " for his a c a d e m i c skills, a n d M e t h o d i u s , w h o w o u l d c o n t i n u e t r a n s l a t i o n w o r k w i t h disciples in Bulgaria after his b r o t h e r ' s d e a t h , w e r e m e m b e r s of t h e Slavic-speaki n g c o m m u n i t y in T h e s s a l o n i k a , p a r t of a "Slavic p r e s e n c e " t h e r e d a t i n g b a c k at least t o t h e sixth c e n t u r y A . D . T h e b r o t h e r s were acc o m p l i s h e d l i n g u i s t s , a n d Cyril r e m a r k a b l y s o , m a s t e r i n g G r e e k , Slavic, L a t i n , H e b r e w , a n d Syriac. They were b o t h e m p l o y e d b y t h e B y z a n t i n e E m p e r o r M i c h a e l III a n d t h e g r e a t P a t r i a r c h P h o t i u s as emissaries t o t h e A r a b s a n d K h a z a r s , a n d p r i m a r i l y as m i s s i o n a r i e s to S l a v i c - s p e a k i n g l a n d s o n t h e D a n u b e a n d in t h e B a l k a n s . By t h e t i m e P r i n c e Rostislav of M o r a v i a r e q u e s t e d missionaries from C o n s t a n t i n o p l e t o t e a c h his p e o p l e t h e i r o w n l a n g u a g e ( 8 6 2 ) — i n o r d e r t o foil G e r m a n political a m b i t i o n s — i t is p r o b a b l e t h e b r o t h e r s h a d already begun w o r k i n g o n s o m e type of alphabet. T h e early h i s t o r y of t h e Slavic Bible is t o o c o m p l e x t o r e p e a t in full, b u t s o m e o f t h e m o r e n o t a b l e p o i n t s b e a r m e n t i o n i n g , m a n y o f w h i c h are historical ironies. T h e first q u i r k of h i s t o r y is t h a t t h e Slavic a l p h a b e t a t t r i b u t e d t o C o n s t a n t i n e - C y r i l ' s inventiveness (Cyrillic) was p r o b a b l y c r e a t e d later b y M e t h o d i u s ' s disciples in Bulgaria in t h e last d e c a d e of the n i n t h c e n t u r y . ' M a n y scholars n o w believe t h a t C o n s t a n t i n e - C y r i l d e v i s e d a n o t h e r a l p h a b e t , G l a g o l i t i c , w h i c h was utilized b y t h e M o r a v i a n s b u t s o o n fell i n t o disuse; a n d his h a d n o t b e e n t h e first a t t e m p t . Earlier in t h e s a m e c e n t u r y t w o B y z a n t i n e e m p e r o r s t r i e d unsuccessfully t o synthesize a Slavic a l p h a b e t ; a n d t h e F r a n k s t r a n s l a t e d a small liturgical selection o f C h r i s t i a n texts from Latin i n t o Slavic w i t h t h e use o f L a t i n letters. 2

A s e c o n d i r o n y is t h a t t h e p r e l i t e r a r y Slavic l a n g u a g e h a d n o theological o r religious v o c a b u l a r y , n o r a v o c a b u l a r y o f p h i l o s o p h y or social i n s t i t u t i o n s , w h i c h c o u l d serve as a basis for t r a n s l a t i o n . C o m p o s i t e G r e e k w o r d s , like o u r English "theo-logy" a n d "tris-agion," b e c a m e n e w Slavic w o r d s w i t h identical c o m p o s i t i o n from G r e e k r o o t s . T h e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e G r e e k Bible was so f o r m a t i v e in t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of t h e Slavic Bible over t h e next century, o r r a t h e r o f Slavic literary l a n g u a g e in g e n e r a l , t h a t t h e w o r d c o u n t a n d w o r d o r d e r M

R o m a n Jakobson, "Sr. Consrantine's Prologue ro the Gospel," St. Vladimir's Seminary Quarterly, VII, 1 (1963) 14-19, and o t h e r articles in the same n u m b e r . Special thanks to Dr. T h o m a s Klocek of DePaul University for an updated bibliography on the O h r i d literary school, including the following m o r e accessible irems: Radmila Ugrinova-Skalovska, " C l e m e n t of O h r i d a n d the F o u n d i n g of the O h r i d Literary School," Macedonian Review, XVI, 3 (1986) 2 5 8 - 6 2 ; N . L. Tunirsii, Sv. Kliment (Tipografiia Sv. TV. Sergiivoii I.avry, 1913) 2 2 4 - 6 0 [in Russian].

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often b e c a m e t h e s a m e in b o t h Bibles. This was t r u e to a s u r p r i s i n g d e g r e e : W h e n particles existed in G r e e k w h i c h h a d n o Slavic c o u n t e r p a r t , a p a r t i c l e was i n v e n t e d a n d i n s e r t e d i n t o t h e Slavic biblical text a t t h e a p p r o p r i a t e p o i n t ! (Cf. A q u i l a s G r e e k t r a n s l a t i o n o f H e b r e w a little over o n e - h a l f m i l l e n n i u m earlier.) N o o t h e r literary l a n g u a g e , w i t h t h e possible e x c e p t i o n of H e b r e w , was so p r o f o u n d l y i n f l u e n c e d by t h e biblical text. The Slavic l a n g u a g e b e c a m e " l i t e r a t e " in c o n f o r m i t y t o t h e G r e e k Bible w h i c h gave it its v o c a b u l a r y a n d s y n t a x , as well as its theological o r i e n t a t i o n . A t h i r d historical r i d d l e b e g i n s w i t h t h e M o r a v i a n s , w h o originally r e q u e s t e d B y z a n t i n e m i s s i o n a r i e s a n d received t h e h e l p . The m i s s i o n a r i e s m a d e use o f t h e Slavic v e r n a c u l a r liturgically a n d in p r e a c h i n g , b u t t h e M o r a v i a n s d i d n o t b e c o m e t h e p r i m a r y vehicle of t h e B y z a n t i n e - S l a v i c m i s s i o n . This lot fell t o Boris of Bulgaria w h o , w i t h i n a few years o f t h e o r i g i n a l m i s s i o n , a c c e p t e d C h r i s t i a n i t y from C o n s t a n t i n o p l e in o r d e r t o be delivered from t h e M o r a v i a n s ! The Slavic v e r n a c u l a r was successfully salvaged b y t h e B u l g a r i a n s w h e n t h e y g r a n t e d a s y l u m to M e t h o d i u s ' s circle of disciples, e.g., C l e m e n t of O h r i d ( O c h r i d a ) a n d o t h e r s . The f o u r t h a n d last e q u i v o c a t i o n falls t o t h e B y z a n t i n e s . W h e n C o n s t a n t i n e - C y r i l a n d M e t h o d i u s first b e g a n t o read t h e Bible a n d p r a y in Slavic, t h e y were a c c u s e d of heresy b y t h e Latin C h r i s t i a n s . T h e " t h r e e - l a n g u a g e s heresy" was a belief t h a t t h e Bible c o u l d o n l y be r e a d in o n e of t h e t h r e e l a n g u a g e s i n s c r i b e d o n t h e cross o f J e s u s — H e b r e w , G r e e k , o r L a t i n . In s p i t e of t h e Latin c h a r g e t h e b r o t h e r s r e m a i n e d firm in t h e i r resolve to c o n t i n u e u s i n g Slavic, o s t e n s i b l y d e f e n d e d b y C o n s t a n t i n o p l e . The B y z a n t i n e e q u i v o c a t i o n lies in t h e fact t h a t n o t all t h e G r e e k s w e r e c o n v i n c e d o f t h e l e g i t i m a c y of t h e use of Slavic: t h e E m p e r o r t h o u g h t t h a t t r a n s l a t i o n was a d e p a r t u r e from t r a d i t i o n ; C o n s t a n t i n e - C y r i l was afraid of an accusation of heresy from t h e G r e e k s w h e n h e p r a y e d in Slavic; a n d i n d e e d , t h e s a m e r e c r i m i n a t i o n s r e a p p e a r e d w i t h t h e arrival o f G r e e k m i s s i o n a r i e s in Bulgaria w i t h i n t h e c e n t u r y . A l t h o u g h C o n s t a n t i n o p l e theoretically a c k n o w l e d g e d t h e t h e o l o g i c a l validity o f t h e use of o t h e r l a n g u a g e s , in p r a c t i c e t h e y d i s p l a y e d a b i t o f " B y z a n t i n e c h a u v i n i s m . " 25

As w i t h t h e h i s t o r y o f t h e t r a n s l a t i o n o f t h e S e p t u a g i n t from H e b r e w , so t o o t h e t r a n s l a t i o n o f t h e L u c i a n i c r e c e n s i o n a n d t h e N e w T e s t a m e n t from G r e e k i n t o Slavic is c l o u d e d b y h a l f - t r u t h s . T h e p o p u l a r version o f t h e h i s t o r y says t h a t t h e o l d e r M e t h o d i u s a n d

" D i m i t r i Obolensky, The Byzantine Commonwealth: Eastern Europe (Crestwood, N.Y.: Sr. Vladimir's Seminary Press, 1971) 2 0 2 - 3 .

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t w o o f his disciples finished t r a n s l a t i n g all t h e b o o k s o f t h e Bible from G r e e k after t h e d e a t h o f b r o t h e r C y r i l , t h a t is b e t w e e n 8 6 9 a n d 8 8 4 . This d e s c r i p t i o n is p r o b a b l y b a s e d o n a n o v e r s i m p l i f i c a t i o n or t h e desire t o h a v e t h e s a i n t e d b r o t h e r s finish t h e m o n u m e n t a l task w i t h i n t h e i r lifetimes. A d e c a d e o r so later t h e exarch J o h n o f B u l garia said t h a t Cyril h a d translated t h e G o s p e l B o o k a n d Epistle B o o k , w h i l e M e t h o d i u s h a d t r a n s l a t e d sixty o t h e r b o o k s from G r e e k i n t o Slavic. Even if w e e m p l o y a s h o r t c a n o n , w h i c h n e i t h e r t h e G r e e k s n o r t h e Slavs ever d i d , t h e n u m b e r s c i t e d are insufficient for a w h o l e Bible o f a n y t y p e . T h e early n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y R u s s i a n h i s t o r i a n M e t r o p o l i t a n Evgenii ( B o l h o v i t i n o v ) s t a t e d t h a t a full t r a n s l a t i o n w a s never m a d e b y t h e s a i n t e d b r o t h e r s . In a d d i t i o n , s i n c e n o c o m p l e t e m a n u s c r i p t o f t h e Slavic Bible exists from t h e w h o l e of t h e Kievan P e r i o d ( X - X I I I ) , we m a y d o u b t w h e t h e r t h e e n t i r e t r a n s l a t i o n was e x e c u t e d d u r i n g this t i m e . N o n e t h e l e s s , t h e K i e v a n P e r i o d w a s n o t d e v o i d of t h o s e intere s t e d in t h e Bible, especially in c o n s i d e r a t i o n of t h e p o p u l a r p o w e r of l i t u r g y a n d t h e p e r s o n a l p i e t y o f t h e p e o p l e o f Kievan R u s ' . Since t h e O l d Testament e n j o y e d l i m i t e d liturgical use, o n l y t h e p r e s c r i b e d O l d Testament l e c t i o n a r y was collected i n t o o n e liturgical b o o k , in p r a c t i c e r e n d e r i n g a c o m p l e t e c o l l e c t i o n unnecessary. F o r b o t h l i t u r gical a n d private use, t h e available biblical b o o k s c i r c u l a t e d in s m a l l e r c o l l e c t e d e d i t i o n s . The Psalter was t h e m o s t p o p u l a r o n e , o u t p a c i n g even t h e G o s p e l s , a n d was u s e d n o t o n l y as t h e " p r a y e r b o o k of t h e C h u r c h " b u t also as t h e o n l y r e a d i n g p r i m e r . After t h e Psalter a n d G o s p e l s c a m e t h e P r o p h e t s a n d W i s d o m literature, especially S i r a c h . The Palaea, a "Reader's D i g e s t version" o f t h e H i s t o r i c a l B o o k s of t h e O l d ' T e s t a m e n t dressed u p w i t h a p o c r y p h a l l e g e n d s , c o m p l e t e d t h e list. G . F e d o t o v characterizes t h e era as follows: 26

In Russia [Kievan Rus'] the notion of the Biblical canon, distinguishing strongly between the inspired Holy Scripture and the words of the fathers, never existed. All religious writings were called sacred and divine insofar as they were not heretical. T h e Russian people had a particular predilection for the apocrypha [i.e., n o n Biblical rather than deuterocanonical] because of its fabulous content which appealed to their imagination. " 2

George P. Fedorov, The Russian Religious Mind, Vol. I: Kievan Christianity: The Tenth to the Thirteenth Century, ed. J o h n Meyendorff ( C a m b r i d g e , Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1966) 4 2 - 4 3 . ' I b i d . , 43.

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W h i l e r e a d i n g was a v i r t u e o f t h e elite, a n d liturgy a p p e a l e d to b o t h elite a n d c o m m o n , H o l y S c r i p t u r e a n d a p o c r y p h a l w o r k s were rivaled in p o p u l a r i t y o n l y by t r a n s l a t i o n s o f t h e lives o f s a i n t s . These w e r e followed in t h e m a n u s c r i p t s by s e r m o n s a n d p a t r i s t i c exegeses. T h u s , t h r e e of t h e largest a n d m o s t p o p u l a r literary c o r p o r a o f Kieven R u s ' h a d H o l y S c r i p t u r e as t h e i r c e n t e r p i e c e . After a h i a t u s in biblical t r a n s l a t i o n effort o f n o t a few h u n d r e d years, w e r e s u m e o u r i n v e s t i g a t i o n in N o v g o r o d a t t h e e n d o f t h e fifteenth c e n t u r y , h a v i n g w i t n e s s e d t h e p a s s i n g of t h e e n t i r e A p p a nage P e r i o d ( M o n g o l s ) a n d t h e fall of C o n s t a n t i n o p l e ( T u r k s ) ; a n d w e s t a n d o n t h e b r i n k of t h e coalescence o f t h e k i n g d o m of M u s c o vite R u s ' , o r G r e a t Russia. A t this t i m e t h e so-called "Judaizer h e r esy" arose, a m o v e m e n t t h a t i n c l u d e d t r a n s l a t i o n s o f biblical b o o k s o n l y f r o m t h e H e b r e w . 'The "Judaizers" w e r e led by Z e c h a r i a h (Slavic: Skharia), w h o was p r o b a b l y a C r i m e a n Karaite Jew; a n d h e t a u g h t t h a t C h r i s t w a s a p r o p h e t , t h e m e s s i a n i c p r o p h e c i e s were unfulfilled a n d still a w a i t e d fulfillment, t h e C h u r c h is u n n e c e s s a r y , e t c . Besides t h e O l d Testament, t h e g r o u p t r a n s l a t e d t h e m e d i c a l treatises, ethics, a n d logic of M a i m o n i d e s a n d al-Gazzali, as well as astrological b o o k s . W h e n t w o N o v g o r o d i a n priests i n f l u e n c e d b y t h e m o v e m e n t t r a n s ferred t o M o s c o w , t h e "Judaizer heresy" b e c a m e m a r g i n a l l y i n f l u e n tial in t h e c a p i t a l . 28

'The m a i n o p p o n e n t of t h e J u d a i z e r s was J o s e p h o f V o l o k (Iosif Volotskii), an a b b o t o f t h e V o l o k o l a m s k M o n a s t e r y . H e successfully p u r s u e d t h e m u n t i l t h e y were c o n d e m n e d b y a c h u r c h c o u n c i l ( 1 5 0 4 ) a n d e r a d i c a t e d b y Ivan III. J o s e p h is best k n o w n in R u s s i a n h i s t o r y as t h e successful s p o k e s m a n for t h e "possessors," over against N i l u s of Sora (Nil Sorskii) w h o led t h e " n o n - p o s s e s s o r s , " in w h a t b e c a m e a l e g i t i m a t e m i n o r i t y p o s i t i o n theologically, t h o u g h less so politically. S i m p l y p u t , t h e possessors believed in extensive c h u r c h h o l d i n g s a n d close c o o p e r a t i o n w i t h secular a u t h o r i t y in o r d e r t o d o G o d ' s w o r k , while the non-possessors m i n i m i z e d church holdings and preferred a s e p a r a t i o n b e t w e e n C h u r c h a n d state. Is it c o i n c i d e n t a l t h a t S c r i p t u r e figured in Joseph's c o n t r o v e r s i e s w i t h t h e n o n - p o s s e s s o r s n o less t h a n it h a d w i t h t h e Judaizers? The n o n - p o s s e s s o r s , s o m e w h a t in a n t i c i p a t i o n o f w h a t w o u l d o c c u r in 8

' Georges Florovsky, Ways of Russian Theology, Part I, Vol. V: The CollectedWorks of Georges Florovsky, ed. Richard S. H a u g h , tr. Robert L. Nichols (Belmont, Mass.: N o r d l a n d Publishing C o m p a n y , 1979) 15. Francis J. T h o m s o n , " T h e C o r pus of Slavonic Translations Available in Muscovy," Christianity and the Eastern Slavs, Vol. I: Slavic Cultures in the Middle Ages, ed. Boris Gasparov and Olga Raevsky-Hughes (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993) 186.

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t h e W e s t later in t h e s a m e c e n t u r y , "differentiated in t h e t e a c h i n g of the C h u r c h a m o n g H o l y Writ, tradition, a n d h u m a n custom, cons i d e r i n g o n l y H o l y W r i t — t h a t is, G o d ' s c o m m a n d m e n t s — a s c o m pletely b i n d i n g . T h e rest c o u l d b e criticized a n d c h a n g e d . " A l t h o u g h b o t h Joseph a n d Nilus were canonized, Joseph's "establishment" position better a c c o m m o d a t e d t h e rising centralization o f t h e Muscovite state, while s o m e of Nilus's disciples were c o n d e m n e d as heretics. 19

In t h e m i d s t of t h e J u d a i z e r a n d n o n - p o s s e s s o r c o n t r o v e r s i e s , t h e first k n o w n , c o m p l e t e Slavic Bible was c o m p i l e d in N o v g o r o d . The t r a n s l a t i o n effort, w h i c h w e n t b e y o n d solely biblical texts, was s t i m u l a t e d by a n d r e s p o n d e d t o t h e a b o v e - m e n t i o n e d m o v e m e n t s u n d e r t h e a u t h o r i z a t i o n a n d p r o t e c t i o n of A r c h b i s h o p G e n n a d i u s of N o v g o r o d — a n d b e c a m e k n o w n in R u s s i a n as G e n n a d i u s ' s Bible ( 1 4 9 9 a n d following). Political a n d p o l e m i c a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s u n d e r m i n e d t h e i n t e g r i t y of t h e effort f r o m t h e very b e g i n n i n g . N e i t h e r H e b r e w n o r G r e e k w a s e m p l o y e d as a p r i m a r y text from w h i c h to translate. O n l y t h e Vulgate was used, an i n d i c a t i o n o f Russia's general o r i e n t a t i o n t o w a r d t h e O c c i d e n t after t h e fall o f C o n s t a n t i n o p l e . T h e V u l g a t e was s u p p l i e d by a D o m i n i c a n , Friar B e n j a m i n ( V e n i a m i n ) , a n d J e r o m e ' s prefaces a n d N i c h o l a s o f Lyra's p o s t s c r i p t s were a p p e n d e d to t h e C h u r c h Slavic t r a n s l a t i o n . T h e t r a n s l a t o r s s e e m t o h a v e b e e n u n a w a r e t h a t t h e b o o k s o f t h e Vulgate are n o t identical to t h e E a s t e r n c a n o n . ' Russian e v a l u a t i o n s of t h e t r a n s l a t i o n t h r o u g h m o d e r n t i m e s have b e e n negative, a n d focus o n t h e " i n c u r s i o n a r y " p r e s e n c e o f R o m a n C a t h o l i c politics o n t o Russian soil. O t h e r Latin texts w h i c h p r o d u c e d a " E u r o p e a n r e s o n a n c e " in Russia w e r e also 30

1

"' Nicholas V. Riasanovsky, A History of Russia, 5th ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993) 123. European contacts and ideas were more exciting t h a n a static Byzantium, and they t e m p t e d the Russians away from their o w n traditional roots. " See T h o m s o n , "Corpus of Slavonic Translations," 187. In this well-researched article T h o m s o n describes how intellectual silence engulfed Slavic translation projects and RusVRussia from the t e n t h to the seventeenth century. T h e "why" of it, focusing on the c o n t e n t of translations, is addressed, b u t requires some further examination, in m y o p i n i o n . For example, t h e Byzantines from w h o m the Slavs received texts for translation, b e g i n n i n g at least as early as the eleventh century, formally renounced their o w n Greek philosophical inheritance, which anti-intellectual attitude—preserved as a c h u r c h a n a t h e m a in C o n s t a n t i n o p l e and R u s ! — w a s transm i t t e d to t h e Slavs. (See J o h n M e y e n d o r f f , Rome, Constantinople, Moscow [Cresrwood, N . Y : St. Vladimir's Seminary Press, 1996] 3 5 , 119-23.) Also, the c o m p a r i s o n of the intellectual history of Rus' with c o n t e m p o r a n e o u s Western intellectual h i s t o r y — t h e rediscovery of Arisrotle and the synthesis within Scholasticism—presupposes that the w o n d r o u s Western model is historically normative, which it may well n o t be.

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translated at A r c h b i s h o p G c n n a d i u s ' s residence. T h e s e i n c l u d e d pieces f o c u s i n g o n m e s s i a n i s m in S c r i p t u r e , p o l e m i c s a g a i n s t J e w s , a n d C h u r c h - s t a t e d e b a t e s o n p r o p e r t y . Like it or n o t , L a t i n a t e i n f l u e n c e w o u l d d o m i n a t e m a j o r sectors of Russian ecclesiastical life for c e n turies t o c o m e . ' 2

After t h e a p p e a r a n c e o f t h e first p r i n t e d Epistle B o o k ( " T h e A p o s t l e " ) in 1 5 6 4 , t h e first full text o f t h e Slavic Bible was p u b l i s h e d in 1 5 8 0 , a n d again w i t h e m e n d a t i o n s in 1 5 8 1 . It w a s k n o w n as t h e O s t r o g Bible after its chief p a t r o n , P r i n c e C o n s t a n t i n e o f O s t r o g ( K o n s t a n i n O s t r o z h s k i i ) . The w o r k a p p e a r e d as a p a r t o f a larger p r i v a t e p u b l i s h i n g effort a m o n g t h e O r t h o d o x in L i t h u a n i a a n d P o land, w h i c h i n c l u d e d liturgical b o o k s a n d religious p a m p h l e t s — t r a n s lational r a t h e r t h a n p o l e m i c a l w o r k s . A l t h o u g h all t h e O s t r o g p u b l i c a t i o n s served a p o l o g e t i c p u r p o s e s , t h e i n s p i r a t i o n for this serious t r a n s l a t i o n p r o j e c t c a m e from a greater vision o f S l a v o - H e l l e n i c c u l t u r e , c o m m o n t o t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s in t h e " O s t r o g C i r c l e . " T r a i n e d in G r e e k , L a t i n , a n d Slavic, m e m b e r s o f t h e O s t r o g C i r c l e r o o t e d t h e i r w o r k in t h e i r o w n t r a d i t i o n , w h i l e p a r t i c i p a t i n g in t h e trilingual " G r e e k s c h o o l , " w h i c h lasted o n l y a few d e c a d e s . T h e Prince's s c h o o l s e e m e d to b e a r e s p o n s e t o t h e J e s u i t s p o n s o r e d C o l l e g e of St. A t h a n a s i u s f o u n d e d in R o m e d u r i n g t h e s a m e p e r i o d t o e d u c a t e Slavs a n d G r e e k s in U n i a t e C a t h o l i c i s m ; a n d indeed they responded strongly to Uniatism a n d the calendar reform of P o p e G r e g o r y X I I I . N o n e t h e l e s s , t h e m o s t s t u n n i n g a c c o m p l i s h m e n t o f t h e O s t r o g C i r c l e was t h e i r Bible; a n d t h e q u a l i t y of its Slavic text favorably c o m p a r e d t o c o n t e m p o r a r y t r a n s l a t i o n s in o t h e r l a n g u a g e s , for e x a m p l e t h e Sixtus C l e m e n t i n e version of t h e V u l g a t e (1 5 9 2 ) . " In e v a l u a t i n g t h e t r a n s l a t i o n , Pr. G . F l o r o v s k y w r i t e s , " T h e O s t r o g Bible, as s u c h , r e m a i n s a l a n d m a r k in S l a v o n i c biblical h i s tory. It a b i d e s also as a m a g n i f i c e n t a c h i e v e m e n t in itself, a m o n u m e n t of s c h o l a r s h i p , l i t e r a t u r e , a n d t h e o l o g y . " The m e m b e r s of t h e s h o r t - l i v e d C i r c l e were exceptional for t h e i r t i m e a n d place, a n d m a n y w e n t o n t o o t h e r tasks o f h i s t o r y - m a k i n g significance. Before leaving t h e O s t r o g C i r c l e , let us l o o k briefly at t h e i r m e t h o d o l o g y . E m p l o y i n g classical C h u r c h Slavic, t h e y a t t e m p t e d t o foll o w t h e G r e e k textual t r a d i t i o n u s i n g every available critical r e s o u r c e . S t a r t i n g first w i t h G c n n a d i u s ' s Bible, o t h e r G r e e k a n d Slavic m a n u scripts w e r e o b t a i n e d w i t h difficulty from C o n s t a n t i n o p l e a n d m o n a s t i c c e n t e r s ; b u t t h e m a n u s c r i p t s w e r e d i s a p p o i n t i n g l y p o o r . After " Florovsky, Ways, Parr I, Vol. V, 14-19. " Ibid., 4 2 - 4 5 .

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these, t h e y c o n s u l t e d t h e ( M a s o r e t i c ) H e b r e w text, t h e V u l g a t e , a n d r e c e n t C z e c h a n d Polish versions; a n d finally t h e y c h e c k e d their results against the Aldine S e p t u a g i n t (Venice, 1518) a n d the C o m p l u t e n s i a n Polyglot ( S p a i n , 1 5 2 2 ) w h i c h c o n t a i n e d parallel colu m n s of H e b r e w , A r a m a i c , G r e e k , a n d L a t i n O l d Testaments, as well as G r e e k a n d L a t i n N e w ' T e s t a m e n t s . All s u b s e q u e n t e d i t i o n s o f C h u r c h Slavic Bibles h a v e b e e n d e p e n d e n t o n t h e text of t h e O s t r o g B i b l e . " Clearly, a n y o n e c l a i m i n g an a u t o n o m y for t h e Slavic Bible exclusive of t h e H e b r e w text o r o f W e s t e r n s c h o l a r s h i p k n o w s n e i t h e r this Bible n o r its history. As Prince C o n s t a n t i n e of O s t r o g w e n t o n t o b e c o m e an e c u m e n i s t of sorts, so t o o a n o t h e r o f his C i r c l e , Cyril Lukaris ( 1 5 7 2 - 1 6 3 8 ) , w e n t o n to b e c o m e t h e e c u m e n i c a l l y m i n d e d p a t r i a r c h o f A l e x a n dria, a n d later p a t r i a r c h o f C o n s t a n t i n o p l e . " Aside from his h i g h l y political r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h t h e C h u r c h o f R o m e a n d t h e Turks, Cyril is best k n o w n for his C a l v i n i s t Confession ( s t a t e m e n t of religious belief), p u b l i s h e d at G e n e v a in 1 6 2 9 a n d w r i t t e n in Latin six years earlier. Cyril was possibly t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t intellectual figure in t h e E a s t e r n C h u r c h at t h e t i m e , t h o u g h d o o m e d t o tragic political a n d ecclesiastical c i r c u m s t a n c e s ; a n d his Confession was c o n d e m n e d by n o less t h a n six local c h u r c h c o u n c i l s before t h e e n d o f t h e s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y . ' W i t h t h e r e p u d i a t i o n s o f Cyril's C a l v i n i s t s t a t e m e n t of faith c a m e a tacit, n e g a t i v e a t t i t u d e f r o m t h e c o n d e m n i n g h i e r a r c h y t o w a r d an e n l i g h t e n e d use o f t h e Bible b y t h e faithful. The react i o n s o m e t i m e s t o o k o n an aspect c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of c o n t e m p o r a r y , seventeenth-century R o m a n Catholic polemics. 6

Let us briefly s u m m a r i z e s o m e o f Cyril's a c t i o n s p e r t i n e n t to o u r t o p i c a n d t h e r e a c t i o n s he e l i c i t e d . In " Q u e s t i o n I I I " of t h e Confession C y r i l lists t h e c a n o n o f S c r i p t u r e as t h a t o f t h e S y n o d of L a o d i c e a (see t h e s u s p i c i o u s C a n o n 6 0 a b o v e ) ; b u t h e p r o c e e d s t o c h a n g e it t o 37

14

Ibid., 4 5 . A "child" of the Osrrog Circle, Meletii Smorritsky (whose farher was an ediror of rhe Osrrog Bible and firsr rector of rhe School) used the same critical approach to sacred philology ro create a Polish O r t h o d o x version of Scriprure, w h i c h differed from that of the Polish Prorestants and R o m a n Catholics. See David A. Frick, Melelij Smolryc'kyj ( C a m b r i d g e , Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1995) 1 8 1 - 2 0 5 . " See T i m o r h y Ware, The Orthodox Church, rev. ed. ( H a r m o n d s w o r t h , England: Penguin Books Ltd., 1993) 9 6 - 9 7 . See D o s i t h e u s , The Acts and Decrees of The Synod of Jerusalem, tr. J. N . W. B. Robertson (New York: A M S Press, 1969) for a p o i n t - b y - p o i n t response. '" T h e Lukaris episode has never been fully investigated from the perspective of the history of the Bible in the O r t h o d o x C h u r c h , probably d u e ro a preoccupation with the more i m m e d i a t e and prevalent doctrinal and political issues. 16

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c o r r e s p o n d exactly t o t h e C a l v i n i s t c a n o n , i n v o k i n g t h e c o n c e p t of " a p o c r y p h a " for r e m a i n i n g b o o k s , a n d asserts t h a t this h a d always b e e n t h e c a n o n i c a l r e c k o n i n g o f t h e O r t h o d o x C h u r c h ! This p a r t i c u l a r d e c e p t i o n was u n c o v e r e d a t t h e S y n o d a t Jassy in M o l d a v i a ( 1 6 4 2 ) , t h e s e c o n d s u c h s y n o d c o n d e m n i n g t h e Confession. The first local c o u n c i l in C o n s t a n t i n o p l e against Cyril's s t a t e m e n t ( 1 6 3 8 ) foc u s e d m o r e o n a c r i t i q u e of C h a p t e r II, w h e r e i n h e c l a i m e d S c r i p ture to be of higher authority than the C h u r c h . Cyril argued that the C h u r c h was liable t o err, w h e r e a s S c r i p t u r e was n o t . C e r t a i n l y Cyril h i m s e l f was liable of error, as p r o v e d at t h e S y n o d of J e r u s a l e m ( 1 6 7 2 ) . T h i s local c o u n c i l t o o k p a i n s t o research his s e r m o n s a n d illustrate t h a t h e c o n s i s t e n t l y c o n t r a d i c t e d himself, referencing " a p o c r y p h a l " b o o k s as a u t h o r i t a t i v e S c r i p t u r e a n d c o u n t e r m a n d i n g t h e d o c t r i n a l c o n t e n t of t h e Confession. In general t h e o p p o s e d s y n o d s w e r e c o n c e r n e d w i t h p r o t e c t i n g t h e i n t e g r i t y of t h e t e a c h i n g of t h e C h u r c h a n d t h e c h u r c h fathers, as well as t h e listing of t h e b o o k s ; a n d historically t h e y w e r e c o n s i d e r e d justified a n d c o n s i s t e n t in their a c tions against the brilliant Patriarch. In r e t r o s p e c t t h e difficulty w i t h t h e Lukaris e p i s o d e a n d t h e Bible s e e m s t o lie in o t h e r a d h o m i n e m c o n d e m n a t i o n s , t h o s e d e s i g n e d solely to d e n o u n c e t h e m a n a n d his nefarious t e a c h i n g s ; b u t not everything Cyril t a u g h t was w r o n g , t h o u g h it s e e m s t o have b e e n s u b s e q u e n t l y t r e a t e d as if it w e r e . For e x a m p l e , in t h e Confession Q u e s t i o n I reads: " O u g h t t h e sacred S c r i p t u r e s t o be r e a d in t h e c o m m o n l a n g u a g e b y all C h r i s t i a n s ? " Cyril a n s w e r s , "All faithful C h r i s t i a n s o u g h t t o k n o w , believe, a n d confess, w h a t is in t h e sacred S c r i p t u r e s , " w h i c h w i t h a l m o s t all t h e rest o f t h e a n s w e r is perfectly " O r t h o d o x . " U n f o r t u n a t e l y , at o n e p o i n t h e claims, " F o r n e i t h e r can w e learn from a n y o t h e r s o u r c e t h a n f r o m t h e s a c r e d S c r i p t u r e s , " w h i c h is i n s e n s i t i v e t o O r t h o d o x p n e u m a t o l o g y , e c c l e s i o l o g y , a n d T r a d i t i o n in g e n e r a l . T h e easily r e m e m b e r e d " n o " a n s w e r given t h e s a m e q u e s t i o n b y P a t r i a r c h D o s i t h e u s at t h e S y n o d of J e r u s a l e m ( 1 6 7 2 ) is m i s l e a d i n g for t w o reasons. First, his a n s w e r t h a t S c r i p t u r e o u g h t n o t b e read in t h e c o m m o n l a n g u a g e is i n s u p p o r t a b l e from Tradition a n d is c i t e d w i t h o u t precedent. Both the Synod of C o n s t a n t i n o p l e (1638) a n d t h e S y n o d in M o l d a v i a ( 1 6 4 2 ) i g n o r e d it c o m p l e t e l y . D o s i t h e u s ' s c a n o n i c a l f o r m u l a t i o n — " t o read s o m e p a r t s o f t h e S c r i p t u r e s , a n d especially o f t h e O l d ( T e s t a m e n t ) , is f o r b i d d e n for t h e aforesaid reas o n s a n d o t h e r s o f like s o r t " — r e q u i r e s a clear c a n o n i c a l p r e c e d e n t w h i c h is n o t , o r r a t h e r c a n n o t b e , p r o v i d e d . S e c o n d , his a n s w e r is so h i g h l y qualified a n d n u a n c e d t h a t it a p p e a r s t h a t t h e fashioners of

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this r e s p o n s e s i m p l y w a n t e d t o a n s w e r " n o " w h e n L u k a r i s a n s w e r e d "yes." D o s i t h e u s uses a s i m i l a r t e c h n i q u e in a n s w e r i n g Cyril's Q u e s t i o n II ("Are t h e S c r i p t u r e s plain to C h r i s t i a n s w h o read t h e m ? " ) , w h i c h q u e s t i o n is i g n o r e d by t h e local c o u n c i l s o f C o n s t a n t i n o p l e a n d Jassy. C y r i l gives a qualified "yes" t o t h e q u e s t i o n a n d r e m a i n s w i t h i n t h e Tradition. D o s i t h e u s s e e m s t o c h a n g e t h e q u e s t i o n t o r e a d "all C h r i s t i a n s " ' a n d r e s p o n d s w i t h a qualified " n o . " A t this p o i n t t h e q u a n t i t a t i v e difference in t h e i r a n s w e r s m i g h t be c h a r a c t e r i z e d by Cyril's glass b e i n g "half-full" w h i l e D o s i t h e u s ' s is " h a l f - e m p t y . " N e v e r t h e l e s s , D o s i t h e u s p u s h e s t h e p o i n t t o c o n c l u d e , "it is n o t n e c essary, b u t r a t h e r i m p o s s i b l e , t h a t all s h o u l d k n o w w h a t t h e H o l y Spirit m a n i f e s t s t o t h o s e a l o n e w h o are exercised in w i s d o m a n d h o liness." S u b s e q u e n t to t h e s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y D o s i t h e u s ' s c o u n c i l has b e e n given a u t h o r i t a t i v e s t a t u s , w h i l e Cyril a n d his Confession have b e e n c o n s i s t e n t l y c o n d e m n e d . O n e c a n n o t h e l p b u t t h i n k t h a t in t h e p a r t i c u l a r s a b o v e , D o s i t h e u s ' s o r t h o d o x y was n o t a n y m o r e reliable t h a n Cyril's, a n d in s o m e p o i n t s less so. 8

In Russia t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y b r o u g h t w i t h it a n a v i d interest in t h e H e b r e w t e x t of t h e Bible, especially a m o n g t h e o l o g i a n s , b u t also a m o n g m e m b e r s of t h e n e w l y f o r m e d Russian Bible Society. Translations f r o m H e b r e w i n t o R u s s i a n ( i n s t e a d o f C h u r c h Slavic) d r e w m i x e d r e a c t i o n s from t h e h i e r a r c h y a n d from society at large for a b o u t fifty years, u n t i l t h e last q u a r t e r o f t h e c e n t u r y . N o t a b l e figures p r o d u c e d p e r s o n a l t r a n s l a t i o n s : M a k a r i i G l u k h a r e v ( 1 7 9 2 1 8 4 7 ) , a s e m i n a r y professor a n d S i b e r i a n missionary, t r a n s l a t e d J o b ( 1 8 3 7 ) a n d Isaiah ( 1 8 3 9 ) from H e b r e w as a t e s t i m o n y t o his o p i n i o n t h a t a Russian t r a n s l a t i o n s h o u l d be m a d e from H e b r e w ; b u t h e was officially r e p r i m a n d e d for his efforts t o w a r d t h a t e n d . A r c h p r i e s t G e r a s i m Pavskii ( 1 7 8 7 - 1 8 6 3 ) , an e m i n e n t professor a n d H e b r a i s t in St. P e t e r s b u r g , c o u r t c h a p l a i n a n d t u t o r t o t h e i m p e r i a l family, p r o d u c e d a p e r s o n a l t r a n s l a t i o n o f t h e O l d T e s t a m e n t w h i c h his s t u d e n t s c i r c u l a t e d c l a n d e s t i n e l y u n t i l all copies were confiscated in an i n v e s t i g a t i o n in 1 8 4 2 . A l t h o u g h G l u k h a r e v ' s a n d Pavskii's translat i o n s were e v e n t u a l l y p u b l i s h e d in t h e m i d - 1 8 6 0 s , t h e H e b r e w versus G r e e k d e b a t e c o n t i n u e d — t o an i m p a s s e for s o m e w h o w o u l d a d m i t o n l y o n e t r a d i t i o n (e.g., P. G o r s k i i - P l a t o n o v a c c e p t e d o n l y t h e M a s o r e t i c text, R G o v o r o v o n l y t h e S e p t u a g i n t ) ; b u t for m o s t s c h o l ars a n d c h u r c h m e n of t h e last d e c a d e s o f t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , t h e w

iS

Dositheus, Acts and Decrees, 1 5 3 . *' Florovsky, Ways, Part II, Vol. VI, 3 4 8 - 4 9 .

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c o m p l e x r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e H e b r e w a n d G r e e k texts was n o t o n l y a c k n o w l e d g e d b u t r e s e a r c h e d in critical literature o n a b o o k by-book basis. 10

O r g a n i z a t i o n a n d e x e c u t i o n o f t h e g r e a t Bible t r a n s l a t i o n p r o j e c t of n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y Russia can be c r e d i t e d t o o n l y o n e i n d i v i d u a l , M e t r o p o l i t a n P h i l a r e t ( D r o z d o v ) of M o s c o w . In 1 8 5 6 h e p e r s o n a l l y u r g e d t h e H o l y S y n o d to u n d e r t a k e a n e w t r a n s l a t i o n w h i c h w o u l d p r o v i d e "the O r t h o d o x p e o p l e w i t h t h e m e a n s t o r e a d H o l y S c r i p t u r e for i n s t r u c t i o n in t h e h o m e a n d w i t h t h e easiest possible c o m p r e h e n s i o n . " ' A n earlier t r a n s l a t i o n h a d b e e n c o m p l e t e d a n d p u b lished in s e g m e n t s : t h e G o s p e l s in 1 8 1 9 , t h e e n t i r e N e w T e s t a m e n t in 1 8 2 0 , t h e Psalter in 1 8 2 2 , a n d t h e rest o f t h e O l d T e s t a m e n t in 1 8 2 5 . Tragically, t h e c o m p l e t e d w o r k d i d n o t fare a n y b e t t e r t h a n its s p o n s o r s , A . G o l i t s y n a n d t h e Bible Society, w h o s e activities w e r e c u r t a i l e d in 1 8 2 5 . W i t h t h e p r i n t i n g c o m p l e t e , t h e w o r k was n o t only suppressed, b u t completely destroyed. 1

2

In t h e early p h a s e of t h e p r o j e c t ( 1 8 1 6 - 1 8 2 5 ) P h i l a r e t h a d set forth g u i d e l i n e s for t r a n s l a t i o n w h i c h w e r e also used in t h e s e c o n d h a l f o f t h e c e n t u r y . The t r a n s l a t i o n was m a d e from t h e M a s o r e t i c H e b r e w as t h e basic text, a n d t h e n f r o m t h e G r e e k w h e n it was t h e original l a n g u a g e , g i v i n g b o t h preference over e x t a n t Slavic translat i o n s . Literary f o r m was a n a l y z e d a n d m a i n t a i n e d : '"The s p i r i t o f a passage m u s t be p a i n s t a k i n g l y o b s e r v e d , so t h a t c o n v e r s a t i o n will be r e n d e r e d in a c o l l o q u i a l style, n a r r a t i o n in a n a r r a t i v e style, a n d so f o r t h . " H e r a n k e d t h e priorities of t r a n s l a t i o n as a c c u r a c y first, clarity s e c o n d , " a n d literary p u r i t y t h i r d . " P h i l a r e t also gave directives 4

" Ibid. See the listing of major individual translarions in e n d n o t e s 4 0 - 5 4 , as well as on pages 124-28. T h e project had originated forty years earlier w h e n Tsar Alexander I ( 1 8 0 1 1825) charged his friend A. N . Golitsyn, the head of n u m e r o u s g o v e r n m e n t religious and educational posts and the president of the newly formed Russian Bible Society, with complete responsibility in words similar to the preceding ones. Alt h o u g h the Holy Synod was not involved at a l l — a n d it was assumed C h u r c h Slavic would c o n t i n u e to be used liturgically—the actual translation project was supervised by the able dean of the St. Petersburg Academy, A r c h i m a n d r i t e Philaret (Drozdov), the future M e t r o p o l i t a n of Moscow. ' For partictdars o n this episode and the ill-fated Bible Society, see Florovsky, Ways, Part I, Vol. V, 1 8 1 - 2 0 1 . O n e m i g h t see in at least the first two items, curiously juxtaposed, the heir of the slavish word-for-word translation from Greek to C h u r c h Slavic completed a m i l l e n n i u m earlier, n o w canonized and taken as n o r m a t i v e . T h i s m i g h t be the reason that the vocabulary and syntax of the Russian Bible is not readily c o m p r e hensible to Russians. Florovsky, Ways, Parr I, Vol. V, 190. 41

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