The Beginning of Terror: A Psychological Study of Rainer Maria Rilke's Life and Work 9780814763582

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The Beginnin g o f Terro r

Literature an d Psychoanalysi s General Editor : Jeffrey Berma n i. Th e Beginnin g o f Terror : A Psychologica l Stud y o f Rainer Mari a Rilke' s Lif e an d Wor k DAVID KLEINBAR D

The Beginnin g o f Terro r A Psychologica l Stud y o f Rainer Mari a Rilke' s Lif e an d Wor k

David Kleinbar d

NEW YOR K UNIVERSIT Y PRES S NEW YORK AND LONDO N

NEW YOR K UNIVERSIT Y New Yor k an d Londo n Copyright © 199 3 b y Ne w Yor k Universit y All right s reserve d Library o f Congres s Cataloging-in-Publicatio n Dat a Kleinbard, Davi d The beginnin g o f terro r : psychological stud y o f Raine r Maria Rilke's lif e an d work / Davi d Kleinbard . p. cm . — (Literatur e an d psychoanalysis : 1) Includes bibliographica l reference s an d index . ISBN 0-8147-4626- 8 (alk . paper ) 1. Rilke , Raine r Maria , 1875-1926—Biography—Psychology . 2. Authors , German—20t h century—Biography . I . Title . II. Series . PT2635.I65Z753 199 3 83i'.9i2—dc2o 92-3263 0 [B] CI P New Yor k Universit y Pres s book s ar e printed o n acid-fre e paper , an d their bindin g material s ar e chosen fo r strengt h an d durability . Manufactured i n the Unite d State s o f Americ a c1 0 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2

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This book is dedicated to Maureen Waters, my wife, and Joseph Kleinbard, my father, with much love.

For beaut y i s nothin g but th e beginnin g o f terror , whic h w e ar e jus t abl e t o bear , and w e wonde r a t i t s o becaus e i t calml y disdain s to destro y us .

Contents

Foreword b y Jeffrey Berma n x i Preface xvi i Acknowledgments xi x Abbreviations xx i i. Introductio n i 2. Learnin g t o Se e 2 3 Integration an d Disintegration i n The Notebooks of Malte Laurids Brigge an d Othe r Writing s Illness and Creativit y 3. A Mas k o f Hi m Roam s i n Hi s Plac e 4 8 Differentiation betwee n Self and Others i n The Notebooks and Rilke's Letter s 4. Thi s Lost , Unrea l Woma n 6 8 Phia Rilke and the Maternal Figures in The Notebooks 5. Tak e Me , Giv e M e Form , Finis h M e 8 8 Lou Andreas-Salom e 6. T o Fil l Al l th e Room s o f You r Sou l n Clara Rilke

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7. Thi s Alway s Secre t Influenc e 13 1 The Poet's Changin g Relationship with Hi s Fathe r 8. Rodi n 16 5

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9. Woma n Withi n 20 9 Developments Leadin g to The Sonnets to Orpheus an d the Completion o f the Duino Elegies Notes 24 5 Selected Bibliograph y 26 1 Index 26 7

Foreword

As Ne w Yor k Universit y Pres s inaugurate s a ne w serie s o f book s o n literature an d psychoanalysis , i t seem s appropriat e t o paus e an d reflec t briefly upo n th e histor y o f psychoanalyti c literar y criticism . Fo r a cen tury no w i t has struggle d t o defin e it s relationship t o it s two contentiou s progenitors an d t o com e o f age . After glancin g a t it s origins , we ma y b e in a better positio n t o speculat e o n it s future . Psychoanalytic literar y criticis m was conceive d a t th e precis e momen t in whic h Freud , reflectin g upo n hi s self-analysis , mad e a connectio n t o two plays and thu s gav e us a radically new approach to reading literature . Writing to his friend Wilhel m Fliess in 1897 , Freud breathlessl y advance d the idea that "lov e of th e mother an d jealousy of th e father" ar e universal phenomena o f earl y childhoo d (Origins, ii^-i^). H e referre d immedi ately to the gripping power o f Oedipus Rex an d Hamlet fo r confirmatio n of, an d perhap s inspiratio n for , hi s compellin g perceptio n o f famil y drama, namin g hi s theor y th e "Oedipu s complex " afte r Sophocles ' leg endary fictiona l hero . Freud acknowledge d repeatedl y hi s indebtednes s t o literature , my thology, and philosophy. There is no doub t tha t h e was a great humanist , steeped i n worl d literature , abl e t o rea d severa l language s an d rang e across disciplinar y boundaries . H e regarde d creativ e writers a s allies , in vestigating th e sam e psychi c terrai n an d intuitin g simila r huma n truths . "[PJsycho-analytic observatio n mus t conced e priorit y o f imaginativ e writers," h e declare d i n 190 1 i n The Psychopathology of Everyday Life (SE 6:213) , a concessio n h e wa s generall y happ y t o make . Th e onl y ex XI

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ceptions wer e writer s lik e Schopenhauer , Nietzsche , an d Schnitzler . whom h e avoided readin g because of th e anxiet y o f influence . H e quote d effortlessly fro m Sophocles , Shakespeare , Goethe , an d Dostoevsky , an d was himsel f a maste r pros e stylist , th e recipien t o f th e covete d Goeth e Prize i n 1930 . When h e wa s considere d fo r th e Nobe l Prize , i t wa s no t for medicin e bu t fo r literature . Upo n bein g greete d a s th e discovere r o f the unconscious, he disclaimed th e title and instea d pai d generou s tribut e to th e poet s an d philosopher s wh o precede d him . And ye t Freud' s foray s int o literary criticism have not bee n welcome d uniformly b y creativ e writers, largely becaus e o f hi s allegianc e to scienc e rather tha n art . Despit e hi s admiratio n fo r art , h e viewe d th e artis t a s a n introvert, no t fa r remove d fro m neurosis . The artist , h e wrot e i n a wellknown passag e i n th e Introductory Lectures on Psycho-Analysis (1916 17), "i s oppresse d b y excessivel y powerfu l instinctua l needs . H e desire s to win honour , power , wealth, fame an d th e love of women; bu t h e lack s the mean s fo r achievin g thes e satisfactions " (SE 16:376) . Consequently , Freud argued , artist s retreat from realit y into the world o f fantasy, wher e they attemp t t o mak e thei r dream s com e true . While concedin g tha t tru e artists manag e t o shap e thei r daydream s i n suc h a way a s t o find a pat h back t o reality , thu s fulfillin g thei r wishes , Freu d nevertheles s theorize d art a s a substitute gratification . Littl e wonder, then , tha t fe w artist s hav e been please d wit h Freud' s pronouncements . Nor hav e man y artist s bee n sympatheti c t o Freud' s preoccupatio n with sexualit y an d aggression ; hi s deterministi c visio n o f huma n life ; hi s combative, polemica l temperament ; hi s self-fulfillin g belie f tha t psycho analysis bring s ou t th e wors t i n people ; an d hi s imperialisti c clai m tha t psychoanalysis, whic h h e regarde d a s hi s persona l creation , woul d ex plore an d conque r vas t ne w territories . He chos e a s the epigrap h fo r The Interpretation of Dreams (1900 ) a quotation fro m The Aeneid: "Flecter e si neque o superos , Acheront a movebo " ("I f I canno t ben d th e Highe r Powers, I wil l mov e th e Inferna l Regions") . Althoug h h e denie d tha t there wa s anythin g Promethea n abou t hi s work , h e regarde d himsel f a s one o f th e disturber s o f th e world' s sleep . Th e ma n wh o asserte d tha t "psycho-analysis i s i n a position t o spea k th e decisiv e wor d i n al l ques tions tha t touc h upo n th e imaginativ e lif e o f man " (S E 19:208 ) coul d hardly expec t t o wi n man y convert s amon g creativ e writers , wh o wer e no les s familiar wit h th e imaginative life o f humankin d an d who resente d his intrusio n int o thei r domain .

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Freud viewe d psychoanalyst s a s scientists , committe d t o th e realit y principle an d t o heroi c self-renunciation . H e perceive d artists , b y con trast—and women—a s neuroti c an d highl y narcissistic , devote d t o th e pleasure principle , intuitin g mysteriou s truth s whic h the y coul d no t ra tionally understand . "Kindl y natur e ha s give n th e artis t th e abilit y t o express hi s mos t secre t menta l impulses , whic h ar e hidde n eve n fro m himself," he stated in Leonardo da Vinci and a Memory of His Childhood in 191 0 (SE 11:107) . The artist , i n Freud' s judgment , create s beauty , bu t the psychoanalys t analyze s it s meanin g an d "penetrates " it , wit h al l th e phallic implication s thereof . A s muc h a s h e admire d artists , Freu d di d not want to give them credit for knowin g what the y are doing. Moreover , although h e alway s referre d t o artist s a s male , h e assume d tha t ar t itsel f was essentiall y female ; an d h e wa s draw n t o th e "seductive " natur e o f art eve n a s h e resiste d it s embrace , les t h e los e hi s masculin e analytica l power. H e wante d t o b e calle d a scientist , no t a n artist . From th e beginnin g o f hi s career , then, th e marriag e Freud envisione d between th e artis t an d th e analys t wa s distinctl y unequa l an d patriarchal . For thei r part , mos t creativ e writer s hav e remaine d war y o f psychoanal ysis. Fran z Kafka , Jame s Joyce, an d D . H . Lawrenc e wer e fascinate d b y psychoanalytic theor y an d appropriate d it , i n varyin g degrees , i n thei r stories, but the y al l remained skeptica l o f Freud' s therapeuti c claim s an d declined t o b e analyzed . Most artist s d o no t wan t t o b e "cured, " fearin g tha t thei r creativit y will be imperiled, and they certainly do not want psychoanalysts to prob e their work ; the y agre e wit h Wordswort h tha t t o dissec t i s t o murder . Vladimir Nabokov' s sardoni c referenc e t o Freu d a s the "Viennes e witc h doctor" an d his contemptuous dismissa l of psychoanalysis a s black magi c are extrem e example s o f creativ e writer' s mistrus t o f psychoanalyti c interpretations o f literature . "[A]l l m y book s shoul d b e stampe d Freud ians Kee p Out, " Naboko v write s i n Bend Sinister (xii) . Humbert Hum bert speak s fo r hi s creato r whe n h e observe s i n Lolita tha t th e differenc e between th e rapis t an d therapis t i s bu t a matte r o f spacin g (147) . Freud neve r lost faith tha t psychoanalysis coul d cas t light upon a wide variety o f academi c subjects . I n th e shor t essa y " O n th e Teachin g o f Psycho-Analysis i n Universities " (1919) , he maintaine d tha t hi s ne w sci ence ha s a role no t onl y i n medica l school s bu t als o i n th e "solution s o f problems" i n art , philosophy , religion , literature , mythology , an d his tory. "Th e fertilizin g effect s o f psycho-analyti c though t o n thes e othe r

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disciplines," Freu d wrot e enthusiastically , "woul d certainly , contribut e greatly toward s forgin g a close r link , i n th e sens e o f a universitas literarum, betwee n medica l scienc e an d th e branche s o f learnin g whic h li e within th e spher e o f philosoph y an d th e arts " (SE 17:173) . Regrettably , he di d no t envisio n i n th e sam e essa y a cross-fertilization , a desire , tha t is, fo r othe r discipline s t o pollinat e psychoanalysis . Elsewhere, though , Freu d wa s willin g t o acknowledg e a mor e recip rocal relationship betwee n th e analyst an d th e creative writer. He opene d his first publishe d essa y o n literar y criticism , "Delusion s an d Dream s i n Jensen's Gradiva" (1907) , wit h th e egalitaria n statemen t tha t "creativ e writers ar e valued allie s and thei r evidenc e is to be highly prized, for the y are ap t t o kno w a whol e hos t o f thing s betwee n heave n an d eart h o f which ou r philosoph y ha s no t ye t le t u s dream " (SE 9:8) , a n allusio n t o his beloved Hamlet' s affirmatio n o f th e myster y o f al l things. Concedin g that literar y artist s hav e been , fro m tim e immemorial , precursor s t o sci entist, Freu d conclude d tha t th e "creativ e write r canno t evad e th e psy chiatrist no r th e psychiatrist th e creativ e writer, an d th e poetic treatmen t of a psychiatri c them e ca n tur n ou t t o b e correc t withou t an y sacrific e of it s beauty " (SE 9:44) . It i s in th e spiri t o f thi s equa l partnershi p betwee n literatur e an d psy choanalysis tha t Ne w Yor k Universit y Pres s launche s th e presen t series . We inten d t o publis h book s tha t ar e genuinel y interdisciplinary , theo retically sophisticated , an d clinicall y informed . Th e literar y critic' s in sights int o psychoanalysi s ar e n o les s valuabl e tha n th e psychoanalyst' s insights int o literature . Gon e ar e th e day s whe n psychoanalyti c critic s assumed tha t Freu d ha d a master ke y t o unloc k th e secret s o f literature . Instead o f reading literature to confirm psychoanalyti c theory, many crit ics are now readin g Freud t o discover how his understanding o f literatur e shaped th e evolution o f hi s theory. I n short , the master-slave relationshi p traditionally implici t i n th e marriag e betwee n th e literar y criti c an d th e psychoanalyst ha s given way to a healthier dialogic relationship, in whic h each learn s fro m an d contribute s t o th e other' s discipline . Indeed, the prevailing ideas of th e late twentieth centur y ar e strikingl y different fro m thos e o f th e lat e nineteent h century , whe n literatur e an d psychoanalysis wer e first allied . I n contras t t o Freud , wh o assume d h e was discoverin g absolut e truth , w e no w believ e tha t knowledge , partic ularly i n th e humanitie s an d socia l sciences , i s relativ e an d dependen t upon cultura l contexts. Freud's classical drive theory, with its mechanisti c

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implications o f cathecti c energy , ha s give n wa y t o newe r relationa l models, suc h a s objec t relations , sel f psychology , an d interpersona l psy choanalysis, affirmin g th e importanc e o f huma n interaction . Man y earl y psychoanalytic ideas , suc h a s th e deat h instinc t an d th e phylogeneti c transmission o f memories , have falle n b y th e wayside , an d Freud' s theo rizing o n femal e psycholog y ha s bee n recognize d a s a reflectio n o f hi s cultural bias . Significant development s hav e als o take n plac e i n psychoanalyti c lit erary theory . A n extraordinar y variet y an d synthesi s o f competin g ap proaches hav e emerged , includin g post-Freudian , Jungian , Lacanian , Horneyan, feminist , deconstructive , psycholinguistic , an d reade r re sponse. Interest i n psychoanalytic literar y criticis m i s at a n all-tim e high , not just in th e handful o f journals devote d t o psychological criticism , bu t in dozen s o f mainstrea m journal s tha t hav e traditionall y avoide d psy chological approache s t o literature . Scholars ar e working o n identit y the ory, narcissism , gende r theory , mournin g an d loss , an d creativity . Additionally, the y ar e investigatin g ne w areas , suc h a s compositio n the ory an d pedagogy, an d explorin g the roles of resistance, transference, an d countertransference i n th e classroom . "In th e en d w e depend/O n th e creature s w e made, " Freu d observe d at th e clos e o f hi s lif e {Letters, 425) , quotin g fro m Goethe' s Faust; an d in th e en d psychoanalyti c literar y criticis m depend s o n th e scholar s wh o continue t o shap e it . Al l seriou s scholarshi p i s a n ac t o f lov e an d devo tion, an d fo r man y o f th e author s i n thi s series , includin g myself , psy choanalytic literar y criticis m ha s becom e a consumin g passion , i n som e cases a lifelon g one . Lik e othe r passions , ther e i s a n elemen t o f ideali zation here . Fo r despit e ou r criticism s o f Freud , w e stan d i n aw e o f hi s achievements; an d eve n a s w e recogniz e th e limitation s o f an y singl e approach t o literature , w e find tha t psychoanalysi s ha s profoundl y illu minated th e human conditio n an d inspire d countles s artists . In th e word s of th e fictional "Freud " i n D . M . Thomas' s extraordinar y nove l The White Hotel (1981) , "Lon g ma y poetr y an d psychoanalysi s continu e t o highlight, fro m thei r differen t perspectives , th e huma n fac e i n al l it s no bility an d sorrow " (i43n.) . JEFFREY B E R M A N

Professor o f Englis h State Universit y o f Ne w Yor k a t Alban y

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Works Cite d Freud, Sigmund . The Letters of Sigmund Freud. Ed. Erns t Freud . Trans . Tani a and James Stern . New York : Basi c Books , 1975 . . The Origins of Psychoanalysis. Ed. Mari e Bonaparte , Ann a Freud , an d Ernst Kris . Trans . Eri c Mosbache r an d Jame s Strachey . Ne w York : Basi c Books, 1954 ; rpt. 1977 . . The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud. Ed. James Strachey . 2 4 vols. London : Hogart h Press , 1953-74 . Nabokov, Vladimir. Introduction, Bend Sinister. New York : McGraw-Hill, 1974 . . Lolita. London : Weidenfeld an d Nicolson, 1959 . Thomas, D . M. The White Hotel Ne w York : Viking, 1981 .

Preface

I a m deepl y gratefu l t o Mauree n Waters , m y wife , an d Fre d Kapla n fo r all thei r usefu l criticism s an d suggestion s fo r th e revisio n o f The Beginning of Terror. I tak e thi s opportunit y t o than k th e member s o f th e History o f Psychiatr y Seminar at Cornell Medical Center, who were very helpful i n thei r response s t o m y pape r o n th e relationshi p betwee n Rilk e and Rodin , an d especiall y Barbar a Leavy , whos e suppor t an d encour agement wil l sta y wit h m e a s a mode l o f generou s friendship . I hav e benefited a s a n interprete r o f literatur e fro m th e discussion s o f th e Co lumbia Universit y Literatur e an d Psycholog y Seminar . Th e war m an d thoughtful response s of Jason Renker, my editor a t New Yor k Universit y Press, Jeffre y Berman , th e edito r o f th e Literatur e an d Psychoanalysi s Series, an d Ne w Yor k Universit y Press' s fina l anonymou s reade r hav e played a creative rol e i n revision s o f m y book . For thirty-fiv e year s I have been studying Rilke's work an d translatin g it fo r m y ow n pleasure , alon g wit h th e work s o f othe r Germa n writers . During thi s tim e I have been intereste d i n translation s o f Rilk e by other s and am , no doubt, indebted t o them in my ow n interpretation s an d trans lations o f hi s poems .

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Acknowledgments

I would lik e to than k th e following: Rando m House , Inc., for permissio n to quot e fro m The Selected Poetry of Rainer Maria Rilke, b y Raine r Maria Rilke , edite d an d translate d b y Stephe n Mitchell . Copyrigh t © 1982 b y Stephe n Mitchell ; Nort h Poin t Pres s fo r permissio n t o quot e portions o f th e poetr y o f Raine r Mari a Rilk e fro m New Poems (1907), by Raine r Mari a Rilke , translate d b y Edwar d Snow . Translatio n an d copyright © 198 4 by Edward Snow ; Random House , Inc., for permissio n to quot e fro m The Notebooks of Make Laurids Brigge, b y Raine r Mari a Rilke, translate d b y Stephe n Mitchell . Copyrigh t © 1982 , 198 3 b y Ste phen Mitchell ; W. W. Norton & Company, Inc. , for permissio n t o quot e from Letters of Rainer Maria Rilke, 1892-1926 (tw o volumes), translate d by Jan e Bannar d Green e an d M . D . Herte r Norton . Copyrigh t © 1945 , 1947, an d 1948 , W. W . Norto n & Company .

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Abbreviations

The followin g abbreviation s ar e use d i n parenthetica l citation s through out The Beginning of Terror. Ful l informatio n concernin g thes e text s i s given i n th e Note s an d th e Selecte d Bibliography . ET Ewald Tragy Letters i Letters of Rainer Maria Rilke: 1892-1910 Letters 2 Letters of Rainer Maria Rilke: 1910-1926 LYP Letters to a Young Poet R&B: IC Rilke and Benvenuta: An Intimate Correspondence SO The Sonnets to Orpheus (trans . Stephe n Mitchell ) SP The Selected Poetry of Rainer Maria Rilke WDB Werke in drei Bdnden WSR Where Silence Reigns

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The Beginnin g of Terro r

CHAPTER I

Introduction

I This i s a psychologica l stud y o f Raine r Mari a Rilke' s lif e an d writings . Beginning wit h hi s novel , The Notebooks of Make Laurids Brigge, pub lished i n 1910 , I explor e th e relationshi p betwee n illnes s an d geniu s i n the poe t an d hi s work , a subjec t t o whic h h e returne d tim e an d again . His letter s describin g hi s experience s when h e firs t cam e t o Pari s i n 190 2 reveal tha t th e anxietie s whic h brin g Make , th e mai n characte r o f th e novel, clos e t o psychosis , plague d Rilk e himself . Th e letter s an d The Notebooks sho w tha t Rilk e fel t tha t h e was losin g his sanity . I n th e sum mer o f 190 3 h e wrot e t o Lo u Andreas-Salome , hi s ol d friend , lover , an d acknowledged surrogat e mother , implorin g he r t o hel p him , declarin g that sh e alon e kne w wh o h e wa s an d coul d tel l hi m wha t h e nee d an d need no t fear . Salom e had cu t of f al l communication whe n h e decide d t o marry i n Februar y 1901 , but sh e ha d als o promise d tha t sh e would hel p him i f h e shoul d b e i n dir e nee d a t som e tim e i n th e future . Answerin g his appeal , sh e expresse d surpris e a t th e maturit y o f th e gift s an d skill s revealed b y hi s description s o f hi s frightenin g experience s i n Paris . Sh e assured hi m h e was mistake n i n believin g tha t h e would b e destroyed b y mental illness . Th e mastery , artisti c cunning , an d understandin g whic h his letter s disclose d clearl y distinguishe d hi m fro m th e helples s victim s of illnes s with who m h e was identifyin g himself . In th e first fe w month s of th e followin g year , encourage d b y he r praise , Rilk e bega n The Notebooks, drawin g upo n th e experience s h e ha d describe d i n hi s letter s t o 1

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her. Som e passage s o f thi s memorabl e nove l diffe r bu t littl e fro m thos e anguished letters . The Notebooks expresse s th e belie f tha t i t migh t b e necessar y fo r "every meaning " t o "dissolv e lik e a cloud an d fal l dow n lik e rain, " nec essary, tha t is , t o endur e somethin g lik e menta l disintegratio n o r dyin g to b e abl e t o "se e everythin g differently. " A poe t migh t hav e t o ris k undergoing a proces s o f fragmentatio n closel y resemblin g th e onse t o f psychosis (w e woul d sa y "schizophrenia, " bu t th e ter m wa s no t intro duced unti l 1911 , the yea r afte r Rilk e complete d hi s novel) 1 befor e hi s hand woul d "writ e word s tha t ar e no t mine, " "tha t othe r interpreta tion." 2 Suc h experience s gav e ris e t o "agony " an d "disconsolations" ; they wer e als o source s o f "mos t painfu l insights " and " a negativ e mold " from whic h th e poet hope d t o cas t "rea l stil l things," works o f art , "tha t it i s serenit y an d freedo m t o creat e an d fro m which , whe n the y exist , reassurance emanates . . . . " 3 Obviously thes e idea s rais e question s fo r anyon e writin g a stud y o f Rilke an d hi s work , o r intereste d i n th e psycholog y o f hi s genius . Wit h such question s i n min d an d wit h hel p fro m a numbe r o f psychologist s and psychoanalysts, I attempt to define th e nature of the emotional illnes s which ofte n preoccupie d th e poet , it s comple x relatio n t o hi s genius , it s origins i n hi s childhood , an d it s development . Studies o f creativit y hav e mad e m e war y o f th e ol d myt h tha t ha s "great wit s . . . t o madnes s nea r allied " an d poet s "ma d a s th e mis t an d snow." 4 Artist s ofte n revea l exceptionall y stron g capacitie s fo r organi zation an d contro l whic h ar e absen t o r wea k i n insanity . Bu t psycholog ical analyse s o f th e creativ e process als o sugges t tha t ther e ar e significan t affinities betwee n certai n kind s o f menta l illnes s an d talen t o r geniu s i n art an d science . I n subsequen t chapter s I refe r t o a numbe r o f thes e findings, fo r example , Anton Ehrenzweig' s argumen t i n The Hidden Order of Art concernin g th e strikin g similaritie s an d essentia l difference s between Picasso' s painting an d Joyce's writing an d schizophreni c ar t an d language. Hi s comparativ e analysi s applies , a s well , t o The Notebooks, with it s fragmentar y form , it s dreamlik e scene s an d images , an d it s por trayal o f a breakdown i n menta l integratio n an d i n th e abilit y t o differ entiate sel f fro m worl d an d fantas y fro m reality. 5 Writing t o Lo u i n th e summe r o f 1903 , Rilke expresse d th e fea r tha t he "woul d belon g irretrievabl y t o th e los t i f som e passer-b y merel y looked a t m e an d hal f unconsciousl y counte d m e wit h them " {Letters

INTRODUCTION 3 1:111). H e fel t tha t a stranger' s unspoke n judgmen t coul d chang e hi m into an outcast, a dehumanized, broke n thing , empty o f mind an d feeling , living o n dust . Imaginin g tha t h e wa s i n dange r o f becomin g on e o f "those wh o n o longe r hea r thei r will s goin g i n th e noise " o f th e city , h e thought h e understoo d th e fea r tha t seeme d t o hav e "grown " "over " Parisians wh o wer e "beginnin g t o rea d thing s differentl y fro m th e wa y they were meant" {Letters 1:110-11) . A s his sense of self, distinctive iden tity, an d autonom y becam e painfull y uncertai n an d th e "noise " o f th e city threatened t o engul f him , he began to doubt hi s ability to distinguis h fantasy fro m objectiv e reality . Writing th e nove l fo r whic h thes e experience s provide d ra w materia l helped th e poe t t o maste r the m an d thu s t o defen d himsel f agains t th e illness that was threatening to destroy his sanity. In retrospect he believe d the boo k wa s "somethin g lik e a n underpinning " fo r al l th e wor k tha t followed. I t ha d opene d u p " a whol e octave " o f poetr y i n him . A s a result o f hi s writing The Notebooks, "everythin g reache s farther u p " an d "almost al l song s ar e possible " {Letters 1:361) . Having receive d a commission t o writ e a monograph o n August e Ro din, Rilk e cam e t o Pari s lat e i n Augus t 190 2 t o mee t th e sculptor . Hi s two essay s o n th e Frenchma n (publishe d i n 190 3 and 190 7 as parts 1 and 2 o f a boo k entitle d Rodin) stud y Rodin' s decomposition s an d recon structions o f th e physica l worl d an d illuminat e hi s fascinatio n wit h Ro din's ar t a t th e tim e h e wa s havin g th e fantasie s o f disintegratio n described i n th e letter s an d i n The Notebooks. I n thi s sculptur e h e dis covered tha t th e "artis t ha s th e righ t t o mak e on e thin g ou t o f man y an d a worl d ou t o f th e smalles t par t o f a thing." 6 Thi s mode l licensed , in spired, and shaped his fictional evocation s of the fantasies which had bee n so frightenin g t o him . Thus , a sculpto r becam e hi s "master " durin g th e years i n which hi s writing mature d an d establishe d hi s place among lead ing moder n writer s wit h th e completio n o f th e New Poems (190 7 an d 1908) and The Notebooks (1910) , though Rodin' s persona l hol d o n Rilk e began t o declin e afte r a temporar y ruptur e i n th e relationshi p i n Ma y 1906. This par t o f th e stor y i s tol d i n chapte r 8 . Rodin's exampl e ma y hav e helpe d Rilk e t o discover , o r a t leas t t o accept, th e fragmentar y for m o f hi s novel , th e fracture d personalit y o f his central character , an d th e apparen t incoherenc e o f a life presented "a s if on e foun d disordere d paper s i n a drawer " {Letters 1:362) . A simila r influence o n The Notebooks wa s Paul Cezanne , whose painting als o pro-

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vided inspiration and guidanc e for som e of the New Poems. I n 192 4 Rilke wrote tha t "fro m 190 6 on " Cezanne' s paintin g wa s hi s "mos t forcefu l model" {Letters 2:334) . The precis e natur e o f thi s influenc e i s delineate d in a number o f letters , including th e eloquen t one s writte n t o th e poet' s wife, Clara , in Octobe r 190 7 when Rilk e sa w the Cezannes o n exhibitio n in th e Salo n d'Automne . Picass o painte d Les Demoiselles d'Avignon i n 1907, an d Braqu e wa s doin g cubis t landscape s i n 1908 . Bu t I hav e no t seen an y evidenc e that Rilk e was awar e of thei r work tha t early . H e ma y have know n abou t som e o f th e ne w idea s i n scienc e an d psycholog y which wer e inspirin g a revolution i n paintin g an d sculptur e a s the y rad ically change d conception s o f natur e an d th e mind—relativit y theory , quantum physics , non-Euclidea n geometry , an d th e psycholog y o f th e unconscious. All mad e i t necessar y t o "lear n t o see " (Make's phrase ) th e world an d sel f a s the y ha d neve r bee n see n o r dream t o f i n earlie r times . These ne w idea s dismembere d nature , converte d soli d matte r int o vola tile, movin g energy , demolishe d th e ol d Newtonia n assumptio n tha t th e behavior o f individua l entitie s wa s a s predictabl e a s clockwork , formu lated ne w relationship s betwee n spac e an d tim e an d betwee n th e spec tator an d wha t h e o r sh e sees, and propose d tha t a large part o f th e min d was a mas s o f seemingl y chaoti c unconsciou s energies , emotions , an d ideas, shapin g consciou s though t an d precariousl y restraine d b y fragil e defenses fro m engulfin g it . A numbe r o f passage s in The Notebooks rais e the possibilit y tha t Rilk e ha d a vagu e awarenes s o f som e o f th e ne w theories i n physics , mathematics , an d psycholog y whe n h e wrot e hi s novel. Bu t I kno w o f n o compellin g evidenc e fro m hi s letters , from bio graphies, or from recollection s o f friends an d acquaintance s which show s that a t thi s tim e he had an y precise knowledge o f th e revolutionary idea s in thes e disciplines. 7 It woul d b e absur d t o classif y Rilk e a s a schizophrenic, bu t th e anxietie s and fantasie s w e find i n hi s writing s abou t hi s first yea r i n Pari s closel y resemble som e o f thos e characteristi c o f thi s disease . According t o Har old Searles , a widely respecte d authorit y o n thi s for m o f menta l illness , the schizophreni c "feel s tha t hi s bod y i s no t his. " 8 Part s o f i t separat e themselves an d ac t autonomously . Alie n personalitie s an d object s invad e him an d ar e experience d a s "foreig n bodie s withi n hi s personality, " which threate n t o devou r o r t o annihilat e him. 9 H e ma y b e sucke d in ,

INTRODUCTION 5

enveloped, o r obliterate d b y th e personality , mind , o r wil l o f anothe r person, o r b y som e animate d par t o f hi s environment . (I n a simila r ex perience, a s a boy , looking a t himsel f i n a mirror , Mak e feel s engulfe d by a suffocating , inescapabl e mas k an d costume. ) Relationship s wit h other people threaten to obliterate all traces of his own face and to replace it wit h on e responsiv e t o thei r needs , closel y resemblin g theirs . I n thi s fantasy th e face i s felt t o b e synonymou s wit h th e sense o f self . I n The Nonhuman Environment, Searle s analyze s th e motives fo r th e desire t o turn onesel f int o a dehumanized objec t an d the inclination t o turn othe r people int o suc h objects , tendencie s whic h appea r frequentl y i n The Notebooks. Studies o f closel y relate d form s o f narcissisti c an d borderlin e illnes s by Hein z Kohut , R . D . Laing , an d D. W. Winnicott hav e enlarge d m y understanding o f wha t Rilk e wa s goin g throug h whe n h e firs t cam e t o Paris. Lik e th e poe t a t thi s time , lik e Make , thei r patient s fel t s o ill defined an d uncertai n o f thei r differentiatio n fro m th e world an d fro m other peopl e tha t mer e contact wit h other s ofte n threatene d t o transfor m them int o helples s response s o r imitations . Sustaine d relationship s coul d be engulfing . Th e contour s o f th e body , th e basi s graduall y discovere d in infanc y fo r one' s sens e o f one' s separat e self , faile d t o hold agains t an impinging, invading , or "imploding " world. On e defense agains t engul f ment o r invasio n i s "schizoid, " splittin g int o a "true" inne r cor e o f the self an d a false, compliant , imitativ e oute r sel f o r selves, which shiel d the inner sel f agains t th e danger s o f alteratio n o r annihilatio n b y other s o r by a n impinging environment . In Rilk e suc h defense s wer e crippling , bu t they als o becam e creative . In subsequen t chapter s I discus s th e self-protective, self-concealin g per sonas whic h Rilk e develope d an d consider thei r origin s in his childhood . In thi s par t o f m y commentar y I refe r t o Winnicott' s an d Laing' s con cepts o f th e fals e sel f i n schizoi d illnes s an d Winnicott' s argumen t tha t this ha s a healthy counterpart , th e socially complian t facade s whic h pro tect th e inner cor e o f the self i n the experience o f mos t mentall y health y people. Rilke' s conception s o f fac e an d mas k see m t o hav e evolve d ou t of interval s o f illness . Bu t Rilke , lik e Nietzsche , wa s convince d tha t masking protect s th e gifte d artist' s cultivatio n an d nurturin g o f hi s o r her depth , power , an d ar t fro m intrusion , distraction , an d adulteration . The poet' s writings , lik e Nietzsche' s an d Kierkegaard's , ma y be see n a s

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masks whic h concea l a s much a s the y reveal . The y fulfille d "th e urgen t need t o communicat e an d th e stil l mor e urgen t nee d no t t o b e found " which Winnicot t observe d i n artists. 10 Rilke's illness also became creative in another way. As the hard reality of things around him invades his body and drives him out of it, Make tries to defend himsel f b y passing his fingers ove r his face in an effort t o reestablish his sense of hi s boundaries . Make is overwhelmed particularly b y the multitude of unbearable phenomena that seem to press in on him. External realities invade, overflow, drown , and suffocate him . Driven out of himself, he is squashed like "a beetle" underfoot (The Notebooks, 74) . But Rilke's bout s o f boundar y los s evolve d int o a n ability t o releas e himsel f from the trap of separateness and opposition between subject and object in which most of us find ourselves caught by rigid defensiveness. In 191 3 he went through an experience in which the boundaries between "inner" and "outer" dissolved as he felt "withi n him the gentle presence of th e stars" ("An Experience, " WSR, 36) . O n thi s occasio n Rilk e close d hi s eye s t o keep out of mind the contours of his body, a response which seems to be the opposite of Make's reaction to the threat of invasion. At other times he experienced th e "inviolabl e presentnes s an d simultaneity " o f everythin g which in ordinary consciousness come s to us as "mere 'sequence* " (Letters 2:342). Distinctions between past, present, and future faded. So did the common sens e oppositio n betwee n th e living an d th e dead , for th e dea d continue to exist for us and "we are incessantly flowing ove r and over to those who preceded us, to our origins" (Letters 2:373). Such experiences of what Rilke called "das Offne" ("the open") seem to have grown out of the kinds of fragmentation and boundary loss described in his letters and fiction. Ye t the y mak e "normal " ideas an d perceptions o f time , space , self, and worl d see m fragmentar y i n comparison . The y mus t hav e occurre d during interval s o f eg o strengt h an d healt h (wholeness , integration ) be tween stretches of barrenness, emotional illness, and depression. They prepared for an d shaped the thinking an d imagery o f th e Duino Elegies, and The Sonnets to Orpheus. The y seeme d t o th e poe t t o brin g an interchang e o f bein g betwee n hi m an d th e surroundin g world , i n which metamorphosing world an d self were continually re-created , as he tells us, quietly rejoicing, in the first and last sonnets of th e second cycle . Fantasies o f engulfment , impingement , an d depersonalization, whic h w e find i n Rilke' s letter s an d The Notebooks, ofte n lea d t o defensiv e isola -

INTRODUCTION 7

tion. The Notebooks demonstrate s th e danger s o f isolatio n suc h a s Make's, which feed s th e demon s o f diseas e it i s meant t o defen d against . Make's solitud e i s extreme . H e ha s n o relationship s i n th e presen t tim e of th e novel . Thi s wa s no t tru e o f Rilke . Bu t th e poe t wa s almos t ob sessively devoted t o a n ideal o f solitude , as his letters, fiction, an d poetr y show. I f psychologica l infirmitie s wer e a n acknowledge d sourc e o f hi s need t o b e alone , nineteenth-centur y thinkers , suc h a s Nietzsch e an d Kierkegaard, strongl y supporte d hi s belie f tha t solitud e wa s a necessar y condition fo r creativ e work . Hi s contemporar y an d fello w nativ e o f Prague, Fran z Kafka , equall y influence d b y thes e philosophers , empha sized th e sam e them e i n hi s diarie s an d letters . Rilke wa s ofte n wit h othe r people . H e complaine d tha t bein g wit h them di d hi m littl e goo d an d muc h harm , shuttin g of f th e source s o f hi s poetry. Beginnin g wit h th e "boundlessl y frightfu l pain s o f childhood, " solitude ha d give n hi m "al l tha t wa s greatest " (Letters 2:106-7) . Ye t th e severe anxietie s whic h isolatio n fostere d ofte n le d hi m t o see k compan y and t o los e th e poe t i n himsel f amon g friend s an d acquaintances . Hi s relationships wit h Lo u Andreas-Salom e an d August e Rodin , whic h I in terpret i n chapter s 5 and 8 , reveal the psychodynamics o f hi s dependenc e on other s i n it s mos t extrem e forms . The insight s o f Harol d Searles , Hein z Kohut , R . D . Laing , D . W . Winnicott, an d Arnol d Model l hav e helpe d m e t o elucidat e Rilke' s de pendence o n Salom e an d Rodi n an d hi s extravagan t idealizatio n o f thes e two surrogat e parents. 11 I f w e ca n trus t hi s memory , hi s extrem e needi ness i n bot h relationship s wa s du e largel y t o hi s mother' s an d father' s failings, whic h ar e ampl y describe d i n hi s letters , fiction, an d poetry . He feare d tha t h e ha d inherite d hi s mother' s disconnectednes s an d un reality. H e complaine d bitterl y abou t Phi a Rilke' s dishonest y wit h her self, narcissisti c self-absorption , blindnes s t o hi s rea l qualities , an d inability t o lov e hi m fo r wha t h e was . Hi s father' s failur e t o fulfil l hi s aspirations t o a caree r a s a n arm y office r weighe d heavil y o n Ren e dur ing hi s childhood . Th e poe t wa s haunte d b y Josef' s emotiona l con striction, hi s expectatio n tha t hi s so n woul d vicariousl y fulfil l hi s ow n frustrated ambitions , hi s disappointmen t a t Rene' s leavin g militar y school an d rejectin g a militar y career , an d hi s anxiet y abou t th e poet' s unwillingness t o find a jo b whic h woul d protec t him , hi s wife , an d daughter fro m shamefu l povert y an d giv e the m a respectabl e plac e i n society. Bu t Rilk e wa s abl e t o se e o r imagin e generosit y an d a n incli -

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nation t o lov e i n hi s father, strugglin g agains t suc h narrow-minded anx iety an d rigidity . Psychoanalysts wh o hav e studie d narcissisti c illnes s theoriz e tha t th e kinds o f failure s i n motherin g an d fatherin g whic h Rilk e attribute d t o his parents ofte n leav e th e psyche severel y impaired . As a n adult a child of suc h parent s ma y loo k fo r surrogate s wh o wil l provid e th e empath etically responsiv e materna l "mirroring " required t o strengthe n a sens e of sel f whic h remain s wea k becaus e th e individua l di d no t receiv e ade quate "mirroring" in early childhood. H e ma y also seek a surrogate wh o can b e investe d wit h th e fantastica l omnipotenc e ascribe d t o parent s b y small children , becaus e o f thei r need , i n thei r sens e o f thei r ow n help lessness an d fragility , t o participate , throug h identification , i n suc h power. Havin g failed a s a child to internalize idealized parents who cal m anxiety, foste r th e toleranc e o f unsatisfie d cravings , provide model s an d guidance, distinguis h realit y fro m fantasy , mak e possibl e accommoda tions with environmental realities, and offer love and admiration, an adult suffering fro m narcissisti c illness ma y see k suc h parents i n othe r people, idealizing the m s o tha t the y ca n suppl y thes e needs , whic h persis t wit h an infantile intensity . My chapter s on Salom e and Rodin show ho w the y fulfilled suc h need s i n Rilke . Analysts hav e als o writte n abou t th e way s i n which th e impairment s and injurie s characteristi c o f narcissisti c illnes s ca n b e repaire d an d healed. This i s a n important part of m y subject . My chapter s on Salome , Clara Rilke , th e poet' s father , an d Rodi n sho w how , throug h hi s rela tionships with them and through his work, which he called "nothing but a self-treatmen t o f th e sam e sort " a s analysis , h e mastere d th e severes t forms o f hi s anxieties and developed a remarkable ability to move, sometimes swiftly , sometime s gradually , fro m fear , despair , an d nea r menta l paralysis t o th e writing o f hi s greates t poems (Letters 2:42) . Writing t o hi s wif e i n Apri l 1903 , Rilk e defende d th e distanc e betwee n them wit h th e argumen t tha t hi s wor k wa s th e cente r o f hi s life , whic h he mus t find agai n i f h e wa s t o b e abl e t o mak e progres s towar d th e realization of hi s gifts . To d o thi s h e said , he mus t b e alone , unwatched , unselfconscious. He must be solitary long enough to enable his loneliness to becom e "fir m an d secur e agai n lik e a n untrodde n woo d tha t i s no t afraid o f footsteps. " The wors t thin g tha t coul d happe n t o hi m wa s "t o become unaccustome d t o loneliness " (Letters 1:105-6) . Thoug h th e poe t

INTRODUCTION 9 did rediscove r th e cente r o f hi s lif e i n hi s wor k recurrentl y (th e lon g period o f sustaine d creativit y betwee n 190 6 an d 1910 , whe n h e wrot e many o f th e New Poems an d complete d The Notebooks, wa s especiall y gratifying), th e problem tha t h e defined i n this letter remained ver y muc h alive fo r hi m unti l th e completio n o f th e Elegies an d th e writin g o f th e Sonnets a t Muzo t i n Februar y 1922 . D. W. Winnicott's observation s abou t "th e capacit y t o b e alone" seem especially relevan t t o Rilke . Winnicot t see s thi s capacit y a s "on e o f th e most importan t sign s o f maturit y i n emotiona l development. " H e argue s that fro m "thi s positio n everythin g i s creative/' 12 I n chapte r 9 I tak e a close look a t Winnicott' s idea s o n thi s subjec t a s I discus s Rilke' s attain ment o f hi s long-sough t hom e i n isolatio n durin g th e winter o f 1921-22 . Winnicott suggest s tha t w e achiev e "th e abilit y t o b e trul y alone " b y internalizing a n "ego-supportive mother. " Suc h a mother, empatheticall y responsive t o he r infant' s needs , creates a sense o f a "protective environ ment." 13 Th e introjection o f this maternal figure ma y enabl e one to main tain a strong , i f unconscious , sens e o f suc h a n environmen t throughou t one's life . Thi s i s essentia l t o th e artis t especiall y becaus e h e need s t o b e able t o laps e int o th e strang e an d ofte n frightenin g unintegrated , undif ferentiated stat e o f min d i n which h e i s open t o normall y represse d idea s and feeling s an d t o alie n structure s o f thought . Rilke' s letter s mak e i t clear tha t h e neede d t o b e alon e i n orde r t o fal l int o suc h a condition, t o exist solitar y i n a n imagine d cocoo n s o tha t h e coul d com e apar t befor e coming togethe r again . I n thi s raw , naked , fragmentar y stat e o f min d h e felt bot h to o vulnerabl e an d to o repulsiv e t o b e nea r anyone , excep t a servant. Hi s attempt s t o liv e wit h motherin g women—abov e all , Lo u Andreas-Salome—usually resulte d i n painfu l failure . Chapter 9 brings t o a conclusion m y stud y o f th e ways i n which Rilk e attempted, i n hi s fiction , hi s poetry , an d a numbe r o f hi s relationships , to creat e the benevolent , supportive , protective, mirroring mothe r h e fel t Phia ha d no t bee n fo r him . Fro m th e tim e tha t h e wrot e The Book of Hours (1899 , 1901 , an d 1903 , revise d i n 1905) , wit h it s praye r tha t h e might b e granted a hermaphroditic natur e as a mothering male , his work s and letter s revea l a fascination wit h th e ide a tha t he migh t b e bot h ma n and woman , mothe r an d son , brothe r an d sister , love r an d beloved . Th e painful memorie s o f hi s mother' s game s durin g th e first five year s o f hi s life, i n whic h sh e ha d converte d hi m int o a little girl , a substitute fo r hi s sister, wh o ha d die d befor e h e wa s born , wer e pu t t o goo d us e i n hi s

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fiction an d poetry . I n chapte r 9 I conside r th e poem s which , beginnin g with "Turning " (Jun e 1914) , sho w th e evolutio n o f a n inne r belove d woman or female presence. This process culminates in his transformatio n of Ver a Knoop , a youn g dancer , artist , an d musician , th e daughte r o f friends, wh o ha d recentl y die d a t nineteen , int o th e inne r woman , "al most a girl" ("fast ei n Madchen"), who inspired The Sonnets to Orpheus, as the poems, themselves, their dedication, and his letters about them tell us. I n th e secon d sonne t h e imagine s tha t sh e ha s mad e he r be d withi n his ea r and slep t ther e an d tha t he r slee p withi n hi s "auditor y imagina tion" included th e world an d brought it within him, allowing him at last to hea r th e Orphi c lyr e resoundin g i n hi s ordinaril y "unhear d center. " (The "auditor y imagination " is T . S . Eliot' s concept . "Unhear d center " ["unerhorte mitte" ] comes fro m th e twenty-eight h sonne t o f th e secon d cycle, which i s clearl y abou t Vera , thoug h sh e i s no t named , an d whic h is dedicate d t o her. ) Wit h thi s figure i n th e Sonnets, with th e silent , in visible femal e frien d o f th e Sevent h Duin o Elegy , an d with th e belove d Earth in th e Nint h Elegy , who m h e imagines yearnin g t o becom e invis ible withi n him , Rilk e brough t t o perfectio n hi s effort s t o giv e vivid , compelling life and form to the loving, "mirroring" maternal figure, present in The Notebooks an d in so many of his poems. In the young woman, "almost a girl, " o f th e Sonnets thi s menta l presenc e foun d a disguis e which concealed its real, felt meaning from the poet as well as his readers. By givin g suc h evocative , i f disguised , form s o f existenc e t o th e be loved materna l figure withi n hi m h e wa s abl e t o conver t narcissisti c ill ness int o creativ e narcissis m an d t o find i n hi s isolatio n a t Muzo t th e wholeness an d fertile , poten t self-sufficienc y tha t mad e i t possibl e fo r him to complet e th e Elegies and to write the Sonnets. The writing o f th e Sonnets and th e final Elegies brough t th e psychological processe s whic h I hav e describe d t o completion . Although a number of biographie s hav e been published, only on e earlie r book ha s answere d th e nee d fo r a psychologica l stud y o f thi s grea t poet—Erich Simenauer's Rainer Maria Rilke: Legende und Mythos, pub lished i n 195 3 an d neve r translate d int o English . I a m indebte d t o Si menauer for hi s perceptive reading s o f Rilke' s works an d his letters . But his boo k i s limite d b y it s narro w relianc e o n earl y Freudia n concepts . His "classical " analysi s focuse s o n th e consequence s o f a "fixation " i n the "oedipa l stage" with it s murderou s hatre d o f th e fathe r an d inces -

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tuous longing s fo r th e mother . H e i s concerne d wit h th e largel y uncon scious role s whic h "id, " "ego, " an d "superego " pla y i n th e poet' s "oedipus complex, " includin g th e ego' s response s t o th e supereg o an d its defenses agains t the id, such a s "repression" and "reactio n formation " (unconscious exaggeratio n o f a feeling o r wis h i n consciousnes s i n orde r to reinforc e repressio n o f it s opposite) . Fo r th e mos t part , Simenaue r classifies aspect s o f th e poet' s psycholog y accordin g t o th e taxonom y o f primitive Freudia n orthodoxy . I dra w upo n th e sam e se t o f concepts , but, a s this introductio n make s clear, I als o mov e beyon d the m t o psychologica l theor y an d knowledg e concerned wit h th e child' s pre-oedipa l experienc e an d it s long-ter m ef fects. Discussion s o f narcissistic , borderline , schizoid , an d schizophreni c forms o f menta l illnes s an d thei r origin s i n thi s earlie r perio d o f child hood hav e bee n helpfu l i n m y stud y o f Rilke' s lif e an d writings . M y interpretations reflec t a n interes t i n work s concerne d wit h th e formatio n and developmen t o f eg o an d identity ; th e evolutio n o f th e sens e o f self , its separatio n an d integration ; th e experienc e o f "th e non-huma n envi ronment" ("Things " fo r Rilke ) i n menta l healt h an d illness ; th e fea r o f death an d th e variet y o f way s i n whic h i t ma y b e mastered ; th e psy chology o f th e creativ e process ; comparison s an d contrast s o f languag e and though t i n literatur e an d schizophreni c speec h an d writing ; and ne w conceptions o f "identification, " "introjection, " an d "incorporation " which hav e helpe d m e t o elucidat e Rilke' s conceptio n o f relationship s between th e living and th e dead, his notion o f th e woman withi n himself , and th e idea s abou t internalizatio n an d transformatio n whic h for m th e central "argument " o f th e sevent h an d nint h Duin o Elegies . Much o f th e psychological theor y an d knowledg e whic h I have foun d helpful postdate s th e publicatio n o f Simenauer' s study . I hav e als o ben efited fro m recen t biographie s o f Rilk e b y Wolfgan g Leppmann , Donal d Prater, an d J . F . Hendry , a s wel l a s a wealt h o f scholarshi p an d com mentary writte n sinc e 1953. 14 How woul d th e poet, himself , have responde d t o th e new s tha t some one ha d writte n a psychoanalyti c stud y o f hi s lif e an d work ? Hi s con flicting feeling s abou t psychoanalysi s ar e clearl y expresse d i n hi s letters . Rejecting hi s wife' s advic e tha t h e g o int o analysis , on January 14 , 1912 , when th e first Duin o Eleg y had just come to him , he wrote t o th e Freud ian therapist, Emil Baron von Gebsattel , a friend o f Lo u Andreas-Salome , expressing th e fea r tha t suc h a system o f classificatio n woul d distur b th e

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"much highe r order " o f hi s imaginatio n (Letters 2:43) . Ten day s late r h e wrote t o Salom e an d agai n t o Gebsattel , sayin g that , wit h th e exorcis m of hi s devils , hi s angel s to o migh t leave . A Januar y 2 0 lette r t o Salom e acknowledges tha t th e ide a o f undergoin g psychoanalysi s occurre d t o him fro m tim e t o time . I f h e foun d Freud' s writing s "uncongenial, " nonetheless, h e coul d "conceiv e o f GebsatteP s usin g i t [psychoanalysis ] with discretio n an d influence " (Letters 2:44) . I n thi s lette r h e give s a detailed accoun t o f his imprisoning, hypochondriacal misery . But his fea r that analysis might result in "a disinfected soul, " "a monstrosity," a mind like a student noteboo k pag e covere d wit h corrections— a fantas y whic h he acknowledge d wa s "silly " an d "false"—kep t hi m fro m enterin g treat ment (Letters 2:44 , 43) . Repelle d an d fascinate d b y th e ne w idea s an d therapies o f th e dept h psychologists , suffering ofte n fro m uncontrollabl e anxieties an d a n inabilit y t o sustai n a lovin g relationship , a recurren t inability to work, cruel depression, and a sense of his unreality, he sough t explanations an d therapeuti c advic e from Salome , whose growing knowl edge of Freudian theory an d eccentric devotion t o it after 191 1 influence d her interpretation s o f hi s illnes s an d hi s writing s i n he r letter s t o him , their conversations , an d he r ow n books , includin g he r stud y o f Rilk e (1928), The Freud Journal of Lou-Andreas Salome, whic h sh e kep t i n 1912 and 191 3 (Aus der Schule bei Freud), an d he r memoir , A Look Back at Life (Lebensriickblick). 15

II In a recent essa y o n Rilke , "Paris/Childhood : Th e Fragmente d Bod y i n Rilke's Notebooks of Malte Laurids Brigge," publishe d i n Modernity and the Text: Revisions of German Modernism (1989) , Andreas Huysse n ob serves tha t "th e insight s o f psychoanalysi s hav e b y an d larg e bee n shunned b y Rilk e scholar s a s irrelevan t fo r th e literar y an d aestheti c as sessment o f th e novel." 1 Mos t o f m y boo k wa s complet e befor e I dis covered Huyssen' s essay , bu t w e dra w upo n som e o f th e sam e psychological concept s an d shar e a sense of th e ways in which psychoan alytic approache s t o literar y criticis m hav e change d substantiall y sinc e the day s whe n al l to o man y reductive , simplisti c psychologica l exegese s of poetry , fiction, an d dram a provide d ampl e justification fo r th e antag onism o f literar y scholar s an d critics . Huyssen als o discusses Rilke's por -

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trayal o f Make' s reaction s t o Pari s fro m a sociologica l perspective , i n relation t o Walte r Benjamin' s an d Geor g SimmeP s account s o f th e bi g city's effect s o n th e individua l an d o n moder n literatur e (i n Simmel' s essay "Th e Metropoli s an d Menta l Life " an d Benjamin's , "Som e Motif s in Baudelaire") . This par t o f Huyssen' s analysi s indicate s a directio n i n which interpretation s o f Rilke' s fictio n shoul d b e developing . At th e en d of m y revie w o f recen t Rilk e criticis m I shal l sa y mor e abou t thi s ap proach, i n m y reflection s o n Brigitt e Bradley' s stud y o f The Notebooks. A numbe r o f recen t commentator s o n Rilke' s wor k continu e t o di vorce th e poetry fro m th e poet's life , a s if an y attemp t t o rea d th e Duino Elegies, The Sonnets to Orpheus, an d othe r grea t poem s b y Rilk e wit h understanding enhance d b y consideratio n o f hi s lif e an d b y psychoan alytic insight s demean s th e poetr y an d deprive s i t o f prope r aestheti c appreciation. Som e critics , Huysse n argues , se e Rilk e a s representin g " a modernism o f disembodie d subjectivity , metaphysica l negativity , an d textual closure , th e classicis m o f th e twentiet h century." 2 Suc h criticis m may develo p perceptiv e reading s o f individua l poem s an d passages , bu t it ofte n suppresse s muc h o f th e emotiona l an d intellectua l complexity , vitality, richness , an d subtlet y o f Rilke' s work . One o f th e stronges t statement s o f antipath y t o psychoanalyti c an d biographical criticis m amon g Rilk e scholar s i s t o b e foun d i n th e fore word t o Jaco b Steiner' s boo k Rilkes Duineser Elegien (196 2 an d 1969) . Steiner goe s t o th e extrem e o f insistin g tha t th e mor e boldl y th e bio graphical " I " o f th e poet stand s ou t i n th e " i " of th e work, s o muc h th e worse i s the poetry ("Abe r e s lasst sich vermuten, dass das biographisch e Ich de s Dichter s ums o starke r durc h da s ich de s Werk s hervortritt , j e schlechter di e Dichtun g ist"). 3 Attackin g Simenauer' s analysis , Steine r says h e forget s tha t "th e privat e perso n Rilk e i s no t ye t th e poe t i n hi s productive hour s an d tha t . . . fro m th e productiv e poe t t o hi s produc t there i s a distanc e t o b e overcom e whos e breadth , unfathomabl e depth , and complexit y hav e no t bee n measure d u p t o th e presen t time " ("Abe r er vergisst dabei , dass di e private Perso n Rilk e noc h nich t de r Dichte r i n seinen producktive n Stunde n is t un d das s auc h vo m producktive n Di chter z u seine n Produk t ei n Abstan d z u iiberwinde n ist , desse n Weite , Abgriindigkeit un d Komplexita t bishe r nich t ermesse n worde n sind"). 4 This doctrin e foreshadow s mor e sophisticate d an d carefull y argue d attempts t o defin e an d justif y th e critica l concep t o f "da s lyrisch e Ich " (the lyri c I ) i n eac h poem , suc h a s Kat e Hamburger' s i n Die Logik der

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Dichtung (1968 ) an d Anthony Stephens' s in Rainer Maria Rilke's "Gedichte an die Nacbt" (1972) , whic h ar e reminiscen t o f earlie r endeavor s by th e Englis h an d America n Ne w Critic s t o analyz e th e narrativ e per sona i n a poem o r a work o f fictio n withou t referenc e t o th e lif e an d personality o f th e poe t o r th e novelist . Steiner' s desir e t o separat e an d distance "th e productiv e poet " fro m th e perso n an d hi s puris t Aesthet icism in arguing that the reflection i n the "I" of th e poem of th e "private person" in hi s nonproductiv e hour s make s fo r a bad poem see m wildl y defensive an d curiously naive. In her very perceptive study Transcending Angels: Rainer Maria Rilke's Duino Elegies (1987), Kathleen Komar finds even Steine r guilt y o f digressin g int o th e persona l an d th e biographical , when h e remark s tha t a passage i n Eleg y I V reflect s Rilke' s relationshi p with hi s fathe r (thoug h h e immediately qualifie s thi s observation , sayin g that th e relationshi p betwee n fathe r an d so n i s s o full y generalize d i n these line s o f th e Eleg y tha t referenc e t o a biograph y woul d mak e n o further contributio n t o a n understanding o f th e poem). Notin g that , "as Steiner point s out , th e passag e concernin g th e fathe r ma y wel l hav e bi ographical overtone s concernin g hi s bureaucratic-militar y father' s ques tioning o f Rilke' s poeti c vocation, " Koma r remarks , "th e mor e genera l implications for the male and female factors of human life provide a more fruitful focu s fo r ou r discussio n o f th e Elegies"* The clums y vaguenes s of thi s commen t suggest s a n evasive , skittis h respons e t o th e persona l and psychological dimension s o f Rilke' s poetry , a response whic h flaw s and limit s a n otherwise excellen t book . Komar bracket s of f th e poet' s lif e i n a thre e pag e "Biographica l Sketch" that appears as an appendix at the end of her study. Her decision to exclud e th e lif e fro m th e res t o f he r boo k impose s substantia l limita tions upo n he r valuable, detaile d analyse s o f conten t an d form. An d th e more's th e pity. For , he r elucidation s o f verba l nuances , multipl e mean ings, an d th e connection s amon g passage s an d poem s whic h contribut e to th e integrit y o f eac h Elegy an d t o th e coherenc e an d developmen t o f the cycl e ar e th e wor k o f a n exceptionall y gifte d an d knowledgeabl e interpreter. Richard Exne r an d Ingri d Stip a argu e tha t psychoanalytic interpreta tion i s largel y irrelevan t i n readin g Rilke' s late r poetry, i n anothe r valuable recen t contributio n t o Rilk e criticism : "Da s Phanome n de r Androgynie de s Schaffenprozesses i m spaten Rilke: Das Beispiel. 'Solan g du Selbstgeworfne s fangs t . . . , ' " (Th e Phenomeno n o f th e Androgyn y

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of th e Creativ e Proces s i n Lat e Rilke : Example , "A s lon g a s yo u catc h what yo u yoursel f hav e throw n . . . ") , published i n Rainer Maria Rilke, as part o f th e "Weg e de r Forschung " serie s (1987) . Referrin g t o Simen auer's contras t betwee n th e archaic , analyzable, comparativel y unforme d perceptions o f Rilke' s earlie r work an d th e form-givin g harmonie s o f th e later poetry , Exne r an d Stip a conclud e tha t th e creativ e processe s re sponsible fo r th e latte r wer e grounded , t o a larg e extent , i n "bewusste n Denkvorgange" ("consciou s though t processes") , which thes e critic s se e as providing "logisch e Ausdrucksforme n zu r Kommunikation " ("logica l forms o f expressio n fo r communication"). 6 On e ca n fin d suppor t i n Rilke's wor k fo r thei r hypothesi s tha t poetr y shoul d no t b e rea d pri marily a s an expressio n o f th e comple x an d largel y unknown psychi c lif e of th e poet , fo r example , i n Sonnet to Orpheus 1.3 , whic h tell s us , "Ge sang ist Dasein," "Ein Hauc h u m nichts " ("Song i s existence," "A breat h without purpos e o r object") . Bu t thei r choic e o f a foca l example , "A s long as you catc h what you yoursel f hav e thrown . . . , " i s unintentionall y ironic. Thi s poe m suggest s tha t th e writin g o f grea t poetr y i s a pro foundly mysteriou s proces s an d experience , i n whic h suddenl y th e poe t becomes th e on e wh o catche s th e bal l throw n t o him , t o hi s center , b y an eterna l femal e partner . I n thi s experienc e al l consciou s courag e an d power, al l consciou s calculation , ar e gone , an d th e poe m seem s t o com e from hi m o f it s ow n accord , lik e a meteo r leavin g hi s hand s an d ragin g into it s ow n spaces . Thi s i s onl y a partia l paraphrase , bu t i t suffice s t o show tha t th e creativ e processes th e poe m envision s ar e very largel y un conscious, unknown , mysterious. 7 Exner an d Stip a maintai n tha t i n "Solan g d u Selbstgeworfne s fangs t . . . " Rilk e conceive s o f poetr y a s arisin g ou t o f it s ow n logi c an d lan guage, a s i f i t wer e largel y o r entirel y disconnecte d fro m th e poet' s un conscious though t processes . The y us e th e wor d "poetologische " ("poetological") t o labe l thi s purel y self-sufficien t logi c an d process . Though thei r critica l methods an d concept s ar e very different fro m Jaco b Steiner's, thei r affirmatio n o f rarefie d aestheticism , lik e his , seem s strangely naiv e an d psychologicall y defensive . Lik e s o man y othe r Rilk e scholars, the y ar e defendin g th e purit y o f poem s whic h w e al l valu e a s great treasures . Bu t th e poem s d o no t becom e les s extraordinar y i f w e see them i n relatio n t o th e poet's lif e an d wit h th e help o f psychoanalyti c insights. Exner' s an d Stipa' s metho d o f definin g th e "poetological " pro cesses an d result s i s t o identif y "lexisch e Faden " ("lexica l strings " o r

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"threads"), "lexische Gewebe" ("lexical webs" or "wefts" or "textures") , and "Wortfelder " ("wor d fields") i n a poem or a series of selected poems. This mod e o f operation s enable s the m t o trac e th e developmen t o f con nected theme s an d closel y relate d word s an d image s throug h quit e a number o f poem s writte n i n differen t stage s o f Rilke' s creativ e life . An d although a t times their terminology seem s a pseudoscientific jargon , thei r careful tracing s o f "lexica l strings " o r "threads " an d "wor d fields" d o accumulate a large, persuasive pictur e o f th e developin g relationshi p be tween Rilke' s evolvin g sens e o f himself , hi s feeling s an d thought s abou t androgyny, an d hi s conceptio n o f th e poet's (especiall y hi s own ) creativ e processes.8 One canno t hel p bein g draw n t o th e argumen t tha t thi s ver y grea t poet mus t hav e becom e increasingl y self-awar e i n hi s shapin g o f hi s ow n work, a s h e becam e eve r mor e skillfu l an d knowledgeable . But , i f yo u postulate, a s Exne r an d Stip a do , tha t th e earlie r wor k i s shape d b y Rilke's unconscious , a s Simenaue r an d Lo u Andreas-Salom e describ e it , you wil l hav e a hard tim e makin g th e cas e that th e late r wor k someho w floats completel y fre e o f th e poet' s psychi c depths , a s i f i t ha d n o con nection wit h it s antecedents . An d if , a t times , as i n th e lin e fro m Sonne t I.3, quote d abov e ("Gesan g is t Dasein " ["Son g i s existence"]) , Rilk e seems t o resembl e othe r purist s o f modernis t Aestheticism , suc h a s Mal larme, much o f hi s prose an d poetry , includin g th e Duino Elegies, show s affinities wit h work s o f nineteenth - an d earl y twentieth-centur y litera ture, philosophy , an d psycholog y whic h weig h heavil y agains t suc h a position. Amon g th e writer s an d thinker s mos t importan t t o Rilk e wer e Kleist, Jen s Jacobsen , Kierkegaard , Dostoevsky , Flaubert , Baudelaire , Nietzsche, Freud , an d Lo u Andreas-Salome . I hav e mentione d Anthon y Stephens' s study , Rainer Maria Rilke 's "Gedicbte an die Nacht" (1972) , a nonpsychoanalytic commentar y whic h shows a n intelligen t opennes s t o a variet y o f approache s t o Rilke' s ex traordinarily complex , problematic , an d elusiv e writings . Stephen s finds that th e "intellectua l structures " of th e "Gedicht e a n die Nacht" [Poem s to th e Night] , written i n 1913-14 , "hav e thei r root s determine d largel y by emotion. " Quotin g Rilke' s earl y definitio n o f hi s ai m i n writin g po etry—"Bilder z u finden fu r mein e Verwandlungen" ("t o find image s fo r my transformations")—Stephen s propose s tha t "i n hi s late r wor k intel lectual structure s [o f huma n experience ] ma y functio n precisel y a s im-

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ages." (Amon g th e structure s whic h see m mos t importan t t o hi m i n Rilke's poem s i s "Gegenstandlichkeit, " th e radicall y alie n qualit y an d opacity o f externa l object s fo r th e perso n wh o feel s unrelate d t o the m and feel s tha t h e i s no t a t al l a t hom e i n a worl d i n whic h h e i s lik e a tenant constantl y i n dange r o f eviction . Oppose d t o "Gegenstandli chkeit" i n Rilke' s thinkin g an d writin g i s "Weltinnenraum, " a ter m which Stephen s an d othe r critic s rea d a s a mean s o f conceptualizin g " a feeling o f participatio n an d emotiona l identificatio n wit h th e object s o f experience." I n othe r words , "Th e concep t o f 'Weltinnenraum ' i s base d on a feelin g o f th e homogeneit y o f inne r an d oute r world s an d o n th e absence o f an y barrier s t o emotiona l identification." 9 Th e argumen t tha t such concept s functio n i n Rilke' s poetry a s images rather tha n a s rationa l abstractions i n logica l relationshi p t o on e anothe r lead s Stephen s t o th e following conclusion : "Wha t determine d th e successio n o f Rilke' s 'Ver wandlungen' ("transformations" ) i s a psychologica l questio n an d henc e unanswerable withi n th e framewor k o f thi s book." 10 Tha t i s t o say , on e should no t stud y th e transformation s o f "Gegenstandlichkeit " int o "Weltinnenraum" i n exclusively logical, metaphysical, or epistemologica l terms i f on e want s t o giv e a clea r an d ful l analysi s o f th e work s whic h represent an d realiz e them . Suc h transformation s i n Rilke' s poetr y in volve complexitie s o f feelin g an d though t whic h nee d hel p fro m psycho logical insight s i f w e ar e t o understan d them . But I d o no t wan t t o giv e th e impressio n tha t Stephen s i s a n avi d supporter o f psychoanalyti c criticism . H e fault s bot h Ulric h Fullebor n and th e "Freudian" critic s for approache s t o Rilke which tr y to fit poetr y to " a priori " assumptions , absolut e preconceptions ; i f "thes e condition s do no t appea r t o pertain , the n th e 'Synthesi s a priori ' supplie s the m i n terms o f wha t ought t o b e ther e i f th e presupposition s ar e correct. " Ste phens show s tha t thi s i s th e cas e wit h Fulleborn , bu t doe s no t mentio n any "Freudian " critic s specifically , a s example s o f thi s failing. 11 My interpretation s o f Rilke' s work i n The Beginning of Terror resem ble Stephens' s questionin g approac h t o th e work , hi s emphasi s o n th e problematic natur e o f th e poetry , hi s sens e o f it s grea t complexity , sub tlety, an d richness , a s well a s its difficult y an d elusiveness , an d hi s belie f that, possesse d o f thes e qualities , i t invite s a variet y o f critica l perspec tives. The Beginning of Terror shun s th e kin d o f prescriptiv e " a priori " narrowness foun d i n som e primitive , reductiv e psychoanalyti c criticism .

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For th e mos t perceptiv e literar y critic s an d psychoanalysts shar e a sense of th e fertil e overdeterminatio n o f meanin g i n th e metaphors , images , and forma l pattern s o f grea t poems an d othe r works o f art . In hi s concludin g chapter , "A n Approac h t o Rilke, " Stephen s dis cusses "tw o opposin g tendencies , o r attitudes , o r techniques " in Rilke' s work, focusin g o n "th e poe m a s a close d syste m an d th e poe m a s a reaching ou t beyon d th e limit s o f give n experience." 12 Stephen s i s interested in the interaction between these two tendencies and opposing views of poetr y i n Rilke' s work , an d i n th e poet' s oscillatin g emphases , no w on th e one , no w o n th e other . The forme r vie w ma y b e associate d wit h the poet' s inclination , i n hi s studie s o f Rodi n an d hi s letter s abou t Ro din's sculpture, to magnify ar t into something tha t has an absolute value, something, lik e a god, unapproachable , magical , untouchable , an d i n it s essence incomprehensible . A s Stephen s point s out , Rilk e inherite d thi s idealization of th e work o f ar t and the artist from the Romantics. In The Beginning of Terror I explore this tendency i n Rilke's thought an d work at length, especially in my discussio n o f th e poet's relationshi p with Ro din (se e chapte r 8) . Describin g th e opposin g tendency , Stephen s focuse s on Rilke' s lecture , Moderne Lyrik (1898) , wher e th e poe t say s tha t th e "specifically moder n impuls e i s . . . t o penetrat e t o th e furthes t region s of th e self and express the result in poetry." An excerpt from that lecture makes th e sam e point i n th e poet's words : Sehen Sie : seit de n erste n Versuche n de s Einzelnen , unte r de r Flu t fliichtige r Ereignisse sicb selbst zu finden,seit dem ersten Bestreben, mitten im Gelarm des Tages hineinzuhorchen bi s in die tiefsten Einsamkeite n des eigene n Wesens,— giebt es eine Moderne Lyrik. iy Look: since the firstattempts of the individual, amid the flood of fleetingevents, to find himself sinc e th e first endeavors, ami d th e nois e o f th e day , t o liste n within down to the deepest solitudes of his own being—there [has been] a Modern Poetry. Stephens argues persuasively that this early association of moder n poetry with "a n exploratio n o f th e sel f an d it s relatio n t o th e world " i s a n enduring and central concern of Rilke' s writings. In my chapter s on The Notebooks of Make Laurids Brigge and my studies of Rilke's later poems, including th e Duino Elegies and The Sonnets to Orpheus, wit h question s

INTRODUCTION 1

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and suggestion s arisin g fro m th e insight s o f a numbe r o f analyst s an d from Rilke' s ow n writings , I examin e thi s aspec t o f hi s work . Chapters 2 , 3 , an d 4 o f thi s boo k ar e largel y concerne d wit h The Notebooks. On e o f th e mos t valuabl e recen t studie s o f th e novel , Brigitt e L. Bradley' s "Die Aufzeicknungen des Make Laurids Brigge: Thematis ierte Krise des literarischen Selbstvertandnisses" {The Notebooks of Make Laurids Brigge: Thematicize d Crisi s o f Literar y Self-Understanding ) (1980), reveal s clos e affinitie s wit h Andrea s Huyssen' s attemp t t o inte grate psychological an d sociologica l perspective s o n Rilke' s work . Brad ley argue s tha t Make' s response s t o Pari s reflec t th e conflic t i n Rilk e between hi s earl y interes t i n th e oppressivenes s o f th e moder n urban , technological, industrialize d environment , wit h it s crowde d livin g con ditions, an d hi s belie f tha t a writer corrupt s an d degrade s hi s wor k i f h e allows i t t o b e shape d b y a n ideolog y o r b y political , sociological , an d economic ends . Bradley argue s tha t a numbe r o f passage s i n The Notebooks reflec t Rilke's sens e o f th e way s i n whic h th e ol d idea l o f individuality , accord ing t o whic h a perso n coul d hop e t o becom e maste r o f hi s o r he r cir cumstances, rathe r tha n b e mastere d b y them , ha d bee n undermine d b y modern method s o f mas s productio n an d th e pervasio n o f huma n exis tence by technology , commercialization, an d hug e bureaucracies . Bradle y points ou t tha t i n a number o f episodes , such a s the one s i n which Mak e encounters th e blin d selle r o f cauliflower s an d th e blin d newspape r ven dor, Rilk e focuse s o n huma n figure s wh o ma y b e see n a s example s o f social problems , "a s representativ e o f alienatio n conditione d b y th e eco nomic syste m o f productio n i n relatio n t o th e spher e o f work " ("al s reprasentativ fu r di e vo m okonomische n Produktionssyste m bedingt e Entfremdung de m Arbeitsbereic h gegeniiber"). 14 Bradley analyze s th e comple x relationshi p betwee n Make' s response s to thes e aspects o f moder n urba n lif e and hi s efforts t o rediscover himsel f as a writer i n his new environment . Mak e ha s broken awa y fro m hi s pas t life, work , an d sens e o f himsel f s o completely , i t seem s t o him , a s he sit s in hi s room , tha t h e i s "nothing. " "An d ye t thi s nothin g begin s t o thin k and thinks , five flights up , o n a gra y Pari s afternoon , thes e thoughts " {The Notebooks, 22) . I n hi s letter s Rilk e define s Make' s ultimat e failur e as a write r i n term s o f hi s inabilit y t o achieve , excep t i n on e o r tw o sections o f The Notebooks, wha t th e poe t call s "anonymou s work " an d

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"objective expression, " exemplifie d b y Flaubert' s fiction , Baudelaire' s poems, an d Cezanne' s painting s (Letters 1:31 1 an d 314-16) . As I have indicated, Bradley discusses Make's failure an d Rilke's aban donment o f attempt s t o writ e pros e fictio n a s reaction s t o a n unsolvabl e conflict betwee n tw o opposin g set s o f aestheti c values . Sh e point s t o Rilke's 189 8 lecture , Moderne Lyrik, mentione d abov e i n m y discussio n of Stephens' s book , a s on e mean s o f understandin g thi s conflict . Wha t interests Bradle y i n tha t lectur e i s th e poet' s argumen t tha t writin g o r painting whic h find s it s justificatio n i n usefulnes s an d whic h cling s t o topics an d phenomen a o f curren t interes t o r place s itsel f "i n th e servic e of 'politica l o r socia l factiona l interests ' " ("i n de n Diens t 'politische r oder soziale r Parteiinteressen ' " ) is not art , bu t journalism. 15 Oppose d i n Rilke's min d t o suc h corrupte d form s o f writing , painting , o r sculptur e are "autonomou s art " an d th e self-sufficien t work . Bradle y link s thes e concepts t o Jugendstil ar t an d th e Frenc h symbolists , and say s that Rilk e came int o close r contac t wit h th e aestheti c idea s o f th e latte r throug h Rodin, durin g 190 2 an d 1903. 16 Bradley find s tha t Make' s attempt s t o describ e th e blin d newspape r vendor revea l th e underlyin g cause s o f hi s ultimat e failur e t o achiev e a new, clea r understandin g o f himsel f an d hi s tas k a s a writer . Make' s accounts o f th e vendo r creat e a doubl e perspectiv e o n tha t blin d man . Reading thes e passage s i n The Notebooks, on e ca n se e hi m a s a n exem plary consequenc e o f dehumanizin g socia l an d economi c conditions , bu t he ca n als o b e see n a s a man , "ful l o f resignation " ("ergebungsvoll") , who bear s his condition "a s a misfortune ordaine d b y fate" ("al s ei n vo m Schicksal verhangte s Ungluck"). 17 When , afte r painfu l failure , Mak e a t last feel s hi s portrai t o f th e newspape r vendo r successfull y portray s th e man, h e take s thi s a s proo f o f God' s existence , whic h place s hi m unde r "a hug e obligation. " An d h e imagine s th e Creato r take s pleasur e fro m his (Make's) belief tha t his experience in struggling t o portray th e vendo r has taugh t hi m "Tha t w e shoul d lear n t o endur e everythin g an d neve r to judge " (The Notebooks, 211) . Bradle y observe s tha t Make' s conclu sions curiousl y alienat e hi s wor k (th e portrait ) fro m himself . I n thi s re spect h e reveal s a laten t affinit y wit h hi s subject , th e vendor , wh o i s obviously alienate d fro m hi s task , sellin g newspaper s whic h h e canno t read. Bradley als o see s a connectio n betwee n a n earlie r episode , i n whic h Make's fathe r force s himsel f t o endur e th e terrifyin g visi t o f a ghos t

INTRODUCTION 2

1

without questioning , an d Make' s belie f tha t hi s success in doin g th e por trait o f th e vendo r a t las t ha s taugh t hi m t o endur e everythin g withou t ever judgin g o r questioning , a s th e vendor , too , suffer s hi s fate . Retreat ing fro m "th e positio n o f socia l an d ideologica l criticis m int o whic h h e has ventured, " Mak e seem s frightene d b y thi s "functio n o f th e writer " into whic h h e ha s bee n draw n ( " . . . Mak e vo r de r gesellschafts - un d ideologiekritischen Position , i n di e e r sic h begebe n hat , zuriickschreck t bzw. das s e r sic h mi t eine r sogeartete n Funktio n de s Schriftsteller s nich t identifizieren kann"). 18 Incapabl e o f developin g suc h critica l perception s in hi s work , h e seem s unabl e t o realiz e th e powe r whic h comes , a s h e has understood, fro m "n o longe r bein g anybody' s son " {The Notebooks, 189). I f w e accep t Bradley' s connections , w e ca n follo w he r argumen t that h e i s unabl e t o fre e himsel f fro m attitude s an d behavio r obviousl y learned fro m hi s father . Here , a s elsewhere , her essa y reflect s a n attemp t to integrat e sociologica l an d psychologica l insights . Bradley see s Rilke abandonin g pros e fictio n fo r poetr y becaus e i n th e latter he could resolv e the conflict betwee n opposin g set s of values whic h ultimately keep s Mak e fro m redefinin g an d re-creatin g himsel f a s a writer. Free d fro m th e "goal-directe d semantic s o f everyda y o r com monplace idiom " i n a n "economically-minde d society, " Rilk e coul d make hi s poetr y "a n affirmation " o f hi s concep t o f "autonomou s art " ("von de r zweckgerichtete n Semanti k de s Alkagsidioms . . . . ein e Beja hung de r autonome n Kunst"). 19 Some o f Rilke' s late r poem s d o sho w a n interes t i n social , political , and economi c matters , bu t thes e ar e usuall y o f secondar y importance , a t best. A salien t exampl e i s Sonne t II . 19, whic h implicitl y attack s bour geois, capitalis t societ y fo r it s obsessio n wit h mone y an d it s neglec t o f the poor . Bu t eve n i n tha t poem , th e poe t i s no t primaril y intereste d i n the blin d begga r becaus e o f th e social , economic , an d politica l failure s which h e represents. He see s the beggar as "the silen t one " ("der Schwei gende"), standin g i n th e breathin g pause s o f pampere d money , hi s han d held ou t b y fate . An d th e poe t wishe s tha t someon e seein g thi s "lumi nous, miserable, endlessly destructible" hand ("hell , elend, unendlich zer storbar") might , i n wonder , prais e it s enduranc e i n son g whic h onl y a god coul d hear. 20 Although Bradley' s analysi s o f The Notebooks offer s a ver y partia l and limite d readin g o f Make' s effort s t o achiev e a clear understandin g o f his tas k a s a writer a s he respond s t o hi s ne w environment , I hav e give n

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it this lengthy summary in my review of recent criticism because I believe that it serves as a valuable theoretical complement t o my own exploratio n of th e novel' s psychodynamics . I t als o point s th e wa y towar d th e kin d of complex , sophisticated discussio n o f Rilke' s work, i n literar y criticis m with historica l an d sociologica l dimensions , which stil l needs t o b e done . And i t provide s a n encouragin g counterbalanc e t o Ego n Schwarz' s heavy-handed attempt , in Das verschluckte Schluchzen: Poesie und Politik bei Rainer Maria Rilke (Th e Swallowe d Sobbing : Poetr y an d Politic s i n Rainer Mari a Rilke' s Writings ) (1972), 21 t o interpre t Rilke' s wor k an d thought i n term s o f th e admiratio n fo r Mussolin i whic h th e poe t ex pressed i n correspondence with th e Duchess Aureli a Gallarati-Scotti , an d other expression s o f th e poet's idea s an d attitude s whic h Schwar z sees as repellently right-wing .

CHAPTER 2

Learning t o Se e Integration an d Distintegratio n i n The Notebooks of Make Laurids Brigge an d Othe r Writing s Illness an d Creativit y

I Rilke cam e t o Pari s lat e i n Augus t 190 2 t o tal k wit h August e Rodi n an d to study hi s sculpture in order t o write a monograph o n him. This mono graph ha d bee n commissione d b y Richar d Muther , professo r o f ar t his tory a t Breslau . Th e poe t wa s twenty-six . H e ha d publishe d severa l volumes o f poetry an d short stories , mainly juvenilia, among them Leben und Lieder (Lif e an d Songs ) (1894) , Larenopfer (Offering s t o th e Lares ) (1896), Traumgekront (Dream-Crowned ) (1897) , Advent (1898) , Zwei Prager Geschichten (Tw o Pragu e Stories ) (1899) , Mir zur Feier (I n Cel ebration o f Myself ) (1899) , Die weisse Furstin (Th e Whit e Princess ) (1899), an d Die Letzten (Th e Las t Ones ) (1901) . Vom lieben Gott und Anderes (O f th e Dea r Go d An d Othe r Things ) (1900) , a boo k o f tales , and Das Buck der Bilder (Th e Boo k o f Images ) (1902) , a volum e o f poems, sho w tha t hi s extraordinar y gift s an d skill s wer e beginnin g t o mature; thes e work s foreshado w th e distinctiv e qualitie s o f those , soo n to come , whic h woul d establis h hi m a s a majo r poe t an d novelist . H e had alread y writte n earl y version s o f "Th e Boo k o f th e Monasti c Life " and "Th e Boo k o f Pilgrimage, " tw o section s o f Das Stunden-Buch (Th e Book o f Hours) , whic h man y reader s hav e considere d hi s firs t wor k o f enduring genius , althoug h thes e poem s d o no t mov e decisivel y beyon d 23

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the excessiv e subjectivity , facil e rhymes , an d callo w thinkin g o f hi s earl y volumes. Rilke's mov e t o Pari s definitivel y ende d hi s attempt , fo r littl e mor e than a year, t o liv e a s husban d an d fathe r wit h hi s wif e an d daughte r i n their smal l hous e a t Westerwede , nea r Bremen . I n Pari s h e looke d for ward t o lon g period s o f solitud e an d th e opportunit y t o giv e uninter rupted devotio n t o hi s writing . Clar a woul d com e a s soo n a s sh e could , but they would liv e in separate quarters, and he intended tha t they shoul d see eac h othe r onl y o n weekends . Ruth , a t nin e month s o f age , woul d be lef t i n th e car e o f he r mother' s parents . My chapte r o n Rilke' s relationshi p wit h Clar a offer s a detaile d ex amination o f hi s motive s fo r marryin g he r an d th e reason s fo r hi s deci sion t o giv e up thei r hom e i n Westerwede, where h e had hope d tha t the y would guar d eac h other' s solitud e an d foste r eac h other' s writin g an d sculpture, while raising a child. Here I shall give a brief, selective accoun t of Rilke' s lif e a t th e tim e i n orde r t o provid e a biographical contex t fo r my analysi s o f th e nove l begu n i n Januar y 1904 , whic h draw s o n hi s experiences durin g hi s first yea r i n Paris . In th e summe r o f 190 2 Rilke' s cousin s cu t of f th e allowanc e whic h his Uncl e Jarosla v ha d provide d fo r hi s universit y studies . Forewarne d by hi s cousin s i n January, Rilk e ha d begu n lookin g fo r othe r mean s o f support, bu t h e wa s determine d neve r t o tak e th e kin d o f full-tim e jo b his fathe r ha d lon g bee n urgin g o n him . Th e man y letter s h e sen t t o potential patron s brough t littl e i n return . H e wa s commissione d t o d o a study o f th e artist s who m h e ha d know n i n th e Worpswed e colon y (i n which h e ha d me t Clar a an d he r friend , th e painter , Paul a Becker , whil e living there during September 1900)—Frit z Mackensen, Otto Modersoh n (Paula's husband) , Han s a m Ende , Frit z Overbeck , an d Heinric h Voge ler, th e gifte d Jugendstil designe r an d illustrator , whos e wor k an d clois tered styl e of livin g he admired. At th e tim e he did no t forese e tha t Paul a Becker, wh o ha d fascinate d hi m n o les s tha n Clar a i n thos e head y day s of Septembe r 190 0 a t Worpswede , woul d someda y b e recognize d a s th e only majo r artis t t o hav e com e ou t o f tha t group . H e doe s no t mentio n her i n hi s monograp h o n th e Worpswed e artists . A gran t fro m th e Con cordia Societ y o f Pragu e als o helpe d suppor t th e coupl e i n Westerwed e during th e sprin g o f 1902 , a s di d th e fee s fo r hi s boo k reviewing . Bu t there wa s nowher e nea r enoug h t o kee p th e famil y o f thre e going . Rilke ha d othe r reason s fo r breakin g u p hi s family . Hi s letter s tel l u s

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that th e littl e househol d i n Westerwed e di d no t giv e hi m th e emotiona l support, nurture , an d fulfillmen t h e ha d hope d fo r i n marrying . O n th e contrary, hi s hom e ther e ha d remaine d painfull y foreig n t o him . Fo r some tim e hi s wif e an d chil d ha d seeme d unwelcom e intruders . Havin g his ow n hom e an d famil y ha d don e nothin g t o remed y hi s sens e o f hi s unreality. The y ha d onl y intensifie d it . H e fel t tha t hi s existenc e a s hus band an d father, unde r pressure to find a n adequate income, in the village so clos e t o Clara' s parents , was "destroying " him. 1 Hi s stat e o f min d i n Paris durin g 190 2 an d 190 3 wa s influence d b y th e failur e o f hi s expec tations tha t hi s marriag e wit h Clar a woul d giv e hi m th e strengt h h e needed t o overcom e hi s fear s an d tha t a hous e an d famil y o f hi s ow n would provid e a refug e fro m th e menacin g chao s o f th e worl d aroun d him withou t endangerin g hi s solitude. 2 The focu s o f Rilke' s workin g lif e durin g hi s firs t fe w month s i n Pari s was Rodin . I n chapte r 1 I offere d som e indication s o f th e ways i n whic h Rilke's stud y o f th e sculptor' s method s an d hi s wor k ma y hav e influ enced th e writin g an d structurin g o f The Notebooks of Make Laurids Brigge. M y chapte r o n th e poet' s relationshi p wit h th e sculpto r provide s a detaile d analysi s o f Rodin' s effec t upo n Rilk e an d hi s writing . Whe n Rilke firs t arrive d i n Paris , the grea t artis t seeme d a center o f strengt h i n the frightenin g disorde r o f th e city . A t th e beginnin g o f Augus t 190 2 h e had writte n t o Rodin , addressin g hi m a s "M y Master, " revealin g th e extent t o whic h h e ha d idealize d th e sculpto r befor e meetin g hi m an d the natur e o f hi s expectations . H e expresse d th e wis h tha t th e book s which h e ha d publishe d migh t b e i n Rodin' s possession . Unfortunately , the sculpto r coul d no t rea d German , an d Rilke' s works ha d no t ye t bee n translated. He confessed , "Al l m y lif e ha s change d sinc e I know tha t yo u exist, m y Master, " an d h e contraste d hi s ow n goo d fortun e wit h tha t o f young aspirin g artist s who fee l forsake n becaus e the y canno t find a master wh o wil l provid e the m wit h "a n example , a fervent heart , hand s tha t make greatness " (Letters 1:77) . Warmly welcome d b y th e sculptor , h e wa s no t disappointed . Hi s ad ulation grew . On e ca n find i t i n lette r afte r lette r durin g th e nex t fe w years. Writin g t o Ott o Modersoh n o n Decembe r 31 , 1902 , afte r fou r months i n Paris , h e describe d th e "cruelty, " "confusion, " an d "mon strosity" o f th e cit y i n whic h th e dying , th e physicall y an d mentall y ill , the grotesqu e form s o f dehumanization , th e peopl e wh o ha d los t thei r way i n the city's noise and chao s an d coul d no t find purpos e o r directio n

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or any sense of self among the anonymous masses, all threatened to overwhelm hi s sanity . "T o al l that, " h e wrot e t o Modersohn , "Rodi n i s a great, quiet , powerfu l contradiction " {Letters 1:93-94) . Possibly , th e sculptor's "example " fostered th e artisti c mastery , th e contro l an d skil l which Salom e found , th e followin g summer , i n hi s vivi d description s o f his borderlin e experiences , th e account s o f hi s ow n trouble d lif e whic h he used with slight revisions in creating the Paris existence of Make Laurids Brigge . (Mak e i s twenty-eight—Rilke' s ag e whe n h e bega n th e novel—and live s o n th e ru e Toullie r nea r th e Luxembour g Gardens , where Rilk e himsel f ha d live d durin g Septembe r 1902 ; eve n th e mont h is th e same. ) Bu t fo r man y month s eve n th e powerfu l presenc e o f th e "Master" could not effectively contradic t the deeply disturbing effects o f the cit y an d th e multitud e o f fear s which i t arouse d i n th e youn g poet . "Oh a thousand hand s hav e bee n buildin g a t m y fear, " h e wrot e t o Lou i n July 1903 . Th e peopl e h e sa w wer e "fragment s o f caryatid s o n whom th e whol e pai n stil l lay . . . . twitchin g lik e bit s o f a big chopped up fish that is already rotting but still alive. They were living on nothing , on dust , o n soot , an d o n th e filth o n thei r surfaces " (Letters 1:108-9) . His letters and The Notebooks of Make Laurids Brigge make it clear that he was projectin g hi s sens e o f himsel f ont o thes e people . Make's thought s abou t radica l alteration s o f mind , self , an d worl d teeter on a thin ledge o f uncertaint y betwee n th e fear that he is mentall y disintegrating and the hope that he is going through a frightening process which wil l brin g th e poet i n him t o birth . I n the following passag e he is responding t o th e dyin g o f a stranger i n a cremerie: "Yes, he kne w tha t he was now withdrawing from everything in the world, not merely fro m human beings . On e mor e moment , an d everything would los e it s meaning, an d thi s tabl e an d th e cu p an d th e chai r h e wa s clingin g t o woul d become unintelligible , alie n an d heavy. " Mak e realize s tha t somethin g very simila r i s takin g plac e i n him . H e understand s th e experienc e o f someone dyin g wh o canno t find anythin g familia r i n th e worl d aroun d him. Fille d wit h fear , h e wishes tha t h e coul d consol e himsel f wit h "th e thought tha t it' s no t impossibl e t o se e everythin g differentl y an d stil l remain alive " (51-52). Make wonders i f thes e disturbin g change s i n him ma y b e a necessary preparation for truly original perception and thought. Near the beginning of The Notebooks h e expresse s th e belie f tha t he i s "learnin g to see " (5, 6). H e ha s discovere d tha t eac h person ha s severa l faces . Som e wea r th e

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same fac e fo r thirt y year s an d kee p th e other s "i n storage " (6) . Thes e faces wil l b e worn b y thei r childre n and , sometimes , by thei r dogs . If w e follow Mak e thu s far , interpretatio n seem s relativel y easy . Roughl y speaking, a face in this passage seems to mean a personality o r an identity . He ha s discovere d tha t a chil d ma y tak e o n a fac e whic h ha s remaine d hidden i n hi s parent . Ofte n childre n unconsciousl y assum e th e laten t personalities o f thei r parent s b y identifyin g wit h them . Make doe s no t sa y al l this. But i t i s implicit i n what h e doe s say . An d it i s consonan t wit h Rilke' s belief , repeatedl y expresse d throughou t th e novel an d i n hi s poem s an d letters , that s o muc h o f wha t goe s o n i n th e mind an d betwee n person s i s unconscious . Thinkin g o f min d o r psych e as space, Rilke imagine s "a n interior " inaccessibl e t o consciousness , int o which al l ou r thought s an d perception s sink . W e d o no t kno w wha t i s going o n i n th e "interior. " Bu t image s whic h com e u p ou t o f thos e depths revea l th e way s i n whic h earlie r perception s hav e bee n trans formed there . Make's conceptio n o f "learnin g t o see " has obviou s affin ities with Freud's ideas about unconscious mental processes, though ther e is n o clea r evidenc e tha t Rilk e wa s influence d b y Freud' s theor y whil e he wa s writin g th e earl y part s o f The Notebooks: " I don' t kno w wh y i t is, but everythin g enter s m e mor e deepl y an d doesn' t sto p wher e i t onc e used to . I hav e a n interio r tha t I neve r kne w of . Everythin g passe s int o it now . I don' t kno w wha t happen s there " (5) . Make note s tha t w e "wear " ou r face s "lik e gloves. " Everyon e know s that a face ca n becom e a mask. But , reading further, yo u ca n se e that thi s is not wha t Mak e mean s when h e turn s fro m peopl e whos e personalitie s are fairly consisten t throughout muc h of their lives to those who "chang e faces incredibl y fast, " unti l a t a n earl y age , mayb e forty , "thei r las t on e is wor n throug h . . . ha s hole s i n it , i s i n man y place s thi n a s paper. " Through th e widenin g holes , "little b y little, " we begi n t o se e "th e non face" ("da s Nichtgesicht") , "an d the y wal k aroun d wit h tha t on " (6-7). Is h e thinkin g abou t peopl e wh o bur n themselve s ou t to o quickly ? Cer tainly no t jus t that . Th e notio n o f a person goin g throug h a rapi d suc cession o f personalitie s suggest s instability , a n absenc e o f psychi c continuity an d integrity , a n inability t o develo p a strong, lasting sens e of identity. Th e imag e o f a fac e "thi n a s paper " suggest s tha t th e sens e o f self i s tenuou s an d fragile . But wha t i s th e "Nichtgesicht, " th e "nonface" ? Doe s thi s refe r t o someone wh o continue s t o functio n withou t an y stron g sens e o f sel f o r

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inner coherence , a perso n whos e existenc e i s unthinking , uncompre hending, guide d b y momentar y impulse s an d feelings, externa l pressure s and influences ? Tha t migh t b e a description o f man y peopl e los t i n th e confusion o f moder n urba n life . A numbe r o f Rilke' s poem s abou t face s warn u s no t t o settl e fo r thi s simpl e conclusion . I n Rilke, Valery and Yeats: The Domain of the Self Priscill a Sha w connect s th e "nonface" i n The Notebooks wit h a poem abou t face s whic h Rilk e wrote i n Decembe r 1906.3 Her e "da s Nicht-Gesicht " doe s no t refe r t o th e facelessnes s o f those wh o hav e los t sel f an d sou l i n th e chao s o f th e grea t cities . Th e poet ask s if we do not implore whoever o r whatever allots us our portion "for th e non-face/ whic h belong s t o ou r darkness" : flehen wi r zu dem Bescheidenden nachtens nicht um das Nicht-Gesicht, das zu unserem Dunke l gehort? 4 He ask s hi s face ho w i t ca n be th e face fo r suc h a n inne r life , i n whic h continually th e beginnin g o f somethin g i s rolle d togethe r wit h it s dis solving: Gesicht, mein Gesicht :

............................ Wie kannst du Gesicht sein fur s o ein Innen, drin sic h immerfort da s Beginnen mit dem Zerfliessen z u etwas balk.

The poe t think s o f forest , mountain , sky , an d sea , heavin g themselve s out o f thei r depths . The y hav e n o fac e lik e ours . Thos e grea t masse s provide hi m with image s o f the serene perfection an d harmony o f some thing completel y a t on e with itself , utterl y lackin g i n self-consciousnes s and an y sense o f th e division betwee n worl d an d self. Rilk e reflect s tha t even animal s sometime s fin d thei r face s to o heav y an d as k tha t the y b e taken fro m them . These lines recall the dogs i n The Notebooks tha t wea r their masters ' faces. The thought tha t animal s hav e faces whic h the y find oppressive implie s tha t the y d o no t lac k self-consciousnes s an d a sens e of th e separation an d oppositio n o f sel f an d world, sel f an d other , how ever vagu e suc h awarenes s ma y be in them . The poet' s longin g fo r th e "non-face " "whic h belong s t o ou r dark ness" seem s t o b e a desir e t o laps e withou t fea r int o th e interna l flux ,

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which i s chaotic , unfathomable , an d incomprehensible . Thi s woul d in volve a complet e releas e fro m th e strai n o f self-consciousness , whic h awareness of one' s own face intensifies. Rilke imagines the inner darknes s as a vorte x an d a s depth s ("Wirbel " an d "Tiefen") , a s a wildernes s ("Wildnis") i n whic h path s ar e los t i n th e drea d o f th e abys s ("sic h ver lieren in s Abgrundsgraun" ) almos t a s soo n a s on e i s luck y enoug h t o find the m {WDB 2:11) . What th e poe t seek s i n hi s longin g fo r th e "non-face " whic h belong s to hi s darkness , what h e think s h e ma y find b y waitin g patientl y i n un fathomable inne r flux , i s th e radian t unit y an d intensit y o f bein g whic h he hear s i n a bird' s call . It s cal l make s it s tin y hear t "s o large " an d "a t one/ wit h th e hear t o f th e air , wit h th e hear t o f th e grove" : wenn ei n Vogellaut, vieltausendmal, geschrien und wiede r geschrien , ein winziges Her z s o weit macht und ein s mit dem Herzen de r Luft , mi t dem Herzen de s Hains. . . . (WDB 2:13) This passag e bring s t o min d th e pros e fragmen t "A n Experience " (1913), Rilke' s descriptio n o f hi s sens e o f fusio n wit h th e cosmos , con centrated i n hi s feelin g tha t a bird' s cal l wa s vibratin g jus t a s intensel y within hi m a s i n oute r space , tha t h e an d th e univers e wer e completel y absorbed int o tha t singl e resonan t sound . Thi s experienc e i n a garden o n Capri mad e th e spac e within an d aroun d hi m "on e regio n o f th e purest , deepest consciousness." With eye s shut s o that he might forget hi s body' s separateness fro m th e environment , h e fel t "th e gentl e presenc e o f th e stars" withi n him. 5 In th e poe m quote d abov e th e bird' s luminou s cr y i s heard b y some one who, time and again , as often a s it dawns, soars like "steepest stone, " implicitly like a mountain o r a colossus. This seems to be the god invoke d at th e beginnin g o f th e poem, "i n who m I alon e ascen d an d fal l an d los e my way " ("i n de m ic h allein/steig e und fall e un d irre " [WDB 2:11]) . The poet discover s this god in himself i n the whirling, unfathomable darkness , when suddenly , withou t warning , he become s capabl e o f son g which ha s the luminou s unit y an d intensit y o f th e bird' s cry , expressin g hi s affinit y with air , sky , forest , mountain , sea , an d grove . Th e poe m implie s tha t the poe t mus t giv e u p hi s fac e o r faces , allo w th e non-fac e t o com e through, an d wai t i n th e unfathomabl e inne r darkness , i f h e i s t o find

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and t o becom e tha t deepe r unity , power , an d radianc e o f bein g whic h i s his genius , th e go d wh o tower s abov e hi s ordinar y sel f (WDB 2:13) . Make's reflection s upo n face s an d th e "non-face " culminat e i n a passage which differ s i n substanc e an d moo d fro m thi s poem , a s h e recall s a frightening experienc e o f radicall y origina l perceptio n whe n h e startle d a woman holdin g he r fac e i n he r hand s o n a Paris stree t corner : The woma n sa t up , frightened, sh e pulled ou t o f herself , to o quickly , to o violently, s o that he r fac e was lef t i n he r tw o hands . I coul d se e it lyin g there : its hollow form . I t cos t m e a n indescribabl e effor t t o sta y wit h thos e tw o hands , not t o loo k a t what ha d bee n tor n ou t o f them . I shuddered t o se e a face fro m the inside , but I wa s muc h mor e afrai d o f tha t bar e flaye d hea d waitin g there , faceless. (7) A fac e come s off . A hea d i s flayed . Perhap s n o othe r imag e o f muti lation i s s o threatening , no t eve n th e cuttin g of f o f breast s o r genitals . Nothing ca n b e mor e horrifyin g tha n th e phot o o f a fac e blaste d awa y in war, o r eate n awa y by fire , acid , or animals . Obviously, thi s is becaus e we associat e o r identif y th e fac e wit h th e person . Underlying th e passag e quote d abov e i s a fantas y o f psychi c disinte gration. Th e languag e seem s t o impl y tha t th e woma n i s unselfed , lef t without sel f o r soul . Lik e s o man y othe r figure s i n th e novel , sh e i s a n image o f wha t Mak e fear s ma y happe n t o him . Implici t als o i s fea r of sudde n exposur e o f th e selfless , amorphous , helples s mas s o f psy chic plasm a underlyin g th e coherent , self-awar e perso n an d publi c personality. The imager y o f face s thi n a s paper , wearin g through , riddle d wit h holes, expresse s th e fea r tha t one' s privat e thought s an d feeling s wil l show, despit e one' s effort s t o hid e them . An d ther e i s th e relate d fear , implied i n th e descriptio n o f th e woman, tha t w e shall be seen a s selfless , amorphous, and dehumanized, lik e the dead, the living dead whom Mak e describes a s husks , an d th e insane . Make see s the woman's fac e lyin g in he r hands . Does thi s sugges t tha t in th e momen t o f violen t fea r th e woman' s hand s hav e becom e a s ex pressive a s a face? Rodi n taugh t Rilk e tha t hand s coul d expres s th e inne r life a s well a s faces do . But i t i s the hollo w for m o f th e fac e whic h Mak e sees i n th e woman' s hands . I tak e thi s t o mea n tha t th e sigh t o f th e woman's hand s give s hi m th e ide a tha t he r fac e ha s com e off . H e ha s

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seen her fall forward int o her hands and then pull herself u p out o f the m "too quickly , to o violently. " Th e sigh t o f them , emptied , frightened , open, thin as they are , flashes upo n hi s mind, by wa y o f association , the image of th e face peeled away , and then the image o f he r naked, helples s facelessness i n thi s momen t o f shoc k an d fear . I have said that, in this Notebooks entry , faces seem to represen t personalities o r identities . I n th e descriptio n o f th e woma n th e fac e seem s t o mean something deeper, more inclusive, a sense of self , a sense of onesel f as a person, for whom th e inner life has or seems to have the unity give n it b y a viewpoint, b y th e feelin g tha t there i s someon e experiencing , de siring, fearing , choosing , no t jus t a flu x o f experiences , desires , fears , choices. I n Beyond Good and Evil, Nietzsche , lik e Hum e befor e him , argues that this is an illusion, a fiction. Bu t many psychoanalysts, beginning with Freud, have observed that such a sense of self does have a basis in th e unifyin g organizatio n o f a n "ego " and i n th e unit y an d separate ness of th e body. The sense of sel f ha s a number o f sources . The privac y of th e min d suggest s it s separatenes s an d autonomy . Actio n followin g upon choice suggests that there is an agent who make s decisions and acts upon them . Consisten t pattern s o f feelin g an d though t an d consistenc y in the way things are viewed sugges t that someone i s there (where?) who experiences thes e feeling s an d has thi s viewpoint. The descriptio n o f th e woman whos e fac e come s of f i n he r hand s reflect s th e fea r tha t thi s someone, thi s perso n o r sel f wh o Mak e feel s h e is , may b e lost . A numbe r o f clinician-observer s an d theorist s hav e discusse d th e origins o f th e associatio n o f fac e wit h sel f an d person. On e o f th e mos t highly respecte d observer s o f earl y infan t behavior , R . A . Spitz , tell s us, "The inceptio n o f th e realit y principl e i s eviden t a t th e three-month s level, whe n th e hungr y infan t become s abl e t o suspen d th e urg e fo r th e immediate gratificatio n o f hi s ora l need . H e doe s s o fo r th e tim e neces sary t o perceiv e th e mother' s fac e an d t o reac t t o it . Thi s i s th e devel opmental ste p i n whic h th e T i s differentiate d fro m th e 'non-I. ' "6 D. W . Winnicot t an d othe r analyti c theorist s hav e conclude d tha t a n infant experience s a responsive mother' s fac e a s a reflection an d thu s a confirmation o f his own existence. Watching an empathetic mother's face, an infant als o get s t o kno w a great dea l abou t wha t h e i s like . He r fac e is a mirror in which he r baby find s himself. 7 Phyllis Greenacr e point s ou t tha t w e neve r se e ou r ow n fac e i n th e

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flesh, onl y i n a pane o f glas s o r wate r o r som e othe r mirrorin g surface , only a s a reflected imag e o r a s an image i n a photograph o r a painting , which i s fel t t o b e unrea l an d disconnected , no t th e livin g thin g itself . (This trut h bring s t o min d Plato' s cav e an d the myth o f Narcissus , who cannot find adequat e confirmatio n o f his existence and reality in his mirror image . Hi s deat h ca n b e rea d a s a metapho r fo r th e dissolutio n o f the isolate d o r solipsisti c self . Narcissu s fascinate d Rilke , wh o value d solitude. I n Mak e h e portray s th e way s i n whic h isolatio n strengthen s the imagination but also fosters narcissisti c illness.) As the reflected imag e in a pane o f glas s o r i n wate r i s fel t t o b e unreal , Greenacr e argues , a child needs someone else, whose face responsively mirrors his, to suppor t his sens e o f th e livin g realit y o f hi s ow n distinctiv e self. 8 I n Collected Papers on Schizophrenia and Related Subjects, Harol d Searle s observe s that fo r th e patient whos e sens e o f sel f i s weak th e analyst' s fac e ofte n performs th e maternal functio n o f mirroring. 9 I shal l retur n t o thi s sub ject in subsequent chapter s whe n I focus upo n Rilke' s relationship s wit h his mothe r an d other women . This preliminar y discussio n o f mirror s an d mirroring wil l mak e som e readers thin k o f Jacques Lacan' s well-know n essa y "Th e mirror stag e as formative o f th e function o f th e I a s revealed i n th e psychoanalytic ex perience." Laca n call s "th e mirro r stage, " lastin g fro m si x t o eightee n months o f age , "a dram a . . . whic h manufacture s fo r th e subject... th e succession o f phantasie s tha t extend s fro m a fragmented bod y imag e t o a for m o f it s totalit y tha t I shal l cal l orthopaedic—and , lastly , t o th e assumption o f th e armou r o f a n alienatin g identity." 10 Fo r Laca n th e child's experienc e o f hi s mirro r reflectio n a t approximatel y si x month s results i n his assumption o f a n image. This earl y "identification, " how ever, is at odds wit h th e infant's experienc e o f its own body a t that tim e as fragmented an d uncoordinated an d with th e closely related lack of any developed sens e of psychic coherenc e an d integration. The image offere d the chil d i n th e mirro r foreshadow s th e gradua l developmen t o f a n integrated sens e of sel f an d ego. But it also help s t o lay the foundation fo r enduring, i f ofte n unconscious , alienatio n fro m onesel f an d others . The mirror imag e is , obviously, external , inverted , reflected , an d its physica l unity is sharply out of sync with the infant's othe r experiences of psycheand-body. Th e child' s identificatio n o f himsel f (herself ) wit h th e imag e in th e mirror, a misperception, anticipate s th e mediation o f hi s (her) relationships wit h sel f an d other s b y suc h image s and , hence, tha t under -

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lying, ofte n unconsciou s sens e o f alienation . Eventually , Laca n argues , language and other kinds of symbols, too, will mediate these relationship s and pla y a large part i n th e creatio n o f th e sens e o f a unified self . I hav e interpreted mirror s an d mirrorin g i n Rilke' s lif e an d wor k wit h th e hel p of othe r psychoanalytic theorist s (amon g them , Searles , Spitz, Winnicott , R. D . Laing , an d Hein z Kohut ) rathe r tha n Lacan , becaus e I hav e foun d their insight s an d th e matrice s o f clinica l experienc e whic h suppor t an d substantiate the m mor e illuminatin g tha n hi s writings .

II The imag e o f th e woman' s fac e comin g of f i n he r hands , frightening , horrifying a s it is , obliquely suggest s Make' s drea d o f menta l disintegra tion, which a number o f passage s i n The Notebooks reveal . If Mak e wer e a rea l perso n givin g u s a repor t o f a n experience , w e migh t sa y tha t h e has unconsciousl y projecte d th e psychi c disintegratio n whic h h e fear s i n himself ont o th e woman, embodyin g i t i n a fantasy o f a face comin g off . Is this a hallucination? I s it imaginative perception? Perhaps , Rilke woul d have wante d u s t o retai n ou r negativ e capabilit y i n readin g thi s Notebooks entry , an d t o refrai n fro m forcin g i t int o on e category , excludin g the other . Make's fantasie s o f physica l an d menta l fragmentatio n an d o f th e dis solution o f boundarie s betwee n himsel f an d hi s worl d originat e i n hi s childhood. I n a subsequent entr y h e recalls a n episode , from tha t tim e i n his life , whic h clearl y represent s a laps e i n th e integrit y o f body , mind , and will . Whil e drawing , h e let s a crayo n fal l unde r th e table . Kneelin g on a n armchai r ha s mad e hi s leg s s o num b tha t " I didn' t kno w wha t belonged t o m e an d wha t wa s th e chair's. " Boundarie s betwee n th e sel f and th e externa l world hav e dissolved. I n th e child' s min d differentiatio n and integratio n brea k dow n a t th e sam e time. Under th e tabl e Mak e see s his ow n han d a s a separate creatur e wit h a mind an d wil l o f it s own : [A]bove all I recognized m y own outsprea d han d movin g down ther e al l alone, like some strang e crab , exploring th e ground . I watche d i t . . . almos t wit h cu riosity; it seemed to know thing s I had never taught it, as it groped dow n ther e so completel y o n it s own , wit h movement s I ha d neve r notice d befor e . . . i t interested me . I was ready for al l kinds of adventures . (94)

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Then th e bo y see s another han d com e "ou t o f th e wall." The tw o hand s grope blindl y towar d eac h other . Th e bo y i s horrified . " I fel t tha t on e of th e hand s belonge d t o m e an d tha t i t wa s abou t t o ente r int o some thing i t coul d neve r retur n from . Wit h al l th e authorit y tha t I ha d ove r it, I stoppe d it , hel d i t flat , an d slowl y pulle d i t bac k t o m e withou t taking m y eye s of f th e othe r one , which kep t o n groping . I realize d tha t it wouldn' t stop , an d I don' t kno w ho w I go t u p again " (94) . This delusion expresse s the child's sense that th e integrity o f bod y an d self ha s broke n down . Wha t h e ha s lon g though t wa s a par t o f himsel f is threatenin g t o cros s th e boundarie s whic h separat e hi m fro m every thing an d everyon e els e an d t o becom e a par t o f th e worl d o f resistan t objects an d opposin g wills . Ther e i s a n implici t dange r that , i f thi s ca n happen, perhap s an y par t o f bod y o r psych e ca n separat e itsel f fro m th e child an d cross that line into the alien, threatening other. For a little while Make doe s no t thin k h e ha s th e powe r t o sto p hi s han d fro m joinin g that strang e othe r han d an d thu s enterin g "int o somethin g i t could neve r return from " (94) . In The Ego and the Id (1923) , Freu d observe d tha t th e sens e o f a separate, unifie d eg o develop s wit h th e gradua l discover y tha t th e bod y is a separate entity . Psychiatrists an d psychologist s workin g wit h schizo phrenics ofte n find tha t th e disintegratio n o f th e sel f i s reflecte d i n th e decomposition o f th e bod y image . Harol d Searle s describe s th e fantas y of a schizophreni c patien t "tha t th e buildin g i n whic h sh e wa s house d consisted, i n actuality , o f th e disjointe d fragment s o f a huma n femal e body." Th e sam e patien t expresse d he r belie f tha t Searle s wa s "anatom ically unintegrated." Searle s says that thes e fantasies "ha d t o d o wit h he r coming close r t o a n awarenes s o f th e ful l dept h o f eg o fragmentation . . . which ha d lon g prevaile d i n herself." 1 He als o cite s tw o 196 1 studie s o f disturbance s i n bod y imag e durin g experiments i n sensor y deprivation , comparing th e disturbances reporte d in thes e studie s wit h thos e o f hi s schizophreni c patients . Accordin g t o one o f thes e reports , i n th e mind s o f severa l subject s "th e arm s seeme d to b e dissociated fro m th e body. " I n anothe r experimen t on e o f th e sub jects "feare d tha t hi s bod y part s woul d disappea r an d disintegrate. " In The Nonhuman Environment, Searle s cite s a 195 5 stud y o f "Vari ations i n eg o feeling induce d b y d-lysergi c aci d diethylamid e (LSD-25), " which report s tha t person s takin g LSD-2 5 fel t tha t thei r ski n an d thei r

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hands an d fee t n o longe r belonge d t o thei r bodies . "Th e individua l feel s that hi s bod y i s not his , that i t functions automatically. " Hi s hand s see m to mov e autonomously . Searle s observe s tha t som e schizophrenic s g o through thi s kin d o f experienc e fo r lon g period s o f time. 2 Ultimately , a s this stud y suggests , the los s o f integratio n involve s a withdrawal o f "eg o feeling" no t onl y fro m part s o f th e bod y an d the n th e bod y a s a whole, but als o fro m menta l phenomena , fro m emotion s an d thoughts , s o tha t they to o see m separate , independent , an d alien . In Autobiography of a Schizophrenic Girl, no t a bod y bu t a face dis integrates int o separate , independen t parts , lik e a cubis t painting , i n th e mind o f th e schizophreni c girl , who suspect s tha t th e "independenc e o f each part" is the source of her fea r an d that i t keeps her from recognizin g the face , thoug h sh e know s i t belong s t o he r analyst , who m sh e call s "Mama." 3 Unconsciousl y sh e project s th e psychi c disintegratio n whic h she fear s i n hersel f ont o "Mama. " He r unconsciou s confusio n o f Mam a with hersel f reflect s th e pervasiv e weaknes s o f he r abilit y t o differentiat e between hersel f an d others . Of course , we can also read Make's story abou t the hand a s an accoun t of th e supernatural , somethin g concocte d ou t o f Rilke' s fascinatio n wit h ghosts an d kindre d phenomena , whic h wa s encourage d b y hi s visi t t o Scandinavia i n 1904 . An d on e ca n se e i n thi s story , a s i n th e passag e about faces , th e influenc e o f Rodin . I n th e first par t o f hi s boo k o n th e sculptor, written i n 1902 , Rilke argue s that th e unity o f a n artisti c object , a paintin g o r a sculpture , doe s no t hav e t o coincid e wit h th e unit y o f some othe r objec t i n the world. The artis t discover s new unities, drawin g upon a number o f thing s t o mak e on e o f hi s own , creatin g " a worl d ou t of th e smalles t par t o f a thing. " Rilke' s chie f example s ar e th e hand s sculpted b y Rodin . Thoug h the y stan d alone , separate , the y ar e n o les s alive. A numbe r o f the m see m a s expressiv e a s face s o f emotions , state s of mind , an d personalit y types—anger , irritation , sleep , waking up , wea riness, los s o f desire , crimina l tendencies , fo r example . "Hand s hav e a history o f thei r own , the y have , indeed , thei r ow n civilization " (WSR, 104-5).

Rodin's sculptur e fostere d Rilke' s developmen t o f idea s originatin g i n fantasies an d fantastica l experience s remembere d fro m th e poet' s child hood, man y o f whic h returne d i n Paris , brought bac k b y th e illnes s por trayed i n Make . Conversely , account s o f psychi c disintegratio n o r

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fragmentation i n The Notebooks, insofa r a s the novel is autobiographical , reveal a t leas t par t o f th e motivatio n fo r Rilke' s absorptio n i n Rodin' s disintegrative an d reintegratin g sculpture . In th e secon d hal f o f The Notebooks, Make' s accoun t o f Charle s th e Bold, duk e o f Burgundy , obliquel y echoe s th e stor y o f th e han d i n Make's childhood . Th e duke' s hand s see m t o hav e a lif e an d a wil l o f their own . Mak e compare s the m t o "th e head s o f madmen , ragin g wit h fantasies." Bu t i t is the duke' s bloo d whic h become s th e focus o f Make' s implicit belie f tha t th e essentia l weaknes s whic h defeate d an d destroye d this bol d lor d wa s a lac k o f integration . Mak e imagine s tha t th e duk e was "locke d in " wit h hi s "foreign " blood , tha t i t terrifie d hi m i n th e expectation "tha t i t would attac k him a s he slept, and tea r him to pieces." In Make' s fantas y thi s powerful noble , remembered a s Charles th e Bold , was completel y subjec t t o thi s alien , half-Portugues e blood , whic h h e could no t comprehend . H e coul d no t "persuade " it tha t h e was empero r or tha t i t shoul d fea r him . A s Mak e imagine s Burgundy , eventuall y hi s blood, realizin g tha t h e wa s " a los t man, " "wante d t o escape. " And , o f course, i t ha d it s wa y whe n th e duk e die d (192-93) . Rilke wrot e t o hi s Polis h translator , Witol d vo n Hulewicz , tha t th e historical figures i n The Notebooks shoul d b e see n a s th e "vocabula o f [Make's] distress, " an d tha t th e "evocation s an d images " o f thes e ac counts o f historica l figures "ar e equated " wit h "hi s perio d o f distress " {Letters 2:371) . Bu t th e portrai t o f Charle s th e Bol d show s Mak e dis tancing himself , t o som e extent , fro m th e fea r o f fragmentation , a s hi s artistic master y enable s hi m t o externaliz e an d objectif y hi s anxiet y i n this interpretatio n o f th e duke' s life . In earlie r section s o f The Notebooks, Make' s attempt s t o retriev e hi s childhood threate n t o shatte r whateve r psychi c wholenes s h e ha s bee n able t o develop . Th e episod e o f th e hand s seem s to o distan t t o b e dan gerous, "an even t that now lie s far bac k in my childhood " (91) . Not lon g before this , however , thirt y page s earlier , Mak e note s that , wit h th e re turn o f hi s childhood i n memory, a t th e ag e of twenty-eigh t h e is no les s vulnerable an d susceptibl e t o hi s ol d anxieties . Describing th e recurrenc e o f a childhoo d illness , Make write s tha t i t brings u p ou t o f th e unconsciou s whol e "lives " whic h h e ha s neve r known about . Yet thes e strang e "lives " have greate r strengt h an d a mor e powerful hol d o n hi s min d tha n familia r memorie s o f wha t h e onc e wa s and did . Ami d th e "tangl e o f confuse d memories " arise s th e terrifyin g

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childhood delusio n o f "the Big Thing." As much a s anything els e in The Notebooks, thi s delusion , whic h come s bac k wit h al l its origina l power , epitomizes Make' s continuin g lac k o f integration . H e compare s th e Big Thing t o a cancer, a n alie n hostil e lif e i n the body ove r whic h a perso n often ha s littl e o r n o contro l an d whic h i s likel y t o destro y hi m fro m within. Hi s bloo d flowe d throug h it . Lik e a dead lim b i t wa s a part o f him bu t di d no t belon g t o him , which i s t o say , it di d no t respon d t o his will . He compare s i t t o a second head . I n its ambiguity i t resemble d an alie n personalit y whic h emerge s fro m th e unconscious t o engul f th e individual. I t swelle d an d gre w ove r hi s face, "lik e a warm bluis h boil, " covering his mouth, an d then hi s eyes were "hidde n b y its shadow" (616a). The Bi g Thin g call s t o min d account s o f advance d schizoi d an d schizophrenic illness , i n whic h a n individua l become s increasingl y anx ious tha t h e will b e absorbed, ingested , an d annihilated b y the introject s ("distorted representation s o f people") , whic h are , a s Searle s explains , experienced "a s foreign bodie s i n his personality." Thes e "infring e upo n and diminis h th e area o f what migh t b e thought o f a s his own self" and often threate n t o obliterate th e self.4 The fantasy tha t th e Big Thing cov ers Make's face , his mouth an d eyes, suggests tha t i t threatens t o preven t him fro m eating , speaking , breathing , an d seeing , a s well a s from bein g seen. This accoun t o f th e retur n o f a childhoo d delusio n follow s descrip tions o f patients i n a hospital. Amon g thes e ar e several image s o f partia l or complet e effacement . Bandage s cove r a head, excep t fo r one eye "that no longe r belonge d t o anyone" (56) . On his right is a large, unintelligibl e mass, which , Mak e the n realizes , ha s a face an d a hand, bu t th e fac e i s empty o f memories , o f character , o f will . Th e clothes loo k a s if under takers ha d put them on , and the hair a s if it had been combe d b y mem bers o f tha t indispensabl e profession . Al l aroun d hi m i n th e hospita l Make see s faces , heads , an d bodie s i n whic h a perso n ha s bee n lost , obliterated. Hi s fascinatio n wit h thes e sight s reflect s hi s fea r o f bein g depersonalized o r dehumanized . H e imagine s tha t th e chair i n which h e is sittin g mus t b e th e on e h e ha s bee n "destine d for " an d tha t h e has come t o "th e place i n my life wher e I would remai n forever " (59-60) . Another closel y relate d episod e is one in which Make , as a child, put s on a costume, the n confront s himsel f maske d i n a mirror. Th e reflectio n of th e maske d figur e destroy s th e child' s sens e o f self . Wors e still , h e

38 LEARNIN G T O SE E feels tha t a "stranger" invades his body an d takes it over. This experience , like th e delusio n o f th e Bi g Thin g an d th e episod e o f th e hands , reveal s the weakness of differentiation i n Make. His sense of boundaries betwee n himself an d othe r people an d object s i s tenuous. He i s apt t o merg e wit h them. Ambiguously , h e i s engulfe d b y th e mirro r (" I wa s th e mirror" ) and b y th e "monstrou s reality " o f th e "stranger " i n it . Hi s accoun t o f his earlie r vulnerabilit y t o annihilatio n an d engulfmen t als o suggest s a flimsy, fragil e sens e of identit y i n the adult who feel s tha t he has change d very littl e sinc e tha t tim e i n hi s childhood . The terrifyin g experienc e o f engulfmen t i s triggered b y th e boy' s feel ing tha t h e i s trappe d i n a mas k an d costume . Fearin g tha t h e wil l b e caught insid e th e close-fittin g mask , wit h hi s hearin g muffle d an d hi s vision obstructed , feelin g tha t h e i s bein g strangle d b y th e string s o f th e cloak an d tha t th e turba n an d th e mas k ar e pressin g dow n o n him , h e rushes t o th e mirror . Hi s hands , movin g frantically , see m disconnecte d from th e invisible boy an d th e mas k i n th e mirror . I n thi s disturbed stat e of min d h e imagine s tha t th e mirro r ha s com e t o life , tha t i t i s stronge r than h e is , tha t i t ha s th e powe r t o invade , obliterate , an d completel y replace him . I t force s upo n hi m an image, no, a reality, a strange, incomprehensible, monstrous realit y tha t per meated me against my will. . .. I lost all sense of myself, I simply ceased to exist. For on e second, I felt a n indescribable, piercing, futile longin g fo r myself , then only he remained: there was nothing excep t him. (107)

in The fantas y o f "th e Bi g Thing" expresses , among othe r feelings , th e fea r of death . I t i s connected wit h a n earlie r passage i n whic h Mak e wonder s if the "almos t nourishin g smile " on th e faces o f pregnant wome n doesn' t come fro m thei r sens e o f havin g "two fruits " growin g i n them , " a chil d and a death" (16). In this passage Rilke has converted th e fantasy o f deat h developing withi n on e lik e anothe r organism , no t subjec t t o one' s wil l or control , fro m a sourc e o f fea r int o a n ide a whic h give s comfor t an d even pleasur e an d is , fo r thi s reason , a n ai d agains t th e drea d o f deat h which i s the centra l an d mos t pervasiv e fea r i n th e novel . The fantas y o f

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the Bi g Thin g an d th e notio n tha t deat h i s lik e a fetu s withi n u s reflec t the sam e kin d o f anxiety , th e sam e sens e o f separat e live s o r eve n auton omous beings , withi n u s tha t ar e par t o f u s an d ye t independen t o f us . They ar e bot h roote d i n a n experienc e o f bod y an d psych e whic h ca n develop int o paranoi d schizophrenia. 1 Bu t th e conceptio n o f deat h a s fetus an d frui t growin g within als o reflects th e strengths o f eg o and imag ination tha t enable d Rilk e t o defen d himsel f agains t th e threa t o f menta l disintegration b y transformin g th e wors t o f al l interna l dangers , th e de veloping potentia l source s an d cause s o f deat h i n bod y an d mind , int o images whic h sugges t natural , health y growt h an d creativity . The ide a tha t a person's deat h grow s i n hi m lik e a fruit, evolvin g ou t of hi s geneti c inheritance an d hi s experience , conscious an d unconscious , gives meaningfu l coherenc e t o Make' s accoun t o f th e en d o f hi s paterna l grandfather, Christop h Detle v Brigge . In thi s narrative, which Rilk e con sidered Make' s mos t full y achieve d piec e o f writing , th e chamberlai n i s transformed int o th e regal , frightening personalit y an d thunderou s voic e of th e deat h whic h ha s bee n developin g withi n hi m throughou t hi s life time: "Thi s voic e didn' t belon g t o Christop h Detlev , bu t t o Christop h Detlev's death. Christoph Detlev' s death was alive now, had alread y bee n living a t Ulsgaar d fo r many , man y days , talke d wit h everyone , mad e demands. . . . Demande d an d screamed " (13) . Mak e imagine s tha t thi s swollen, shoutin g figur e wa s nurture d b y ever y "exces s o f pride , will , and authorit y tha t [Christop h Detlev ] had no t bee n abl e to use up durin g his peacefu l days " (15) . On e ca n se e ho w thi s noteboo k entr y migh t come fro m th e min d tha t produce d th e delusio n o f th e Bi g Thing. Her e the fantas y o f a n autonomous , laten t inne r bein g whic h emerge s fro m within an d engulf s th e self , givin g ris e t o terrifyin g deliriou s behavior , becomes creative , shapin g th e conceptio n o f deat h whic h unfold s i n thi s compelling narrative . With thi s entry , Rilk e thought , Mak e achieve d th e "inexorability" o f "objectiv e expression " whic h h e (th e poet ) ha d dis covered i n Baudelaire' s "Un e Charogne " an d Cezanne' s painting s (Letters 1:314) . Here dyin g bring s disintegratio n o f th e ego , with al l it s structur e an d defenses. Make' s recollectio n tha t th e chamberlai n wa s n o longe r there , that h e coul d n o longe r se e what wa s goin g o n aroun d him , that hi s fac e was unrecognizable , tha t th e shoutin g voic e seeme d t o belon g t o some one o r somethin g else—thes e remembere d detail s cal l t o min d th e delir -

40 LEARNIN G T O SE E ium whic h ofte n overwhelm s th e dying . Defense s ar e down ; contro l i s gone. Much o f wha t th e dyin g hav e no t expresse d i n life , muc h tha t wa s repressed, come s out . The Notebooks reveal s Rilke' s unusua l acces s t o larg e area s o f expe rience ordinarily denied an d repressed. This access was often involuntary , and i t mad e lif e perilou s an d sanit y precarious . Rilk e wa s willin g t o en dure frightenin g experience s o f partia l disintegratio n becaus e h e fel t tha t they wer e th e pric e h e ha d t o pa y fo r sustainin g hi s contac t wit h th e sources o f feeling , fantasy , an d insigh t whic h wer e th e reservoir s o f th e extraordinary wholenes s essentia l t o hi s genius .

IV Concerning th e "monsters " an d "dragons " whic h h e ha d discovere d i n the "horribl e dungeons " o f hi s ow n psyche , Rilk e wrot e i n 1904 , "W e have n o reaso n t o mistrus t ou r world , fo r i t i s no t agains t us . Ha s i t terrors, the y ar e our terrors ; ha s i t abysses , thos e abysse s belon g t o us ; are danger s a t hand , w e mus t tr y t o lov e them." 1 A lette r t o "Merline " (Baladine Klossowska) , written sixtee n year s later , develop s an d clarifie s this point , arguin g tha t "th e monsters " withi n u s "hol d th e surplu s strength" which make s i t possible for me n an d women o f geniu s t o tran scend thei r ordinar y huma n frailtie s an d limitations. 2 The thir d Duin o Elegy , begu n i n January 191 2 an d complete d lat e i n the fal l o f 1913 , reflects thes e idea s i n languag e an d imager y whic h sug gest Rilke's growin g interes t in psychoanalysis a t the time. Lou Andreas Salome introduce d th e poe t t o Freu d lat e i n th e summe r o f 1913 . Th e following year , recalling this meeting with Freud an d th e Swedish analys t Poul Bjerre , h e wrote , "Thes e me n wer e importan t an d significan t fo r me, thei r whol e orientatio n an d metho d certainl y represent s on e o f th e most essentia l movement s o f medica l science." 3 I n th e Thir d Eleg y th e poet imagine s himsel f a s a chil d goin g dow n int o a belove d inne r wil derness, a primeval fores t withi n him . A s h e descend s wit h lov e int o th e gorges o f hi s ow n interior , int o mor e ancien t blood , wha t h e encounter s is fearful , stil l satiate d wit h devoure d fathers . Ever y terribl e thin g h e meets recognize s him , winking wit h mutua l understanding . Wha t i s hid eous an d shockin g smiles . The poe t wonder s ho w th e child , goin g dow n into hi s ow n depths , ca n hel p lovin g thes e monstrositie s whic h ar e part s

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of himsel f an d smil e a t hi m wit h narcissisti c tendernes s seldo m equale d even b y materna l love . . . . Lieben d stieg er hinab in das altere Blut, in die Schluchten, wo das Furchtbare lag, noch sat t von de n Vatern. Und jede s Schreckliche kannte ihn, blinzelte, war wie verstandigt. Ja, das Entsetzliche lachelte . .. Selte n hast du s o zartlich gelachelt , Mutter. Wie sollte er es nicht lieben, da es ihm lachelte. . . . (WDB 1:451) If, a s th e first Duin o Eleg y tell s us , th e realizatio n o f beaut y depend s upon ou r capacit y fo r endurin g terror , ho w doe s a n artis t com e t o trust , take possessio n of , an d eve n lov e th e object s o f hi s fea r an d th e fea r itself? Psychoanalysi s ca n sometime s hel p patient s t o achiev e master y over thei r anxietie s or , a t least , make i t possible t o fee l mor e a t eas e wit h them. Rilke , wh o ha d bee n "o n th e verg e o f undergoin g analysis, " de cided no t t o becaus e h e though t tha t i t woul d tam e th e lion s an d mon sters i n hi m an d thu s kil l th e energ y h e neede d t o surpas s himself . Exposing hi s "most secret powers," i t woul d undermin e "a n existenc e that owe d it s strongest impulse s precisely t o th e fact that it did not know itself" (R&B:IC, 109) . One alternativ e t o undergoin g psychoanalyti c therap y wa s t o find guidance fo r masterin g hi s fear s an d usin g the m creativel y an d model s with who m h e coul d identif y i n som e o f th e artist s who m h e mos t ad mired, especiall y severa l i n hi s father' s generation—Tolstoy , Cezanne , and Va n Gogh . Death wa s amon g th e mos t fearfu l monster s livin g in th e psychic depths . It wa s als o amon g th e greates t potentia l source s o f creativ e energy . I n 1915, reacting t o th e slaughte r goin g o n aroun d him , Rilk e wrote a letter in whic h h e conceive d o f Go d an d deat h a s parts , "neve r befor e broached, o f th e huma n mind " (Letters 2:148) . (His idea s o n thi s subjec t have obviou s affinitie s wit h th e theor y o f a deat h "drive " whic h Freu d formulated i n Beyond the Pleasure Principle [1920] . Bu t th e poet' s in tuitions ar e fre e fro m th e pretention s t o scientifi c validit y whic h hav e aroused criticis m o f Freud' s speculations. ) Death , h e thought , wa s some thing w e fee l aliv e at th e cente r o f ou r being . I n ou r fea r o f i t we repres s

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this sens e o f i t an d projec t deat h int o th e worl d aroun d us , wher e i t seems to threaten us from a multitude of sources. We find externa l means to defend ourselve s against it: science, in particular, medical science, with its increasing capacity for controlling nature; religion, which Rilke attacks for glossin g ove r death with its notion o f a n afterlife (Letters 2:316) , and the distractions and narcotics of modern urban life, which Rilke describes in th e tent h Duin o Elegy , includin g a bitte r bee r name d "Deathless " ("Todlos"). A s w e al l know , thes e stratagem s produc e emptines s an d numbness. Rilke found a n alternative to suc h defensiveness i n Tolstoy, who m h e met twice durin g his travels in Russia with Salom e (Apri l 189 9 an d May 1900). Bot h Salom e an d Rilk e hav e lef t account s o f thos e tw o visits . When the y me t Tolsto y i n Mosco w i n th e sprin g o f 1899 , th e traveler s were ful l o f excitemen t abou t th e religiou s fervo r o f th e crowd s cele brating Easter in the city's chapel s an d churches. The ol d ma n expresse d his indignation agains t Russian Orthodoxy , urgin g the m not t o b e take n in by "th e superstition s o f th e people." 4 A yea r later, visiting Tolstoy a t Yasnaya Polyana , the y foun d hi m i n a dreadfu l mood , arguin g loudl y with hi s wife , wh o wa s equall y inhospitable . Afte r encounterin g hi m briefly, the y wer e kep t waiting fo r hours , until a t last he offere d the m a choice betwee n havin g lunc h wit h hi s famil y an d walkin g wit h hi m o n his estate . The y accompanie d hi m whil e h e talke d abou t th e landscape , Russia, God , an d death , pickin g flowers , savorin g thei r fragrance , then tossing the m away . Rilke' s account s o f thi s wal k differ . Accordin g t o one, th e poe t understoo d everythin g thei r hos t wa s saying , except , oc casionally, whe n th e win d interfered . Elsewher e h e recall s tha t muc h o f what Tolsto y sai d wa s inaudibl e i n th e wind y meadows , amon g th e birches.5 Rilke's reaction s t o th e autho r o f War and Peace wer e comple x an d varied. Amon g th e mos t fertil e wa s hi s imag e o f Tolsto y a s a n artis t exceptionally gifte d wit h " a feeling fo r life, " a responsiveness whic h di d not deny or repress the multifarious forms o f death that pervade it, "contained everywhere in it as an odd spic e in the strong flavor o f life " (Letters 2:150) . H e ha d opene d himsel f t o th e ful l intensit y o f hi s fea r o f death; yet, a t the same time, because of "hi s natural composure," he was a perceptive observe r o f eve n his mos t emotiona l state s of mind . Rilke' s conception o f suc h a division i n consciousnes s resemble s th e psychoan alytic notion of splitting the ego. "One thinks, feels, and acts subjectively,

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but a t th e sam e tim e observe s suc h behavio r i n a quasi-objectiv e man ner." 6 Tolstoy' s opennes s t o hi s ow n fea r o f deat h an d hi s gif t o f self observation enable d hi m t o infus e tha t terro r wit h "grandeur " i n hi s works, t o transfor m i t int o " a giganti c structur e . . . wit h corridor s an d flights o f stair s and railles s projections an d shee r edge s on al l sides" {Letters 2:150-51) . Hi s freedo m fro m ordinar y defensivenes s agains t th e dread o f deat h an d hi s abilit y t o creat e an d sustai n th e combinatio n o f the feelin g ma n an d th e introspectiv e observe r helpe d t o mak e it possibl e for hi m t o writ e hi s stronges t works , includin g "Th e Deat h o f Iva n Ilych." Thi s story , lik e hi s grea t novels , reveal s th e forc e wit h whic h h e felt hi s fea r a s wel l a s hi s abilit y t o transfor m i t int o "unapproachabl e reality" {Letters 2:151) . For Rilke , th e creativ e proces s leadin g t o th e achievemen t o f grea t wor k places th e artis t "i n danger " becaus e h e mus t b e ope n t o hi s "persona l madness" an d mus t g o al l th e wa y throug h a n experienc e whic h tha t "madness" make s increasingl y "private, " "personal, " "singular, " an d lonely. Th e unsupporte d isolatio n o f hi s strivin g i s necessar y becaus e discussing one' s "persona l madness " with someon e els e would deflat e it s energy an d force . Rilke' s letter s revea l tha t thi s sens e of th e creativ e pro cess originated i n his ow n experience . Describing his work o n The Notebooks, h e says , "[I] n i t I seeme d t o b e clutchin g al l m y task s togethe r and runnin g the m int o me , lik e tha t singl e ma n wh o i n hand-to-han d fighting take s o n al l th e lance s oppose d t o him " {Letters 2:25) . H e wa s also clearl y awar e o f th e motive s tha t le d hi m t o plac e himsel f i n suc h danger. Th e wor k o f art , h e wrote , bring s "enormou s aid " t o th e artist , because it provides evidenc e o f hi s integrit y an d authenticity . I f h e seem s close t o insanit y a t times , th e complete d wor k reveal s th e interna l "law[s]" whic h hav e remaine d invisibl e i n hi s disordere d thoughts , lik e the for m o f a n organis m containe d i n geneti c code s i n th e first feta l stages, affordin g th e artis t ampl e "justification " o f hi s deviation s fro m accepted norms. 7 To th e grea t poe t hi s poem s ca n revea l wha t fo r th e ordinar y perso n it migh t tak e year s o f analysi s t o disclose—th e unconsciou s ("invisible" ) laws whic h gover n one' s experience , ar e a t leas t partl y responsibl e fo r one's miser y an d happiness , and , onc e known , ar e ope n t o change . I n June 1907 , whe n Rilk e explore d thes e ideas , suc h revelations , comin g from hi s ow n art , di d no t see m t o threate n th e efficac y o f th e "secre t

44 LEARNIN G T O SE E [inner] powers " whic h i n 191 2 an d 191 3 th e temptation s o f psychoan alytic therap y mad e hi m anxiou s t o protec t agains t exposur e b y som e disciple o f Freud . Writing t o hi s wif e o n June 7 , 1907 , Rilke name d anothe r motiv e fo r subjecting himsel f t o th e inner "violence " which make s grea t ar t possibl e {Letters 2:17 , 41 , and 19) . Becaus e h e fel t suc h a nee d fo r solitude , hi s communion wit h hi s poems , fiction , an d nonfictio n pros e wa s ofte n fa r more satisfyin g an d fulfillin g tha n hi s contact s wit h othe r peopl e (se e Letters 1:121) . H e als o observe d tha t th e artist' s accomplishe d work s make possible a deeply satisfying kin d o f communication in which peopl e show on e anothe r wha t the y hav e becom e throug h thei r wor k an d i n this way offe r mutua l hel p an d suppor t (Letters on Cezanne, 5) . Aspiring to a n extraordinar y degre e o f self-sufficienc y whic h woul d sustai n th e long period s o f solitud e h e require d t o d o hi s work , h e nonetheles s understood tha t h e neede d othe r people' s response s t o confir m th e sens e of hi s ow n reality , o f hi s "unit y an d genuineness, " an d th e self-estee m which hi s poem s an d fictio n nurtured . Rilke indicate s anothe r wa y i n whic h hi s wor k wa s a for m o f "self treatment" (Letters 2:42) . I n on e o f hi s Letters to a Young Poet h e sup poses tha t emotiona l illnes s "i s th e mean s b y whic h a n organis m free s itself o f foreig n matter, " an d h e urge s th e youn g poe t no t t o tr y t o suppress hi s neurosis , bu t t o encourag e it , t o "hav e [the ] whole sicknes s and brea k ou t wit h it " (LYP, 70) . Perhaps, in The Notebooks, mor e tha n in an y o f hi s othe r works , Rilk e fel t tha t hi s writin g coul d hel p hi m fre e himself fro m alie n thoughts an d feeling s brough t t o consciousnes s b y hi s fears. Whe n hi s anxietie s ha d flourishe d t o th e poin t o f threatenin g t o destroy hi s sanity , h e projecte d the m int o th e min d an d lif e o f hi s fictional surrogate . Th e proces s o f exorcisin g "foreig n matter " woul d b e complete onl y whe n Mak e coul d b e detache d fro m himsel f an d give n a separate existence . On finishing th e novel , h e fel t h e ha d manage d t o d o this (se e Letters 1:362) . Earlier interpreter s o f The Notebooks hav e argue d tha t Mak e serve d as a kind o f psychologica l scapegoa t fo r hi s author , takin g upo n himsel f the illnes s tha t plague d Rilke , carryin g i t away. 8 Thi s lin e o f though t recalls Freud' s observation s abou t Dostoevsky' s character s i n hi s essa y "Dostoevsky an d Parricide. " Freud argue s tha t som e o f th e character s i n Dostoevsky's work s enac t th e crime s whic h th e autho r an d hi s reader s

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unconsciously woul d lik e t o commit , an d thu s brin g fulfillmen t o f for bidden desire s throug h th e author' s an d th e reader' s unconsciou s iden tification wit h them . The n the y satisf y th e demand s o f th e author' s an d the reader' s superego s b y goin g throug h punishmen t fo r thes e crimes. 9 Rilke himsel f encourage s th e "scapegoat " interpretatio n i n a lette r t o Salome i n whic h h e ask s whether Make , "wh o i s o f cours e i n par t mad e out o f m y dangers , goe s unde r i n it , i n a sens e t o spar e m e th e goin g under" (Letters 2:32) . By externalizin g an d objectifyin g hi s sicknes s in a novel, a writer ma y be abl e t o distanc e an d detac h himsel f fro m it . Seein g i t mor e clearl y i n the images and languag e o f hi s novel, he may gai n a better understandin g of th e illnes s an d thu s achiev e a large r degre e o f contro l ove r it . Th e imposition o f literar y for m an d styl e o n th e ra w materia l o f th e nove l deriving from hi s illness ma y hel p t o giv e him th e confidenc e tha t h e ca n master it . But Rilke' s letter s also express the belie f tha t th e writing o f The Notebooks ma y hav e exacerbate d hi s sickness . H e feare d tha t hi s attemp t a t self-exorcism ha d bee n a disastrou s failure , tha t instea d o f enablin g hi m to externaliz e his illness an d detac h himsel f fro m it , his long involvemen t with Mak e ha d exhauste d an d gutte d him . An d h e wondere d if , havin g written The Notebooks an d create d Make , h e wa s sinkin g int o irreme diable, unchangin g "aridity " (Letters 2:33) . Rilke's frightenin g experience s i n Pari s an d th e fantasie s whic h h e em bodied i n Make , th e youn g Dane' s fear s o f deat h an d menta l disintegra tion an d hi s belie f tha t h e mus t g o throug h somethin g lik e deat h an d disintegration i n orde r t o arriv e a t th e degre e o f originalit y i n seein g an d saying which permits work o f genius , bring to mind Anto n Ehrenzweig' s theory i n The Hidden Order of Art tha t th e first stag e o f th e creativ e process ma y involv e a n artis t i n unconsciou s projection s whic h ar e ex perienced a s fragmented , accidental , an d alien , an d ofte n a s persecutory . The artis t mus t b e psychologicall y stron g enoug h t o get throug h thi s schizoid stag e o f fragmentatio n withou t bein g overwhelme d b y th e anx ieties arisin g from it . Reading Ehrenzweig' s descriptio n o f schizophreni c self-destructiveness, on e ca n se e ho w clos e Mak e i s t o thi s illnes s an d Rilke to o durin g thos e earl y day s i n Paris : "Th e schizophrenic . . . . at tacks his own eg o functions almos t physically, an d projects th e splintere d parts o f hi s fragmente d sel f int o th e outsid e world , whic h i n tur n be -

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comes fragmente d an d persecutory." 10 Thi s shreddin g an d projectio n o f the sel f accompanie s th e schizophrenic' s attac k o n "hi s ow n languag e function an d capacit y for imag e making." In thi s respect artist s an d writ ers, especiall y th e "modernists " an d "post-modernists, " ma y resembl e the schizophreni c a s h e "twist s an d contort s word s i n th e sam e weir d way i n whic h h e draw s an d paint s images. " On e ma y thin k o f Picass o as a model o f physical an d menta l healt h an d toughness . But Ehrenzwei g points ou t tha t hi s savag e attack s o n hi s imagery , hi s dismembermen t o f it, hi s scatterin g o f th e bit s an d piece s i n th e picture , have obviou s affin ities wit h th e schizophrenic' s rippin g u p o f hi s ow n eg o an d th e world . The essentia l differenc e betwee n Picasso' s cubis t paintin g an d schizo phrenic paintin g lie s "i n th e coherenc e o f [th e master's ] toug h pictoria l space." Unconsciously th e shredde d an d scattere d image s hav e bee n in tegrated. Th e violentl y shattere d worl d o f a cubis t masterpiec e i s hel d together an d "animate d b y a dynami c pulse . I t draw s th e fragment s to gether into a loose yet toug h cocoo n tha t draw s the spectator int o itself. " The "linkages " whic h d o thi s ordinaril y remai n unconsciou s i n painte r and spectator , autho r an d reader . In Joyce, according to Ehrenzweig , under th e surface o f th e "languag e splinters," "dreamlik e phantasie s . . . lin k th e wor d cluster s int o a n un ending hypnoti c stream." 11 Despit e th e irritatin g vaguenes s o f thi s ex planation, i f I thin k o f Picasso' s cubism , Joyce' s Finnegans Wake, an d Rilke's fragmentar y Notebooks i n thei r apparen t disconnectednes s an d underlying coherence , I ca n se e th e pertinenc e o f Ehrenzweig' s attemp t to defin e th e similaritie s an d differences betwee n schizophreni c ar t an d the work s o f suc h moder n masters . Ehrenzweig suggest s tha t th e moti f o f th e dyin g go d i n literatur e an d other art s reflect s th e artist' s sens e o f hi s ow n "heroi c self-surrender " i n the proces s o f creation . Th e artis t ha s t o fac e deat h withou t anticipatin g rebirth. Whe n th e schizophreni c lose s hi s gras p o n reality , hi s image s o f world an d sel f brea k u p int o "chaos, " and h e feel s tha t h e i s undergoin g "final destruction." 12 Th e dyin g go d moti f i n som e works o f ar t hint s a t the fac t tha t th e artis t ha s endure d a similar experienc e o f th e void open ing when worl d an d sel f ar e torn t o pieces, but wit h a different outcome . An artis t wit h a sufficientl y stron g eg o ca n confron t th e frightenin g "void" withi n himsel f an d liv e wit h hi s fear . Eve n whe n "los s o f eg o control" bring s th e feelin g tha t min d an d sel f ar e disintegrating , h e ca n "absorb" this experience "into the rhythm o f creativity" before emergin g

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from i t newly integrate d an d coherent, possibl y wit h a n enriched menta l and emotiona l lif e an d a strengthened sens e o f self. 13 Rilke doe s no t introduc e th e dying-go d moti f int o The Notebooks, but Make' s respons e t o th e dying ma n in th e cremerie prepare s hi m for a ne w understandin g o f th e artist' s development . An d thi s sequenc e o f experience an d realizatio n i n th e nove l doe s brin g t o min d th e implici t sense o f th e creative proces s whic h Ehrenzwei g finds i n typica l version s of th e motif. Twenty page s afte r hi s account o f the death i n the cremeri e Make onc e mor e take s stoc k o f hi s sens e o f hi s separatio n fro m other s and o f th e radica l change s i n hi s perception o f th e world. No w th e developments i n his recent life , whic h hav e mad e dyin g o r menta l disinte gration see m to resemble his own condition al l too closely, have become , on th e contrary , reason s fo r hopin g tha t h e i s developin g imaginative , creative intelligenc e an d perception: " I hav e ha d certai n experience s tha t separate me from othe r people.... A different world . A new world filled with ne w meanings . Fo r th e momen t I a m finding i t a bit difficult , be cause everythin g i s too new " (72). On th e same page Make think s o f "Un e Charogne," Baudelaire' s "in credible poem," a s an example o f radicall y new and different perception , which seem s unmistakably valid . This i s genius, not madness. Make now welcomes the painful an d often frightenin g emergenc e of a strange world . He ha s gladl y give n u p th e fulfillmen t o f al l hi s earlie r expectation s in th e belief tha t wha t h e has discovered i s "real , eve n whe n tha t i s awful" (73) .

CHAPTER 3

A Mas k o f Hi m Roam s i n Hi s Plac e Differentiation betwee n Sel f an d Other s i n The Notebooks and Rilke' s Letter s

I During hi s first yea r i n Paris, 1902-3 , Rilke's abilit y t o differentiat e him self fro m othe r peopl e wa s ofte n impaired . A lette r t o Salom e describe s an experienc e i n which th e sens e of menta l an d bodil y separatenes s fro m others whic h underlie s mos t adul t relationship s an d contact s gav e wa y to a frightening fantas y o f being pulled int o close identification, involvin g a partia l mergin g o f bodie s an d minds . Thi s wa s hi s encounte r wit h a man suffering fro m St . Vitus ' dance : " I wa s clos e behin d him , will-less , drawn alon g b y hi s fear , tha t wa s n o longe r distinguishabl e fro m mine. " Imagining tha t thi s stranger' s "fea r ha d bee n nourishe d ou t o f me , an d had exhauste d me, " h e fel t "use d u p " {Letters 1:115) . A s t n e v becam e increasingly connecte d an d th e strange r seeme d t o fee d o n him , h e fel t that "everything " withi n hi m wa s bein g consumed . Thi s experienc e wa s the sourc e o f a n entr y i n The Notebooks. Make i s draw n t o a n "emaciated " figur e wh o become s th e focu s o f attention o n th e block , a n objec t o f laughter . Followin g th e ma n despit e an urge t o cros s th e stree t to get awa y from him , he notices tha t h e hop s on on e leg . Whe n thi s hoppin g travel s fro m hi s leg s t o hi s nec k an d hands, Make feel s "boun d t o him " (68) . As th e spasm s increase, his anx iety grow s with th e stranger's . With poundin g hear t h e gather s hi s "littl e strength together " an d beg s th e strugglin g St . Vitu s dance r t o tak e it . 48

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When th e fello w finally lose s contro l an d th e nervou s spasm s tak e ove r his body , explodin g int o " a horribl e dance, " Mak e i s lef t feelin g lik e " a blank piec e o f paper " (65-71) . What doe s th e encounte r mea n t o him ? Wh y i s h e draw n int o suc h close identificatio n wit h thi s stranger ? The spectacl e o f St . Vitus' danc e speak s t o hi s fea r o f goin g insane , of losing himsel f t o uncontrollabl e force s whic h ofte n see m o n th e verg e o f overwhelming him . Th e scen e aroun d th e St . Vitu s dance r awaken s i n Make a dread o f becomin g a n object o f derision an d revulsion . His desir e to hel p th e strange r i s motivate d b y compassion , bu t als o b y hi s sens e of affinity . I f thi s fello w ca n overcom e th e convulsiv e compulsio n o f hi s nerves, hi s victor y migh t answe r Brigge' s nee d t o believ e tha t strengt h of wil l can win th e struggl e agains t his own fear s an d tensions . But Mak e is als o curiou s t o se e wha t happen s i f an d whe n th e fello w give s in , because h e anticipate s tha t h e ma y soo n g o throug h a mental disintegra tion no t unlik e th e cataclys m agains t whic h th e othe r ma n i s struggling . At th e en d o f th e episod e th e victi m o f St . Vitus ' danc e i s invisible , engulfed b y hi s involuntar y spasm s an d b y th e crow d tha t surround s him. In a highl y illuminatin g essay , "Th e Devolutio n o f th e Sel f i n The Notebooks of Make Laurids Brigge," Walte r H . Soke l argue s tha t whe n the St . Vitu s dance r "give s i n an d hi s wil l collapses , somethin g incom parably mightier , an d true r leap s fort h fro m him. " Professo r Soke l sup ports hi s interpretatio n wit h th e argumen t tha t th e "expansiv e gesture, " "the spreadin g ou t o f hi s arms , with whic h th e dance r let s g o of hi s can e indicates relie f an d liberation. " Soke l note s tha t a n "elementa l force " seems t o tak e ove r thi s sic k man . The imager y o f th e scene , according t o his essay , suggests th e destructio n o f th e conformin g bourgeois , the con ventional personality , th e constrictin g will , th e littl e eg o whic h Mak e both wishe s an d fear s t o transcend. 1 As Sokel' s detaile d analysi s make s clear , th e languag e an d imager y o f this scen e evok e a n ambivalen t response . Bu t th e emphasi s a t thi s poin t in The Notebooks i s upo n fearfu l devastatio n b y illness . Whe n Mak e remembers tha t th e St . Vitu s dancer' s "gaz e wobble d ove r sky , houses , and water , withou t graspin g a thing," th e scen e recall s th e dyin g ma n i n the cremerie. As the convulsive spasms overwhelm the victim of St. Vitus' dance, h e stretche s "ou t hi s arm s a s i f h e wer e tryin g t o fly. " Bu t h e does no t succee d i n flying. An d i f h e doe s a "dance, " i t i s th e "horribl e

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dance" o f a ma n dragge d an d bowe d an d flung lik e a puppe t b y hi s spasms. The end of th e scene leaves one in little doubt about its meaning. The crowd swallows th e sufferer, an d Make feels annihilated , as his ow n ego boundarie s hav e almos t evaporate d an d h e ha s bee n sucked , hal f helplessly, hal f willingly , int o mergenc e wit h thi s embodimen t o f dev astation an d dehumanization . At th e tim e h e wa s writin g The Notebooks Rilk e believe d tha t th e little eg o mus t b e shattere d b y th e explodin g titani c force s o f th e un conscious i n orde r tha t th e aspirin g poe t ma y gai n acces s t o essentia l energies. Bu t i n th e St . Vitus' danc e victi m Rilk e encountere d a n imag e of th e annihilatio n tha t migh t com e fro m courtin g an d encouragin g such a Dionysia n shatterin g o f th e ego . H e di d no t underestimat e th e dangers o f menta l illness . Sufferin g ofte n i n sever e neuroti c an d bor derline state s o f mind , h e sometime s fel t h e wa s clos e t o complet e breakdown. Make fear s tha t the world aroun d hi m o r object s i n i t will invad e hi s body, driv e ou t hi s insecurel y establishe d an d feebl y defende d self , an d replace it. In The Divided Self, th e English analyst, R. D. Laing, describes a closel y relate d fantas y o f "implosion" : "Thi s i s th e stronges t wor d I can find for th e extrem e form o f wha t Winnicott term s the impingement of reality . Impingemen t doe s no t convey , however , th e full terro r of th e experience of the world a s liable at any moment to crash in and obliterate all identity." 2 I n hi s fea r o f impingemen t o r invasion Mak e reconfirm s the contour s o f hi s body , th e physica l boundarie s betwee n himsel f an d the world . H e draw s th e outlin e o f hi s face , an d th e renewe d sens e o f his differentiatio n reassure s hi m tha t mos t o f wha t i s ou t ther e i n th e vast world canno t ge t into his very limited interior space. But he quickl y realizes tha t h e coul d b e wrong . H e imagine s externa l realit y flooding over th e frai l borde r barrier s of bod y an d mind, filling hi m up, throug h the las t branchin g o f hi s capillaries , pushin g ou t breath , life , an d self , increasing unti l i t spatter s hi s inside s outside , an d nothin g i s lef t o f th e conscious individual within (see 74). In this terrifying fantasy of invasion, the boundaries of body and self are easily breached, the "surface hardness and adaptability " o n whic h h e ha s relie d t o protec t hi m ar e n o mor e dependable tha n th e Magino t Line . Impairment o f th e abilit y t o differentiat e betwee n sel f an d othe r ob viously goe s along with a weak sens e of identity . These defects ma y giv e

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rise t o fantasie s o f engulfmen t i n whic h somethin g o r someon e els e in corporates o r swallow s a person, take s ove r hi s will , smother s hi m wit h possessive, pressuring love , fixes hi m i n formula s whic h h e feel s h e can not escape , blots ou t hi s sens e o f a separate self, draws hi m int o a n iden tification s o complete tha t ther e is little or nothin g lef t o f hi m apar t fro m this mergenc e wit h th e othe r person . Rilk e make s th e threa t o f engulf ment a focu s o f interes t i n th e final sectio n o f The Notebooks, Make' s reinterpretation o f th e Prodiga l So n stor y a s "th e legen d o f a ma n wh o didn't wan t t o b e loved " (251) . This versio n o f th e parabl e o f th e Prodiga l So n i s a vehicle for Rilke' s fear tha t intimac y open s on e t o th e dange r o f bein g efface d an d change d through an d throug h int o th e perso n o r nonperso n othe r peopl e nee d one t o be : Once you walked into [the ] full smel l [of the house], most matters were already decided . . . o n th e whole yo u wer e . . . th e person the y though t yo u were ; the person fo r who m the y ha d lon g ag o fashioned a life, ou t o f hi s smal l past an d their ow n desires ; the creature belongin g t o the m all , who stoo d da y an d nigh t under th e influence o f thei r love , between thei r hop e an d thei r mistrust , befor e their approval o r thei r blame . . . . Can he stay and conform t o this lying life of approximations which they have assigned to him, and come to resemble them all in every feature of his face? (25354). The final section s o f th e nove l emphasiz e th e fea r o f bein g loved . I n the margin of The Notebooks manuscrip t Make has written, "To b e loved means t o b e consumed.... T o b e loved i s to pass away " (250) . He imag ines tha t th e Prodiga l So n ofte n though t o f th e troubadour s a s men wh o feared mor e tha n anythin g els e tha t th e woma n the y longe d fo r migh t reciprocate thei r lov e (255). Make seem s to project ont o the m hi s fantas y that an y woma n wh o love d hi m woul d engul f him . Hi s illnes s an d iso lation recal l th e fat e o f Dostoevsky' s narrato r i n Notes from Underground, wh o send s awa y th e prostitut e Liz a whe n sh e come s t o hi s apartment, i n th e fea r tha t he r lov e wil l suffocat e him , an d thu s com pulsively an d helplessl y seal s himsel f i n hi s hole , cu t of f fro m everyon e but a servant , livin g o n daydream s whic h tur n t o nothingness , a s hi s precursor, th e narrato r o f Dostoevsky' s earlie r novella , White Nights, tells us . The Notebooks close s o n a curiousl y negativ e not e o f hope . I n con -

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eluding hi s versio n o f th e stor y o f th e Prodiga l Son , Mak e come s u p with a notio n o f ho w a prodiga l returne d migh t continu e t o liv e wit h his famil y whil e defendin g himsel f agains t th e threa t o f engulfment . This defens e migh t wor k jus t a s wel l i n an y huma n community . Th e selfish, egocentri c natur e o f th e lov e surroundin g th e Prodiga l Son , which a t first seem s s o menacing , provide s a defens e agains t itself . Those wh o threate n t o reshap e hi s fac e s o tha t i t wil l resembl e their s tend t o se e hi m throug h th e colore d lense s o f thei r egocentri c love , their fears , thei r hopes , thei r mistrust , thei r need s an d desires . I n brief , they se e wha t the y wan t t o se e an d ar e blin d t o wha t frighten s o r displeases them . Their distorte d perception s an d thei r lac k o f understandin g protec t him agains t them . Thei r denia l o f wha t the y d o no t wan t t o se e an d their tendenc y t o se e wha t the y desir e mas k him . Behin d th e mask s they unconsciousl y creat e fo r him , h e wil l hav e th e freedo m t o develo p inwardly, secretly , i n accor d wit h hi s distinctive needs , desires, and gifts . This par t o f The Notebooks bring s t o min d Nietzsche' s argumen t i n Beyond Good and Evil tha t fals e interpretation s o f everythin g a "pro found spirit " doe s an d say s creat e a mas k aroun d him . Evadin g com munication, h e make s certai n tha t " a mas k o f hi m roam s i n hi s place " in th e mind s o f othe r people. 3 J . R . vo n Sali s report s i n hi s boo k o n Rilke's year s i n Switzerlan d tha t th e poe t tol d hi m h e ha d neve r rea d Nietzsche. But , a s Eric h Helle r ha s show n i n The Disinherited Mind, there ar e man y affinitie s betwee n th e idea s o f th e two . A t leas t i t i s likely tha t Rilk e acquire d som e knowledg e o f Nietzsche' s though t through Lo u Andreas-Salome , whos e brie f relationshi p wit h th e phi losopher ha d a majo r impac t o n he r thinking. 4 Make imagine s th e actres s Eleonor a Dus e usin g th e part s sh e playe d on th e stag e a s mask s whic h defende d he r inwardnes s agains t th e threa t of engulfment b y the audience that was "gnawing on" her face. For Duse , he believes , actin g becam e a camouflag e s o effectiv e i n hidin g he r fro m the psychological cannibal s around he r tha t sh e could le t herself liv e with unrestrained emotiona l intensit y an d vitalit y behin d th e role s sh e per formed (234-35) . Rilk e sa w Dus e i n Ibsen' s Rosmersholm i n Berli n dur ing November 190 6 before writin g abou t he r i n The Notebooks. Sh e was also th e subjec t o f hi s poem , "Bildnis " (Portrait) . After talkin g wit h he r for th e first tim e i n Venic e a t th e beginnin g o f Jul y 1912 , h e declare d

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that thi s meetin g ha d bee n "almos t m y greates t wish " fo r year s (Letters 2:64).

II The Notebooks entr y o n Dus e reflect s Make' s wea k eg o boundaries , hi s poor capacit y fo r differentiation , an d hi s insecur e sens e o f sel f an d iden tity. Bu t th e passag e point s beyon d Make' s illnes s t o th e ide a tha t a thoughtful, creativ e person—philosopher , poet , o r actress—feelin g threatened b y engulfment , migh t us e mask s t o defen d growin g inwar d strength. Duse' s fea r o f havin g he r fac e devoure d b y he r audienc e mo tivates he r t o hid e behin d th e pla y an d he r role . Hiding , sh e become s s o powerful tha t th e audienc e which , sh e feels , ha s bee n "gnawin g on " he r face, break s int o applaus e "a s i f t o war d of f . . . somethin g tha t woul d force the m t o chang e thei r life. " He r fello w actor s fee l a s i f the y ar e i n a cag e wit h a lioness (235) . Make imagine s he r holdin g u p a poem a s a mask. Were Rilke' s poem s and his fiction mask s behind whic h h e defended hi s strength an d singula r gifts fro m bein g draine d awa y b y th e peopl e aroun d him ? Di d thes e masks become , paradoxically , powerful , i f indirect , expression s o f th e inwardness whic h the y wer e hiding ? A poe t expresse s himsel f selectivel y in hi s poems . I f w e compar e th e mor e objectiv e New Poems wit h hi s contemporaneous novel , whic h i s sometime s autobiographical , an d hi s letters, we ca n se e tha t man y o f hi s poems , which d o no t see m t o tel l u s anything abou t thei r author , wer e indirectl y self-expressive . I n writin g about Eleanor a Duse , who seeme d t o hi m t o b e ver y muc h lik e himself , was Rilk e revealin g obliquel y tha t hi s poems , hi s novel , an d Mak e him self, a s a fictional surrogate , conceale d an d expresse d hi m a t th e sam e time? Here , too , I wonde r i f Nietzsch e influence d th e poet' s thinking . In Beyond Good and Evil, h e ask s if on e doe s no t writ e i n orde r t o hid e what i s withi n oneself. 1 Kierkegaard , wh o intereste d Rilk e a s earl y a s 1904, argue d tha t al l genuinel y expressiv e an d origina l writin g i s elusiv e and obliqu e (a s figurative languag e an d iron y ar e indirect), concealing a s much a s or more than it communicates becaus e the individual is and mus t remain essentiall y secret , incommunicable. Accordin g t o th e Danis h phi losopher, wheneve r "th e proces s o f communicatio n i s a work o f art, " i t

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is shape d b y th e underlyin g sens e "tha t personalitie s mus t b e hel d de voutly apar t fro m on e another , an d no t permitte d t o fus e o r coagulat e into objectivity." 2 I have mentioned Winnicott's commen t in The Maturational Processes and the Facilitating Environment tha t artist s ofte n experienc e bot h "th e urgent nee d t o communicat e an d th e stil l mor e urgen t nee d no t t o b e found."3 Surel y thi s observatio n fits Duse , a s Mak e imagine s her . Bu t does i t describ e Rilke ? Rilke's pros e piec e entitle d "A n Experience " tell s u s tha t i n 191 3 h e felt h e wa s protecte d fro m psychologica l parasite s an d cannibal s b y a n invisible barrie r which "absorbe d an y relationshi p int o itsel f an d . . . in tervened like a dark, deceptive vapor between himself an d others," giving him "for the first time, a certain freedom" toward other s and "a peculiar ease o f movemen t amongs t thes e others, whos e hope s wer e se t o n on e another, who were burdened with cares and bound together in death and life." His inne r life, defended b y thi s "intermediat e space," had "so littl e reference to human conditions, that [most people] would only have called it 'emptiness. ' " Bu t thi s woul d hav e bee n a radica l misunderstanding . His "freedom " brough t th e poe t no t "emptiness " o r illnes s bu t "joy " and "convers e wit h Nature " (WSR, 37-38) . Recurrently Rilk e sa w maskin g a s a defens e o f inne r freedom, power , and creativity . Behin d th e mas k th e fac e wa s fre e t o grow . Thi s wa s a s true fo r himsel f a s it was fo r Eleonor a Dus e an d th e Prodiga l Son . But , as we hav e noted, ofte n th e use o f suc h a defense i s compulsive , an d th e freedom i t afford s ma y b e quit e limited . A t leas t i n Rilke' s imaginatio n Duse wa s compelled t o us e he r rol e a s a mask b y he r fea r tha t th e au dience was devourin g he r face. I n th e Prodiga l So n episod e maskin g be comes a necessary defense agains t having one's face and inner self altere d through an d throug h unde r pressure s fro m one' s family . Stil l worse , a mask ca n swallo w th e fac e i t i s mean t t o protect . I hav e mentione d th e Notebooks entr y i n whic h a mask obliterate s th e chil d wh o trie s i t on . In Januar y 1912 , no t lon g befor e th e first Duin o Eleg y cam e t o him , describing hi s involuntar y identificatio n wit h peopl e h e met , Rilk e say s that h e coul d ste p ou t o f hi s roo m i n a n amorphou s stat e o f min d ap proaching chaos, and, suddenly finding himself a n object of anothe r person's awareness , automaticall y assum e th e other' s poise . O n suc h occasions h e wa s amaze d t o hea r himsel f expressin g "well-forme d

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things." Hi s assumptio n o f a poise belongin g t o th e perso n h e me t an d his involuntar y complianc e wit h th e other' s expectation s o f socia l be havior, maskin g th e "lifelessness " an d "chaos " h e ha d fel t i n himsel f before thes e encounters , tende d t o engul f him , i f onl y temporaril y {Letters 2:37) . Reading Rilke' s letter s an d hi s biographers , on e ca n se e ho w h e de veloped a persona ou t o f th e vocation which was central to his innermos t sense of self . He playe d th e rol e o f th e poe t s o well tha t i t helpe d t o wi n him th e acclai m an d suppor t o f man y powerful an d wealthy people. This is not t o sa y that the y wer e unaffected b y hi s writings, only tha t th e rol e the poe t playe d amon g the m mad e the m al l th e mor e eage r t o hav e hi m with them , ofte n i n thei r homes , an d t o becom e hi s patrons . I t wa s a mask which obviousl y reflected , t o som e extent , Rilke' s sens e of himself , but als o enable d hi m t o vei l an d protec t hi s inne r lif e fro m th e admirer s who, h e felt , wer e constantl y drainin g hi s limite d vitalit y an d energ y away, devouring th e distinctiv e feature s o f hi s face , th e singula r ma n an d poet h e was . I n Novembe r 1907 , for example , h e describe d hi s mother' s friends i n Vienna a s eager t o ea t hi m up—thoug h onc e they' d hear d hi m read, the y los t thei r hunge r (se e Letters 1:325) . The biographe r Wolfgan g Leppman n suggest s tha t Rilke' s socia l per sonality, manners , an d clothe s wer e a protectiv e camouflag e whic h th e poet develope d t o defen d hi s inne r freedo m agains t impingements . Leppmann quote s Wilhel m Hausenstein' s sketc h o f Rilk e i n 1915 : "Th e poet wen t abou t i n a navy-blue sui t an d wor e ligh t gra y spats . Hi s del icate fram e wa s somewha t stooped . . . . Hi s hand s move d cautiously , without expansiv e gestures , i n light-colore d deerski n gloves . H e carrie d a walking-stick. The presence of a distinguished figure wa s thus disguise d beneath th e conventiona l appearanc e o f a ma n o f th e world." 4 Lik e th e role o f th e poet , thi s socia l persona ma y hav e functione d i n allianc e wit h the "intermediat e space, " th e "dar k deceptiv e vapor, " which , Rilk e felt , defended hi m fro m th e peopl e aroun d him . Rilke's fear s o f bein g devoure d b y thos e wh o love d an d admire d hi m lead m e t o wonde r i f hi s persona s resembl e th e "fals e self " which , psy chologists tel l us, people plagued b y suc h anxietie s ofte n develo p t o con ceal an d protec t thei r innermos t sel f agains t suc h dangers . Th e questio n is importan t becaus e th e "fals e self, " whic h I shal l defin e mor e fully , i s a self-defeatin g defense , whic h ultimatel y encourage s feeling s o f futilit y and emptines s an d th e sens e tha t sel f an d worl d ar e insubstantia l an d

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unreal.5 Recurrently , a t leas t unti l 1922 , when h e complete d th e Duino Elegies an d wrote The Sonnets to Orpheus, Rilk e wa s haunted b y suc h feelings. Winnicott observe s tha t th e false sel f usuall y originate s i n th e failur e of a mothe r t o adap t hersel f wit h sufficien t sensitivit y an d empath y t o an infant' s needs . The mother intrude s he r own needs an d fears int o the child's consciousness long before he is mature enough to cope with them . Distracted, disconnecte d fro m th e spontaneous flo w o f his own feeling s and "thoughts " b y thes e impingements , h e ma y spli t himsel f int o a n inner cor e an d a personalit y o r personalitie s preoccupie d wit h givin g compliant reaction s t o hi s mother' s pressure s and , eventually , t o pres sures fro m othe r people . This outwardl y directe d par t o f the infant psy che become s a fals e self , governe d b y th e nee d t o gratif y an d placat e other people . Whil e appeasin g them , i t conceal s an d protect s th e inne r core, th e "tru e self, " whic h i s a s completel y divorce d a s possibl e fro m the fals e self' s nee d t o reac t t o externa l pressures. 6 Compliance i s motivate d b y fea r o f engulfment , impingement , an d depersonalization i f one reveals one' s inne r self , one' s tru e thought s and feelings. But this defensive fron t ma y bleed, squeeze, corrupt, o r swallo w the inne r sel f i t i s mean t t o protect . Accordin g t o R . D . Lain g i n The Divided Self, th e false sel f i s experienced a s being governe d b y "an alien will" o r wills . Initiall y thi s i s a parent's will , howeve r muc h i t ma y be disguised. I t may control one' s behavior , one' s body , one' s speech , eve n one's thoughts , feelings , an d perceptions. 7 Th e fals e sel f ma y b e com pulsively impersonatin g a s wel l a s identifyin g wit h th e perso n whos e expectations exact compliance . Thi s concep t recall s Rilke' s unhappines s about his tendency to assume the poise of someone else , when, suddenly , he foun d himsel f "expressin g well-forme d things " which ha d nothing t o do wit h hi s inne r chao s an d whic h completel y conceale d it . Wer e hi s aristocratic person a an d the public rol e o f th e poet als o example s o f the schizoid fals e self , a s Winnicott an d Laing defin e it ? If we can say that Rilk e did develop th e kind o f false sel f tha t analyst s find i n schizoi d illness , we can discover it s root s i n th e poet's relation ships wit h hi s parent s durin g childhood . Rilk e fel t tha t Phi a sa w him entirely in terms of her preconceptions. He willingly complie d whe n she insisted tha t he r little bo y play th e role o f a girl t o replac e th e daughte r who ha d die d befor e h e was born. A s an adul t h e recalle d tha t sh e had exhibited hi m to her friends a s if he were a doll. While tryin g t o satisf y

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her nee d fo r a daughter , h e encourage d hi s father' s hop e tha t hi s littl e son would gro w up to be an army officer an d thus fulfill Josef' s frustrate d ambitions vicariously . Josef Rilk e ha d been force d ou t of th e army afte r ten year s o f service . H e ha d littl e Ren e doin g militar y exercise s an d receiving medals . The boy did his best t o pleas e him , too. Phia Rilk e wrot e verse . Sh e rea d Schiller' s ballad s t o he r son , per suaded him to memorize and to recite them, and did everything she could to foste r i n Ren e th e desir e an d th e ambitio n t o b e a grea t poet. 8 I n Ewald Tragy, a n early autobiographical novella, Ewald, Rilke's surrogate , thinks o f th e mothe r wh o has lef t hi m a s a sic k woma n wh o want s t o be calle d "Fraulein, " sittin g i n a trai n compartmen t lettin g he r fello w passengers kno w tha t her son is a poet.9 I n his letters abou t hi s "unreal," "ghostly" mother , Rilk e expresse d th e fear tha t h e was too closely iden tified wit h her , though h e had been tryin g t o separate an d distance him self fro m he r all his life (Letters 1:147) . His devotion t o a vocation tha t conformed t o his mother's wishe s an d his nearness a s a poet t o her con ception o f hersel f mus t hav e trouble d him. Make's retellin g o f th e parabl e o f th e Prodiga l So n reflect s Rilke' s sense o f th e way s i n whic h a fals e sel f ma y engul f on e a s i t develop s under pressure s fro m one' s parents . Mak e imagine s tha t th e mask o f the false sel f whic h grow s i n respons e t o th e expectations, fears , hopes , and relentless scrutin y o f a family threaten s t o becom e th e son's face . I f tha t were t o happen, al l distinction betwee n th e outer fals e sel f an d the inner true on e would collapse ; the former woul d replac e the latter (251-54) . A schizoid perso n live s in uncertainty an d danger a s he tries t o detac h and divorce hi s hidde n "tru e self " fro m th e fals e one , whic h increasingl y absorbs it . If a large par t o f one' s socia l experienc e i s pervaded b y the sense tha t what on e says an d does i s controlled an d shaped b y othe r peopl e an d is false t o one's "tru e self, " relationship s an d contacts ar e likely t o encour age feeling s o f paralysi s an d formlessness. Th e false sel f act s a s a barrie r protecting th e inner sel f fro m engulfment , bu t it als o confine s th e inne r self, cutting it off fro m nurturin g contact s wit h othe r people. 10 There are a number o f intimations i n Rilke's letter s tha t th e roles he played amon g his aristocratic hosts involved hi m in deception an d self-deception, whic h were painful an d debilitating. The letters suggest that his attempts to exist in harmon y wit h hi s aristocrati c friend s force d hi m to liv e a dispiritin g lie, t o enac t a fals e self . H e longe d t o escap e fro m them : "Th e good ,

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generous asylums, such as Duino wa s an d immediately thereafte r Venic e . . . requir e s o muc h adaptatio n eac h tim e . . . an d whe n a t las t on e ha s got t o th e poin t o f belongin g t o them , th e onl y thin g accomplishe d i s the li e tha t on e belongs " (To Lo u Andreas-Salome , Decembe r 19 , 1912 ; Letters 2:81) . As fo r th e aristocrati c persona , caugh t i n Willia m Hausenstein' s de scription, it may well have originated in the pretensions of Rilke's parents and those of his father's older brother, Jaroslav, a paternalistic uncle, who paid for Rene's studies in a commercial high school an d then at the Uni versity o f Munich , an d gav e his nephe w a n allowance which laste d unti l after Jaroslav' s death . Thi s uncl e pu t muc h tim e an d effor t int o a n at tempt to link the family with old nobility. Though h e failed to gai n legal recognition of an y such connection, his nephew, th e poet, maintaine d all his lif e th e myth o f nobl e descent . Phi a Rilke, whose fathe r was wealth y and held th e titl e o f imperia l counselor, n o doub t though t sh e was mar rying int o a family descende d fro m aristocrats . I n he r photo s sh e ofte n appears in long black dresses, which give her a rather absurd resemblance to som e grea t lad y o f a n earlie r decade , an d he r strikin g expressio n o f loftiness fits in with this impression. Josef Rilke was bitterly disappointed when h e di d no t succee d i n followin g th e caree r o f a militar y officer , once th e exclusive privilege of th e nobility. Late r he also failed t o obtai n a job a s the manage r of a count's estate , which woul d hav e enable d hi m and his family t o liv e in the kind o f proximit y t o a noble heritag e whic h his son later found i n the castles and palaces of hi s patrons. Josef's career as a railway inspecto r decisivel y defeate d al l suc h hopes. 11 Rilke's nee d t o b e a gentlema n probabl y expresse d a n identificatio n with his parents' aspirations and a desire to escap e from th e tawdry reality o f thei r bourgeois life . I n this respec t h e made himself i n their image of themselves . H e trie d t o fulfil l thei r hope s fo r themselve s an d for hi m and to giv e some reality to their illusions, despite his scorn for thei r selfdeceptiveness. Hi s description s o f hi s ow n lif e durin g hi s childhood , s o different i n it s externa l circumstance s fro m Make's , poin t towar d thes e conclusions: "M y childhoo d hom e wa s a crampe d rente d apartmen t i n Prague; i t wa s ver y sad . . . . ou r littl e household , whic h wa s i n realit y middle class, was supposed t o have the appearance of plenty , our clothe s were suppose d t o deceiv e people , an d certai n lie s passe d a s a matter o f course" (Letter t o Elle n Key , Apri l 3 , 1903 ; Letters 1:98) . In Rene Rilke: Die Jugend Rainer Maria Rilkes (Ren e Rilke : Th e

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Youth o f Raine r Maria Rilke), the poet's son-in-law , Car l Sieber, reports that Rainer' s parent s paste d high-soundin g label s o n bottle s containin g cheap table wine. Drawing upon Sieber, Leppmann says that when com pany came , ther e wa s s o littl e roo m tha t Ren e sometime s ha d t o slee p behind "a black folding scree n decorated with gold birds." 12 Leppmann's inventory o f thei r belonging s give s u s th e picture : "Togethe r wit h var ious lacquere d Japanese fans, views o f Vesuviu s an d other Italia n motifs , and a vas t numbe r o f knickknacks , thi s bambo o scree n forme d par t of th e inventor y o f a n apartmen t tha t mos t differe d fro m hundred s of others , i f a t all , throug h it s sittin g roo m whic h wa s don e i n blu e silk."1* Did th e aristocrati c persona begi n a s a false self , develope d b y th e child , Rene, i n respons e t o hi s parents ' aspirations ? Di d i t continu e t o serv e unconsciously a s a response t o thos e aspirations , while a t the sam e tim e complying wit h th e taste s an d value s o f parenta l surrogate s amon g th e aristocratic patron s wh o offere d Rilk e thei r homes , financia l support , admiration, an d even , i n som e cases , warm affection ? I f thi s wa s a false self, di d th e poe t experienc e it , consciousl y o r unconsciously , a s a masquerade, henc e unreal , hollow , futile , unfulfilling ? Early i n The Notebooks Make , who, unlik e Rilke , i s descende d fro m high-ranking nobility, become s anxiou s abou t his cleanliness and the appearance of his clothes, because they distinguish him from the poor "out casts" who see m t o fee l tha t h e belong s t o them : Even though the jacket I wear every day has begun to get threadbare in certain spots . .. True , my collar is clean, my underwear too, and I could, just as I am, walk into any cafe I felt like, possibly even on the grands boulevards, and confidently reac h out my hand to a plate full o f pastrie s an d help myself. No on e would find that surprising; no one would shout at me or throw me out, for it is after all a genteel hand, a hand that is washed four or five times a day. There is no dirt under the nails, the index fingerisn't ink-stained, and the wrists especially are irreproachable. (38-39) What precede s an d follow s thi s show s tha t Make' s anxiet y abou t hi s clothes and cleanliness, about his ability to walk into shops without being thrown out , i s no t norma l middl e clas s anxiet y concernin g respectabl e appearances. I n th e homelessnes s o f th e Parisia n "outcasts " and i n thei r apparent dehumanization , Rilk e foun d wha t h e suspected , wit h fea r an d

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revulsion, wer e mirro r image s o f hi s ow n existence . H e imagine d tha t they wer e "livin g o n nothing , o n dust , o n soot " {Letters 1:109) . I n The Notebooks h e elaborate s thi s conceptio n o f th e "outcasts. " The y ar e "trash, husk s o f me n tha t fat e ha s spewe d out, " "[w]e t wit h th e spittl e of fate, " stuc k t o a wall, a lamppost , a billboard , o r tricklin g lik e dun g down a street (40) . One sourc e o f Make' s desir e t o sustai n th e loo k an d fastidiousnes s o f the gentlema n i n the street s of Pari s is the fear o f bein g reduced t o some thing lik e this—less tha n human , degraded , repulsive , and unselved. Thi s was a t leas t part o f th e motivatio n behin d th e developmen t an d duratio n of th e styl e an d manner s whic h Hausenstei n foun d incongruous . Rilke' s portrait o f Mak e reflect s th e fac t tha t h e wa s no t entirel y deceive d b y this persona. Late in the novel Make thinks, "I kno w tha t if I am destine d for th e worst , i t won' t hel p m e a t al l t o disguis e mysel f i n m y bette r clothes" (214) . Make als o come s t o recogniz e th e harmfu l consequence s o f suc h dis guises. A brie f entr y i n The Notebooks, precedin g th e passag e o n Dus e by a few pages , acknowledge s hi s despai r o f eve r bein g abl e t o "ru b of f the make-u p an d remov e everythin g tha t i s artificial . . . . w e g o around , a laughingstoc k an d a half-truth : neithe r rea l being s no r actors " (231) . Make's thought s her e purpor t t o tak e i n al l o f us . "We " an d "our " i n this passag e refe r t o huma n being s i n general . Bu t i n th e contex t o f th e novel, if w e conside r hi s illness an d hi s anxieties , this entr y describe s th e consequences o f developin g a false sel f o r selve s i n a n attemp t t o defen d what h e call s elsewher e "th e har d cor e o f a personality " beneat h "th e mask," t o defen d wha t a perso n feel s i s hi s tru e self . Eventuall y thi s defense ma y resul t i n a n inabilit y t o separat e mas k fro m face , fals e sel f from true , a s part s o f th e fals e sel f o r selve s ge t mixe d u p wit h th e in dividual's innermos t being , pervadin g feeling s an d thoughts , governin g gestures, words, and acts , despite his best effort s t o liberat e himself fro m them. I n schizoi d illnes s the false sel f o r selve s seem to tak e up mor e an d more o f th e mind' s energ y an d space . In schizophreni a th e tru e sel f ma y disappear i n a welter o f fals e selve s an d fragments . In The Maturational Processes and the Facilitating Environment, Win nicott distinguishe s betwee n "th e Fals e Self " i n schizoi d illnes s an d th e healthy us e o f socia l adaptabilit y an d plianc y t o creat e a "compliant [so cial] self " tha t defend s th e inne r sel f agains t discover y an d intrusion .

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Winnicott maintain s tha t i n health , a s i n sickness , w e fee l th e inne r self mus t be defended, no t only agains t pressures t o conform, bu t against being discovered an d known. H e argues tha t eve n in health a n individual must kee p hi s innermos t sel f secret , inaccessibl e t o everyon e else , an d that al l of u s feel it s exposure threaten s u s with obliteration , wit h bein g converted int o a usable thing, a danger exemplified i n the results of brain washing an d i n scienc e fictio n abou t peopl e bein g reprogramme d o r changed int o robots . Winnicott's conclusions , draw n fro m hi s work wit h patients , provid e support fo r Rilke' s evolvin g thought s abou t th e dangers inheren t i n human relationship s an d the need t o protect hi s imaginative an d emotiona l freedom b y means of something like a "dark deceptiv e vapor." Winnicot t theorizes tha t "i n healt h ther e i s a cor e t o th e personalit y tha t corre sponds t o th e true sel f o f th e split personality ; . . . thi s cor e neve r com municates wit h th e world o f perceived objects , and the individual perso n knows tha t i t mus t neve r b e communicated wit h o r influenced b y exter nal reality." 14 I d o no t kno w whethe r Winnicot t rea d Kierkegaard , bu t th e psy chologist's argumen t tha t all of us are "permanently unknown' read s like a paraphras e o f th e Danis h philosopher' s thinkin g abou t th e natur e o f the individual , whic h almos t surel y confirme d Rilke' s sens e o f himsel f and helpe d hi m t o articulat e it . Winnicott' s analysi s o f norma l fear s o f intrusive influenc e o n wha t h e call s "th e secret self " woul d hav e foun d ready assen t i n Rilk e a t the height o f hi s powers. Nothin g ca n be mor e frightening an d painful tha n change s i n the core o f the self a s a result of a failur e o r breakdow n i n th e defense s tha t protec t i t agains t com munication.15 Winnicott distinguishe s the false self in schizoid illnes s from th e public self i n a state of health. The first may be debilitating an d destructive, and often lead s a person t o fee l tha t h e i s " a collectio n o f reaction s t o impingement." Th e second appease s th e world b y complyin g wit h it s demands an d expectations, hidin g an d defending th e inner lif e o f th e "tru e self," whil e th e latte r i s abl e i n it s strengt h an d healt h t o expres s itsel f and t o find fulfillmen t an d sources o f ne w energy an d vitality . Surely w e ca n accep t Rilke' s assertio n i n "A n Experience " tha t hi s hidden inne r life , defended b y a "dark, deceptiv e vapor," was not empty , despite it s "freedom " fro m ordinar y huma n concern s an d relationships , that i t wa s joyfu l an d ric h i n "convers e wit h Nature. " Hi s resurgen t

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creativity at the time justifies this claim, though we also know that during the year s 1911-2 2 h e ofte n lapse d int o state s o f despair , emptiness , an d emotional paralysis . I t seem s likel y tha t hi s socia l persona s (hi s aristo cratic manners and his public role as a poet amon g admirers), his fantas y of a n "intermediate space," the "dark, deceptive vapor" around him, and his belief that poems and other writings might serve as masks were rooted in schizoid defenses agains t fantastical threats and anxieties, such as those I hav e described , bu t tha t h e develope d sufficien t strengt h o f eg o an d imagination t o conver t the m int o somethin g mor e closel y aki n t o th e adaptable, "complian t [social ] s e lf an d the artfull y shape d mask s o f be havior which Winnicott see s as the healthy psyche's mean s of concealin g and protectin g it s secre t inne r life , it s creativ e depths , fro m disturbin g scrutiny an d pressures.

Ill In The Divided Self, Lain g say s tha t people sufferin g fro m th e drea d o f engulfment ofte n defen d thei r identit y b y mean s o f isolation. 1 I n thi s respect Make's behavio r i s typical . Unlik e th e Prodigal Son , he does no t return to hi s hom e excep t a t the tim e o f hi s father' s death . Unlike Rilk e when h e wa s newl y arrive d i n Paris , Mak e doe s no t writ e long , almos t daily letter s t o a wife an d friend s h e ha s lef t behind . Non e o f hi s en counters wit h othe r peopl e i n Pari s reliev e hi s isolation . H e goe s t o se e doctors i n a hospital , bu t thi s encounte r i s impersonal . H e think s tha t some o f th e Parisia n outcast s loo k a t hi m a s i f the y sense d a n affinity , but hi s note s d o no t sho w tha t h e exchange d on e wor d wit h them . Rilke's repeated insistence that solitude was necessary to his creativit y must be understood a t least partly a s an outgrowth o f hi s anxieties abou t having hi s inne r lif e an d sel f involuntaril y changed , corrupted , take n over, o r absorbe d b y othe r person s o r alie n externa l phenomena . Tw o pages afte r describin g hi s fantas y o f bein g invaded , filled up , and drive n out o f himsel f b y wha t i s "horrible " i n th e world , Mak e meditate s o n Beethoven's death mask, thinking of the great composer as "a man whose hearing a god ha d close d up , s o tha t ther e migh t b e n o sound s bu t hi s own; so tha t he might not b e led astray by what is turbid an d ephemera l in noises " (73-74 an d 76) . I n 1903 , probably nea r the tim e h e bega n hi s work o n The Notebooks, Rilk e wrot e t o th e youn g poe t Fran z Kappus ,

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saying that anyone who wished to write poetry needed to be alone within himself muc h o f th e time. 2 Eve n amon g othe r people thi s migh t b e possible, i f on e coul d loo k upo n thei r live s "fro m ou t o f th e depth " an d "expanse" of "one' s own world," with the sense of distanc e and strangeness a child feel s watchin g adults . To Baladin e Klossowsk a h e wrot e i n Decembe r 1920 , arguin g tha t Malte could neve r "have penetrated s o far into the confidence o f things " if h e ha d bee n diverte d an d distracte d b y huma n relationships . H e ha d to b e abl e t o devot e himsel f completel y t o "th e thing s whos e essentia l life" h e wante d t o expres s i n hi s work . Rilk e mus t hav e bee n thinkin g about hi s ow n New Poems, whic h wer e contemporaneou s wit h The Notebooks:"Der Panther, " "Di e Gazelle, " "Romisch e Sarkophage, " "Der Schwan, " "Di e Spitze " (Th e Lace) , "Di e Trepp e de r Orangerie " (The Step s o f th e Orangery) , "Da s Karussell, " an d "Di e Rosenschale " (The Bowl o f Roses). 3 An earlie r letter to Klossowsk a reveal s underlying reasons fo r Rilke' s nee d t o ge t awa y fro m othe r persons , includin g Bal adine herself . H e di d no t lik e t o hav e peopl e lookin g a t him , guessin g what was troublin g him , forcing hi m t o b e awar e of them , inhibiting hi s freedom t o shap e hi s ow n life. 4 Reading th e part s o f The Notebooks concerne d wit h Make' s lonel y boyhood an d passage s i n Rilke' s diarie s an d letters , on e ca n se e ho w difficult an d painful solitude was for him. It often brought severe anxiety, frightening fantasies , and even delusions. Recurrently fro m 191 1 t o 191 4 Rilke fel t s o barre n an d impoten t i n hi s comparativel y solitar y lif e tha t he longe d fo r a companion. Bu t thi s yearnin g dismaye d him . I t seeme d a reflection o f a diminished capacit y fo r creativ e work . The followin g i s from a letter t o Salom e writte n o n Decembe r 28 , 1911 , little mor e tha n two week s befor e th e Firs t Eleg y cam e t o him : Dear Lou, I am in a bad way when I wait for people, need people, look around for people.... So it is a bad sign that since Malte I have often hoped for someone who would be there for me, how does that happen? I had a ceaseless longing to bring my solitude under shelter with someone, to put it in someone's protection; you can imagine that in those conditions nothin g made any progress. . .. Ho w is it possible tha t now, prepare d and schooled fo r expression , I am left i n fact without a vocation, superfluous? (Letters 2:34 ) The companio n h e imagine d woul d hav e t o b e hi s perfec t complemen t and utterly unintrusive. She must make no demands, expect nothing from

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him. Sh e mus t i n n o wa y confron t hi m wit h a distinctive , independent , self-assertive personalit y o r wit h need s o f he r own , a s he say s i n a lette r to Salom e writte n o n January 10 , 1912 , two day s befor e th e Firs t Eleg y came t o hi m {Letters 2:38-39) . In Decembe r 1913 , not lon g afte r completin g th e Third Elegy , writin g to hi s materna l patro n an d friend , th e princes s Mari e vo n Thur n un d Taxis, i n whos e castl e a t Duin o h e ha d penne d th e Firs t an d Secon d Elegies, he expresse d hi s longing for a place in the countr y wit h a housekeeper, wh o eithe r woul d fee l n o lov e o r woul d sho w a n extraordinar y love tha t mad e n o demands , whil e protectin g th e poe t i n hi s vulnerabl e openness t o "th e invisible " {Letters 2:102) . Rilke's fantas y o f a perfectl y empathetic, selflessl y responsive , undemandin g woma n wa s a drea m o f the impossible. Reading an earlier version of this chapter, some colleague s were distresse d t o find suc h weaknes s i n a poe t whos e writing s ofte n express deepl y fel t admiratio n an d genuin e understandin g o f th e strengths show n b y man y wome n i n histor y an d literature . Th e fantas y of th e perfec t companio n make s hi m see m antipathetic , a man possesse d by idea s an d attitude s whic h hav e ofte n le d t o th e oppressio n o f women . Only a mothe r attune d t o he r infant , completel y identifie d wit h him , expecting nothin g fo r herself , a n idea l paren t create d b y a narcissisti c mind, coul d fulfil l suc h needs . We ca n find othe r dimension s o f th e materna l figure tha t almos t cer tainly underlies hi s longing s fo r a woman whos e lov e would protec t hi m "at th e borde r o f th e invisible " in The Notebooks. On e entr y praise s an d celebrates the incomparable power o f the mother who ca n calm the terro r of a child lost among the phantoms h e himself ha s created in a dark roo m when h e i s lef t alon e a t night . Lightin g a match , sh e become s i n he r child's min d th e sourc e o f al l th e rea l o r imagine d noise s tha t hav e bee n frightening him , a s sh e urge s hi m t o fee l n o fea r no w tha t sh e i s wit h him. A t th e soun d o f somethin g movin g i n th e wal l o r creakin g i n th e floor, he r smil e reassure s him , a s i f sh e "kne w th e secre t o f ever y half sound, an d everythin g wer e agree d an d understoo d betwee n you. " Th e passage end s wit h th e question , "Doe s an y powe r equa l you r powe r among th e lord s o f th e earth? " (75) . The companio n wh o coul d d o thi s fo r th e poe t woul d shelte r hi s solitude an d fre e i t fro m th e anxietie s whic h ofte n gre w unbearabl y in tense whe n h e wa s alone . Hi s fantas y o f a housekeepe r wh o woul d no t expect anythin g fro m hi m reflect s hi s dread a t the prospect o f havin g hi s

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internal freedo m an d hi s sense of a separate, distinctive sel f overwhelme d by intimac y wit h a n assertiv e friend o r lover . This fea r wa s roote d i n hi s relationship wit h hi s mother . I f th e unconsciou s fantas y underlyin g hi s longing fo r a "perfect " woma n wa s th e yearnin g fo r th e kin d o f paren t imagined i n th e passag e quote d abov e fro m The Notebooks, thi s desir e was strengthened b y the poet's feelin g tha t his emotional illnes s had orig inated i n Phia' s blind , smotherin g narcissism . T o protec t himsel f agains t a repetitio n o f hi s childhoo d relationshi p wit h Phia , h e mus t hav e he r extreme opposit e a s hi s companion . Ironically , h e seem s t o hav e longe d for th e freedo m t o b e a s blindl y narcissisti c a s Phi a i n hi s relationshi p with th e woma n wh o woul d car e fo r him . Nothin g cause d hi m mor e distress tha n hi s awarenes s tha t h e ha d take n o n som e o f hi s mother' s worst qualities . In an essay entitled "Th e Fantas y of the Perfect Mother, " Nancy Cho dorow an d Susa n Contratt o analyz e this widespread fantas y an d it s adul t derivatives. The y ar e particularl y intereste d i n th e closel y relate d as sumption i n man y culture s tha t mother s hav e incomparabl e powe r t o shape thei r children' s live s an d th e consequence s o f th e fantas y an d thi s assumption: the tendency t o blame mothers for al l the ills that befal l thei r children an d th e ubiquitou s idealizatio n o f mother s whic h ofte n re inforces, no t onl y exaggerate d expectations , bu t als o negativ e idea s an d feelings abou t materna l failur e an d destructiveness . Chodorow an d Con tratto conclud e tha t infantil e fantasie s o f materna l perfectio n an d omnip otence an d th e idea s o f materna l responsibilit y resultin g fro m the m i n a number o f culture s have encouraged th e oppression o f mothers an d muc h of th e ange r fel t towar d women . Chodorow an d Contratt o trac e curren t idea s abou t motherin g t o th e evolution o f parenta l role s i n th e nineteent h century . The y argu e tha t a s men amon g th e bourgeoisi e becam e increasingly absorbe d i n urban com merce an d industry , responsibilit y for , an d contro l over , th e rearin g o f children wa s assume d t o b e almos t entirel y i n th e mother' s hands . Thes e conditions an d assumption s fostere d th e isolatio n o f mothe r an d child . They als o encourage d conception s o f th e idea l motherin g whic h woul d produce th e bes t possibl e childre n an d thu s th e bes t o f al l possibl e worlds. Th e notio n tha t th e mothe r an d th e chil d ar e isolate d i n a pro tected sphere , which i s reflected i n Rilke' s fantas y abou t a life apar t wit h a protective, nurturing, selfless woman, becomes, as Chodorow an d Con tratto show , one focus o f recen t feminist writings . A numbe r o f feminist s

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whose work s the y discus s hav e explore d th e way s i n whic h th e fantas y or th e realit y o f mothers ' alonenes s wit h thei r childre n exacerbate s thei r sense of oppression , their rage, and their fears that their separate identities will b e obliterated . Childre n ofte n reac t wit h fear , anger , an d aggressio n to these feelings i n their mothers, all the more so because of their fantasie s of materna l omnipotence . Suc h reaction s continue , late r i n life , t o hav e an unconsciou s influenc e o n adults ' feeling s an d idea s abou t mothers . They fue l men' s antagonis m towar d women , a s wel l a s th e doubt s an d tensions i n women' s attitude s towar d themselves . This essa y help s t o plac e Rilke' s idea s an d feeling s abou t hi s mothe r and othe r wome n agains t a larger cultura l an d socia l background . I t als o indicates th e tendenc y o f psychologica l theorist s i n recen t time s t o shar e the cultura l assumption s whic h hav e grow n ou t o f th e fantas y o f th e perfect mother , a s the y hav e move d awa y fro m th e triangula r oedipa l paradigm t o focu s upo n th e powe r o f th e mothe r t o shap e th e child. 5 Later I shal l examin e Rilke' s brie f relationshi p wit h Magd a vo n Hat tingberg durin g th e earl y month s o f 1914 , whe n h e though t h e ha d a t last foun d th e companio n h e ha d describe d i n hi s letter s t o th e princes s Marie an d Lo u Andreas-Salome . This relationship , falling dismall y shor t of th e fantastical hope s whic h filled th e poet's letter s t o von Hattingber g in th e month befor e the y me t (sh e started th e correspondenc e b y writin g to hi m afte r comin g acros s hi s Stories of God), ende d al l to o swiftly , leaving Rilk e i n anguish . Shortl y afterward , i n Jun e 1914 , h e wrot e t o Salome a lette r revealin g tha t thi s failur e ha d brough t hi m t o painfull y clear self-understanding . "Fo r I n o longe r doub t tha t I a m sick , an d m y sickness ha s gaine d a lo t o f groun d an d i s als o lodge d i n tha t whic h heretofore I calle d m y work , s o tha t fo r th e presen t ther e i s n o refug e there" (Letters 2:113-14) . But relationships with othe r women, who had not been sent by heave n to pla y th e par t o f th e angeli c housekeeper , wer e essentia l t o Rilke' s emotional strengt h an d vitality . I n chapter s five an d si x I conside r th e poet's lov e affai r an d lon g friendshi p wit h Lo u Andreas-Salom e an d hi s marriage and friendship wit h Clar a Westhoff, tw o women who, for man y years, helpe d t o alla y hi s fear s an d fostere d hi s creativity , ofte n fro m a distance, throug h letters . The seclusio n whic h Rilk e sough t sometime s intensifie d hi s illness . But n o studen t o f hi s lif e i s likel y t o disagre e wit h hi s belie f tha t i t nurtured hi s genius . I n a n essa y o n Rilke , Rober t Has s note s th e poet' s

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loathing fo r th e superficiality an d falsenes s whic h h e sa w in th e everyda y social lif e o f mos t huma n being s an d observe s tha t hi s evocativ e powe r seems t o hav e com e fro m a lonel y inne r depth . Hi s poem s ca n awake n in u s a correspondin g dept h o f inwardnes s an d a responsivenes s tha t creates somethin g lik e th e perspectiv e o f th e child' s distanc e evoke d i n the lette r t o Fran z Kappu s mentione d above . Has s argue s tha t Rilke' s greatest poetr y strip s awa y man y layer s o f apparen t richnes s an d com plexity withi n us , enabling u s t o discove r a solitary sel f i n al l its strange ness, a dimensio n o f th e psych e whic h Has s associate s wit h "th e hug e nakedness an d povert y o f huma n longing." 6

CHAPTER 4

This Lost , Unrea l Woma n Phia Rilk e an d th e Materna l Figure s i n The Notebooks

I In Apri l 1904 , a t th e ag e o f twenty-eight , tw o month s afte r beginnin g the boo k tha t wa s t o becom e hi s novel , Rilk e wrot e a lette r t o Salom e which mor e full y an d precisel y tha n anythin g els e h e lef t u s reveal s hi s adult conception s o f hi s mothe r an d he r effec t o n him . Phi a ha d com e to Rome, where her so n was staying, and h e was forced t o mee t her fro m time t o time , thoug h h e fel t tha t "ever y meetin g wit h he r [was ] a kin d of setback. " H e foun d he r "lost " an d "unreal, " "connecte d wit h noth ing," determine d t o remai n young . Th e sigh t o f he r brough t bac k mem ories (wh o ca n sa y i f the y wer e accurate? ) o f hi s struggl e a s a chil d t o escape her . Thei r meeting s intensifie d hi s fea r tha t afte r year s o f tryin g to separat e himsel f an d distanc e he r h e wa s stil l deepl y identifie d wit h her, "fea r . . . tha t somewher e inwardl y I stil l mak e movement s tha t ar e the other half o f her embittered gestures , bits of memories that she carries broken withi n her. " Hi s sens e o f stil l carryin g i n himself , somewher e hidden, he r false , "distraugh t pieties, " narcissistic religiosity , an d preten tious affectation s o f manne r an d dress , "all those distorte d an d perverte d things t o whic h sh e ha s clung, " horrifie d him . An d h e coul d no t hel p wondering i f h e share d he r ghostl y unrealit y an d emptiness . I f hi s "en trance int o th e world" wa s lik e a "wallpaper door " i n a "faded wal l tha t doesn't belon g t o anything, " tha t helpe d t o explai n wh y h e sometime s felt h e ha d n o plac e an d wa s no t a t hom e i n th e worl d {Letters 1:147) . 68

THIS LOST , UNREA L WOMA N 69 I have mentioned th e letter which Rilke wrote in November 190 7 fro m Prague abou t Phia' s effec t o n him . Fo r a readin g h e wa s givin g sh e ha d assembled a n audienc e o f ol d wome n wh o seeme d hungr y fo r hi m bu t quickly los t thei r hunge r whe n the y hear d hi m rea d (Letters 1:325) . N o doubt, hi s sens e o f thes e women, hi s mother' s friend s an d contemporar ies, hi s fantas y o f thei r desir e t o devou r hi m an d hi s feeling s abou t th e sudden rejectio n an d indifferenc e whic h abruptl y replace d i t wer e partl y transferred fro m Phi a herself . A t th e sam e tim e h e wrot e t o Clar a tha t his mother had little or no understanding o f the man her son had become . She saw hi m almos t entirel y throug h he r preconceptions . H e wa s unabl e to mak e he r se e an y o f hi s rea l natur e o r character . Suc h wa s th e powe r of thi s blindnes s tha t afte r bein g wit h he r h e ha d a stron g sense o f th e hole, th e void , he r perception s lef t i n him : "i n relatio n t o he r nothin g remains valid." 1 Every tim e h e me t her , Rilk e fel t hi s mothe r defende d hersel f agains t taking i n th e strange , ver y differen t ma n wh o lon g ag o ha d bee n Ren e and transforme d hi m int o a n embodimen t o f image s an d idea s tha t sat isfied he r need s an d di d no t arous e he r fears , jus t a s sh e ha d don e i n hi s childhood. Meetin g he r fo r th e las t tim e i n Octobe r 1915 , in Munich , h e wrote a poe m whic h utter s it s complain t agains t Phia' s blind , self absorbed destructivenes s wit h nake d simplicity . I n thi s poe m h e com pares himsel f t o a smal l house , whic h h e ha s built , ston e b y stone , unti l it i s abl e t o stan d o n it s own . Bu t hi s mothe r demolishe s him . Lookin g at he r son , sh e canno t se e tha t h e ha s bee n building . Blindly , sh e goe s through hi s ston e wall . Dog s recogniz e him . Onl y hi s mothe r doe s no t know hi s face , whic h ha s bee n slowl y growing . H e neve r feel s a war m breath o f ai r comin g fro m Phi a an d ironicall y imagine s he r lyin g i n a lofty compartmen t o f he r heart , wher e Chris t come s t o was h he r daily . Ach wehe, meine Mutter reiss t mic h ein. Da hab ich Stein auf Stei n zu mi r gelegt, und stan d scho n wie kleines Haus, um da s sich sogar allein . [gross der Tag bewegt, Nun komm t di e Mutter, kommt und reiss t mich ein. Sie reisst mich ein, indem sie kommt und schaut . Sie sieht es nicht, dass einer baut . Sie geht mir mitten durch di e Wand von Stein Ach wehe, meine Mutter reiss t mic h ein.

70 THI S LOST , UNREA L WOMA N Die Vogel fliegen leichter um mich her. Die fremden Hund e wissen: das ist der. Nur einzi g meine Mutter kenn t e s nicht, mein langsam mehr gewordenes Gesicht . Von ihr z u mi r war nie ein warmer Wind. Sie lebt nicht dorten, wo die Lufte sind . Sie liegt in einem hohen Herz-Verschla g und Christu s komm t und wasch t si e jeden Tag. (WDB 2:101 )

The poe m i s s o clea r i t need s littl e explication . Amon g al l creature s only th e poet' s mothe r canno t se e th e individua l he r so n ha s mad e o f himself. She has n o warmt h o r lif e t o giv e him. He r deadness , her blind ness t o hi s wor k o f self-creation , he r self-absorptio n i n egocentric , nar cissistic fantasie s o f a Savio r devote d t o he r ar e extremel y destructive , despite th e strengt h h e ha s struggle d t o develo p i n himself . Th e poet' s fantasy tha t h e ha s buil t himsel f u p ston e b y ston e bring s t o min d hi s relationship wit h Rodi n an d hi s tendenc y t o thin k o f artisti c wor k i n terms o f sculpture . H e ha s develope d hi s sens e o f himsel f throug h th e writing o f hi s poems an d th e master y o f hi s art . The ston e represent s th e strength an d permanenc e o f th e self , th e life , an d th e bod y o f wor k h e has created . I n tellin g us tha t hi s mothe r goe s throug h hi s ston e wall, th e poem suggest s tha t hi s unsuccessfu l defens e agains t he r devastatin g im perviousness wa s t o tr y t o mak e himsel f impervious . Stone i s unfeeling; it' s dead . Di d h e suspec t tha t i n protectin g himsel f against Phia , in tryin g t o mak e himsel f imperviou s an d indestructible , h e had deadene d himself ? I n a 191 3 letter t o Princes s Mari e von Thur n un d Taxis-Hohenlohe, th e poe t say s tha t h e i s no t a lover , tha t n o on e ha s ever "shaken " hi m "utterly, " possibl y becaus e h e i s unabl e t o lov e hi s mother (Letters 2:90) . Part s o f th e poe m expres s a n opposing , positiv e sense o f self , as creatures o f ai r an d eart h recogniz e th e poet' s distinctiv e face an d it s stead y growt h an d change . A numbe r o f time s Rilk e retol d th e stor y o f hi s childhoo d i n letter s to sympatheti c women . Th e earlies t o f thes e whic h ha s survive d wa s addressed i n 189 4 to Valeri e von David-Rhonfeld , on e o f hi s earl y loves , who wrot e novella s an d painte d porcelain , dresse d i n red , Empir e styl e gowns, an d carrie d a shepherdess' s crook. 2 T o "Vally " h e wrot e o n hi s nineteenth birthda y tha t hi s mothe r ha d entruste d hi m t o a servan t an d

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that sh e ha d love d hi m onl y whe n sh e coul d exhibi t hi m t o he r friend s in a little dres s (Letters 1:18) . Year s later, durin g th e troublin g sprin g o f 1903, three months befor e h e felt h e coul d appea l t o Salom e for help , he described th e mother o f hi s childhood i n a letter to th e Swedish feminis t Ellen Key , who ha d read his Stories of God wit h muc h excitement . Thi s long self-introductio n focuse d upo n memorie s o r fantasie s o f himsel f a s a chil d "infinitel y forsaken " an d "utterl y astra y i n a n alie n world, " played wit h b y hi s mothe r a s i f h e wer e a doll, treate d b y he r a s a girl, and otherwise neglected by that nervous woman who wanted to be called "Fraulein" and "t o pas s fo r young , sickly , an d unhappy. " Haunte d b y such memorie s o r fantasies o f Phi a i n his childhood , th e poet yearn s fo r "a mother wh o i s greatness , kindness , quietude , an d beneficence. " An d he imagines tha t in this repl y t o Elle n Key' s prais e o f hi s storie s h e ma y be writing t o suc h a mother (Letters 1:98-104) . In The Notebooks an d th e Thir d Eleg y h e develope d hi s conceptio n of suc h a parent. Yet on e canno t hel p wondering i f Make's Maman is an unconscious retrieva l o f Phi a fro m Rilke' s earl y childhood , a materna l figure that a t least partly belie s th e bitte r accusation s o f earl y neglec t i n his letters . O r i s Mama n largel y invention , a fantasy o f th e benevolent , devoted, empatheti c protectres s lon g wished-fo r b y th e so n wh o fel t h e had no t ha d one ? One o f th e earliest recollections from Make's childhood take s us back t o Urnekloster, th e hom e o f Maman' s father , Coun t Brahe . A t th e ag e o f twelve o r thirtee n Make i s stayin g ther e with hi s father , year s afte r Ma man's death . Th e motherles s bo y keenl y feel s th e absenc e o f an y sens e of "family " in the grou p o f relative s who gathe r for dinne r at his grand father's table . Eve n hi s relationshi p with hi s father i s "cool. " Make i s i n a "state of annihilation. " The high , dark banquet hall "sucke d al l images out o f you " unti l yo u "sa t ther e a s i f yo u ha d disintegrated—totall y without will , withou t consciousnes s . . . withou t defens e . . . lik e a n empty space " (26). "Annihilation," "disintegration," emptiness, lack of will, and defenselessness are central and recurrent elements of Make's experience as a child and a s a n adult . The chil d experience s th e "vaulte d room " a s i f i t wer e a living thing . It s "darkenin g heigh t an d it s neve r full y illuminate d cor ners" forcibly dra w his thoughts an d feelings, his will, hi s consciousnes s of worl d an d self, al l his insides, out o f him . The image s suggest, ambig -

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uously, irresistibl e vacuums an d voraciou s mouths . Psychoanalyti c stud ies revea l tha t unconsciou s infantil e fantasie s an d fear s o f cannibalis m often underli e such thoughts. The infant project s hi s desire to devour th e breast o r th e mothe r ont o her , an d i s the n terrifie d o f bein g eaten . I n schizoid an d schizophreni c illnes s thes e fantasie s surfac e agai n i n man y forms, ofte n involvin g displacemen t fro m th e mothe r t o othe r objects , as, fo r example , th e dinin g hal l i n th e hom e o f Maman' s father . Make' s fantasy her e suggest s weaknes s o f eg o defense s an d boundaries , impair ment o f integratio n an d differentiation . If Mak e wer e " a rea l person " rathe r tha n a characte r i n a book , on e could sa y withou t fea r o f troublin g a commonsensica l min d tha t hi s mother's illnes s an d earl y death , hi s father's remoteness , an d th e absenc e in th e bo y o f an y sens e o f famil y an d hom e afte r Maman' s deat h mus t have undermined hi s fragile sens e of personal identit y an d integrity . An d one coul d se e tha t thes e factor s i n Make' s childhoo d mus t hav e encour aged th e fear s o f engulfmen t an d implosio n whic h resurface d i n Paris . In th e childhoo d scene s a t Urnekloster , Make' s mothe r i s associate d with tw o othe r member s o f he r family—Mathilde , a distant cousin , an d Christine, whos e ghos t walk s throug h th e dinin g hal l durin g dinner . Make discover s hi s mother' s feature s i n Mathilde' s face . Th e connectio n between th e tw o wome n i s eve n mor e tightl y drawn . Mak e i s unabl e t o remember Maman , bu t th e tim e spen t wit h Mathild e Brah e bring s to gether i n hi s min d "hundred s an d hundred s o f details " which "for m a n image o f m y dea d mother. " An d fro m the n o n thi s imag e "accompanie s me everywher e I go " (28) . Yet Mathild e Brahe' s fac e differ s fro m Maman' s i n on e importan t re spect. Lookin g a t this cousin, he see s his mother's feature s "force d apart , distorted, n o longe r connecte d t o on e another , a s if a stranger's fac e ha d thrust itsel f amon g them. " Th e "a s if " i s curiousl y ou t o f place . I n fac t this is a "stranger's" face. Rilke's comment s abou t hi s ow n mothe r mak e one wonder i f Mathild e Brah e obliquel y reflect s th e poet' s adul t percep tion tha t Phia , th e mothe r who m h e cam e t o detes t a s disconnected , lacking coherence , was a grotesquely distorte d incarnatio n o f th e on e h e had love d a s a young child . The first tim e Mak e see s Christin e Brah e a t dinne r i n Urnekloste r h e does no t realiz e tha t sh e i s a ghost . Mathild e ha s staye d awa y fro m th e meal. When Make' s grandfather , Coun t Brahe , explains that sh e is absen t because sh e doe s no t wan t t o encounte r Christine , hi s uncle , a retire d

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army major , leave s th e room , beckonin g Malt e an d hi s youn g cousin , Erik, t o follo w him . Later , whe n the y hav e bee n serve d dessert , a doo r which Malt e though t wa s alway s locke d opens , an d " a slende r woma n in a light-colore d dress " move s slowl y i n thei r directio n (33) . Make' s father jump s u p fro m th e tabl e an d start s walkin g towar d her , bu t th e count grab s hi s ar m an d drag s hi m back . Th e woma n exit s throug h an other door , whic h Eri k close s wit h a bow . Furious , shouting , Malte' s father demand s tha t th e coun t tel l hi m wh o th e visito r was . Whe n th e old man , whos e fac e i s lik e a mask , smiling , identifie s he r a s Christin e Brahe, a membe r o f th e family , Chamberlai n Brigg e rushe s ou t o f th e dining hall, leaving his son behind. Lon g afterwar d Malt e learns the stor y of Christine' s deat h i n childbirt h age s ago . Rilke implicitl y associate s Christine' s ghos t wit h Malte' s dea d mothe r when h e ha s Coun t Brah e spea k t o th e boy' s fathe r abou t Mama n a s if she wer e a girl , dresse d i n white , wh o migh t b e abou t t o com e int o th e dining hall . No t lon g after , th e dea d woma n "i n a light-colore d dress " does enter the room, an d th e next morning Malte wakes up an d hi s bone s freeze whe n h e see s "somethin g white " sittin g o n hi s be d (31 , 33 , 35) . The nove l strengthen s one' s sens e tha t Mathild e an d Christin e represen t Maman i n Malte' s unconsciou s mind . Al l thre e wome n see m t o becom e confused wit h on e another , i f onl y momentarily , whe n hi s horro r a t th e ghostly image on his bed changes as he hears the voice of Mathilde speak ing t o hi m an d trie s t o "assemble " hi s mother' s feature s i n th e livin g cousin's face , whil e askin g he r abou t th e strang e woma n wh o cam e int o the dinin g hal l th e nigh t before . With he r "warm , sweetis h breath " tha t touche s hi s face an d he r voic e that immediatel y calms him, putting a n end t o hi s horror i n the morning , Mathilde embodie s a fantasy o f th e mothe r a s a comforter an d protector . Curiously, sh e seem s t o hav e acquire d som e distastefu l association s wit h Phia Rilk e a s well. Apar t fro m th e disconnectednes s an d incoherenc e o f the mother' s feature s i n he r face , he r interes t i n a n Austria n spiritualis t recalls Phia' s "distraugh t pieties, " which probabl y influence d he r so n a t an earl y age , thoug h late r h e foun d the m repulsive . Perhaps , Mathild e reflects element s of the poet's ambivalenc e about his mother an d his sense that Phi a coul d b e see n a s a somewhat ridiculou s figure . I f th e poe t did , consciously o r unconsciously , associat e he r wit h Phia , h e ma y hav e de fended himsel f agains t thi s associatio n b y makin g he r harmles s an d onl y "a distan t cousin " (27) .

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The reaction s Christine' s ghos t arouse s i n variou s member s o f th e family poin t t o an underlying fantasy tha t contact with th e dead is deadly and t o th e feelin g tha t the y ca n exer t a dangerous powe r ove r th e living . Count Brah e grab s Make' s father , pull s hi m bac k t o hi s chair , an d hold s him ther e whe n h e trie s t o approac h Christine . Later i n th e nove l Mak e recall s a stor y Mama n onc e tol d abou t th e return o f anothe r membe r o f th e household , Ingeborg , shortl y afte r he r death. Thoug h Ingebor g i s invisible , th e member s o f th e famil y realiz e that she is there because Cavalier, their dog, runs to meet her as he alway s did durin g he r lifetime , when sh e came at tea time, bringing th e mail . H e jumps u p "t o lic k her . . . . whimperin g wit h joy. " Suddenl y h e howls , whirls, fall s back , an d lie s "stretche d ou t befor e us , strang e an d fla t o n the ground, not moving a muscle" (90). This story suggest s that the touc h of ghost s is lethal. Ingeborg's relationshi p with Make' s mother , Maman' s fascination wit h he r behavio r durin g he r las t illnes s an d he r retur n afte r death, an d th e contex t o f thi s stor y (Make' s accoun t o f hi s mother' s las t illness) for m a web o f association s betwee n th e tw o women . Hence, Maman i s associate d wit h tw o menacin g Brah e ghosts , a t leas t one o f who m i s deadly , thoug h sh e ha s bee n benevolent , comforting , lovely, an d belove d durin g he r lifetime . Indirectly , throug h laten t dis placement i n thes e stories , The Notebooks suggest s tha t th e dea d mothe r is a threatenin g figure , capabl e o f killin g i f on e canno t overcom e th e power o f he r magnetism . Unconscious drea d o f th e mothe r a s a destroyer ma y begi n i n infanc y as a fear o f bein g swallowe d o r smothere d b y her . I n clinica l wor k psy chologists als o find th e unconsciou s fantas y o f a mothe r suckin g u p al l one's life , energy , an d feeling . Suc h fantasie s ma y b e transferre d t o othe r figures, a s the y ar e i n The Notebooks an d i n D . H . Lawrence' s novel s Sons and Lovers an d Women in Love. Suc h fantasie s ar e sometime s lumped togethe r unde r th e psychologica l ter m "engulfment. " I f a dea d or absen t mothe r i s a lively ghos t i n th e mind , an d i f on e feel s unabl e t o separate onesel f fro m her , on e ma y fee l swallowe d u p i n a kind o f livin g death, emotionall y dependen t o n someon e wh o ca n n o longe r activel y reciprocate, n o longe r giv e muc h nurtur e o r support . To o clos e a n at tachment t o a dead , absent , o r distan t mothe r ma y sustai n a symbioti c relationship which shoul d hav e ended with earl y childhood. And thi s ca n result i n a continuin g sens e o f bein g trappe d amon g th e dead , amon g ghosts, unable t o mak e vita l contac t wit h th e living .

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Maurice Betz , who worke d wit h Rilk e o n th e Frenc h translatio n o f The Notebooks, recall s i n Rilke vivant that , a s th e poe t trie d t o describ e Make's mothe r tellin g he r ghos t story , h e seeme d t o confus e he r wit h his own. 3 Curiously , i n he r las t illnes s Make' s benevolen t mothe r doe s come t o resembl e Phi a Rilke , a s th e poe t sa w her . I n hi s biographica l account o f th e youn g Rilke , Car l Siebe r confirm s hi s father-in-law' s de scription o f Phi a a s "unreal, " offerin g detail s o f he r appearanc e an d be havior t o suppor t this , suc h a s he r lon g blac k dresses , whic h ha d bee n out o f fashio n fo r man y years , he r extrem e thinness , an d he r diet . Sh e seemed t o ea t almos t nothin g bu t biscuits , and Siebe r wondered ho w sh e could exis t o n suc h fare. 4 Durin g th e las t year s o f he r life , Mama n ha s a strainer t o filte r wha t sh e drinks . Biscuit s an d brea d ar e he r onl y soli d food. Sh e tell s he r so n sh e i s unabl e t o diges t anythin g an y more . He r hand i s weightles s an d feel s lik e a n ivor y crucifix , an d sh e come s aliv e only when sh e is absorbed i n the story o f Ingeborg' s deat h and her retur n as a ghos t wh o seem s t o kil l th e do g tha t run s t o he r i n lov e an d joy . Toward th e en d Mama n "bega n t o die , slowl y an d hopelessly , ove r the whol e surfac e o f he r body " ( i n ) . Thi s i s t o say , he r sense s die , he r connection wit h th e externa l worl d an d th e sourc e o f he r sens e o f he r separateness fro m it . A t thi s point sh e recalls Rilke's descriptio n o f Phia , as "lost, " "ghostly, " "connecte d wit h nothing " (Letters 1:147) . The connectio n betwee n Rilke' s mothe r an d Make' s i s mos t obviou s i n a scen e base d o n Phia' s insistenc e tha t Ren e transfor m himsel f int o a girl durin g th e first severa l year s o f hi s life . Car l Sieber , i n hi s boo k about th e poet' s childhoo d an d youth , confirm s tha t thi s scen e i n The Notebooks i s autobiographical. 5 Magd a vo n Hattingber g testifie s tha t Rilke tol d he r Phi a ha d encourage d him , a s a child , t o pla y th e par t of a girl , dressin g hi m a s on e an d makin g hi m dus t aroun d th e hous e and d o othe r chore s ordinaril y performe d b y daughter s a t tha t time. 6 Rilke's self-introductor y lette r o f Apri l 190 3 t o Elle n Ke y confirm s th e assertion tha t h e wa s treate d lik e a gir l befor e goin g t o schoo l (Letters 1:99). A s Siebe r suggests , b y drawin g littl e Ren e int o thi s game , Phi a provided hersel f wit h a substitute fo r th e daughte r wh o ha d die d befor e Rene wa s born . In th e episod e o f th e nove l base d o n thi s experience , Mama n call s Make "Sophie, " th e nam e o f Rilke' s mothe r an d hi s dea d sister . Bu t

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Make's memor y o f th e tim e "whe n Mama n wishe d I ha d bee n a littl e girl an d no t th e bo y tha t I undeniabl y was " i s fre e fro m th e distast e implicit when Rilk e mentions i n his letters his transformation int o a little girl. Perhaps , i n hi s novel , Rilk e i s recapturin g th e pleasur e h e fel t a s a small chil d "i n th e littl e girlis h house-dress, " in playing thi s gam e whic h gave such pleasure t o his mother: "Then , when sh e asked wh o wa s there , I woul d delightedl y answe r 'Sophie, ' makin g m y voic e s o daint y tha t i t tickled m y throat " (99). This i s no t jus t a game . Th e boy' s sens e o f himsel f a s a littl e gir l i s quite real . "I reall y was Sophie , not jus t Maman's littl e Sophie . . . whos e hair Mama n ha d t o braid , s o tha t sh e wouldn' t b e mistake n fo r tha t naughty Make , if h e shoul d eve r com e back. " I f thi s sectio n o f th e nove l emphasizes th e intimat e rappor t betwee n mothe r an d so n an d th e boy' s delight i n becomin g Sophi e fo r hi s mother , i t als o suggests another , ver y different sens e o f tha t earl y relationship . Increasingl y i t concentrate s o n Maman's rejectio n o f th e littl e bo y an d he r son' s identificatio n wit h he r in thi s rejection . "[Make' s return ] wa s no t a t al l desirable ; Mama n wa s as please d a t hi s absenc e a s Sophi e was , an d thei r conversation s (whic h Sophie alway s carrie d o n i n th e sam e high-pitche d voice ) consiste d mainly in enumerating Make's misdeeds and complaining about him. 'O h dear, tha t Make, ' Mama n woul d sigh . An d Sophi e woul d g o o n an d o n about th e naughtines s o f boy s i n general " (100) . This sound s lik e goo d fun . Th e ton e i s humorous, teasing . One migh t think that , perhaps , th e mothe r i s ambivalent . Whe n sh e chatter s abou t Make's naughtiness , on e migh t suspec t tha t Mama n finds thi s rathe r ap pealing a s wel l a s off-putting . Bu t th e pleasur e Mama n take s i n Make' s absence i s th e feelin g tha t stand s out . If Rilke' s memor y tha t hi s mothe r converte d hi m int o a little gir l an d played wit h hi m a s i f h e wer e a dol l wa s accurate , i t seem s likel y tha t she wa s depersonalizin g hi m i n orde r t o defen d hersel f agains t th e mal e in her son and his separate individuality (Letters 1:99) . Mt n e poet' s letter s and poem s abou t Phi a giv e a tru e pictur e o f her , he r nee d t o d o thi s must hav e com e fro m a lac k o f a stron g sens e o f self , o f he r ow n dis tinctive reality . One ca n easil y se e wha t th e consequence s o f suc h childhoo d game s might be : doub t an d confusio n abou t one' s identity , an d i n particula r one's sexua l identity , confusio n abou t bod y image , guil t a t bein g mal e and a n inclinatio n t o rejec t one' s masculinity , fea r o f women , difficult y

THIS LOST , UNREA L WOMA N JJ in stayin g wit h a woman. Abov e all, the mother' s gam e would dra w he r son int o a collaboration whic h woul d entai l a t leas t a partial rejectio n o f himself, o f hi s valu e an d wort h an d righ t t o exis t i n harmon y wit h hi s own nature , character , an d sexua l identity . Maman's choic e o f Rilke' s mother' s nam e fo r he r littl e boy-girl i n th e game ma y b e memor y o r inventio n o n Rilke' s part . Siebe r say s tha t th e girl's nam e Phi a use d fo r Ren e wa s Ismene , bu t Magd a vo n Hattingber g reports tha t Rilk e tol d he r i n on e o f hi s letters tha t hi s mothe r ha d calle d him Sophi e a s a child. 7 I n eithe r cas e th e choic e o f th e nam e Sophi e i n The Notebooks reflect s Rilke' s sens e o f Phia' s desir e t o identif y he r so n with hersel f an d no t t o allo w hi m a separat e existence . Maman's deat h i n The Notebooks ma y hav e helpe d Rilk e t o defen d he r in hi s ow n imaginatio n fro m associatio n wit h th e destructiveness , un reality, and emptines s h e loathed i n his own mother . Ofte n deat h enable s surviving children t o purif y thei r parent s o f negativ e qualities , to idealiz e them, an d t o isolat e lov e fro m hate , fear , anger , an d guilt , repressin g negative feelings .

II In The Restoration of the Self, Heinz Kohu t define s th e harmfu l effect s of a narcissistic mothe r o n he r child . Whe n suc h a mother support s an d encourages he r child' s display s o f hi s grandios e sens e o f himself , h e un derstands ver y wel l tha t h e mus t confor m t o he r idealize d imag e o f him , shaped b y he r ow n narcissisti c grandiosity , i n orde r t o kee p he r love . One ca n se e th e narcissisti c natur e o f Phia' s lov e fo r Ren e i n he r insis tence tha t h e becom e a daughter , a girl , henc e close r t o a mirro r imag e of herself ; i n he r playin g wit h hi m a s i f h e wer e a dol l an d exhibitin g him t o he r friends ; i n he r blindnes s t o al l tha t h e reall y wa s an d he r tendency t o se e hi m throug h he r ow n preconceptions . Kohut argue s tha t th e sens e o f th e self's reality , its cohesio n an d con tinuity, grows out o f adequate early maternal mirroring. This also enables an infan t t o merg e wit h a paren t who m h e experience s a s omnipoten t and secur e an d thu s t o internaliz e he r capacit y fo r masterin g anxiety . Thus, failures i n maternal empathy , resultin g from th e kin d o f narcissis m that Rilk e attribute s t o Phia , ten d t o preven t a child fro m developin g a n

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adequate sens e o f hi s coherenc e an d realit y an d a n abilit y t o contro l hi s fears. Becaus e o f he r sens e o f he r ow n unreality , disconnectedness , an d unworthiness, a mothe r ma y b e unabl e t o giv e he r chil d th e emotiona l support tha t foster s self-acceptanc e an d security . Kohut explore s th e ramification s o f thes e failures . A chil d o f a nar cissistic mother , on e wh o respond s selectivel y ou t o f he r ow n need s an d fears, an d i s ofte n withdrawn , ma y b e vulnerabl e t o fragmentatio n an d is likel y t o lac k self-esteem . A s a n adul t h e wil l probabl y experienc e emotional impoverishmen t an d fea r o f lov e becaus e i t ha s proven s o un stable an d manipulativ e i n hi s childhood . Th e kin d o f fragmentatio n which w e hav e foun d i n The Notebooks, an d whic h Kohu t trace s t o th e weakness o r perversit y o f materna l mirroring , ofte n give s ris e t o hypo chondria. Accordin g t o Kohut , fears , suc h a s Make's , abou t illnes s an d disease i n part s o f th e bod y ma y b e a wa y o f attemptin g t o "maintai n control o f th e totalit y o f [the ] bod y b y focusin g . . . attentio n o n th e parts tha t [are ] becomin g estrange d fro m [oneself] ,, a s th e "body-self " seems t o b e comin g apart . Th e fantasie s tha t accompan y suc h anxietie s may aris e fro m a nee d t o giv e physica l for m t o a sens e o f impendin g mental disintegration , whic h i s all the more terrifyin g becaus e it is vague, not visible , no t tangible , an d thu s elude s effort s a t comprehension , de fense, an d mastery. 1 Can w e sa y tha t Rilke' s writin g o f The Notebooks ha d a simila r de fensive function ? Di d Rilk e us e th e concret e imager y o f The Notebooks and Make' s experience s t o giv e tangible form t o "th e deepe r unnameabl e dread experience d whe n a person feel s tha t hi s sel f i s becoming seriousl y enfeebled o r disintegrating . . . . th e drea d o f th e los s o f hi s self—th e fragmentation o f an d th e estrangemen t fro m hi s bod y an d min d . . . an d the breaku p o f th e sens e o f hi s continuity"? 2 In Collected Papers on Schizophrenia and Related Subjects, Harol d Searles observe s tha t i n man y case s th e mothe r o f a mentall y il l patien t is unable , becaus e o f he r ow n ego-fragmentation , feeling s o f unreality , and hig h anxiety , t o respon d t o he r child , wit h th e resul t tha t th e chil d finds himsel f "completel y shu t ou t o f hi s mother' s awareness , out i n th e cold, wit h a highl y anxiou s sense o f non-existence , o f no t bein g reall y alive."3 Suc h a mother' s perception s o f he r chil d i n term s o f he r ow n preconceptions, Searle s notes , ma y b e experience d a s tantamoun t t o an nihilation. Th e dependen t mothe r ma y b e attemptin g t o kee p he r so n tightly boun d i n th e symbioti c relationshi p whic h h e i s trying t o escape .

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She may projec t he r sens e o f hersel f ont o him , motivate d b y he r nee d t o see hi m a s par t o f her . Rilke's vocation a s a poet was inextricably enmeshed with hi s mother' s ideal imag e o f him . Nothin g coul d hav e bee n mor e intolerabl e t o hi m than th e feelin g tha t b y followin g hi s vocatio n h e wa s involvin g himsel f in th e narcissis m o f th e mothe r h e portray s i n hi s earl y novell a Ewald Tragy, th e woman who ha s abandoned he r child an d has become a homeless traveler , lik e th e youn g autho r o f th e novella . Rilke' s fictiona l sur rogate, Ewald , tell s a Frenc h gir l a t a famil y gatherin g tha t hi s mother , who ha s lef t he r husban d an d son , i s sick . H e ha s no t hear d fro m he r for quit e a while . The y hav e no t eve n writte n t o eac h othe r fo r a year . Nonetheless, h e imagines , sh e like s t o mentio n t o othe r peopl e i n he r train compartmen t tha t he r so n i s a poet. 4 Phia fostere d he r son' s desir e t o b e a poet. A s th e biographer s tel l us , she recite d Schiller' s ballad s fo r Rene' s benefit , go t hi m t o memoriz e poems, an d encourage d hi s earl y effort s t o writ e verse . In 190 0 she pub lished, through a vanity press, a book o f aphorisms entitle d Ephemeriden. It wa s dedicate d t o he r son. 5 I f sh e ha d an y ambition s t o prov e hersel f as a writer, thi s wa s th e closes t the y cam e t o fulfillment . Th e poe t ma y have sense d tha t hi s ow n achievement s fe d hi s mother' s narcissisti c grandiosity. One canno t hel p wonderin g i f Rilk e ha d t o conten d wit h a probabl y unconscious feelin g that , i n writin g poetr y an d i n achievin g recognitio n and fame , h e was displaying hi s grandios e sens e o f sel f exhibitionisticall y before hi s self-lovin g mother , cuttin g himsel f t o he r desig n t o wi n he r love, muc h a s he loathe d her . Substitutes , markedly differen t fro m her — among them Lo u Andreas-Salome , Clara Rilke, Auguste Rodin, the prin cess Mari e vo n Thur n un d Taxis-Hohenlohe , an d Nann y Wunderly Volkart—helped hi m t o defen d himsel f agains t thi s feeling . The y af forded hi m a more genuin e mirroring , whic h graduall y brough t healing , strength, an d confidence . Bu t on e suspect s th e narcissisti c mothe r wa s always ther e wit h him . Sh e outlive d him .

Ill Make's mos t romanti c memor y o f a loving , enchantin g Mama n accom panies a recollection o f on e o f hi s wors t bout s o f terro r a s a child. Afte r

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he ha s bee n "screamin g an d screaming " whil e servant s tr y t o cal m him , his mother arrive s at last. We are told tha t "Mama n neve r came at night, " except this one time (96). Two pages later Make says, "Maman sometime s came for a half hou r an d rea d m e fairy tales, " but "th e rea l readings , th e long ones , Sieverse n did " (98) . Even i n thi s entr y wher e th e smal l boy' s romantic imag e o f hi s mothe r i s th e focus , ther e ar e intimation s o f ne glect, muted , veile d echoe s o f Rilke' s complaint s agains t hi s mothe r an d his bitte r assertio n tha t h e wa s ofte n lef t i n th e car e o f a servant. I n th e next entr y Mak e describe s ho w h e allowe d himsel f t o b e converte d int o Sophie t o pleas e hi s mother . Yet o n tha t on e night , whe n Mak e "screame d an d screamed " i n hi s fever an d terror , hi s mothe r di d com e hom e fro m " a grea t ball , a t th e Crown Prince's. " Wearin g "he r magnificen t cour t gown, " sh e le t he r "white fu r fal l behin d he r an d too k m e i n he r bar e arms. " And I , astonishe d an d enchante d a s I ha d neve r bee n before , touche d he r hai r and her little smooth face and the cold jewels in her ears and the silk at the edge of he r shoulders , which smelle d o f flowers . An d w e staye d lik e tha t an d crie d tenderly an d kisse d eac h other , unti l w e felt tha t Fathe r wa s ther e an d tha t we had t o separate . . . . "Wha t nonsens e t o sen d fo r us, " h e said . . . . The y ha d promised t o g o bac k i f i t wa s nothin g serious . An d certainl y i t wa s nothin g serious. Bu t o n m y blanke t I foun d Martian' s dance-car d an d whit e camellias , which I had never seen before an d which I placed o n my eyes when I felt ho w cool they were. (96-9-/) The phrasing—"astonished an d enchanted a s I had never been before " and "Maman' s dance-car d an d whit e camellias , whic h I ha d neve r see n before"—reinforces th e intimations o f distanc e an d absenc e which fram e the passage. Nonetheless, this entry brings into clear focus th e tenderness, tinged wit h eroti c feeling , whic h Mak e feel s fo r hi s mother . Thi s i s als o one o f severa l part s o f The Notebooks whic h cal l t o min d th e essa y "Family Romances, " i n whic h Freu d analyze s th e significanc e o f fanta sies tha t w e ar e descende d fro m high-rankin g persons , arguin g tha t the y reflect th e struggle to break free fro m parent s b y whom w e feel neglecte d or towar d who m w e fee l hostile . Bu t Freud , a t length , conclude s tha t such fantasie s "preserve , unde r a sligh t disguise , th e child' s origina l af fection fo r hi s parents." Fantasie s o f aristocrati c father s an d mothers , h e finds, ofte n reproduc e trait s o f th e rea l ones . Th e replacemen t o f th e

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child's rea l parent s b y th e one s i n th e fantas y recapture s earlie r ideali zations o f th e former. 1 Rilke took ove r his uncle Jaroslav's myt h tha t th e family ancestr y wa s aristocratic. Though neithe r th e uncl e no r hi s nephe w coul d prov e thei r connection wit h a n ancien t nobl e family , th e poe t neve r abandone d thi s belief. Givin g hi s fictiona l surrogat e i n The Notebooks aristocrati c par ents obviousl y involve d displacemen t o f thi s fantasy . Throug h Make' s noble heritag e h e can , i f onl y i n hi s imagination , escap e th e tawdrines s of hi s parent' s thoroughl y bourgeoi s lif e i n Prague . Perhaps , also , hi s creation of such a life for Mak e and his parents was, through unconsciou s transference, a disguised wa y o f rescuin g hi s ow n parent s fro m th e seed iness o f thei r live s an d givin g the m th e aristocrati c statu s fo r whic h the y longed. If w e thin k o f Mama n o n he r retur n fro m th e crow n prince' s bal l i n terms o f "Famil y Romances " we ca n se e that thi s passage ma y wel l hav e arisen fro m Rilke' s desir e t o recove r o r inven t a mothe r o f earl y child hood who m h e coul d lov e an d adore . In Rainer Maria Rilke: Legende und Mytbos, Eric h Simenauer , dis cussing thi s entr y i n The Notebooks, cite s th e opinio n o f Ott o Ran k an d other psychoanalyti c writer s tha t Mak e reveal s a neurotic fixatio n i n th e oedipal stag e with its incestuous desir e for th e mother. 2 Simenaue r argue s that i n Rilk e a n unconsciou s "infantil e fixation o n th e mothe r hel d [th e writer] i n chain s durin g hi s lifetim e an d determine d th e directio n o f hi s unconscious longing , whic h la y a t th e foundatio n o f hi s artisti c creativ ity." 3 Drawin g upo n a n analysi s o f Gottfrie d Kelle r b y E . Hitschmann , Simenauer implie s tha t Rilke' s nee d t o distanc e hi s mothe r an d hi s ap parent lac k o f lov e fo r he r wer e element s o f " a reactio n formation, " covering u p th e forbidde n yearning. 4 Simenauer als o mentions Rilke' s stor y "Di e Letzten " (Th e Las t Ones ) as evidence of incestuous feelings i n its author. I n her biography o f Rilke , E. M. Butler calls this story " a Freudia n situatio n played ou t t o the deat h between a mother an d son." 5 I n "Di e Letzten " a sic k so n abandon s hi s girlfriend an d his work an d give s himself u p entirely to his mother. Then , as Leppman n says , "i n th e feveris h imaginatio n o f he r dyin g son " th e mother become s " a mysteriou s gir l dresse d i n white. " "Th e conclusio n of thi s shor t work, " say s Leppmann , "i s drenche d i n sultr y eroticis m and barel y manage s t o skir t incest." 6 Rilke's passionat e affai r wit h Lo u Andreas-Salome , who wa s fourtee n

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years olde r tha n himsel f an d a n acknowledge d secon d mother , als o sup ports th e thesi s tha t Rilke' s feeling s fo r Phi a wer e governe d b y a pow erful oedipa l attachmen t an d th e nee d t o repres s it . In a fascinatin g an d richl y insightfu l chapter , entitle d "Mutte r un d Urphantasien," Simenaue r goe s throug h th e voluminou s evidenc e o f Rilke's "fixation/ ' Althoug h h e emphasize s th e argumen t tha t Rilke' s loathing fo r hi s mothe r ca n b e explaine d a s " a reactio n formation, " a n attempt t o reinforc e hi s repressio n o f th e incestuou s lov e whic h leak s through som e passage s i n hi s writing , Simenaue r acknowledge s tha t th e poet's ambivalen t relationshi p wit h Phi a wa s determine d b y a variety o f unconscious an d conflictin g feelings. 7 Searles offer s anothe r perspectiv e o n th e relationshi p betwee n th e child' s tenderness an d enchantment , s o beautifull y evoke d i n The Notebooks, and th e poet' s fligh t fro m Phia . A child' s lov e fo r a n emotionall y il l mother ma y giv e ris e t o th e fea r o f bein g sucke d int o he r sicknes s o r t o the loathin g whic h result s fro m hi s awarenes s tha t hi s feeling s fo r he r have mire d hi m i n a n illnes s fro m whic h h e canno t escape . Suc h love , though represse d an d denied , ma y remai n ver y muc h aliv e in late r years , sustaining hi s identificatio n wit h he r i n he r illness . If w e accep t th e argumen t tha t Make' s lov e fo r Mama n obliquel y re flects Rilke' s earl y lov e fo r hi s ow n mother—and , a s I shal l show , ther e is muc h evidenc e i n Rilke' s poem s an d letter s t o suppor t thi s conclu sion—and i f w e accep t Rilke' s portrai t o f Phia , w e ca n se e mor e clearl y how th e poet' s illnes s ma y hav e begu n i n hi s relationshi p wit h hi s mother. Searle s argue s tha t a chil d wh o "detect s i n his mothe r . . . a tragically unintegrate d an d incomplet e person " ofte n react s wit h intens e "compassion, loyalty , solicitude , an d dedication. " Thes e feelings , h e ob serves, keep the child trapped i n a "disastrous" "symbiotic" relation wit h the mother. 8 Worse still , th e chil d identifie s wit h hi s mother , makin g he r "ego fragmented" existenc e a part o f himself . "H e introject s he r no t primaril y out o f hatre d o r anxiet y bu t ou t o f genuin e lov e an d solicitud e fo r hi s mother . . . primaril y i n a n effor t t o sav e he r b y takin g he r difficultie s . . . upo n himself. " Fro m lon g experienc e a s a psychotherapis t wit h th e children o f suc h mother s an d fro m observin g thei r transferenc e behavio r toward himsel f a s a surrogat e mother , Searle s note s tha t usuall y the y deny thi s disastrou s an d extremel y dangerou s an d painfu l lov e an d cove r

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it u p wit h antagonism , hatred , an d loathing , i n useles s effort s t o defen d themselves agains t it. 9 Thi s help s u s t o reconcil e Rilke' s portraya l o f Make's lov e fo r Mama n wit h th e poet' s professe d aversio n t o Phia . Make's offerin g o f al l hi s strengt h t o th e victi m o f St . Vitus ' dance , the dissolutio n o f hi s eg o boundaries , an d hi s near-engulfmen t b y th e man's anxiety , struggle , an d convulsion s brin g t o min d Searles' s analysi s of th e origin s o f schizophreni a i n a child' s lovin g offe r o f himsel f a s a sacrifice t o hel p a schizoid o r schizophreni c mothe r hol d hersel f togethe r and th e child' s absorptio n b y he r illnes s as , ou t o f lov e an d sympathy , he gladl y give s himsel f u p t o th e mutua l parasitis m encourage d b y th e mother i n he r desperat e need . Rilke's description s o f Phi a sugges t tha t a s a child, lovin g an d adorin g her muc h a s Mak e doe s Maman , h e ma y wel l hav e suffere d fro m th e sense o f he r ego-fragmentation . Suc h a situation , Searle s argues , impel s the child to identify wit h hi s mother ou t o f "genuin e love and solicitude " and throug h hi s identificatio n t o introjec t her , wit h "disastrou s results, " namely, th e kind o f illnes s which on e finds i n Make an d i n Rilke's letter s about himself . From th e perspectiv e offere d u s b y Searles , Make' s experience s iden tification wit h th e ma n sufferin g fro m St . Vitus' dance , with th e medica l student, wit h th e strange r dyin g i n th e cremerie , with th e patients i n th e hospital, an d wit h th e outcast s o f Pari s appea r t o b e th e resul t o f uncon scious transferenc e i n th e poet-novelis t fo r who m Mak e i s a surrogate . In psychoanalyti c text s "transference " mean s "displacement o f pattern s of feelin g an d behavior , originall y experience d wit h significan t figures o f one's childhood , t o individual s i n one' s curren t relationships." 10 I n Rilke's Parisia n experience s an d i n hi s novel , thi s woul d includ e a redi recting o f a n inclinatio n t o identif y wit h a n emotionall y il l an d cripple d mother t o othe r need y persons . In sum , Rilke' s long-lastin g fligh t fro m hi s mother , hi s loathin g fo r her, an d hi s effort s t o separat e himsel f fro m he r ma y b e see n a s origi nating i n a struggl e agains t th e consequence s o f th e child' s earl y lov e which h e evoke s i n The Notebooks. Althoug h ther e ar e goo d reason s fo r accepting Simenauer' s argumen t concernin g "th e reactio n formation " against oedipa l feelings , thi s defens e ma y b e regarde d a s a secondar y cause, a reinforcement o f th e poet's mor e deepl y roote d negativ e feeling s toward Phia . "Deeply " her e signifie s dept h i n th e past , a n earlie r stag e of developmen t i n th e child' s life . Searles' s analysi s lead s t o th e conclu -

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sion tha t th e resolutio n o f th e "Oedipu s complex " canno t fre e someon e from suc h a n illness, in which oedipa l feelings ofte n pla y a comparativel y unimportant role .

IV Recurrently Rilk e suggest s Make' s identificatio n wit h Maman . A t time s this ha s positiv e consequences : he r storytellin g an d he r fascinatio n wit h lace play a role in shaping his inclination t o b e a poet, an artist. But othe r entries brin g t o min d Searles' s argumen t concernin g th e origin s o f schiz oid an d schizophreni c illness . At th e en d o f he r lif e Mama n become s "dominate d b y he r fea r o f needles": " 'Wha t a lot o f needle s ther e are , Make; they ar e lying aroun d everywhere . . . ' . . . [Hjorro r shoo k he r a t th e though t o f al l the poorl y fastened needles , which coul d fal l dow n anywhere , at any moment " (85) . Time an d agai n i n The Notebooks on e finds echoe s o f Maman' s fea r o f needles, direc t an d indirect , transparen t an d disguised , i n Make' s anxi eties. H e describe s th e recover y o f hi s childhoo d a s th e reemergenc e o f "[a]ll th e los t fears " (63) . Among the m ar e th e "fea r tha t a small woole n thread stickin g ou t o f th e he m o f m y blanke t ma y b e hard , har d an d sharp a s a steel-needl e . . . tha t thi s littl e butto n o n m y nigh t shir t ma y be bigge r tha n m y head , bigge r an d heavie r . . . tha t som e numbe r ma y begin t o gro w i n m y brai n unti l ther e i s no mor e roo m fo r i t insid e me " (63-64)Such fantasies , lik e th e fantas y o f "th e Bi g Thing, " expres s displace ment o f feeling s abou t th e phallus , whic h grow s har d lik e a needl e an d swells like a tumor. A s everyone knows, the phallus has a will of its own . In a bo y o r a ma n i t i s a focus o f sexua l feeling s whic h tak e ove r min d and body , unti l i t seem s tha t ther e i s n o roo m fo r anythin g els e insid e oneself. The fear o f th e phallus i s closely related t o th e apprehension tha t one's sexualit y ma y becom e uncontrollabl e an d overwhel m one . In par t 2 o f The Notebooks, wher e Make' s meditation s o n legendar y and historica l figures indirectl y reflec t hi s sens e o f hi s body , mind , an d self an d allo w hi m t o externaliz e an d distanc e it , a n entr y expressin g hi s fascination wit h Bosch' s painting Temptation of Saint Anthony y o r some thing very similar , plays with th e tendency t o find a willful, autonomou s

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phallus i n multifariou s object s an d wit h th e almos t irresistibl e powe r o f sexual desir e ove r bod y an d mind : How wel l I no w understan d thos e strang e pictures i n whic h Thing s mean t fo r limited an d ordinary uses stretch out an d stroke one another, lewd and curious, quivering i n th e rando m lecher y o f distraction . Those kettle s tha t wal k aroun d steaming, those pistons that start to think, and the indolent funnel tha t squeezes into a hole for it s pleasure. . . . And th e sain t writhes an d pull s bac k int o himself . . .. Hi s praye r i s already losing its leaves and stand s u p ou t o f hi s mout h lik e a withered shrub . . . . Hi s sex i s onc e agai n i n on e plac e only , an d whe n a woma n come s towar d him , upright throug h th e huddle , with he r nake d boso m ful l o f breasts , i t point s a t her like a finger. (184-85 ) Make's fea r o f needle s an d "th e Bi g Thing " an d th e othe r anxietie s described i n th e passag e quote d fro m page s 6 3 an d 6 4 of The Notebooks suggest tha t h e i s draw n int o hi s mother' s fea r o f mal e sexuality . Bu t Maman's fears , whic h becom e focuse d i n th e passag e abou t th e needles , obviously infec t Mak e i n a mor e comple x way . He r needl e phobi a i s described i n a n entr y whic h als o tell s u s tha t towar d th e en d o f he r lif e she di d no t wan t t o se e people an d fel t sh e coul d n o longe r diges t foo d (84-85). Take n together , thes e memorie s o f Mama n revea l wide-rangin g fears o f penetratio n b y object s an d othe r persons , b y anythin g outsid e the self . Suc h anxietie s originat e i n childhoo d a t a tim e precedin g th e focus o n th e genitals , whe n th e boundarie s o f th e body-sel f an d th e se curity the y affor d th e individua l ar e weak . I f thi s weaknes s persist s int o adult years , i t ma y encourag e frightenin g fantasie s o f impingemen t an d invasion suc h a s th e one s w e hav e discovere d i n The Notebooks (se e 73-74)Searles observe s tha t th e mothe r whos e psychi c integratio n i s precar ious ma y unwittingl y bin d he r chil d mor e closel y t o he r b y creatin g i n him th e sens e tha t th e worl d aroun d the m i s a fearful place , full o f dan gers, so tha t h e will continu e t o see k safet y withi n th e tigh t nexu s o f th e symbiotic relationship , whic h th e mothe r need s t o preserv e a s a sourc e of suppor t an d nurtur e fo r herself . A s a resul t h e ma y becom e closel y identified wit h he r i n he r anxieties. 1 In Rene Rilke: Die Jugend Rainer Maria Rilkes, Siebe r describe s th e ways i n whic h bot h parent s filled thei r smal l son' s existenc e wit h thei r anxieties abou t th e stat e o f hi s health :

86 THI S LOST , UNREA L WOMA N Fear tha t th e youth migh t catc h cold, that h e might b e exposed t o a draft, tha t his bed was hard, that his glands were swollen, was the constant though t o f his dear parents. . .. Althoug h th e doctor found nothing , for th e sake of prevention Rene had to gargle salt water three times a day, and when late in the evening, he traveled in a carriage, he was put on the floor of the coach and so tightly bundled up tha t onl y hi s hea d wa s exposed . I n summe r h e ha d t o li e o n a rug i n th e garden so that he wouldn't catc h cold. 2 And w e ar e tol d tha t Jose f Rilk e change d hi s son' s nurse s twenty-fou r times durin g th e firs t yea r o f Rene' s life. 3 Is i t an y wonde r tha t th e poe t wa s bese t b y anxiet y fo r muc h o f hi s life an d wa s particularl y pre y t o fear s abou t hi s health ? I n The Restoration of the Self, Kohut say s tha t a mother's hypochondriaca l reaction s to a child' s fear s a t a n earl y stag e o f hi s life , whe n h e i s stil l closel y identified wit h her, tend to become part of his mental existence, persisting as h e grow s older. 4 I n contrast , closenes s t o a mentall y healthie r paren t eventually permits internalization o f hi s or her capacit y for calmin g one' s fears.

v Make's versio n o f th e en d o f Grishk a Otrepyov , th e fals e cza r Dmitri , explicitly reveal s th e fantas y o f th e mothe r a s a destroyer. I t i s clear tha t this episod e obliquel y refer s t o Mak e an d t o Rilke . Th e poe t explaine d to hi s Polis h translator , Witol d vo n Hulewicz , tha t th e historica l figure s in part 2 of th e nove l ma y b e see n a s "the vocabula o f [Make's ] distress " {Letters 2:371) . In 160 6 thi s fals e czar , face d wit h a n uprisin g le d b y Princ e Shuisk y and a numbe r o f boyars , summone d Mari a Nagoi , th e rea l Dmitri' s mother, th e sevent h wif e o f th e lat e czar , Iva n th e Terrible , fro m he r convent t o Moscow . Dmitr i ha d bee n kille d mysteriousl y i n 1591 . The pretender wante d he r t o acknowledg e tha t he , Grishka , wa s he r son . Make speculates , "[ri] e believe d i n himsel f s o strongl y tha t h e actuall y thought h e wa s summonin g hi s mother " (188-189) . Mari a Nago i di d what h e wished , supportin g hi s clai m tha t h e wa s th e rightfu l successo r to th e throne . Wha t make s thi s accoun t o f Grishk a strangel y interestin g and revealin g i s Make' s fantas y abou t th e czar' s reactio n t o Maria' s lie :

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But th e mother' s declaration , eve n if i t was a conscious deception , stil l ha d th e power t o diminis h him ; i t lifte d hi m ou t o f thi s magnificen t sel f tha t h e ha d invented; i t confine d hi m t o a tired imitation ; i t reduce d hi m t o th e individua l he wasn't; it made him an imposter. (189) Make ha s alread y aske d himsel f i f Grishka' s uncertaint y di d no t aris e from Maria' s confirmin g tha t h e was he r son . H e answer s hi s ow n ques tion wit h th e though t tha t "th e strengt h o f hi s transformatio n la y i n hi s no longe r bein g anybody' s son " (189) . In th e margi n o f th e noteboo k h e jot s dow n hi s belie f tha t al l youn g men wh o hav e lef t thei r familie s gai n thei r strengt h fro m thi s sens e o f themselves. This margina l not e connect s Make' s conception s o f Grishk a and th e Prodiga l Son . I n Make' s mind , a s i n Rilke's , havin g a mothe r diminishes a n individual , reduce s hi m t o someon e h e i s not , " a tire d imitation" o f he r imag e o f him , a n inauthenti c perso n wh o canno t b e "the magnificen t self " h e ha s i t i n hi m t o create , hence, "a n imposter. " After Grishk a jumped fro m a window, fleein g Shuisk y and the boyars , who invade d hi s palace , Mari a Nago i disavowe d him . Th e effec t o f thi s disavowal a t th e momen t o f Grishka' s rui n i s th e mai n poin t Mak e fo cuses upo n i n th e conclusio n o f hi s brie f narrative : "yo u mus t b e read y to swea r tha t betwee n voic e [o f th e Tsarina Mothe r disavowin g him ] an d pistol sho t [whic h kille d him] , infinitel y compressed , ther e wa s onc e again insid e hi m th e wil l an d th e powe r t o b e everything " (191) . Free d from thi s mothe r an d al l mothers , Grishk a felt , i f onl y fo r a fe w mo ments, th e freedom , power , an d strengt h o f wil l t o avai l himsel f onc e more o f al l th e gifte d creativit y whic h ha d manifeste d itsel f i n hi s re markable conques t o f th e Russia n throne . Implicitly , Grishka' s realiza tion tha t h e wa s abou t t o di e make s thi s reawakenin g al l th e mor e remarkable i n Make' s eye s an d emphasize s th e importanc e o f th e free dom fro m mothers , fro m parents , whic h i s th e mai n them e o f Make' s interpretation o f thi s momen t i n history . One shoul d no t forge t tha t Mak e i s Rilke' s fantas y o f a youn g ma n who i s "n o longe r . . . anybody' s son. " Th e death s o f hi s mothe r an d father, a s well a s hi s havin g lef t hom e an d havin g n o hom e t o retur n to , are essentia l element s o f thi s fantasy .

CHAPTER J

Take Me , Giv e M e Form , Finis h M e Lou Andreas-Salom e

I "Now ther e i s stil l time— " he writes , "no w I a m stil l soft , an d I ca n b e like wax in your hands . Take me, give me a form, finish me . .. " It is a cry for motherliness. 1 This i s from th e earl y autobiographica l novell a Ewald Tragy. Ewal d i s a transparent self-portrai t o f Rilk e durin g 189 6 an d 1897 , bot h befor e h e left hi s family an d nativ e city , Prague, and afte r h e settled i n Munich an d began t o lea d a n independen t lif e a s a n artist . I f scholar s ar e correc t i n their datin g o f th e novella , Rilk e bega n writin g Ewald Tragy mor e tha n a yea r afte r h e ha d attache d himsel f t o a woma n wh o ha d generousl y responded t o th e nee d fo r mothering , forming , an d finishing expresse d in Ewald' s "cry." 2 O n Ma y 12 , 189 7 i n Munic h h e me t Lo u Andreas Salome, author o f books o n Nietzsche and Ibsen as well as several novels. The daughte r o f a Russia n genera l an d hi s Germa n wife , Salom e wa s fourteen year s olde r tha n th e poet . Sh e wa s marrie d t o Friedric h Car l Andreas, professo r o f Persia n a t th e Berli n Institut e fo r Orienta l Lan guages, but ha d kep t th e marriag e sexless . Fifteen year s befor e Rilk e me t her , i n he r earl y twenties , Lo u ha d received a marriage proposal fro m Friedric h Nietzsche, who ha d though t her "shar p a s a n eagl e an d brav e a s a lion , ye t a ver y girlis h child. " Nietzsche als o calle d he r "th e most intelligent of all women, 9' an d tol d 88

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his frien d Overbeck , "Ou r mentalitie s an d taste s ar e most deepl y akin — and ye t ther e ar e s o man y contrast s to o tha t w e ar e fo r eac h othe r th e most instructiv e o f subjects... . I shoul d lik e t o kno w whethe r ther e ha s ever befor e bee n suc h philosophical opennes s a s between th e tw o o f us. " Trying t o reassur e Lo u tha t h e wa s no t intereste d i n usin g he r a s a sec retary, he wrote t o he r tha t h e was looking fo r "heirs, " "the finest, mos t fertile soil " for tha t "something " " I carr y . . . aroun d wit h m e absolutel y not t o b e rea d i n m y books." 3 Fiercel y jealou s an d prudishl y offende d by Salome , th e philosopher' s sister , Elizabeth , di d everythin g sh e coul d to tur n hi m agains t her . A t th e en d o f 1882 , Lou wen t of f t o Berli n wit h their mutua l frien d Pau l Ree , and Nietzsch e realize d tha t h e had los t her . Deeply hur t an d angry , influence d b y hi s sister' s vilification s o f th e girl , he wrot e i n respons e t o letter s fro m Lou , tha t sh e wa s "givin g fre e rei n to everythin g contemptible" in her nature, transforming he r ow n "sacre d self-seeking" int o "th e predator y pleasure-lus t o f a cat. " H e describe d her a s "tha t scraggy , dirty , smell y she-monke y wit h he r fals e breasts." 4 But h e cam e t o regre t hi s denunciations . I n 188 4 h e wrot e fro m Nice , expressing hi s hop e tha t Re e an d Salom e woul d visi t hi m an d th e wis h "to mak e amend s fo r som e o f th e evi l thing s m y siste r did. " Late r h e said h e thought Lo u wa s "b y fa r th e smartest perso n I ever knew." 5 Thi s echoes th e extraordinar y assessmen t o f th e twenty-tw o yea r ol d Salom e offered i n a September 188 2 letter fro m Nietzsch e t o Overbeck , a t a time when al l wa s goin g wel l wit h her : " I hav e neve r know n anyon e wh o could dra w fro m thei r experience s s o man y objective insights, o r anyon e who kne w ho w t o deriv e s o muc h fro m everythin g they' d learnt." 6 By th e tim e sh e me t Rilke , Salome' s studie s o f Ibse n an d Nietzsch e and he r extraordinary intelligenc e as an essayist and conversationalis t ha d earned he r a widesprea d reputatio n amon g Europea n intellectual s an d artists. Sh e wa s t o become , i n 1912 , a friend an d discipl e o f Freud , wh o wrote t o he r afte r readin g her essa y "Ana l an d Sexual, " "Your incredibl e subtlety o f understandin g a s well a s th e greatnes s o f you r ben t fo r syn thesizing wha t ha s com e apar t throug h investigatio n find beautifu l expression i n it. " Th e fathe r o f psychoanalysi s als o calle d he r "M y dea r inexhaustible friend, " praise d he r fo r he r "authenticit y an d harmony " and he r "modest y an d discretion, " an d expresse d gratitud e fo r he r com ments o n hi s essay s an d book s ("Yo u alway s giv e mor e tha n yo u receive").7 Salome's stud y o f Rilke , writte n jus t afte r hi s death , make s idiosyn -

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cratic use of psychoanalytic ideas , mixing the m with intuition s whic h ar e sometimes shrewd . Sh e is now remembere d primaril y fo r he r friendship s with Nietzsche , Rilke , an d Freud . Bu t th e publication o f severa l biogra phies reflect s continuin g interes t i n he r thinkin g an d writing. 8 I n hi s portrait o f Salome , Kurt Wolf f measure d he r statur e i n term s which ma y be suspected o f mal e condescension bu t which , nonetheless, clearly plac e her amon g th e Olympian s i n th e Germa n worl d o f letters : " N o woma n has radiate d a stronge r o r mor e direc t influenc e i n German-speakin g lands i n th e las t 15 0 years." 9 A s fo r he r importanc e t o Rilke , i t ca n b e summed u p i n hi s ow n words , addresse d t o th e princes s Mari e i n 1924 : "my entir e development without th e influence o f this exceptional woma n . . . coul d neve r hav e bee n o n th e line s tha t hav e led t o s o man y achieve ments." I O Having recentl y lef t hi s famil y an d nativ e cit y fo r Munich , Rilke , a t twenty-one, wa s rapturou s ove r thi s meetin g wit h "th e famou s writer, " as he wrote t o hi s mother. 11 H e ha d rea d Salome' s essa y "Jesu s th e Jew " and bee n excite d b y it s affinitie s o f though t an d feelin g wit h hi s ow n poems Visions of Christ. H e tol d he r s o i n a lette r sen t afte r thei r firs t meeting, a t th e hom e o f th e novelis t Jako b Wasserman , tha t evenin g i n May 189 7 which wa s t o brin g suc h a change i n hi s life . Withi n les s tha n a mont h the y wer e lovers . I n he r posthumousl y publishe d memoir , A Look Back at Life (Lebensriickblick), sh e recalle d he r relationshi p wit h Rilke a t thi s tim e a s a unique experienc e i n he r lon g life . "I f I belonge d to yo u fo r som e year s i t wa s becaus e yo u represente d absolut e realit y for m e fo r th e first time , body an d perso n indistinguishabl y on e an d th e same, a n unquestionabl e elemen t o f lif e itself." 12 I n retrospec t sh e sa w the youn g poe t an d hersel f a t th e tim e o f thei r lovemakin g a s closer tha n husband an d wife , "lik e brothe r an d sister , bu t fro m primeva l time s be fore inces t becam e sacrilege." 13 From th e beginnin g o f thei r relationshi p Salom e offere d a creativ e response t o th e youn g poet' s appea l fo r a mothe r wh o woul d giv e hi m a form. He r maternal , shaping influence i n thos e earl y day s was reflecte d in th e fac t tha t sh e persuade d hi m t o chang e hi s nam e fro m Ren e t o Rainer. Biographer s hav e pointe d t o th e noticeabl e chang e i n hi s pen manship i n th e summe r o f 1897 , fro m a careless , ofte n almos t illegibl e hand t o th e clear , elegant , gracefu l scrip t h e use d fo r th e res t o f hi s life , as evidence of Salome's influence. Leppman n notes the similarity betwee n this scrip t an d Lou's. 14 Biographer s hav e als o argue d tha t sh e wa s re -

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1

sponsible fo r significan t change s i n th e styl e o f hi s wor k an d wa s th e source o f man y o f hi s ideas . I 5 In sayin g tha t Lo u Andreas-Salom e wa s a mother t o Rilke , I a m sub scribing t o thei r explicit , share d conceptio n o f th e relationship . Ob viously th e differenc e o f fourtee n year s betwee n the m shape d thi s conception. I n th e Florentin e diar y whic h h e kep t fo r he r i n 1898 , at he r suggestion, h e wrote, "Onc e I cam e t o yo u s o very destitute , almos t lik e a chil d di d I com e t o you , th e bountifu l lady . An d yo u too k m y sou l i n your arm s an d cradle d it." 16 I n a letter written durin g January 1904 , afte r they ha d live d apar t fo r years , Rilk e call s himsel f "you r someho w los t son" (Letters 1:140) . After Rilke' s decision , i n Februar y 1901 , to marr y th e sculpto r Clar a Westhoff, havin g decide d t o brea k of f al l contact wit h him , a t leas t unti l some futur e tim e whe n h e woul d b e i n dir e nee d o f he r help , Salom e wrote t o th e poet , saying , "[A ] fina l dut y devolve s o n m e ou t o f th e memory stil l dea r t o bot h o f u s tha t i n Wolfratshause n I cam e t o yo u as a mother . S o le t m e tel l yo u lik e a mothe r o f th e pledg e I mad e t o Zemek [he r frien d an d love r Heinric h Pineles , a physician an d a studen t of psychoanalysis ] som e year s ag o afte r a lon g talk. " "Zemek " ha d pre diete d tha t Rilke , caugh t i n th e snare s o f emotiona l illness , might b e inclined t o commi t suicide . I n he r sens e o f he r "duty " a s a mother , Sa lome promise d th e poet , "[TJher e i s alway s refug e fo r yo u wit h u s fo r the wors t hou r Pinele s spok e of." 17 H e wa s t o tur n t o he r fo r materna l succor an d advic e a numbe r o f time s i n th e year s tha t followed , fro m 1903, when h e first too k advantag e o f thi s promise, until the en d o f 1926 , when h e wa s dying . A poe m writte n abou t Salom e afte r thei r las t tal k i n Februar y 190 1 describes he r a s "the mos t motherl y o f women. " Th e poe t call s her "th e tenderest" perso n h e ha s me t an d "th e crudest " on e wit h who m h e ha s struggled. Sh e wa s "th e heigh t tha t blessed " hi m an d "th e chas m tha t devoured" him . Th e poe m als o expresse s Rilke' s fantas y tha t Salom e "clung" t o him , a s "th e han d wit h th e creator' s power " cling s t o th e clay whic h i t shapes , an d then , havin g grow n weary , le t hi m dro p an d smash t o pieces : II Du schmiegtes t Dich a n mich, doch nich t zu m Hohn , nur so , wie die formende Han d sic h schmiegt a n den Ton,

92 TAK E ME , GIV E M E FORM , FINIS H M E Die hand mi t des Schopfers Gewalt .

................................ da wurde sie miide, da Hess sie nach, da Hess sie mich fallen, und ic h zerbrach.

Ill Warst mir die mutterlichste der Frauen

................................ Du warst das Zarteste, das mir begegnet, das Harteste warst Du, damit ich rang. Du wars t das Hohe, das mich gesegnet — und wurdes t de r Abgrund, der mich verschlang. 18

These lines bring us full cycl e from th e appeal for a mother who woul d take him, form him , and complete him, which we found i n Ewald's letter . The fantas y tha t th e powerfu l creato r clun g t o th e cla y ma y reflec t a n accurate perceptio n o f ambivalenc e i n Lou . Bu t i t als o seem s t o expres s Rainer's clinging , unconsciousl y projecte d ont o her , a t a tim e whe n sh e was happ y t o se e hi m go . Th e poe m show s tha t Rilke' s childlik e sens e of dependenc e o n Salom e wa s closel y connecte d wit h infantil e fantasie s of a mother tha t coul d destro y an d devou r he r child . Th e fantas y o f th e mother wh o ha d th e Creator' s powe r t o giv e for m a s well a s a desire t o cling t o he r creation , bu t wh o then , lik e a chasm, devoure d him , surel y did no t originat e in the relationship with Lou . The devouring chas m call s to min d th e dinin g hal l a t Urnekloster , whic h threaten s t o suc k Make' s mind an d sel f ou t o f hi m no t lon g befor e th e sli m figure o f a woman i n a light dress , implicitly associate d wit h Make' s dea d Maman , terrifie s th e family a t dinner . Rilke di d no t publis h th e poem s whic h h e wrot e fo r Salom e fro m Ma y 1897 throug h Ma y 1898 , though h e though t o f the m a s havin g th e col lective title "Di r zu r Feier " ( A Festival for You). 19 They provide u s wit h rich impression s o f th e youn g poet' s feeling s abou t he r a t thi s time . I n one o f thes e poems, askin g Salom e t o giv e him direction , Rilk e say s tha t after muc h suffering , h e i s no w followin g he r lea d wit h blin d steps : Ich habe viel gelitten, vieles starb an d brach,— jetzt ge h ich mit blinden Schritte n deinem Leben nach. (Sdmtlicbe Werke 3:173)

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I hav e suffere d a great deal died an d broke n often, — now wit h blin d step s I follow you r life . In anothe r poem , writte n fo r Salom e a t thi s time , th e phras e "Ic h ge h dir nach " (" I follo w you" ) echoe s tim e an d again . Ou t o f hi s gloom y cell h e follow s he r wit h outstretche d hands , i n dee p confidence , a s ou t of th e horror s o f feve r frightene d childre n g o t o brigh t women , w h o soothe the m an d understan d thei r fear . H e doe s no t as k wher e he r hear t may b e leadin g him : Ich ge h di r nach , wie au s de r dumpfe n Zell e

................................ Ich ge h di r nac h i n tiefe m Dirvertrauen . Ich weiss dein e Gestal t durc h dies e Aue n vor meine n ausgestreckte n Hande n gehn . Ich ge h di r nach , wie au s de r Fieber s Graue n erschreckte Kinde r geh n z u lichte n Frauen , die si e besanftige n un d Furch t verstehn .

Ich ge h di r nach . Wohin dei n Her z mic h fuhr e frag ic h nich t nach . . . . (Sdmtliche Werke 3:176 ) In a thir d poe m Rilk e reflect s tha t befor e meetin g Salom e hi s blin d goal wa s t o ge t awa y fro m th e man y peopl e w h o pla y a t life , whil e n o w he know s tha t h e wa s movin g o n a thousan d path s towar d her . H e call s her hi s deliverance , hi s salvation , sayin g tha t i n feveris h anxiet y h e crie d out t o he r an d tha t i n gratefu l recognitio n o f he r hel p hi s ripes t thought s sank lik e childre n t o thei r knees : Nur for t vo n alie n vielen, welche da s Lebe n spielen : Das wa r mei n blinde s Zielen , war ohn e Sin n un d Saum . Jetzt weis s ich : Dir entgege n trieb ic h au f tausen d Wege n am Tage un d i m Traum. Und d u bis t da s Erlosen , nach welchem ic h i n bosen ,

94 TAK E ME , GIV E M E FORM , FINIS H M E bangen Fiebern schrie; im Dicherkennen sanke n meine reisigen reifsten Gedanke n wie Kinder in die Knie. (Sdmtliche Werke 3:185) Late i n June 1903 , after a breach o f mor e tha n tw o years , Rilke wrote t o Salome fro m Paris , saying tha t h e was goin g t o spen d som e tim e i n Ger many and wanted t o see her. She replied, suggesting that they first resum e contact b y correspondence . Rilke' s answe r wa s th e lon g lette r largel y devoted t o description s o f hi s sever e anxietie s i n Paris . Imploring Salom e fo r help , Rilk e wrote , "[Y]o u alon e kno w wh o I am . Yo u ca n hel p me , an d I fee l alread y i n you r firs t lette r th e power whic h you r cal m word s hav e ove r me . Yo u ca n clarif y fo r m e what I don' t understand , yo u ca n tel l m e wha t I shal l do ; yo u kno w what I mus t fea r an d wha t I nee d no t fear— : mus t I b e afraid ? . . . every wor d fro m yo u mean s a grea t dea l t o m e an d vibrate s an d live s a lon g tim e fo r me." 20 I n thi s respons e t o Lou' s offe r t o correspon d with him , h e seem s t o hav e sun k bac k int o infantil e dependenc e o n this highl y idealize d mothe r figure . Bu t importan t advance s fro m th e old relationshi p soo n becam e apparent : Salom e recognize d no t onl y the familia r sign s o f anguish , illness , an d infantil e dependenc e whic h had cause d he r t o tr y t o detac h an d distanc e hersel f fro m Rilk e i n 1900 an d 190 1 bu t als o th e maturin g strengt h o f a gifte d writer . Sh e realized tha t sh e coul d pla y a n activ e part , fro m a distance , i n en couraging an d shapin g hi s work . In 190 3 an d 1904 , a t time s whe n h e wa s deepl y trouble d an d ful l o f self-doubt, Salom e encourage d hi s self-confidenc e wit h repeate d affir mations o f hi s gift s a s a write r an d a thinker . H e truste d he r judgmen t completely. He r effec t o n Rilk e a t thi s tim e ca n b e see n b y comparin g two successiv e letter s whic h th e poe t sen t he r i n Augus t 1903 . I n th e first, writte n o n Augus t 8 , he laments, "[TJhere is nothing rea l abou t me ; and I divid e agai n an d agai n an d flo w apart. " I n hi s nex t letter , writte n two day s later , afte r h e ha d receive d Salome' s respons e t o hi s boo k o n Rodin, h e says , "Nothin g coul d fil l m e s o wit h certaint y an d wit h hop e as thi s yea-sayin g o f your s t o th e mos t full-grow n o f m y works . No w for th e firs t tim e i t stands fo r me , now fo r th e firs t tim e i t i s completed , acknowledged b y reality , uprigh t an d good " (Letters 1:122-23) . Read together , th e tw o letter s sugges t tha t Salome' s enthusias m abou t

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his Rodi n book , he r assuranc e tha t i t "[meant ] much " t o her , gav e hi m a sens e o f hi s ow n "reality " an d value . He r respons e t o th e ne w wor k glowed wit h lovin g praise . Sh e calle d i t "grea t i n a thousan d respects " and tol d hi m tha t i t wa s "th e deares t o f al l you r publishe d books." 21 On Jul y 2 2 o f th e sam e yea r Salom e ha d sen t th e poe t he r reactio n t o his account s o f th e frightenin g experience s h e ha d endure d i n Paris , tell ing hi m tha t h e ha d misunderstoo d himsel f i n thinkin g tha t h e ha d bee n helpless i n th e gri p o f hi s anxieties . I t seeme d t o he r tha t h e ha d give n these thing s a ne w existenc e i n hi s prose , throug h a "higher " menta l process o f artisti c transformation . Tha t wa s ver y differen t fro m mer e passive suffering . No w tha t sh e ha d rea d hi s portrayal s o f hi s "fears, " they existe d i n he r min d a s wel l an d ha d a n independen t livin g reality , like al l fine work s o f art. 22 She sense d tha t h e ha d becom e capabl e o f goin g throug h suc h expe riences withou t bein g alienate d fro m himself . A s th e younge r ma n sh e remembered al l to o well , h e woul d hav e describe d someon e sufferin g from St . Vitus' danc e i n a soulful, densel y metaphoric , conventiona l lan guage, defensively distancin g himsel f fro m th e victim. Hi s portrai t o f th e St. Vitus dance r i n th e July lette r ha d a n authenticit y tha t was ne w i n hi s writing. Although h e had fel t identifie d wit h th e othe r ma n i n hi s agony , his portrai t reveale d a fine artist' s clarit y o f insight . Hi s abilit y t o em pathize wit h th e huma n subject s o f hi s ar t and , a t th e sam e time , t o observe the m sharply , ha d mad e i t possibl e fo r th e artis t i n hi m t o res urrect th e miserables wh o suffere d helplessl y an d withou t muc h com prehension. Thi s wa s th e gis t o f he r argumen t agains t hi s belie f tha t h e was i n dange r o f losin g himself , a s i t seeme d man y o f th e Parisian s h e encountered ha d done. 23 Salome trie d t o pu t t o res t hi s belie f tha t tha t ther e wa s "nothin g rea l about" hi m an d th e fantas y tha t h e ha d "bee n presse d ou t o f th e worl d in whic h al l i s familia r an d nea r an d meaningful , int o anothe r uncertain , nameless, fearful environment, " a s if h e wer e completel y alien , "lik e on e who ha s die d i n strang e lands , alone, superfluous , a fragment o f anothe r unity." H e fel t h e wa s los t ther e i n th e othe r world , unabl e t o approac h anybody i n thi s one . Suspende d i n fea r ove r a n abys s o f nothingness , h e found nothin g t o hol d fas t to . A s h e looke d aroun d fo r somethin g soli d to grasp , everythin g gre w distant , gav e hi m up , move d away . I n dange r of losin g al l contac t wit h th e realit y o f thi s world , h e though t tha t h e might b e los t forever , i n unreality , i n madness .

96 TAK E ME , GIV E M E FORM , FINIS H M E In Novembe r 190 3 he wrot e t o Salom e abou t closel y relate d fantasie s and feelings , sayin g tha t h e coul d no t becom e rea l ("wirklichwerden") , that ther e wer e alway s thing s an d event s which , havin g mor e actualit y and presenc e tha n h e did , wen t righ t throug h hi m a s i f h e di d no t exist . The hous e whic h h e ha d buil t i n Westerwed e an d hi s littl e famil y ha d not mad e hi m mor e tangibl y presen t t o himself , a s h e ha d hope d the y would. Tha t hous e an d everythin g i n i t ha d seeme d alie n t o him . Eve n having a daughte r (wh o live d fa r awa y fro m hi m mos t o f th e time ) di d not hel p hi m no w t o attai n t o th e vita l feelin g o f hi s ow n existenc e ("Wirklichkeitsgefuhl") whic h h e longed for , th e sense of bein g someon e real i n a real worl d ("Wirkliche r unte r Wirkliche m z u sein"). 24 Turning thi s self-assessmen t o n it s head , Salom e argue d tha t hi s fear s and th e frightenin g experience s i n Pari s ha d becom e par t o f th e mos t genuine realit y ("Wirklichste" ) no w growin g withi n hi m a s germinatin g seeds o f hi s genius , o f hi s futur e work . Sh e dre w thi s conclusio n fro m the strengt h o f hi s recen t writing . Th e extraordinar y natur e o f hi s gift s as a n artis t ha d becom e apparen t i n th e Rodi n boo k an d i n th e letter s about th e experience s i n Paris . Despite hi s doubt s abou t hi s menta l con dition, i n he r vie w h e ha d neve r befor e bee n s o clos e t o menta l healt h a s he wa s now. 25 Her prais e o f th e Rodi n boo k an d he r respons e t o Rilke' s accoun t o f his near-madnes s i n Pari s almos t surel y helpe d t o giv e hi m th e strengt h to resis t hi s fear s an d th e confidenc e t o work . W e hav e notice d ho w hi s mood change d whe n h e receive d th e lette r sh e sen t hi m afte r readin g hi s study o f th e sculptor . N o doubt , Salome' s encouragemen t provide d im petus th e following February , whe n Rilk e started workin g o n The Notebooks of Make Laurids Brigge withou t knowin g wha t i t would tur n ou t to be . A t th e beginnin g o f Augus t 190 3 Salom e promise d th e poe t tha t henceforth h e coul d rel y upo n her. 26

II The letter s Salom e sen t Rilk e i n th e summe r o f 190 3 sho w tha t sh e ful filled fo r hi m somethin g lik e th e mirrorin g functio n whic h a benevolen t mother perform s fo r a young child . Kohu t define s on e typ e o f psycho therapeutic transferenc e a s a "reinstatement " o f a phase o f th e self' s de velopment "i n whic h th e glea m i n th e mother' s eye , whic h mirror s th e

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child's exhibitionisti c display, " confirm s "th e child' s self-esteem." 1 B y mirroring (i n this sense of the metaphor) Rilke' s "exhibitionistic display " in th e Rodi n boo k an d i n hi s powerfull y evocativ e account s o f hi s Pari s experiences, Salome enabled hi m t o satisf y th e childlike "nee d t o confir m the realit y o f th e self" which h e revealed i n hi s letters. 2 Rilke ha d sough t this kind o f mirrorin g fro m Salom e with hi s gift s o f poem s an d th e diar y which h e ha d kep t fo r he r i n Ital y i n th e sprin g o f 1898 . The poet' s reactio n t o Salome' s empatheti c responsivenes s resemble s the reaction s o f Kohut' s patient s whe n h e attempte d t o giv e the m th e maternal mirrorin g whos e absenc e o r deart h i n infanc y an d earl y child hood ha d cripple d the m emotionall y an d made them ill. The illness which he describe s closel y resemble s th e illnes s whic h Rilk e portray s i n hi s letters t o Salom e an d i n The Notebooks. Kohut observe s tha t a t first a goo d mothe r ardentl y mirror s he r in fant's narcissisti c grandiosity . Then , graduall y an d sensitively , sh e frus trates his demand fo r thi s response and thu s slowly tames his grandiosity , directing th e energie s fostere d b y self-estee m an d self-lov e towar d mor e realistic goals and achievements . But h e notes tha t i n highly talente d me n and wome n th e surviva l o f primitiv e grandiosit y ma y provid e th e hig h octane o f motivatin g energ y necessar y fo r achievement s commensurat e with thei r gifts . B y strongl y encouragin g a heightening o f self-estee m i n Rilke, Salome' s empatheti c response s t o th e poet' s nee d fo r a mirrorin g mother helpe d t o liberat e th e energ y an d t o nurtur e th e ambitio n whic h made possibl e hi s majo r works , beginnin g wit h The Book of Hours. These poems were dedicated t o he r with th e words "Place d i n the Hand s of Lou " ("Geleg t i n di e Hand e vo n Lou") . Naked expression s o f primitiv e grandiosit y appea r i n Rilke' s earl y diaries. I n a n entr y writte n a t Zoppo t o n th e Balti c i n Jul y 1898 , Rilk e sees artists a s precursors o f a godlike, all-powerful, solitar y Creato r wh o will understan d tha t al l thing s whic h hav e appeare d t o b e outsid e hi m "have bee n merel y symbol s o f thos e realitie s whic h h e finds i n himself . Everything ha s flowe d togethe r i n him , an d al l powers, which, formerl y scattered, oppose d on e another , trembl e unde r hi s will. . .. H e n o longe r prays. H e is . An d whe n h e make s a gesture , h e wil l creat e . . . man y millions o f worlds." 3 Th e youn g poe t wh o wrot e thi s identifie d th e all powerful solitar y whom h e envisioned i n the future wit h himself , thoug h he ma y no t hav e bee n clearl y consciou s o f thi s identification . Reading th e diar y writte n i n Ital y a t Zoppot , Lo u faile d t o sho w th e

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admiration Rilk e ha d bee n bee n expecting . Sh e receive d hi s displa y o f intelligence an d styl e wit h indulgence , forbearance , an d condescendin g generosity, He r to o obviou s endeavo r t o giv e hi m courag e ha d th e op posite effect . Hi s reactio n wa s sham e an d anger. 4 Then , i n hi s nee d t o rebuild hi s shattere d grandiosity , h e develope d th e argumen t tha t artist s of hi s ow n tim e wer e "ancestors " an d foreshadowing s o f th e divine , solitary Creato r i n th e future , possibl y modele d o n Nietzsche' s Ubermensch. On e o f hi s letters t o a young poe t would ech o th e centra l them e of thi s passage , bu t tha t letter , writte n si x year s later , woul d emphasiz e the distanc e betwee n th e divin e Creato r towar d who m creativ e artist s were developin g an d th e artist s themselves : "Wh y d o yo u no t thin k o f him a s th e comin g one , imminen t fro m al l eternity , th e futur e one , th e final frui t o f a tre e whos e leave s w e are ? . . . A s th e bee s brin g i n th e honey, s o d o w e fetc h th e sweetes t ou t o f everythin g an d buil d Him." 5 Some of the poems in The Book of Hours als o reveal the young Rilke' s grandiose sens e o f self . I n th e followin g lines , addresse d t o th e Deity , the poe t imagine s himsel f a s God' s drea m an d Hi s will . H e claim s mas tery o f "al l grandeur, " picturin g himsel f curvin g "lik e a starr y stillness / over th e strang e cit y o f time. " Wenn du der Traumer bist , bin ich dein Traum. Doch wenn d u wachen willst, bin ich dein Wille und werd e machtig aller Herrlichkei t und riind e mich wie eine Sternenstille iiber de r wunderlichen Stad t der Zeit. (WDB 1:20 )

A numbe r o f Rilke' s letter s t o Salom e revea l i n fairl y precis e term s wha t her materna l mirrorin g mean t t o hi m whe n thei r relationshi p resume d i n the summe r o f 1903 , afte r a breac h o f mor e tha n tw o years . Althoug h Salome ha d revolte d agains t hi s infantil e demands , hi s dependence , hi s bouts o f neuroti c anxiet y i n earlie r years , th e poe t wa s effusiv e i n hi s praise o f he r uniqu e capacit y fo r empatheti c responsiveness . Despit e hi s growth a s a person an d a s a poet, in 1903- 4 he still felt deepl y dependen t on he r willingnes s t o functio n a s a materna l mirro r fo r him . I n Januar y 1904 he wrote to say that "ever y path" he took coul d becom e meaningfu l through hi s retur n t o a woman wh o "know s ho w t o hea r everything. " Even if he cannot spea k to her in person, the thought tha t in his letter s she ca n hea r hi m give s hi m th e feelin g tha t h e exists , tha t h e i s alive . I n

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the sam e letter h e expresse s hi s belie f tha t onl y he r highl y intelligen t an d empathetic "listening " t o hi s account s o f hi s lif e i n thes e letter s ca n giv e him th e sens e tha t hi s existenc e ha s vita l significanc e an d vibrancy . "I f my lif e i s insignificant... i t wil l be onl y whe n I ca n tel l i t t o you. " He r hearing hi m an d he r responsivenes s wil l shap e it s meaning . I t "wil l b e a s you hea r it! " h e conclude s {Letters 1:140) . As h e writes he r abou t hi s dail y lif e i n hi s letters , just th e fac t tha t h e is tellin g he r abou t i t an d th e belie f tha t sh e i s listening , wit h al l he r intelligence an d he r knowledg e an d understandin g o f him , brin g orde r and meanin g int o th e nois e an d confusio n o f whic h h e ha s no t bee n abl e to mak e sense . Obviousl y he r recen t letter s allowe d hi m th e fantas y o f her materna l presence . Thi s mus t substitut e fo r th e materna l fac e i n which th e chil d finds confirmatio n o f hi s existenc e an d worthines s an d then ofte n finds, a s well , silen t intimation s o f wh o an d wha t h e is , inti mations o f th e meanin g an d valu e o f wha t h e i s doing , uttering , an d experiencing. I n th e mother' s absenc e th e child , o f course , comes t o rel y on memor y image s o f her . Bu t Salom e wa s speakin g t o he r "los t son " through he r letters . N o doubt , despit e he r lon g absence , h e coul d hea r her voic e creatin g a refuge fro m th e chaoti c nois e aroun d him . Rilke's fantas y o f hi s potentia l powe r a s a write r involve d a n imag e o f Salome's receptiv e listening . H e sa w hi s mout h "becom e a grea t river " flowing "int o you r hearin g an d int o th e stillnes s of you r opene d depths " {Letters 1:140) . The "displacemen t upward " i s rathe r obvious . Th e fan tasy fuse s creativ e utteranc e wit h a sexua l act . Fo r Rilke , severa l year s after thei r lov e affai r ha d ended , writin g pros e an d poetr y wa s associate d with makin g lov e t o Lou . Th e displacemen t suggest s a desir e t o retur n to thei r love-makin g an d a n awarenes s tha t i t coul d b e retrieve d onl y i n a sublimate d form . In thi s passag e h e doe s no t se e himsel f merel y a s th e need y chil d (dependent o n he r listening) , bu t als o a s powerful , aggressive , giving . I n the Zoppo t diar y entry , h e recall s tha t h e ha d com e t o Salom e "[ajlmos t as a child . . . t o a rich woman . An d yo u too k m y sou l i n you r arm s an d cradled it. " H e adds , "Then yo u kisse d m e on th e forehead, an d yo u ha d to ben d low. " Bu t sinc e then , h e says , h e ha s grown , s o tha t ther e i s a shorter distanc e from he r eye s to his. He ask s her if she understands that , and say s tha t h e want s t o ben d dow n t o he r lips , a s he r sou l onc e ben t to hi s brow . H e want s he r t o b e abl e t o lea n o n him , i f sh e i s weary. H e

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no longe r want s t o fee l he r comfortin g him ; instead , h e need s t o b e confident o f th e powe r tha t h e woul d hav e i n himsel f t o comfor t her , if she neede d t o b e comforted . I n bringin g he r hi s Florentin e diar y h e ha d wanted t o b e th e ric h one , th e on e wh o gave , th e master , an d h e ha d hoped tha t sh e would b e guide d b y hi s car e and lov e an d woul d indulg e herself i n hi s "hospitality." 6 Returning t o he r fro m hi s sojour n i n Italy , h e ha d assume d tha t h e had travele d a great distance and, with his diaries, had risen "to th e peak " of imaginativ e perceptio n an d thought . Bu t a t Zoppo t sh e fle w ove r hi s insights wit h eas e an d wa s fa r abov e an d ahea d o f hi m intellectually . H e imagined he r waitin g i n clarit y an d "radiance " beyon d hi s stil l cloud y altitude.7 Her indulgenc e an d forbearance , he r condescendin g kindness , and he r flights o f intellec t mad e hi m fee l lik e a begga r o n th e outermos t peri pheries o f he r existence , deepl y humiliated . H e fel t tha t h e ha d becom e ridiculous i n hi s "masquerade" ; "the dar k wis h awakene d i n m e to cree p away int o a dee p nowhere . . . . Ever y reunio n mad e m e fee l ashamed . I was always saying to myself: 'I ca n give nothing to you, nothing a t all.' " 8 Paradoxically, th e Zoppo t entr y reveal s th e poet' s nee d t o hav e thi s mother affir m hi s independen t strengt h an d creativity , and , i n particular , his abilit y t o suppor t an d sustai n he r an d t o giv e he r intellectua l an d imaginative wor k whic h sh e ca n valu e an d esteem . Hi s reactio n t o he r failure t o d o thi s show s tha t h e i s no t i n th e leas t independen t o f her , though h e need s t o fee l fre e an d powerfu l an d male . He r failur e t o col laborate wit h hi s "masquerade " plunge s hi m int o uncertaint y an d de spair. He feel s tha t h e has lost o r cas t away al l his riches an d i s miserabl y poor. Abov e all, he feel s a desperate nee d t o escap e th e degradin g encir clement o f he r goodness. 9 Whil e i t expresse s infantil e dependenc e an d vulnerability, thi s entr y als o bring s t o min d a n adolescent' s humiliatio n and anger over his dependence on a powerful mother , whose benevolenc e he cannot , bu t badl y need s to , escape . Reading th e correspondenc e betwee n Rilk e an d Salome , I a m struc k b y the fac t tha t s o man y o f hi s letter s sho w comparatively littl e interes t i n her life , thoug h h e i s eage r t o hav e he r respons e t o hi s account s o f hi s own experience . (I should emphasiz e th e word comparatively *, becaus e a t times h e doe s sho w interes t an d concern ; bu t thes e time s ar e th e ex -

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ceptions.) Mor e ofte n tha n no t he r letter s focu s upo n his experience , thought, an d work . In 190 0 Rilke' s narcissis m an d egocentrism , combine d wit h hi s hig h anxiety an d smotherin g dependenc e o n Lou , impelle d he r t o tr y t o dis tance him . Sh e wa s especiall y pu t of f b y hi s behavio r i n th e summe r o f 1900. After the y travele d i n Russi a together , sh e left hi m t o spen d severa l weeks wit h he r brothe r an d hi s famil y i n Finland . Th e poe t wrot e he r an anguishe d lette r ou t o f hi s loneliness , appealin g t o he r t o hurr y bac k to him , emphasizin g hi s anxiet y i n he r absenc e an d hi s preoccupatio n with th e prospec t o f he r return. 10 Years later, recalling his response to her brief absence , she remembere d that h e ha d seeme d almos t deprave d i n th e arroganc e an d presumptio n of hi s importunities . Th e fac t tha t sh e migh t b e havin g a lovely reunio n in Finlan d wit h he r brothe r an d hi s famil y ha d mattere d no t a t al l t o Rainer i n hi s infantil e nee d o f her . Th e memor y o f Rilke' s extrem e ego centrism an d anxiet y a t tha t tim e brough t bac k th e strengt h o f he r ow n reaction, he r nee d t o b e fre e o f him. 11 Despite Rilke' s greate r maturit y i n 1903 , hi s letter s t o Salom e the n and i n 190 4 continu e t o approximat e wha t Alic e Balin t label s th e "naiv e egoism" o f a child' s lov e fo r a mother . Balin t i s describin g "a n archaic , egotistic wa y o f loving , originall y directe d exclusivel y t o th e mother, " and characterize d abov e al l b y "th e . . . lac k o f realit y sens e i n regar d t o the [libidina l an d ego ] interest s o f th e lov e object. " Th e "fundamenta l condition" o f suc h "archai c love " is the child' s assumptio n o f "th e com plete harmon y o f interests " betwee n hi s mothe r an d himself. 12 Obviously, Salome' s strengt h o f min d an d wil l prevente d th e youn g poet fro m losin g al l sens e o f he r separat e need s eve n durin g th e earl y years o f thei r relationship . Bu t h e wa s muc h incline d t o se e he r largel y in term s o f a n identit y o f interests . His attitud e towar d he r call s to min d the blindnes s o f whic h h e accuse d Phia . N o doubt , th e attitud e wa s rooted i n clos e identification , a t a n earl y age , with hi s narcissistic , ego centric mother . Eventuall y th e egocentris m whic h gre w ou t o f thi s iden tification mus t hav e bee n reinforce d b y th e nee d t o fenc e ou t Phia' s separate needs and interests in order to defend himself , in his dependence , against Phia' s desir e fo r separatenes s an d distance . N o doubt , th e ten dency t o fence , i f no t wall , ou t Lou' s separat e lif e originate d als o i n th e poet's nee d t o defen d himsel f agains t Phia' s destructive , alien preconcep -

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tion o f him . Furiou s wit h bot h wome n fo r thei r inclinatio n t o separat e themselves fro m hi m an d fo r thei r egoism , h e denigrate d hi s mother' s life an d interest s and , t o a large extent , refuse d t o giv e mental spac e an d energy t o Salome's , while a t th e sam e time idealizin g an d overestimatin g her. I n hi s letter s t o Lou , th e fury , th e hostility , ha d t o b e repressed ; th e idealization dominate d consciou s thought . Michael Balin t suggest s tha t naive , infantile , egoisti c lov e i n adult s reflects a desire to recover the primary "ego-objec t identity. " The fantas y of complet e fusio n wit h th e mothe r ma y b e transferre d t o a materna l figure, such as Salome, with whom Rilk e longed fo r "fina l unity." 13 Alic e Balint argue s tha t al l o f u s (som e fa r mor e tha n others , o f course ) con tinue, throughout ou r lives, to retain the "naive egotistic attitude" towar d mothers, th e expectatio n tha t "th e interest s o f th e mothe r an d chil d ar e identical," wit h th e resul t tha t "on e hate s th e mothe r [a s Rilk e loathe d Phia] becaus e sh e i s no longe r wha t sh e used t o be. " Such hatre d fo r th e maternal therapis t i n psychoanalyti c transferenc e reveal s "th e preserva tion o f th e attachmen t bu t wit h a negative sign." 14 Psychoanalyti c trans ference reflect s th e fac t tha t a n adul t i n who m thi s primitiv e attachmen t remains stron g ofte n seek s a perfect surrogate . When , almos t inevitably , any suc h surrogat e fail s t o maintai n th e harmon y demande d b y naive , archaic, infantil e egoism , sh e i s likel y t o reawake n th e hatre d originall y felt fo r th e mother . Whe n Mothe r Lo u faile d t o giv e th e require d re sponse t o th e Florentin e diar y presente d t o he r a t Zoppot i n th e summe r of 1898 , Rilke wrot e i n hi s dairy , " I hate d yo u a s somethin g too big." 15 Quickly th e youn g poet' s hatre d yielde d t o hi s earlie r idealizatio n o f Salome a s th e embodimen t an d imag e o f al l th e goals h e wa s strivin g toward. Hi s nee d o f he r wa s s o stron g tha t h e coul d no t brea k away . Shattered b y he r failur e t o continu e t o giv e him th e mirrorin g gleam , b y her unwillingnes s t o provid e a joyfu l affirmatio n o f hi s grandios e con ception o f wha t h e ha d done , i n hi s despai r an d hi s povert y h e fel t al l the mor e intensel y dependent . "Bu t then , in thi s state of shock , I becam e aware . . . tha t al l motio n i n m e wants t o g o t o you. " Severa l paragraph s later h e reflect s tha t sh e i s no t on e goa l fo r him , bu t a thousand . Sh e i s everything, an d h e know s he r i n everything. 16 Eventually, Rilke' s dependence , alon g wit h hi s narcissism , volatility , and anxiety , mad e Salom e wan t t o sen d hi m packing . Bu t thi s di d no t happen unti l mor e tha n tw o year s afte r thei r meetin g a t Zoppot . Th e high point s o f th e relationshi p durin g thos e tw o year s wer e thei r trip s

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to Russi a togethe r i n th e sprin g o f 189 9 an d th e sprin g o f 1900 . The y spent month s togethe r preparing for thes e trips, studying Russian histor y and culture . These tw o journey s wer e amon g th e poet's mos t memorabl e and pleasurable experiences . I have described thei r visits to Tolstoy. The y were welcome d b y aristocracy , artists , intelligentsia , an d peasants , in cluding a peasant poet , S . D. Drozhzhin . Lik e Salome , Rilke wa s deepl y moved b y th e religious devotion o f th e people. Their first Russia n Easter , the ringin g o f th e bell s an d th e joyou s response s o f th e masse s o f cele brants a t the news of Christ' s resurrection , left memorie s which remaine d vibrant fo r years . Rilke's impression s o f th e Russia n ide a o f Go d becam e a centra l them e o f The Book of Hours. Writin g t o th e painte r Leoni d Pasternak (fathe r o f Boris ) a quarte r o f a centur y later , Rilk e sai d tha t Russia wa s "foreve r embedde d i n th e foundation s o f m y life." 17 Hi s thinking an d feelin g abou t thi s adopte d spiritua l "homeland, " whic h h e never agai n visited , wer e inseparabl e fro m hi s attachmen t t o Salome . Their secon d tri p ende d wit h he r leavin g hi m i n St . Petersburg, whil e she journeyed t o Finlan d t o se e he r brothe r an d hi s family . He r absenc e set of f th e fit o f anxiet y whic h I hav e describe d above . H e sen t he r th e letter beggin g he r t o retur n t o him , the n apologize d i n a secon d letter . Reading his first letter, she recalled earlie r times when h e had bee n deepl y disturbed, plagued b y fears, and childishl y dependen t o n her for materna l support, an d thi s mad e he r thin k o f puttin g distanc e betwee n th e tw o o f them. Bu t eve n befor e thi s episode , whil e the y wer e travelin g throug h Russia together , thinkin g tha t sh e woul d lik e t o hav e som e tim e awa y from hi m afte r thei r trip , sh e ha d persuade d hi m t o accep t a n invitatio n from Heinric h Vogeler , a youn g painter , boo k illustrator , an d designe r whom Rilk e ha d visite d i n hi s hom e a t Worpswede , nea r Bremen , fo r Christmas i n 1898 . Salome wa s delighte d whe n h e wen t of f t o Worpswed e a t th e en d o f August 1900 . Rilk e wa s soo n spendin g muc h o f hi s tim e wit h member s of th e artists ' colon y there , especiall y tw o attractiv e youn g women : th e painter Paula Becker, whose work wa s to ear n her lasting distinction, an d the sculpto r Clar a Westhoff , whos e wor k ha d bee n critique d b y Rodi n when sh e attende d hi s schoo l i n Pari s th e yea r before . H e wa s t o marr y Clara th e followin g spring . O n Octobe r 5 he lef t Worpswed e t o retur n to Berli n and Schmargendorf , wher e h e resumed hi s Russian studie s wit h Salome. But fairl y soo n h e mus t hav e realize d tha t sh e no longe r wante d their ol d intimacy . O n Octobe r 1 8 h e bega n t o writ e glowin g letter s t o

104 TAK E ME , GIV E M E FORM , FINIS H M E Clara an d Paula , an d h e continue d t o d o s o durin g th e res t o f th e fall , though hi s letter s t o Paul a wer e affecte d b y th e new s o f he r engagemen t to th e painter , Ott o Modersohn . Durin g tha t fal l an d winte r Salome' s determination t o get ri d o f Rilk e apparentl y intensified , t o th e poin t where, on January 20 , 1901 , she was writing in her diary , "Outsid e rain y weather. Le t R . g o awa y wit h it , far away . . . . " l 8 In mid-December , probabl y becaus e h e sense d tha t sh e woul d n o longer play the part o f the benevolent mother for him , Rilke was plunge d into a depression , whic h h e describe d a t lengt h i n hi s diary , recordin g that h e felt buried , hopeless , frightened a t everything tha t was happenin g around him , confused , an d sometime s insane. 19 Salome's rejection o f the poet mus t have brought bac k with grea t forc e the anguis h whic h ha d followe d hi s mother' s withdrawal . I t mus t als o have swep t awa y th e defense s whic h Salom e ha d helpe d hi m t o buil d against tha t traum a a t th e cente r o f hi s psychi c life . Or , t o us e Rilke' s own metaphor , i t tor e wid e ope n agai n th e woun d tha t ra n al l throug h him an d hi s life , th e woun d whic h th e relationshi p wit h Lo u ha d bee n helping t o heal . After th e resumption o f th e friendship b y way of correspondence in 190 3 Lou's letter s sho w a sober , well-considere d enthusias m fo r hi s writing , which mus t hav e pleased hi m mor e tha n an y reactio n h e had dreame d o f winning fro m he r a t Zoppo t i n 1898 . In Januar y 190 4 h e imagine d tha t he woul d becom e a grea t rive r whic h migh t flo w int o her , a sig n o f hi s new confidenc e tha t h e ha d successfull y attaine d th e righ t t o th e pow erful, penetrating , and givin g masculine role in thei r relationship , the rol e which h e ha d longe d fo r i n bitte r frustratio n a t Zoppot . Yet thi s lette r als o expresse s hi s feelin g tha t hi s power a s a writer an d a poet i s dependent upo n he r maternal mirroring, her empathetic hearing , her capacit y fo r "stillness " s o tha t nothing , i n particula r n o egocentri c interest o f he r own , ma y distrac t her a s she listens to him . His grandiose , infantile narcissis m dream s o f materna l silenc e a s th e mos t perfectl y at tuned an d receptiv e respons e (Letters 1:140) . I n Apri l 1904 , afte r th e shock o f a meeting with his disconnected mothe r i n Rome had mad e hi m feel lik e "a convalescent.. . weightless , tottering," Rilke wrote t o Salom e to say , " A hel p i t woul d b e t o tal k t o yo u . . . an d t o se e yo u listenin g and keepin g silen t . . . " (Letters 1:14 7 an d 149) . Suc h receptiv e silenc e

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would defen d hi m agains t th e threa t o f he r egotism , reinforce d b y a powerful intellect , whic h ha d shattere d hi m a t Zoppo t si x year s before . Deprived o f the opportunity t o talk with her, he finds tha t just writin g his letter s give s hi m th e feelin g o f havin g a "refuge " i n her . Hi s mothe r makes hi m fee l tha t h e share s he r unrealit y an d disconnectedness , when ever h e see s her . I n contrast , eve n a dream o f Salom e i s "mor e rea l tha n all daily reality" and ha s the power t o restor e his sense of hi s own realit y and cohesion . He r "presence, " create d b y th e dream , "make s m e peace ful, patient , an d good " (Letters 1:146) . Psychological theor y woul d sugges t tha t Rilke' s sens e o f hi s ow n un reality aros e at least partly fro m earl y identification wit h a mother h e fel t was ghostl y an d fro m th e inadequac y o f he r responsivenes s t o hi m a s a child, he r inabilit y o r unwillingnes s t o mak e hi m fee l tha t h e wa s phys ically an d mentall y an d emotionall y ther e fo r he r b y th e way s i n whic h she saw him, listened, touched, and talked t o him. A good mothe r enable s her chil d t o experienc e th e worl d aroun d hi m a s havin g a comparativel y stable an d dependabl e reality . Lik e th e protecto r wh o come s t o th e frightened chil d a t night in The Notebooks an d th e Third Elegy , she gives form t o th e chao s aroun d hi m b y he r reaction s t o it , b y explainin g i t t o him, b y helpin g hi m distinguis h illusio n fro m objectiv e reality . Self absorbed i n illusions , pretensions , an d narcissisti c religiosity , Phi a ap parently faile d t o d o thi s fo r he r son . Th e consequence s o f he r failur e may b e foun d i n th e letter s an d The Notebooks. Rilke's letter s t o Lo u revea l tha t durin g hi s twentie s h e foun d i n he r a mothe r wh o coul d shap e hi s experienc e o f th e worl d an d mak e i t rea l for him . Readin g them , on e ca n se e tha t sh e ma y hav e bee n a model fo r the mothe r i n The Notebooks an d th e Third Elegy , who confer s solidity , form, an d benevolenc e o n th e chaotic , frightenin g darkness . I n Novem ber 190 3 Rilk e wrot e saying , [T]he experienc e o f formlessness , which , a t tha t time , seize d m e i n a hundre d places a t once, that was ended b y th e inexpressible realit y whic h yo u were . . . . [Y]ou bor e witnes s t o th e existenc e o f al l thing s yo u [touched ] . . . an d [saw] . The world los t its cloudiness fo r me , this flui d takin g and abandonin g o f form , which wa s m y firs t vers e an d poverty ; thing s emerged , animals , on e distin guished, flowers. . .. An d all this happened, because I was permitted to meet you . . . whe n I wa s . . . i n dange r o f dissolvin g int o formlessness . . . . I n Paris , . . . when all things drew back from me , as if from a man gone blind, when I trembled

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with fear tha t I would n o longer recognize the face of th e person closes t to me, then I healed myself wit h the thought tha t I still recognized yo u within myself, that you r imag e ha d no t becom e strang e t o m e . .. bu t ha d remaine d standin g alone in the alien void i n which I had t o live. 20

in In essentia l respect s th e tw o mothers—Phi a an d Salome—ar e diametri cally oppose d i n Rilke' s mind . H e coul d no t conve y t o Phi a "th e leas t thing tha t i s rea l fo r [o r about ] me, " fo r sh e sa w hi m i n th e mirro r o f her preconceptions . Whe n sh e looke d a t him , h e fel t th e ga p i n he r per ceptions as a hole, a void, in himself. Her blindnes s tore him down. Whe n he fel t tha t h e was disintegratin g o r feare d tha t h e ha d becom e emotion ally dea d an d hi s imaginatio n barren , h e appeale d t o Salom e fo r help . Her answer s gav e hi m a sens e o f clarit y an d confidence . "Yo u ar e s o wonderfully right . . . . th e wa y yo u fee l i t [th e anguis h h e ha s describe d to he r i n a n earlie r letter ] an d clarif y i t wit h you r grea t knowledg e o f the human : yo u prophetess " (Letters 1:123) . Most biographer s agre e tha t Rilk e probably neve r underwen t analysi s or that , i f h e did , i t wa s fo r a very brie f time . H e sai d tha t expellin g hi s devils migh t wel l mea n expellin g hi s angels . H e di d no t wan t som e an alyst bringin g th e mysteriou s processe s an d content s o f th e unconsciou s to ligh t befor e th e poem s germinatin g ther e wer e read y t o b e bor n an d subjecting the m t o alie n system s o f classificatio n befor e the y arrange d themselves, an d wer e re-forme d b y hi m i n hi s poetr y an d pros e (se e Letters 2:44-45) . But Salom e becam e a n unofficial , informal , geographicall y distan t mother-therapist, a s thei r correspondenc e continue d bot h th e transfer ence (projectio n o f materna l image s upo n her , displacemen t o f feeling s for a mothe r t o her ) an d th e insight s whic h h e woul d no t see k i n a n official, forma l relationshi p wit h a psychoanalys t suc h a s he r frien d Gebsattel. As h e turne d t o he r fo r hel p agai n earl y i n th e summe r o f 1903 , afte r a breac h o f mor e tha n tw o years , Rilke' s letter s showe d th e infantil e nature o f wha t Kohu t migh t hav e calle d hi s "idealizin g transference. " His language calls to mind Kohut' s observations about patients prevente d in childhood , b y a parent' s traumati c withdrawal , fro m goin g throug h

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the norma l gradua l proces s o f shrinkin g tha t paren t dow n t o fairl y re alistic dimension s whil e internalizin g hi s o r he r powe r t o cal m anxiety , to clarify , an d t o giv e guidance . Neve r havin g adequatel y internalize d such materna l an d paterna l functions , thes e patient s continue d t o see k surrogates who m the y coul d idealiz e an d inves t wit h th e grea t powe r t o perform the m whic h infant s an d smal l children attribut e t o thei r parents . "[Y]ou alon e kno w wh o I am . Yo u ca n hel p me , an d I fee l . . . i n you r first lette r th e powe r whic h you r cal m word s hav e ove r me . Yo u ca n clarify fo r m e wha t I don' t understand , yo u ca n tel l m e wha t I shal l do ; you kno w wha t I must fea r an d what I need no t fear— : mus t I be afraid ? . . . ever y wor d fro m yo u mean s a great dea l t o m e an d vibrate s an d live s a lon g tim e fo r me." 1 Two mai n foc i o f Rilke' s though t wer e a n egocentric , destructiv e mother an d on e who wa s idealized , all-seeing , life-giving, life-preserving . He distance d the m fro m eac h othe r a s muc h a s h e coul d i n hi s imagi nation, thoug h sometime s hi s earl y lov e fo r Phi a brok e throug h hi s de fenses, an d sometime s h e hate d Lo u an d sa w he r a s a destroyer . Suc h splitting, suc h polaritie s sugges t a nee d t o isolat e th e lov e fo r a paren t from hatre d an d fear . Th e eg o ma y b e to o wea k o r immatur e t o sustai n ambivalence. Or , perhaps , a s in Rilke , th e negativ e feeling s ar e s o stron g and fierce tha t the y mus t b e isolated fro m th e positive emotion s i n orde r to sustai n th e child' s sens e o f havin g a good , benevolent , protectiv e mother, t o preserv e hi s belie f tha t h e i s loved, t o defen d hi m agains t fea r and guilt . The fac t tha t suc h splittin g an d extrem e polarizatio n ma y b e foun d i n work o f grea t geniu s make s m e reluctan t t o se e these phenomena simpl y as signs of eg o weakness or immaturity. King Lear an d Hamlet exemplif y this tendency in Shakespeare's work. I n King Lear th e playwright himsel f polarizes goo d an d evi l daughter s an d sons . I n Hamlet, althoug h th e prince see s Claudius , hi s uncl e an d stepfather , an d th e dea d king , hi s father, a s extreme opposites, Shakespeare has the ghos t o f ol d Kin g Ham let acknowledg e tha t h e ha s bee n sinful , an d Claudiu s i s give n som e redeeming qualities. To som e extent, in other words, the playwright qual ifies Hamlet' s polarizin g o f thes e tw o fathers . I n bot h play s th e splittin g and polarizin g call s t o min d th e smal l child' s an d th e adolescent' s ten dency t o divid e parent s an d parenta l figures int o goo d an d evil , benev olent an d destructive , protectiv e an d frightening , an d th e child' s comparative incapacit y fo r ambivalence . I n Hamlet, a s psychoanalyti c

108 TAK E ME , GIV E M E FORM , FINIS H M E criticism ha s shown , th e splittin g an d polarizin g enabl e th e princ e an d the audienc e t o isolat e hatre d an d th e desir e t o kil l a fathe r fro m lov e and idealizatio n o f a father : hatefu l Claudiu s i s s o distance d fro m th e ghost o f th e dea d kin g tha t neithe r Hamle t no r th e audienc e consciousl y associates th e two , thoug h the y ar e brothers , husband s o f Hamlet' s mother, an d ruler s o f Denmark . I n thi s wa y Hamle t an d th e audience , insofar a s they identif y wit h him , ca n defen d themselve s agains t th e guil t arising fro m unconsciou s negativ e feeling s (th e desir e t o kil l th e fathe r and posses s th e mother ) an d agains t th e fea r o f a vengeful , punishin g parent. In Rilk e th e mind' s maneuverin g too k anothe r course , becaus e i t wa s guided b y othe r motives . Th e memor y o r fantas y tha t hi s mothe r ha d withdrawn fro m hi m an d eventuall y abandone d hi m for a time made hi m see her as hateful, a destroyer. He defende d himsel f agains t Phia and fro m his loathin g fo r her , hi s fea r an d despair , b y devotin g a grea t dea l o f energy t o creatin g he r opposit e i n Salome . Having don e so , he immerse d himself i n his love for Lou , returning to her with devotio n unabate d afte r the breac h o f mor e tha n tw o year s an d sustainin g hi s idealizatio n o f he r as a saving, all-knowing , benevolen t mothe r fo r mos t o f hi s life , thoug h she successfull y manage d t o avoi d seein g hi m afte r thei r brea k i n Feb ruary 1901 , except o n a fe w occasions . Th e fac t tha t whe n the y parte d in Februar y 190 1 sh e lef t th e doo r ope n t o him , shoul d h e reall y nee d her, an d th e extraordinar y generosit y o f he r respons e whe n h e too k ad vantage o f thi s offe r i n 1903 , obviousl y strengthene d hi s inclinatio n t o maintain th e polarizatio n o f thes e tw o materna l figures . H e use d thi s maneuver an d Salome' s renewe d willingnes s t o collaborat e wit h hi m t o provide himsel f wit h a sens e o f materna l lov e stron g enoug h t o heal , a t least temporarily , th e self-doubt , th e sens e o f unrealit y an d vulnerabilit y with which , h e felt , Phi a ha d infecte d him , an d t o defen d himsel f agains t the materna l destroye r h e feare d h e ha d withi n him . For man y year s Rilk e though t o f himsel f a s a travele r seekin g a hom e and a mothe r (th e tw o wer e associate d i n hi s mind ; se e Letters 1:46) . Early i n th e summe r o f 1903 , deeply disturbe d an d depressed , h e imag ined Salom e holdin g i n he r hand s al l th e experience s which , i f h e ha d been stronger , h e might hav e transformed int o th e work tha t would hav e been a home to him (se e Letters 1:116) . Six months later , in January 1904 , he wrote t o Lo u abou t a n ancient mural he had see n in a Paris art dealer' s

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shop, implicitl y identifyin g himsel f wit h th e travele r i n th e paintin g an d her wit h th e woma n listenin g a s th e travele r spok e bot h t o himsel f an d to her . The woma n i n th e mura l seeme d "home-filled. " Give n th e refug e she offered, th e traveler would find " a final unit y tha t was slowl y closin g like a healin g wound " {Letters 1:139-40) . I n th e sam e lette r hi s mouth , his song , hi s bein g flo w int o th e "stillness " o f Lou' s materna l "depths. " "To Lo u Andreas-Salome, " a poe m writte n i n th e autum n o f 1911 , reaffirms an d develop s hi s conceptio n o f th e kin d o f shelte r h e ca n find in her . Onl y whe n hi s fac e ha s sun k int o Lo u i s it no t exposed ; i t grow s into he r an d togethe r wit h her , a s i t "settle s darkly, / infinitel y [farther ] into [her ] protected heart. " . . . Ac h nur z u dir gestiirzt , ist mein Gesich t nicht ausgestellt , verwachst in dich und setz t sich dunke l unendlich for t i n dein geschutztes Herz . (WDB 2:39) The hom e t o whic h th e poe t long s t o return , whic h wil l guar d hi m against exposure , is the hear t o r th e wom b o f thi s mother . T o gro w int o her "depths, " he r protecte d an d protectin g hear t an d womb , woul d b e to retriev e th e origina l unit y o f mothe r an d chil d "i n a final unity, " s o that th e "wound " o f divisio n betwee n the m coul d clos e an d heal . No t exposed, completely defended, hi s face would continu e to grow, as would the sel f an d th e wor k whic h h e wa s building .

CHAPTER 6

To Fil l Al l th e Room s o f You r Sou l Clara Rilk e

I If Rilk e wa s unhapp y abou t hi s separatio n fro m Salom e i n Septembe r 1900, hi s diarie s d o no t sho w it . Soo n afte r hi s arriva l i n th e artists ' community a t Worpswede , h e becam e infatuate d wit h tw o youn g women: th e painter Paul a Becke r an d he r friend , th e sculpto r Clar a Wes thoff. Paul a wa s clos e t o hi m i n age , Clar a almos t thre e year s younger . In hi s diar y h e note d tha t th e painter' s hai r wa s golden . H e compare d her voic e t o silk. 1 He r eye s seeme d t o unfol d "lik e doubl e roses." 2 Hi s diary i s ful l o f thei r time s together , image s o f Paula , an d intimation s o f platonic intimac y bu t i t show s n o interes t i n he r work . Whe n h e wrot e his monograp h abou t th e Worpswede artist s (1902) , Rilke lef t he r ou t o f it. No t unti l year s later , whe n h e sa w Becker' s painting s a t Christma s i n 1905, di d h e discove r tha t sh e wa s a gifted , highl y origina l artist . Bu t during thos e head y day s o f Septembe r 1900 , h e mus t hav e sense d th e imaginative responsivenes s whic h eventuall y helpe d t o mak e he r a n ex traordinary painter . "I n he r joyfu l brow n eyes " h e sa w "muc h o f th e agitated, shiftin g lan d t o which [he ] had turne d [his ] back, and als o ever y feeling whic h connecte d he r t o thi s land." 3 Whe n h e returne d t o Berli n at th e beginnin g o f Octobe r 1900 , h e lef t a noteboo k ful l o f poem s fo r her, an d h e continue d t o sen d he r poem s i n th e week s tha t followed . On Octobe r 2 8 th e new s o f Becker' s engagemen t t o th e Worpswed e painter Ott o Modersoh n wa s announced . I n mid-Novembe r sh e wrot e no

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to th e poe t t o tel l hi m abou t he r lov e fo r Modersohn . Ther e i s n o clea r evidence that Rilk e had mad e a decisive choice between Paul a Becker an d Clara Westhof f befor e receivin g thi s letter . Biographer s hav e speculate d that hi s abrup t departur e fro m Worpswed e o n Octobe r 5 may hav e bee n motivated b y hi s realization , whil e spendin g th e previou s evenin g wit h her, tha t Becke r woul d no t hav e him . An d the y hav e wondere d i f th e despair expresse d i n his December diar y entrie s may hav e come from th e loss o f Paula. 4 Bu t n o on e reall y knows . The diaries the poet kept a t Worpswede an d the letters which he bega n to sen d t o Becke r an d Westhof f o n Octobe r 18 , two week s afte r return ing to Berlin-Schmargendorf , sho w a n equally lively interest in Westhoff , whom h e marrie d o n Apri l 2 8 o f th e followin g year . I f h e wa s muc h taken wit h Paula' s eyes , what struc k hi m abou t Clar a wa s th e sculptor' s strength i n he r hand s an d he r gift s a s a vivid storyteller . These gift s wer e evident i n he r accoun t o f he r sojour n wit h a family fro m Breme n whil e she was livin g in France : a deaf mother , whos e attempt s t o communicat e seem powerfull y self-expressiv e a s the y com e t o u s throug h Rilke' s ren dering o f Clara' s narrative ; th e woman' s embittere d daughter ; he r con temptuous son—al l estrange d an d distance d fro m on e anothe r i n th e small hous e a t Joinville, wher e Clar a ha d hope d t o find refug e fro m th e noisy, bewilderin g disorde r o f Paris . Fascinate d wit h th e storytelle r an d her tale , Raine r mad e a detaile d recor d o f i t i n hi s diary. 5 Th e fac t tha t Clara ha d studie d i n Rodin' s schoo l an d receive d instructio n fro m th e master mus t hav e intereste d him . H e wa s attracte d b y he r "fin e dar k face." A t a gathering sh e seemed "mistres s amon g us. " Everything i n th e room adapte d itsel f t o he r goo d taste. 6 When h e first me t the m i n Worpswede , Clar a an d Paul a appeale d t o him a s "M'ddchen" a s virginal women . I n hi s diarie s h e describe d Paul a as "delicat e an d sli m i n he r whit e maidenliness." 7 Delightin g i n thei r apparent innocenc e an d simplicity , h e als o found i n the m th e developin g intelligence o f youn g artist s workin g har d a t learnin g t o se e th e worl d around them . A s artist s the y wer e "half-knowing, " an d a s "girls " "half unaware": "th e artis t i n the m take s contro l an d look s an d looks , an d i f it i s dee p enoug h i n it s looking , the y ar e agai n a t th e limi t o f thei r bein g and thei r capacit y fo r wonde r an d sli p gentl y bac k int o thei r girlis h simplicity."8 They brough t bac k t o min d th e "Liede r de r Madchen " whic h h e ha d written probabl y i n th e sprin g an d earl y summe r o f 1898, 9 an d the y

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inspired "Vo n de n Madchen." 10 I n thes e tw o latte r poems , writte n i n September 190 0 soo n afte r Rilk e me t Paul a an d Clara , h e imagine s tha t poets lear n fro m maiden s t o say i n thei r poem s wha t th e youn g wome n express i n thei r existence : "Madchen , Dichte r sind , di e von euc h lernen / das z u sagen, wa s ih r einsa m seid." 11 A tru e poe t ca n thin k o f th e wome n wh o inspir e hi m onl y a s "Madchen." Hearin g th e tw o youn g wome n i n th e distanc e amon g peo ple whom h e avoids , he feel s tha t thei r participatio n i n th e merrimen t o f these tiresom e acquaintance s threaten s thei r virgina l beauty . H e i s mis erable a t th e though t tha t the y ar e happ y t o le t themselve s b e looke d over b y me n wh o ar e attracte d t o "th e woman " i n them . The poe t wh o wrot e "Vo n de n Madchen " ha d enjoye d a passionat e love affair wit h Lo u Andreas-Salome . No doubt , Rilke' s fascination wit h the virgina l qualitie s o f Clar a an d Paul a wa s intensifie d b y th e recen t deterioration o f hi s relationshi p wit h a love r wh o wa s als o a surrogat e mother, b y a need t o distanc e himsel f fro m th e mi x o f incestuou s desir e and childis h dependenc e whic h ha d no t los t it s hol d o n him . If Rilk e no w turne d t o thes e young women , rejoicin g i n thei r virgina l beauty, i t mus t hav e bee n ou t o f a desir e t o avoi d th e anxiety , painfu l humiliation, an d sham e associate d wit h tha t ol d love . Perhap s h e feare d the complication s an d th e entanglemen t whic h ha d com e with th e sexua l relationship an d als o th e kin d o f powe r tha t hi s passio n fo r Lo u ha d given he r ove r him . Whe n h e becam e attache d t o Clar a an d Paula , h e was sufferin g onc e agai n from a deeply woundin g rejectio n b y a mother , and thi s ma y hav e encourage d hi s veerin g awa y fro m th e searc h fo r an other olde r woman , anothe r surrogate . "Von de n Madchen, " anticipate s a passage i n The Notebooks. Havin g watched som e girl s drawing th e unicorn tapestrie s i n the Clun y Museu m in Paris , Mak e imagine s the m findin g i n th e image s o f th e medieva l woman wit h th e unicor n an d othe r animal s " a quie t lif e . . . o f slow , never quit e clarifie d gestures, " which "fo r a tim e the y eve n though t . . . would b e thei r own. " Bu t thes e girl s i n th e museum , h e suspects , ar e trying t o forge t th e sheltered , protecte d lif e i n th e famil y hom e the y lef t "rather violently " when the y cam e t o Paris . In thei r desir e t o change , t o keep u p wit h th e times , the y thin k o f themselve s "a s me n migh t spea k of the m whe n they aren' t there. " Searchin g fo r pleasures , the y suppres s in themselve s "th e unalterabl e life " tha t i n th e unicor n tapestrie s "ra diantly opene d i n fron t o f them " (131-33) .

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Like "Vo n de n Madchen, " thi s passag e make s on e wonde r i f Rilke' s attraction t o maidenlines s aros e fro m th e spli t whic h Freu d analyze s a s "the Universa l Tendenc y t o Debasemen t i n th e Spher e o f Love, " th e tendency o f me n t o separat e wome n idealize d a s asexual , an d thu s lov able, fro m th e object s o f sexua l desir e (wome n degrade d b y thei r sex uality). Freu d explain s thi s spli t a s a n attemp t t o disassociat e object s o f lust fro m object s o f affectio n an d tenderness , becaus e th e latte r ar e to o closely associate d wit h mothers , an d man y me n mus t defen d themselve s against th e surfacin g o f a strong , unconscious , incestuou s attachmen t t o their mothers . Rilke's marriag e t o a woman h e ha d idealize d i n a virginal imag e wa s unexceptional a t first. Clar a gav e birth t o a daughter, Ruth , o n Decembe r 12, 1901 . Rilke lef t th e domesticit y o f hi s smal l famil y i n Westerwede , near Worpswede , th e followin g summer , littl e mor e tha n a yea r afte r marrying, an d th e marriag e evolve d int o a n affectionat e friendship . A s for th e isolatio n o f sexualit y fro m idealizin g lov e which Freu d describes , the poet' s passionat e an d loving , i f relativel y brief , affair s wit h a numbe r of wome n i n subsequen t year s sugges t tha t h e di d no t precisel y fit Freud's conceptua l model . H e neve r go t ove r hi s incestuou s relationshi p with Salome . The brevit y o f mos t o f hi s othe r affairs , ofte n followe d b y long affectionat e letter s fo r month s o r eve n years , may hav e bee n roote d partly i n hi s nee d t o defen d himsel f agains t a n unconsciou s incestuou s attachment t o Phia . Bu t hi s frequen t fligh t fro m wome n wa s als o moti vated b y th e fea r o f bein g change d i n hi s innermos t being , o f bein g drained o r overpowered , engulfe d an d annihilated . Suc h anxietie s origi nated i n hi s relationshi p wit h hi s mother , a s I hav e shown . I n an y event , he di d no t spen d hi s lif e dividin g wome n int o Freud' s tw o categorie s (idealized an d degraded ) i n orde r t o reinforc e th e repressio n o f a n inces tuous attachment . The associatio n o f poetr y wit h maidenl y purit y i n "Vo n de n Madchen " is closel y relate d t o th e argumen t o f Rilke' s requie m fo r Paul a Becker , written i n 1908 , afte r he r death . Th e requie m lament s he r havin g give n up he r devotio n t o ar t fo r motherhood . I t contrast s he r objectiv e de tachment a s a n artis t an d th e resultin g purit y o f he r paintin g wit h he r subjection t o he r body , t o sexua l desir e an d t o al l th e demand s mad e b y pregnancy an d motherhood . Ironically , when Paul a Becke r cam e to Pari s in 1906 , escapin g fro m he r marriag e t o devot e hersel f t o painting , Rilk e

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may have been partly responsibl e for he r surrende r t o her family's desir e that sh e return t o he r husband . Hi s letter s show that , afte r sittin g a number o f time s fo r a portrai t b y her , h e stoppe d befor e th e portrai t wa s finished, bega n t o avoi d her , an d refuse d t o le t he r joi n him , Clara , an d their daughte r Rut h o n a holiday tri p t o Belgium. 12 Paul a wen t bac k t o her husband , gav e birt h t o a child , an d die d shortl y afterwar d o f a n embolism in November 1907 . One ca n only gues s the reasons for Rilke' s reaction t o Paul a Modersohn-Becke r i n Paris . Perhaps th e ol d attractio n remained. Possibl y h e wa s war y o f becomin g involve d i n a n affai r wit h her. Her e ar e th e line s fro m th e "Requie m fo r a Friend" whic h develo p the lamen t ove r Paula' s diversio n fro m he r paintin g t o pregnanc y an d motherhood: Da riss ein Zufall dich , dein letzter Zufal l riss dich zuriick au s deinem fernsten Fortschrit t in eine Welt zuriick, wo Safte wollen.

................................ O las s uns klagen. Weisst du, wie dein Blut aus einem Kreisen ohnegleichen zogern d und unger n wiederkam, da du es abriefst ? Wie es verwirrt de s Leibes kleinen Kreislau f noch einema l aufnahm; wi e es voller Misstrau n und Staune n eintrat in den Mutterkuche n und vo n dem weiten Riickweg plotzlich mu d war.

Then, for th e last time, chance came in and tor e you back, from th e last step forward o n your path, into a world wher e bodies have their will.

................................. Ah let us lament. Do you kno w ho w hesitantly , how reluctantly your blood , when you calle d it back, returned fro m it s incomparable circuit? How confuse d i t was to take up once again the body's narrow circulation; how, full o f mistrus t an d astonishment , it came flowing int o the placenta and suddenl y was exhausted by the long journey home. 13

Earlier i n th e poe m Rilk e praise s Paula' s painting , arguin g tha t i t wa s masterful becaus e i t wa s a purel y objectiv e mirror , fre e fro m al l self assertion an d egotism , eve n when th e subjec t wa s her ow n body . Sh e di d

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not say , " I a m that " ("da s bi n ich") ; he r gaz e ha d becom e "s o unpos sessive" ("s o besitzlos" ) tha t "i t ha d n o desir e even/fo r yo u yourself " ("es dic h selbs t nich t meh r begehrte") . Sh e transforme d eve n he r ow n naked bod y int o th e abstrac t for m o f fin e art : Und sahs t dich selbs t zuletzt wie eine Frucht, nahmst dic h heraus au s deinen Kleidern , trugst dich vor de n Spiegel, liessest dich hinein bis auf dei n Shauen; das blieb gross davor und sagt e nicht: das bin ich; nein: dies ist. So ohne Neugier wa r zulezt dei n Shaun und s o besitzlos, von so wahrer Armut , dass es dich selbst nicht meh r begehrte : heilig. And a t last, you sa w yourself a s a fruit, yo u steppe d out o f you r clothe s an d brough t you r nake d bod y before th e mirror, you le t yourself insid e down t o your gaze ; which staye d i n front, immense , and didn't say : I am that; no: this is. So free o f curiosity you r gaz e had become, so unpossessive, of suc h tru e poverty, it had no desire even for yo u yourself ; it wanted nothing : holy. (SP 7 6-77) This vie w o f ar t woul d hav e appeale d t o Kant , Schopenhauer , an d Stephen Dedalu s (se e th e culminatin g chapte r o f A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man), bu t Nietzsch e an d Freu d hav e argue d persuasivel y against it . An d th e poe t o f th e Thir d an d Sixt h Elegies , th e write r o f th e Letters to a Young Poet, show s a stron g sens e o f th e ric h an d essentia l influence o f th e body , huma n sexuality , an d th e libidinou s unconsciou s upon grea t art . Fo r mos t o f hi s lif e Rilk e di d no t suppres s hi s ow n sex uality, thoug h ther e wer e dedication s t o pur e spiritualit y fro m tim e t o time, a s i n hi s letters , written earl y i n 1914 , t o Magd a vo n Hattingberg , "Benvenuta," th e Welcom e One , th e Belove d fo r who m h e imagine d h e had bee n waitin g al l hi s life . Hi s lov e fo r he r laste d a fe w months . Or dinarily h e di d no t find tha t hi s sexualit y conflicte d wit h hi s creativity . As fo r th e distraction s o f parenting , h e fathere d a daughter bu t sa w rel atively littl e o f her . H e sometime s argue d tha t h e ha d broke n u p hi s marriage t o fre e Clar a a s wel l a s himself , s o tha t bot h o f the m coul d devote thei r live s t o thei r art . Bu t hi s letter s sho w h e though t tha t sh e

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had a mother's responsibilit y t o car e for thei r child , while, implicitly, h e was fre e t o b e elsewher e (se e Letters 1:74) . To giv e hi m th e sli m credi t he deserves , h e di d writ e t o hi s daughte r Rut h fro m tim e t o time , an d he provide d som e financial support , whe n h e coul d find th e money . In Octobe r 1900 , afte r returnin g t o Schmargendorf , th e Berli n subur b where Salom e lived, he wrote t o he r frien d Fried a von Biilow , explainin g that h e ha d lef t Worpswed e becaus e h e ha d bee n "to o fa r awa y fro m al l the helper s an d help s whic h m y labor s nee d (particularl y th e Russia n ones)" (Letters I , 49) . The "helpers " with hi s Russia n labor s wer e reall y one person—Lou . Ye t i n th e sam e lette r h e admitte d t o bein g homesic k for "th e dea r peopl e [i n Worpswede ] t o who m I mus t see m faithless " (Letters 1:50) . Obviousl y h e ha d conflictin g feeling s an d wa s draw n i n opposite directions . Two week s afte r returnin g t o Schmargendor f h e bega n writin g Clar a and Paul a lon g affectionat e letters . I n Novembe r Paul a wrot e t o hi m about hersel f an d Modersohn , narrowin g th e field o f choice. 14 I n Feb ruary Clar a cam e t o visi t him . I t wa s a t thi s tim e tha t the y decide d t o marry an d Lo u decide d t o brea k of f he r relationshi p wit h him , whil e promising tha t sh e woul d no t clos e th e doo r t o a n appea l i n th e futur e for refug e an d help , in his "wors t hour. " Considerin g hi s emotional con dition a t the time, she thought i t folly fo r hi m to marry. His diarie s sho w the desolatio n h e ha d fel t durin g th e winte r o f 1900-1901 , probably be cause Salom e wa s makin g i t clea r tha t sh e di d no t wan t hi m around . In this state of mind h e turned t o Clara , hoping that sh e would resolv e his uncertainty , restor e hi s sens e o f reality , quie t hi s anxieties , and brin g him happiness . O n Februar y 15 , 190 1 afte r he r departure , h e wrot e t o her, "Behin d i t al l I a m cal m . . . an d someho w comforte d i n al l m y former anxieties... . Giv e m e strength fo r everythin g tha t ha s to b e don e now. . . . Beginne r o f m y joys!" 15 O n th e followin g da y h e sen t anothe r letter, saying , "M y lif e til l no w wa s somethin g uncertain , bu t no w al l i s reality aroun d me." 16 Clar a seem s t o hav e take n ove r essentia l materna l functions fro m Lou , i f thes e letter s ar e trul y indicativ e o f Rilke' s expec tations. But sh e was no t t o becom e a mother surrogat e t o th e exten t tha t Lou ha d been . On e ca n se e sign s o f th e ver y differen t rol e sh e woul d play fo r hi m i n th e poem , dedicate d t o Clara , whic h h e wrot e whil e h e was i n Arc o i n Marc h 1901 , visitin g hi s mother . Th e poe m implicitl y describes hi s fiancee:

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Du schon e dunkle Laute , mir gegeben , damit ich priife mein e Meisterschaft, — spielen will ich auf di r da s Leben!

........................ jetzt is t das Instrument mei n eigen auf de m sich meine Klange zeigen 17

You beautifu l dar k lute , given to me, that I may prove my mastery, I want t o play lif e on you!

........................ now the instrument i s mine, on which my tone s emerge

Reading this poem, I am reminded o f Rilke' s reactio n to Salome' s coo l reception o f th e diar y tha t h e brough t he r fro m Italy , he r condescendin g response t o th e effusion s whic h h e offere d he r i n hope s o f winnin g a n enthusiastic, affectionat e confirmatio n o f hi s sens e o f hi s ow n youn g ge nius. I n hi s bitternes s h e ha d writte n i n hi s diary , "Thi s time , / wante d to b e th e wealth y one , th e giver , th e on e offerin g invitations , th e mas . . . d now , fac e t o fac e wit h you , I wa s agai n onl y th e mos t ter.An insignificant beggar , a t th e las t threshol d o f you r being . . . . I fel t mysel f becoming eve r more ridiculou s i n m y masquerade . Everything i n m e wa s shame, shame . Ever y encounte r [wit h you ] mad e m e fee l ashamed . D o you understan d that ? Alway s I sai d t o myself : ' I ca n giv e yo u nothing , nothing a t all . . . . ' " l 8 Wit h thi s secon d mother—hersel f brilliant , self confident, much-published , incline d t o analysi s o f hi s psychologica l weaknesses—he suffere d fro m th e sens e o f a lac k o f mastery , thoug h Lou's dominanc e wa s als o appealing . Wit h Clara , wh o wa s thre e year s younger an d wa s stil l strugglin g i n he r developmen t a s a person an d a n artist, h e wa s t o find th e master y h e desired . Th e poe m Rilk e wrot e i n February 1901 , after Salom e brok e of f thei r relationship , attributin g t o her th e powe r t o shatte r an d swallo w a s well a s t o shap e him , coul d no t have bee n writte n abou t Clara . Th e youn g poet' s deligh t i n th e posses sion o f a wif e wh o woul d b e th e instrumen t o n whic h h e playe d his music contrast s wit h hi s late r condemnatio n o f possessiv e lov e i n The Notebooks an d i n letters , wher e h e insist s tha t genuin e lov e give s th e beloved utmos t freedom , protectin g an d guardin g hi s o r he r separat e individuality (se e The Notebooks, 251-58) . Was Clar a s o malleable ? Angere d b y he r apparen t withdrawa l fro m

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their friendshi p afte r he r marriag e t o Rilke , Paul a Becke r wrot e t o her , complaining that she had transformed hersel f int o a n imitation o f Rilke. 19 In man y respect s Clar a di d reflec t he r husband' s attitudes , values , an d beliefs. Bu t thes e include d a n emphasi s o n thei r independenc e an d dif ferences fro m eac h other . Abov e all, sh e wa s dedicate d t o he r ow n art . The combination o f samenes s and separatenes s helped t o make their mar riage an d long , clos e friendshi p possible . Rilke wa s no t a fool, an d h e wa s no t s o vulnerabl e an d wea k tha t h e felt compelle d t o choos e a wife merel y becaus e sh e wa s no t threatenin g and coul d b e manipulated. Clar a Westhoff appeale d t o hi m a t least partl y because o f he r strengths . Leppman n observe s tha t he r fac e wa s "stron g and ful l o f character " an d tha t sh e appeare d "robust " an d "vibrant " i n contrast t o he r husband. 20 Anothe r biographer , E . M . Butler , mention s "her vitality , exuberanc e an d strength." 21 Friend s an d acquaintance s re marked tha t sh e wa s taller , large r tha n th e poet . On e ca n se e thi s i n photographs o f th e tw o standin g together . I hav e mentione d tha t Rilk e admire d th e sculptor' s vigo r i n he r hands.22 Writin g abou t Rodin , Rilk e expresse d th e feeling tha t th e sculp tor ha s incomparabl e mean s o f establishin g a connection wit h th e worl d around hi m an d contro l ove r it . Th e poet , wh o ofte n fel t disconnecte d from hi s worl d an d threatene d b y it , longe d fo r thi s ability . The modes t work tha t Clar a produce d neve r awakene d anythin g lik e th e aw e an d immense admiratio n an d longin g whic h Rilk e fel t i n respons e t o Rodin . Yet on e ca n se e that he r evolvin g skil l an d talen t a s a sculptor mus t hav e encouraged i n th e youn g poe t th e belie f tha t h e coul d tur n t o her , un threatening a s sh e was , a t a time whe n Salom e wante d t o b e ri d o f him , with th e need s an d expectation s expresse d i n th e letter s fro m whic h I have quoted . In lat e Novembe r 190 0 Clar a sen t Rilk e a photograp h o f th e smal l sculpture o f a boy . H e wa s impresse d b y "th e simplicit y an d largenes s of hi s bearing. " Though th e figur e wa s small , the poe t imagine d th e bo y as gigantic , observing , "H e i s Clar a Westhof f throug h an d through." 23 He finds i n he r th e distinctiv e qualitie s o f "th e sculptural. " H e als o as sociates th e bo y wit h th e softnes s an d lov e whic h h e hear s whe n sh e speaks. Her voic e become s multidimensional . Choir s sin g in i t an d land scapes open . Rilke's feeling s abou t th e creativ e vitalit y an d powe r o f sculptor s ar e reflected i n hi s poem s an d storie s abou t Michelangelo . I n "Th e Boo k o f

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the Monasti c Life/ ' th e first par t o f The Book of Hours, th e Renaissanc e master i s calle d "th e man , giganti c beyon d measure , wh o forgo t th e im measurable." Unlik e thos e wh o cam e befor e him , wh o wer e possesse d by pai n an d pleasure , "h e feel s onl y life' s mass " an d "ca n encompas s i t all a s one thing" : Das waren Tage Michelangelo's, von denen ich in fremden Biicher n las. Das war der Mann, der iiber eine m Mass, gigantengross, die Unermesslichkeit vergass.

............................ Die vor ihm hatten Lei d und Lust ; er aber fiihlt nu r noc h des Lebens Masse, und das s er Alles wie ein Ding umfasse. . .. 2 4

Rilke's fascinatio n wit h sculptur e ca n b e understood mor e full y i n th e light o f th e whimsicall y humorou s stor y "O f On e Wh o Listene d t o th e Stones." This i s on e o f th e Stories of God. I t wa s writte n i n Novembe r 1899 (soo n afte r th e poe m quote d above ) an d revise d durin g Februar y and Marc h 1904 . Michelangel o wa s th e on e wh o listene d t o th e stones . The sens e o f th e sculptor' s incomparabl e strengt h make s Go d anxious . The Deity ask s the sculptor, "Wh o i s in that stone?" The answer : "Thou , my God , wh o else ? But I canno t reac h Thee. " Hearin g this , recognizin g that "h e wa s indee d in the stone" Go d "fel t fearfu l an d confined " an d longed "fo r th e hand s o f Michelangel o t o delive r him." 25 The implie d argumen t o f th e story , prominen t i n The Book of Hours, as well, is that Go d i s created b y artists , and tha t a s they develo p throug h their work , H e evolve s i n the m an d i n thei r art . A s Michelangel o con templates hi s monumen t fo r Pop e Juliu s I I an d think s o f th e mountai n he will buil d "ove r th e Iro n Pope, " "th e newl y broke n surface s o f ston e [appear] lik e a grea t pal e fac e unde r agin g hair, " an d the n h e see s "tw o enormous eye s o f stone , watching him. " Th e sculpto r feel s hi s ow n stat ure gro w "under th e influence o f that look," which he has created. "No w he to o towere d ove r th e land ; i t seeme d t o hi m tha t sinc e th e beginnin g of tim e he and thi s mountain ha d bee n brothers." These discoveries brin g him t o th e realizatio n whic h i s th e centra l ide a o f th e story : "The e wil l I complete , tho u ar t m y task. " H e i s speakin g t o "th e grea t fac e o f roc k under it s whit e ston e veils, " bu t on e canno t hel p feelin g tha t h e mean s

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God. Afterwar d a voice come s t o him , saying , "Michelangelo , who i s i n thee?" H e answers , "Thou , m y God , wh o else?" 26 Obviously Rilk e di d no t credi t Clar a Westhof f wit h suc h geniu s o r anything lik e it . Nonetheless , thes e feeling s abou t sculptur e an d sculp tors, whic h ha d lon g bee n growin g i n him , mus t hav e playe d som e par t in hi s attractio n t o th e youn g artis t whos e strong , shapin g hand s caugh t his ey e an d whos e wor k h e admire d an d encouraged .

II Rilke's reaffirmation s o f hi s fait h i n Clara' s abilitie s a s a sculpto r out lasted hi s marriag e b y man y years , as h e trie d tim e an d again , eve n afte r their friendshi p ha d dwindled , t o obtai n commission s an d fund s fo r her . In June 1902 , living away fro m Clar a an d Rut h fo r a month a t Haseldor f Castle a s a gues t o f th e poet , Princ e Emi l vo n Schonaich-Carolath , h e wrote t o Juli e Weinmann , askin g fo r help . Th e lette r expresse s hi s ex pectations o f hi s wife , describin g he r a s " a gir l ful l o f powe r an d artisti c ability, a n artist , fro m whos e growt h I expec t th e greates t conceivabl e results" (Letters 1:69) . Then Rilk e make s a statement abou t wome n whic h contrast s wit h hi s argument i n th e requie m fo r Paul a Becker , tha t motherin g wa s a tragi c diversion fro m he r painting . Her e h e say s tha t havin g a chil d free s a woman fro m insecurit y and brings her to maturity. Thus, raising childre n may foster he r development a s an artist. A woman, in particular a mother, can achiev e jus t a s muc h a s a ma n i n th e arts , h e thinks , assurin g Fra u Weinmann tha t "th e meanin g o f m y marriag e lie s i n helpin g thi s dea r young perso n t o find herself , he r greatnes s an d depths , insofa r a s on e person ca n hel p another. " Sh e is "no beginner, " an d "ca n b e see n besid e the best " (Letters 1:70) . Rilke's languag e i n thi s lette r reflect s th e assumptio n o f superio r knowledge i n th e youn g husban d an d maste r an d hi s belie f tha t hi s ex pectations of growt h i n his girl-wife will carry authority with Frau Wein mann becaus e th e lad y know s tha t h e i s a fine poet , knowledgeabl e i n the art s an d gifte d wit h critica l discrimination . The letter s whic h h e wrot e t o prospectiv e patron s o n Clara' s behal f suggest a continuing attemp t t o ban k u p th e fire o f hi s ow n fait h i n he r art ou t o f a need t o protec t hi s belie f i n th e fruitfulness o f he r separatio n

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from him , t o justif y i n hi s ow n min d th e breaku p o f th e marriage . Ye t some o f the m als o sho w tha t h e di d no t expec t hi s wif e t o follo w hi s course i n separatin g himsel f fro m thei r chil d i n orde r t o b e completel y free fo r hi s work . Writin g t o th e novelis t Friedric h Huc h i n Jul y 190 2 as h e contemplate d ne w freedom , h e say s tha t Clar a wil l hav e t o "thin k of Rut h a s wel l a s o f herself " {Letters 1:74) . Sh e mus t b e boun d b y conventional attitude s abou t parent s an d children , whil e h e ma y remai n completely fre e fro m them . I n fleein g fro m parenta l responsibilitie s an d marriage, Rilk e mus t hav e experience d som e sens e o f identificatio n wit h his mother . A t th e sam e tim e h e mus t hav e fel t qualm s abou t subjectin g his chil d t o th e kin d o f anguis h whic h h e ha d suffere d whe n Phi a with drew fro m he r marriage . H e als o neede d t o believ e tha t Clara' s burde n as a mother , resultin g fro m thei r marriag e an d hi s desertion , woul d no t be s o oppressiv e a s t o preven t he r fro m developin g a s a n artist . Hi s attempts t o find he r client s an d othe r source s o f financial support , hi s long, frequent letter s t o her , an d hi s willingness t o spen d period s o f tim e with he r durin g th e nex t fe w years , ofte n wit h Rut h convenientl y lef t i n the car e o f he r grandparents , wer e motivate d a t leas t partl y b y hi s nee d to resolv e th e tension s arisin g fro m thes e conflictin g pressures . Rilke chos e a wif e whos e devotio n t o he r ow n ar t woul d enabl e he r t o empathize with hi m in his dedication t o the writing o f poetry. Sh e would be abl e t o understan d al l th e sacrifice s h e woul d deman d o f he r a s o f himself. Thes e expectation s wer e ampl y fulfille d b y Clara' s readines s t o cooperate wit h hi m whe n h e brok e u p thei r famil y an d fo r year s after ward whe n the y carrie d o n thei r frequen t correspondenc e an d live d in termittently togethe r o r nea r eac h othe r i n separat e domiciles . Ther e i s little evidenc e tha t sh e complained , i n th e earl y years , about thei r recur rent separations . In Decembe r 190 6 Clar a wrot e t o Rilke , tellin g hi m abou t a conver sation wit h Salom e i n whic h hi s ol d frien d ha d advise d he r "tha t i f he r absentee husban d presume d t o sacrific e hi s famil y t o hi s poetry , th e po lice shoul d teac h hi m wher e hi s dut y lay. " (Thi s i s Rudolp h Binion' s reading o f th e lette r i n hi s biograph y o f Salome , Fran Lou, Nietzsche's Wayward Disciple.) 1 Rilke' s repl y indicate s tha t Clar a ha d struggle d against an inclination to be drawn int o righteous anger . He acknowledge s that h e ha s give n he r ampl e caus e fo r indignation , confessin g tha t Lou' s accusations agains t hi m ech o hi s ow n thoughts . And the n h e defend s hi s

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behavior, sayin g that h e and Clar a ar e only postponin g thei r life togethe r and tha t his world grow s ou t fro m th e house the y shared , which remain s its center. He insists that, despite the geographical distance between them , mentally an d emotionall y Rut h an d sh e an d h e liv e i n th e sam e house , though i t i s invisibl e t o othe r peopl e (Letters 1:245) . For a few mor e year s Clar a accepte d thes e conditions , an d thei r cor respondence continued . H e sen t he r som e o f hi s mos t extraordinar y let ters, including th e ones o n Cezanne , written durin g Octobe r 1907 . In hi s foreword t o th e published collection , Letters on Cezanne, Heinric h Wie gand Petze t observe s tha t Clara' s "presenc e an d silen t participatio n ar e sensible" throughou t thes e remarkabl e expression s o f th e poet' s intelli gence an d imagination , an d tha t the y bea r witnes s t o Rilke' s awarenes s that hi s wif e "possesse d a qualit y whic h th e poe t onl y ver y rarel y en countered . . . : she wa s hi s equal." 2 Reading Rilke' s letter s t o Clar a fro m 190 0 t o 1911 , one realize s tha t his respec t fo r hi s wif e gre w durin g thi s time , althoug h i n n o wa y coul d he se e he r a s hi s equa l i n artisti c achievemen t an d genius . Hi s respec t depended upo n he r willingnes s t o protec t hi s freedo m an d distance , t o care fo r thei r chil d withou t complaining , an d a t th e sam e time , despit e her failur e t o achiev e eminen t success , t o sustai n he r dedicatio n t o he r sculpture. He r long , friendly letters , which, fro m tim e t o time , he woul d admire wit h enthusiasm , ma y hav e helpe d hi m t o maintai n hi s illusio n that, a s h e pushe d infinitel y ou t int o th e peripher y o f thei r imaginar y existence a s a family , th e cente r held : thei r marriag e an d friendship , hi s life a s husband an d father . Sh e did tha t for hi m fo r years , largely withou t complaining. N o wonde r h e wa s grateful . N o doub t hi s respec t wa s genuine. The fac t tha t Clar a wa s no t a poet , no t eve n a write r b y profession , may hav e bee n importan t t o Rilke . Sh e wa s no t a competitor . Sh e wa s much les s likel y t o becom e a threa t a s a judg e an d a critic . I n thes e respects sh e differe d fro m Salome . Whe n Rilk e chos e a maste r i n 1902 , he to o wa s a sculpto r rathe r tha n anothe r poet . Knowin g littl e o r n o German, Rodi n coul d no t rea d Rilke' s poetry , le t alon e judg e it . Yet Rilke' s wif e wa s fa r fro m inarticulate . Readin g hi s response s t o he r letters side by side with Paula Becker's prose, I suspect that Clara's think ing an d he r us e o f languag e mus t hav e bee n mor e interestin g an d ap pealing t o th e youn g poe t tha n he r friend's . I n hi s first lette r writte n t o

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Clara afte r h e lef t Worpswed e t o retur n t o Lou , i n O c t o b e r 1900 , h e recalls he r extraordinar y power s o f evocatio n a s sh e tol d hi m th e stor y of he r experienc e modelin g he r father' s m o t h e r an d credit s he r m e m o r y with havin g give n hi m a "wonderfull y beautifu l p i c t u r e " o f he r grand mother an d he r o w n response s t o th e ol d lady' s fac e (Letters 1:42-44) . H e i s delighte d tha t sh e ca n creat e peopl e wit h he r pe n a s wel l a s he r sculptor's tools . The admiratio n o f he r letter s echoe s tim e an d agai n i n his . Writin g her fro m Capr i i n Marc h 1907 , h e replie s t o a lette r fro m Egyp t wit h ardent prais e o f he r descriptions , notin g especiall y " t h e keenness " o f he r language an d th e surenes s an d richnes s o f he r note s (Letters 1:265) . Ye t here, a s elsewhere , on e find s th e poe t talkin g d o w n t o hi s wife , offerin g her instructio n an d encouragemen t a s wel l a s a master' s approva l t o a talented perso n w h o i s stil l i n th e proces s o f a promisin g bu t uncertai n evolution. Hi s commendatio n ma y b e objectiv e an d discriminating . N o d o u b t h e wa s bein g generous , a s h e s o ofte n wa s t o hi s correspondents . It wa s eas y t o b e generou s i n hi s letters , a s Clar a willingl y collaborate d with hi s effort s t o defen d hi s lif e a s a poe t agains t an y sense tha t h e wa s not sufficientl y meetin g hi s obligation s a s a husban d an d a father . Ofte n the letter s revea l th e source s o f th e poet' s p o w e r ove r hi s wife . A s th e letter fro m Capr i continues , Rilke' s instruction s t o Clar a hav e th e orig inality an d th e wisdo m o f a tru e master . A n y aspirin g artis t o n suc h a trip woul d benefi t fro m them . T h e y hav e endurin g value : Only collec t many more impressions; don't thin k of letters that have to give infor mation and b e easily understood; kee p taking in with swif t capturin g gestures on e thing and another: something that passes quickly by, glimpses, brief flashing reve lations that last a second in you unde r the influence of some occurrence; all the unimportant tha t often become s significan t throug h a passing intensity o f ou r visio n or becaus e it happens a t a place where i t is perfected i n al l its fortuity an d perpet ually valid and o f dee p import fo r som e personal insigh t which, appearing in us at the same moment, coincides meaningfully wit h tha t image. Gazing i s such a wonderful thing , of which we still know s o little; with it we are turned completel y out ward bu t jus t whe n w e ar e mos t so , thing s see m t o b e goin g o n i n u s tha t hav e waited longingl y t o b e unobserved , an d whil e they , untouche d an d curiousl y anonymous, achieve themselves in us without us, —their meanin g is growing up i n the object outside.... [OJn e ha s alread y ha d lot s o f su n ver y early , an abundanc e of brightness , an d i f the n suddenl y i n th e shad e o f a stree t a face i s hel d ou t t o one, unde r influenc e o f th e contras t on e sees it s characte r wit h suc h distinctnes s (distinctness o f nuance ) tha t th e momentar y impressio n i s spontaneousl y height ened t o th e symbolic . (Letters 1:265-66 )

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One ca n se e wh y Clar a migh t wan t t o g o o n correspondin g an d con versing wit h th e poe t wh o offere d suc h insight s concernin g th e art s an d the creativ e process . H e look s forwar d t o th e tim e approachin g whe n she wil l agai n b e wit h hi m an d h e wil l b e abl e t o hel p he r t o re-creat e her visi t t o Egyp t i n a n incomparabl e piec e o f writing . Withou t an y apparent vanit y h e fondl y dwell s upo n th e prospec t o f thi s join t effort , reminding he r an d himsel f o f wha t h e ca n d o fo r her . In Rilke' s response s t o Clar a on e finds a delicat e balancin g act , a s he i s poise d amon g thre e endeavors—keepin g he r i n a subordinate role , subject t o hi s power , charmin g an d pleasin g her , an d generousl y en couraging i n he r a sens e o f he r ow n gifts . H e i s no t hypocritical . H e truly believe s tha t he r "letter s ar e beautifu l an d remarkable, " a s h e wrote t o Paul a Becke r o n Marc h 17 , 1907 . There ar e a numbe r o f salien t difference s betwee n Rilke' s corre spondence wit h Salom e an d tha t wit h Clara . Ofte n i n writin g t o Salom e he sound s lik e a chil d complainin g t o hi s mother-love r o f anguish , ill ness, paralysis , an d barrenness , an d askin g fo r help , clarification , an d advice. Writin g t o hi s wife , h e rarel y show s an y weakness . Th e cor respondence wit h Clar a seem s t o hav e bee n governe d b y th e desir e t o remain th e master , th e lut e player , wit h hi s wife . H e neede d t o assur e her tha t th e sacrifice s h e wa s askin g he r t o mak e wer e justifie d b y th e strength o f hi s creativ e genius , displaye d i n th e sharp , clear , vivi d per ceptions, th e verba l energy , an d th e originalit y o f though t whic h dis tinguish hi m a s on e o f th e grea t lette r writer s o f moder n times . H e attempted t o compensat e he r fo r he r sacrifice s wit h thes e frequen t splendid offerings , a s i f t o prov e tha t h e coul d giv e he r suc h richnes s from a distance . Thi s generosit y woul d contras t i n he r min d wit h hi s sullen behavio r a s he r obligin g housemate , whe n "ther e stil l wa s . . . always muc h o f m e tha t onl y reproachfull y stoo d by , tha t . . . woul d gladly hav e bee n alone , fa r away , Go d know s where " {Letters 1:248) .

Ill On Octobe r 18 , 190 0 Rilk e wrot e t o Paul a Becker , sayin g tha t h e ha d "no littl e house, " an d tha t h e mus t see k a home . H e associate d a hom e with a mother: "Ever y hom e ha s a warm an d goo d influence , lik e ever y mother. Onl y I mus t see k m y mother , mustn' t I? " {Letters 1:46) . Earlier

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in th e sam e letter , explainin g hi s abrup t departur e fro m Worpswede , h e says, "T o m e Russi a ha s reall y becom e . . . hom e an d heaven. " H e ha d returned t o Schmargendorf , nea r Berlin , t o resum e hi s Russia n studie s with Salome {Letters 1:45) . What a contrast is his letter to Clara Westhoff , written th e sam e day ! I n thi s on e h e say s h e ha s foun d a hom e i n hers : "Your hom e wa s fo r m e . . . simpl y home , the first home in which I saw people living (otherwis e everyon e live s abroad , bu t al l home s stan d empty . . . ) . . . . you r hom e i s rich enoug h t o lov e m e to o an d t o uphol d me, an d yo u ar e s o kin d an d tak e m e i n a s a real membe r o f th e family " {Letters 1:43) . Ho w strang e t o find suc h opposin g feeling s o n th e sam e subject i n tw o letter s writte n th e sam e da y t o wome n wh o migh t sho w them t o eac h other ! I f the y di d so , what mus t the y hav e thought ? Obviously th e poe t wa s expressin g divisio n an d conflict . Hom e wa s with materna l Lo u an d Russia . Hom e wa s with Clara , though h e did no t think o f he r a s maternal . " I wante d . . . t o b e a brothe r besid e yo u all " {Letters 1:43) . I hav e argue d tha t Clar a wa s no t comparabl e t o Salom e a s a materna l surrogate. Nonetheless , sh e to o appeale d t o th e poe t i n hi s nee d o f a woman wh o woul d mirro r him . He r mirrorin g call s to min d th e passag e in The Notebooks i n whic h Mak e imagine s th e lad y i n th e unicor n tapestries holdin g th e lookin g glas s u p t o th e unicorn , showin g hi m hi s image. Contemplatin g th e tapestries , Mak e imagine s tha t Abelone , hi s mother's younge r sister , secon d onl y t o Mama n i n hi s love , i s there . He i s confiden t tha t sh e "mus t understand " hi s respons e t o th e lad y in th e tapestries . I t i s har d t o escap e th e conclusio n tha t Rilk e foun d in hi s wif e th e fulfillmen t o f a desir e t o hav e a belove d woma n sho w him hi s image . B y th e tim e h e me t Clar a probabl y h e ha d com e t o fee l that Salome' s mirrorin g wa s flawed becaus e o f he r egotism , expresse d in he r reactio n t o th e diar y h e ha d brough t he r fro m Italy . Sh e n o longer wante d t o perfor m thi s selfles s materna l functio n fo r him . Sh e wanted hi m gone . Rilke's diarie s an d hi s letter s t o Clar a sugges t tha t h e sough t i n he r a woman whos e mirrorin g woul d b e mor e perfec t an d mor e patien t tha n Lou's. He r grea t gif t t o th e poe t wa s t o embod y somethin g lik e th e fantasy i n Rilke' s 191 3 "Narcissus " poem , o f th e woma n i n whos e fac e he might find himsel f s o that h e might neve r los e himself i n his own self absorbed gaze .

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Curiously, i n hi s earl y letter s t o Clar a h e showe d he r he r ow n image , a s if t o demonstrat e tha t h e trul y ha d see n an d hear d her . O n Octobe r 18 , 1900 h e recalle d i n vivi d detai l fo r he r th e stor y sh e ha d tol d hi m abou t her attemp t t o sculp t he r grandmother . A mont h later , on Novembe r 18 , he wrot e t o he r t o sa y tha t h e wa s tryin g t o rende r bac k t o he r he r ow n pictures, almos t i n he r ow n words , "a s i f I wante d t o presen t yo u wit h your ow n possessions . Bu t s o i t is , Clara Westhoff , w e receiv e man y o f our riche s onl y whe n the y com e t o mee t u s born e b y th e voic e o f an other." He imagine d himsel f loadin g his "speeches" with her possessions, sending hi s sentence s t o he r lik e caravan s "t o fill al l th e room s o f you r soul with th e beauties and treasures of your unopene d mine s and treasur e chambers" (Letters 1:51-52) . He was in Schmargendorf nea r Berlin, Salome's village, when h e wrot e these letters . With Clar a Westhof f h e seem s t o b e playin g th e mirrorin g role tha t Lo u ha d playe d fo r him , a t a tim e whe n sh e wa s tryin g t o separate an d distanc e hersel f fro m him . Perhap s thi s wa s a way o f iden tifying himsel f wit h Lo u i n order t o kee p her with him , within him , eve n as h e fel t h e wa s bein g force d t o giv e he r up . ( I a m thinkin g o f Freud' s theory, formulate d i n "Mournin g an d Melancholia " (1916) , that w e ten d to identify wit h object s o f love whom w e feel we are losing or have lost.) 1 But Rilke' s rhetori c i n thi s lette r i s suspect . Th e desir e underlyin g hi s expressed intentio n i s scarcel y hidden . Hi s sentence s woul d fill Clar a with hi s thoughts, and h e would discove r tha t th e stil l unopened treasur e chambers o f he r psych e ar e ful l o f jus t suc h thoughts . H e woul d find himself i n her as he opens her up? The passage recalls the image in Sonne t II.3, o f Narcissu s penetratin g th e fac e o f th e lovel y woma n i n th e mirro r and finding himsel f i n th e mirro r an d i n her . The letter s reflec t confusio n i n th e youn g poet' s min d betwee n th e one wh o i s mirrorin g an d th e on e wh o i s bein g mirrored . An d thi s con fusion point s t o th e longin g fo r a wife wh o woul d a t leas t partl y blen d or merg e wit h him . Obviousl y thi s desir e an d it s fantas y fulfillmen t ru n counter t o hi s often expresse d doctrin e tha t thos e who trul y lov e expres s their lov e b y allowin g th e belove d freedo m an d separateness . Bot h th e fantasy an d th e opposin g doctrine , as we have seen, expressed themselve s in hi s marriage . Bot h gre w ou t o f th e sam e fea r o f bein g overwhelmed , smashed, o r devoure d b y th e othe r perso n an d particularl y b y th e be loved woman . Th e convers e mirrorin g fantasie s whic h w e hav e jus t ex -

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amined wer e defense s agains t thi s anxiet y an d th e fea r o f becomin g totally cu t of f fro m huma n intimac y becaus e o f it . Whe n Salom e woul d no longe r sustai n th e youn g poe t i n thi s networ k o f anxietie s an d defen ses, Clar a prove d abl e t o d o so . Clara wa s abl e t o hel p hi m maintai n hi s muc h neede d con-fusio n o f two fantasies : tha t h e wa s presentin g he r wit h he r ow n possession s an d that hi s sentence s wer e fillin g al l th e room s o f he r soul . Wa s sh e intui tively lettin g hi m fee l tha t h e wa s bewitchin g her ? O r wa s sh e trul y confused b y hi s rhetoric ? Ther e i s n o evidenc e tha t sh e clearl y under stood wha t wa s goin g on .

IV Rilke's respons e t o th e angr y lette r i n whic h Paul a Becke r chide d Clar a for turnin g hersel f int o a n imitation o f he r husban d ma y hav e confirme d Paula's fear s fo r he r friend. 1 H e remind s Paul a tha t Clar a ha d seeme d strange an d unlik e anyon e els e i n th e earl y day s o f thei r relationship , a solitary eve n then , whos e inne r seclusio n sh e coul d no t enter . Wasn' t that wha t ha d mad e Paul a lov e her ? I f so , sh e ough t t o b e willin g t o accept Clara' s discover y o f " a ne w solitude " {Letters 1:65) . Hi s answe r makes on e wonde r i f h e wa s encapsulatin g hi s wif e i n hi s ow n preoc cupation wit h separateness , shapin g he r a s th e perfec t collaborato r i n a marriage whic h "ca n consis t onl y i n th e strengthenin g o f tw o neighbor ing solitudes " {Letters 1:150) . I n a n answe r t o a March 190 7 letter fro m Clara i n Egypt , th e poe t focuse s o n he r expresse d desir e t o b e alon e an d the origin s o f hi s ow n simila r yearnin g fo r solitud e {Letters I:Z6J). Bu t we do no t hea r from Clara . Her letter s ar e not availabl e to us . We canno t say to what exten t sh e allowed hersel f t o b e reshaped int o a mirror imag e of he r husband, t o what exten t thes e were her ow n origina l predilections , to wha t exten t sh e resiste d an d h e ignore d o r blinde d himsel f t o he r resistance. Perhaps sh e had com e t o hi m a t twenty-on e wit h suc h match ing inclinations alread y well defined . Perhap s h e persuaded he r tha t suc h a wa y o f lif e woul d foste r he r independen t creativity . I t i s possibl e he r own experienc e convince d he r tha t h e wa s righ t an d tha t thei r marita l arrangements an d thi s singula r friendshi p wit h he r husban d wer e mor e conducive t o he r developmen t a s a n artis t tha n livin g togethe r ful l tim e would hav e been .

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We shal l probabl y neve r kno w th e answer s t o th e question s raise d here. Bu t w e d o hav e Rilke' s ultimat e judgmen t tha t hi s wif e wa s no t truly independen t an d stron g i n herself . H e though t o f he r a s a lut e h e could pla y hi s ow n tune s upon , a young , relativel y unforme d perso n whom h e coul d shap e t o a larg e exten t i n hi s ow n image , th e perfec t responder, someon e wh o woul d no t threate n hi s autonomy , hi s separat e identity, or his sense of his mastery, but would suppor t an d nurture the m from clos e b y o r fa r away , jus t a s h e wished . Thes e qualities , rea l o r imagined, whic h ha d draw n hi m t o Clara , becam e th e ground s fo r hi s disappointment i n her . She did no t hav e the strengt h o r forc e o f min d an d personalit y t o giv e Rilke th e intellectua l an d emotiona l nurtur e an d suppor t h e needed . H e was caught in a dilemma common amon g persons suffering fro m th e kin d of illnes s reflecte d i n hi s letters , The Notebooks, an d som e o f hi s poems . They see k close relationships with peopl e who wil l not overpowe r them , threaten thei r autonomy , o r engul f them . Bu t suc h individual s ma y lac k sufficient persona l strengt h an d developmen t t o giv e the m th e materna l responsiveness, reassurance, and guidanc e the y nee d t o fee l rea l and vital . A lette r t o Rilke's friend Sidoni e Nadherny vo n Boruti n delineate s th e nature o f hi s disappointmen t i n Clara . The gir l in her, h e says , still long s for a conventional married life. He finds he r subjugated t o himself, "mor e a disciple tha n a wife," a n imitator . Ho w ironi c i t i s to hea r hi m echoin g the complaint s Paul a Becke r ha d mad e year s earlier , abou t hi s relation ship with Clara , when probably h e did not remembe r them ! Clara canno t stand besid e hi m i n he r ow n independen t strength . Sh e mirrors hi m "in stead o f formin g a counterpart." 2 A 191 2 letter to Salome reveals Rilke's belief that , apar t from he r sens e of hersel f a s a mother, Clar a wa s a living mirror , a t time s filled wit h hi s image, a t other s strugglin g t o empt y hersel f o f it . Bu t h e doe s no t see m to understan d tha t h e i s portrayin g hi s wif e a s afflicte d wit h a for m o f his ow n illness , sufferin g fro m a weak , undevelope d sens e o f identity , dependent upo n anothe r perso n fo r self-definition , trouble d b y th e fea r of engulfmen t b y tha t person . Clara's tendency to become identified wit h he r husband wa s in Rilke' s mind a kind o f devouring . And thi s was al l the mor e threatening , he say s in th e self-contradictor y lette r t o Salome , because, when sh e did identif y herself wit h him , sh e wa s to o stron g fo r him . Bu t whe n sh e trie d t o purge hersel f o f Rilke , he r willful negatio n o f hi m distresse d th e poet .

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At suc h time s sh e ma y hav e bee n reminiscen t o f th e mothe r wh o ha d turned al l tha t h e wa s i n hi s ow n min d t o nothin g wit h he r defensiv e blindness. Clar a ha d a weapon whic h pierce d hi s defenses . He r loo k o f reproach reminde d hi m tha t sh e wa s unloved , an d tha t hi s inabilit y t o love he r mus t depriv e he r o f th e fulfillmen t which , h e believed , "th e woman" i n he r longe d for . Thi s expressio n brough t t o min d a discon certing memory , th e extraordinar y powe r o f th e "unloved look " h e ha d seen o n th e fac e o f Ros e Beuret , Rodin' s longtim e companion , who m h e married i n th e yea r o f hi s deat h (1917). 3 Eventually, th e friendshi p whic h ha d replace d marriag e wor e thin . Perhaps i t wa s becaus e Rilke' s sens e o f Clara' s inadequacie s grew . I t i s not har d t o gues s th e reason s Clar a mus t hav e ha d fo r finding th e rela tionship unsatisfactory , a s th e year s wen t o n wit h infrequen t contact s and, a t the en d o f th e decade, dwindling correspondence. Clara consulte d a lawye r abou t a divorc e i n 1911 . For th e nex t tw o t o thre e year s th e Rilkes mad e inquiries , but , a s th e biographer s tel l us , bureaucrati c an d legal difficulties, arisin g from suc h matter s a s nationality, lega l residence , and difference s i n religion , a s wel l a s th e tim e an d effor t an d mone y required, kep t the m fro m goin g throug h th e process. 4 Nearly a yea r afte r marryin g Clara , uncharacteristicall y searchin g fo r means t o suppor t hi s wif e an d newbor n daughter , Rilk e penne d a n ex planation o f hi s havin g marrie d withou t a job. H e ha d don e it , h e said , because a s a bachelo r h e ha d fel t "abandone d t o ever y wind , unpro tected" {Letters 1:61) . He ha d though t tha t marriag e woul d offe r shelte r from externa l pressures and distractions without violating his inwardness. These expectation s fade d al l to o swiftly . Withi n littl e mor e tha n a yea r of hi s wedding, th e poet kne w tha t h e had mad e a mistake, that h e coul d not fee l a t hom e wit h Clar a an d Ruth . Th e househol d h e ha d create d seemed alien , nothin g bu t a drai n o n hi s tim e an d energy . Wif e an d daughter wer e lik e unwelcom e visitors. 5 He ha d assume d tha t a house , a wife , an d a chil d woul d enabl e hi m to fee l mor e certai n o f hi s ow n existence . Wit h them , h e woul d becom e more visibl e an d palpabl e ("sichtbarer, " "greifbarer") . Thing s woul d n o longer g o throug h hi m a s if h e wer e no t there . Th e littl e hous e i n Wes terwede ha d bee n undeniabl y there . Bu t h e ha d no t fel t tha t i t wa s con nected wit h hi m o r tha t h e coul d begi n t o liv e and gro w i n it. 6 No t eve n his relationship with hi s daughter coul d brin g him the "feeling o f reality "

130 T O FIL L AL L TH E ROOM S O F YOU R SOU L ("Wirklichkeitsgefuhl"), th e experience of what it was like to be someon e real i n a rea l worl d ("Wirkliche r unte r Wirkliche m z u sein"). 7 I a m in terpreting th e languag e o f th e Novembe r 190 3 lette r t o Lo u cite d i n chapter 5 . Marriage wit h Clara , hi s rol e a s a parent , an d thei r littl e househol d were n o substitut e fo r th e los t hom e o f childhood , whic h h e ofte n be lieved h e ha d neve r had . The y wer e alie n t o hi m becaus e the y di d no t correspond t o an y consciou s o r unconsciou s memor y o r fantas y o f tha t early home . Escaping fro m them , h e sough t th e "feelin g o f reality " fro m a secon d powerfu l parenta l figure , wh o had , h e felt , a uniqu e gif t fo r conferring solidit y an d certaint y o n everythin g an d everyon e aroun d him—Rodin (se e Letters 1:123) .

CHAPTER 7

This Alway s Secre t Influenc e The Poet' s Changin g Relationshi p wit h Hi s Fathe r

I Rilke's relationshi p wit h hi s fathe r wa s fa r mor e comple x tha n a narro w "orthodox" Freudia n analysis , such a s Erich Simenauer's , would hav e it . Reduced b y Simenaue r t o oedipa l phas e antagonism , wit h expression s o f love an d estee m define d a s "nothin g mor e tha n 'cant', " camouflag e cre ated unde r th e dictate s o f th e superego , their relationshi p become s a simplistic cartoon. 1 I n this chapter I delineate the poet's multilayere d feeling s about Josef, hi s ambivalences , the conflict s an d tension s betwee n oppos ing emotion s an d attitudes , thei r origin s i n hi s pre-oedipa l childhood , and thei r developmen t durin g hi s adolescen t an d adul t years . It i s har d t o imagin e a les s likel y fathe r fo r thi s grea t poe t tha n th e railway inspecto r whos e ambitio n t o b e a n arm y office r wa s defeate d after te n year s o f service , thi s absurdl y old-fashione d gentleman , rigidl y devoted t o propriet y an d conformity . Nonetheless , t o argue , a s Simen auer does , that Rilke' s discoverie s o f redeemin g qualitie s i n hi s fathe r ar e simply defensive "reactio n formations," coverin g up hi s oedipal hostility , is t o mis s b y a mil e th e fascinatin g complexit y o f thi s relationshi p an d the father' s pervasiv e influenc e o n th e poet , whos e vocatio n Jose f coul d not begi n t o understan d o r value . Rilke expresse d th e belie f tha t hi s fathe r wa s "incapabl e o f love " i n a letter writte n earl y i n 191 4 t o Magd a vo n Hattingberg , eigh t year s afte r 131

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Josef Rilke' s death . I n thi s lette r h e complaine d tha t hi s father' s concer n for hi m ha d take n th e destructiv e for m o f "speechles s anxiety, " agains t which Raine r ha d foun d i t almos t impossibl e t o defen d himself . I t was , after all, the sourc e o f Josef's attentivenes s an d generosity. 2 In Jun e 191 4 Rilk e wrot e t o Lou , lamentin g th e "regio n airles s an d loveless" which he found i n himself. He wa s afraid tha t if any benevolen t and lovin g perso n cam e t o hi m t o tr y t o hel p him , h e woul d impriso n the kin d perso n i n thi s region , "s o tha t hi s aid , unusable , woul d gro w overripe i n hi m an d wilte d an d horribl y atrophied " {Letters 2:113) . Th e year before , h e had writte n t o Princes s Marie , explaining tha t h e was no t a love r possibl y becaus e h e coul d no t lov e hi s mother . H e lamente d thi s emotional poverty , associatin g i t with hi s cautio n an d fea r o f dange r (se e Letters 2:90) . Taken together , thes e letters suggest that i n his sense of bein g cripple d by a n "incapacit y fo r love, " th e poe t ma y hav e fel t identifie d wit h hi s father. On e ca n se e how th e feelin g tha t h e share d hi s father' s incapacit y for lov e would affec t hi s sens e o f himself . In thi s respec t Rilk e struggle d to overcome his father i n himself. In th e first fe w month s o f 1914 , Magda von Hattingber g raise d hi s hope s o f overcomin g thi s emotiona l sterility , but th e hope s soo n died . The descriptio n o f th e fathe r i n th e lette r t o vo n Hattingber g reveal s conflicting feeling s i n the son. To b e sure, one sees affection, compassion , and gratitude , bu t als o contemp t fo r th e ol d ma n s o fearfu l an d timid , so constricte d i n emotio n an d limite d i n understanding . Josef' s fea r i s recalled agai n i n th e fourt h Duin o Eleg y (1915) , wher e Rilk e think s o f his fathe r a s "occupie d [o r preoccupied ] wit h th e aftertast e o f suc h a n alien future" (hi s son's), and imagines that Josef has , since his death, ofte n experienced fea r withi n th e poet , "withi n m y hope. " und, mit dem Nachgeschmack s o fremder Zukunf t beschaftigt... der du, mein Vater, seit du tot bist , of t in meiner Hoffnung, inne n in mir, Angst hast. . . . (WDB 1:454) The passage suggests tha t th e poet ha s internalized an d identifie d himsel f with th e anxiou s fathe r an d thu s com e t o shar e th e paterna l fea r abou t his future . Eve n withi n hi s hop e th e so n finds th e gnawin g wor m o f Josef's anxiety , whic h ha s becom e par t o f himself .

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In a number o f letter s Rilk e contradict s thi s impressio n o f hi s father . In January 1923 , writing t o Countes s Margo t Sizzo , from th e perspectiv e of a man wh o ha d achieve d fulfillmen t i n hi s work (th e fina l Elegies, th e Sonnets), th e poe t remembere d th e stron g lov e betwee n hi m an d hi s fa ther i n hi s childhoo d an d hi s fea r tha t Josef's deat h migh t mea n th e en d of hi s ow n existence . Then , wit h wisdo m late r acquired , h e reflect s tha t death canno t negat e love, that i t thrusts someon e we have loved intensel y only mor e deepl y int o "ou r heart, " wher e th e dea d perso n continue s t o exercise a "secre t influence. " Thes e thought s lea d t o th e conclusio n "Where ca n w e com e close r t o it , wher e mor e purel y celebrat e it , whe n obey i t better , tha n whe n i t appear s linke d wit h ou r ow n voices , a s i f our hear t ha d learne d a new language , a new song , a new strength " (Letters 2:315-16) . Is Rilk e coverin g u p i n thi s lette r hi s tru e feeling s a s a chil d towar d his father ? H e doe s remembe r thei r "extremes t difficult y i n understand ing an d acceptin g on e another, " an d h e emphasize s th e grea t differenc e between thei r orientations . Fro m wha t w e kno w abou t hi s lif e a s a chil d and fro m wha t w e kno w generall y abou t th e way s i n whic h youn g chil dren experienc e thei r parents , hi s recollectio n o f hi s fantas y tha t los s o f his fathe r woul d mea n th e en d o f hi s ow n existenc e i s persuasive . Hi s mother's self-absorptio n an d withdrawa l ma y hav e encouraged a transfe r of suc h intens e feeling s o f dependenc y t o hi s father , a s Ren e bega n t o struggle to free himsel f fro m th e enmeshment with Phi a which continue d through muc h o f hi s life . I canno t agre e with Simenauer' s argumen t tha t such reflection s abou t hi s relationshi p wit h Jose f wer e "nothin g mor e than 'cant ' " o r a "reactio n formation, " reinforcin g th e repressio n o f hi s hostility towar d hi s fathe r b y exaggeratin g hi s lov e fo r him . Th e poet' s linking o f th e "ne w strength " whic h h e ha s foun d i n himsel f wit h hi s father's "ceaseless, " "secre t influence " reveal s a conceptio n o f Jose f which i s clearl y oppose d t o th e on e w e find i n th e lette r t o vo n Hat tingberg an d i n th e Fourt h Elegy . Bot h ma y b e partia l truths , reflectin g different aspect s o f th e fathe r an d o f hi s effec t upo n hi s son , brough t t o memory b y differen t mood s an d state s o f min d i n th e poet . Does Rilk e idealiz e hi s fathe r o r thei r relationshi p i n thi s lette r t o Margot Sizzo , writte n i n 1923 , s o lon g afte r Josef' s death ? Rathe r tha n "cant" o r cover-up , th e lette r ma y expres s a rediscover y o f th e strengt h of hi s childhoo d lov e fo r Josef , underlyin g doubt , resentment , hostility , and fear , a rediscovery arisin g ou t o f th e greate r confidenc e an d freedo m

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he had attaine d throug h hi s fulfillment an d extraordinar y achievemen t i n the Elegies an d th e Sonnets —above all , freedo m fro m repressio n an d defensiveness, and , a s a result , greate r acces s t o emotiona l energie s an d to memories . In commentin g o n Rilke' s relationshi p wit h Phi a I referre d t o Harol d Searles's observation s concernin g patient s whos e fea r o f thei r earl y lov e for thei r mother s ha d cause d the m t o repres s it . Through analysi s Searle s was abl e to hel p som e o f hi s patients "de-repress " this long-unconsciou s love. Searles's supporting evidenc e for thi s argument i s persuasive.3 Fro m many o f th e image s o f th e fathe r i n Rilke' s writings , i t seem s clea r tha t the affectio n h e expresse s fo r Jose f involve d somethin g lik e thi s retrieva l of earl y feelings. Obviousl y ther e was ambivalence . Some o f th e passage s expressing lov e fo r th e fathe r sugges t attempt s t o cove r u p hostility . A t times th e retrieva l o f genuin e affectio n ma y hav e becom e confuse d wit h the nee d t o vei l painfull y negativ e attitudes . Suc h confusion s an d ambi guities o f genuin e self-expressivenes s an d defensiv e concealmen t ma y b e found i n al l o f us . Th e affectio n fo r th e fathe r show n i n letters , poems , and Ewald Tragy probabl y ha d it s root s i n period s o f Rilke' s childhoo d preceding the "oedipal phase," which is the focus o f Simenauer's analysis . On hi s nineteent h birthda y Rilk e wrot e t o Valer y David-Rhonfeld , his fiancee, "I f i n m y father' s hous e lov e wa s show n m e wit h bot h car e and concer n onl y b y m y papa , I wa s i n genera l throw n entirel y upo n my ow n resources. " Ther e i s a mixe d messag e here . Th e emphasi s fall s upon th e child' s neglec t b y everyone . Muc h o f th e lette r i s devote d t o the youn g man' s bitte r resentmen t o f hi s mother' s behavior . Bu t h e dis tinguishes betwee n hi s parents , creditin g hi s fathe r wit h "bot h car e an d concern," which a t this point i n his life he does not reduc e to "speechles s anxiety" (Letters 1:18-19) . While som e biographer s suspec t tha t th e poet' s memor y o r imagina tion distorte d th e mothe r o f hi s childhood , ther e i s littl e evidenc e tha t Rilke's recollection s o f hi s father's solicitud e were inaccurate . E. M. But ler tell s u s tha t Jose f change d hi s son' s nurs e twenty-fou r time s i n Rai ner's first yea r o f life. 4 Obviousl y thi s piec e o f informatio n ha s a doubl e edge. I t suggest s hi s devotio n t o hi s infan t so n wa s fraugh t wit h th e infectious anxiet y whic h th e poe t foun d distastefu l an d destructive . Psychological studie s of th e father's rol e in the pre-oedipal years mak e Rilke's statement s abou t Josef's importanc e t o hi m durin g hi s childhoo d

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more intelligible . Som e chil d psychologist s se e th e fathe r "a s a powerfu l and necessar y suppor t agains t th e pul l bac k t o th e primar y undifferen tiated symbioti c phase " durin g th e secon d yea r o f childhood. 5 The y tel l us that the child's attachment t o the father ("establishmen t o f a libidinally cathected objec t representatio n o f th e father," i n their technical language ) "promotes separation." 6 H e i s perceive d mor e objectivel y an d realisti cally tha n th e mothe r durin g th e secon d year . H e i s felt t o b e part o f th e external worl d a t a tim e whe n th e mothe r i s stil l extensivel y confuse d with th e self . "Some youngster s see m t o tur n exclusivel y t o th e fathe r t o evade the regressive pull, while others ar e so ambivalently enmeshe d wit h their mother s tha t the y d o no t hav e tim e fo r thei r fathers." 7 Thes e ten dencies d o no t en d wit h th e secon d year . They ma y influenc e muc h late r stages o f life , thoug h th e influenc e ma y b e unconscious . Rilk e seem s t o have bee n caugh t betwee n thes e tw o opposin g inclinations . We ca n fin d both attitude s reflecte d i n hi s work . In Ewald Tragy (1898) , a novell a whic h i s crud e an d obviousl y au tobiographical, th e mothe r i s absent , a n objec t o f longin g an d bitterness , while the father i s central in the first par t o f th e narrative. He i s the focu s of a rang e o f conflictin g feeling s i n hi s son , fro m humiliatio n an d con tempt t o love , tender concern , admiration , an d a strong sens e o f affinity . Ewald Trag y i s eighteen . Rilk e wa s probabl y twenty-tw o whe n h e wrote th e story . Hi s portraya l o f Ewald' s closenes s t o hi s fathe r an d o f Herr vo n Tragy' s centralit y i n hi s son' s lif e a t thi s tim e whe n th e bo y i s determined t o ge t awa y fro m Pragu e an d hi s family, an d hi s dramatizin g of bot h positiv e an d negativ e feeling s towar d th e fathe r i n al l thei r in tensity ar e compelling an d convincin g despit e or , perhaps, because of th e rawness o f th e work . Herr vo n Trag y give s "commands " t o hi s teenag e son . H e i s peremptory an d abrup t wit h him , humiliatin g Ewal d b y snatchin g hi s ha t of f his head becaus e h e think s th e dus t o n th e ha t disgrace s the m i n th e eye s of peopl e the y meet . Th e "inspector " i s angr y wit h hi s so n becaus e Ewald i s about t o leav e him t o g o t o Munich . Th e stor y seem s t o reflec t Rilke's guil t a t leavin g hi s father . Sayin g tha t h e wil l no t hol d Ewal d back, Her r vo n Trag y trie s t o persuad e hi m t o remai n a t home , askin g him wha t h e lacks , pointing ou t tha t i f h e remain s i n Pragu e an d treat s "people correctly , the bes t houses will be open t o you" (ET, 8) . Reacting with angr y scor n t o thi s line of persuasion, Ewald replies , "That's al l you

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are concerne d about . T o li e o n one' s bell y befor e . . . people—that' s th e right way ; an d t o craw l o n one' s bell y t o . . . money—that' s th e goal , isn't it? " (ET, 9) . The materia l probabl y come s fro m th e tim e whe n Rilk e wa s twent y (1896) rathe r tha n eighteen , an d th e choic e o f Ewald' s ag e suggest s tha t the autho r wishe s t o plac e mor e distanc e betwee n himsel f an d th e younger sel f h e i s writin g about. 8 N o doubt , a s h e looke d bac k o n hi s shame and rage , Rilke coul d b e more objective . But , reading thi s novella , one ca n see tha t th e younge r self' s contemp t fo r th e attitude s o f th e Prague bourgeoisie , exemplifie d b y th e father , persiste d i n th e author . The novell a delineate s th e othe r sid e o f Ewald' s ambivalenc e a s well , his love for hi s father. Th e "ol d gentleman " smiles at his son an d answer s "patiently," bu t finally th e teenager' s rag e get s t o him . "Th e ol d office r in him " "commands " hi s son , "Don' t yell! " an d fo r a secon d tim e "crosses, with rigi d formality , t o th e othe r sid e o f th e street. " Then , a s Ewald watche s him , "I t i s somewha t disquietin g t o se e th e ol d ma n s o completely abandone d o n th e endlessl y bar e sidewalk . Ho w alon e h e is , he thinks,—an d i f somethin g shoul d happe n t o him . Hi s eye s d o no t leave th e fathe r an y more " (ET, 10) . Are w e t o doub t th e feeling s expresse d here ? Commentator s o n thi s early story agree that it is autobiographical. Is this passage "cant"? Surel y it doe s no t reflec t a cover-up , a denial , o r som e othe r for m o f self deceptive defense. The son' s hostility is not hidde n i n the story . I suspec t that Rilk e ha s recapture d hi s intensel y ambivalen t feeling s rathe r accu rately i n thi s scene , whic h i s bot h movin g an d funny , a s i n th e clums y way i n whic h Ewald , no w onc e mor e standin g besid e hi s father , trie s t o express hi s love , although h e i s unwavering i n hi s determinatio n t o leav e the ol d ma n t o g o t o Munich : Ewald begs: "Papa!" Fo r a moment h e i s confused , an d the n th e word s tumbl e ou t o f hi s mouth: "Yo u shoul d tur n u p you r collar , Papa—i t i s alway s s o chill y o n th e staircase." (ET, 10-11 ) Josef Rilk e oppose d hi s son's vocation . Writing i n April 190 3 to Elle n Key, the Swedish author , whose enthusiasti c reactions t o hi s early Stories of God mad e he r see m a potential sourc e o f financial an d emotiona l sup port, h e says , "M y whol e ar t ha s grow n u p fro m it s first da y agains t

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opposition: agains t th e laughte r an d scor n o f th e noncommissione d of ficers, against my father, agains t all about me " (Letters 1:100) . Carl Siebe r quotes a not e Jose f Rilk e sen t t o Phi a whil e thei r so n wa s i n militar y school, urgin g he r no t t o excit e Rene' s emotion s wit h he r extravagan t letters, t o kee p the m short , an d no t t o encourag e hi m t o writ e poetry. 9 In Ewald Tragy, Ewal d describe s hi s father' s lac k o f fait h i n hi s vo cation i n term s tha t emphasiz e th e ol d man' s bourgeoi s value s an d in comprehension. H e tell s a French gir l tha t Her r vo n Trag y consider s hi s desire t o b e a poet "simpl y ridiculous, " becaus e "i t i s n o profession . I t does no t pay , on e doe s no t belon g t o an y class , i s no t entitle d t o an y pension, i n a word : on e i s disconnecte d fro m life. " Th e passag e als o reflects th e effec t o f Jose f Rilke' s narrow , timi d doubt s an d fear s upo n his son . Ewal d goe s o n t o say , "An d I mysel f hav e s o man y doubts . Really: I spend whole nights lying awake with folded hand s and torturin g myself. 'Am I worthy?' " (ET, 21) . Perhaps the young author o f the stor y wondered i f h e woul d eve r writ e poetr y whic h migh t redee m hi m fro m the fea r an d doub t Jose f ha d fostered . Hi s father' s belie f tha t a poet "i s disconnected fro m life " migh t tur n ou t t o b e tru e i n hi s case . Obviousl y this fea r goe s beyon d superficia l concern s (pay , class , pension) t o some thing els e whic h profoundl y concerne d Rainer . I n Pari s Mak e Laurid s Brigge i s "disconnected " fro m th e lif e aroun d him . An d Rilke' s letter s suggest tha t a t time s h e wa s n o bette r of f tha n Mak e i n thi s respect . Writing t o Elle n Ke y abou t hi s father's inarticulat e kindnes s an d anx iety fo r him , Rilk e imagine d tha t Jose f yearne d t o understan d wh o h e was an d wha t h e wa s doing . Livin g o n th e ol d ma n wa s doubl y painfu l because h e s o completel y lacke d confidenc e i n wha t hi s so n wa s doing . Deeply trouble d becaus e h e coul d find n o othe r wa y t o suppor t himself , the poe t longe d t o sho w hi s fathe r " a great , grea t dea l o f love " (Letters 1:99). The complexit y o f th e analysi s in thi s lette r encourage s m e to trus t the poet' s sens e o f hi s fathe r an d hi s accoun t o f hi s ow n feelings . A t th e time th e ol d ma n wa s suggestin g tha t Raine r tak e a proper jo b an d giv e up thi s perverse , irresponsibl e wa y o f life ; Rilk e explaine d t o Ke y tha t such a job would b e like his old militar y school o r a jail, though h e note d that Jose f wa s no t pressin g him , jus t offerin g t o find hi m employmen t in Pragu e i f a t las t he would se e that hi s present wa y o f lif e wa s a failur e (Letters 1:103) . A t twenty-seve n th e poe t wa s awar e o f a rang e o f con flicting feeling s abou t hi s father . Here , a s i n Ewald Tragy, ther e i s n o reason t o believ e tha t th e love , gratitude , an d empatheti c understandin g

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are any more superficial o r less honest than the resentment and the desire to b e freed fro m dependenc e o n thi s very limited, uncomprehending ol d man. I hav e sai d tha t Ewald Tragy i s raw . Ye t th e scen e i n whic h Ewal d talks t o th e Frenc h gir l i n hi s aunt' s hom e skillfull y creates , wit h dia logue, Ewald' s thoughts , an d a few gestures , a many-sided relationshi p between fathe r an d son . Afte r Ewal d ha s lamente d hi s ba d luc k i n par ents, he "remain s sad and silent." In a good moo d th e inspector "gentl y taps hi s so n o n th e shoulder : 'Well , ol d man? ' " Poo r Ewal d "trie s t o smile an d kisse s hi s hand, " a s th e ol d ma n blindl y decide s tha t hi s so n is no t goin g t o leav e him . The n th e scen e come s t o a focus i n a passage of grea t clarity which suggest s tha t even in 189 8 Rilk e coul d b e extraor dinarily articulat e i n definin g hi s feeling s abou t other s (her e the y ar e projected ont o hi s fictional surrogate) . Ewal d i s talkin g t o th e Frenc h girl: "Yo u see , thi s i s ho w h e hold s me . S o gently , withou t forc e o r influence, almos t with nothing bu t a memory, a s though he were saying: 'Once yo u wer e small , an d ever y yea r I li t a Christmas tre e fo r you — remember?'—With al l thi s h e make s m e quit e weak . Hi s kindnes s ha s no exit , an d behin d hi s wrat h ther e i s a n abyss . I a m not brav e enoug h for thi s leap." 10 Herr von Trag y differ s markedl y fro m th e oedipa l father s i n Kafka' s writings an d D . H . Lawrence' s Sons and Lovers, thoug h ther e i s a suspicion her e o f lurkin g wrath . Exemplar y kindnes s an d goodnes s i n a parent ca n mak e i t ver y har d fo r th e chil d t o liberat e himsel f fro m th e parent's wishes , fears , an d pressures . The Prodiga l So n episod e i n The Notebooks reaffirm s thi s theme . Rilke's repeatedl y expresse d distast e fo r possessive lov e was probabl y roote d i n the manipulation s o f th e parent s who coddle d hi m as a youngster, as he tells Ellen Key. Parental kindnes s may becom e a priso n fro m which , i t seems , ther e i s n o exit . An d th e father wh o keep s hi s ange r largely i n reserve , while givin g hi s so n hint s of it , but, for the most part, shows him benevolence and generosity, suc h a father ma y hav e mor e power t o hol d an d manipulate hi s so n tha n on e who show s littl e kindnes s an d a lot o f anger . Paul Morel in D. H. Lawrence's novel Sons and Lovers, i s largely freed from hi s father' s powe r b y th e olde r man' s rage s an d ba d treatmen t o f the mother, while the mother, with her love, holds her son far too tightl y for hi s ow n good . Livin g a life whic h radicall y goe s agains t th e wishe s of a parent who show s muc h kindnes s an d generosity , an d continue s t o

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do s o despit e hi s doub t an d fear , i s likel y t o giv e on e a sore conscience . We ca n believ e tha t Rilke' s lette r t o Elle n Ke y i n 190 3 trul y expresse s the sufferin g h e fel t whe n h e though t o f hi s father . Parental kindnes s whic h ha s no exi t and make s th e child fee l wea k ca n inspire hat e an d eve n th e desir e t o murder . I canno t argu e wit h Simen auer's conclusio n tha t Make' s accoun t o f th e perforatio n o f hi s father' s heart afte r th e ol d man' s deat h an d o f hi s ow n reactio n t o thi s grisl y ritual suggest s a desir e t o kil l hi s fathe r o r se e hi m dead . Her r Brigge' s death i s a welcome sourc e o f freedo m an d independence . But th e feeling s in Rilk e whic h thi s episod e reflect s wer e par t o f a large r rang e o f con flicting emotion s whic h develope d i n th e poe t a t variou s stage s o f hi s life. The y canno t b e interprete d merel y i n term s o f a n oversimplifie d version o f th e oedipa l theory . As fo r th e wrat h wit h a n "abyss " behin d it , imagine d b y Ewald , w e have observe d tha t Her r vo n Trag y doe s sho w anger , as , fo r example , when h e snatche s of f Ewald' s dust y hat . Bu t h e keep s hi s ange r unde r control an d give s wa y t o i t infrequently . A fathe r whos e suspecte d rag e seems t o lur k behin d kindness , givin g onl y hint s o f itself , ma y b e mor e frightening tha n on e whos e ange r explode s an d let s itsel f b e see n t o it s full extent . No t knowin g ho w t o measur e a father's ange r ma y creat e th e fear tha t i t ha s th e powe r t o annihilat e one . Ye t readin g thi s story , i n which th e father appear s relatively mild and the son vents a harsher anger , I suspec t tha t th e dange r o f annihilatio n b y th e father's ange r is a fantas y arising, a t leas t i n part , fro m unconsciou s projection . Thi s i s t o sa y tha t young Rilke , identifyin g himself , t o a larg e extent , wit h Ewald , uncon sciously projecte d hi s ow n ange r ont o Her r vo n Tragy , who m h e iden tified wit h hi s father . Often th e punishin g o r murderou s fathe r i n th e min d i s invested wit h such projecte d and , thus , fantastica l anger . Doe s th e fathe r whos e wrat h has th e powe r t o annihilat e th e so n tur n u p i n Rilke' s late r work ? Onl y rarely. Later I shall discuss the poem "Davi d Sing s before Saul, " in which this fantas y o f th e fathe r i s obliquel y represente d i n a n oedipa l compe tition fo r women . D o th e terrifyin g Angel s o f th e Firs t an d Secon d Ele gies represen t thi s wrat h a t a later date , a s they see m t o menac e th e poe t with annihilation ? I f so , an analys t migh t argu e tha t th e menacin g pater nal rage has gon e through severa l stages of displacemen t fro m it s origina l source. Originall y foun d i n th e fathe r himsel f o r projecte d i n th e son' s perceptions o f th e father , th e analys t woul d sa y tha t i t wa s the n take n

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into th e supereg o an d projecte d ont o thes e figures o f th e imagination , who d o see m t o embod y projection s o f th e superego' s powe r t o anni hilate th e sel f an d o f th e eg o idea l towar d whic h th e poe t i s aspiring . I n the Sevent h Elegy , th e poe t hold s of f th e menacin g Angel s wit h th e "powerful current " o f hi s "voice, " his "cry " (SP, 19 1 an d 187) . But th e comparatively abstrac t Angel s o f th e Elegie s see m fa r remove d fro m th e highly individualized , autobiographica l fantasie s o f th e fathe r whic h w e find i n Ewald Tragy.

II About five o r si x year s afte r writin g Ewald Tragy, Rilk e bega n t o re create earlie r stage s o f hi s lif e i n th e thicke r disguise s o f The Notebooks of Make Laurids Brigge. Th e autobiographica l materia l was mor e exten sively transforme d i n thi s late r work , part s o f whic h wer e shee r inven tion. On e importan t differenc e betwee n th e tw o book s lie s i n th e characterization o f th e mothe r an d th e father. Make' s Mama n i s far mor e sympathetic tha n hi s father . Th e maste r o f th e hun t i s a n unwelcom e intruder o n thos e brief , rar e occasion s whe n Mama n spend s tim e wit h Make: "Bu t w e di d rea d a little, so tha t w e woul d loo k occupied ; i t wa s unpleasant fo r u s when anyon e cam e in, to hav e to explai n what w e wer e doing; especiall y towar d father , w e wer e exaggeratedl y explicit " {99). As w e hav e seen , Make' s lov e an d admiratio n o f Mama n ar e centra l in th e novel , an d h e i s rathe r distan t fro m hi s father . I f ther e ar e hint s that Maman i s not a perfect mother , the critical attitude toward th e fathe r is explicit . Whe n th e parent s ar e calle d hom e fro m th e crow n prince' s ball becaus e Mak e i s feverish , badl y frightened , an d i n a rage, the fathe r is stern , i f als o gentle . "An d m y fathe r ordere d m e t o sa y wha t wa s th e matter. It was a friendly, softene d order , but it was an order nevertheless " (96). The master of the hunt her e is reminiscent of Herr von Tragy. When the bo y doe s no t answer , hi s fathe r become s impatient . The echoin g o f "befahl " ("ordered " o r "commanded" ) i n "Befehl " (the noun, "order " o r "command" ) remind s on e of Josef Rilke' s militar y background an d mentality . A s I hav e indicated , Make' s fathe r i s a n of ficer o f th e court , th e maste r o f th e hunt . I n Ewald Tragy, w e ar e tol d Herr vo n Trag y i s a n ol d officer . Rilke' s fathe r serve d i n th e Austria n army, inten t upo n a caree r a s a n officer . Disappointe d i n thi s hop e (h e

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did no t receiv e a commission an d withdre w fro m activ e servic e afte r te n years i n th e army) , h e wa s determine d tha t hi s so n shoul d becom e a n officer an d achiev e th e kin d o f glor y whic h h e ha d to o briefl y taste d a s commander o f the fortress a t Brescia in the Franco-Austrian Wa r of 1859 . The maste r o f th e hunt , orderin g hi s raging , frightened , feveris h so n to explai n himself , seem s a n indirec t reflectio n o f Rilke' s distast e fo r hi s own father' s associatio n wit h th e militar y life , it s value s an d style . Ye t the poetry an d pros e Rilk e wrote fro m hi s earl y year s unti l h e witnesse d the hideou s spectacl e o f Worl d Wa r I revea l tha t h e ha d internalize d hi s father's ideal s an d fantasie s o f militar y glory , tha t he , a t leas t partly , identified wit h Jose f i n thi s respect , an d wa s fascinate d b y storie s o f heroes an d battles . Carl Sieber , th e poet' s son-in-law , inform s u s tha t fro m th e firs t i t was determined Ren e would b e an army officer . Th e bo y receive d dumb bells fo r exercise . H e ha d ti n soldier s t o deplo y i n imaginar y skirmishe s like th e one s h e sketched . Hi s mothe r tol d Siebe r tha t h e wa s traine d i n making militar y reports . H e wor e medal s fo r battle s th e imperia l arm y had fought . Hi s father' s sister' s husban d sen t Rene a sabre an d a helmet. 1 Though h e hate d th e tw o militar y school s t o whic h Jose f sen t him , St. Polte n an d Mahrisch-Weisskirchen , an d finall y persuade d hi s fathe r to let him leave the second on e in June 1891 , after thi s release Rene wrot e his mother , "[T]h e militar y professio n i s th e onl y professio n fo r whic h I long . I hav e take n of f th e Emperor' s coa t t o pu t i t o n agai n i n a littl e while—forever; an d b e convinced , I wil l wea r i t wit h honor." 2 Whil e studying a t St . Polten , Ren e dreame d o f gatherin g laurel s i n wa r an d wrote eighty-on e page s o f a History of the Thirty-Years War, whic h shows hi s fascination wit h suc h militar y heroes a s Wallenstein, Tilly, an d Gustavus Adolphus. 3 A numbe r o f Rilke' s earl y poem s reflec t th e exten t t o whic h Josef' s preoccupation wit h militar y glor y affecte d hi s son . Th e mos t famou s o f these i s "Th e La y o f th e Lov e an d Deat h o f Corne t Christop h Rilke " ("Die Weis e von Lieb e und To d de s Cornet s Christop h Rilke") , writte n in th e autumn o f 1899 , revised i n 190 4 and 1906 . Dashed of f i n on e nigh t when Rilk e wa s twenty-three , th e Cornet tell s th e stor y o f Christop h Rilke, wh o fough t i n th e Imperia l Austria n arm y agains t th e Turk s i n Hungary i n 166 3 an d die d i n battle . This romanti c tal e o f old-fashione d heroism wa s inspire d b y som e famil y paper s whic h th e poet' s Uncl e Jaroslav ha d go t fro m th e Roya l Saxo n Stat e Archive s i n hi s attemp t t o

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prove tha t th e Rilke s o f Pragu e wer e closel y relate d t o th e nobl e ol d Saxon famil y b y th e sam e name . Thousand s o f Germa n soldier s carrie d the Cornet wit h the m int o battl e i n th e Firs t Worl d War . A t eightee n Christoph Rilke , a knight i n armo r i n th e youthfu l first version , a squir e in th e tighter , tougher , artisticall y mor e sophistocate d third , i s mad e a cornet (ensign ) b y th e grea t genera l Coun t Spork . Leppman n point s ou t that thi s wa s youn g Jose f Rilke' s highes t ran k i n th e Imperia l Austria n Army. 4 Th e corne t rescue s a nake d woman , tie d t o a tree , cuttin g he r bloody ropes ; sleeps with a countess i n he r castle ; races ou t o f th e burn ing castl e afte r th e pagan s wh o hav e se t th e castl e afire , an d carrie s th e flag beyon d hi s ow n arm y int o th e mids t o f th e enemy , wh o kil l him : "But, a s they clos e in about him , they see m to be certainly garden s again , and th e sixtee n curve d sabres , whic h lea p u p toward s him , flas h afte r flash, ar e a festival. A laughin g fountai n display " (WSR, 88) . If th e origina l inspiratio n fo r th e Cornet cam e surel y fro m Rilke' s identification wit h hi s fathe r a s th e youn g cade t wh o ha d commande d the citade l a t Bresci a i n 1859 , an d wit h hi s paterna l uncl e i n Jaroslav' s mooning ove r fantasie s o f nobl e warrio r ancestors , the poe m als o show s the importanc e o f th e absen t mothe r i n Rilke' s mind , eve n in 1899 . Time and agai n th e poe m return s t o th e though t o f a mother o r mother s wh o have bee n lef t behin d b y th e youn g me n ridin g ou t t o war . Contem plating a drooping youn g Frenc h marquis , Christop h Rilk e say s t o him , "You hav e strang e eyes , m y Lor d Marquis . Yo u mus t favou r you r mother," a t which "th e youngste r revive s an d brushe s th e dus t fro m hi s collar an d i s lik e a new man " (WSR, 79) . In th e next paragraph, "[s]omeon e is talking about hi s mother." Thes e "gentlemen" fro m man y differen t countrie s "ar e al l unite d i n on e com mon feeling, " "[a] s i f ther e wer e bu t one mother. " Later i n th e Cornet Christop h Rilk e write s a letter t o hi s mother : "Dearest Mother, "be proud: I carry the flag, "be undisturbed: I carry the flag, "love me: I carry the flag—" (WSR, 83) It i s eas y t o se e tha t th e energ y behin d thi s ferventl y inspire d wor k o f one night , whic h brough t Rilk e long-lastin g popularity , th e splendi d en ergy whic h als o mad e hi m g o bac k t o th e poe m i n 190 4 an d 190 6 t o

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work i t over very carefully , mus t hav e been fostered b y th e paternal idea l which h e ha d take n int o himsel f an d b y th e longin g fo r th e ideall y sup portive mothe r h e fel t h e ha d neve r had . I n th e poem' s las t section , a courier fro m Christoph' s commande r ride s int o Langenau , Christoph' s home village , wit h hi s lette r t o hi s mother . "Ther e h e behel d a n ol d woman weeping' ' (WSR, 88) . In writin g th e Cornet, throug h identificatio n wit h hi s youn g hero , Rainer ma y hav e experience d a brief , sublimated , limite d fulfillmen t o f his father' s fondes t aspiration s fo r him , afte r disappointin g th e ol d ma n in reality . He als o invente d a mother wh o woul d griev e fo r he r los t son . In th e Cornet th e poe t accomplishe d i n sublimate d for m wha t hi s pater nal uncl e wa s no t abl e t o d o i n fact . H e gav e a vivi d lif e t o th e vagu e legend o f th e ol d Saxo n Rilkes , linkin g the m inseparabl y throug h hi s authorship wit h th e moder n Pragu e family . An d perhap s Rilk e felt , a s he provided th e young cornet with his marvelous adventures an d gloriou s death, tha t h e wa s writin g abou t tha t othe r youn g corne t whos e adven ture i n th e arm y ha d ende d badly , re-creatin g hi s father' s lif e i n a muc h more appealin g form . Rilke's poetr y show s tha t Josef' s militar y ideals , memories , an d dreams, whic h Raine r ha d mad e a par t o f himsel f a s a child , continue d to influenc e hi m a t leas t unti l th e beginnin g o f th e Firs t Worl d war , when, i n Augus t 1914 , h e wrot e th e five hymn s t o th e wa r god . Th e poet's continuin g identificatio n wit h hi s father' s attachmen t t o militar y ideals wa s probabl y als o a sourc e o f inspiratio n fo r th e sixt h Duin o El egy, a celebratio n o f th e hero , mos t o f whic h wa s writte n i n 191 2 an d 1913. The childhoo d fantas y o f th e youn g fathe r a s a commander o f th e citadel a t Bresci a i n th e Franco-Austria n Wa r o f 185 9 an d th e fantasie s of ancestra l heroes, which hi s father an d hi s Uncle Jaroslav fostered, ma y well hav e playe d a part i n inspirin g an d shapin g thi s Elegy: 5 Wunderlich na h ist der Hel d doc h den jugendlich Toten . Dauern ficht ihn nicht an. Sein Aufgang is t Dasein; bestandig nimmt e r sich fort un d trit t ins veranderte Sternbil d seiner steten Gefahr . Dor t fande n ih n wenige. Aber, das uns finster verschweigt, das plotzlich begeistert e Schicksal singt ihn hinein i n den Sturm seiner aufrauschenden Welt . Hor ic h doch keinen wie ihn. Auf einma l durchgeht mic h mit der stromenden Luf t sei n verdunkelter Ton .

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The her o i s strangel y clos e t o thos e wh o die d young . Permanence does no t concer n him . H e live s i n continua l ascent , moving o n int o th e ever-change d constellatio n of perpetua l danger . Fe w coul d fin d hi m there . Bu t Fate, whic h i s silen t abou t us , suddenl y grow s inspire d and sing s hi m int o th e stor m o f hi s onrushin g world . I hea r n o on e lik e him. Al l a t onc e I a m pierce d by hi s darkene d voice , carrie d o n th e streamin g air . (SP, 182-83 ) The hideou s realitie s o f Worl d Wa r I undermine d thi s par t o f J o s e f s influence o n Rainer . Soo n afte r writin g th e fiv e hymns , h e bega n t o ex press hi s revulsio n fro m th e war . Hi s force d inductio n int o th e arm y reserve i n 191 6 intensifie d hi s dislik e o f th e military . Nonetheless , i t i s hard t o believ e tha t h e eve r entirel y los t al l vestige s o f hi s attachmen t t o those earl y image s o f hi s fathe r a s a y o u n g hero , commandin g a for t during th e Franco-Austria n Wa r o f 1859 . I n 1916 , afte r havin g bee n dis charged fro m militar y servic e becaus e s o man y importan t an d powerfu l people ha d intervene d o n hi s behalf , Rilk e wrote , "Somewher e ther e i s a strai n o f ol d soldier' s bloo d i n m e tha t make s m e ashame d t o creat e such a fus s an d t o b e suc h a rebel." 6 H e complete d hi s celebratio n o f th e hero, th e Sixt h Elegy , i n 1922 , addin g th e followin g lines : War e r nich t Hel d scho n i n dir , o Mutter , began n nich t dort schon , i n dir , sein e herrisch e Auswahl ? Tausende braute n i m Schoos s un d wollte n er sein , aber sieh : e r egrif f un d Hes s aus— , wahlte un d konnte . Und wen n e r Saule n zerstiess , s o wars , d a e r ausbrac h aus de r Wel t deine s Leib s i n di e enger e Welt , w o e r weite r wahlte un d konnte . O Mutte r de r Helden , o Ursprun g reissender Strdme ! Ih r Schluchten , i n di e sic h hoch vo n de m Herzrand , klagend , schon di e Madche n gestiirtzt , kunfti g di e Opfe r de m Sohn . Wasn't h e a hero insid e you , mother ? didn' t his imperiou s choosin g alread y begi n there , i n you ? Thousands seethe d i n you r womb , wantin g t o b e him, but look : h e graspe d an d excluded— , chos e an d prevailed . And i f h e demolishe d pillars , i t wa s whe n h e burs t from th e worl d o f you r bod y int o th e narrowe r world , wher e

again

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he chose and prevailed. O mother s o f heroes , O source s of ravagin g floods! You ravines into which virgins have plunged, lamenting, from th e highest rim o f th e heart, sacrifices t o the son. (SP, 182-85) Thus th e realit y o f Josef Rilke' s disappointmen t an d frustratio n a s h e grubbed hi s wa y i n demeanin g railwa y job s di d no t obliterat e Rainer' s identification wit h hi s fathe r i n Josef's militar y memories , fantasies , an d aspirations. No r di d Rilke' s growin g master y an d recognitio n a s a poe t and hi s relationshi p wit h Rodin , th e fathe r surrogat e wh o provide d hi m with a n idea l mode l o f master y i n a n art . In th e scen e o f Make' s parents ' retur n fro m th e crow n prince' s ball , th e master o f th e hunt' s insensitivit y an d lac k o f sympath y ar e nuanced. Th e order Make' s fathe r give s hi m i s "friendly , softened " (96). Ther e i s a t least a modicum o f sensitivit y an d benevolenc e i n the father a t this point . But Her r Brigg e take s hi s son' s puls e an d says , "Wha t nonsens e t o sen d for us " (97). The respons e o f th e fathe r seem s al l the wors e becaus e i t i s motivate d by hi s desire to ge t bac k t o th e crow n prince' s ball . "They ha d promise d to g o bac k i f i t wa s nothin g serious " (97) . Ye t a s a n adul t o f twenty eight, looking back upon hi s childish terrors , Make agree s with hi s fathe r in hi s skeptica l respons e t o th e child' s fears : "certainl y i t wa s nothin g serious" (yj). Is this irony? As an adult Make stil l experiences those fear s with al l th e child' s feveris h intensity . An d s o di d Rilke , a s hi s letter s reveal. Durin g 190 2 an d 190 3 th e reawakene d anxietie s o f hi s childhoo d threatened t o overwhel m him . Ye t h e als o kne w tha t i f h e coul d maste r them an d tur n the m int o poetr y o r prose , the y woul d prov e a resourc e for hi s genius . I n writin g th e scen e o f th e parents ' retur n fro m th e bal l to th e feveris h boy , h e wa s givin g himsel f confirmatio n o f hi s mastery . Make's retrospectiv e affirmatio n o f hi s father' s vie w expresse s th e sid e of Rilk e tha t wa s impatien t wit h hi s ow n weaknesses , his fears , hi s emo tional illness , an d longe d t o hav e th e toughnes s an d unyieldin g strengt h of wil l h e ha d foun d i n Rodin , th e maste r an d secon d fathe r wh o wa s his mode l an d a grea t sourc e o f strengt h durin g th e year s 1902-6 . Other interpreter s hav e rightl y foun d oedipa l feeling s i n thi s episod e of The Notebooks. Thoug h ther e i s nothing lik e th e seethin g reactio n o f Paul Morel' s fathe r i n Lawrence' s Sons and Lovers t o th e physica l affec -

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tion between Paul and his mother, one can sense the anger lurking behind the master of th e hunt's impatience and in his "What nonsense.". . . We are told that in his fever Make is possessed by rage. Its source and object are no t named . Bu t th e scen e a s a whole intimate s wher e i t i s comin g from. Readin g th e passage, one feel s tha t the child' s fury arise s from th e father's lac k o f sympathy , th e mother' s submissivenes s t o th e maste r o f the hunt, an d his abilit y to separat e his son from thi s enchanting mothe r so easil y whe n sh e i s mos t needed . Maman , muc h a s sh e love s he r son , spends littl e tim e wit h hi m an d ha s persuade d hi m t o preten d t o b e a little girl , t o den y th e littl e bo y i n himsel f i n orde r t o pleas e her . Thus , the novel make s one feel tha t the boy's rag e arises partly from his moth er's behavior an d tha t Rilke transferre d th e ange r arouse d b y he r t o th e father. This latent transference helps him to isolate and distance, and thus to defend , th e lov e Mak e feel s fo r hi s enchantin g Mama n from hi s rage. The ide a tha t Mak e migh t b e angr y wit h Mama n i s neve r expresse d i n the novel .

Ill Elsewhere i n The Notebooks th e fathe r evoke s littl e sympathy , except , perhaps, whe n Mak e see s hi m lai d ou t afte r hi s death . I n compariso n with Her r vo n Tragy , th e maste r o f th e hun t seem s relativel y flat , sim plified. H e i s a n aristocrat, but he makes on e thin k o f Kokoschka' s por traits o f th e Viennes e bourgeoisi e an d o f Grosz' s satiri c sketche s an d lithographs o f Germa n civilia n an d military bureaucrats . Make remembers his father's stiffness an d rigid concern for social propriety an d contrasts Maman with him in this respect. "A s for my father , his attitud e towar d Go d wa s perfectl y correc t an d irreproachabl y cour teous. . . . Maman , o n th e othe r hand , though t i t almos t offensiv e tha t anyone's relationshi p wit h Go d coul d b e merely polite" (109-10). Here , as elsewhere , th e hard , shar p edg e o f Make' s (Rilke's ) iron y make s th e haughty fathe r a contemptible figure . The contras t betwee n th e parent s emphasizes th e deadnes s o f th e one , th e vitality o f th e other . The artist son's hostile destructiveness is all the more damaging because in the years since h e ha d written Ewald Tragy Rilk e ha d develope d distanc e an d restraint, greate r skil l i n indirectio n an d irony , an d th e abilit y t o simplif y

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his liv e model int o thi s relativel y abstrac t an d highl y integrate d figure o f fine art . One ca n se e Make' s comment s o n th e maste r o f th e hunt' s attitud e toward Go d a s a n obliqu e attac k o n Jose f Rilke' s devotio n t o conven tional correctness and propriety in general. Sieber tells us that when Rilk e and Clar a wanted t o visi t Josef i n Marienbad, h e wrote t o them , express ing hi s concer n tha t the y migh t no t b e properl y dressed , an d h e mad e i t a condition o f hi s consenting t o se e them tha t the y shoul d provid e them selves with "respectabl e clothe s fo r traveling, " underlining th e words. I n his nex t lette r h e returne d t o th e sam e theme , expressin g th e wis h tha t they b e wel l dressed , withou t eccentricity . H e advise d Ren e t o hav e hi s (Josef's) Pragu e tailo r mak e a sui t fo r hi m an d close d wit h th e worrie d comment that , althoug h unfortunatel y h e coul d d o nothin g fo r Clara , h e hoped tha t sh e woul d b e wel l dressed. 1 Sieber denie s tha t a concer n fo r externa l appearance s outweighe d Jo sef's lov e fo r Rainer . H e say s tha t th e poet' s fathe r "love d hi s so n wit h all th e ardo r o f whic h h e wa s capable , bu t hi s lov e wa s alway s adjuste d by hi s correctnes s an d hi s correctnes s b y hi s love." 2 Apparentl y Siebe r saw onl y a fe w letter s an d card s fro m Jose f t o Rainer . Apar t fro m th e old man' s repeate d adjuration s abou t decen t clothes , wha t struc k hi m was th e father' s fear s abou t Rainer' s future . Jose f wrot e t o th e poet , urging hi m no t t o liv e so muc h fro m da y t o day , asking , "D o yo u thin k constantly, dea r Rene , o f you r secur e future?" 3 H e worrie d abou t th e couple's vegetaria n diet . Sieber , whos e source s include d Phi a an d possi bly Clar a a s well a s Rainer, make s th e ol d man , with hi s fussy, irritating , anxious lov e an d concern , see m a figure i n a n old-fashione d stag e com edy, thoug h th e autho r o f thi s portrai t migh t b e surprise d an d dismaye d to hea r on e sa y so . H e to o seem s comicall y prope r an d stuffy . Another passag e i n The Notebooks confirm s th e impressio n tha t Rilke's satir e o f hi s father' s attitude s i n th e maste r o f th e hun t reflect s scornful hostility , a t time s eve n intens e dislike . Shortl y afte r describin g his parents' attitude s toward s Go d an d religion , Mak e recall s his father' s reaction t o hi s mother' s disfiguremen t nea r th e tim e o f he r death : "The n my fathe r said , 'Sh e i s ver y muc h disfigured. ' . . . [I] t wa s probabl y hi s pride tha t suffere d mos t i n makin g thi s admission " (111-12) . Could anythin g b e worse? ! Does thi s reflec t th e poet' s feeling s abou t his father ? I t doe s no t recal l specificall y anythin g tha t w e kno w abou t Josef Rilke . Phi a lon g outlive d he r husban d an d suffere d n o suc h disfig -

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urement throug h illness . Bu t th e passag e bring s t o min d Jose f Rilke' s pride, whic h ha d bee n s o badl y undermine d tha t i t evidentl y suffere d spasms o f anxiet y abou t th e way member s o f th e famil y looke d t o othe r people. I t mus t hav e seeme d fragil e an d rathe r hollo w t o hi s son . Years afte r Maman' s death , whe n Mak e i s twelv e o r thirtee n (muc h younger tha n Ewal d Tragy) , hi s fathe r take s hi m t o Urnekloster , th e home o f Maman' s father , Coun t Brahe . I n th e hig h dinin g hall , whic h produces intens e fea r o f disintegratio n an d annihilatio n i n th e boy , h e stretches hi s le g unti l hi s foo t touche s hi s father' s knee . Thi s "sligh t contact" wit h hi s fathe r give s hi m "th e strengt h t o si t throug h th e lon g meal." Late r h e suspect s tha t th e maste r o f th e hun t ha s understoo d hi s attempt t o mak e contac t an d t o find som e emotiona l support , bu t h e i s uncertain about this. He takes some comfort i n the thought tha t his fathe r "seemed t o tolerate " hi s behavior , bu t see s thei r relationshi p a s "almos t cool" (26) . Make feel s alon e a t Urnekloste r an d ver y fragile , a s h e mus t rely upon thi s tenuous relationshi p with a distant father t o help him hol d himself together . Thi s i s no t th e ol d ma n o f Ewald Tragy, wh o touche s his so n affectionatel y o n th e shoulder , hopin g tha t h e won' t los e him . One ca n onl y speculat e a s t o whethe r o r no t th e distanc e whic h ha d grown betwee n Rilk e an d hi s fathe r afte r Raine r lef t Pragu e i n 189 6 i s reflected i n thi s passage . Surel y Josef coul d no t offe r hi s so n emotiona l support i n 190 2 an d 1903 , when Pari s brough t bac k childhoo d fear s o f disintegration wit h a vengeance an d memorie s o r fantasie s o f hi s loneli ness a s a child, o f receivin g relativel y littl e hel p fro m hi s parent s durin g episodes o f sever e anxiety . A t twelv e o r thirteen , Make' s ag e a t Urnek loster, Ren e wa s i n militar y school . Hi s mothe r responde d sympatheti cally t o hi s anguishe d letters . Hi s fathe r seem s t o hav e bee n relativel y unresponsive t o hi s misery a t St. Polten an d Mahrish-Weisskirchen , unti l he finally le t Rene en d hi s military schoolin g afte r five very painful year s (September 188 6 t o Jun e 1891) . Th e bes t evidenc e o f Josef' s attitud e a t this tim e i s offere d b y Sieber , wh o quote s th e followin g messag e fro m Josef t o Phia : I a m sending yo u al l the letter s whic h i n th e cours e o f th e las t difficul t day s I received fro m Rene . I have received a report fro m Weisskirche n tha t yo u over whelmed Ren e with , frankly , extravagan t letters , whic h agitate d hi s min d fa r more than they cheered it. Please, be brief i n your letter s and do not not in any way excite Rene, likewise do not encourag e Rene's versifying. 4

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At Urnekloste r th e maste r o f th e hun t i s frightene d b y th e ghos t o f Christine Brah e th e first tim e h e see s her . H e attempt s t o approac h her , is dragge d bac k t o th e tabl e b y Coun t Brahe , an d finally i n hi s terro r rushes ou t o f th e dinin g hall . Bu t th e las t tim e the y se e th e ghost , th e master o f th e hun t manage s t o sta y i n th e roo m and , a s th e coun t raise s a glas s o f win e towar d him , i s jus t abl e t o rais e hi s ow n glass , a s i f i t were a grea t weight , a fe w inche s of f th e tabl e (37) . Mak e make s th e meaning o f hi s father' s behavio r clear . H e ask s himsel f a questio n con cerning th e maste r o f th e hun t whic h seem s t o answe r itself . "Ha d h e wanted t o forc e himself , precisel y becaus e h e wa s o f suc h a passionat e nature an d ye t s o investe d i n logi c an d clarity , t o endur e thi s adventur e calmly an d unquestioningly? " The father's behavio r an d hi s character ar e intelligible to hi s son onl y i n retrospect. " I saw , without comprehending , how h e struggled wit h himself , and how , i n th e end , he triumphed" (36) . Make's attemp t t o formulat e th e father' s characte r i n thi s passag e comes earl y i n th e novel . Nowher e els e doe s h e credi t th e maste r o f th e hunt with " a passionate nature." Does th e passage involve a brief attemp t to redee m Herr Brigge , to giv e him admirabl e qualities ? Does it cast ligh t on Rilke' s understandin g o f Josef ? Siebe r say s tha t th e poe t go t hi s ex traordinary strengt h o f wil l fro m hi s mother . Doe s Make' s expresse d sense o f hi s father' s triumphan t struggl e wit h himsel f i n thi s episod e suggest tha t Raine r ma y hav e thought o f Josef a s a model fo r th e struggl e of th e will to overcom e inne r weakness, fear, an d disappointmen t a t frus tration an d failure? Havin g give n up hi s hopes o f a n officer's career , Josef worked hi s wa y u p t o " a fairl y hig h pos t i n a private railroad , whic h h e has earne d wit h infinit e conscientiousness " {Letters 1:98) . Ther e i s n o evidence tha t h e expresse d despai r o r depressio n a t hi s fate . Against thi s argumen t on e mus t se t th e mut e fea r Rilk e ascribe s t o hi s father i n th e lette r t o Benvenuta , th e anxiet y mentione d i n th e Fourt h Elegy. I n hi s accoun t o f th e ghost' s visi t a t Urnekloster, Make' s descrip tion o f hi s father' s struggl e fo r self-master y undermines , wit h implici t satiric irony , an y appea l whic h thi s struggl e migh t hav e fo r us . Readin g the detail s o f th e father' s reaction s t o th e first visitation , on e feel s tha t he i s no t admirabl e bu t ludicrous , leapin g u p fro m th e table , "deathl y pale," with hi s hand s "clenche d a t his sides, " shouting i n fea r an d anger , his fac e "swolle n wit h blood, " tearin g himsel f awa y an d rushin g ou t o f the room , neglecting , i n hi s fright , t o tak e hi s so n wit h hi m (33-34) . Later, as the ghost once more walks slowly past, responding to his father -

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in-law's raise d glass , Make's fathe r stil l seem s t o b e shape d b y th e nov elist's sens e o f th e ridiculous , whic h i s n o les s damagin g t o hi m tha n i t is to th e major , Make' s uncle , with hi s writhing tongue , his rotte n teeth , his mout h falle n open , an d hi s withere d han d quiverin g i n th e fain t brought o n b y th e sigh t o f hi s long-dea d relative . And i t i s possible tha t in writin g thi s scene , consciousl y o r unconsciously , th e poet-novelis t split hi s fathe r int o th e maste r o f th e hun t an d th e major , sinc e th e ol d uncle, lik e Josef, retire d fro m th e militar y a t a relativel y lo w ran k (on e of Josef's brother s ha d kille d himsel f becaus e h e wa s no t promoted). 5 Make's accoun t o f hi s father' s behavio r i n hi s paterna l grandparents ' home, Ulsgaard , als o satirize s th e maste r o f th e hun t a s th e onl y perso n who take s hi s absurdl y egocentri c mother' s recurren t bout s o f chokin g seriously an d seem s t o b e "offerin g he r hi s ow n normall y functionin g windpipe, placin g i t completel y a t he r disposal " (121) . Readin g thes e scenes, I regre t tha t Rilk e di d no t d o mor e wit h hi s talen t fo r satiric ironic comedy . The father' s overwrough t struggl e fo r self-possessio n i s comi c partl y because h e i s s o frightene d b y hi s ow n passions . Hi s effort s produc e stiffness an d rigidity . Doubtless , Josef Rilk e ha d urge d Ren e t o brin g hi s emotions unde r control , t o strengthe n hi s will , t o wor k fo r logi c an d clarity. Earlie r I quote d th e messag e Josef wrot e t o hi s estrange d wife , urging he r no t t o agitat e Rene' s min d whil e h e wa s i n militar y school . He wa s eage r t o se e hi s so n maste r al l hi s fear s an d doubt s s o tha t h e could becom e a goo d officer . Rilk e mus t hav e understoo d tha t suc h a rigorous effor t a t self-contro l a s h e portraye d i n th e maste r o f th e hun t can b e deadening , ca n kil l one' s passionat e natur e an d resul t i n th e pe trification whic h pervade s th e portrai t o f Her r Brigge . Make's descriptio n o f hi s fathe r afte r hi s deat h wa s probabl y base d on Rilke' s experienc e when Josef died. 6 Make's impressions o f th e corps e and th e apartmen t i n whic h th e maste r o f th e hun t ende d hi s lif e implic itly defin e hi s father' s characte r an d hi s life . On e canno t mis s Rilke' s irony i n th e sentence , " I fel t a s i f I ha d see n hi m dea d severa l time s before: s o familia r di d al l thi s seem " (155) . The lat e maste r o f th e hun t wears "th e expressio n o f a ma n wh o ou t o f politenes s i s tryin g t o re member something. " Thi s recalls , i n contrast , th e monstrou s roarin g o f his ow n father , Chamberlai n Brigge , a s h e lie s dyin g a t Ulsgaard . Th e image o f Make' s dea d fathe r remind s u s o f hi s sterility , hi s stiffness , hi s apparent hollownes s i n life. The roaring o f th e chamberlain's dyin g bod y

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seems t o expres s al l the unused energ y an d passion th e grandfathe r ha s had i n reserv e durin g hi s lifetime . Th e father' s hands , whic h li e "obliquely crossed, " look "artificia l an d meaningless" (155). This is what the strivin g o f th e wil l t o overcom e hi s passionat e nature , t o achiev e correctness, logic , and clarity, ha s come to . The long endeavo r t o main tain self-master y ha s deadened th e master o f the hunt man y year s befor e his death . The corpse i s the symbol o f thi s struggl e an d its results. Earlier I aske d if , despit e hi s sens e o f thes e truths , Rilk e identifie d with hi s fathe r i n th e olde r man' s admiratio n o f disciplin e an d self mastery. Certainl y h e discovered a positive mode l o f suc h virtue s i n Rodin, an d I shal l develo p thi s argumen t i n my chapter o n his relationshi p with the sculptor. In psychoanalytic terms , one could sa y that earl y iden tifications wer e modifie d b y late r one s an d that antagonisti c feeling s to ward th e father an d critical attitude s towar d th e qualities whic h w e have been explorin g als o brought abou t modification s i n Rilke's sens e of him self. Th e poe t coul d resolv e th e contradiction s betwee n opposin g atti tudes towar d th e paternal value s b y finding a creative wa y in whic h t o realize the m withou t allowin g the m t o deaden him , rejecting th e kind of life exemplifie d b y the master o f th e hunt . One closel y relate d aspec t o f Rainer' s identificatio n wit h Jose f be comes apparen t i n the poet's clothe s an d manners, a s described b y Wilhelm Hausenstein , th e ar t historia n (quote d i n chapte r 3 , part 2)—th e cautious gestures , gray-blu e suit , deerski n gloves , walking-stick , an d "light gra y spats, " al l of whic h gav e hi m "th e conventiona l appearanc e of a man of th e world." 7 In he r Freud Journal, writin g abou t a 191 3 reunion wit h Rilke , Lou Andreas-Salome says , "Whe n th e old ebony walkin g stic k h e had inher ited brok e las t summer—the silve r handle of which hi s father hel d a t the little boy' s ey e leve l i n al l thei r walks , Raine r shuddered , an d wa s shocked, a s though i t was the ominous destructio n o f somethin g whic h had t o be an organic par t o f him, something whic h infuse d hi m with th e power o f hi s father." 8 Lo u reveal s a t leas t par t o f th e motivatio n fo r Rilke's identificatio n wit h his father—something w e might not have suspected, i f w e di d no t realiz e tha t earl y impression s an d fantasie s o f a parent continu e t o shap e ou r psychic lif e lon g pas t th e time whe n thes e impressions hav e been forgotten an d the parent himsel f ha s changed sub stantially. I f Salom e i s to b e believed , th e smal l child' s impression s an d fantasies o f th e father's powe r continue d t o influenc e hi m long afte r hi s

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father's failure s an d disappointment s becam e painfull y clea r t o hi m an d even afte r Josef died . Som e element s o f Rainer' s earl y identificatio n wit h Josef ma y hav e remaine d ver y muc h alive, if unconscious . I n 191 5 Rilk e acquired a new walkin g stic k o f hi s ow n t o replac e th e broke n one . The clothes of the "conventional " "man o f the world," as Hausenstei n describes them , woul d surel y hav e please d Josef. I sai d i n chapte r 3 tha t this conventional appearanc e may have shielded Rilk e from intrusiveness , defending hi s inne r lif e a s a mas k o r a fals e sel f ca n protec t thos e wh o fear tha t knowledg e o f thei r feeling s an d thought s ca n giv e othe r peopl e power t o manipulate , exploit , depersonalize , o r engul f them . Rilke' s clothes, his manners , his walking stick , al l the paraphernali a o f th e socia l persona, sustaine d a n identificatio n wit h Jose f tha t wa s motivate d b y the desir e t o mak e hi s father' s powe r a par t o f himself . Bu t the y ma y have reflecte d a s well hi s nee d t o protec t himsel f agains t th e railwa y in spector's effort s t o shap e him . The y ma y hav e bee n hi s wa y o f appeas ing hi s fathe r eve n afte r hi s deat h an d o f concealin g th e inne r life whic h mad e Jose f anxiou s an d move d hi m t o pressur e hi s so n t o conform. Lou's Freud Journal record s on e o f Rilke' s dreams , in whic h hi s mir ror reflectio n seem s to change into an image of his father, "grow n smalle r than he , a littl e ben t an d sad , holdin g hi s hea d t o on e side, " a s bot h Ewald an d Her r vo n Trag y d o i n th e novella . Th e feeling s experience d in the dream were "horror an d melancholy." 9 Was this a wish fulfillment , as psychoanalysts tel l u s dream s ar e a t thei r deepes t leve l o f motivation ? Was i t a fulfillment o f a wish t o b e identifie d wit h th e father ? I f so , th e feelings expresse d i n th e drea m wer e ambivalent , obviously . Di d th e dream fulfil l th e desir e o f th e poe t t o b e hi s father , bu t als o expres s hi s feeling tha t h e wa s a much diminishe d versio n o f th e olde r man ? Di d i t express th e fea r tha t i n fulfillin g hi s wis h t o b e lik e Josef h e ha d grow n smaller, bent , an d sad ? Hausenstei n describe s th e poe t a s "somewha t stooped." Di d th e horro r i n th e drea m com e fro m self-recognitio n o r a fantasy o f self-recognition ? On e ca n onl y rais e questions . Salom e offer s no interpretation. If the poet provided one , she does not mention it. Rilke had steadfastl y fough t of f hi s father' s effort s t o get hi m t o tak e a civi l service position, which h e feared woul d reduc e hi m t o suc h a figure. Ye t the belie f tha t h e migh t becom e thi s ma n discovere d i n th e mirro r o f hi s dream mus t hav e remained . Two year s afte r th e 191 3 meetin g whic h Lo u describe s i n he r Freud

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Journal, Rilk e wrote the Fourth Elegy , in which he expressed his aversio n to th e ordinar y bourgeoi s whos e lif e befor e hi s inne r ey e wa s hollow , tawdry pretens e an d deception , recallin g Josef an d Phi a in his childhood , with thei r falsel y labele d bottle s o f chea p wine . I n th e Eleg y th e poe t asks i f anyon e ha s no t sa t anxiousl y befor e hi s ow n curtaine d hear t an d watched th e curtai n g o u p an d the n th e dance r o n thi s inne r stage , onl y to realiz e i n disma y that , whateve r lightnes s an d eas e h e bring s t o hi s performance, thi s dancer , unde r th e costum e an d make-up , i s th e burgher, th e commonplace , middle-clas s fello w wh o enter s hi s hous e through th e kitchen . Th e poe t ha s ha d mor e tha n enoug h o f suc h "half filled masks. " Wer sas s nicht bang vor seine s Herzens Vorhang ? Der schlu g sich auf: di e Szenerie war Abschied . Leicht zu verstehen. Der bekannt e Garten , und schwankt e leise: dann ers t kam der Tanzer. Nicht der. Genug! Und wen n e r auch so leicht tut , er ist verkleidet und e r wird ei n Burger und geh t durch sein e Kuche in die Wohnung. Ich will nicht diese halbgefullten Masken . . . .

(WDB, 1:453 )

After a few intervenin g line s th e Eleg y focuse s upo n Josef i n th e passag e quoted earlier , where Rilk e see s his father a s having bee n "occupie d wit h the after-taste " o f hi s ow n "alie n future " an d a s havin g bee n anxiou s often sinc e hi s deat h "withi n m y hope , i n me. " I hav e discusse d th e poet's feeling , expresse d here , that h e has internalized hi s father's fea r fo r him an d tha t i t gnaw s a t th e ver y cente r o f hi s hope s an d aspirations . What w e kno w o f Jose f Rilk e an d th e proximit y o f th e fathe r an d th e "Burger" i n th e poe m associat e th e tw o figures. Peopl e wh o ar e half filled mask s becaus e the y ar e governe d b y fea r an d timidity , suc h a s Josef's, canno t liv e full y ou t o f thei r ow n instinct s an d passions , mus t costume an d mas k themselve s t o b e i n conformit y wit h th e expectation s of thos e aroun d them . (Amon g suc h peopl e ar e Her r vo n Trag y an d th e father wh o wrot e t o Rilk e an d Clara , demandin g tha t the y com e t o visi t him i n prope r clothes—an d th e poe t himself , insofa r a s h e ha s becom e identified wit h th e fathe r wh o gnaw s a t hi s insides. ) This fathe r ha s bee n introjected . H e live s o n i n hi s so n a s a "fel t

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presence." (I n Internalization in Psychoanalysis, W . W . Meissne r define s an "introject " a s "a n inne r presenc e o f a n externa l object " an d say s tha t "relations betwee n subjec t an d introjec t ma y b e as varied a s the relation s between two separate persons," though introject s ma y also "become phenomenologically confuse d wit h and mistaken for th e sense of self in varying degrees.") 10 Unlik e th e militar y ma n wit h hi s dream s o f glory , thi s bourgeois fathe r wa s a n antimodel , a n imag e o f wha t th e poe t feare d i n himself an d defende d himsel f against . Bu t th e fathe r wh o becam e suc h an antimode l wa s als o muc h love d an d esteemed , remaine d lon g afte r hi s death a n embodimen t o f power , love , and generosit y fo r hi s son, contin ued t o dra w Raine r int o identificatio n wit h hi m an d continue d t o b e a felt presenc e withi n Rainer , becaus e th e poe t wante d an d neede d hi m there. Except for th e forced servic e which he briefly endure d durin g the Firs t World War , Rilke kept clea r of th e military in which hi s father ha d faile d to obtai n a commission. H e fle d th e bourgeois lif e i n Prague an d rejecte d all thoughts o f a civilian career in an y way resemblin g Josef's. Th e poet' s inability t o maintai n long-ter m intimac y wit h a woma n ma y hav e bee n partly du e t o Josef's los s o f hi s wife's lov e an d respec t an d hi s abandon ment b y Phia . Thes e childhoo d experience s mus t hav e bee n traumatic . He feare d that , lik e hi s father , h e coul d no t giv e a woma n th e kin d o f deep, sustained lov e many wome n (an d men ) requir e from lovers . In The Notebooks an d elsewher e he lamented man' s inabilit y t o reciprocat e suc h love i n wome n (se e The Notebooks, 133-35) . Leavin g s o man y wome n after brie f relationships , h e ma y wel l hav e bee n motivate d b y th e wis h to avoi d th e pai n an d humiliatio n o f bein g left , whic h hi s fathe r ha d suffered.

IV In th e fall o f 1904 , although h e had seriou s misgiving s abou t Elle n Key' s glowing essay o n him , publishe d i n a Swedish periodical , h e sen t a cop y to hi s father . H e "wa s touche d by " th e ol d man' s "eviden t pleasur e a t it." 1 The poet had expressed to Lou his anxiety about th e essay and abou t Key's lecture s o n hi s life an d work . " I a m afraid sh e has . . . give n every thing [hi s earl y work ] a semblanc e o f conclusivenes s whic h i t doesn' t possess an d i n whic h peopl e wil l fee l cheate d whe n the y bu y m y book s

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now" {Letters 1:165) . Perhaps i t wa s thi s ver y qualit y tha t worrie d hi m so much—Key' s excessiv e generosity , he r inflate d sens e o f hi s achieve ment an d mastery—whic h move d hi m t o sen d th e essa y t o hi s father , who was , a s he wrote t o Lou , "patien t wit h m e no w i n suc h a sad way " {Letters 1:180) . Plagued b y a "guilty conscience " because he was makin g so littl e progres s wit h hi s work , n o doub t h e sen t Key' s essa y t o hi s father i n th e hope tha t i t would reassur e him , lighten hi s sadness , rewar d his patience , an d thu s eas e th e ol d man' s infectiou s anxiet y an d hi s ow n guilt. Expressing hi s doubt s abou t he r lecture s an d essay s t o Elle n Ke y i n March 1905 , Rilk e urge d he r t o spea k onl y o f hi s trul y accomplishe d work, a fe w poem s an d stories . Bu t h e mad e a n exception , sayin g tha t she coul d tal k abou t hi s poetr y an d fictio n withou t suc h restrain t an d caution i n Prague , wher e h e imagine d he r bringin g "hi s long-sufferin g father" th e new s tha t h e ha d finally wo n "recognition." 2 Althoug h Jose f Rilke coul d no t atten d Key' s Pragu e lecture , sh e visite d him , an d hi s letters t o hi s so n showe d tha t sh e had bee n a n effectiv e missionary . Th e poet wrot e t o tel l he r tha t sh e ha d achieve d wha t h e ha d bee n tryin g t o do withou t an y hop e o f success . Sh e ha d convince d Jose f tha t hi s son' s vocation an d wa y o f lif e wer e "essential." 3 Key' s effec t upo n hi s fathe r was one of th e factors, Prater says , that a t this time produced " a euphori a he [Rainer ] ha d no t fel t fo r a long time." 4 Josef wa s aging . H e woul d di e th e followin g Marc h (1906) . I f onl y Rilke coul d convinc e hi s fathe r befor e h e die d tha t h e wa s o n th e wa y to becomin g a gran d succes s i n hi s chose n profession , th e happines s h e could giv e the old ma n would mak e up for an d undo th e disappointment , pain, an d anxiet y h e ha d cause d hi m fo r s o long—initiall y b y leavin g military schoo l an d rejectin g a militar y caree r i n whic h h e migh t hav e rescued Jose f fro m hi s ow n bitte r failure . H e ha d chose n a professio n which th e ol d ma n found , no t onl y incomprehensible , bu t unreal , ha d cut himsel f of f fro m th e onl y kin d o f communit y an d societ y whic h hi s father understood , an d ha d faile d t o assum e ful l responsibilit y fo r sup porting himself , his wife, an d hi s child . Hi s dedicatio n t o poetr y ha d lef t his father fearin g tha t hi s only so n woul d sin k int o miserabl e and shame ful poverty , i f h e ha d no t alread y don e so . One ca n se e hi s stak e i n convertin g hi s father , i n affordin g hi m th e narcissistic deligh t a parent ca n obtai n fro m a child' s success . I f onl y h e could compensat e th e ol d ma n fo r th e anxiet y h e ha d give n hi m an d

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replace tha t fea r wit h confidenc e an d pleasur e an d th e self-estee m o f a father wh o ha d see n hi s so n achiev e fam e an d praise , h e coul d fee l tha t he ha d repai d Josef s lov e an d generosity . Whe n hi s fathe r died , Raine r could loo k bac k upo n th e en d o f hi s lif e withou t guilt . B y relievin g Josefs anxiet y an d b y replacin g i t wit h confidence , Rilk e coul d clea r away on e mai n sourc e o f hi s ow n self-doub t an d replac e i t with a mem ory o f hi s fathe r tha t woul d encourag e hi s ow n self-confidenc e i n th e future. I f b y convertin g Jose f h e coul d creat e a final imag e o f th e ol d man which would b e largely benevolent, it would mak e a great differenc e after hi s father' s death . I a m verbalizin g intuitiv e feeling s tha t probabl y never cam e t o reflectiv e consciousnes s i n th e poet' s mind . As h e sense d wha t hi s father' s deat h migh t mea n t o him , h e mad e us e of Elle n Ke y an d hi s growin g reputatio n t o reshap e Josef' s attitudes . I f he succeede d i n doing this , his success was due t o a combination o f luck , cunning intuitiv e foresight , an d single-minded , willful creativ e energy . The poe t sa w hi s fathe r fo r th e las t tim e i n lat e Octobe r 1905 , whe n he wen t t o Pragu e t o giv e a lecture o n Rodin . Josef wa s to o wea k fro m illness t o com e t o th e lecture . Bu t whil e h e wa s i n Prague , Raine r spen t much o f hi s tim e wit h th e ol d man . Prate r note s tha t Jose f Rilk e "wa s understandably delighte d a t hi s son' s materia l progres s an d new-foun d independence."5 Rilke's sens e o f liberatio n a t th e tim e o f Josef' s deat h i s reflecte d i n Make's reactio n t o th e perforatio n o f hi s father' s heart . Mak e see s thi s as th e destructio n o f th e hear t o f th e family , th e cuttin g o f hi s connec tions. Hi s father' s deat h give s hi m fo r th e first tim e a firm sens e o f hi s individuality. No w hi s i s "a n individua l heart " an d a t las t i t ca n d o "it s work o f beginnin g fro m th e beginning " (159) . Years later, in 1921 , Rilke developed thi s ide a i n a lette r o f condolence , i n whic h h e sees th e los s of a father i n old age as an impelling motive for gatherin g oneself togethe r and relyin g o n one' s ow n abilities . While a father lives , the so n i s "mod eled i n relie f upo n him. " Hi s deat h i s th e blo w tha t knock s u s "free , alas," s o tha t w e achieve , at last , th e fullnes s an d separatenes s o f a figure standing o n it s ow n (Letters r.149). 6 A lette r writte n o n Apri l 6 , 1906 , littl e mor e tha n thre e week s afte r Josef's death , leave s on e i n n o doub t concernin g it s liberating effect . Th e poet describe s "th e feelin g tha t I could do , should d o somethin g now, — something tha t ma y perhap s neve r com e agai n lik e this " (Letters 1:202) .

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In th e next tw o year s man y o f th e New Poems wer e written. This wa s a period o f sustaine d creativit y upo n whic h Rilk e wa s t o loo k bac k wit h longing: "Wit h a kin d o f sham e I thin k o f m y bes t Pari s time , tha t o f the New Poems, whe n I expecte d nothin g an d n o on e an d mor e an d more th e whole world streame d towar d m e merely as a task an d I replie d clearly and surel y with pure work" {Letters 2:34) . These poems too k hi m well beyon d th e leve l o f achievemen t he' d reache d i n earlie r work. I n th e year an d a hal f tha t followe d thei r completio n (Augus t 1908-Januar y 1910), h e wrot e muc h o f The Notebooks. Neve r afterwar d wa s h e t o sustain suc h a n outpourin g o f remarkabl e wor k fo r anywher e nea r th e same length o f time , though th e month o f Februar y 192 2 is more familia r to mos t o f hi s reader s a s the perio d o f almos t miraculou s creativit y dur ing which th e Duino Elegies were complete d an d th e Sonnets to Orpheus were written . Th e sens e o f liberation , o f freedom , o f a ne w beginning , and al l th e creativ e energ y tha t cam e t o hi m a t th e tim e o f hi s father' s death see m to hav e been reinforced b y th e knowledge tha t h e had allaye d his father's doubt s abou t him, won hi s approval, and thus give n him grea t pleasure an d undon e muc h o f th e har m h e had inflicte d b y disappointin g and worryin g th e ol d man . These change s als o helpe d Rilk e t o continu e th e work , whic h h e ha d begun lon g befor e hi s father' s death , o f restorin g an d redeemin g Josef' s image i n hi s ow n mind , creatin g a trul y loving , generous , large-minde d father. Jus t afte r Josef' s death , Rilk e describe d hi m a s "kindnes s itsel f t o me, th e mos t loya l ai d an d th e mos t touchin g friend." 7 Tw o year s late r the poe t recalle d tha t h e ha d "experience d infinit e bignes s an d generos ity" throug h hi s fathe r {Letters 1:329) . How usefu l i t wa s t o hav e suc h a fathe r i n memory , a s a supportiv e presence in his mind, a parent with whom h e could identify himself . Ho w very differen t i t woul d hav e bee n t o liv e wit h th e memor y o f a fathe r reduced a t deat h t o bitte r failure , fear , an d doubt . The wor k o f redemptio n an d restoratio n bot h befor e an d afte r Josef' s death seem s t o hav e bee n achieve d i n a numbe r o f ways . Possibl y th e poet's filial relationshi p wit h Rodi n enable d hi m t o associat e hi s tw o fathers i n such a way that , through a reverse transference, hi s idealizatio n of th e sculpto r helpe d hi m t o idealiz e th e railwa y inspector . Increasingl y Rilke tended t o polarize th e positive an d negativ e qualities o f his parents, shifting al l the negative ones to his mother. As his father age d and becam e ill, an d afte r hi s deat h a s well , thi s ongoin g proces s o f polarizatio n ma y

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have helpe d hi m t o isolat e Josef fro m th e kin d o f hostilit y an d revulsio n which h e fel t towar d hi s mothe r an d t o redee m hi s fathe r i n hi s mind . Often negativ e qualitie s ar e transferre d fro m a dea d paren t t o a livin g one o r t o a stepfathe r o r stepmother . Thi s defens e support s th e ideali zation o f th e dea d paren t an d distance s hi m o r he r fro m hatred , anger , and relate d feelings . It i s no t unusua l afte r separatio n o r divorc e fo r th e childre n t o attac h most o f th e blam e t o on e parent , sometime s th e on e wh o ha s left , some times th e on e wh o remain s wit h the m an d i s hel d responsibl e fo r al l constraints an d punishments , frustrations , an d disappointments . This di vision defend s th e childre n agains t painfu l emotiona l conflicts . Perhap s the idealizatio n o f Jose f an d th e concentratio n o f negativ e feeling s o n Phia helpe d Rilk e t o defen d himsel f agains t fear s o f engulfment , a s thi s threat seem s t o hav e bee n associate d fa r mor e wit h hi s mothe r tha n hi s father. Perhaps , also , th e concentratio n o f negativ e feeling s o n Phi a helped th e poe t t o defen d himsel f agains t a n oedipa l attachmen t t o her , reflected i n The Notebooks an d i n hi s affai r wit h Lou . Obviously , thi s polarization woul d reinforc e th e repressio n o f thos e hostil e feeling s to ward hi s fathe r whic h originate d i n th e oedipa l rivalry , th e focu s o f Si menauer's analysi s o f th e relationshi p betwee n Josef an d Rainer . Rilke defende d himsel f agains t grie f wit h a conception o f th e continuin g existence o f th e dead , imperishabl e withi n th e menta l depth s o f th e sur vivors wh o lov e them . Recallin g hi s father , h e reason s tha t a connectio n with someon e els e often "goe s o n mor e strongl y an d powerfully " i n th e unconscious mind . Th e rootin g o f a relationshi p i n th e unconsciou s re sults i n ou r "possession " o f th e othe r person . An d th e "lasting, " im mutable natur e o f feelings , objects , an d relation s i n thos e "invisible " depths make s ou r "possession " permanen t a s lon g a s w e live . (Her e Freud woul d hav e agree d wit h th e poet , t o a larg e extent. ) Rilke' s rea soning o n thi s subjec t take s a Kierkegaardian an d paradoxica l tur n whe n he notes that acquaintance , friendship, o r love, involving such possession , turns u s bac k int o ourselves , becaus e i t require s s o muc h lonel y inwar d activity "tha t i t woul d suffic e t o occup y u s eac h b y himsel f forever " {Letters 1:330-31) . Thi s conceptio n o f huma n relationship s make s mor e sense i f w e remembe r tha t th e poet i s thinkin g partl y abou t th e wor k o f imaginative transformatio n h e mus t d o o n everythin g mutabl e an d changeable whic h h e loves an d values . The nint h Duin o Eleg y make s hi s

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meaning clear . I n th e followin g line s th e poe t reflect s tha t ephemera l things understand h e is praising them an d rely upon us , the most ephem eral of all beings, for salvation, wishing that we will be impelled t o transform the m inwardly , invisibly , int o ourselves . . . . Un d diese, von Hingang lebenden Dinge verstehn, dass du sie ruhmst; verganglich, traun sie ein Rettendes uns, den Verganglichsten, zu. Wollen, wir sollen sie ganz im unsichtbarn Herze n verwandel n in—o unendlich—in uns! . . . (WDB 1:475) Rilke's letter concerning the permanence of the dead suggest s an effor t to achiev e wha t th e analyst s woul d cal l "denial " o f reality , reinforcin g suppression o f grief . Th e lette r als o seem s t o impl y a n assumptio n tha t a perso n enter s int o friendshi p o r mutua l lov e i n th e hope o f takin g th e object o f hi s feeling s int o himsel f s o tha t h e ma y enjo y th e lovin g rela tionship i n solitude or at a distance. Often thi s was the pattern o f Rilke' s

life.

Did Rilk e take possession o f his father a t last by persuading him, with Ellen Key' s help , tha t hi s son's vocatio n wa s real an d valuable? Writin g about Jose f explicitl y o r indirectl y i n shor t storie s an d poems, in Ewald Tragy an d The Notebooks, an d in his letters was a way of possessing and achieving mastery ove r him. Ewald Tragy show s the son assuring himsel f that hi s fathe r love s him , eve n a s h e reassure s himsel f tha t h e i s quit e capable o f separatin g himsel f fro m hi s father, objectifyin g an d satirizin g and thu s distancin g th e older ma n while a t the same time delineating and intimating th e redeemin g qualitie s tha t mad e Jose f lovabl e despit e hi s rigidity an d his limitations . Analysts migh t sa y that Rilke' s theor y o f lov e an d deat h suggest s th e poet preferre d a relationshi p wit h a n introjec t (th e livin g presenc e o f a person withi n th e mind ) t o a sustained , intimat e relationshi p wit h th e real person . A n introjec t ma y liv e o n a s lon g a s w e do , eve n afte r th e real person ha s died. N o doubt , Rilke' s sens e o f th e reality o f th e intro jected benevolent , generous , large-minded, lovin g father wa s so powerfu l that, having accustomed himsel f t o the presence of this father, h e softene d his grie f fo r th e real on e whom h e had bee n distancin g fo r years . As we can se e i n line s o f "Th e Boo k o f Pilgrimage, " th e secon d par t o f The Book of Hours, writte n i n 190 1 and revised i n 1905 , a year befor e Josef' s

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death, h e ha d converte d hi s fathe r int o a ghostl y phantas m eve n befor e his death . O n on e sid e o f a n eviden t spli t i n th e father' s image , th e poe t was seein g Josef a s a faded ol d ma n o f th e distan t past , withered , barel y alive: 1st uns der Vater denn nicht das, was war; vergangne Jahre, welche fremd gedacht , veraltete Gebarde, tote Tracht, verbliihte Hand e und verblichne s Haar ? Und wa r er selbst fur sein e Zeit ei n Held er ist das Blatt, das, wenn wir wachsen, fallt . (WDB 1:68 ) Isn't th e father fo r u s what was; years gone, which seeme d alien, obsolete gestures, dress out o f fashion , withered hand s an d ashe n hair? And i f he was a hero for hi s time he is the leaf tha t falls when we thrive. Another poem , "Jugend-Bildni s meine s Vaters " (Portrai t o f M y Fa ther a s a Youth) , writte n i n Jun e 1906 , i s ambiguous . I t expresse s th e poet's sens e o f th e poignanc y o f hi s father' s life , a s well a s Rainer's lov e and, perhaps , grie f fo r tha t youn g ma n wh o ha d hope d fo r muc h an d realized non e o f hi s hopes . Bu t i t end s wit h th e fathe r a s a "quickl y disappearing daguerreotype, " hi s hand s nearl y los t t o sight . Josef's eye s dream. Hi s larg e mout h become s a n imag e o f hi s youth . H e i s i n ful l dress uniform , wearin g a saber . Th e poe t think s o f hi s father' s hand s a s waiting, a t rest , no t impelle d towar d anything , perhaps suggestin g a lack of motivatio n an d direction . A s the y com e nea r vanishin g i n th e ol d daguerreotype, the y see m t o b e graspin g remoteness . Everythin g els e about tha t youn g ma n i s veiled, beyond th e poet's understanding . A t th e end o f thi s poem abou t hi s father's vanishing , Rilke realizes tha t hi s ow n hands ar e perishing, thoug h mor e slowl y tha n thos e o f th e yout h i n th e photograph: Im Auge Traum. Die Stirn wie in Beriihrung mit etwas Fernem. Um de n Mund enor m viel Jugend, ungelachelte Verfiihrung , und vo r der vollen schrmickenden Verschmirun g

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der schlanken adelige n Unifor m der Sabelkorb und beide Hande—, die abwarten, ruhig, zu nichts hingedrangt . Und nu n fast nich t meh r sichtbar: als ob sie zuerst, die Femes greifenden , verschwanden . Und alle s andre mit sich selbst verhangt und ausgelosch t als ob wirs nicht verstande n und tie f au s seiner eignen Tiefe triib—. Du schnel l vergehendes Daguerreoty p in meinen langsamer vergehenden Handen . (WDB 1:278 )

Written a few months afte r th e father's death , this poem reflect s opposin g attitudes, feelings, an d needs—the divide d poet' s abilit y t o see his fathe r from a distance , objectively , hi s sympath y an d tendernes s fo r th e man, and a n inclinatio n t o depersonaliz e an d derealiz e him , to tur n hi m int o a "quickly disappearin g daguerreotype. " Yet this is countered b y the last line, which suggest s Rilke' s sens e o f affinit y wit h hi s father . Prater quote s a lette r describin g a visi t t o th e father' s grav e o n Al l Souls Da y of 1907 . The inscription ha d "weathere d int o th e stone," "a s if i t ha d stoo d i n a n ol d par k undisturbe d fo r a century." 8 Th e poet' s feeling tha t hi s father ha s been dea d fo r a century reflect s th e inclinatio n to distanc e an d derealiz e Josef . The Notebooks entr y i n which th e sight o f the dead fathe r give s Mak e the feelin g tha t h e ha s "see n hi m dea d severa l time s before " reveal s a struggle t o suppres s grie f a t th e sigh t an d a t th e memory , o f tha t scen e (The Notebooks, 155) . It als o support s th e thesi s tha t bot h befor e an d after hi s father's deat h Rilke struggled t o suppress all attachment by turn ing Josef int o a thing o f the past, a faded photo , furniture , someon e who had bee n dea d fo r a lon g tim e befor e hi s death , whos e grav e ha d bee n there fo r a century . The poet was divided betwee n the inclination to defend himsel f agains t his fathe r i n this way and a need t o preserve hi m redeemed an d restore d as th e image o f paterna l lov e an d generosity . I n 1923 , after havin g com pleted hi s greatest task , th e writing o f the Elegies and the Sonnets, whic h repeatedly reaffir m th e continuing presenc e an d vitality o f th e dead an d the past, Rilke tried onc e mor e t o formulate hi s sense of their immediac y and influence . Recallin g hi s fea r o f hi s father' s deat h a s a chil d an d hi s

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fantasy tha t hi s ow n existenc e wa s inseparabl e fro m Josef's , h e wrot e t o Countess Margo t Sizzo , expressin g hi s belie f tha t deat h canno t en d th e existence within u s o f someon e w e love , as our imag e an d conceptio n o f that perso n becom e increasingl y "independen t o f hi s tangibl e presence " during hi s lifetime . Th e "secre t influence " o f someon e dea r t o u s woul d surely b e kep t saf e withi n us . "Wher e ca n w e com e close r t o it , wher e more purely celebrat e it, when obe y i t better tha n whe n i t appears linke d with ou r ow n voices , a s i f ou r hear t ha d learne d a new language , a ne w song, a new strength " {Letters 2:315-16) . This come s ver y clos e t o th e languag e Freu d an d late r analyst s us e t o explain th e wa y i n whic h w e successfull y wor k throug h th e pai n expe rienced a t deat h an d othe r form s o f loss . It lead s on e t o thin k tha t Rilk e had a fairly clea r understandin g o f hi s introjectio n o f hi s fathe r an d hi s identification wit h him a s the means of overcomin g the anguish and lone liness arisin g fro m th e separateness , distance, an d los s o f hi s father , first during childhood , becaus e o f th e olde r man' s emotiona l stiffnes s an d constraint, the n a t variou s time s o f physica l separatio n whe n h e wen t away t o militar y schoo l an d whe n h e lef t Pragu e t o mak e a lif e o n hi s own. Surely, before hi s father's death , he had accomplished much of wha t Freud an d othe r analyst s cal l "th e wor k o f mourning " b y takin g Jose f into himsel f throug h introjectio n an d b y makin g hi m a par t o f himsel f through identification , tw o processe s suggeste d b y th e languag e o f th e letter quote d above . Anyone who ha s read Freud's The Ego and the Id ca n see how closel y Rilke's idea s resembl e th e psychoanalyst's . Freu d theorize s tha t a love d one w e hav e los t become s "se t u p insid e th e ego. " Thi s proces s make s an essentia l contributio n t o th e developmen t o f character. 9 Usin g an thropomorphizing terms , he argue s tha t i n th e process o f persuadin g th e id t o giv e u p th e love d on e an d t o accep t hi s o r he r loss , th e eg o turn s the id' s lov e t o itsel f b y makin g th e los t "object " a par t o f itself . Thus , object-directed libid o become s narcissisti c libido . Thi s chang e bring s about th e "desexualization " o f th e libidina l energ y an d it s us e fo r othe r aims, suc h a s creatin g art . The transformatio n an d shiftin g o f th e energ y of lov e from objec t t o eg o involves "a kind o f sublimation. " Rilke's lette r was written a few month s befor e th e publicatio n o f The Ego and the Id in April 1923 , though no t befor e th e publication o f "Mournin g an d Mel ancholia" (1917). 10 Had Rilk e rea d th e latte r essay ? Ha d h e hear d abou t

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these idea s throug h friends , suc h a s Lo u Andreas-Salome , who wer e im mersed i n psychoanalyti c theory , o r throug h othe r analyst s amon g hi s acquaintances? I kno w o f nothin g tha t answer s thes e question s definitively. More recen t theor y tend s t o confir m Freud' s notion s concernin g th e internalizing o f object s tha t hav e bee n los t o r give n up , thoug h analyst s have continue d t o argu e abou t th e way s i n whic h w e tak e suc h object s into ourselves , th e natur e o f th e object s internalized , an d th e mean ings o f th e terms—"incorporation, " "introjection, " an d "identifica tion." Tw o o f th e bes t clarification s o f thes e phenomen a an d term s in recen t year s ar e Ro y Schafer' s Aspects of Internalization (1968 ) and W . W . Meissner' s Internalization in Psychoanalysis (1981) , cite d earlier.11 In "Mournin g an d It s Relatio n t o Manic-Depressiv e States, " Melani e Klein observe s tha t "th e mourne r obtain s grea t relie f fro m recallin g th e lost person' s kindnes s an d goo d qualities , an d thi s i s partl y du e t o th e reassurance h e experience s fro m keepin g hi s love d objec t fo r th e tim e being a s a n idealize d one. " Klei n argue s tha t th e feelin g tha t w e posses s "the perfec t love d objec t (idealized ) inside, " whic h i s supporte d an d strengthened b y focusin g upo n th e lost person's kindnes s an d goo d qual ities, helps us t o defen d ourselve s agains t th e "feelin g o f triumph " whic h may aris e fro m th e deat h o f somebod y clos e an d one' s ow n survival , from th e hostilit y an d murderousnes s whic h als o ma y com e near t o con sciousness at the death o f a loved parent, and from th e sense of liberation , which Rilk e experience d a t th e tim e o f hi s father' s death . Accordin g t o Klein, we ar e likel y t o fee l tha t th e good , kin d paren t who m w e posses s within u s wil l defen d u s agains t th e vengefu l paren t within , wh o wishe s to punis h u s for desirin g his death an d fo r feelin g triump h an d liberatio n when h e dies . Such benevolen t an d malevolen t introject s exis t within u s fro m a very early time, Klein believed . From infanc y w e reshape ou r parent s b y proj ecting ou r feeling s an d fantasie s ont o them . Meissne r argue s tha t i t i s these image s o f parents , in whic h objec t an d subjectiv e fantas y fuse , tha t we introject . The y continu e t o liv e i n u s a s presences , sometime s expe rienced a s objects withi n th e mind, sometime s closely identified wit h ou r sense o f self . The deat h o f a parent ma y provid e suc h introject s wit h a n unusually intens e life . Wha t seem s especiall y relevan t t o ou r exploratio n

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of Rilke' s respons e t o hi s father's deat h i s Klein's argumen t tha t fantasie s of kind , loving , idealize d parent s withi n u s hel p survivin g childre n t o defend themselve s agains t hostile , eve n murderou s emotion s an d a sens e of triumph , as well as against guilt and the internal presence of a vengeful, punishing parent. 12

CHAPTER 8

Rodin

I In th e summe r o f 1905 , not havin g see n hi s ol d frien d an d "master " fo r more tha n tw o years , Rilk e aske d i f h e migh t pa y Rodi n a visit . Th e sculptor telegraphe d a welcome an d ha d hi s secretar y write , invitin g th e poet t o liv e with hi m a t Meudon fo r th e duratio n o f Rilke' s sta y in Paris , adding tha t th e Frenchma n wa s lookin g forwar d t o th e opportunit y which thi s visi t woul d giv e the m t o talk . Ful l o f excitemen t a t thi s pros pect, eagerl y anticipatin g bein g "allowe d t o shar e al l his days, " th e poe t wrote t o a frien d tha t "th e grea t man " wa s "dea r a s a father " {Letters 1:188 an d 190) . The relationshi p wit h thi s secon d fathe r wa s n o les s im portant tha n th e on e wit h Salome . Durin g th e year s i n whic h i t evolve d we se e extraordinar y change s i n Rilke . H e cam e t o Pari s i n 190 2 a s a poet o f obviou s talen t an d technica l skill . But , a s h e himsel f realized , most o f hi s work, howeve r promising , was superficial , unorigina l i n feel ing an d thought , an d facil e i n it s music . Durin g th e nex t fou r year s h e developed int o th e autho r o f th e New Poems an d The Notebooks, th e first book s which place him amon g the twentieth century' s majo r writers . A numbe r o f factor s contribute d t o th e changes in Rilke ; the relationshi p with th e sculpto r wa s a centra l shapin g influence . E. M . Butle r tell s u s tha t Rilk e wa s introduce d t o Rodin' s sculptur e as earl y a s 1897. 1 Th e poet' s estee m fo r th e sculpto r i s reflecte d i n hi s early diaries kept a t Schmargendorf (1898-1900 ) an d Worpswede (1900). 2 Clara, Rilke' s wife , ha d studie d wit h Rodin , an d th e poet' s marriag e 165

166 RODI N probably intensifie d hi s interes t i n th e sculpto r an d augmente d hi s knowledge o f th e ma n an d hi s work. I n Septembe r 1902 , having receive d a commissio n t o d o a monograph o n th e sculptor , Rilk e wen t t o Franc e to mee t him . Rodin wa s on e o f th e giant s o f moder n art . Hi s creativ e energie s an d the abundan t productivit y o f hi s geniu s hav e bee n rivale d b y relativel y few grea t artists . Bu t Rilke' s idealizatio n o f th e sculpto r ofte n seem s t o exaggerate hi s greatnes s wel l beyon d an y realisti c assessment , an d some times, i n it s excesses , th e poet' s overestimatio n o f hi s "master " ap proaches absurdity . One ha s onl y t o rea d a few sentence s o f Rilke' s letter s t o Rodi n an d his letters about th e "master " t o realiz e that hi s idealization o f thi s fathe r figure wen t beyon d th e admiratio n justifie d b y th e sculptor' s grea t gift s and hi s accomplishments. Even before meetin g Rodin i n September 1902 , Rilke expresse d th e belie f tha t h e migh t b e th e greates t o f al l living men : "Does anyon e exist , I wonder , wh o i s a s grea t a s h e an d ye t i s stil l living.... I have the feeling that, quite aside from hi s art, he is a synthesis of greatnes s and power, a future century , a man without contemporaries " (Letters 1:76) . A lette r t o Clara , writte n mor e tha n thre e year s later , shows tha t thos e year s o f intermitten t closenes s t o Rodi n ha d i n n o wa y diminished th e sculptor' s statur e i n Rilke' s mind : "Hi s exampl e i s s o without equal , hi s greatnes s rise s u p befor e on e lik e a ver y nea r t o w e r . . . . H e i s everything . . . fa r an d wide . . . . [H] e show s on e every thing" (Septembe r 20 , 1905 ; Letters 1:192-93) . Rilke compares Rodi n t o "a n easter n go d enthroned, " undisturbe d b y anything an d anyon e aroun d him , completel y self-containe d an d self sufficient, th e narcissist' s idea l fantas y o f self-realization , th e antipod e o f the neuroti c narcissist' s feeling s o f empt y an d barre n isolation . I n th e same letter Rilk e says , "He move s lik e a star. H e i s beyond al l measure " (Letters 1:191) . Writing thi s letter , Rilk e ma y hav e bee n thinkin g o f th e effigy o f Buddh a whic h stoo d o n a little hill nea r Rodin' s hous e i n Meu don. Th e New Poems whic h expres s th e poet' s fascinatio n wit h Buddh a focus upo n som e o f th e sam e qualitie s attribute d her e t o th e easter n go d and t o Rodin . Rilk e tol d th e sculpto r tha t h e though t o f thi s statu e a s the cente r o f th e worl d (Letters 1:194) . Rodin wa s th e cente r o f hi s ow n world and , a t times , t o a large extent , o f Rilke's . In a n August 190 3 letter t o Salom e the poet associate s Rodin wit h th e divine Creato r i n Genesis : "when h e fashions a hand, i t is alone in space ,

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and ther e i s nothin g beside s a hand ; an d i n si x day s Go d mad e onl y a hand an d poure d ou t th e water s aroun d i t an d ben t th e heaven s abov e it; and reste d ove r i t when al l was finished , an d i t was a glory o f a hand " (Letters 1:118) . These effusion s concernin g th e sculptor' s godlik e natur e ar e ofte n joined wit h th e poet' s radicall y contraste d sens e o f himself . Th e "ver y near tower " wh o "show s on e everything " was a strong protector a s well as a neede d guide , teacher , an d model , wh o fille d al l o f thes e paterna l roles superbl y whe n Jose f Rilk e coul d n o longe r d o so . Apar t fro m hi s "master," i n 190 2 an d 1903 , Rilke fel t "scattere d lik e som e dea d ma n i n an ol d grave, " a s h e wrot e t o Lo u (Augus t 10 , 1903 ; Letters 1:124) . Rilke's respons e t o Rodi n a s a towe r o f strengt h mus t b e see n i n relation t o th e illness , the fears , th e nea r madnes s o f thos e earl y day s i n Paris. Letters t o Lo u writte n tha t summe r an d fal l stres s Rilke's inabilit y to work , hi s weariness , hi s anxiety , hi s sens e tha t h e i s movin g i n a n inescapable circl e rathe r tha n advancing , tha t hi s connection s wit h th e past ar e disintegratin g an d th e futur e i s a void . Hi s lif e i s fille d wit h uncertainty (Novembe r 1903 ; Letters 1:133-34) . From th e firs t Rilk e sa w Rodi n a s a shelte r fro m hi s fear s an d a s someone wh o offere d directio n t o hi m whe n h e fel t homeles s an d los t (Letters 1:9 4 an d 117) . If you rea d thes e letters, written i n 190 2 and 1903 , you ca n se e tha t th e poe t foun d wit h th e sculptor , i f onl y temporarily , a hom e whic h coul d fulfil l hi s lon g frustrate d an d resiste d nee d fo r on e that coul d tak e th e plac e o f th e parenta l hom e whic h h e ha d los t whe n his mothe r lef t hi s fathe r an d h e wa s sen t t o militar y school . (H e ha d tried an d faile d t o creat e suc h a hom e i n hi s marriag e wit h Clara. ) Re member th e longing s h e expresse d t o Paul a Becke r i n Octobe r 1900 , suggesting tha t seekin g a home was , for him , inseparably connecte d wit h his continuin g searc h fo r a mother (Letters 146) . For muc h o f hi s lif e h e could no t fin d on e without th e other . Curiously , fo r a time, the sculpto r supplied bot h needs . In Rodi n Rilk e felt h e ha d discovere d a man wh o ha d becom e a hom e and a complete world t o himself . "Deep i n himself h e bor e th e darkness , shelter, an d peac e o f a house , an d h e himsel f ha d becom e sk y abov e it , and woo d aroun d it " (Letters 1:118) . These image s an d metaphor s evok e the sculptor' s powe r a s th e mode l o f th e existenc e whic h Rilk e wishe d to achiev e fo r himself , partl y throug h associatio n wit h th e "master, " studying an d emulatin g him . The y als o suppor t th e conclusio n tha t Ro -

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din wa s a materna l a s wel l a s a paternal figure fo r th e poet . Writin g t o Clara i n Septembe r 1905 , afte r returnin g t o Meudo n t o liv e a t Rodin's , Rilke compare d hi s receptio n b y "th e master' ' t o "th e wa y a belove d place receive s one. " H e elaborate s thi s metaphor : th e sculpto r become s "a spring " that sing s an d mirrors , "a grove, " a rose-lined "path " (Letters 1:191). Lik e th e image s o f th e sculpto r a s "shelter, " "house, " an d "wood" i n th e lette r t o Lou , her e th e mirrorin g spring , th e grove , an d the rose-line d pat h o f th e "belove d place " associat e hi s hos t wit h femi nine an d materna l qualities , an d thi s associatio n i s reinforce d a s Rilk e tells Clar a tha t Rodi n ha d "th e smil e o f a woman. " In hi s nex t lette r t o Clara , Rilk e asks , "[W]hat ar e al l times o f rest , al l days i n woo d an d sea , . . . an d th e thought s o f al l this: what ar e the y . . . against th e indescribabl y confiden t repos e i n hi s holdin g an d carryin g glance . . . " (Letters 1:192) . This "holdin g an d carryin g glance, " whic h gave res t an d healt h an d assuranc e mor e powerfull y tha n anythin g els e the poe t coul d thin k of , bring s t o min d th e benevolen t mothe r wh o de fends th e chil d agains t nocturna l fear s i n The Notebooks an d th e Thir d Elegy. I t recall s the mirroring gaz e of th e "goo d enough " mothe r which , as D . W . Winnicot t observed , confirm s th e child' s self-lov e an d self esteem, supportin g hi s sens e o f hi s ow n realit y an d value , calmin g fea r and doubt , assurin g such a sense of well-being and confidenc e a s nothin g else ca n give. 3 Wa s thi s "holdin g an d carryin g glance " a n unconsciou s memory o f Rilke' s mothe r projecte d ont o Rodin ? Wa s i t a n unconsciou s fantasy o f a benevolen t mothe r ( a wis h fulfillment ) projected ? W e ca n only rais e thes e questions . Bu t tha t Rodi n wa s bot h mothe r an d fathe r to Rilk e i n a n eve n mor e fundamenta l sens e i s mad e clea r i n a n earl y letter fro m th e poet t o hi s ne w "master " i n whic h h e expresse s gratitud e for th e gif t o f rebirt h (Letters 1:88) . Rilke's sublimina l associatio n o f Rodi n wit h a mothe r ha s anothe r kind o f meaning . I t remind s u s tha t Phi a wa s th e origina l forc e behin d Rene's aspiratio n t o becom e a n artist , a s sh e rea d hi m poetr y an d en couraged hi m t o writ e it. 4 Hi s fathe r offere d Ren e ver y differen t idea l images of mal e power, success , and glory . For Rilk e Rodin embodie d th e realization o f Phia' s aspiration s an d ambition s fo r hersel f an d he r son , while a t th e sam e time , thoug h h e wa s no t a victorious general , h e epit omized ideal s o f masculin e mastery , achievement , an d renown . I n thes e terms on e ca n understan d th e poet' s respons e t o th e sculpto r a s "a n

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example give n t o m y life , t o m y art " {Letters 1:88) . Though hi s mother' s esteem for poet s an d poetry ultimatel y ha d greate r contro l ove r hi s min d and lif e tha n hi s father's idea l o f a n officer' s career , his letter s an d poem s show tha t th e latte r di d hav e a stron g influenc e upo n th e poet . Whil e Phia dresse d Ren e a s a little gir l an d encourage d hi m t o pla y th e par t o f a daughter , Jose f drille d hi m lik e a soldier . Surely , th e conflic t betwee n the parents ' attempt s t o defin e thei r son' s aspiration s contribute d t o th e confusion i n Rene' s min d abou t hi s sexua l identity . I n Ro y Schafer' s terms, th e parent s confronte d Ren e wit h "model s fo r identification " which mad e "i t har d fo r [their ] so n t o integrat e hi s ow n masculinit y an d femininity."5 Rilke' s discover y o f a secon d fathe r correspondin g t o th e ideal notio n o f himsel f a s a grea t artis t whic h originate d wit h Phi a mus t have helpe d th e youn g poe t t o resolv e th e deepl y disturbin g conflic t between th e fantasie s o f self-fulfillmen t whic h hi s mothe r ha d fostere d and th e sens e of himself a s a male rooted i n childhood identificatio n wit h his father . While Josef Rilk e was pressing hi s so n t o tak e a n ordinar y job , Rodi n was urgin g th e poe t t o immers e himsel f i n hi s chose n work . Rejectin g the kin d o f jo b hi s fathe r ha d i n min d a s a for m o f deat h i n life , h e eagerly accepte d th e sculptor' s notio n tha t devotin g himsel f t o th e labor s of hi s vocatio n al l day , da y afte r day , wa s th e wa y i n whic h t o fre e himself fro m a life dependen t o n unpredictable fits of inspiration. He ha d come t o Rodi n t o as k "[H]o w mus t on e live? " The Frenchman' s answe r was t o urg e hi m t o immers e himsel f i n work . Th e youn g poet , wh o ha d found tha t a life dependen t upo n infrequen t inspiratio n wa s ofte n pain fully empty , bega n t o thin k tha t "t o wor k i s to liv e without dying. " Thi s discovery, mad e durin g hi s first day s wit h Rodin , brough t wit h i t th e delighted sens e o f rebirt h whic h I hav e mentione d {Letters 1:88 , 82 , an d 84). In hi s boo k o n Rodin , Rilk e mention s tha t th e sculpto r ha d worke d for a decorator an d the n fo r Carrier e Belleus e a t Sevres . Hi s beginning s as a labore r an d a craftsma n ha d discipline d hi m an d forme d hi s value s and attitude s {WSR y 143) . Obviously ther e wa s a vas t differenc e betwee n th e constan t labo r which th e sculpto r urge d upo n hi s discipl e an d th e bourgeoi s jo b whic h his fathe r offere d t o find him . Bu t ther e ma y wel l hav e bee n a n uncon scious associatio n i n th e poet' s min d betwee n Jose f Rilke' s advic e an d example an d Rodin's . Di d Rodin , a s a paterna l embodimen t o f a n idea l

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of th e sel f whic h ha d bee n fostere d b y Rilke' s mother , provid e a way o f reconciling tha t idea l wit h value s an d attitude s concernin g productiv e work whic h th e fathe r ha d urge d upo n hi s son ? As Rodi n oppose d hi s lif e o f constan t labo r t o dependenc e o n fitfu l inspiration, Jose f Rilk e no t onl y advocate d a regula r jo b bu t fough t against th e erratic , fitfu l emotiona l excitemen t whic h h e though t Phi a fueled i n he r son . Obviously , Rodi n wa s a ma n muc h give n t o passio n and impulse . Bu t i t wa s th e othe r sid e o f him , th e stead y worker , disci plined originall y b y poverty an d jobs a s a craftsman-laborer, whic h Rilk e emphasized i n writin g abou t him , observin g tha t th e sculpto r denie d th e existence o f inspiration. 6 Rilke' s respons e t o hi s secon d father' s opinio n on thi s poin t suggest s unconsciou s identificatio n wit h attitude s o f Jose f which h e consciousl y rejected . I n an y event , fo r mos t o f th e res t o f hi s life, a s various commentator s hav e pointed out , he was not abl e to follo w Rodin's exampl e an d advice , apar t fro m a few period s o f sustaine d pro ductivity, suc h a s th e year s i n whic h h e wrot e mos t o f th e New Poems and The Notebooks ( i 906-1910). A t thi s tim e Rodin' s exampl e loome d large i n hi s mind . In th e las t yea r o f hi s life , Rilk e wrote t o a young frien d tha t Rodin' s influence ha d helpe d hi m t o overcom e superficialit y i n hi s poetr y b y placing hi m unde r "th e obligatio n t o wor k lik e a painte r o r a sculpto r before nature , understandin g an d copyin g inexorably." 7 I n th e first par t of hi s Rodin, Rilk e give s hig h prais e t o th e Frenchman' s extraordinar y powers o f observation . "Keepin g hi s ey e constantl y o n th e mode l an d leaving th e pape r entirel y t o hi s experience d an d rapi d hand , h e dre w a n immense numbe r o f movement s whic h til l the n ha d bee n neithe r see n nor recorded , an d i t turne d ou t the y ha d a vitalit y o f expressio n whic h was tremendous " (WSR, 114) . Following his master's example , the young poet bega n to observ e people an d thing s carefully . Thi s wa s par t o f th e proces s o f learnin g t o se e which becam e a majo r them e o f The Notebooks. Th e emphasi s upo n accurate observatio n o f th e externa l world , whic h h e develope d unde r Rodin's influence , markedl y change d th e natur e o f Rilke' s poetry , a s scholars hav e noted , wit h th e adven t o f th e New Poems. E . M . Butle r argues tha t befor e h e wen t t o Paris , "th e mai n impressio n produce d b y [Rilke's] letters, diaries and poetry is that of a mind i n love with unrealit y and o f a man evadin g a s far a s possible th e insurgent claim s of rea l life." 8 Butler says that thes e tendencies came from Phia . Sieber, who kne w Phia ,

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and Lo u Andreas-Salome , who me t her , confirm he r son' s judgment tha t she live d ami d unrealities—self-deceptions , counterfei t o r inauthenti c feelings an d pieties , illusor y perception s o f he r son , affectation s o f reli giosity, an d pretension s t o a n aristocrati c style. 9 The crucia l encouragement whic h Rodi n gav e to Rilke, in turnin g hi m outward, i n makin g hi m loo k closel y a t thing s i n th e externa l world, an d the result s a s we find the m i n th e New Poems, brin g t o min d th e obser vations o f psychologist s wh o argu e tha t earl y in lif e th e father' s presenc e encourages th e chil d t o emerg e fro m th e narcissistic , symbioti c relation ship wit h th e mothe r an d t o com e int o contac t wit h th e worl d aroun d him. I O Th e influenc e o f Rodin , th e artis t "dea r a s a father, " ma y hav e evolved ou t of , buil t upon , draw n strengt h an d energ y from , a n early , now unconsciou s associatio n o f th e father wit h interes t in external realit y and wit h emergenc e fro m th e highl y subjectiv e wom b o f infantil e nar cissism int o th e multifariou s surround .

11 Contrasting himsel f wit h Rodin , Rilk e wrot e t o Lo u i n Augus t 1903 , asking, "D o I lac k th e strength ? I s m y wil l sick? " Th e lette r expresse s his feelin g tha t "ther e i s nothin g rea l abou t m e . . . I divid e agai n an d again an d flow apart " (Letters 1:122) . He describe s Rodi n a s a man wh o "has left nothin g i n uncertainty an d ha s given reality to everything " (Letters 1:123) . On e ca n se e th e appea l o f suc h a fantas y o f Rodi n t o th e young poet , plague d b y a sens e o f hi s ow n unreality , b y uncertainty , self-division, sever e anxieties , an d th e threa t o f psychi c disintegratio n i n the alie n chao s o f Paris . T o Rilke , wh o fel t a t thi s tim e tha t h e lacke d vitality, energy , direction , an d eve n th e knowledg e o f ho w t o live , Rodi n seemed, a s h e late r wrot e t o Clara , t o sen d a "rus h o f force s streamin g into one " an d t o exemplif y "a n abilit y t o liv e o f whic h I ha d n o idea " (Letters 1:192) . What ar e th e origin s o f hi s idealizatio n o f th e sculptor ? Th e first sec tion o f thi s chapte r suggest s th e way i n which Rodi n becam e a father fo r the youn g poe t an d also , subliminally , a materna l figure. H e embodie d unconscious projection s o f childhoo d image s an d fantasie s o f bot h Rilke's parent s an d wa s th e objec t o f feeling s transferre d fro m thes e highly subjectiv e childhoo d figures i n th e poet' s unconscious. 1

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Can w e describe an d define th e parental figure o f childhoo d fantas y which Rilk e projecte d ont o Rodin ? I n doin g so , I shal l avai l mysel f o f Heinz Kohut' s insights . I n The Analysis of the Self (1971 ) an d The Restoration of the Self (1977) , Kohu t studie s form s o f wha t h e calls narcis sistic illnes s i n whic h "th e sel f ha s no t bee n solidl y established, " wit h the consequenc e tha t "it s cohesion an d firmness depen d o n the presence of a self-object (o r the development o f a self-object transference)." 2 B y "self-object" Kohu t mean s "object s whic h ar e themselves experience d as part o f th e self," a s the mother i s in infancy . Thes e ar e "archaic object s cathected with narcissistic libido . .. which are still in intimate connectio n with th e archaic self" of infancy an d early childhood . On e such "archai c self-object," accordin g t o Kohut , i s th e highl y idealize d imag e o f th e parent a s an omnipotent, perfec t figure, whic h th e "archaic self " i s motivated t o creat e partl y b y its need t o preserve it s own primitive narcis sism an d omnipotenc e b y sharin g i n th e idealize d parent' s powe r an d perfection. Th e archaic sel f ca n feel all-powerful , lovable , and valuable in its fantas y o f unit y wit h thi s highl y idealize d parenta l figure. Hence , as Kohut argues , it s idealizatio n o f th e paren t i s narcissistic , th e motiva tional energ y come s fro m th e infant' s nee d fo r omnipotence , love , and self-esteem. Accordin g t o Kohut, a child o r an adult experience s anothe r person fro m th e perspectiv e o f narcissisti c feeling s an d fantasie s whe n the "expecte d contro l ove r suc h (self-object ) other s i s . . . close r t o the concept o f th e contro l whic h a grownu p expect s t o hav e ove r hi s own body an d mind tha n h e expects t o have ove r others." 3 Kohut trace s th e extrem e idealizatio n o f othe r peopl e b y adult s suf fering fro m wha t h e call s narcissisti c illnes s bac k t o th e beginning s o f mental-emotional developmen t i n infancy . Ver y earl y i n ou r lives , h e says, "afte r bein g expose d t o the disturbance o f th e psychological equi librium o f primar y narcissism , th e psyche save s a part o f th e lost expe rience o f globa l narcissisti c perfectio n t o a n archaic , rudimentar y (transitional) self-object , th e idealized imago. " A t thi s stag e o f develop ment, "al l power an d bliss reside in the idealized object. " Consequently , "the chil d feel s empt y an d powerless whe n h e is separate d fro m i t and he attempts , therefore , t o maintai n continuou s unio n wit h it." 4 Adult s afflicted wit h narcissisti c illnes s suffe r fro m thi s infantil e experienc e o f emptiness an d powerlessness i n the absence of a surrogate for the "idealized paren t imago. " Rilk e fel t unreal , and he was plagued b y self-doubt , uncertainty, self-division, and childhood fear s in those early days in Paris.

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He wa s draw n t o Rodi n b y th e feelin g tha t th e "master" , "dea r a s a father," conferre d realit y an d certaint y o n everythin g aroun d him , sen t his vitality into one like a mighty "rus h o f forces," held on e in his "hold ing an d carryin g glance, " which bestowe d incomparabl e peac e an d rest , calm and shelter , an d taugh t one , in one' s helples s ignorance , how t o liv e and ho w t o work . Often, accordin g t o Kohut , th e unconsciou s fantas y underlyin g th e relationship betwee n th e sel f an d th e idealize d parenta l figure ma y b e formulated a s "Yo u ar e perfect , bu t I a m par t o f you. " Th e adul t wh o projects th e godlik e perfectio n o f a n idealize d paren t ont o a surrogat e feels tha t h e ca n partak e o f th e latter' s omnipotence . Surel y thi s wa s i n large part th e sourc e o f Rodin' s effec t upo n Rilk e whe n h e first cam e t o Paris. Normally, durin g childhood , throug h timely , unexcessiv e disappoint ment an d frustration , th e idealizatio n o f th e paren t diminishes . Kohu t suggests that , a s thi s happens , th e chil d redirect s hi s idealizin g lov e an d esteem towar d th e superego . Th e supereg o thu s become s investe d wit h this idealizin g lov e an d esteem , whic h hel p t o establis h it s powe r an d authority ove r us . "Traumatic disappointment " wit h parents , such a s th e sharp an d bitte r disillusionmen t whic h Rilk e appear s t o hav e suffere d with bot h hi s parents a s a child, ma y undermin e an d disrup t th e proces s by which th e idealization of th e parent imagoes is shifted t o the superego . Phia Rilke' s "unreality, " blin d narcissism , an d self-absorbe d religios ity, whic h h e repeatedl y complaine d abou t i n hi s letters ; her withdrawa l from he r husban d an d so n a s he r marriag e deteriorated ; he r separatio n from the m i n 188 4 when Ren e wa s nine ; he r acceptanc e o f Josef' s deci sion t o sen d Ren e t o militar y school , whic h seeme d t o hi m a kin d o f hell; his father's extrem e stiffness an d steril e conventionality; his crushin g failure t o find somethin g bette r tha n a jo b a s a railwa y official , whic h was such a come-down fro m hi s aspirations to a career as an army officer , suitable fo r a man whos e famil y claime d nobl e ancestry ; th e parents ' lif e of self-deception ; thei r vulga r pretenses , whic h thei r so n loathed—al l these factors were , as the poet' s letter s reveal , sources o f extremel y pain ful disillusionment . Rilk e recalle d tha t "th e wors t coddling " i n hi s in fancy an d earl y childhood mad e subsequent injurie s an d disappointment s even mor e traumati c tha n the y migh t otherwis e hav e bee n {Letters 1:99) . Kohut observe s tha t th e chil d whose redirectio n o f idealizin g love an d esteem t o th e supereg o ha s bee n undermine d o r disrupte d grow s int o a n

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adult wh o continues t o "searc h fo r externa l idea l figure s fro m who m h e wants t o obtai n th e approva l an d leadershi p whic h hi s insufficientl y idealized supereg o canno t provide. " Suc h figure s ma y b e experience d through transferenc e a s th e "archai c self-objects " require d fo r mental , emotional equilibrium. 5 Rilke's poem s an d letter s giv e th e impressio n tha t Phia , lackin g em pathetic responsiveness , fell fa r short o f adequat e materna l mirroring , an early an d necessary sourc e o f th e sense o f th e self's realit y an d identity , of body-sel f cohesion , o f self-esteem , an d of the capacity fo r controllin g anxiety. Kohu t theorize s tha t "traumati c disappointments " i n the "mir roring self-object " an d th e "idealize d self-object " ma y impai r essentia l ego functions , whic h develo p throug h introjectio n of , an d identificatio n with, parents . Thes e includ e th e capacit y fo r soothin g oneself , defense s against excessiv e an d threatening stimuli , an d the ability bot h t o contro l and to gratify primitiv e (drive ) impulses, thus relievin g accumulating ten sion an d anxiety. 6 Traumatic disillusionment , Kohu t argues , frequently cause s repressio n of th e idealize d paren t imag o int o th e unconscious . O r i t ma y b e spli t off, isolate d fro m an d disavowed b y rational , realisti c thinkin g an d per ception. Lackin g a n adequatel y idealize d supereg o an d cripple d b y th e impairment o f eg o functions, th e child remain s dependen t o n this (ofte n unconscious) parenta l presenc e fo r approval , esteem , an d guidance , fo r confirmation o f his reality, identity, an d psychic coherence , and for pro tection agains t danger s an d demands fro m withi n an d from outside . H e must see k someon e i n the external worl d t o embod y th e "idealized self object." For a n adul t wh o is stil l "fixated " o n suc h a figure th e absenc e o f a surrogate ma y create " a threa t t o the organization o f the self," "variou s regressions," "fragmentation, " an d exposure t o the terrors o f childhood , among them "disintegratio n anxiety, " the fear of annihilation, and related fears o f merging an d being engulfed. 7 Suc h anxietie s an d dangers aboun d in The Notebooks an d i n Rilke' s 190 3 letters appealin g fo r hel p t o hi s onetime mothe r surrogate , Lo u Andreas-Salome . Kohut's relevanc e t o m y analysi s o f Rilke' s initia l respons e t o Rodi n may b e summed u p in a few words. An adult sufferin g fro m th e kind of illness whic h Rilk e portraye d autobiographicall y i n Mak e need s a sur rogate "self-object, " suc h a s the one Rodin becam e for Rilke, to provid e "the psychologica l cemen t tha t [maintains ] th e cohesion o f th e self." I n

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this wa y th e surrogat e help s th e narcissisticall y il l person defen d himsel f against anxietie s suc h a s those Kohu t describes , including th e hypochon driacal fantasies resultin g from fragmentation , i n which on e may feel tha t "various part s o f hi s bod y [are ] isolatin g themselve s an d [are ] beginnin g to b e experience d a s strang e an d foreign." 8 Late r i n thi s chapte r I shal l explore th e relationshi p betwee n suc h frightenin g fantasie s i n Mak e an d Rilke's excitemen t o n findin g tha t Rodi n coul d giv e a n isolate d par t o f a body, such as a hand, "th e independence and completeness of a whole," and i n s o doin g creat e a grea t wor k o f ar t (WSR, 105 ; Rodin, par t 1) . In Object Love and Reality, Arnol d Model l develop s another , closel y related explanatio n o f th e kin d o f high-flyin g idealizatio n w e mee t i n Rilke's letter s to an d abou t Rodi n an d i n hi s book o n th e sculptor . Orig inally, Model l says , th e chil d invest s on e o r bot h parent s wit h omnipo tence. Then h e identifie s wit h th e parent(s ) who m h e ha s endowe d wit h this quality . "Th e earlies t cor e o f identificatio n tha t w e ca n uncove r i n the analysi s o f adul t patient s i s a cor e tha t i s organize d aroun d suc h omnipotent fantasies." 9 Th e chil d create s an d identifie s wit h a n omni potent paren t figur e a s a response t o anxiet y an d helplessness , accordin g to Modell . Th e child' s sens e o f havin g mad e th e parent' s omnipotenc e a part o f himsel f i s magical thinking . "Th e essenc e o f magica l belie f i s tha t the acknowledge d perceptua l separatio n o f object s i s mer e appearance . The magica l objec t create d b y th e subjec t becomes , i n turn , par t o f th e subject's ow n ego." 10 In projectin g thes e earl y parenta l figure s upo n othe r people , Model l notes, a n adul t experience s th e latte r a s symboli c object s an d thu s be comes immerse d i n anothe r dimensio n o f magica l thinking , identifyin g the symbo l wit h th e objec t whic h i t represents . Fo r Rilke , Rodi n wa s a symbol, i n thi s sens e o f th e word , representin g th e highl y idealize d pa rental figure s th e poe t ha d create d a s a child . Rilk e unconsciousl y ex perienced Rodi n a s bein g identifie d wit h th e godlik e fathe r an d mothe r whom h e symbolized . What i s the motivatin g nee d responsibl e fo r thi s kin d o f transference , according t o Modell ? H e observe s tha t adult s wh o creat e omnipoten t parent surrogate s ofte n d o s o becaus e the y lac k th e "cohesiv e sens e o f identity" whic h enable s u s t o fee l rea l an d aliv e and well-integrated . Th e lack o f thi s nucleu s o f th e health y adul t psych e goe s bac k t o childhoo d failures i n a person's relationship s wit h hi s parents , suc h a s thos e I hav e

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explored. Model l posit s tha t a "cohesiv e sens e o f identity " i s roote d i n introjections of , an d identification s with , "goo d enough " parents , thos e who ar e wel l integrate d an d intelligentl y empatheti c i n thei r lov e an d i n the guidanc e an d contro l the y provid e i n respons e t o th e infant' s needs . Early identification s wit h suc h parents develo p a capacity for self-lov e and self-estee m an d "facilitate " th e essentia l function s o f "eg o control " that I define d whil e explorin g Kohut' s ideas . Parent s whos e failing s ar e as marked an d significan t a s those Rilke ascribes to his father an d mothe r deprive their child of the opportunity t o develop these essential capacitie s through identificatio n wit h them . Consequently , Model l tell s us , th e child ma y "remai n slavishl y dependent" upo n othe r people (a s Rilke wa s dependent upo n Lo u Andreas-Salom e an d Rodin ) "t o perfor m certai n functions tha t hav e no t bee n incorporate d int o thei r ow n egos." 11 I hav e explaine d th e wa y i n whic h a n adul t wit h suc h needs , experi encing a child's helplessness, uncertainty, an d anxiety , because of hi s fail ure t o develo p sufficien t psychi c healt h an d strength , wil l projec t ont o other adult s infantil e fantasie s o f perfect , godlik e parent s wh o hav e th e power, wisdom , an d generosit y t o giv e him everythin g h e needs , includ ing affection ; refug e an d protectio n fro m dangers ; confirmatio n o f hi s reality, achievements , an d value ; an d trustworth y model s fo r livin g an d working. In thi s kin d o f transference , a s Modell points out , on e person endeav ors unconsciousl y t o gai n powe r ove r another , t o brin g th e othe r indi vidual int o accor d wit h hi s ow n need s an d desires . H e feels , a s h e doe s this, tha t h e i s tryin g t o contro l an d manipulat e a paren t o r a parenta l figure. Model l compare s transferenc e i n suc h a relationshi p t o a child' s use o f "transitiona l objects " which symboliz e it s mother. Hi s exampl e is taken fro m Freud . I n Beyond the Pleasure Principle, Freu d describe s a game whic h h e watche d a little bo y pla y wit h a yo-yo. Th e boy , whos e age was on e an d a half, would thro w th e ree l ove r th e edg e o f it s co t s o that i t disappeared , whil e h e hel d ont o th e string . A t th e disappearanc e of th e reel , th e chil d le t ou t a lou d soun d whic h Freu d an d th e littl e boy's mothe r interprete d a s meanin g "gone. " The n th e chil d pulle d th e reel bac k int o sigh t an d said , wit h apparen t delight , "There." 12 Freu d says the bo y i s mastering hi s anxiet y ove r hi s mother' s absenc e b y prov ing t o himsel f tha t h e ca n brin g th e spoo l bac k a t will . Th e spoo l i s a symbolic o r transitiona l object , an d th e boy' s thinkin g i n th e gam e i s magical i n th e sens e tha t h e feel s tha t hi s master y ove r th e spool , whic h

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in hi s unconscious i s identified wit h hi s mother , establishe s master y ove r her. I hav e argue d tha t Rilk e experience d Rodi n a s a symbolic object , con sciously seein g hi m a s a dear father , unconsciousl y identifyin g hi m wit h both parent s a s idealized, omnipoten t figures. Th e youn g poe t calle d th e sculptor "master. " Bu t hi s unconsciou s aim , simila r t o tha t o f th e bo y with th e spool , was t o gai n master y ove r Rodin , t o us e hi m magicall y a s a symboli c objec t i n orde r t o participat e i n hi s (illusory ) omnipotenc e and hi s apparen t master y ove r hi s lif e an d work , an d thu s t o contro l hi s own (th e poet's ) anxiet y an d t o defen d himsel f agains t th e threa t o f disintegration. The ultimat e for m o f suc h master y ove r th e symboli c objec t an d th e parental imagoe s wit h whic h h e i s unconsciousl y identifie d i s incorpo ration, total absorption . Through identificatio n wit h th e older man, Rilk e hoped t o mak e th e sculpto r a part o f himself , t o tak e Rodin' s grea t mas tery an d creativ e power int o himself , t o absor b an d incorporat e the m b y means o f closeness , study , an d emulation . Th e tw o essay s o n Rodin , especially th e first one , an d th e letter s abou t Rilke' s attempt s t o stud y him closely support thi s impression. The vivid, precisely detailed descrip tions an d al l th e energ y o f though t tha t wen t int o understandin g th e sculptor a s a ma n an d a s a n artis t revea l th e effor t t o maste r Rodi n an d thus t o engul f an d incorporat e hi m wit h th e hoped-fo r resul t o f becom ing lik e hi m (or , i n fantasy , o f becomin g him , ye t remainin g oneself) , and thu s overcomin g al l th e miser y an d fea r an d illness , th e sens e o f unreality, uncertainty, an d self-divisio n tha t plagued th e poet a t the time . In hi s effort s t o maste r th e sculptor , Rilk e ha d a s hi s mode l Rodin' s endeavors t o obtai n ful l an d precis e impression s o f suc h subject s a s Bal zac an d Victo r Hugo . Writin g abou t Rodin' s preparation s fo r hi s figure of Hugo , Rilk e say s th e sculpto r woul d hid e himsel f i n a window nich e in a Paris Hote l t o watch th e Frenc h poe t a t his receptions, getting dow n on pape r "hundred s upo n hundreds " o f Hugo' s motion s an d facia l expressions (WSR, 120) .

Ill The feelin g o f insecurity , self-division , an d unrealit y whic h Rilk e expe rienced durin g th e years 1902- 3 an d th e perception o f Rodi n a s someon e

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who possesse d th e sens e o f realit y an d psychi c strength , unity , an d vi tality whic h h e lacke d dre w th e poet t o th e sculptor . Bu t thi s contras t i n Rilke's min d ha d negativ e effects , a s well. The Frenchman' s strength s a t times intensifie d Rilke' s alread y painfu l sens e o f hi s ow n psychi c weak ness an d instability . Writin g t o Lo u tha t Rodi n "ha s lef t nothin g i n un certainty an d ha s give n realit y t o everything, " th e youn g poe t wondere d if hi s ow n wil l was sick , lamenting t o Lo u tha t ther e was "nothin g real " about hi m an d tha t h e wa s continuall y divide d fro m himsel f (Letters 1:123 a n d

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He confirm s Salome' s insigh t tha t Rodi n wa s a n overwhelmin g ex ample. Th e "fearfulness " arisin g fro m thi s relationshi p seeme d t o focu s on "th e clos e proximity o f somethin g to o hard , to o stony , too big " (Letters 1:123) . Following classica l Freudia n analysis , I a m incline d t o inter pret Rilke' s languag e her e a s a n expressio n o f a n unconsciou s sens e o f a father's immensel y superio r phallus . A subsequen t passag e i n th e sam e letter support s thi s interpretation. Rilk e says that hi s lack o f th e essentia l gifts whic h h e attribute s t o Rodi n impel s hi m t o tr y t o discove r "th e tool o f m y art , th e hammer , m y hammer , s o tha t i t may becom e master " (Letters 1:124) . In dreams , folklore, wor k songs , literature, and th e visua l arts, tool s an d weapon s ma y expres s unconsciou s association s wit h th e phallus. As Norma n Hollan d indicate s i n The Dynamics of Literary Response, it may als o become identified wit h the capacity for usin g languag e and various kinds of potency which follow fro m that . The example which Holland choose s is from Two Gentlemen of Verona: "That ma n that hat h a tongue , I say , i s n o man/I f wit h hi s tongu e h e canno t wi n a woman. " Here wi t consciousl y make s th e tongu e phallic. 1 Dreams, whic h expres s throug h displacemen t an d condensatio n un conscious connection s betwee n th e phallu s an d weapon s o r tools , ofte n reflect th e tendenc y o f youn g childre n t o fee l tha t th e father' s phallu s i s frightening i n its size and power. Rilke' s painful sens e that hi s own mor e abstract mediu m di d no t hav e th e vita l physica l presenc e o f Rodin' s sculpture an d hi s feelin g tha t h e lacked "th e too l o f m y art , th e hammer , my hammer " sugges t tha t i n hi s min d hi s impotenc e a s a n artis t wa s unconsciously connecte d wit h a fear o f sexua l an d emotiona l impotence , which closenes s t o th e father-maste r i n Pari s intensified . These fantasie s i n th e poe t remin d m e o f th e Letter to His Father written b y hi s contemporar y an d compatrio t Fran z Kafka , i n whic h a son remember s hi s feeling s a s a bo y when , o n a swimmin g expeditio n

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with hi s father , the y cam e ou t o f th e cabi n fo r changin g clothes . H e compares hi s ow n bod y t o a skeleto n i n it s pitifu l contras t wit h hi s fa ther's large , strong, powerful physiqu e an d recall s hi s humiliatin g inabil ity t o lear n ho w t o swi m despit e hi s father' s effort s t o teac h him . Th e father persiste d an d th e anguishe d so n fel t increasingl y desperat e a s h e continued t o fail. 2 Her e w e fin d ope n expressio n o f th e sens e o f physica l impotence i n relatio n t o th e fathe r whic h i s latent an d obliqu e i n Rilke' s writings abou t Rodin . Later i n th e lette r Kafk a connect s hi s fundamenta l uncertaintie s con cerning hi s ver y existence , hi s wort h a s a person , an d hi s abilitie s wit h his doubt s abou t hi s body . Hi s nee d "t o b e provide d a t ever y instan t with a ne w confirmatio n o f m y existence " i s th e cravin g a t th e cor e o f so muc h o f Kafka' s writing , beginnin g wit h th e Conversation with a Supplicant, i n whic h th e supplican t explain s tha t h e need s t o b e see n i n order t o fee l tha t h e exists. 3 I n th e lette r Kafk a trace s th e sens e o f bein g physically an d psychicall y nothing , nonexistent , bac k t o a terrifyin g ex perience i n whic h hi s seemingl y giganti c fathe r cam e int o hi s roo m a t night whe n Fran z wa s a smal l child , carrie d hi m ou t ont o th e balcony , and lef t hi m there , makin g th e chil d fee l tha t h e counte d fo r nothin g i n his father' s eyes. 4 Surely, th e feeling s expresse d i n Rilke' s lette r abou t th e impossibilit y of makin g thing s physically , th e pai n i n hi s bod y create d b y thi s impo tence, and th e sens e o f bein g u p agains t somethin g "to o hard , to o stony , too big " wer e closel y linke d wit h hi s fantas y tha t "ther e i s nothin g rea l about me, " i n muc h th e sam e wa y tha t Kafka' s feeling s abou t hi s body , his sens e o f it s skeleta l insubstantialit y an d smallness , wer e connecte d with hi s fantas y o f hi s ow n nothingness . Althoug h ther e wer e larg e dif ferences betwee n th e tw o olde r me n an d th e tw o relationships , Rodin' s negative effect s upo n Rilk e fo r severa l years , a s describe d i n th e poet' s letters, ar e comparabl e t o Herman n Kafka' s effect s upo n hi s son . Rilke's medium , language , seeme d s o muc h les s rea l i n it s essentia l abstractness and in its greater distance from th e world o f physical objects , than Rodin' s sculpture . The highl y subjectiv e natur e o f th e youn g poet' s early wor k ma y hav e exacerbate d hi s sense , when h e firs t cam e t o Paris , of th e unrealit y o f hi s languag e i n compariso n wit h Rodin' s objets. Thi s painful sens e o f th e contras t betwee n th e tw o medi a wa s connecte d wit h the poet' s anguis h ove r hi s comparativ e lac k o f fluenc y i n Frenc h whe n he firs t arrived . I n a lette r writte n t o Rodi n shortl y afte r hi s arrival , h e

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begins b y equatin g hi s Frenc h wit h "sickness. " Hi s words , h e says , ar e "dead" (Letters 1:87) . In hi s roo m h e meditate d o n th e languag e tha t h e would us e wit h Rodin , wh o coul d understan d littl e o r n o German , bu t in th e master' s presenc e h e foun d himsel f impoten t i n hi s ow n medium , at a los s fo r words . Eventuall y h e wa s t o maste r Frenc h t o th e exten t that h e coul d writ e poetr y i n it . An d b y 1905- 6 h e wa s doin g Rodin' s correspondence fo r him . The argument of this section can be brought t o a focus with the insight that Rilke's dependence on Rodin for hi s sense of his own realit y at times intensified hi s anxious feelin g tha t h e was unreal. This i s one unfortunat e consequence o f suc h fantasie s o f ontologica l dependenc e upo n others .

IV In th e secon d par t o f Rodin, Rilk e discusse s th e child' s earlies t posses sions i n a passage whic h anticipate s hi s essa y o n dolls . H e i s attemptin g to clarif y hi s specia l us e o f th e wor d "things. " H e ask s th e reader , an d perhaps himself , t o summo n u p t o min d som e objec t fro m hi s o r he r childhood which , i n memory , seem s t o hav e bee n singularl y close , kind , just, necessary, not frightening , no t confusing , an d h e wonders i f we ow e to just suc h a n objec t an y "confidenc e an d th e sens e o f no t bein g alone " felt durin g earl y childhoo d (WSR, 131) . Here , a s i n th e essa y o n dolls , which wa s writte n year s late r i n 1914 , Rilke' s thinkin g bring s t o min d Winnicott's concep t o f transitiona l objects. 1 The poet's descriptio n o f th e child's experienc e suggest s tha t th e cherishe d objec t i s unconsciousl y identified wit h a benevolent , lovin g mother , lik e th e on e w e fin d i n th e Third Eleg y an d The Notebooks, protectin g th e chil d fro m hi s ow n fear s at night . Winnicott observe s tha t "transitiona l objects " ma y stan d fo r th e mother's breast , though , a t th e sam e time , th e chil d i s awar e tha t th e blanket, fo r example , i s no t th e breast . Th e belove d blanke t i s pervade d with subjectivity , experience d a s par t o f th e child , ye t als o fel t t o b e something else , a possession . I t i s neve r completel y subjec t t o "magica l control," unlike a n "interna l object, " suc h a s a conscious o r unconsciou s representation o f th e mothe r i n th e mind . Bu t i t i s not fel t t o b e beyon d control i n th e wa y tha t th e chil d come s t o experienc e "th e rea l mother. "

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If al l goe s well , th e child' s sens e o f contro l ove r a "transitiona l object " diminishes gradually , a s th e objec t graduall y lose s th e meanin g i t ha s acquired throug h transference , an d th e aur a o f projecte d subjectivit y fades. I n Rilke' s 191 4 essa y o n doll s ("Puppen") thi s los s i s a s painfu l and devastatin g a s th e experienc e o f Phia' s withdrawa l an d desertion . I n this respec t th e strang e reflection s o n doll s revea l a proces s o f develop ment whic h contrast s sharpl y wit h th e gentl e diffusion an d dispersio n o f the soothing , satisfying, reassurin g experience of transitiona l object s that , according to Winnicott, ordinarily leads to mental health in children. Th e brilliant piece on dolls , which ma y hav e been influenced b y Kleist' s essa y " O n th e Marionette Theater, " i s one o f Rilke' s writings i n which w e ca n see clearl y th e intersectio n o f geniu s an d abnormality . Whe n th e poe t read th e essa y t o Magd a vo n Hattingberg , hi s "Benvenuta, " sh e coul d not bea r it. 2 In Rodin, Rilk e goe s o n t o mak e anothe r poin t abou t thos e thing s which ar e s o meaningfu l t o u s i n childhood . Tha t earl y object , becaus e it come s t o represen t i n th e child' s fantasie s "an y an d everything, " help s to prepar e hi m fo r "contact s wit h th e world " (WSR, 131) . Winnicot t observes tha t transitiona l phenomena , i n whic h subjectiv e an d objectiv e realities fuse , reshapin g eac h other , giv e th e chil d a sens e o f hi s powe r and freedo m t o creat e (mor e precisely , t o re-create ) th e worl d aroun d him.3 Lik e Winnicott, Rilk e sa w the cherishe d object s o f earl y childhoo d as the prototypes o f works o f art . He was interested particularly i n thing s which, lik e th e child' s deares t possessions , demand dedication , trust , an d love fro m th e artist s wh o mak e the m (se e WSR, 132) . Central i n his study o f th e sculpto r i s the idea that throug h th e figure s which h e create d Rodi n assume d contro l an d too k "possessio n o f th e world" (WSRy 143) . For Rilke , who i n 190 2 an d 190 3 felt tha t h e lacke d reality an d tha t h e might b e misreading, to a n alarming extent, his strang e new surroundings , a s did othe r los t people i n th e chaoti c street s o f Paris , the master' s abilit y t o possess th e world throug h hi s sculptur e mus t hav e seemed enviable . As I hav e indicated , th e term s th e poe t use s t o describ e th e child' s experience of hi s early possessions reveal that Rilk e had a n intuitive sens e of th e fac t tha t th e chil d unconsciousl y identifie s thes e thing s wit h hi s mother. Th e curiou s corollar y o f th e argumen t tha t suc h thing s ar e th e precursors o f th e object s artist s creat e i s tha t th e latte r ca n giv e thei r

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maker th e "confidence " an d "th e sens e o f no t bein g alone " which orig inally shoul d com e fro m a mother . Fo r thi s artis t nothin g els e wa s s o close, intimately known , an d necessar y a s hi s ow n poems . In thes e terms we can understand Rilke' s vision o f Rodin : surrounde d by hi s ow n creations , enjoyin g thei r extraordinar y life , whic h mirrore d his own , an d thei r responsivenes s t o him , th e sculpto r wa s constantl y delighting in such kindness, devotion, and affectio n a s transitional object s can giv e t o a child , i n who m the y ar e unconsciousl y identifie d wit h a benevolent mother . Wit h thes e idea s i n min d w e ca n gras p Rilke' s sens e of th e sculptor' s jo y an d o f Rodin' s belie f tha t lif e wa s miraculou s (se e WSR, 147) . Rilke imagine d tha t on e o f th e mos t importan t function s o f Rodin' s sculpture wa s t o ac t a s a protectio n agains t al l disturbanc e an d danger . "His wor k stand s lik e a grea t ange l besid e hi m an d protect s hi m . . . hi s great work! " (Letters 1:85) . H e live d i n hi s sculptur e a s i n a shelterin g wood (Letters 1:121) . In thi s respec t on e ca n se e a t leas t a n unconsciou s association betwee n th e sculptor' s wor k an d a protective mothe r suc h a s the on e Rilk e describe s i n The Notebooks passag e concernin g th e child' s nocturnal fears . T o a poet plague d b y th e anxietie s whic h h e depict s i n Make, deepl y trouble d throug h muc h o f hi s lif e b y hi s mother' s with drawal, i t seeme d tha t th e abilit y t o produc e work s o f ar t offere d on e a way o f masterin g th e fear s whic h threatene d t o tea r hi m t o piece s whe n he first cam e to Paris . Rodin epitomize d thi s means of masterin g anxiety . The Frenchma n ha d create d a whol e worl d wit h hi s sculpture , a worl d in whic h h e coul d b e completel y a t hom e an d sheltered . Rilke's inabilit y t o produc e wor k h e coul d valu e durin g certai n pe riods o f hi s lif e wa s linke d i n hi s min d wit h hi s failur e t o maste r hi s worst fear s (o f disintegratio n an d annihilation) . I f onl y h e coul d writ e worthy poem s o r prose , he would no t fal l pre y t o anxiety , he would no t disintegrate. H e yearne d fo r th e abilit y t o conver t hi s fear s int o work s of art , "real, still things tha t i t is serenity an d freedo m t o creat e and fro m which, whe n the y exist , reassuranc e emanate s [s o that ] nothin g woul d have happened t o me" (Letters 1:115) . Reading the letters to Salome writ ten i n th e summe r an d fal l o f 1903 , we ca n se e tha t hi s failur e a t time s to creat e suc h "real , stil l things " a s Rodi n wa s constantl y producin g resembled a child' s inability , whe n frightene d b y hi s mother' s absences , to demonstrat e hi s master y t o himsel f wit h th e hel p o f suc h object s a s the boy' s spoo l i n Freud' s Beyond the Pleasure Principle.

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The poe t decide d tha t Rodin' s repudiatio n o f hi s belie f i n inspiratio n ironically aros e from th e never diminishing strengt h o f th e divine afflatu s in th e sculptor , hi s "uninterrupte d fertility " (WSR y 143 ) Thi s argumen t suggests a n unconsciou s fantas y tha t th e benevolen t materna l presenc e Rilke desperatel y neede d a t time s wa s alway s ther e fo r th e sculptor . I n Rilke's fantas y Rodi n ha d mad e a fertile mothe r a n essentia l part o f him self an d had thus attained to the hermaphroditic motherhoo d whic h Rilk e yearned fo r i n The Book of Hours. Th e "master " wa s a ma n endlessl y capable o f materna l procreation , wh o wa s als o blesse d wit h a n endurin g capacity fo r motherin g himself , fo r defendin g himsel f agains t al l dange r and fea r an d loneliness . Rilke's conceptio n o f th e artist' s wor k (th e activity ) an d hi s work s (th e objects) a s defense s agains t disturbanc e an d anxiet y take s variou s forms . He imagine s himsel f liftin g hi s whol e lif e "int o a peace, a solitude , int o the stillnes s o f dee p workdays " (Letters 1:126) . In a related fantasy , cre ative activit y become s "th e powerfu l flo w o f a stream " wit h a "grea t roar," which would no t allo w any of th e external or internal disturbance s that hav e plague d hi m t o b e hear d o r t o ge t through . A s thi s massiv e stream o f creativ e energy, ideas, activity, and achievemen t would provid e undeniable confirmatio n o f hi s ow n reality , vitality , an d value , whic h human relationship s ha d faile d t o giv e him , h e coul d affor d t o neglec t the latte r an d leav e behin d th e sens e o f hi s unrealit y an d impotence , th e anxieties, and th e illness which hi s entanglements with othe r people ofte n seemed t o intensify . Watchin g Rodin , h e conclude d tha t man y grea t art ists ha d largel y discarde d thei r ordinar y live s t o liv e i n thei r wor k (se e Letters 1:8 4 an d 126) . The sculpto r ha d sai d t o him , "[L]e s ami s s'empechent . I I es t mieu x d'etre seul" (Letters 1:84) . This is from a letter which Rilke wrote to Clara , soon afte r h e lef t he r an d Rut h t o com e t o Paris . An d i t i s clea r tha t h e understood thes e feelings . I n hi s conversatio n wit h th e Frenchman , th e poet spok e of hi s sadness a t separation from hi s daughter. But he was ob viously gratifie d t o hav e foun d a "master " wh o gav e hi m th e stronges t possible support for choosin g his work ove r his life as husband an d fathe r in Westerwede. And t o Lou , his lifelong friend , onc e his lover, for year s a surrogate mother, he wrote, expressing a belief which h e thought Rodin' s life validated, "[I]n one of my poems that is successful, there is much mor e reality than in any relationship or affection tha t I feel" (Letters 1:121) .

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Through emulatio n an d identification , b y masterin g th e maste r an d making Rodi n par t o f himself , by modelin g hi s ow n lif e upo n th e sculp tor's, h e coul d fre e himsel f fro m th e lon g period s whe n inspiratio n an d fertility wer e absent , an d als o enabl e himsel f t o produc e work s o f ar t which migh t perfor m th e primitiv e function s o f transitiona l objects . H e too migh t experienc e th e jo y whic h belonge d t o th e sculpto r bu t ofte n eluded him , a s i t doe s mos t o f us . Hi s ow n wor k woul d affor d hi m th e only companionshi p h e woul d need , a s a n infan t need s an d desire s n o one bu t it s mothe r o r th e objec t (doll , bi t o f blanket , rockin g horse ) which take s he r place . Rilke's letters an d various account s of his life show tha t h e used hi s wor k as a n excus e fo r a solitud e whic h coul d b e conduciv e t o creativity , a s i t was a t Duin o i n 191 2 an d a t Muzo t i n 1922 , and tha t a t time s th e wor k could provid e suc h satisfactio n an d fulfillmen t a s huma n relationship s rarely o r neve r gav e him. But, as I have shown, his frequent self-isolatio n and hi s distancin g o f othe r peopl e als o aggravate d hi s sens e o f hi s un reality and barrenness at times when his poetry, fiction, essays , and letter s would no t com e an d coul d no t hel p him . I n thi s respect , obviously , h e differed fro m Rodin . Rilke sa w Rodin' s sculpture , lik e it s maker , a s a n idea l imag e o f th e solitary self-sufficienc y whic h h e longe d t o develop . A wor k o f art , h e argued, should b e "untouchable , sacrosanct, separated fro m th e influenc e of acciden t o r time " (WSR, 94) . I hav e mentione d th e poet' s likenin g o f his "Maitre " t o a n easter n god , hi s implici t associatio n o f th e ol d ma n with th e effig y o f Buddha , o n a hil l nea r th e Vill a i n Meudon , an d hi s New Poems o n th e Buddh a wit h thei r idealizatio n o f perfec t self containment. Rilke' s desir e t o creat e object s endowe d wit h thi s qualit y is evident i n Rodin an d th e letter s t o an d abou t th e sculptor . Underlyin g his longin g t o writ e poem s whic h woul d radiat e suc h perfectio n wa s th e fantasy tha t th e poet, through identificatio n wit h hi s poems, would attai n to th e idea l qualitie s o f th e work s h e created , a s i t seeme d t o hi m tha t Rodin ha d done . I n hi s fantasie s Rilk e share d th e assumption s o f man y great artists , who se e themselves i n the mirro r o f thei r works, associatin g themselves wit h th e "immortality " o f thei r creations . The earl y diarie s includ e a meditation , writte n befor e h e me t Rodin , in whic h Rilk e observe s tha t a figure b y th e Frenc h maste r stay s alway s

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within a n uncrossable magic circle. As with reflected image s in a fountain , the spectato r canno t approac h neare r tha n a certai n distanc e i f h e doe s not wis h t o los e sigh t o f th e object. 4 Th e metapho r o f th e magi c circle , separating an d distancin g an y spectato r fro m th e statue , an d th e notio n that an y attemp t t o com e close r wil l onl y concea l th e essentia l myster y of th e objec t ma y b e see n a s displacement s o f Rilke' s nee d t o preven t anyone els e fro m comin g to o clos e t o hi m o r seein g hi m to o clearly . According t o Arnol d Modell , th e fantas y o f complet e self-sufficienc y in isolation , reflecte d i n Rilke' s thought s abou t Rodin' s sculpture , ma y arise from a need t o den y dependenc y upo n othe r huma n being s in orde r to defen d onesel f fro m th e fea r o f losin g th e person s o n who m on e feel s most dependent . I n Rilk e th e sourc e o f suc h fear s mus t hav e bee n th e memory o r fantas y o f earl y parenta l neglec t an d emotiona l withdrawal . Modell argue s tha t thi s defensiv e fantas y o f perfec t self-sufficienc y ma y also be a reaction to the intense emotions arouse d an d the tensions cause d by contac t wit h others . Thi s analysi s focuse s upo n schizoi d illnes s an d recalls Rilke's notion tha t " a dark , deceptive vapour'' separate d hi m fro m other peopl e an d hi s closel y relate d imag e o f th e bir d feeder s i n The Notebooks, "wit h a large transparen t spac e aroun d them , a s if the y wer e standing unde r a glas s dome " (78). * Modell observe s tha t schizoi d individuals ' illusion s o f self-sufficienc y and protective encapsulation "rest upon a belief in their own omnipotence . That i s to say , they ca n b e a n omnipoten t objec t t o themselves ; they ca n provide al l the source s o f gratification , creat e thei r ow n protectiv e shiel d against the dangers of the environment. They can be a transitional object t o themselves."6 O r the y ma y imagin e tha t the y ca n creat e th e transitiona l objects which would assur e their narcissistic self-sufficiency an d omnipo tence. I have traced a network o f suc h fantasie s i n Rilke' s thought s abou t Rodin an d hi s ar t an d hav e show n tha t the y ar e self-referential , tha t h e projected ont o the "master" and his sculpture a state of existence to whic h he wished t o attain through his own creativity .

v The relationshi p betwee n Rilk e an d Rodi n entere d a new phas e when, a t the sculptor' s invitation , th e poe t decide d t o liv e wit h hi m a t Meudon , beginning i n Septembe r 1905 . Fro m the n unti l Ma y 190 6 h e dedicate d

186 RODI N much o f hi s tim e t o helpin g hi s friend , writin g hi s correspondenc e fo r him. Eve n whe n h e wa s awa y fro m Meudo n durin g thi s period , Rilk e was ofte n preoccupie d wit h Rodin , lecturin g abou t hi m an d hi s art . Writing t o th e sculpto r fro m Pragu e i n Octobe r 1905 , Rilke cas t him self i n th e rol e o f a n apostl e preachin g hi s Master' s savin g Gospel : "al l who liv e nee d you , th e goo d new s o f you r existenc e i s the Gospel." 1 A t home in Meudon an d abroad, during this period th e poet showed loyalty , love, and devotio n tha t wer e al l any surrogat e fathe r coul d hav e dreame d of receivin g fro m a son . While i n Pragu e t o giv e hi s lecture , he visite d hi s agin g fathe r fo r th e last time . Hi s relationship s wit h th e tw o father s wer e neve r mor e ob viously connected . Th e burdensom e task s whic h h e performe d fo r th e sculptor wer e a n indirec t an d magica l way , throug h unconsciou s trans ference, o f showin g devotion an d loyalt y t o Josef. His idealizatio n o f th e dear fathe r i n Meudo n mus t hav e helpe d hi m redee m an d restor e Josef s faded, frayed , an d muc h diminishe d imag e i n hi s ow n mind . N o doub t h e fel t tha t h e ha d lon g neglecte d hi s sic k an d agin g fathe r in Prague . Th e task s h e performe d fo r Rodi n wer e probabl y als o mean s of undoin g o r expiatin g thi s neglect . Th e defens e o f "undoing " involve s a kin d o f magica l thinking . Lik e man y ritual s o f expiation , i t i s based o n fantasies o f causa l connection s betwee n act s whic h ar e no t causall y re lated. I n thi s cas e the tas k o f "undoing " involve d projectio n o f a father' s image ont o anothe r ma n an d transferenc e o f feeling s fro m th e on e t o th e other. Th e ultimat e aim s o f "undoing " ar e t o dissolv e al l injury don e i n fact o r fantasy , t o releas e one fro m guilt , and t o allo w one t o believ e tha t the person he thinks he harmed no longer blames him and will not punis h him. Often , mos t o r al l o f thes e thought s ar e unconscious. 2 The relationshi p betwee n Rilk e an d Rodi n brok e apar t o n Ma y 11 , 1906, when th e sculpto r dismisse d hi m fro m hi s correspondence-writin g task s and sen t hi m packin g "lik e a thieving servant, " th e poet' s compariso n i n his farewell lette r to the Master, written th e following da y (Letters 1:211) . The heav y burde n o f Rilke' s secretaria l labor s an d hi s responsibilit y fo r constantly remindin g Rodi n o f distastefu l obligation s ha d create d ten sions betwee n th e tw o me n (se e Letters 2:359) . Rodi n wa s i n a rag e be cause, withou t consultin g him , Rilk e ha d sen t answer s t o tw o o f th e sculptor's correspondents , wh o ha d addresse d letter s t o th e poet . I n on e of thes e exchanges , Rilk e ha d adde d a postscrip t t o a lette r prepare d i n

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consultation wit h th e sculptor . Hi s crime s wer e miniscule . Rodi n ha d introduced Rilk e a s a friend, no t a s hi s secretary , t o on e o f thes e corre spondents, William Rothenstein . Deepl y hurt , th e poet complaine d i n hi s farewell t o Rodin , writte n th e da y afte r hi s dismissal , tha t h e ha d bee n invited t o Meudo n ou t o f friendship , tha t th e sculptor' s suggestio n h e perform som e o f th e task s a secretary migh t do , a s Rodin ha d explaine d it, ha d bee n a wa y o f providin g hi m wit h som e tim e o f hi s ow n t o d o his writing. 3 Probably Rilk e was eager to leave Rodin when h e returned t o Meudo n at th e en d o f Marc h 1906 , tw o week s afte r hi s father' s death . O n Apri l 7 h e wrot e th e lette r t o Kar l vo n de r Heydt , a frien d an d benefactor , from whic h I quoted i n th e preceding chapter , sayin g that h e lacked onl y the libert y t o b e himsel f an d wa s read y an d eage r to write , believing tha t he migh t b e abl e t o d o "somethin g tha t ma y perhap s neve r com e agai n like this " (Letters 1:202) . Hi s lac k o f privac y an d hi s task s a t Meudo n were suffocatin g him. 4 I t seem s very likel y tha t Josef's deat h fostere d th e poet's desir e t o get awa y fro m Rodin . Eliza M. Butler argues persuasively that Rilke's correspondence durin g the months o f servic e to Rodin reveal s an increasing sense of self-sacrific e approaching martyrdom, an d thi s may have shown itsel f i n his demeanor , irritating th e Maste r an d finally provokin g hi m t o hi s outburs t i n Ma y 1906.5 H e suspecte d tha t h e ha d communicate d hi s nee d fo r liberatio n to Rodin . O n Ma y 1 1 h e wrot e t o Clara , sayin g tha t Rodi n mus t hav e understood wha t h e wa s goin g throug h (Letters 1:209) . When Rilk e returne d t o Rodi n afte r hi s father' s death , h e appear s t o have bee n move d b y a curious mi x o f conflictin g feelings . Afte r vo n de r Heydt, respondin g t o hi s expresse d needs , offere d t o suppor t hi m fo r a year an d le t th e poe t liv e o n on e o f hi s estates , h e wrot e t o sa y tha t h e could no t leav e th e ol d sculpto r i n hi s sicknes s an d wearines s (Letters 1:204). Abandonin g hi s secon d father , il l an d wear y a s h e was , s o soo n after Jose f Rilke' s death , woul d hav e intensifie d an y guil t th e poe t fel t about no t havin g care d fo r Jose f durin g hi s ol d age . I n givin g u p hi s work fo r Rodin , he would als o be ending this means of undoing whateve r injury h e ha d inflicte d upo n hi s fathe r b y neglectin g hi m an d b y causin g him suc h painfu l disappointmen t an d anxiet y fo r s o man y years . But thes e motivatin g force s conflicte d wit h other s equall y stron g o r stronger. Josef Rilke' s deat h probably mad e Rainer fee l tha t h e no longe r

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needed a fathe r an d n o longe r wante d t o b e an y father' s son . Make' s reaction t o hi s father' s deat h an d t o th e perforatio n o f hi s heart , take n together wit h th e passages concernin g father s i n The Book of Hours tha t I explore d i n th e precedin g chapter , support s thi s conclusion . The nee d t o resolv e guil t an d und o har m throug h th e transferenc e relationship with th e sculpto r ma y hav e diminished becaus e of th e poet' s efforts towar d th e en d o f Josef's lif e t o wi n hi s father' s approva l an d t o inspire hi s confidenc e an d hop e tha t hi s so n woul d b e a great succes s i n his chose n profession . The change s i n Rilk e durin g th e year s 1902- 6 an d hi s respons e t o hi s father's aging , illness , an d deat h sugges t tha t Rodin' s supportive , con firming, affectionat e fatherin g ha d provide d hi m wit h a n idea l mode l o f a father a s a highly successful , gifte d artist , whom h e coul d introjec t an d with whom h e could identify himself . As a result he had gaine d a stronger sense o f hi s ow n identity , value , an d directio n a s a n artist , a s wel l a s greater confidenc e i n hi s ow n inne r guidance . B y Ma y 1906 , a s I hav e pointed out , h e ha d writte n a fe w o f th e finest o f th e New Poems an d was burstin g wit h readines s t o d o ne w work . Considering hi s stat e o f min d whe n h e ha d com e t o Pari s i n 1902 , we can se e ho w muc h h e ha d develope d throug h th e transferenc e relation ship wit h Rodin . Al l th e inne r strengt h an d maturit y h e ha d gaine d through thi s relationshi p ha d mad e hi m read y t o accep t th e los s o f Josef, the finality o f hi s father' s separatenes s an d absenc e i n death . A s h e re alized tha t h e ha d reache d thi s point , h e mus t hav e understoo d tha t h e was also ready to accept the separateness and th e loss of the second fathe r whom h e ha d s o desperatel y neede d whe n h e cam e t o Paris . Offerin g insights whic h clarif y thi s chang e i n Rilke , Model l observe s tha t th e in ternalization o f a n affectionat e paren t ca n enabl e a person t o lov e an d b e a parent t o himself , an d tha t thes e developments , alon g wit h th e growt h of a person's sens e o f hi s differentiation , ca n foste r hi s abilit y t o accep t the los s o f person s h e loves , particularl y parents. 6 Model l als o remark s that wher e strengt h an d healt h ar e lacking , du e t o childhoo d failur e t o identify wit h "goo d enough " parents , psychoanalytic therap y "ca n pro vide i n par t th e experienc e o f 'goo d enough ' parenta l care , an d a n iden tification wit h th e analys t ca n becom e a permanent par t o f th e patient' s ego." 7 I suggest tha t somethin g lik e this happened i n Rilke' s transferenc e with Rodin . An d perhap s Josef's deat h enable d th e poe t t o fee l tha t th e psychological "work " whic h ha d s o badl y neede d doin g whe n h e first

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met Rodi n ha d bee n accomplishe d throug h hi s intimat e an d evolvin g relationship wit h th e Master . In Jun e 1906 , a few month s afte r hi s father' s death , th e mont h afte r hi s break wit h Rodin , Rilk e wrot e a poe m entitle d "Th e Departur e o f th e Prodigal Son " ("De r Auszu g de s verlorenen Sohnes") . It reveal s tha t th e poet wa s no t i n a triumphan t moo d o f expectatio n a t th e time . I n th e poem th e speake r long s t o get awa y fro m a confused existenc e i n whic h what ha s seeme d hi s an d stil l stick s t o hi m lik e thorn s reall y doe s no t belong to him. He feel s incapable of understanding an d incomprehensibl e to others . Realizin g tha t hi s journe y wil l mak e hi s existenc e mor e un certain an d precarious , h e nonetheles s long s fo r a distan t lan d wher e nothing ha s an y familia r relationshi p t o hi m an d t o wha t h e ha s know n and hope s tha t thi s lan d wil l provid e hi m wit h a n environmen t whic h i s free fro m emotiona l involvemen t i n anythin g h e does . This , h e knows , will mea n takin g a grea t dea l upo n himself . Ultimately , i t ma y mea n dying alone . I t ma y forc e o r allo w hi m t o le t g o o f al l tha t h e ha s hel d as possessio n and/o r a s oppressiv e burden . Anticipatin g hi s menta l an d physical journey , th e speake r ca n onl y as k i f i t ma y affor d hi m acces s t o a ne w life , i n whic h h e wil l b e abl e t o perceiv e wit h sudde n clarit y an d nearness, a s i f beginnin g again , i n a moo d o f reconciliation , thing s t o which h e ha s bee n blinde d b y familiarity . Her e i s th e poe m i n German : Der Auszug des verlorenen Sohne s Nun fortzugeh n vo n allede m Verworrnen , das unser ist und un s doch nich t gehort , das, wie das Wasser in den alte n Bornen, uns zitternd spiegel t und da s Bild zerstort ; von alle m diesen, das sich wie mit Dorne n noch einmal an uns anhangt—fortzugeh n und Da s und Den , die man schon nicht meh r sah (so taglich waren si e und s o gewohnlich), auf einma l anzuschauen: sanft, versohnlic h und wi e an einem Anfang un d vo n nah; und ahnen d einzusehn , wie unpersonlich, wie uber all e hin das Leid geschah , von dem die Kindheit voll war bis zum Rand— : Und dan n doch fortzugehen , Han d au s Hand , als ob man ein Geheiltes neu zerrisse,

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und fortzugehn : wohin ? In s Ungewisse, weit in ein unverwandtes warmes Land, das hinter alle m Handeln wie Kulisse gleichgiiltig sein wird: Garten oder Wand; und fortzugehn : warum ? Aus Drang, aus Artung, aus Ungeduld, au s dunkler Erwartung , aus Unverstandlichkeit un d Unverstand : Dies alles auf sic h nehmen und vergeben s vielleicht Gehaltne s fallen lassen , um allein zu sterben, wissend nich t warum— 1st das der Eingang eines neuen Lebens ? (WDB 1:247-48) It seem s likel y tha t "De r Auszu g de s verlorene n Sohnes " reflect s Rilke's sens e o f hi s relationshi p wit h Rodi n a t th e tim e i t wa s written . The titl e connect s i t wit h hi s versio n o f th e Prodiga l So n parabl e i n The Notebooks. Thi s connectio n suggest s tha t th e threa t o f engulfmen t an d and th e kin d o f impingemen t Rilk e fel t whil e livin g clos e t o Rodi n ech o in hi s conceptio n o f th e Prodiga l Son' s experienc e wit h hi s famil y a t th e end o f th e novel . Th e culminatin g sectio n o f The Notebooks precisel y defines th e way s i n whic h a famil y ca n produc e th e blindnes s an d con fusion o f whic h th e poe m speaks . The chil d ca n completel y submi t an d become on e o f them , losin g al l sens e o f wha t spontaneou s impulse , in tuition, and reaso n tel l him is true perception, authenti c feeling, an d hon est thought . H e ca n tr y t o mas k himsel f an d constantl y divid e himsel f between tru e sel f an d false . Bu t this , a s Mak e suggests , thi s constan t deception o f famil y an d friend s ma y see m a for m o f corruption . Psy chologists tel l us it may als o produce sever e mental illnes s if th e false sel f becomes compulsive , i f th e self-divisio n amplifie s int o a pervasive struc ture o f th e psyche . O r th e chil d ca n g o fa r away , a s Mak e an d th e so n in th e poe m do , t o liv e a s mor e o r les s a solitary .

VI Rilke wa s eage r t o ge t awa y fro m Rodi n i n Apri l an d Ma y o f 1906 . Bu t once th e brea k came , h e trie d t o suppres s hi s resentmen t an d t o protec t his admiration an d affectio n fo r th e old man. Reading the letters he wrot e

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at thi s time , on e canno t hel p seein g tha t h e neede d t o believ e tha t th e breach woul d b e healed . H e wante d t o protec t th e imag e o f th e artist master-father wh o ha d playe d suc h a crucia l rol e i n fosterin g hi s devel opment a s a man an d a s an writer. No doub t h e still felt closel y identifie d with th e grea t sculptor . Insofar a s it had strengthene d hi s self-esteem an d hi s sense of hi s iden tity, purpose , an d direction , th e relationshi p wit h Rodi n ha d helpe d t o free hi m fro m infantil e dependenc e o n hi s father an d fro m infantil e ange r toward Josef. Though a t first Rodi n ha d fulfille d a desire fo r a powerfu l father, a s th e relationshi p fostere d Rilke' s maturit y and , thus , hi s inde pendence, it enabled hi m to allo w Josef t o be himself i n all his limitations, and t o lov e hi m nonetheless . The poet' s desir e t o preserv e th e redeeme d and restore d imag e o f Jose f afte r hi s death , whic h surface s i n numerou s letters, must hav e impelle d hi m t o suppres s negativ e feelings towar d Ro din, a s th e tw o father s wer e intimatel y connecte d i n hi s mind . I hav e quoted th e letter Rilk e wrote t o Clar a th e da y Rodi n dismisse d him (Ma y 11 , 1906), when h e sa w hi s expulsio n fro m Meudo n a s a n ac t motivated b y intuitiv e understanding . Th e nex t day , writin g t o Rodi n a s "My Master, " after complainin g that he had bee n sent away "like a thieving servant " th e poe t wen t o n t o justif y th e ol d man' s behavio r a s par t of hi s instinctiv e wisdo m i n repellin g whateve r "seem s harmful. " Th e language her e reflect s Rilke' s ambivalence . Th e "seems " cast s doub t o n the sculptor' s judgment . Th e disciple' s justificatio n o f hi s Master' s be havior i s two-edged ; i t i s preceded b y assertion s o f selfles s devotio n an d self-sacrifice whic h mak e Rodin' s self-protectivenes s loo k extremel y un grateful, a s th e poe t recall s al l th e tim e h e ha s give n u p fo r th e sculptor , while neglectin g hi s ow n work . In thi s farewel l messag e h e als o protested tha t h e wa s mor e loya l an d devoted t o Rodi n tha n anyon e els e an d tha t ther e wa s n o on e els e hi s age anywher e mor e capabl e o f understandin g th e ol d man . An d h e di d his bes t t o defen d himsel f an d th e sculpto r fro m th e resentmen t eviden t in the letter with a n absurd, if familiar, piece of idealization, an apotheosi s of th e Maste r i n whic h h e compare s Rodi n t o Chris t an d himsel f t o th e apostles lef t behin d o n eart h withou t thei r Savio r {Letters 1:211-12) . By th e followin g summe r mor e realisti c perception s o f Rodi n ha d made inroad s o n th e poet' s idealizatio n o f th e Master . I n Jun e 1907 , writing t o Clar a abou t th e lectur e h e ha d first give n i n th e fal l o f 1905 , he said , " I a m alread y beginnin g t o se e to o tha t man y o f it s perception s

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belong perhap s t o th e demand s Rodi n taugh t u s t o make , no t t o thos e which hi s work realize s i n eac h case " {Letters 1:288). * He ha d jus t com pleted th e first par t o f th e New Poems; the sense of hi s own achievement , his mastery , mus t hav e helpe d hi m t o se e th e ol d maste r wit h thi s ne w intimation o f skepticism . In Septembe r 190 6 h e ha d writte n t o Kar l vo n de r Heyd t tha t hi s second stud y o f th e sculpto r woul d b e hi s nex t project , bu t ha d bee n unable t o brin g himself t o d o i t during th e intervening time . Now, a year later, realizin g tha t h e ha d nothin g ne w t o sa y abou t Rodin , h e decide d to us e th e ol d lectur e wit h littl e o r n o revision . H e ha d bee n puttin g hi s time an d energ y int o hi s New Poems. Bu t h e wa s als o awar e that , a s h e had becom e mor e detache d fro m an d critica l o f Rodin , a ne w essa y o n the sculpto r migh t see m inconsistent , self-contradictory , a reflectio n o f his confuse d thought s an d feeling s abou t th e ol d ma n {Letters 1:288) . Perhaps h e als o feared tha t a thorough clarificatio n o f hi s new feeling s and idea s abou t Rodi n migh t prov e ver y painful , forcin g hi m t o fac e thoughts agains t whic h h e wishe d t o protec t himsel f an d th e father sculptor wit h th e hel p o f hi s confusion . I n achievin g clarit y which coul d destroy the image of Rodin he had developed for s o many years, he migh t undermine th e strengt h an d creativit y which tha t imag e an d th e relation ship ha d fostered . The poe t wa s i n transition . Eve n a s th e extrem e idealizatio n o f th e paternal sculpto r wa s deflate d an d a critical , independent , mor e realisti c view o f Rodi n developed , Rilk e defende d th e relationship , th e attitudes , and th e viewpoin t tha t ha d been , o r seemed , essentia l t o hi s surviva l an d his growth . Early i n Novembe r 190 7 Rilk e receive d a lette r fro m Rodi n jus t a s h e was abou t t o giv e a reading o f hi s ow n wor k i n Prague . I describe d thi s occasion i n a n earlie r chapter . Hi s nativ e cit y depresse d him . H e fel t dismay a s h e realize d tha t th e dreadfu l ol d wome n wh o ha d wante d t o devour hi m whe n h e arrive d ha d los t thei r appetit e o n hearin g hi m read . Very likel y hi s misery o n thi s occasio n centere d o n hi s mother, wh o wa s at th e reading ; al l encounter s wit h he r durin g hi s adul t lif e wer e ver y painful. In these circumstances the first gestur e of rapprochement fro m th e ma n who ha d bee n a second fathe r t o hi m an d whom h e had als o experience d as a materna l figur e wa s especiall y welcome . Writin g t o Clara , h e em -

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phasized hi s ow n happines s o n receivin g th e lette r fro m Rodi n {Letters 1:323). A week later, in Vienna, where he was arranging for th e exhibitio n of sixt y o f Rodin' s drawing s i n Hug o Heller' s bookstore , Rilk e go t a second messag e from th e ol d man . The sculpto r ha d rea d a n extract fro m part 2 o f Rilke' s Rodin, whic h ha d jus t bee n reprinte d i n th e magazin e Kunst and Kiinstler, an d ha d foun d i t "tre s belle. " Thi s ne w lette r wa s full o f affection . Delighted , scarcel y abl e t o believ e tha t h e coul d b e th e object o f suc h feelin g i n Rodin , h e rea d i t tim e an d again . H e wa s par ticularly pleased b y th e Frenchman' s invitatio n t o visi t when h e returne d to Pari s (Letter s 1:328) . A yea r an d a hal f ha d passe d sinc e th e brea k betwee n th e tw o men . In tha t tim e ther e ha d bee n a n outpourin g o f th e New Poems. Strength ened i n hi s sens e o f hi s ow n uniqu e genius , th e poe t mus t hav e greete d the ol d master' s invitatio n t o com e t o se e hi m wit h th e knowledg e tha t Rodin's strengt h coul d n o longe r threate n t o overwhel m hi s ow n sens e of sel f an d hi s artisti c independence, that h e was no longe r s o susceptibl e to manipulatio n o r exploitation . H e wa s no t nearl y s o need y a s h e ha d been i n 1902- 3 an d ha d lef t behin d th e helples s dependenc y whic h ha d made hi m s o vulnerabl e t o Rodin' s power . Thes e changes , whic h hi s earlier relationship with the sculptor had encouraged an d which the brea k between the m ha d le t hi m confir m fo r himself , enable d hi m t o respon d with lov e an d admiration , fre e fro m anxiety . Hi s repl y als o reveal s th e feeling o f equalit y whic h gav e hi m th e confidenc e t o welcom e reconcil iation, trustin g tha t h e coul d no w rene w th e friendshi p withou t fea r o f being overpowered : " I hav e a n infinit e nee d o f yo u an d you r friendship , and I a m prou d tha t I hav e advance d sufficientl y i n m y wor k t o b e abl e to shar e you r gloriou s an d simpl e desir e fo r truth." 2

VII Rilke returne d t o Pari s o n Ma y 1 , 1908 , bu t h e pu t of f seein g Rodin , writing t o th e sculpto r afte r hi s arriva l tha t h e ha d t o shu t himsel f u p with hi s work. 1 O n Augus t 31 , having finishe d th e secon d par t o f New Poems an d move d int o quarter s i n th e Hote l Biron , th e Loui s XI V vill a which wa s t o becom e th e Muse e Rodin , h e invite d hi s frien d t o com e t o see him. 2 Describin g thi s visi t t o Clara , h e foresa w tha t i n th e futur e h e would b e "a s kin d t o hi m a s I alway s was " (Letters 1:331) .

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This accoun t o f hi s meetin g wit h Rodi n reveal s th e complexit y o f Rilke's feeling s abou t th e sculpto r a t the time , his conflictin g perception s and attitudes . A n emphasi s upo n Rodin' s "dear , earnes t need " o f hi m reflects no t onl y th e desir e t o repa y an d t o und o bu t th e wis h t o b e needed. Th e poe t focuse d o n th e reversa l o f thei r positions , hi s ow n increasing powe r ove r th e olde r ma n an d th e latter' s los s o f powe r ove r him. Late r letter s sho w a growin g consciousnes s o f thes e changes . On thi s occasio n Rilk e rea d Rodi n som e remark s o f Beethove n t o hi s friend Bettin a vo n Arnim . Th e compose r ha d tol d vo n Arni m tha t hi s must b e a solitar y life , bu t h e kne w tha t i n hi s ar t Go d wa s singularl y close t o hi m an d tha t anyon e wh o trul y understoo d hi s musi c woul d become free o f th e wretchedness which weighed dow n othe r people {Letters 1:331-32) . Fo r Rilk e Beethove n ha d becom e a model : th e poe t as pired t o suc h super b confidenc e i n himsel f an d hi s art . The nex t lette r t o Clara show s tha t hi s sens e o f himsel f a t thi s time , wit h th e New Poems completed, wa s scarcel y les s exalte d tha n th e composer's . Thi s lette r ex presses the notio n tha t h e had alway s bee n clos e to "th e divine. " He wa s anticipating th e tim e whe n h e woul d prepar e a "potio n i n whic h al l i s condensed an d combined , th e mos t poisonou s an d mos t deadly, " an d would "tak e i t u p t o God , s o tha t h e ma y quenc h hi s thirs t an d fee l hi s splendor streamin g through hi s veins" (September 4, 1908 ; Letters 1:336) . Never befor e ha d h e bee n mor e self-confident . Th e ide a tha t huma n genius i s th e sourc e o f God' s vitalit y an d splendo r ha d evolve d ou t o f a number o f sources , amon g the m a Russia n conceptio n o f th e Deity , a s Rilke understood it . According to Leppmann, "thi s Go d suggeste d rathe r than portrayed o n icons" was "waiting to be created b y the people them selves i n a stat e o f childlik e naivet e (or , i n moment s o f grace , b y th e poet)." 3 A s Leppman n point s out , The Book of Hours, reflect s th e influ ence o f thi s idea . I n th e firs t par t o f The Book of Hours th e speake r describes himsel f a s helpin g t o buil d God , a s i f th e Deit y wer e a grea t church.4 It i s a commonplace o f psychoanalyti c theor y tha t Go d i s a n uncon scious projectio n o f th e superego , a par t o f th e sel f identifie d wit h th e father. Rilk e to o though t o f Go d an d god s a s projections o f part s o f th e psyche (se e Letters 2:147-48) . Rilke' s developmen t i n th e Book of Hours of th e ide a tha t huma n being s buil d o r creat e Go d expresse s a lingerin g reverence fo r th e Deity , whic h wa s probabl y reinforce d b y hi s travel s i n Russia, bu t i t als o suggest s a rebellio n agains t th e father' s primac y an d

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authority. I n thi s respec t i t call s t o min d Simenauer' s explicatio n o f th e son's creatio n o f th e father , Kierkegaard' s argumen t tha t a truly creativ e individual mus t becom e hi s ow n father , an d Nietzsche' s belie f tha t suc h an individua l mus t becom e hi s ow n creator , give r o f th e law s b y whic h he lives, and hi s own ultimat e judge, as well a s the Germa n philosopher' s analyses o f th e huma n creatio n o f Go d an d othe r gods . In hi s Septembe r 4 letter t o Clara , Rilk e envisione d makin g Go d "fee l his splendo r streamin g throug h hi s veins " b y feedin g Hi m a "potio n i n which al l i s condense d an d combined , th e mos t poisonou s an d mos t deadly" (Letters 1:336) . Implici t her e i s a conceptio n o f ar t indebte d t o the influenc e o f Baudelaire' s "Un e Charogne, " Flaubert' s "St . Julie n PHospitalier," an d Cezanne' s painting s (se e The Notebooks, 72 , and Letters 1:314-15) . Bu t th e notio n tha t on e ca n brin g Go d t o lif e an d mak e him splendi d agai n b y quenchin g hi s thirs t wit h deadl y poiso n suggest s an underlyin g though t tha t a person mus t kil l th e ol d Go d an d th e ol d father i n order to bring new one s to life as a father t o himself, recognizin g and ownin g th e divinit y withi n him , creatin g hi s ow n lif e an d character , bringing himself t o new birth a s the father o f his work. From th e classica l psychoanalytic perspectiv e suc h a fantas y ha s it s root s i n th e oedipa l son's desir e t o destro y an d t o supplan t th e father . At thi s momen t i n hi s lif e th e poe t though t o f himsel f a s Godlike , a s one "sen t o u t . . . t o b e amidst th e human," lik e Christ. As he goe s abou t his task s o f seein g everythin g an d rejectin g nothin g i n th e world , gath ering th e component s o f th e "potion " tha t wil l mak e Go d fee l splendi d and vital , "th e tre e trunk s roun d abou t stan d an d worship " (Letters 1:336). Rodin ha d rente d a larg e par t o f th e groun d floo r o f th e Hote l Biron . Responsible fo r th e sculptor' s discover y o f th e place , pleased b y Rodin' s immediate respons e t o i t an d b y th e ol d man' s decisio n t o shar e i t wit h him an d othe r artists , Rilk e rushe d ou t an d bough t a wooden figur e o f St. Christopher . Presentin g hi s gift , h e tol d Rodin , "C'es t Rodi n portan t son oeuvre , toujours plu s lourd, mai s qui tien t le monde" (Letters 1:333) . ("This i s Rodin , bearin g hi s work , eve r heavier , bu t containin g th e world.") I t scarcel y need s t o b e sai d tha t Rilk e was praising hi s ol d mas ter a s th e ma n uniquel y chose n t o carr y God , th e Creator , her e repre sented a s th e Divin e Child , a s well a s th e world . If Rodi n ha d nurse d an y sou r doubt s o f Rilke' s continuing admiratio n

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and esteem , this gif t an d th e praise tha t went wit h i t must hav e laid the m to rest . Surel y th e feeling s th e poe t expresse d o n thi s occasio n wer e a s genuine a s th e lov e an d concer n whic h h e ha d show n fo r hi s fathe r i n the las t yea r o f Josefs life . Severa l time s Rilk e wa s t o assur e Rodi n tha t the Maste r coul d tak e pleasur e i n hi s younge r friend' s geniu s an d fame , as the y were , i n larg e part , du e t o th e sculptor' s exampl e an d teaching . Perhaps, thes e assurance s wer e attempt s t o vei l competitivenes s an d t o defend himsel f agains t jealous y an d resentment . Bu t seein g the m i n th e context o f th e evolvin g relationship , on e canno t reduc e th e generosity , filial gratitude , and admiratio n expresse d i n th e letters a t this time to can t or a n unconsciou s defens e agains t opposin g feeling s (i n psychoanalyti c terms, " a reactio n formation") . The difference s betwee n Rilke' s view of women an d Rodin' s contribute d to th e poet' s increasin g awarenes s o f th e sculptor' s failing s an d limita tions. For Rodin , "woma n i s the obstruction, th e snare, the trap o n thos e paths tha t ar e mos t lonel y an d mos t blessed. " Sh e is "beneath" th e spir itual. Sh e doe s no t wan t anythin g beyon d th e sensua l an d materia l sat isfactions whic h sh e demand s an d i s "lik e a drink whic h flow s throug h him fro m tim e t o time : wine" (Letters 1:332) . Rilke cam e t o believ e tha t this view of women ha d alway s been an obstacle between them . The poe t tried t o persuad e Rodi n tha t h e ha d a drasticall y limite d understandin g of wome n b y talkin g abou t Mariann a Alcoforad o (1640-1723) , a Por tuguese nu n who m h e mention s i n The Notebooks (134 ) a s a n exampl e of th e intensity of unrequite d love , transcending its original object, trans figuring th e woma n wh o nurture s i t i n herself . Rilk e translate d eigh t grieving letter s though t t o hav e bee n writte n b y he r t o th e unresponsiv e Marquis d e Chamilly . H e though t o f he r a s "that incomparabl e creature , in whos e eigh t heav y letter s woman' s lov e i s fo r th e first tim e charte d from poin t t o point, without display , without exaggeratio n o r mitigation , drawn a s i f b y th e han d o f a sibyl" (SP, 318) . She wa s on e o f th e aban doned women , celebrate d i n th e first Duin o Elegy , "who m yo u foun d so muc h mor e lovin g tha n gratified " lovers . Th e poet' s idea s o n thi s subject wer e probabl y incredibl e t o th e ol d man . Wha t coul d h e thin k of thi s vie w o f woman' s love , which expresse d a preference fo r th e kin d that grow s int o "ic y magnificence " a s "lamentation " i n lonelines s an d rejection? Ho w coul d h e see that th e love in thes e eigh t sorrowfu l letter s soared an d gre w far beyon d it s object , th e contemptibl e (i n Rilke' s eyes )

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Marquis de Chamilly, and achieve d beaut y and majesty? (The Notebooks, 134; Letters 1:228) . Rodin's disbelie f an d incomprehensio n i n thei r discussion s o f wome n established thei r separatenes s i n Rilke' s min d beyon d an y doubt . An d then ther e were th e consequence s o f Rodin' s incomprehension . Hi s ego centric oversimplificatio n o f women wa s already gettin g him int o troubl e and woul d prov e disastrous , woul d leav e thi s go d i n ruins , mak e hi m grotesque i n ol d age , tur n hi m int o a fool . Thoug h thi s ha d no t ye t happened i n th e fal l o f 1908 , Rilke sense d wha t th e futur e woul d bring . "The momen t wa s sur e t o com e whe n h e woul d se e th e miscalculatio n in hi s prodigiou s sums " (Letters 1:332-33) . Writing t o Clara , th e prodiga l disciple , no w returne d t o hi s master , asserted hi s sens e o f hi s invulnerabl e independenc e an d strength . "An d I a m inexorabl e an d yiel d nothin g o f m y Nun. " Hi s distinctiveness , hi s independence, hi s separat e realit y ha d a t lon g las t gotte n throug h t o th e older man , who bu t a few year s earlie r had overpowere d an d intimidate d him and, in self-absorption, ha d scarcel y seen him except as a young artis t whom h e wa s molding , a s a reflectio n o f hi s ow n genius . Now , h e thought, th e sculpto r ha d hear d wha t h e said , eve n i f i t coul d no t chang e him (Letters 1:333) . Rilk e nee d n o longe r fea r depersonalizatio n o r en gulfment b y th e th e ol d man . Hintin g tha t Rodi n wa s i n troubl e becaus e of hi s blindnes s t o th e complexit y o f women , h e regrette d tha t hi s frien d would no t benefi t fro m hi s ow n wise r understanding . Reducing thi s ol d fathe r surrogat e t o manageabl e size , he sa w hi m a s being "lik e a god o f antiquit y boun d t o th e rite s traditiona l i n him , eve n to thos e whic h ar e no t mean t fo r u s an d ye t wer e necessar y fo r th e cul t of hi s sou l i n orde r t o mol d him " (Letters 1:33 2 an d 333) . Rodi n i s n o longer Chris t o r th e Buddha . H e i s stil l a god , bu t no t on e o f ou r gods . He belong s to the past. He i s not on e who molds , but on e who i s molded by thos e outmode d attitudes , customs , an d pattern s o f behavio r whic h Rilke call s "rite s traditiona l i n him. " Th e languag e o f thi s passag e an d its contex t sugges t th e ol d man' s helplessnes s i n th e snar e o f hi s blindin g misconceptions. This metamorphosi s o f th e Maste r int o " a go d o f antiquity, " (an an tiquated god?) , not omnipotent , bu t "bound " t o "rite s . . . whic h ar e no t meant fo r us " (becaus e the y ar e outdated?) , brings t o min d th e Wagner ian perspectiv e o n th e god s i n thei r decline . I t recall s a s well th e passag e in th e "Boo k o f Pilgrimage " in which Rilk e wonders i f a father doe s no t

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mean "pas t years, " "obsolet e gestures, " an d "dea d fashion, " an d con cludes, "I f h e wa s a her o fo r hi s time, / h e i s th e lea f whic h fall s whe n we grow." 5 Once frightene d an d intimidate d b y Rodin , th e poe t bega n t o fee l anxiety o n hi s behalf . H e wa s particularl y trouble d b y th e sculptor' s relationship wit h a n American-bor n marquise , late r Duchess e d e Choi seul, whom Rilk e seem s t o identif y wit h th e vulgarit y o f th e recording s of music-hal l performance s whic h sh e playe d fo r th e tw o o f them . Th e old man , wh o wa s becomin g increasingl y childlike , neede d he r t o get him dow n fro m th e summit s wher e i n earlie r year s h e ha d spen t mos t of hi s tim e {Letters 1:352) . It i s eas y t o comprehen d som e o f th e motive s behin d th e fantas y o f Rodin a s a dependen t child . Rilke' s extrem e dependenc y o n Rodi n a t first, a s wel l a s th e master' s rea l an d imagine d superiority , sometime s made th e youn g poe t fee l al l th e weake r an d al l th e mor e uncertain , insecure, an d unreal . Thi s childlike , almos t infantil e dependenc e an d th e gross overestimatio n whic h accompanie d i t mus t hav e bee n humiliatin g and gallin g i n retrospect . Rilke' s sens e o f reversa l wa s a defens e agains t such painfu l memories . We have looked a t the letter to Lo u i n which he admitted bein g fright ened b y "th e clos e proximity o f somethin g too hard, too stony , too big. " Writing t o Clar a jus t afte r Easte r 1906 , a t a tim e whe n th e underlyin g tension betwee n maste r an d discipl e was growing , he imagined th e sculp tor a s a destroyer, a bird o f prey . H e wa s describin g Rodin' s wor k o n a bust o f Georg e Bernar d Sha w whil e th e playwrigh t sa t fo r thi s portrait . Shaw wa s amuse d b y th e sculptor' s "decapitation " o f th e bus t wit h a wire. Struc k b y Rodin' s extraordinar y swiftnes s a s he graspe d an d mod eled on e fac e ou t o f a multitude o f impressions , Rilk e though t o f hi m a s having a "bird-of-prey-lik e clutch " (postmarke d Apri l 19 , 1906 ; Letters 1:207).

"Decapitation" i s humorous . Rilk e show s a n awarenes s o f Shaw' s congenial sens e o f iron y an d comedy , an d a t first hi s ow n accoun t i s playful. Bu t th e metapho r o f Rodin' s "bird-of-prey-lik e clutch " leave s humor an d iron y behind . Considerin g Rilke' s experienc e wit h Rodi n a t this time, the old man' s exploitatio n o f his helpfulness and , perhaps, fore shadowings o f th e brutalit y with whic h h e dismissed Rilk e ("lik e a thieving servant") , I suspec t tha t th e lette r reflect s th e poet' s sens e o f th e destructiveness i n thi s ol d father .

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What wa s happenin g i n th e relationshi p betwee n Rodi n an d Rilke , a s the letter s portra y it , call s t o min d tw o storie s b y tha t othe r nativ e o f Prague, Kafka : "Th e Judgment " an d "Th e Metamorphosis/ ' I n "Th e Judgment," which was Kafka's firs t majo r story , the once powerful fathe r appears t o hav e becom e a n ol d invalid , i n som e way s a s helples s an d needy a s a n infant , whil e hi s son , Georg , no w i n charg e o f hi s business , makes i t prosper . Suddenly , a s Georg , wh o i s contemplatin g marriage , puts hi m t o bed , th e ol d fathe r accuse s hi s so n o f tryin g t o cove r hi m up, t o bur y him . Boastin g tha t h e coul d swee p Georg' s brid e fro m hi s side, he stands u p o n th e bed, a giant touchin g th e ceiling , and condemn s his son t o deat h for th e sin of wishin g t o ge t rid o f hi s father, t o supplan t him. "Th e Metamorphosis, " writte n th e followin g yea r (1914) , expand s upon th e implication s o f "Th e Judgment " an d provide s a muc h richer , multilayered pictur e o f th e psycholog y o f famil y relationships . In "Th e Metamorphosis, " Grego r Samsa , th e son , support s hi s aging , decayed father , hi s mother , an d hi s sister . Gregor' s jo b engulf s hi m wit h its demands. H e ha s n o source s o f pleasure , except a picture o f a woma n in hi s roo m an d hi s hop e tha t h e wil l b e abl e t o sen d hi s violin-playin g sister to a conservatory. Relie f fro m th e crushin g burden s o f work come s only whe n Grego r turn s int o a n insect . This metamorphosi s reverse s th e positions o f fathe r an d son . No w th e son , a s a n insect , i s completel y dependent upo n hi s famil y an d a painfu l burde n t o them . Th e story' s interest t o a n interprete r o f Rilke' s relationshi p wit h Rodi n come s fro m what i t subtl y reveal s abou t Gregor' s motivatio n i n takin g o n th e enor mous burden s o f th e jo b whic h ha s engulfe d him . (Obviously , I a m thinking o f th e task s whic h Rilke' s secretaria l dutie s fo r Rodi n impose d upon hi m betwee n Septembe r 190 5 an d Ma y 1906. ) Force d ou t o f hi s dependent invali d state , th e fathe r i n th e stor y become s a murderou s figure fo r hi s son . On e ca n wel l understan d th e son' s nee d t o kee p th e father a s dependen t a s a child . "The Judgment" support s thi s interpretation . I t expresse s a son's fan tasy tha t th e fathe r i s murderou s an d tha t th e father' s helpless , childlik e dependency allow s th e so n t o prospe r an d t o kee p thi s fathe r unde r control, an d thu s t o remov e th e danger . I t contemplate s th e possibilit y that thes e lovin g ministration s t o a helpless, old, invali d fathe r ma y hid e a desir e t o reduc e hi m stil l further , t o nothing , t o obliterat e him , i f onl y because h e i s s o dangerous .

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N o doubt , th e letter s whic h bea r witnes s t o th e ol d man' s deca y an d ruin i n th e nex t fe w years—suc h a s on e writte n i n Novembe r 190 9 to Clara , describin g Rodi n a s a chil d wh o mus t b e le d dow n fro m the heights , whic h ha d becom e precariou s fo r hi m i n hi s weakness , by a woma n wit h vulga r tastes—thos e letter s expres s genuin e fea r an d tenderness fo r th e sculpto r a s wel l a s th e poet' s continuing , i f un conscious, nee d t o defen d himsel f fro m th e dangerou s paterna l figure , still ver y muc h aliv e i n th e unconsciou s mind , reflecte d i n th e terri fying ange l o f th e Firs t an d Secon d Elegies , who m th e poe t ward s of f in th e Seventh : Wer, wenn ich shriee, horte mich denn au s der Engel Ordnungen? un d gesetz t selbst, es nahme einer mich plotzlich an s Herz: ich verginge von seinem starkeren Dasei n . . .

................................. . . . Ei n jeder Engel ist schrecklich.

Who, i f I cried out , woul d hea r m e amon g th e angels ' hierarchies? an d eve n i f on e o f the m pressed m e suddenly agains t hi s heart : I would b e consume d in tha t overwhelmin g existence . . . . . . . Ever y ange l i s terrifying . (From th e Firs t Duin o eleg y [1912] , SP y 15 0 an d 151 )

Glaub nicht, das s ic h werbe . Engel, un d wiir b ic h dic h auch ! Du komms t nicht . Den n mei n Anruf is t imme r voll Hinweg ; wider s o stark e Stromung kanns t d u nich t schreiten . Wie ei n gestreckte r Arm is t mei n Rufen . Un d sein e zu m Greife n oben offen e Han d bleib t vor di r offen, wi e Abweh r un d Warming , Unfasslicher, weitauf . Don't thin k tha t I' m wooing . Angel, an d eve n i f I were, yo u woul d no t come . Fo r m y cal l is alway s rille d with departure ; against suc h a powerful current yo u canno t move . Lik e a n outstretched ar m is m y call . And it s han d hel d ope n an d reaching u p to seize , remain s i n fron t o f you , ope n

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as if in defense an d warning, Ungraspable One , far above . (From th e Seventh Duino eleg y [1922] , SP, 190 and 191 ) By th e en d o f 191 1 Rilk e wa s appalle d a t Rodin' s "simpl y goin g wrong" a t th e ag e o f seventy . Unharme d b y dozen s o f simila r nemese s in th e past , h e ha d bee n s o easil y trappe d b y th e affai r wit h th e Duches s that wa s "makin g hi s ol d ag e int o somethin g grotesqu e an d ridiculous " (Letters 2:33) . The ma n who m th e poe t ha d mad e hi s model , father , an d master ha d becom e a ruin i n th e snare s o f hi s ow n folly . Wha t ha d hap pened t o Rodi n frightene d him : "Wha t a m / t o say , with th e littl e bi t o f work ou t o f whic h I kee p fallin g completely , i f he wasn' t saved? " Per haps th e fac t tha t a s a chil d h e ha d bee n deepl y affecte d b y hi s father' s failures an d al l hi s lif e ha d bee n force d t o struggl e wit h the m reinforce d the sens e o f dange r h e fel t a s h e witnesse d th e final stage s o f Rodin' s slippery slide . This i s no t t o negat e wha t I hav e sai d abou t th e desir e t o cut th e old ma n down t o human siz e and abou t th e way in which Rodin' s decay an d hi s nee d fo r hel p an d suppor t wer e welcom e t o Rilke . Op posing motive s wer e a t wor k i n th e poet . The relationshi p too k a tur n fo r th e wors e i n Januar y 191 4 whe n Rodin brok e hi s promis e t o le t Clar a d o a bus t o f him , a project whic h the poet ha d encourage d i n orde r t o help his distanced wife . At thi s poin t Rilke wa s reluctan t t o se e th e ol d ma n (Letters 2:108) . Finally, ther e i s th e retrospectiv e view , fro m a muc h greate r distance , several year s afte r Rodin' s deat h i n 1917 , whe n Rilk e ha d full y com e into hi s ow n wit h th e completio n o f th e Elegies an d th e writin g o f The Sonnets to Orpheus. I n a Decembe r 192 2 lette r t o hi s Polis h trans lator, Witol d Hulewicz , th e poe t confesse d tha t i n writin g hi s boo k on Rodi n (th e first par t o f th e boo k wa s twent y year s behin d hi m and th e secon d nearl y a s fa r away ) h e ha d "lacke d distance. " Lookin g back, h e though t tha t i f h e wer e presentl y doin g hi s studie s o f th e sculptor, hi s stron g admiratio n woul d hav e t o struggl e agains t hi s sens e of Rodin' s deterioratio n an d th e disaster s tha t ha d overwhelme d him . His emphasi s i n thes e comment s i s upo n critica l detachmen t an d th e difference betwee n hi s yout h ("m y al l to o youthfu l attitude" ) an d late r age (Letters 2:312) . In Octobe r 192 4 Rilk e mad e a final evaluatio n o f Rodin' s influence ,

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which show s th e clarit y an d objectivit y o f distanc e an d supremel y self confident mastery . Th e Frenchman' s effec t upo n him , h e said , ha d "outweighed" al l literar y influence s an d mad e the m "superfluous. " Contrasting Rodi n wit h Tolstoy , wh o ha d abandone d hi s art , Rilk e recalled tha t th e sculpto r ha d "assente d full y an d activel y t o th e inne r mission o f hi s creativ e genius , th e infinit e divin e play, " s o tha t i t ha d "looked fo r a while " a s i f h e ha d no t onl y mastere d hi s art , but , wit h all th e insigh t tha t ha d com e fro m th e interpla y o f hi s shapin g imag ination an d wor k wit h th e clay , bronze , an d marble , h e ha d als o take n possession o f everythin g h e ha d aspire d t o reach : "An d s o i t ma y b e too, no t onl y fo r th e artis t o f highes t intent , bu t fo r th e simpl e crafts man, i f onl y h e ha s onc e bitte n ope n th e kerne l o f hi s metier : th e intensity arrive d a t withi n hi s characteristi c achievemen t appropriate s to hi m . . . everythin g tha t i s an d ha s bee n whic h correspond s t o th e same degre e o f intensity " (Letters 2:359-60) . Was thi s a retur n t o th e ol d idealizatio n o f "th e Master" ? I t wa s very hig h praise , bu t expresse d i n careful , measure d language . Th e phrasing "looke d fo r a while " tell s u s tha t th e poe t wa s no t sinkin g back int o th e uncritica l youthfu l fram e o f min d whic h h e ha d rejecte d long ago . I n thi s lette r t o Herman n Pongs , wh o wa s writin g abou t hi m and teachin g hi s work , h e glosse d ove r unpleasan t matters . H e di d no t even mentio n tha t Rodi n ha d dismisse d him , bu t explaine d th e brea k by sayin g tha t h e ha d bee n place d i n th e positio n o f givin g Rodi n "irksome reminders " o f task s suc h a s answerin g letters , an d tha t hi s doing s o ha d distorte d thei r friendship . H e transforme d wha t ha d hap pened i n Ma y 1906 , saying onl y tha t h e ha d returne d t o Pari s a s maste r of hi s ow n life , an d tha t hi s relationshi p wit h th e sculpto r ha d falle n "back int o [its ] earlie r channel " (Letters 2:359) . Wa s th e poe t rear ranging hi s lif e t o kee p th e painfu l twist s an d turns , th e moment s o f weakness, awa y fro m curiou s eyes , becaus e h e though t the y wer e com paratively insignifican t i n th e contex t o f th e whol e relationshi p an d al l it mean t t o him ? I t doe s no t see m likel y tha t a t thi s tim e h e wa s sup pressing al l memor y o f th e actua l events . In an y event , i n 192 4 h e n o longe r neede d t o focu s upo n Rodin' s decline an d weakness . Wit h complet e confidenc e i n hi s ow n master y and achievement , h e coul d rejoic e i n th e relationshi p whic h ha d mean t so muc h t o hi m a s a perso n an d a s a n artist . No w hi s prais e cam e not fro m a weak , sic k man' s nee d t o idealiz e a ne w fathe r i n orde r

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to participat e i n hi s omnipotence , bu t fro m th e sens e tha t h e too , lik e his ol d master , ha d "assente d full y an d activel y t o th e inne r missio n of hi s creativ e genius , th e infinit e divin e play, " wit h awesom e results .

VIII In th e winte r o f 1905- 6 Rilk e wrot e "Davi d sing t vo r Saul " ("Davi d Sings befor e Saul") . I d o n ' t wis h t o reduc e thi s p o e m t o a n allegory . I t has a n extraordinar y lif e an d significanc e a s a w o r k o f literatur e whic h far excee d whateve r autobiographica l meanin g on e ma y find i n it . Bu t one ca n se e h o w Rilke' s experienc e wit h Rodi n a t thi s tim e consciousl y or unconsciousl y shape d th e relationshi p o f th e ol d kin g an d th e y o u n g harper i n th e poem , whic h I reprin t her e befor e offerin g a n interpretation : Konig, hors t du , wi e mei n Saitenspie l Fernen wirft , durc h di e wi r un s bewegen : Sterne treibe n un s verwirr t entgegen , und wi r falle n endlic h wi e ei n Regen , und e s bluht , w o diese r Rege n fiel. Madchen bluhen , di e d u noc h erkannt , die jetz t Fraue n sin d un d mic h verfuhren ; den Geruc h de r Jungfraun kanns t d u spiiren , und di e Knabe n stehen , angespann t schlankt un d atmend , a n verschwiegne n Tiiren . Dass mei n Klan g di r alle s wiederbrachte . Aber trunke n taumel t mei n Geton : Deine Nachte , Konig , dein e Nachte— , und wi e waren , di e dei n Schaffe n schwachte , o wi e ware n all e Leibe r schon . Dein Erinner n glau b ic h z u begleiten , weil ic h ahne . Doc h au f welche n Saite n greif ic h di r ih r dunkle s Lustgestdhn? — II Konig, de r d u alle s diese s hattes t und de r d u mi t laute r Lebe n mic h

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iiberwaltigest un d iiberschattest : komm au s deine m Thron e un d zerbric h meine Harfe , di e d u s o ermattest . Sie ist wi e ei n abgenommne r Bau m durch di e Zweige , di e di r Fruch t getragen , schaut jetz t ein e Tief e wi e vo n Tage n welche kommen— , un d ic h ken n si e kaum . Lass mic h nich t meh r be i de r Harf e schlafen ; sieh di r dies e Knabenhan d d a an : glaubst du , Konig , das s si e di e Oktave n eines Leibe s noc h nich t greife n kann ? Ill Konig, birgs t d u dic h i n Finsternissen , und ic h ha b dic h doc h i n de r Gewalt . Sieh, mei n feste s Lie d is t nich t gerissen , und de r Rau m wir d u m un s beid e kalt . Mein verwaiste s Her z un d dei n verworrne s hangen i n de n Wolke n deine s Zornes , wutend ineinande r eingebisse n und z u eine m einzige n verkrallt . Fiihlst d u jetzt , wi e wi r un s umgestalten ? Konig, Konig , da s Gewich t wir d Geist . Wenn wi r un s nu r aneinande r halten , du a m Jungen, Konig , ic h a m Alten , sind wi r fas t wi e ei n Gestir n da s kreist . King, d o yo u hea r ho w m y string-musi c cast s distances throug h whic h we'r e moving ? Confused star s floa t u p t o us , and finall y w e fal l lik e rain , and flower s com e u p wher e thi s rai n fell . Girls blossom , who m yo u kne w once , who no w ar e wome n temptin g me ; you ca n scen t th e odo r o f virgins , and th e boy s stand , tense , lean an d breathing , a t secre t doors . That m y soun d coul d brin g i t al l bac k t o you ! But m y music' s reelin g drunk ;

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Your nights , King , you r nights— , and ho w fai r the y were , th e one s you r creativit y ravished . 0 ho w beautifu l wer e al l bodies . 1 believe I ca n accompan y you r rememberin g as I ca n sens e it . Bu t o n wha t string s do I touc h fo r yo u thei r dar k groanin g pleasure ? II King, yo u wh o ha d al l thi s and wh o wit h lou d lif e overpower an d overshado w me : come dow n fro m you r thron e an d shatte r my harp , whic h you'r e wearyin g so . It's lik e a tre e picke d bare : through th e branche s whic h bor e you r fruit , a dept h no w look s a s o f day s which ar e coming— , an d I scarcel y kno w them . Let m e slee p n o longe r besid e th e harp ; take a look a t thi s boy' s hand : do yo u think , King , tha t i t stil l can' t span th e octave s o f a body ? Ill King, yo u concea l yoursel f i n darknesses , and stil l I hav e yo u i n m y power . Look, m y stron g son g i s no t torn , and th e spac e aroun d u s bot h grow s cold . My orphane d hear t an d you r confuse d on e hang i n th e cloud s o f you r anger , raging, bitte n int o eac h other , clawed togethe r int o one . Do yo u fee l now , ho w w e transfor m eac h other ? King, King , weigh t become s spirit . If onl y w e clin g t o eac h other , you t o youth , King , I t o age , we're almos t lik e a circling star. 1 Reading th e p o e m wit h th e relationshi p betwee n Rilk e an d Rodi n i n mind, I find tha t it s conclusio n reflect s th e poet' s feelin g a t thi s tim e tha t

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he an d th e sculpto r neede d eac h other , that , a s yout h an d age , the y ha d much t o giv e eac h other . I t reveal s th e younge r man' s desir e t o clin g t o the olde r one . Yet th e las t par t o f th e poe m als o focuse s upo n th e ange r in bot h o f them , i n powerfu l images , reminiscen t o f Dante' s Inferno: "raging, bitte n int o eac h other/ , an d clawe d togethe r int o one " recall s Ugolino an d th e Archbishop Ruggier i i n cantos 3 2 and 3 3 of th e Inferno, where Ugolin o gnaw s a t Ruggieri' s brai n i n hatre d an d the y ar e froze n together i n the ice at the bottom o f Hell , so that on e head seem s a helmet on th e other . I f I a m right i n thinking tha t thi s poem indirectl y expresse s Rilke's feelings an d his sense of Rodin's a t the time, the anger and tensio n must hav e develope d wel l befor e th e brea k betwee n th e tw o men . The lin e "an d stil l I hav e you i n m y power " probabl y reflect s Rilke' s need t o contro l thi s powerfu l and , a t leas t i n fantasy , destructiv e an d dangerous master , whic h ma y hav e bee n par t o f hi s motivatio n fo r en during th e heav y burde n o f th e task s h e was give n t o d o a t th e tim e an d for focusin g upo n th e sculptor' s needines s an d ag e bot h the n an d i n th e fall o f 1908 . The stor y o f Davi d an d Saul , as it is interpreted here , work s very wel l a s a mediu m i n whic h th e poe t coul d explor e thes e feeling s obliquely, perhap s unconsciously . I n readin g th e poe m w e shoul d re member tha t Davi d wa s appointe d b y Go d t o tak e Saul' s place, and tha t the kin g wa s doomed , havin g betraye d hi s God , havin g allowe d himsel f to b e corrupted. I n s o many way s th e poem suggest s Rilke' s sens e of th e relationship betwee n himsel f an d th e sculptor . Sau l i s rememberin g hi s pleasure wit h th e hel p o f David' s playing . H e conceal s himsel f i n dark ness. Davi d ha s hi m i n hi s power . "Abisag" (Abishag ) precede s "Davi d Sing s befor e Saul " i n th e New Poems. Whe n th e tw o poem s ar e rea d togethe r wit h th e poet' s an d th e sculptor's live s i n mind , th e forme r seem s t o expres s obliquel y a fantas y of Rodin . "Abishag " i s base d upo n th e stor y i n th e Firs t Boo k o f King s in whic h a youn g gir l i s foun d fo r th e ol d king , t o slee p wit h hi m an d warm him . But, a s the poem emphasizes , the withering ma n ("de n Welk enden") remain s col d an d impoten t whe n th e gir l lie s o n hi m (WDB y 1:242-44).

The first par t o f "Davi d Sing s before Saul " is unusual i n Rilke's work , which rarel y ha s t o d o wit h explicitl y sexua l competitivenes s betwee n a paternal ol d ma n an d a filial younger one . Her e th e conflic t i s rendere d with delicacy , subtlety , an d originality , an d wit h ambivalence—th e young man' s desir e t o brin g bac k b y mean s o f hi s playin g thos e "dar k

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moans o f pleasure, " a s well a s his deligh t i n th e realizatio n tha t th e girl s the kin g onc e kne w ar e th e wome n no w temptin g him , whil e th e ol d king ha s onl y hi s memories . The secon d par t o f th e poem , afte r affirmin g th e king' s powe r t o "overwhelm an d overshadow " th e young harpe r wit h "lou d life " (surel y here w e ca n se e Rodi n an d Rilke' s reactio n t o him) , reassert s th e youn g man's sexua l powe r a s i f th e olde r on e doubt s it : "tak e a loo k a t thi s boyish hand: / d o yo u think , King , tha t i t stil l can't / spa n th e octave s o f a body?" 2 As th e harpis t foresee s th e "day s . . . coming " abou t whic h h e know s very little , the poet sense s th e approac h o f hi s ow n ne w life , i n which h e will b e abl e t o expres s th e ne w dept h whic h h e feel s i n himself . But wha t i s th e feelin g behin d th e appea l t o th e kin g t o com e dow n from hi s throne an d shatte r th e har p whic h h e has bee n exhausting ? Thi s exhortation call s to min d Rilke' s fatiguin g us e of hi s own gift s a s a writer in th e servic e o f Rodi n an d hi s rol e a s a frien d an d companion , dail y keeping th e ol d ma n happy , givin g hi m emotiona l support , a task whic h was wearin g o n th e poet , a s h e fel t th e nee d t o b e alon e t o d o hi s ow n work. Durin g thi s perio d (Septembe r 190 5 t o Ma y 1906 ) muc h o f hi s imaginative energ y wen t int o th e master' s correspondenc e an d int o hi s supportive role . It i s a strang e request , askin g th e kin g t o com e dow n of f hi s thron e and t o shatte r th e harp . I t remind s on e tha t Rilk e himsel f seem s t o hav e provoked th e rathe r brutal , i f temporary , sunderin g o f th e relationshi p by th e sculpto r i n Ma y 1906 . Perhaps , th e violenc e an d destructivenes s which th e voic e i n th e poe m i s appealin g fo r reflec t th e poet' s nee d t o project ont o Rodi n th e violenc e whic h h e fel t an d hi s ow n desir e t o destroy th e relationship . H e displace s thes e impulse s int o th e dram a which h e ha s take n fro m th e Bibl e an d project s the m ont o th e figure i n the poe m wh o represent s Rodin , defendin g himsel f fro m guilt . I n th e biblical stor y Davi d wa s no t guilt y o f injurin g Saul , o f dethronin g o r killing him . The relationshi p betwee n th e tw o me n an d Rilke' s feeling s abou t th e sculptor ha d gon e throug h a comple x transformation , whic h probabl y remained largel y unconscious durin g th e winter o f 1905-6 , and th e resul t was no t a n opaqu e dream , bu t a marvelousl y luci d poem , i n whic h a number o f feeling s wer e give n indirec t an d subtle , but als o primitive an d powerful, expressio n throug h imag e an d metaphor .

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One ca n g o o n playin g wit h "Davi d Sing s befor e Saul. " Perhaps , a n analyst, readin g th e poem , focusin g o n th e youn g singer' s appea l t o th e old Kin g t o destro y hi s harp , migh t sa y tha t ther e i s a n unconsciou s desire i n th e oedipa l so n t o hav e th e threatene d fathe r castrat e him , s o that h e may no t b e guilt y o f supplantin g th e olde r ma n with women. Bu t the poe m a s a whol e i s weighte d agains t an y suc h desire . Clearly , th e playing o f th e har p represent s th e devotio n o f th e youn g man' s imagi native energ y an d al l hi s gift s t o th e happines s o f hi s ol d master , whos e demands an d need s hav e exhausted an d withered hi s singing an d playing . It need s t o b e replace d b y anothe r instrument , which , i n par t 2 o f th e poem, i s th e woman' s body , whos e octave s th e youn g man' s hand s ca n span. Did Rilke' s feeling s abou t hi s father' s age , illness , an d approachin g death als o hel p t o mol d thi s poem ? I hav e argue d tha t the y probabl y influenced hi s respons e t o th e sculptor , th e secon d father , whos e power , sexual possessio n o f man y women , aging , an d arousin g o f intens e am bivalence i n Rilk e ar e reflecte d i n th e poem . Th e ambivalence , whos e complexity shape d "Davi d Sing s befor e Saul, " was par t o f a wide rang e of feeling s originatin g i n th e relationshi p o f fathe r an d so n durin g th e oedipal stage . Asid e fro m thi s matter , on e canno t hel p wonderin g i f th e father's aging , illness , an d approachin g deat h helpe d t o releas e an d strengthen th e kind s o f self-confidenc e represente d i n Davi d an d yet , a t the sam e time , provided motivatin g energ y fo r th e harpist' s sens e a t th e end o f th e poe m tha t h e need s th e ol d kin g an d that , i f onl y the y coul d cling together , the y migh t achiev e th e radiance , glory , an d permanenc e of a sta r circlin g th e heavens .

CHAPTER 9

Woman Withi n Developments Leadin g t o The Sonnets to Orpheus and th e Completio n o f th e Duino Elegies

I In Ma y 1911 , more tha n a yea r afte r completin g The Notebooks, Rilk e wrote t o hi s patron , Princes s Mari e vo n Thur n an d Taxis-Hohenlohe , wondering wh y h e wa s stil l unabl e t o work , ponderin g "thi s lon g drought/' whic h wa s "reducin g m y sou l . . . t o famine " {Letters 2:26 27). I n Decembe r o f tha t year , havin g mad e n o progress , from Duin o h e lamented t o Salom e tha t h e ha d begu n t o fee l h e wa s lef t "withou t a vocation, superfluous, " a ma n withou t valu e o r role , purpos e o r plac e (Letters 2:34) . Facing the possibility tha t his gifts ha d failed him , he coul d think o f nothin g els e t o do . The adven t o f th e Duino Elegies i n mid-Januar y 191 2 banishe d suc h thoughts, bu t onl y fo r a while. To Lo u h e wrote fro m Rhonda , Spai n i n January 1913 , to sa y tha t th e tw o Elegie s whic h ha d com e t o hi m wer e no mor e tha n a "small. . . broken of f . . . piece . . . o f wha t wa s the n pu t in m y power " (Letters 2:84) . I n Octobe r o f th e sam e yea r th e poet' s sense o f hi s predicamen t coul d hardl y hav e bee n worse . H e wondere d i f he woul d eve r b e abl e t o star t writin g again. 1 Increasingly, h e experience d th e nee d o f a companion who , fro m lac k of lov e o r selfles s love , woul d fee l n o desir e t o posses s hi m an d woul d defend hi m agains t al l threat s t o hi s solitar y concentration . Durin g th e sterile period s o f nea r despai r i n th e year s followin g th e completio n o f 209

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The Notebooks, h e kept hopin g fo r someon e who woul d shelte r him an d would giv e him th e sens e o f havin g a home i n th e world . H e longe d fo r a woman wh o coul d respon d t o th e wild exaggeration s whic h fe d hi s ar t and hi s illnes s wit h a n "ordinar y an d guileless " nature , someon e wh o might cal m th e fear s whic h s o ofte n distracte d hi m an d produce d th e defenses tha t lef t hi m isolated , flat , an d empt y {Letters 2:38) . During th e winter o f 1913-1 4 h e wrot e abou t hi s searc h fo r thi s elusiv e woma n i n the poe m "D u i m Vorau s / verlorn e Geliebte , Nimmergekommene ,, ("You wh o neve r came , Beloved , los t fro m th e beginning") . In January 191 4 Magda von Hattingberg , a pianist, a divorcee withou t children, discovere d Rilke' s earl y Stories of God an d wrot e fro m Vienn a to tel l th e autho r tha t sh e love d them . Delighted , h e bega n writin g he r frequent, lon g letters , an d sh e kep t u p he r par t o f thei r correspondence . It wa s no t lon g befor e h e was callin g her "m y sister, " wondering i f Go d had sen t he r t o hi m t o enabl e hi m t o survive . Da y afte r da y th e letter s to Magd a poure d ou t o f him . The y wer e detaile d autobiographie s o f hi s tormented childhood , celebration s o f hi s lif e an d work , self-exaltation s ("my ar t i s o f a splendo r unrivale d eve n b y th e Hous e o f David") , av alanches o f idea s and fantasies . H e calle d hi s letters to he r "letter-titans" ; they were eruptions o f fiery lav a that cam e down o n her , almos t buryin g her. H e likene d himsel f t o Stromboli . Rarel y ha d hi s narcissisti c gran diosity bee n mor e clearl y exposed . B y mid-February Magd a ha d becom e not onl y "sister, " bu t als o "m y tru e child " an d "m y tru e virgin mother " (R&B.IC 59 , 88 , 82, and 75) . A mont h afte r i t ha d begu n thi s correspondence , with al l of it s absur d expectations, ended, when Rilk e went t o Berlin to meet von Hattingberg . They travele d togethe r t o Munich, Paris, and Duino , among other places. He listene d t o he r music , sh e t o hi s reading s o f hi s work . Earl y i n Ma y they separate d i n Venice, having decide d t o d o s o while they were guest s of th e princess at Duino. Well before thi s they ha d bot h sense d tha t thei r early hope s fo r th e relationshi p woul d b e disappointed . Vo n Hatting berg's reactio n t o th e poet' s wis h tha t the y shoul d remai n togethe r al l their live s was expresse d i n a letter t o he r sister , Maria, which sh e quote s in he r memoir , Rilke and Benvenuta: "D o I lov e hi m a s a woman love s a ma n . . . ? Do I lov e hi m s o muc h tha t I wan t t o b e th e mothe r o f hi s children?" Sh e realize d tha t sh e di d not . Fo r he r h e wa s "th e voic e o f God . . . al l that is superhumanly good , lofty an d sacred, but no t a human person!" 2

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As vo n Hattingber g go t t o kno w th e poe t an d hi s late r work , hi s poetry an d pros e ofte n seeme d alie n an d morbi d t o her . Sh e als o kne w that h e require d a lov e whic h woul d serenel y an d joyfull y embrac e hi s strange an d sometime s repulsiv e fantasie s withou t a qualm. A s sh e cam e to understan d th e natur e o f hi s narcissism , sh e gre w increasingl y pessi mistic about th e future o f their relationship. She was troubled particularl y by a letter i n which h e imagined tha t th e woman h e "lef t behind " woul d have t o live , lik e a sailor' s bride , conten t i n he r ignoranc e o f hi s adven tures an d i n he r uncertaint y a s to whethe r h e would eve r return . And , i f he di d com e back , sh e woul d hav e t o b e happ y t o accep t hi s silence , hi s unwillingness, fo r a lon g while , t o tal k abou t al l th e strange , charge d memories o f wha t h e ha d encountere d o n hi s travels . I n thi s letter , sen t to he r befor e the y met , h e seem s t o b e challengin g he r t o tel l hi m tha t she woul d b e capabl e o f superhuma n self-sacrifice , tha t sh e woul d giv e him complet e freedom , tha t he r unlimite d lov e coul d accep t th e possi bility o f hi s neve r returnin g withou t showin g "an y sig n o f fear , o f con cern, o f reproach , no t th e slightes t tea r o f disappointment. " H e imagine s her waitin g fo r hi m wit h th e transparent , empty , passiv e selflessnes s o f "the humbl e windo w b y th e stairs. " The sam e lette r reveal s th e backgroun d an d source , a s h e understoo d it, of this extreme narcissism, which he realized was intolerable yet hope d Benvenuta woul d accep t wit h th e empathetic , affirmin g jo y he r answer ing letters had expressed . The roo t o f hi s requirements wa s his belief tha t his mothe r woul d b e repelle d b y a child "destine d t o recklessl y roa m i n and ou t o f al l sort s o f creatures. " Bu t thi s freedo m an d power , h e thought, wa s th e quintessentia l qualit y o f hi s imagination—th e abilit y "to g o into" othe r creature s an d objects , "t o tel l what i t was lik e inside " them, t o b e abl e t o identif y wit h the m completely . Her e h e seem s ver y close to Keats' s notio n o f th e chameleoni c poet. Suc h a n existence woul d be harmfu l t o hi s narcissisti c mothe r becaus e i t woul d mea n dissolvin g his single-minded , symbioti c identificatio n wit h her . An d sh e sorel y needed th e clos e bon d tha t h e ha d bee n tryin g t o escap e fo r s o long . He suspecte d tha t sh e wante d hi m t o remai n "he r clea n littl e boy, " a mirror imag e of he r ow n purity, not strang e or threatenin g (sexual? wild? uninhibited?) i n an y way . Hi s "modern " taste s an d values , hi s interes t in man y differen t kind s o f people , creatures , objects , an d place s woul d have shocked her. 3 On e ca n conceiv e the guil t h e must hav e felt a t strug gling t o separat e himsel f fro m he r s o radically , a t suc h betraya l an d

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wounding. An d h e mus t hav e connecte d he r frightening , painfu l earl y withdrawal wit h tha t struggl e o n hi s part . The poe t intimate d t o vo n Hattingber g tha t h e coul d no t liv e wit h a woman wh o woul d sho w anythin g lik e the anxiety , disappointment , an d reproachfulness whic h Phi a ha d expresse d a t th e sign s o f hi s desir e fo r autonomy. H e fel t vulnerabl e t o an y companion' s attempt s t o inhibi t th e freedom a poet mus t hav e t o wander , t o lov e othe r women , an d t o voic e disturbing ne w image s an d idea s suc h a s thos e wit h whic h Baudelair e and Nietzsch e ha d demolishe d an d replace d stal e form s o f ar t an d thought. Ironically , th e self-sacrificing , unconditiona l lov e whic h h e asked o f Benvenut a resemble d th e self-immolating , bindin g devotio n h e felt hi s mothe r ha d trie d t o pressur e ou t o f him . T o assur e himsel f tha t no woma n woul d eve r threaten hi m agai n in suc h a way, he must revers e the relationship , thoug h h e wa s no t consciou s o f wantin g t o d o so . Writing t o Salom e o n June 8 , 1914 , Rilke acknowledge d th e failur e o f this relationshi p a s a flunkin g o f "th e test. " Understandin g th e severit y and persistenc e o f hi s emotiona l "sickness, " he observe d tha t "thre e un achieved month s o f clarit y hav e lai d somethin g lik e a col d glass " ove r the extraordinar y "flow " an d "repose " an d th e apparen t "truthfulness " opened u p i n hi s letter s t o Benvenut a durin g Januar y an d Februar y o f that yea r {Letters 2:113-14) . Th e realit y o f th e month s the y ha d spen t together ha d enclose d al l tha t lik e a n exhibi t encase d i n a museum , s o that i t ha d becom e inaccessible . Wors e still , th e glas s barrie r enclosin g the pure an d joyfu l experienc e o f thos e earl y month s ha d becom e a mir ror, i n whic h h e sa w "nothin g bu t m y ol d face. " Thi s imag e suggest s that Rilke comprehended th e narcissistic nature of his illness and his love. The "Narcissus " poem s writte n i n Apri l o f th e precedin g yea r suppor t this supposition . In th e secon d o f thes e tw o poems , Rilk e ha s Narcissu s imagin e th e woman wh o migh t hav e mirrore d hi m lovingl y an d thu s rescue d hi m from hi s fate . Bu t n o woma n doe s giv e confirmation , substance , coher ence, an d stabilit y t o hi s sad , sketch y sens e o f himself . Instead , h e mus t study hi s reflectio n i n th e indifferen t water , whic h provide s nothin g bu t a blurred , unstabl e image , tha t become s "nothin g othe r tha n th e indif ference/of stone s turne d over. " I n thi s loveles s voi d th e sens e o f sel f almost entirel y dissolves , apar t fro m a residue o f sadness . Yet th e poe m ends wit h Narcissu s wonderin g i f hi s imag e arouse d "swee t fea r i n he r dream." Perhap s I misrea d this , bu t I find i t ironic , fo r th e woma n

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dreaming i s onl y imaginary , an d thi s imaginar y w o m a n i s a reminde r a t the en d o f th e p o e m tha t Narcissu s doe s no t find a rea l one . A s h e think s that h e ca n almos t fee l he r fear , h e realize s tha t h e i s losin g himsel f i n his o w n gaze , dissolving . Wit h thi s though t i n mind , h e let s hi s swee t fantasy o f th e w o m a n ' s fea r giv e hi m on e las t bi t o f evasiv e pleasure , wondering i f he' s "deadly. " A n d thi s to o migh t see m ironi c enoug h i n context t o b e amusing , i f i t di d no t see m s o sad . Th e poem , i n al l it s delicate lovelines s o f soun d an d image , suggest s tha t Rilk e understoo d the intricat e deceptivenes s o f th e illnes s h e wa s describing . H e r e ar e th e last fou r stanza s o f th e secon d " N a r z i s s " : Was sic h dor t bilde t un d mi r siche r gleich t und aufwart s zitter t i n verweinte n Zeichen , das mocht e s o i n eine r Fra u vielleich t innen entstehn ; e s wa r nich t z u erreichen , wie ic h danac h auc h drangen d i n si e rang . Jetzt lieg t e s offe n i n de m teilnahmslose n zerstreuten Wasser , un d ic h dar f e s lan g anstaunen unte r meine m Kran z vo n Rosen . Dort is t e s nich t geliebt . Dor t unte n dri n ist nichts , al s Gleichmu t iibersturzte r Steine , und ic h kan n sehen , wi e ic h trauri g bin . War die s mei n Bil d i n ihre m Augenscheine ? Hob e s sic h s o i n ihre m Trau m herbe i zu susse r Furcht ? Fas t fuh l ic h scho n di e ihre . Denn, wi e ic h mic h i n meine m Blic k verliere : ich konnt e denken , das s ic h todlic h sei . (WDB 2:57 ) Narcissus's belie f tha t h e ma y b e fata l lead s m e bac k t o th e poet' s letter t o Salom e o n Jun e 8 , 1914 . Tha t lette r come s t o a final focu s i n a more elaborat e for m o f th e sam e fantasy . Th e poe t imagine s tha t h e wil l be deadl y t o anyone , frien d o r lover , w h o venture s nea r enoug h t o hel p him i n hi s illness , misery , an d sterility . H e woul d impriso n an y suc h loving, carin g perso n "i n a regio n airles s an d loveless , s o tha t hi s aid , unusable, woul d gro w overrip e i n hi m an d wilte d an d horribl y atro p h i e d " (Letters 2:112-13) . O n e c a n envisio n th e smal l chil d i n th e lette r

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writer, ou t o f sight , repressed , bu t ver y muc h aliv e i n thi s fantas y an d its underlyin g infantil e feelings : namel y th e child' s sens e o f hi s effec t upon hi s mothe r o r upo n bot h parent s (on e shoul d no t forge t als o tha t this was a child whose parents largel y isolated hi m from friends) . I f ther e were suc h infantil e feeling s underlyin g th e fantas y i n th e letter , wha t might hav e bee n thei r roots ? The y see m t o m e t o hav e grow n ou t o f th e child's sens e o f hi s mother' s response s an d he r effec t o n hi m whe n h e attempted t o giv e he r hel p an d suppor t i n he r ow n emotiona l defective ness an d illness . And fro m wha t w e kno w o f Josef's constriction , w e ca n see how little Rene might have felt abou t hi m too. Eventually, the parent s who mad e hi m fee l tha t al l hi s effort s t o hel p the m i n thei r wors t time s left hi m imprisone d "i n a regio n airles s an d loveless, " s o tha t hi s gen erosity "wilte d an d atrophied, " becam e a part o f thei r son , Rene . Now , so man y year s later , th e helpful , lovin g chil d wa s completel y dissociate d in Rilke's min d fro m himsel f an d unconsciousl y projected ont o th e othe r people who m h e longe d fo r an d kep t away , thoug h thei r unconsciou s associations with parenta l figure s ar e more apparent , closer to th e surfac e of consciousness . Rilke's surrea l imag e o f hi s effec t o n al l wh o migh t wis h t o lov e an d help hi m wa s self-protective , self-destructive , an d self-entrapping . (I t brings t o min d th e imag e Dostoevsk y give s us o f th e narrato r a t th e en d of Dostoevsky' s Notes from Underground.) Ye t i n th e dept h o f hi s pri vate hel l Rilk e carrie d th e memorie s o f havin g writte n th e first thre e Duino Elegie s an d part s o f severa l others durin g th e preceding tw o year s and th e sens e o f wha t th e Elegies would b e whe n h e complete d them , if only h e coul d d o so . Furthe r behin d hi m la y The Book of Hours, The Notebooks, New Poems, th e friendship s wit h Salom e an d Rodin , an d s o much else , t o strengthe n hi s resolv e t o regai n hi s ful l creativ e power s despite hi s cripplin g emotiona l illness .

II Nineteen-fourteen mark s a crucia l turnin g poin t fo r Rilke . Th e painfu l conclusions abou t himsel f whic h h e confronte d mor e tha n fou r year s after completin g The Notebooks ma y hav e led t o th e writing o f th e poe m "Wendung" (Turning) , whic h h e enclose d i n hi s lette r t o Lo u o n Jun e 20, 1914 . "Wendung" expresse s a new conceptio n o f hi s needs a s a poet:

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Denn de s Anschauns, siehe, ist eine Grenze. Und di e geschautere Welt will in der Lieb e gedeihn. Werk des Gesichts ist getan, tue nun Herz-Wer k an den Bildern in dir, jenen gefangenen ; den n du iiberwaltigtest sie : aber nun kenns t d u si e nicht. Siehe, innerer Mann, dein inneres Madchen , dieses errungene aus tausend Naturen , dieses erst nur errungene , nie noch geliebt e Geschopf. (WDB 2:83-84 ) For, see, there is a limit to looking. And th e world behel d wishes to thrive in love. Work o f sigh t is done, now do heart-wor k on the images confined i n you; for yo u subdued them : but no w yo u don' t kno w them . Look, inner man , your inne r maiden , this one wrested ou t of a thousand natures , this only appropriated , never yet loved creature . This i s th e en d o f th e poem . I t seem s t o reflec t Rilke' s grievou s con frontation wit h hi s inabilit y t o love . It recall s the conclusion o f a n earlie r poem, "Archai c Tors o o f Apollo/ ' wher e h e tell s himself , "D u muss t dein Lebe n andern. " ("Yo u mus t chang e you r life") . Th e chang e envis aged a t the end o f "Wendung " i s evident: The poem characterize s Rilke' s relationship wit h natur e heretofor e a s a kin d o f powe r struggle , a s con quest an d appropriation . Now , i f h e i s t o becom e th e kin d o f poe t h e wishes t o be , h e mus t becom e capabl e o f feelin g lov e fo r th e worl d a s he find s i t withi n himself . A s th e objec t o f hi s inwar d contemplation , i t will thriv e i n hi s love . Wreste d fro m externa l surrounding s an d impris oned withi n th e min d an d sel f a s images , a s impressions , i t ca n flouris h in th e transformation s o f a n arden t imagination . Poems an d letter s whic h follo w "Wendung " confir m wha t i t reveals ,

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that Rilk e cam e t o perceiv e th e world absorbe d withi n hi m a s a beloved , lovely youn g woman , "dei n innere s Madchen. " Whil e h e continue d t o fall i n an d ou t o f lov e afte r 1914 , the sens e of th e belove d woma n withi n grew increasingl y important . I t becam e a majo r shapin g them e o f hi s thinking abou t himsel f an d abou t th e natur e o f th e poe t i n general . Th e notion o f th e woman i n th e poet, lik e many o f hi s endurin g themes , ha d begun t o interes t hi m relativel y early . I t ca n b e foun d i n a letter writte n in 1904 : "I t i s s o natura l fo r m e to understand girls and women; th e deepest experienc e o f th e creato r i s feminine— : fo r i t i s experienc e o f receiving an d bearing . The poe t Obstfelde r onc e wrote, when describin g the fac e o f a strang e man : 'i t was ' (whe n h e bega n t o speak ) 'a s i f ther e were a woman i n him—' ; i t seem s t o m e tha t woul d fit ever y poe t wh o begins t o speak " (Letters 1:181) . Here th e woma n withi n th e poe t i s no t the worl d possesse d a s images, but th e sourc e o f hi s voice, his genius . I n the ac t o f creatio n i t i s a woman tha t speak s o r write s hi s poems . Rilke's sens e o f th e woma n o r gir l withi n himsel f originate d a t leas t partly i n his havin g played a t bein g th e daughte r hi s mothe r ha d lost . A s an adul t h e fel t tha t thi s sister-sel f stil l live d i n him . Whe n Mama n sug gests tha t Sophi e "mus t certainl y b e dead, " Mak e "stubbornly " contra dicts he r an d beg s "he r no t t o believ e that " (The Notebooks, 100) . I n January 190 1 Rilk e expresse d th e feelin g tha t hi s siste r wa s stil l aliv e i n one o f a group o f nin e brief poem s calle d "Au s eine r Sturmnacht" (Fro m a Stormy Night) . He imagine s tha t sh e must b e growin g o n suc h storm y nights, tha t sh e mus t b e beautifu l b y now . Surely , h e thinks , someon e i s going t o wo o he r soon : In solchen Nachten wachst mei n Schwesterlein, das vor mir war und vo r mi r starb, ganz klein. Viel solche Nachte waren schon seither : Sie muss schon scho n sein . Bald wird irgendwe r si e frein . (WDB 1:220 )

But, havin g died , on e migh t ask , wher e ca n sh e live ? Wher e ha s sh e grown beautiful ? Wher e wil l someon e woo her ? I n 1901 , when h e wrot e this poem , th e ide a o f hi s sister' s continuin g existenc e ma y hav e bee n simply a vague fantasy , no t accompanie d b y an y suc h questions . I n late r years h e woul d hav e answere d tha t sh e wa s aliv e i n himself , i n wha t h e called "the depth dimensions of . . . inner being' (Letters 2:342) . Whe n he spok e o f lovers , suc h a s Magda vo n Hattingberg , a s sisters , no doub t

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he experience d the m a s projections o f th e siste r h e ha d becom e t o pleas e his mothe r an d wit h who m a t time s h e stil l fel t identified . In "Wendung " th e poe t challenge s himsel f t o develo p th e abilit y t o love, no t anothe r person , bu t th e woma n wh o i s part o f himself . Failin g miserably i n th e relationshi p wit h Benvenuta , whic h ha d seeme d t o promise s o muc h afte r s o man y othe r failure s wit h women , temporaril y losing th e hop e tha t hi s emotiona l impotenc e woul d eve r b e cured , h e turned t o thi s ne w commitment . Hi s sens e o f th e realit y o f hi s inne r woman promise d a resolution t o a problem whic h ha d becom e a sourc e of grea t pain . Th e lov e whic h h e no w envisione d wa s narcissistic , bu t "Wendung" reflect s a n essentia l chang e i n hi s conceptio n o f narcissism , converting i t from th e sterile, solipsistic illness of hi s poems o n Narcissu s into a fertile, creativ e mod e o f existence . This seem s t o hav e involve d a retrieval o f th e earl y symbioti c stat e o f partial fusio n betwee n mothe r an d child , i n whic h th e chil d love s th e mother a s par t o f himself . Hence , Rilke' s ne w commitmen t t o loving , not anothe r person, but th e woman within, drew strength from hi s geniu s for gainin g acces s t o ver y earl y state s o f min d an d recapturin g them . There i s n o evidenc e tha t h e wa s consciou s o f usin g thi s gif t i n writin g "Wendung", bu t a numbe r o f th e letter s an d poem s whic h I hav e ex plored revea l tha t h e wa s quit e clearl y awar e o f i t a t othe r times . I n th e unfinished eleg y writte n a t Schlos s Ber g i n Decembe r 1920 , h e focuse d on thi s early fusion whic h remaine d availabl e to him, saying he was "pre world" ("Vor-Welt") . Th e poe m suggest s tha t h e wa s bot h mothe r an d child, bot h mal e an d female , experiencin g wit h th e primal mother , Earth , the pregnan t harmon y ("di e trachtig e Eintracht" ) whic h mos t me n (males) cannot comprehend , a s well as the stillness in the universe aroun d a growing organis m (di e Stille im Weltall/ . . . u m ei n Wachstum"). Eart h has confide d t o hi m ho w sh e keep s th e embry o whol e an d soun d ("Mi r hats di e Erd e vertraut , wi e sie' s treib t mi t de m Keim, / das s e r hei l sei " [WDB 2:130-31]) .

"Wendung" conclude s wit h th e though t tha t th e "inne r maiden " ha s been "wreste d ou t of / a thousan d natures. " Ostensibl y thi s mean s tha t the poe t ha s take n th e worl d withi n himsel f throug h thousand s o f per ceptions. Bu t th e figure o f th e inne r maide n her e connect s hi s internali zation o f th e femal e world , a s a n earl y ste p i n th e creativ e process , wit h another importan t elemen t o f hi s experience . Jus t afte r completin g th e first Duin o Elegy , h e wrot e t o Annett e Kolb , "Wha t speak s t o m e o f

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humanity—immensely. . . . i s th e phenomeno n o f thos e wh o hav e die d young and , eve n mor e absolutely , purely , inexhaustibly : the woman in love. I n thes e two figures humanit y get s mixed int o m y heart " {SP> 318) . Admiring wome n i n love , fascinated b y them , idealizin g the m despit e o r because of hi s inability t o sustai n a love for a particular woman , h e iden tified himsel f wit h them , makin g the m par t o f himself . In The Ego and the Id, a s we hav e seen , Freu d offer s th e theor y tha t children and , t o a lesser extent , adult s ten d t o identif y wit h thos e object s of eroti c lov e who m the y ar e force d t o giv e up . Suc h identification , closely relate d t o introjectio n (consciousl y o r subliminall y experiencin g an externa l objec t a s havin g bee n internalized) , ha s a primitive mode l i n infantile fantasie s o f devourin g or incorporating th e breast or th e mother . Through identificatio n o r introjection , love d one s fro m who m w e ar e separated ca n b e kep t withi n u s an d becom e a part o f us. 1 This argumen t ca n hel p u s t o understan d Rilke' s identificatio n wit h women i n lov e abandone d b y thei r lovers . S o ofte n w e find hi m afte r a brief infatuatio n o r a longer affair writin g passionate letters to the wome n he had deserted . While defendin g hi s solitude, many o f thes e letters see m to reaffir m hi s lov e an d hi s sens e o f connectio n an d affinit y wit h thes e women. I n doin g s o the y arous e skepticism , a s hi s recurren t emphasi s upon th e wome n whos e lov e i s unrequite d seem s ironic . Ye t th e letter s and th e recurren t emphasi s upo n th e figure o f th e unrequited love r wer e authentically roote d i n hi s ow n experience . Wit h Lo u Andreas-Salome , as wit h hi s mother , i t wa s h e wh o fel t abandoned . Wit h hi s mother , a s we hav e seen , an d als o with Lou , wh o wa s hi s mos t importan t mode l i n adult lif e befor e Rodin , h e fel t himsel f closel y identified . Th e bitte r los s of Phia , th e painfu l los s o f Lou , n o doub t intensifie d thi s sens e o f iden tification. N o wonde r h e understoo d s o wel l th e wome n abandone d b y their lover s an d thos e whos e lov e wa s no t reciprocated . N o wonde r h e felt identifie d wit h the m an d imagine d tha t h e had mixe d the m int o him self. Fro m thi s perspectiv e on e ca n se e tha t h e mus t hav e fel t a t leas t some unconsciou s identificatio n wit h th e wome n who m h e left , whos e unrequited lov e he was defending himsel f against . Very likely his feeling s about som e o f thos e h e lef t wer e ambivalen t an d confused . Probabl y i n leaving o r exilin g wome n suc h a s Magd a vo n Hattingber g an d Baladin e Klossowska ("Merline") , wh o helpe d hi m durin g th e summe r an d fal l o f 1921 prepare Muzot fo r th e completion o f th e Elegies, he felt tha t h e was losing them . Despit e hi s nee d t o ge t awa y fro m them , wit h hi s losse s o f

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his mothe r an d Lo u i n th e background , thi s ne w sens e o f los s an d sep aration, howeve r subliminal , mus t hav e reinforce d bot h hi s nee d t o tak e them, i n thei r unrequite d lov e withi n hi m an d hi s feelin g tha t h e coul d identify himsel f wit h them . The tas k wit h whic h h e confronte d himsel f i n "Wendung " wa s no t so dangerous, not s o threatening a s some o f thes e love affairs ha d seeme d to him . Learnin g t o lov e th e woma n within , h e woul d no t hav e t o fea r engulfment o r bein g smothere d o r devoured . No r woul d h e hav e t o worry abou t smotherin g th e othe r person' s abilit y t o lov e an d car e fo r him, th e dange r tha t h e describe d i n th e Jun e 191 4 lette r t o Lo u whic h I quote d earlier . Surely , th e latte r fantas y wa s roote d i n th e child' s fea r of destroyin g hi s mother' s abilit y t o lov e an d hel p him , arisin g fro m hi s feeling tha t hi s mother' s affectio n an d carin g wer e tenuou s an d unde pendable an d migh t b e repelle d al l to o easily .

Ill Rilke's outpourin g o f twenty-si x sonnets , th e first cycl e o f The Sonnets to Orpheus, i n th e cours e o f a few day s earl y i n Februar y 1922 , owed a great dea l t o hi s havin g foun d a rea l perso n i n who m h e coul d embod y the fantas y o f th e inne r gir l o r youn g woman , stil l "almos t a girl, " an d a vivid compellin g metaphori c imag e for he r introjectio n an d integratio n with hi s ow n being : Und fas t ei n Madchen wars und gin g hervor aus diesem einigen Gliic k von San g und Leie r und glanzt e klar durch ihr e Friihlingsschleie r und macht e sich ein Bett in meinem Ohr . Und schlie f i n mir. Und alle s war ihr Schlaf. Die Baume, die ich je bewundert, diese fiihlbare Feme , die gefuhlte Wies e und jede s Staunen, das mich selbst betraf. Sie schlief di e Welt. Singender Gott , wie hast du si e vollendet, dass sie nicht begehrte, erst wach zu sein ? Sieh, sie erstand un d schlief .

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Wo ist ihr Tod? O , wirst d u die s Motiv erfinden noch , eh sich dein Lie d verzehrte?— Wo sinkt si e hin aus mir? . .. Ei n Madchen fast. . . . (Sonnet I.2 ; WDB 1:487-88) And i t was almost a girl and emerged out o f thi s united happines s o f son g and lyre and shone brightly throug h he r spring veils and made herself a bed in my ear. And slep t in me. And he r sleep was everything: the trees that rilled me with wonder, these palpable distances,the felt gree n field, each moment o f astonishmen t tha t surprised me . She slept the world. Singing god, how did yo u perfect he r so that sh e had n o desire to wake some time? See: she arose and slept . Where is her death? Oh, will you conceiv e this theme before you r son g expends itself?— Where does she fade fro m me ? . .. A girl almost. . . . In evokin g th e figure o f th e girl , Rilke was probably thinkin g o f Ver a Knoop, to whom he dedicated the Sonnets. A year later (April 12,1923) , he wrote Countes s Margo t Sizzo , sayin g tha t h e ha d onl y graduall y under stood th e relatio n o f th e Sonnets t o Vera , who m h e ha d me t onl y a fe w times during her childhood, when she was a friend o f his daughter.1 At th e beginning of January 1922 , Rilke received from Vera' s mother a n accoun t of her daughter's illness and death at nineteen. Frau Knoo p had written t o him i n Novembe r 192 1 t o congratulat e hi m o n Ruth' s engagement . An swering thi s ol d friend , h e complaine d tha t th e announcemen t o f th e en gagement ha d reveale d t o th e worl d th e plac e wher e h e wa s locate d a t a time whe n h e desperatel y neede d solitude . O f course , h e hope d an d ex pected tha t Rut h woul d b e a good wife . But th e letter reveal s that h e wa s not muc h intereste d i n hi s daughter' s marriage . What concerne d him , h e wrote t o Fra u Knoop , was guardin g hi s seclusion , i n th e hop e that , afte r years of frustration, h e would a t last become fully creativ e again. The con trast betwee n hi s attitud e towar d hi s daughter an d th e intens e interes t h e expressed i n Ver a i s striking . Closin g hi s letter , h e aske d th e bereave d mother to tell him about the dead girl so that he might gain a vivid sense of the en d o f he r life . Fra u Knoo p seeme d t o understan d tha t h e wanted t o

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hear about her daughter's reaction to her mortal illness and th e end o f he r life. His response to her account, which he received a month befor e h e began the Sonnets, give s one a clear grasp o f th e girl' s new meanin g for hi m and help s u s t o se e why an d ho w hi s impression s o f he r an d hi s feeling s about her inspired and , to some extent, shaped thes e poems. Frau Knoop' s lette r ha d brough t bac k Vera' s "dark , strangel y con centrated charm " s o vividl y tha t h e fel t i t woul d overwhel m hi m i f h e closed his eyes to concentrate upon th e girl. He imagine d tha t th e "exces s of light " i n Vera's hear t ha d com e fro m th e swiftnes s wit h whic h he r lif e consumed itsel f i n he r suffering , whe n sh e was face d wit h th e imminenc e of deat h (Letters 2:283-84) . Fro m he r mother' s description , h e gathere d that he r illnes s an d he r sufferin g ha d brough t opennes s to , an d unit y with, everythin g aroun d her , reinforce d b y a joyous affirmatio n o f life . A yea r later , i n Apri l 1923 , he remembere d Vera' s dancin g a s a child ; her bod y i n motio n ha d seeme d naturall y gifte d wit h ar t an d th e powe r of metamorphosis . Attacked b y th e glandula r diseas e that late r killed her , she ha d grow n heavy , renounce d dancing , an d devote d hersel f t o music , then drawing . I n thes e forms , th e poe t fantasized , th e dancin g i n he r ha d expressed itsel f indirectly , an d wit h increasin g subtlet y (se e SO, 160) . The poet' s sens e o f hi s relatio n t o Ver a ha d anothe r dimension . Hi s transformation o f th e perishin g worl d i n th e Sonnets, an d i n th e lat e Elegies writte n largel y o r entirel y durin g Februar y 1922 , ha d bee n fos tered b y hi s sens e o f intimat e connectio n wit h thi s dea d girl , who , be cause o f he r "incompletion, " hel d "ope n th e gat e o f th e grave " t o hi m (Letters 2:3 y6). Sh e ha d die d s o young , comparativel y innocent , neve r having los t th e extraordinar y intensit y o f youth , whic h approachin g death ha d mad e al l the mor e vivid . I t wa s because , though dead , sh e wa s still ver y muc h aliv e fo r hi m tha t sh e kep t ope n th e ordinaril y impene trable barrie r betwee n th e livin g an d th e dead , which ha d also , accordin g to legend , give n wa y t o Orpheus . Frau Knoop' s accoun t o f th e en d o f Vera' s lif e enriche d an d clarifie d his conceptio n o f deat h a s a kin d o f plenitude . Eve n he r sufferin g was , for him , a n essentia l par t o f tha t fullness : "somethin g lik e a privileg e i s involved whe n huma n being s ar e no t spare d suc h monstrou s torment , a s if thi s ruthlessnes s wer e th e expressio n o f a kin d o f initiation , a sig n o f election t o th e inordinate—as thoug h thi s desperat e sufferin g coul d hap pen onl y t o a being fro m who m ther e wer e t o b e n o secrets." 2 Throug h his connectio n wit h Vera , h e felt , man y dimension s o f existenc e relate d

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to o r shape d o r touche d b y deat h wer e illuminate d fo r him , opene d t o him. Th e proo f o f thi s cam e fro m th e multifariou s way s i n whic h h e evoked th e presenc e o f deat h an d th e endurin g lif e o f th e dea d an d th e past i n th e Sonnets. We ca n thin k o f Orpheus' s descen t int o th e worl d o f th e dea d a s a metaphor fo r th e closenes s on e ca n fee l t o a n intimat e wh o ha s died . (I n Rilke, self-aware imaginativ e genius created a sense of intimacy with Ver a out o f a few meeting s whic h too k plac e year s befor e h e hear d th e new s that sh e ha d died , an d ou t o f a grievin g mother' s description s o f he r daughter, he r dancing , music , art , illness , an d death . Onl y th e Sonnets can answe r th e skeptica l respons e tha t thi s sens e o f connectio n wa s a n illusion.) On e ma y fee l tha t s o much o f onesel f i s still united wit h a dead person tha t on e exist s largel y i n th e worl d o f th e dead . Th e ma n wh o descends int o Hade s i n "Orpheus , Eurydice , Hermes " (1904 ) ha s a dif ferent reactio n t o death— a desir e to overcom e it , to brin g hi s wife back . But th e Orpheu s o f th e Sonnets bodie s fort h Rilke' s belie f tha t hi s poeti c genius wa s very muc h i n touc h wit h th e dea d an d existe d i n a dimensio n of experienc e i n whic h thei r presenc e too k o n al l kind s o f vita l meanin g in hi s feeling s an d thought s an d i n hi s poems , a s h e tell s u s i n Sonne t 1.9: Nur we r die Leier schon ho b auch unter Schatten , darf da s unendliche Lo b ahnend erstatten . Nur we r mit Toten vom Mohn ass, von dem ihren, wird nich t den leisesten Ton wieder verlieren.

.................... Erst in dem Doppelbereic h werden die Stimmen ewig und mild . (WDB 1:492)

Only h e who has raised th e lyre among shades too may, fathoming, restor e the endless praise.

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Only h e who has eaten with th e dead their poppy, will not los e again the softest note . Only i n the double sphere do voices grow eternal and gentle. The "doubl e sphere " is the world i n which the poet exist s in the presenc e of the living and the dead, responsive to and connected with both . Insofa r as th e Sonnets sho w tha t Rilk e di d realiz e suc h a n existence , h e fulfille d in his response to Vera's deat h th e exhortatio n whic h h e voices in Sonne t II. 13, "Se i imme r to t i n Eurydike " ("B e foreve r dea d i n Eurydice") . Sonnet 1. 2 ("An d i t wa s almos t a gir l . . . " ) seem s t o refe r t o Ver a Knoop, thoug h sh e i s no t named . Th e gir l ha s mad e hersel f a bed i n th e poet's ea r an d slep t i n him . He r sleep , her death , was no t a falling away , but a risin g int o th e lif e o f th e poet' s song s ("sh e aros e an d slept") . Through hi s associatio n with Orpheu s i n thes e sonnet s Vera i s implicitl y associated with Eurydice , who inspire d an d was reborn (embodie d anew ) in Orpheus' s song s an d thu s foun d a new lif e i n th e hearin g o f th e crea tures tha t listene d t o him , wher e h e buil t temple s t o receiv e hi s music : "da schufs t d u ihne n Tempe l i m Gehor " ("y o u create d temple s fo r the m in thei r hearing") . Thi s i s th e las t lin e o f Sonne t I.i , anticipatin g th e beginning o f th e secon d Sonnet , wher e Rilk e celebrate s hi s creatio n wit h his songs of th e girl who mad e herself a t home in his hearing (hi s creativ e imagination), sleepin g an d waking , aliv e i n death . In Sonne t II.28 , dedicate d t o Ver a i n Rilke' s note , th e girl' s dancin g is sai d t o hav e surpasse d nature , just a s natur e transcende d hersel f whe n Orpheus's singin g move d he r t o "complet e hearing " ("volli g horend") . Rilke implicitl y associate s Vera , th e dance r an d musician , wit h poeti c genius becaus e sh e seeme d t o hea r th e ordinaril y unhear d musi c withi n the hidden , innermos t cor e o f th e psyche . "D u wusstes t noc h di e Stelle , wo di e Leier / sic h tonen d hob— ; di e unerhort e Mitte " ("Stil l yo u wer e aware o f th e plac e wher e th e lyr e rose / resonant : th e unhear d center") . The innermos t musi c i n th e mysteriou s cente r o f th e psyche , whic h Vera heard , cam e fro m th e lyr e o f Orpheus , who , a s th e archetyp e o f poetic genius , sings onc e mor e whe n h e is discovered there : "Ein fu r all e Male/ ist s Orpheus , wen n e s singt" ("Everytim e there' s singing / it' s Or -

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pheus" [WDB 1:489]) . The sonne t tell s u s tha t Ver a ha s bee n move d b y Orpheus's musi c "vo n damals " ("from tha t time") . Ostensibly "damals " refers t o th e fabulou s pas t i n whic h th e legendar y Orpheu s sang . Bu t here i t als o suggest s th e tim e o f infanc y o r earl y childhood , when , i n th e framework o f Rilke' s thinking , "th e unhear d center " take s form , befor e it is repressed o r forgotten i n the adult's unconscious mind . In The Notebooks, Letters to a Young Poet, th e unfinishe d eleg y o f 1920 , an d othe r writings, Rilk e make s i t clea r tha t th e artis t mus t retur n t o tha t ag e o f innocence an d purit y o f impulse , burie d withi n him , whe n th e Angel , the vita l for m o f hi s genius , first visite d him. 3 Drawing som e o f hi s inspiratio n an d som e o f hi s ideas , a s a numbe r of critic s hav e noticed , fro m Pau l Valery' s dialogu e "L'am e e t l a danse, " at the beginnin g o f Sonne t II.2 8 Rilk e see s Vera dancin g a s an exemplar y image o f artisti c metamorphosi s o r transformation . Thoug h sh e i s scarcely more than a child, he calls upon he r to perfect th e configuration s of he r ar t int o "th e clea r constellatio n o f on e o f thos e dances / i n whic h we briefl y surpas s nature " i n he r dul l orderin g o f things . O kom m und geh . Du, fast noc h Kind , erganze fur eine n Augenblick di e Tanzfigu r zum reinen Sternbild eine s jener Tanze, darin wir die dumpf ordnend e Natu r verganglich ubertreffen . . . {WDB 1:525-26 )

Meditating upo n Vera' s dancing , h e feel s draw n int o he r "flawles s cele bration" an d imagine s he r hopin g tha t h e woul d be : Fur si e versuchtest d u die schonen Schritt e und hofftest , einma l zu der heilen Feier des Freundes Gan g und Antlit z hinzudrehn . {WDB 1:526 )

Sonnet 1. 2 metaphoricall y suggest s a n ac t o f introjection , incorporatin g someone wh o ha s bee n lost , lik e Eurydice, through death . Vera become s Rilke's inne r gir l o r woman . A dancer , musician , an d artist , sh e i s inex tricably mingle d wit h th e poet i n hi s creativity. In he r slee p o f death , sh e also brings th e world int o him , for thi s slee p seem s t o absor b everythin g around he r and to fuse he r with it: "Und alle s war ihr Schlaf," "Sie schlief

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die Welt" {WDB 1:48 7 an d 488) . Rilke's letter to Frau Knoo p emphasize s his sense of Vera's openness to , and unity with, the world {Letters 2:284) . He though t o f her a s one of thos e rare human being s who fee l themselve s to be part o f nature befor e the y die , as Make imagines Bettina von Arni m felt, a s animal s an d smal l childre n do , accordin g t o th e Eight h Elegy ; a s Rilke di d i n th e mystica l dissolutio n o f boundarie s betwee n himsel f an d the univers e describe d i n hi s 191 3 pros e fragmen t "A n Experience. " In th e Sevent h Elegy , written a few day s afte r Sonne t 1. 2 (Februar y 7 , 1922), th e poe t think s o f himsel f wooin g a "silent" , "stil l invisible " "friend," i n who m a graduall y awakene d emotiona l respons e become s a warm companio n t o hi s ow n venture d feeling : wurbest d u wohl, nicht minder— , dass, noch unsichtbar , dich die Freundin erfuhr , di e stille, in de r ein e Antwort langsam erwacht und iibe r de m Horen sic h anwarmt, — deinem erkiihnte n Gefuh l di e ergliihte Gefiihlin . {WDB 1:465) In hi s note s fo r th e Elegy , Stephe n Mitchel l connect s thi s silent , stil l invisible frien d wit h th e "inne r woman " (o r girl ) who m th e poe t urge s his inne r ma n t o se e i n "Wendung " {SP, $27). Mitchell make s th e sam e connection wit h Sonne t 1. 2 {SO, 163) . The immediat e proximit y i n tim e of th e Sonnets, wit h thei r inne r "Madchen, " an d th e Sevent h Eleg y sup ports hi s interpretatio n o f th e silen t frien d i n tha t poem . S o does Rilke' s emphasis i n bot h th e Sevent h an d th e Nint h Elegie s (mos t o f th e latte r was writte n o n Februar y 9 , 1922 ) upon th e inner , invisibl e realit y whic h must replac e th e perishin g externa l world . I n th e Nint h h e conceive s o f Earth a s a beloved o r dea r on e ("d u liebe" ) wh o wishe s t o aris e invisibl e and transforme d withi n u s an d seem s to comman d th e poet t o enabl e he r to d o so . The Sevent h Eleg y associate s th e poet' s wooin g an d th e responsiv e awakening o f th e inne r woma n wit h hi s abilit y t o sin g wit h th e purit y of a bird' s cr y ("zwa r schriees t d u rei n wi e de r Vogel " [WDB 1:465]) . In a February 191 4 letter t o Lo u Andreas-Salome , Rilke says that a bird's song ca n fleetingl y transfor m "th e worl d int o inne r space " becaus e w e hear i n th e son g th e bird' s innocen t fusio n o f he r inne r lif e wit h th e perceived lif e o f th e worl d aroun d he r {SP, 327) . Sonnet s 1. 2 an d II.2 8 and th e letter s abou t Ver a revea l tha t th e fantas y o f thi s girl , wh o ha d

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moved hi m s o deeply , livin g withi n him , a s a part o f him , no w tha t sh e was dead, helped Rilk e to attai n to thi s sense of unity i n his own singing . As Vera enjoye d th e experienc e o f bein g on e with al l nature while sh e was stil l alive, her death , which dissolve d al l vestiges o f th e separatio n o f the conscious mind fro m natur e was a perfection o f th e sleep which Rilk e describes i n Sonne t II , 1 4 a s "intimat e sleep " ("innig e Schlafen" ) wit h things a t a dept h share d i n commo n ("gemeinsame n Tiefe " [WDB 1:516]). Th e concei t i n Sonne t 1. 2 tha t th e gir l mad e he r be d i n hi s ea r and slep t i n hi m suggest s tha t hi s memor y o f Ver a an d he r mother' s moving accoun t o f he r dancing , he r musi c an d art , he r illnes s an d death , brought hi m close r t o th e intimat e dept h o f awarenes s whic h h e evoke s in this Sonnet. Sonnet II . 14, like Rilke's conception o f Vera, calls to min d one o f th e New Poems, "De r To d de s Dichters " (Deat h o f th e Poet) , written i n Pari s i n 1906 : Die, so ihn leben sahen, wussten nicht , wie sehr er Eines war mit allem diesen; denn Dieses: diese Tiefen, dies e Wiesen und dies e Wasser waren sein Gesicht . {WDB 1:252 )

Those who sa w him alive did no t kno w how muc h he was one with al l this: For this : these gorges, these meadows and these waters were his face. The poet's deat h complete s o r perfect s th e onenes s with natur e which h e has enjoye d whil e alive . Vera's presence ca n b e felt i n a number o f relate d sonnets , where flower s become image s o f wha t i s "earthly " an d o f openness , inclusiveness , o r receptivity. Sonne t II1 4 begin s with a line in which flower s ar e describe d as "tru e t o th e earthly " ("Sieh e di e Blumen , dies e de m Irdische n treuen"). In Sonne t 1. 2 5 Rilke compare s Ver a (hi s dedicatory not e t o th e poem identifie s he r a s th e perso n t o who m h e speaks ) t o a flowe r h e knows, thoug h h e doe s no t kno w it s name : "Dich, di e ic h kannte / wi e eine Blume , vo n de r ic h de n Name n nich t weiss. " I n th e las t stanz a o f this Sonnet, he reflects tha t durin g her illness , when sh e felt th e approac h of death , he r bloo d nonetheles s thrus t int o it s natura l springtim e an d shone wit h a n earthl y gleam , lik e th e flower s o f Sonne t II . 14.

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In Sonne t II . 5 a n anemon e become s a n imag e o f th e extraordinar y openness, th e "limitles s receptivity " ("unendliche n Empfangs") , tha t th e poet foun d i n Ver a a s well: BLUMENMUSKEL, de r der Anemon e Wiesenmorgen nac h und nac h erschliesst , bis in ihren Schoos s das polyphone Licht der lauten Himme l sic h ergiesst, in den stillen Bliitenstern gespannte r Muskel der unendlichen Empfang s . . . . (WDB 1:509) Blossom muscl e which graduall y reveal s the anemone's meado w morning , until th e polyphonic ligh t of th e resonant skies pours int o her womb, muscle of limitles s receptivity , expanded i n the quiet flower-sta r . . . . This anemon e call s t o min d Vera , a s Rilk e conceive d o f her , wit h he r openness t o everythin g aroun d he r an d he r experienc e o f joyou s har mony an d unio n wit h th e worl d (se e Letters 2:284) . Th e poe m reverse s the poet' s origina l reactio n t o a n anemon e i n a Roman garden , describe d in a June 191 4 lette r t o Salome . Th e flowe r i n th e poe m i s stretche d s o wide ope n i t ha s troubl e closin g t o res t a t night . Th e anemon e i n th e Roman garde n coul d no t clos e a t all . Seemin g t o b e "franticall y tor n open," it could no t sto p takin g in the excessive night, while other flower s around i t ha d folde d thei r petal s t o rest , fille d wit h th e brigh t day' s "abundance." The poet sa w the flowe r whic h coul d no t clos e as an imag e of hi s helples s absorptio n i n externa l distractions : "i f ther e i s a noise , I give myself u p an d am tha t noise." 4 This recall s the openin g pages o f th e The Notebooks, wher e th e noise s o f th e cit y creat e pandemoniu m i n Make's roo m al l night , a s well a s Make' s tendenc y t o becom e identifie d with othe r peopl e h e sees , hi s fea r o f engulfmen t an d impingemen t o r invasion. If w e com e bac k t o Sonne t II . 5, we canno t mis s th e differenc e i n th e poet's respons e t o th e anemone . Rilk e ca n ente r fully , withou t anxiety , into th e imag e o f th e flower' s openness . Thi s i s no t t o sa y tha t h e ha d become a sadh u i n Februar y 1922 . Th e Sonne t end s wit h th e questio n "Aber wann y i n welche m alle r Leben, / sin d wi r endlic h o f fen un d Emp -

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fanger?" ("Bu t when, i n whic h o f al l [our ] lives, / ar e w e t o b e finally open an d receptive?") . An d th e Eight h Elegy , writte n earlie r th e sam e month, end s wit h th e sens e o f huma n being s a s alway s i n th e proces s o f departing, biddin g farewel l ("s o lebe n wi r un d nehme n imme r Ab schied"), homeles s o n earth , displace d ou t o f "da s Offne " ("th e open")—out o f th e existenc e fre e fro m th e constraint s o f time , th e haunting o f death , th e sens e of spatia l limitation , th e oppositio n betwee n self an d othe r an d sel f an d world , th e feelin g tha t someon e i s watchin g and judgin g us—tha t lif e enjoye d b y animal s an d smal l children , fre e from al l these cripplin g wound s i n adul t huma n consciousness . The ane mone Sonnet , lik e th e Eight h Elegy , reflect s th e fac t tha t th e poe t ha d clarified an d mastere d hi s conceptio n o f "th e open, " s o tha t h e coul d evoke i t i n compellin g languag e an d imagery , eve n i f h e realize d tha t i t was no t a permanen t possessio n an d tha t human , al l to o huma n a s h e was, h e mus t sli p bac k int o a sense o f deprivatio n an d transience . Vera became an embodiment o f Rilke' s long-held belie f tha t women hav e a much stronge r awarenes s tha n me n o f th e natura l processe s an d cycles , such as those of birth an d death, which profoundly influenc e an d connec t the existenc e o f al l livin g things : "Women , i n who m lif e linger s an d dwells mor e immediately , mor e fruitfull y an d mor e confidently , mus t surely hav e becom e fundamentall y ripe r people , mor e huma n . . . tha n easygoing man , wh o i s no t pulle d dow n belo w th e surfac e o f lif e b y th e weight o f an y frui t o f hi s body, an d wh o . . . undervalue s wha t h e think s he loves " (LYP, 58) . The characterizatio n o f Eurydic e i n "Orpheus , Eurydice , Hermes " (1904) is closely related t o th e notion i n The Notebooks tha t women hav e a subliminal awarenes s o f th e death growin g in them (meaning , I suspect , the menta l an d physica l processes o f maturin g an d aging ) simila r t o thei r consciousness o f a fetus ripenin g within. In The Notebooks an d in Rilke' s letters, this blissful awarenes s is implicitly contraste d wit h th e fear, loath ing, an d denia l o f deat h whic h ar e impoverishin g an d self-destructive . Unlike th e ma n i n "Orpheus , Eurydice , Hermes, " the woman (excep t in it s titl e th e poe m neve r refer s t o the m b y name ) i s no t anxiou s o r impatient. Absorbe d i n herself , sh e i s scarcel y awar e o f th e ma n ner vously pacin g ahea d o f he r towar d th e exi t fro m th e real m o f th e dead . The man , i n contrast , i s divide d withi n himself . Hi s sigh t race s ahead , implicitly seekin g hint s o f ligh t an d life . Hi s hearin g linger s behind , lis -

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tening fo r he r footsteps , uncertai n tha t h e hear s them , worrie d tha t sh e is no t followin g him , eage r t o loo k back , restrainin g himsel f i n th e re alization tha t doin g s o woul d rui n "thi s whol e undertaking " ("diese s ganzen Werkes" ) whic h h e ha s s o nearl y brough t t o completion , con cerned i n typica l mal e fashion wit h th e struggl e towar d achievemen t an d the possibilit y o f failure . The woma n i s fa r remove d fro m thi s kin d o f consciousness . He r in ward absorptio n i s compare d t o th e menta l stat e o f a woma n i n lat e pregnancy. Death fills her as a fruit i s filled with its own dark , mysteriou s sweetness. Deat h i s plenitude , ripeness , an d fulfillment . I t free s th e woman fro m al l desire, all craving, from th e tension s o f marriag e an d th e sexual life : "ih r Geschlech t wa r zu / wi e ein e junge Blum e gege n Abend " ("her se x wa s closed/lik e a youn g flowe r towar d evening") . Sh e i s n o longer th e man' s property . Sh e no longe r exist s throug h he r relationshi p with him , n o longe r think s o f hersel f a s th e beaut y i n hi s songs . Whe n the go d (Hermes ) tell s he r tha t th e ma n ha s turne d aroun d i n hi s impa tience an d anxiet y t o se e i f sh e i s there , sh e asks , "Who? " A s Orpheu s stands fa r of f a t th e brigh t exi t int o th e worl d o f th e living , sh e doe s no t recognize him . Rilke compare s Eurydic e i n deat h t o lon g hai r loosened . H e descibe s her, i n a comple x metaphor , a s havin g bee n give n away , lik e rai n tha t has fallen . Sh e ha s bee n distribute d lik e a plentiful supply . Sie war scho n aufgelos t wi e langes Haar und hingegebe n wi e gefallner Rege n und ausgeteil t wie hundertfacher Vorrat . (WDB 1:301 )

Though Rilk e characterize s he r ne w stat e o f existenc e a s " a ne w vir ginity" ("eine m neue n Madchentum") , thes e ar e image s o f fullnes s an d fertility a s well a s freedom an d beauty , whic h sugges t he r becomin g on e with nature . Finally , th e poe t associate s he r wit h roots : "Si e wa r scho n Wurzel." Thi s anticipate s "Gegen-Strophen " ("Anti-Strophes") , begu n in the summer o f 191 2 and complete d i n February 1922 , originally mean t to b e th e Fift h Elegy . I n "Gegen-Strophen, " Rilk e addresse s wome n a s Eurydice's sisters , describin g the m a s "Blume n de s tiefere n Erdreichs, / von alie n Wurzel n geliebte, " ("Flower s o f th e deepe r soil/love d b y al l roots," [SP, 222 an d 223]) .

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In thes e poems, as in The Notebooks, th e Letters to a Young Poet, an d his writing s abou t Vera , Rilk e imagine s tha t wome n ten d t o hav e a dif ferent, mor e profound , les s limite d an d les s defensiv e understandin g o f the relationshi p betwee n lif e an d death . The Sonnets to Orpheus develo p and clarif y insight s towar d whic h Rilk e wa s gropin g i n "Orpheus , Eu rydice, Hermes" when h e described deat h a s a sweet, mysterious ripenes s and fullnes s i n Eurydice . Hi s conceptio n o f Vera' s respons e t o fata l ill ness an d th e approac h o f deat h i n Sonne t 1. 2 5 is fa r mor e accessible : Tanzerin erst , die plotzlich, den Korpe r vol l Zogern , anhielt, als goss man ihr Jungsein i n Erz; trauernd un d lauschend— . Da, von den hohen Vermoger n fiel ihr Musik i n das veranderte Herz . Nah war die Krankheit. Schon von den Schatten bemachtigt , drangte verdunkelt da s Blut, doch, wie fluchtig verdachtigt , trieb es in seinen naturlichen Friihlin g hervor . Wieder und wieder , von Dunkel und Stur z unterbrochen , glanzte es irdisch. Bis es nach schrecklichem Poche n trat in das trostlos offen e Tor . (WDB 1:503 )

Dancer, who suddenly stopped , your bod y full o f hesitation , as if your youn g being had been cast in bronze; sorrowing an d listening—. Then, from th e high powers music descended int o your change d heart . Illness was near. Already held b y the shadows, darkened, your bloo d hurried , but, as if momentaril y doubtful , it put fort h int o its natural springtime . Time and again, disrupted b y darkness an d collapse, it shone with an earthly radiance. Until afte r a frightful knockin g it entered th e comfortlessly ope n door . The concei t o f th e youn g gir l wh o ha s die d makin g he r be d i n hi s ea r and Vera' s presenc e i n a number o f th e othe r Sonnet s reflec t th e poet' s sense o f havin g attaine d t o gift s an d strength s h e ha d longe d fo r an d envied i n som e o f th e wome n abou t who m h e ha d written , suc h a s Bet tina vo n Arnim , th e othe r unrequite d lovers , an d Lo u Andreas-Salome .

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His notio n o f takin g Vera within hi m helpe d t o mak e possible th e joyfu l belief tha t thes e longed-fo r virtue s wer e blossomin g i n hi m an d tha t h e had gaine d acces s t o th e kind s o f powe r an d richnes s which , unti l thi s triumphant momen t i n hi s life , h e ha d define d largel y throug h hi s med itations o n women .

IV The concei t o f th e gir l making herself a bed i n th e poet's ea r and sleepin g in him suggests a retrieval in disguise, through displacement , of the partial fusion betwee n mothe r an d son , th e origina l symbiosis , alon g wit h it s conditioned omnipotence , it s larg e degree o f freedo m fro m negatio n an d limitation, fro m th e sicknes s o f adul t alienation , an d fro m th e fea r o f death and the burden o f time. And i n many ways The Sonnets to Orpheus are a triumphan t expressio n o f th e poet' s sens e o f th e fullnes s o f thi s retrieval. The poet' s imag e o f introjectin g Ver a als o recall s th e game s i n whic h Make becam e Sophie to please his mother. The fantasy tha t the girl mad e herself a be d i n hi s ea r an d slep t i n him , i f i t satisfie d a still-livin g bu t unconscious nee d i n Rilk e t o becom e a girl i n orde r t o gai n his mother' s love, mus t hav e bee n suc h a thic k disguis e fo r thi s self-transformatio n that i t defende d hi m agains t th e sham e an d ange r associate d wit h thos e early games in which h e assure d hi s mother tha t th e "naughty " littl e bo y was n o longe r there . Th e ide a tha t Ver a wa s aliv e withi n hi m i s Rilke' s most compellin g variatio n o n th e fantas y o f a hermaphroditi c natur e which h e expresse d i n The Book of Hours. There , a s w e hav e seen , h e connected th e longin g fo r completeness , mastery , an d fertilit y a s a poe t with th e fantas y o f bein g mad e a hermaphrodite an d wit h th e wis h tha t he migh t b e becom e capabl e o f motherhoo d ("Mutterschaft"). 1 Make's mother' s younge r sister , Abelone , wh o i s hi s first lov e afte r Maman's death , seem s t o mirro r him . Rilk e give s he r hermaphroditi c qualities. Comparin g he r singin g wit h tha t o f th e angels , imaginin g tha t it raise s hi m int o heaven , Mak e hear s he r voic e a s radiantl y masculin e (see The Notebooks, 125) . Late r i n th e nove l w e ar e tol d tha t Abelon e gave Mak e Bettin a vo n Arnim' s correspondenc e wit h Goeth e t o read . Associating thi s youn g woman , a friend o f Goeth e an d Beethoven , wit h Abelone, creditin g he r wit h extraordinar y gift s o f imaginative , creativ e

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perception, Mak e imagine s tha t Bettina' s love , whic h di d no t receiv e a n adequate respons e from Goethe , did no t nee d one : "it contain s bot h call note an d answe r i n itself ; it i s it s ow n fulfillment " (206) . Suc h love , no t contained o r limite d b y a responsiv e lover , ca n ignit e an d shap e th e vi sionary transformation s whic h Rilk e define d i n th e Nint h Eleg y a s th e purpose o f hi s existence . Speaking t o Bettin a i n hi s thoughts , Mak e asks , "And isn' t th e whole world yours ? Fo r ho w ofte n yo u se t it o n fire wit h your lov e an d sa w i t blaz e an d bur n u p an d secretl y replace d i t wit h another worl d whil e everyon e slept " (206) . Rilke's longin g fo r a hermaphroditic natur e als o expresse s a desire fo r a self-sufficienc y i n whic h hi s lov e would b e focuse d withi n himself ; th e man an d th e woman i n him would lov e each other rathe r tha n somebod y else. For th e poe t thi s woul d no t b e merel y a regression t o th e primitiv e narcissistic symbiosi s betwee n th e infan t an d th e idealize d mothe r wit h her illusor y omnipotence . A s Rilk e move d throug h Abelon e an d Bettin a and hi s conceptio n o f th e inne r woma n o r gir l i n "Wendung, " t o th e silent frien d o f th e Sevent h Eleg y an d th e metapho r o f introjectio n i n Sonnet 1.2 , h e seem s t o hav e mad e progres s towar d th e attainmen t o f a truly hermaphroditi c self-sufficienc y an d wholeness . Tim e an d agai n h e reintegrated a motherin g female , i n numerou s transformations , wit h hi s sense o f himself . An d thu s h e became , i n hi s experienc e o f himsel f an d in hi s writings , mal e an d female ; th e unicor n an d th e inne r woma n wh o is hi s mirro r i n The Notebooks an d i n Sonne t II.4 ; female worl d withi n and contemplatin g poet ; brothe r an d sister ; paren t an d child . H e woul d be mothe r an d fathe r t o himsel f an d t o th e poem s whic h reflecte d hi s face an d lov e bac k t o him , a s the world doe s t o th e Angels i n th e Secon d Elegy: Spiegel: di e die enstromte eigene Schonheit wiederschopfen zuriic k i n das eigene Antlitz. (WDB 1:445) mirrors: which draw bac k into their ow n fac e the beauty which has streamed from it . In thes e line s th e locu s o f th e mirro r i s ambiguous . Th e worl d i n th e Angels' eye s reflect s thei r beauty . They , i n thei r perceptions , re-creat e i t in thei r ow n image , so that the y an d th e world mirro r eac h other. I n thi s respect the y represen t Rilke' s conceptio n o f creativ e geniu s a s consistin g in th e transformatio n o f th e world int o "th e invisible, " and thu s int o th e

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form give n i t b y th e artist' s hidde n inne r life . Thinkin g o f th e Spanis h landscape a t Toledo , h e wrot e tha t it s towers , hills , an d bridge s seeme d already transfigured wit h th e visionary "intensit y o f th e inner equivalent s through whic h on e migh t b e abl e t o represent " them . On e wa y o f un derstanding hi s perception s o f Toled o wa s t o imagin e a blin d ange l en compassing tha t landscap e an d al l space , contemplatin g the m withi n himself. Seein g thing s "i n th e angel, " a s h e wa s abl e t o d o a t Toledo , where eac h objec t seeme d a fusio n o f "externa l worl d an d vision, " wa s his self-appointe d "task " {Letters 2:146) . Rilke's conceptio n o f hermaphroditi c motherhoo d i n The Book of Hours may hav e bee n influence d b y traditiona l Gree k an d Asia n myths . In Pla to's "Symposium, " Aristophane s imagine s tha t som e o f th e first huma n creatures wer e hermaphrodite s an d tha t th e god s slice d the m i n two , creating mal e an d femal e halve s whic h eve r sinc e the n hav e sough t eac h other t o regai n thei r origina l wholeness . I n Life against Death, Norma n O. Brown , befor e namin g Rilk e a s a n exampl e o f "th e reunificatio n o f the sexes in the self," quotes a text from th e Tao Te Ching, whic h teache s that th e man wh o integrate s femal e element s into hi s psychic functionin g and sens e o f sel f ca n retur n t o th e origina l wholenes s o f infanc y and , i n doing so , receiv e "al l thing s unde r heaven" : He who knows the male, yet cleaves to what i s female Becomes like a ravine, receiving all things under heave n

.................................. This is returning t o the state of infancy. 2

In a traditional psychoanalyti c reading , Rilke' s fantas y o f himsel f a s a hermaphrodite migh t b e interprete d a s a disguise d expressio n o f a re pressed childhoo d desir e to b e made a woman b y hi s father (represented , through displacement , b y th e Lor d i n The Book of Hours, t o who m th e poet appeal s t o gran t hi m suc h a nature) s o that hi s father ca n mak e lov e to him. In his essay "Some Pathological Consequence s o f the Anatomica l Distinction betwee n th e Sexes " (1925) , Freu d observes , " A bo y als o wants t o tak e hi s mother's plac e a s th e love-objec t o f hi s father—a fac t which w e describ e a s th e feminin e attitude." 3 Fro m thi s viewpoint , a n adult's desire to be made a hermaphrodite migh t well involve a regression to suc h boyhoo d longings . I hav e explore d Rilke' s nee d o f hi s father' s

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love, bu t hav e nowher e discovere d i n hi s writing s an y consciousnes s o f harboring a child's desir e t o hav e hi s fathe r mak e lov e t o him . In Three Contributions to the Theory of Sexuality Freu d stresse s th e bisexuality o f children , bu t h e doe s no t argu e tha t th e surviva l o r retur n of th e child' s bisexualit y i n a n adul t ma y brin g a richer integration , self sufficiency, an d wholeness . I n hi s essa y "Dostoevsk y an d Parricide, " h e sees Dostoevsky' s "bisexua l predisposition " a s "on e o f th e predisposi tions o r reinforcement s o f neurosis. " H e als o argue s tha t i t wa s respon sible fo r Dostoevsky' s "remarkabl e understandin g o f situation s [i n hi s novels] whic h ar e onl y explicabl e b y represse d homosexuality. " Bu t th e novelist's artisti c gif t i s "unanalyzable." 4 Rilke's long-endurin g an d evolvin g conceptio n o f th e poe t a s herma phrodite ma y be better understoo d wit h hel p from Freud' s comment s o n "the ego-ideal" in his essay " On Narcissism : An Introduction " (1914) . In this essay Freud conceive s o f th e ego-ideal a s drawing to itsel f th e narcis sism which th e child enjoy s an d th e adul t mus t giv e up. The chil d create s this ideal as a substitute for th e "narcissistic perfection" o f his early child hood, "when he was his own ideal." Although "libido" is withdrawn fro m the sel f a s on e grow s u p an d transferre d t o th e idea l on e ha s create d fo r oneself, it s attainmen t promise s a recovery o f somethin g lik e th e much missed narcissistic gratification o f earl y childhood. Part o f the self-estee m one feels in the fulfillment o f one's ego-ideal comes from it s confirmation , however limited an d unconscious, of the infantile fantasie s an d feelings o f omnipotence which often remai n dormant within us. 5 In a strict centra l Europea n famil y o f th e late nineteenth century , her maphroditism woul d hav e seeme d obnoxiou s an d fa r remove d fro m an y conception o f a n idea l sel f o r object . Bu t i n hi s upbringing , i n hi s psy chology, an d i n hi s genius , Rilk e wa s radicall y original . H e ma y hav e been awar e of th e ancien t legend s an d teaching s which I have mentioned . He mus t hav e known tha t prophetic an d magica l powers were sometime s associated wit h bisexuality , as in th e myt h o f Tiresias . And thi s ego-idea l may hav e bee n shape d i n hi s childhoo d b y hi s feelin g tha t hi s mother , despite her flaw s an d weaknesses , was th e stronger , mor e vital, and mor e creative parent . S o muc h o f hi s lif e reflect s thi s feeling . Obviously , a s I have suggested , hi s mother' s clearl y expresse d attitud e tha t a mal e chil d was undesirable , he r longin g t o hav e hi m becom e a girl , helpe d t o en gender an d t o nurtur e th e hermaphroditi c idea l whic h w e find i n hi s work.

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In contras t t o th e hermaphroditic figure s o f Rilke' s fiction an d poems , the ordinar y male , as Rilke conceive s o f him , especiall y i n thos e passage s of The Notebooks wher e th e mal e i s accuse d o f lackin g th e capacit y fo r love ( a foreshadowin g o f th e 191 4 letter s whic h Rilk e write s abou t hi s own incapacity) , seem s a poor, limited , cripple d specime n o f humanity . Considering th e still-invisible , silen t frien d i n th e Sevent h Elegy , whos e response graduall y awaken s an d grow s warm , a s sh e hear s th e poet' s wooing, an d Ver a a s sh e appear s i n Sonne t 1.2 , w e realiz e tha t Rilk e discovered a complex version o f fruitful, creativ e narcissism which invite s comparison wit h othe r writers ' version s o f tha t stat e o f mind , as , fo r example, th e imag e o f th e poe t turnin g ove r upo n himsel f an d sinkin g his tongu e int o hi s ow n ches t i n th e fifth sectio n o f Whitman' s "Son g o f Myself." Whitma n image s self-lov e a s a physica l act , highl y origina l i n its nature , a mating o f sou l an d sel f (th e "you " i n th e poe m i s th e soul) , a penetratio n o f th e on e b y th e othe r whic h suggest s bot h a kis s an d genital sex , whose locatio n i s ambiguously ches t an d hips , heart an d gen itals. The "you " o f thi s section, after partin g his shirt, plunges hi s tongu e to th e poet' s heart , bu t hi s hea d i s "athwar t m y hips, " an d h e feel s th e poet's bear d whil e holdin g hi s feet . Th e suggestivenes s o f th e sexua l ac t in Whitman's poe m ha s no counterpar t i n th e Sevent h Elegy . But, unlik e Whitman, Rilk e make s on e fee l th e distinctiv e persona l presenc e o f a n invisible, silent , bu t arden t frien d withi n th e poet . I hav e contraste d creativ e narcissis m wit h th e narcissis m o f menta l an d emotional illness . I shoul d poin t ou t tha t Freu d himsel f connect s narcis sistic libid o wit h sublimatio n an d thu s wit h creativity . I n The Ego and the Id, h e theorize s tha t b y takin g a belove d objec t int o ourselve s through identificatio n o r introjectio n an d b y thu s makin g th e objec t par t of us , w e dra w t o ourselve s th e lov e (Ero s o r libido ) originall y directe d toward th e object . Som e o f thi s ne w narcissisti c libid o become s th e en ergy fo r sublimatio n an d thu s fo r creativ e work . "Indeed , th e questio n arises, an d deserve s carefu l consideration , whethe r al l sublimatio n doe s not tak e place through th e mediatio n o f th e ego , which begin s b y chang ing sexua l object-libid o int o narcissisti c libid o an d then , perhaps , goe s on t o giv e i t anothe r aim." 6 So many women who m Rilk e loved an d fro m who m h e was separated , and finally th e gir l Vera, whom h e found lovel y and deepl y moving, wer e

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taken int o himself . Findin g the m i n himself , h e dre w th e lov e h e fel t fo r them t o himself . Hi s wa y o f transformin g objec t lov e int o narcissisti c love was surel y a source o f creativ e energ y a t th e tim e when th e Sonnets were writte n an d th e Elegies completed . There i s a n eviden t affinit y betwee n Freud' s speculation s concernin g narcissistic libid o an d sublimatio n i n The Ego and the Id an d Rilke' s evolving concep t o f transformatio n i n The Notebooks, "Wendung, " an d the Sevent h an d Nint h Elegies . Fo r Rilke , th e poet' s tas k wa s t o tak e beloved object s int o himsel f an d transfor m the m int o element s o f th e "invisible," the inner life , where, as parts o f himself, they migh t b e transfigured throug h hi s love . Ou t o f thi s proces s woul d com e th e substanc e and energ y o f hi s creativ e work , a s the y wer e rebor n i n hi s poems . I n the Nint h Elegy , Rilk e imagine s tha t th e Eart h dream s o f becomin g par t of tha t invisibl e lif e withi n huma n beings , i n orde r tha t sh e an d man y a perishing thin g wort h savin g ma y b e transforme d there , i n th e alembic s fired b y intens e feeling , int o somethin g tha t wil l endure . Th e Eleg y im plies tha t a t th e en d o f thi s proces s poem s o r othe r work s o f ar t wil l offer ne w existenc e i n ne w form s t o th e eart h an d th e ephemera l object s and event s whic h th e poe t ha s take n int o th e refug e o f hi s unconsciou s mental an d emotiona l life . An d h e promise s tha t h e wil l continu e t o respond t o he r mandate , assurin g hi s belove d Eart h tha t he r sprin g sea sons hav e wo n him , acknowledgin g tha t deat h i s th e sacre d mean s b y which sh e inspire s poet s t o d o th e invisibl e wor k o f transformation . These insights lea d t o th e conclusio n o f th e Elegy , in which h e celebrate s the "immeasurabl e life " wellin g u p withi n him : . . . 1s t nicht die heimliche List dieser verschwiegenen Erde , wenn si e die Liebenden drangt , dass sich in ihrem Gefiih l jede s und jedes entzuckt ?

...............................

Erde, ist es nicht dies, was du willst: unsichtbar in uns erstehn?—Ist es dein Traum nicht , einmal unsichtbar z u sein?—Erde ! unsichtbar! Was, wenn Verwandlung nicht, ist dein drangender Auftrag ? Erde, du Hebe, ich will. Oh glaub , es bediirft e nicht deiner Fruhlinge mehr, mich dir z u gewinnen— , einer y ach, ein einziger ist schon de m Blute zu viel. Namenlos bi n ich zu di r entschlossen , von weit her . Immer warst d u i m Recht, und dei n heiliger Einfal l ist der vertrauliche Tod.

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Siehe, ich lebe. Woraus? Weder Kindhei t noc h Zukunf t werden weniger. . .. Uberzahlige s Dasei n entspringt mi r im Herzen . (WDB 1:47 4 an d 476)

V In chapte r 3 I discussed Rilke' s emphasi s upo n solitud e an d hi s endeavo r to develo p th e capacity t o b e alone. The silen t inner friend o f th e Sevent h Elegy an d th e gir l wh o mad e he r be d i n th e poet' s ea r an d slep t withi n him i n Sonne t 1. 2 sugges t th e resolutio n o f thi s struggle . For mos t o f hi s life, bein g alon e was a s painful a s it was necessary . This dilemm a wa s th e subject o f th e lette r h e wrot e t o Lo u Andreas-Salom e fro m Duin o i n December 1911 , a fe w week s befor e th e Firs t Eleg y cam e t o him . H e lamented th e stat e o f min d tha t mad e hi m lon g fo r people , an d th e con flict, confusion , an d guil t whic h accompanie d thi s longing . Preoccupie d with th e fantas y tha t h e coul d fin d someon e t o shelte r hi s solitude , h e had mad e n o progres s wit h hi s wor k (se e Letters 2:34) . Often Rilk e felt tha t h e could no t work unles s he was alone. Respond ing t o Kar l vo n de r Heydt' s offe r o f a refug e i n Apri l 1906 , whe n h e needed t o escap e Rodin , h e sai d tha t eve n th e mos t generou s an d hos pitable friend s coul d no t giv e him th e "limitles s solitude " which mad e i t possible t o experienc e eac h day a s if i t were a lifetime. Completel y alone , one canno t se e t o th e en d o f th e spaciou s cosmo s i n whic h on e i s a t home "with-everything, " surrounde d b y "th e innumerable. " Onl y i n solitude coul d h e com e t o a n understandin g o f hi s experienc e an d giv e it a n intelligibl e shap e {Letters 1:203) . Two year s afte r th e arriva l o f th e first elegie s at Duino, h e returned t o thi s subjec t wit h renewe d emphasis , calling hi s solitud e "inexhaustible , greater , mor e spontaneousl y blissful " than anythin g els e h e coul d thin k of , claimin g tha t i t ha d give n hi m "al l that wa s greatest , al l tha t wa s alway s too great" —meaning, I suspect , that th e experienc e o f givin g birt h t o hi s Elegie s an d othe r majo r poem s had bee n almos t insupportabl e {Letters 2:106-7) . Perhaps i t wa s onl y i n Muzot , a t th e tim e whe n h e complete d th e Elegies an d wrot e th e Sonnets, tha t h e becam e a t las t trul y comfortabl e with, an d a t hom e in , extrem e seclusion . An d i t ma y b e tha t hi s magica l internalization o f Vera , hi s vivid , completel y convincin g sens e o f th e gir l

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or woman within, his union with his own Eurydice , enabled him to enjo y a sens e o f companionshi p eve n i n suc h a solitary existence , relieved onl y by a delightfully unobtrusiv e housekeeper . W e ca n understan d jus t ho w complete an d unremittin g Rilke' s isolatio n wa s a t Muzo t fro m a n objec tive viewpoin t i f w e rea d Pau l Valery' s impression s o f th e plac e i n hi s 1926 essa y Reconnaissance a Rilke: A very small castle terribly alone in a vast, rather sad mountainous place; rooms antique and pensive, sombre furniture, constricted days, that oppressed my heart. My imaginatio n coul d onl y hea r i n you r interio r th e endles s monologu e o f a completely isolated conscience, which nothing distracted from itsel f and from it s sense of itsel f a s a unique being. 1 D. W . Winnicot t see s th e capacit y t o b e alon e a s "on e o f th e mos t im portant sign s o f maturit y i n emotiona l development." 2 Fo r Winnicot t such maturit y mean s freedo m fro m th e kind s o f anxietie s whic h bese t Make i n hi s isolation . I t entail s a hig h degre e o f integratio n an d a wel l developed capacit y fo r differentiation . I t mean s als o tha t on e ca n achiev e a sens e o f persona l unit y whic h make s i t possibl e t o sa y t o onesel f " I AM, I a m alive , I a m myself." I t enable s on e t o b e a t eas e with "creativ e apperception," th e fertil e interactio n betwee n "subjectivit y an d objectiv e observation," th e menta l interpla y o f privat e "inne r reality " an d wha t we experienc e a s "th e share d reality " o f a n externa l world . Winnicot t contrasts a life o f intelligen t imaginativ e perceptio n wit h on e dominate d by a constant compulsio n t o confor m an d adaptatio n t o rea l o r fantasie d demands fro m th e environment . Suc h a n existence , controlle d b y th e need t o compl y an d fit in , i s accompanie d b y " a sens e o f futility." 3 The oppositio n betwee n creativ e thinkin g an d complianc e wa s a n es sential criterio n o f healt h fo r Rilke . I n th e Prodiga l So n episod e o f The Notebooks th e nee d t o b e alon e i s a response t o th e threa t tha t th e son , having returne d home , wil l b e force d int o complianc e wit h famil y pres sures t o becom e al l to o muc h lik e them . I n Make , th e compulsio n t o isolate himself , arisin g fro m closel y relate d fear s o f othe r people , i s in tensified b y a n emotional illnes s which make s the solitud e he needs pain ful an d frightening . I n suc h emotiona l illness , th e capacit y t o b e alone , as Winnicott conceive s it , i s likel y t o b e wea k o r absent . Compulsively seekin g company durin g th e long period o f sterilit y be tween th e completio n o f The Notebooks i n 191 0 an d th e arriva l o f th e Elegies i n 1912 , Rilk e fel t tha t h e wa s ofte n converte d int o a walking ,

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talking facsimil e o f th e peopl e aroun d him . Emergin g fro m hi s roo m i n a stat e o f menta l chaos , h e woul d find himsel f "expressin g well-forme d things" wit h a facilit y an d pois e tha t mad e hi m a mirro r imag e o f th e person t o who m h e was talking . O r h e woul d becom e th e perso n other s took hi m for , "withou t bein g to o particula r abou t m y reall y existing " {Letters 2:37) . Hi s friend s an d acquaintance s coul d brin g hi m ou t o f hi s "lifelessness" superficiall y an d withou t awakenin g an y resurgenc e o f emotional vitality and strength . As his talk and behavio r were drawn int o identification wit h their s o r int o conformit y wit h thei r expectations , h e often fel t h e wa s n o longe r himsel f a t all . He wa s stil l fa r fro m developin g "th e capacit y t o b e alone " an d th e emotional healt h an d maturit y whic h mak e i t possible . Winnicott's anal ysis of th e origin s of thi s capacity i s particularly pertinent t o a discussion of th e change s whic h mad e possibl e Rilke' s perio d o f greates t creativit y at Muzot . Winnicott observe s tha t th e capacit y t o b e alon e originate s i n th e in fant's assuranc e o f hi s mother's dependability . A supportiv e mother , em pathetically oriente d t o he r child' s need s throug h he r identificatio n wit h him, makin g fe w demand s o n him , expectin g littl e fro m him , create s i n him a sens e o f a "protectiv e environment. " An d i t i s thi s sens e o f a reliable, continuing , supportive , protectiv e environmen t whic h make s possible th e beginning s o f th e feelin g " I am." 4 The presenc e o f suc h a mothe r defend s th e infan t agains t impinge ments whic h migh t disrup t hi s sens e o f hi s continuit y o f being . He r protective presenc e make s i t possibl e fo r hi m t o relax , t o becom e unin tegrated an d undifferentiated , t o enjo y th e spontaneou s flo w an d pla y o f his thought s an d feelings , t o exis t withou t anxiet y abou t th e externa l world o r anxiet y arisin g fro m a lac k o f consciou s purpos e o r direction . In thi s wa y h e develop s th e abilit y t o b e alon e i n he r presence . I n thi s largely unintegrated , undifferentiate d stat e o f mind , h e i s likel y t o b e open an d receptiv e t o th e energie s an d impulse s arisin g fro m th e uncon scious (Winnicot t use s th e ter m "id") , whic h graduall y affor d hi m th e confident feelin g o f hi s ow n realit y an d vitality . Introjectio n o f a sup portive, empatheticall y oriente d mothe r make s thi s kin d o f receptivit y possible late r i n life , wit h th e resul t tha t a n individua l ma y continu e t o be gifte d wit h a stron g sens e o f hi s distinctive , persona l realit y i n th e absence o f parent s an d surrogates . I n mor e genera l terms , h e ha s inter nalized th e "protectiv e environment " o f infancy. 5

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In Decembe r 1913 , writing t o Princes s Marie , Rilk e aske d he r no t t o come to see him in Paris. Being "in a cocoon," he had to keep himself sol itary. Sh e ha d alread y see n ho w repulsiv e h e coul d b e i n hi s caterpilla r phase; he urged he r t o wai t unti l th e ne w butterfl y emerged . Then again , changing hi s metaphor , h e wa s a bir d "al l molte d an d shabby " {Letters 2:100). H e neede d t o b e alon e i n orde r t o molt , t o fal l apar t i n orde r t o come together agai n as a writing poet. Like Make, he believed tha t he had to go through a kind of mental disintegration as a preparatory stage for th e emergence of his unique gifts of seeing and saying. We saw how dangerou s and frightening thi s experience was when he first came to Paris. At suc h a time h e ha d t o b e alone , because , i n th e radicall y undiffer entiated an d unintegrate d stat e which h e needed t o rediscove r hi s genius , he fel t extremel y vulnerabl e t o th e impingement s o f othe r peopl e upo n his internal freedom, hi s unique sens e of himself, and hi s emerging work . At suc h time s th e capacit y t o b e alone , a s Winnicot t define s it , wa s es sential to him, becaus e it meant tha t h e could fee l sheltere d an d protecte d as h e cam e apart , los t himself , an d dissolve d int o th e undifferentiate d state whic h h e celebrate s an d praise s a s "da s Offne " ("th e open" ) i n th e eighth Duin o Elegy , i n "A n Experience " (th e pros e fragmen t o f 191 3 describing a mystical event) , and i n a number o f th e Sonnets to Orpheus. When a child feels that he can be alone in himself becaus e someone else is there who ask s "nothin g bu t t o b e ther e functionin g an d protectin g a t the border of the invisible" (Rilke's fantasy o f the perfect companion, who resembles th e mothe r calmin g th e terrifie d chil d a t nigh t i n The Notebooks), then , as Winnicott says , the child "i s able to become unintegrated , to flounder, t o be in a state in which there is no orientation,... t o exis t fo r a tim e withou t bein g eithe r a reacto r t o a n externa l impingemen t o r a n active perso n wit h a directio n o f interes t o r movement " (t o Princes s 6 Marie, Decembe r 27 , 1913 ; Letters i:ioi). 6 Onl y th e individua l wh o ha s developed th e capacit y t o b e alon e i n thi s way , b y internalizin g o r cre ating suc h a "protectiv e environment, " "i s constantl y abl e t o rediscove r the persona l impulse, " or , a s w e migh t say , wit h Rilk e i n mind , th e source, voice, an d visio n o f hi s ow n uniqu e an d origina l genius. 7 Drawing upo n th e wor k o f Melani e Klein , Winnicot t argue s tha t th e capacity t o b e alon e "depend s o n th e existenc e o f a goo d objec t i n th e psychic realit y o f th e individual. " Confiden t relationship s wit h suc h mental object s ca n mak e i t possible t o b e solitar y a t time s an d stil l enjo y what h e call s " a sufficienc y o f living." 8

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Do I distor t th e meanin g o f thi s theor y i f I sugges t tha t Rilke' s inne r woman o r gir l wa s suc h a n interna l goo d object , transforme d throug h displacement an d condensatio n an d brough t int o consciousness ? Ho w strange i t i s tha t Vera , a youn g woman , "almos t a girl/ ' assume d th e place o f th e materna l surrogat e i n hi s imaginatio n an d i n hi s poem s a t the momen t whe n hi s creativ e geniu s wa s mos t full y an d richl y released ! As I suggeste d earlie r i n thi s chapter , th e choic e o f Ver a ma y hav e bee n motivated partl y b y th e thicknes s o f th e disguise . Surely, she could neve r have bee n threatenin g t o hi m a s Phi a an d Lo u ha d been , eve n i f sh e ha d been alive . Hi s introjectio n o f Vera , image d i n Sonne t 1.2 , remind s me , in thi s respect , o f hi s gravitatio n t o Clar a a s h e move d awa y fro m Lo u in 190 0 an d 1901 , an d o f th e man y youn g wome n an d girls , suc h a s Marthe Henneber t i n Paris , who m h e turne d t o fo r lov e an d compan ionship. Marth e wa s seventee n o r eightee n whe n h e me t he r i n 1911 ; he was thirty-five. 9 Accordin g t o th e princes s Marie , "Thi s ver y youn g gir l meant mor e t o hi m tha n an y othe r woman . H e wa s alway s dreamin g about Marthe." 10 I shal l hav e mor e t o sa y abou t th e youn g wome n an d girls wit h who m Rilk e fel l i n lov e i n th e las t par t o f thi s chapter . In sum , Rilk e found a way t o creat e in th e Sonnets a thickly disguise d substitute fo r th e supportiv e mothe r who m h e ha d bee n seekin g mos t o f his life ; an d now , i n 1922 , sh e wa s no t a separat e individual , suc h a s Salome, whom h e could lose , for h e imagined he r existin g within himself . This figure i n th e Sonnets reflect s and , perhaps, reinforced hi s attainmen t of th e capacit y t o b e alon e an d al l th e eas e o f creativit y whic h flowe d from thi s attainment . H e ha d bee n strugglin g towar d i t fro m th e tim e that h e ha d writte n abou t Abelon e an d Bettin a i n The Notebooks an d more obviousl y fro m th e tim e tha t th e ide a o f th e inne r woma n o r gir l had becom e a majo r focu s o f hi s thought , reflecte d i n th e crucia l poe m of self-confrontation , "Wendung. " N o doubt , b y givin g consciou s for m to these changes, the writing of the Sonnets helpe d t o bring to completio n and t o clea r definitio n a psychi c transformatio n whic h ha d bee n i n th e process o f takin g plac e ove r man y years .

VI Vera Knoop' s importanc e fo r Rilk e while he was writing th e Sonnets ca n be understoo d mor e full y i f w e loo k bac k throug h th e "innere s

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Madchen" o f "Wendung " t o th e littl e gir l whic h Mak e becam e fo r Ma man an d realiz e tha t thi s gir l wa s aliv e i n an d fo r Rilk e al l hi s life , tha t he expresse d hi s sens e o f he r i n hi s wor k an d foun d a splendi d embod iment fo r he r i n Vera , whos e deat h mad e i t possibl e fo r hi m t o fus e he r with hi s sens e o f th e gir l i n himsel f an d thu s t o giv e tha t vagu e bein g a more definit e form . A chapte r i n Winnicott' s stud y o f th e psycholog y o f creativity , Playing and Reality, add s a fascinatin g dimensio n t o thi s aspec t o f Rilke' s psychic life . Winnicot t describe s a therap y sessio n i n whic h h e realize d that a middle-aged, married , mal e patient wit h a family, wh o wa s talkin g about penis envy, sounded lik e a girl. Winnicott told th e patient, "I kno w perfectly wel l that yo u ar e a man bu t I am listening to a girl." He assure s us tha t thi s ha d nothin g t o d o wit h homosexuality. 1 The patient' s reactio n wa s "intellectua l acceptanc e . . . an d relief. " When h e said, "If I were to tel l someone abou t thi s girl I would b e called mad," th e analys t mad e anothe r surprisin g self-discovery . Since , withou t prompting b y th e patient , h e ha d hear d a "gir l talking, " when i n realit y the perso n o n hi s couc h wa s a man , Winnicot t suggeste d tha t he mus t be th e "mad " one . Thi s interpretatio n reassure d th e patien t tha t h e wa s not insane , thoug h h e wa s experiencin g himsel f a s a ma n an d a gir l a t the sam e time . Releasin g th e patien t fro m th e spectr e o f insanit y b y tell ing him tha t thi s strange perception o f hi m ha d com e spontaneousl y int o his analyst' s min d a s well , Winnicot t enable d hi m t o confron t th e spli t between th e ma n an d th e gir l (no t woman ) i n himself . Thi s unpremedi tated therapeuti c maneuve r als o pu t Winnicot t i n th e positio n o f th e man's mothe r earl y in hi s childhood. Havin g wanted a daughter, sh e sa w her bab y a s a girl an d onl y late r though t o f hi m a s male . Winnicott wa s able t o brin g "int o th e present " th e mother' s radica l misperceptio n an d thus t o hel p th e patien t locat e th e "madness " i n hi s mothe r rathe r tha n himself.2 This accoun t ha s obvious relevanc e to Rilke's inner lif e an d work. Th e origin o f th e patient's self-divisio n i n his mother's experienc e of he r littl e boy a s a gir l call s t o min d th e rol e tha t Rilk e playe d fo r Phia , thoug h there ar e eviden t difference s betwee n th e tw o cases . Winnicott doe s no t say that his patient collude d wit h hi s mother's "madness " by consciousl y playing th e rol e o f a gir l fo r her . An d hi s accoun t doe s no t sugges t tha t the patient , defensivel y dissociatin g himsel f fro m th e gir l i n him , wa s anywhere nearl y s o conscious o f th e sexual ambiguity i n himself a s Rilk e

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seems t o hav e bee n o r tha t h e fel t anythin g lik e th e poet' s fascinatio n with hi s ow n departur e fro m th e norm . As I hav e noted , The Notebooks and , mor e explicitly , Rilke' s letter s suggest tha t hi s havin g bee n induce d t o b e a gir l fo r hi s mothe r wa s a source o f sham e an d ange r an d o f th e confusio n abou t hi s identity whic h was a n important elemen t o f hi s emotiona l illnes s and misery . I have als o discussed Rilke' s interes t i n fusin g th e ma n an d th e gir l i n himself . I n Sonnet 1. 2 h e finds way s o f bringin g the m int o a vital , creative , an d harmonious relationship . Winnicott tell s u s tha t i n hi s patien t th e defen sive dissociatio n betwee n hi s tw o differen t experience s o f himsel f wa s abandoned a s h e accepte d hi s bisexualit y an d achieve d a ne w sens e o f psychic unity . Fo r th e patien t apparentl y thi s wa s a crucia l ste p i n th e direction o f health . Fo r th e poe t a comparabl e resolutio n o f long standing confusio n wa s a n essentia l elemen t i n th e ric h integration , th e openness, an d th e fluidity whic h mad e possible th e Sonnets, th e comple tion o f th e Elegies, an d th e othe r splendi d poem s writte n i n Februar y 1922 an d subsequently . On e ca n se e that , mor e tha n eve r before , Rilk e was successfu l i n finding way s i n whic h t o enjoy , an d t o mak e imagi native use , o f hi s bisexualit y durin g th e perio d o f hi s greates t creativit y and tha t hi s poetr y a t thi s tim e expresse s th e resolutio n o f th e uncer tainty, doubt, an d confusion whic h we have found earlie r in his life (mos t notably i n hi s inabilit y t o remai n wit h an y woman ) an d i n hi s poetry , fiction, an d letters . Winnicott observe s tha t ofte n th e split-of f femal e i n a n individual lik e his patien t doe s no t gro w an d ag e alon g wit h th e man. 3 Whe n middle aged men who hav e such a female within the m see k girl s or women muc h younger tha n themselve s a s sexua l partners o r object s o f thei r love , the y are looking for someon e who ca n embody th e split-off gir l within, some one onto whom the y ca n project her . Perhaps this helps to explain Rilke' s choice o f Vera , a gir l wh o die d a t nineteen , a s hi s mus e fo r th e Sonnets and hi s concei t o f he r makin g hersel f a bed i n hi s ea r an d livin g i n him . Reading hi s letter s an d th e biographies , on e finds tha t a s a middle-age d man h e was ofte n take n with muc h younge r women . Earlie r I mentione d Marthe Hennebert . I n 1914 , at thirty-eight , Rilk e ha d a passionate affai r with Lul u Albert-Lazard , wh o wa s twenty-thre e whe n h e me t her . Ely a Maria Neva r (he r rea l nam e wa s Els e Hotop ) wa s i n he r earl y twentie s when Rilke , i n hi s forties , ha d hi s affai r wit h he r soo n afte r th e Firs t World War . I n Septembe r 192 6 ther e wa s Nime t Eloui , a n Egyptia n

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divorcee of twenty-three. It was for her that Rilke picked the roses which pricked hi s hand , leadin g t o a n infectio n whic h gav e birt h t o th e myt h that he die d fo r th e lov e o f a beautiful youn g woman. 4 In his comment s o n me n who see k muc h younger women a s embod iments or projections o f thei r split-off inne r girl, Winnicott observe s that they ten d t o mov e quickl y fro m on e gir l t o another . Ofte n suc h a man feels "mor e identified wit h th e gir l than with himself. " Thi s enable s hi m to empathiz e wit h he r an d thu s t o intensif y an d t o satisf y he r sexua l desires. Bu t i n hi s identificatio n wit h her , h e i s largel y unabl e t o gratif y the mal e i n himself. 5 Thi s frequen t lac k o f satisfactio n help s t o explai n the man' s nee d t o mov e o n fro m on e gir l t o another . Repeate d lac k o f satisfaction i n such experiences contribute s t o a sense of futilit y an d may inhibit th e man' s abilit y t o giv e himsel f i n love . Th e tendenc y t o mov e rather quickl y fro m on e youn g woma n t o another , whic h w e fin d i n Rilke, may also follow fro m th e fact that the girls or young women suc h a man is attracted to must never become so real or individually distinctiv e in hi s min d tha t the y ca n ge t i n th e wa y o f th e man' s nee d t o us e the m as embodiment s o f th e gir l i n himself . Wit h Vera , a t last, Rilk e foun d a girl wh o coul d neve r obstruc t hi m i n hi s fulfillmen t o f thi s need .

Notes

Chapter i , Par t I i. Harol d J . Vetter , Introduction , Language Behavior in Schizophrenia, ed . and comp . Vette r (Springfield , 111. : Charles C . Thomas , 1968) , 3. 2. Raine r Mari a Rilke , The Notebooks of Make Laurids Brigge, trans . Ste phen Mitchel l (Ne w York : Rando m House , 1982) , 52 . Hereafte r pag e number s for thi s translatio n o f The Notebooks wil l b e indicated i n th e tex t i n parentheses . 3. Letters of Rainer Maria Rilke, 1892-1926, trans . Jane Bannard Greene and M. D. Herter Norton , 2 vols. (New York : Norton, 1945 , 1947, and 1948 ; Norton Library, 1969) , 2:147 an d 1:115 . Hereafter pag e number s wil l b e indicate d i n th e text i n parenthese s wit h th e designatio n Letters 1 or Letters 2 . 4. Joh n Dryden , "Absalo m an d Achitophel, " 1 . 16 3 ("Grea t Wit s ar e sur e to madness near allied >'), and William Butler Yeats, "Mad a s the Mist and Snow, " section 1 8 of "Word s fo r Musi c Perhaps/ ' 5. Se e chapte r 2 , par t 4 . Anto n Ehrenzweig , The Hidden Order of Art: A Study in the Psychology of the Artistic Imagination (Berkeley : University o f Cal ifornia Press , 1967) , 117-18 . 6. Rilke , Where Silence Reigns: Selected Prose, trans . G . Crai g Housto n (New York : Ne w Directions , i960 ; Ne w Direction s Paperbook , 1978) , 104 . Hereafter pag e number s wil l b e indicate d i n th e tex t i n parenthese s wit h th e designation WSR. 7. Se e Robert L. Delevoy, Dimensions of the 20th Century: 1900-194$, trans . Stuart Gilber t (Geneva : Edition s d'Art , Skira , 1965 ; distributed b y Worl d Pub lishing Company) , 71-76 . 8. Harol d F . Searles, The Nonhuman Environment in Normal Development and in Schizophrenia (Ne w York : Internationa l Universitie s Press , i960) , 30 . Searles is quoting from C . Savage, "Variations in ego feeling induced b y d-lysergi c acid diethylamide (LSD-25)," The Psychoanalytic Review 4 2 (1955): 8-13.

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9. Harol d F. Searles, Collected Papers on Schizophrenia and Related Subjects (New York : Internationa l Universitie s Press , 1965) , 467. 10. D . W . Winnicott , The Maturational Processes and the Facilitating Environment (London : Hogart h Pres s an d th e Institute o f Psychoanalysis , 1965) , 185. 11. Se e chapters 5 and 8 and th e work s o f Searles , Kohut , Laing , Winnicott , and Model l liste d i n thes e note s an d i n m y Selec t Bibliography . 12. Winnicott , The Maturational Processes, 29 . 13. Ibid. , 33 . 14. J . F. Hendry , The Sacred Threshold: A Life of Rainer Maria Rilke (Man chester, England : Carcane t Ne w Press , 1983) ; Hans Ego n Holthusen , Portrait of Rilke, trans . W . H . Hargreave s (1958 ; trans. : Ne w York : Herde r an d Herder , 1971); Wolfgan g Leppmann , Rilke: A Life, trans . Russel l M . Stockma n (Ne w York: From m International , 1984) ; Donald Prater , A Ringing Glass: The Life of Rainer Maria Rilke (Oxford : Clarendo n Press , 1986) . Among othe r work s o f scholarshi p an d commentary , published since 1953, which hav e bee n helpfu l ar e th e following : Bed a Allemann , Zeit und Figur beim spaten Rilke (Pfullingen : Verla g Giinthe r Neske , 1961) ; Rudolp h Binion , Frau Lou: Nietzsche's Wayward Disciple (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1968): Geoffrey H . Hartman , The Unmediated Vision, An Interpretation of Wordsworth, Hopkins, Rilke, and Valery (1954 ; rpt . Ne w York : Harcourt , Brac e an d World, Harbinge r Books , 1966) ; Robert Hass , "Looking fo r Rilke, " in Twentieth Century Pleasures, Prose on Poetry (Ne w York : Ecc o Press , 1984) , 226-28; Erich Heller, "Rilk e an d Nietzsche , with a Discourse o n Thought , Belie f an d Poetry, " in The Disinherited Mind, Essays in Modern German Literature and Thought, expanded ed . (Ne w York : Harcour t Brac e Jovanovich, 1975) , 123-77 ; H . F . Pe ters, Rainer Maria Rilke: Masks and the Man (i960 ; rpt . Ne w York : McGraw Hill, 1963) ; James Rolleston , Rilke in Transition: An Exploration of His Earliest Poetry (Ne w Haven : Yale University Press , 1970) ; Elizabeth Sewell , The Orphic Voice: Poetry and Natural History (i960 : rpt . Harpe r an d Row , Harpe r Torch books, 1971) ; Priscilla Washburn Shaw , Rilke, Valery and Yeats: The Domain of the Self (New Brunswick , N. J.: Rutgers University Press , 1964) ; Walter H. Sokel , "The Devolution of the Self in The Notebooks of Make Laurids Brigge," in Rilke, the Alchemy of Alienation, ed . Fran k Baron , Erns t S . Dick , Warre n R . Maure r (Lawrence: Regent s Pres s o f Kansas , 1980) ; Fran k Wood , Rainer Maria Rilke: The Ring of Forms (1958 ; rpt. Ne w York : Octago n Books , 1970) . 15. Lo u Andreas-Salome , Rainer Maria Rilke (Leipzig : Insel , 1929) ; The Freud Journal of Lou Andreas-Salome, trans . Stanle y Leav y (Ne w York : Basi c Books, 1965) ; Lebensriickblick: Grundrisse einiger Lebenserinnerungen, ed . Ernst Pfeiffer, rev . ed . (Frankfurt : Insel , 1977) .

Chapter 1 , Part I I 1. Andrea s Huyssen , "Paris/Childhood : Th e Fragmente d Bod y i n Rilke' s Notebooks of Make Laurids Brigge," i n Modernity and the Text: Revisions of

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7

German Modernism, ed . David Bathric k an d Andrea s Huysse n (Ne w York : Co lumbia Universit y Press , 1989) , 116 . 2. Ibid. , 115 .

3. Jaco b Steiner , Rilkes Duineser Elegien, 2n d ed . (Ber n an d Munich : Francke, 1969) , 10 . 4. Ibid. , 8 . 5. Kathlee n L . Komar , Transcending Angels: Rainer Maria Rilke's Duino Elegies (Lincoln , Nebr. , an d London : Universit y o f Nebrask a Press , 1987) , 79. 6. Richar d Exne r an d Ingri d Stipa , "Da s Phanome n de r Androgyni e de s Schaffenprozesses i m spate n Rilke : Da s Beispiel . "Solan g d u Selbstgeworfne s fangst . . . , " i n Rainer Maria Rilke, Weg e de r Forschung , vol . 638 , ed . Riidige r Gdrner (Darmstadt : Wissenschaftlich e Buchgesellschaft , 1987) , 361 . Exne r an d Stipa ar e referrin g t o Simenauer' s essa y "Raine r Mari a Rilk e i n psychoanaly tischer Sicht, " Psyche 3 0 (1976) ; 1102 . 7. Sonne t 1. 3 ma y b e foun d i n Raine r Mari a Rilke , Werke in drei Banden, hereafter designate d a s WDB, ed . Erns t Zinn , 3 vols . (Frankfurt : Insel , 1966) , 1:488. "Solang du Selbstgeworfne s fangst , is t alles," may b e found i n WDB 2:132 . 8. Exne r an d Stipa , 372 . 9. Anthon y Stephens , Rainer Maria Rilke's "Gedichte an die Nacht" (Cam bridge: Cambridge Universit y Press , 1972) , 19 3 an d 231 . 10. Ibid. , 193 . 11. Ibid. , 241 . 12. Ibid. , 116-28 .

13. Quote d b y Stephens , 226 , from Raine r Mari a Rilke , Samtliche Werke, ed . Ernst Zinn , 6 vols. (Wiesbade n an d Frankfurt : Insel , 1955-66) , 5:360 . 14. Brigitt e L . Bradley, "Die Aufzeichnungen des Malte Laurids Brigge: Thematisierte Krise des literarischen Selbst^erstandnisses, " in Zu Rilke's Malte Laurids Brigge (Ber n an d Munich : Francke , 1980) , 52 . 15. Quote d fro m Samtliche Werke, 5:363 , b y Bradley , 46 . 16. Bradley , 46 . 17. Ibid. , 53 . 18. Ibid. , 54 . 19. Ibid. , 55 . 20. WDB 1:519-20 .

21. Ego n Schwarz, Das verschluckte Schluchzen: Poesie und Politik hei Rainer Maria Rilke (Frankfurt : Athenaum , 1972) .

Chapter 2 , Part I 1. Se e Hendry , 43 . 2. Se e chapter 6 , part 1 , and Prater , 76-77 an d 79 . 3. Shaw , 16-17 . 4. WDB 2:12 . 5. Rilke , Where Silence Reigns, 36 .

248 NOTE

S

6. Quote d fro m Ren e Spitz , No and Yes: On the Genesis of Human Communication (Ne w York : Internationa l Universitie s Press) , 127-28 , b y Searles , Collected Papers on Schizophrenia, 645 . 7. Se e D . W . Winnicott , Playing and Reality (1971 ; rpt. Ne w York : Tavis tock Publications , Socia l Scienc e Paperbacks , 1982) , 111-18 . 8. Searles , Collected Papers on Schizophrenia, 646 . Searle s quote s Phylli s Greenacre's essay "Early Physical Determinants in the Development of the Sense of Identity, " Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association 6 (1958) : 612 -

27.

9. Searles , Collected Papers on Schizophrenia, 64J. 10. Jacque s Lacan , "Th e mirro r stag e a s formative o f th e function o f th e I as revealed i n psychoanalyti c experience, " in Merits: A Selection, trans . Ala n Sheri dan (Londo n an d New York : Tavistock an d Norton, 1977) , 4.

Chapter 2 , Part I I 1. Searles , The Nonhuman Environment, 363 . 2. Ibid. , 36 3 an d 365 . 3. Rene e (last name unknown), Autobiography of a Schizophrenic Girl, with analytic interpretatio n b y Marguerit e Sechehaye , trans . Grac e Rubin-Rabso n (1951; rpt. Ne w York , Ne w America n Library , Signe t Books , 1970) , 37 . 4. Searles , Collected Papers on Schizophrenia, 467 .

Chapter 2 , Part II I 1. Searles , Collected Papers on Schizophrenia, chapte r 16 .

Chapter 2 , Part I V 1. Rilke , Letters to a Young Poet, trans . M. D. Herte r Norton, rev. ed. (Ne w York: Norton , Norto n Library , 1963) , 68-69 . Hereafte r pag e number s wil l ap pear i n parentheses i n th e tex t with th e designatio n LYP. 2. Rilke , Letters to Merline, 1919-1922, intro . J. B. Leishma n an d trans . Violet M . MacDonal d (London : Methuen , 1951) , 48-49. 3. Rilke and Benvenuta: An Intimate Correspondence, ed . Magd a von Hat tingberg, trans . Joel Age e (Ne w York : From m International , 1987) , 109 . Here after pag e number s wil l b e cite d i n th e tex t with th e designatio n R&B.IC 4. Angel a Livingstone, Salome: Her Life and Work (Mt. Kisco, N. Y.: Moyer Bell, 1984) , 108 . She is quoting an d translating from Salome, Rainer Maria Rilke,

19.

5. Se e Letters 1:41 , and Binion's analysis of the varying accounts of the meeting with Tolstoy in Frau Lou: Nietzscheys Wayward Disciple, 266-271. H e quote s Maurice Betz' s recollectio n that , twenty-fiv e year s afte r th e meetin g wit h Tol -

NOTES 24

9

stoy, h e hear d Rilk e giv e tw o differen t account s o f it . Betz , Rilke vivant: Souvenirs, lettres, entretiens (Paris : £mile-Paul Freres , 1937) , 154 . 6. A Glossary of Psychoanalytic Terms and Concepts, ed . Burnes s E . Moor e and Bernar d D . Fin e (Ne w York : America n Psychoanalyti c Association , 1967) , 86. 7. Rilke , Letters on Cezanne, ed . Clar a Rilke , trans . Joel Age e (Ne w York : Fromm International , 1985) , 4-5 . 8. Se e E. M. Butler, Rainer Maria Rilke (Ne w York : MacMillan, 1941) , 20411. An d se e Eric h Simenauer , Rainer Maria Rilke: Legende und Mythos (Bern : Paul Haupt , 1953) , 462 . H e discusse s th e relevanc e o f th e scapegoa t metapho r but argue s tha t concept s o f th e doubl e an d th e alte r eg o mor e nearl y describ e Make's relatio n t o Rilk e becaus e o f th e clos e resemblanc e betwee n th e tw o me n and becaus e o f Rilke' s sens e tha t Mak e wa s ofte n wit h hi m i n variou s part s o f Europe. 9. Sigmun d Freud , "Dostoevsk y an d Parricide," in The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud, ed. James Strachey, 24 vols. (London: Hogart h Press , 19 5 3-1974), vol . 2 1 (1961) , 177-94 . 10. Ehrenzweig , 117 . 11. Ibid. , 118 . 12. Ibid. , 12 4 an d 125 . 13. Ibid. , 124 .

Chapter 3 , Part I 1. Sokel , 183-84 . 2. R . D . Laing , The Divided Self: An Existential Study in Sanity and Madness (New York : Viking Penguin , Pelica n Books , 1965) , 45. 3. Friedric h Nietzsche , Beyond Good and Evil, i n Basic Writings of Nietzsche, trans , and ed. Walter Kaufmann (New York: Random House, Moder n Library, 1968) , 241. 4. J . R . vo n Salis , Rainer Maria Rilke: The Years in Switzerland, trans . N . K. Cruickshank (Berkeley : University of California Press, 1964), 138. See Heller's 12 chapter o n Rilk e an d Nietzsch e i n The Disinherited Mind, ii}-iyj.

Chapter 3 , Part II 1. Nietzsche , Basic Writings, 419. 2. Sore n Kierkegaard , Concluding Unscientific Postscript, trans . Davi d F . Swenson an d Walte r Lowri e (1941 ; rpt. Princeton : Princeto n Universit y Press , 1968), 67-74 . 3. Winnicott , The Maturational Processes, 185. 4. Leppmann , 303 . H e i s quotin g fro m Wilhel m Hausenstein , Liehe zu Munchen, 2n d ed . (Munich, 1958) , 249-50 .

250 NOTE

S

5. Se e Laing , chapter s 4 an d 5 . 6. Winnicott , The Maturational Processes, 15-16. 7. Laing , 98. 8. Leppmann , 13 . 9. Rilke , Ewald Tragy, trans . Lol a Gruentha l (Ne w York : Twayne , 1958) , 20. Hereafte r pag e number s wil l b e cite d i n th e tex t with th e designatio n ET. 10. Se e Laing , 80-85 . 11. Se e Leppmann , 4- 7 an d Prater , 3-4 . 12. Car l Sieber , Rene Rilke: Die Jugend Rainer Maria Rilkes (Leipzig : Insel , 1932), 47 . Leppmann , 13 . 13. Leppmann , 13 . 14. Winnicott , The Maturational Processes, 187. 15. Ibid. , 187 .

Chapter 3 , Part II I 1. Laing , 44. 2. Rilke , Letters to a Young Poet, 45-46 . 3. Rilke , Werke in drei Banden 1:260 , 262 , 265 , 266 , 268 , 283 , 286 , 308 . 4. Rilke , Letters to Merline, 6 3 an d 58 . 5. Nanc y J . Chodoro w an d Susa n Contratto , "Th e Fantas y o f th e Perfec t Mother," i n Nanc y J . Chodorow , Feminism and Psychoanalytic Theory (Ne w Haven: Yale Universit y Press , 1989) , 79-96, 6. Hass , 231.

Chapter 4 , Par t I 1. Lette r t o Clara , date d Novembe r 2 , 1907 . Se e Simenauer , 236-37 , an d Hendry, 13 . 2. Prater , 14 . 3. Betz , 130 . 4. Sieber , 45-46 . 5. Ibid. , 70. 6. Magd a vo n Hattingberg , Rilke and Benvenuta, Trans . Cyru s Brook s (New York : Norton, 1949) , 8 . 7. Ibid. , 8 .

Chapter 4 , Par t II 1. Hein z Kohut , The Restoration of the Self (New York : International Uni versities Press , 1977) , 159-61 . 2. Ibid. , 105 . 3. Searles , Collected Papers on Schizophrenia, 41 .

NOTES 25

1

4. Rilke , Ewald Tragy, 20 . 5. Leppmann , 7 .

Chapter 4 , Par t II I 1. Sigmun d Freud, "Family Romances" (1909), trans. James Strachey, in The Sexual Enlightenment of Children, ed . Philip Rieff (Ne w York : Crowell-Collier , Collier Books , 1963) , 43-4 5 (Standard Edition, vol . 9) . Se e Simenauer' s chapte r "Der Familienroman, ,, 381-414 . 2. Simenauer , 257 . 3. Ibid. , 241. 4. Ibid. , 240-41 . 5. Ibid. , 248 . Butler , 130 . 6. Leppmann , 101 . 7. Simenauer , 308-09 . 8. Searles , Collected Papers on Schizophrenia, 231 . 9. Ibid. , 233-34 . 10. Moor e an d Fine, 89 .

Chapter 4 , Par t I V 1. Searles , Collected Papers on Schizophrenia, 42 . 2. Sieber , 74. 3. Butler , 13 . 4. Kohut , The Restoration of the Self, 89 .

Chapter 5 , Part I 1. Rilke , Ewald Tragy, 51-52 . 2. Leppman n give s 189 8 a s th e dat e fo r th e writin g o f th e novell a (Leppmann, 9) . The tabl e o f content s i n Werke in drei Banden, vol . 3 , says tha t the novell a was "apparentl y writte n i n th e secon d hal f o f 1898 " (WDB 3:589) . 3. Binion , 6$, 81 , 6j. 4. Ibid. , 9 7 an d 107 . 5. Leppmann , 73. 6. Livingstone , 46 . 7. Binion , 35 3 an d 374 . 8. Binion ; Livingstone; Ilonk a Schmid t Mackey , Lou Salome: Inspiratrice et interprete de Nietzsche, Rilke et Freud (Paris : Librairi e A . G . Nizet , 1956) ; H . F. Peters , My Sister, My Spouse (New York , 1962) . 9. Quote d b y Livingston , 9 , fro m Kur t Wolff , "Lo u Andreas-Salome . Ei n Portrat au s Erinnerunge n un d Dokumenten, " i n Gehort, gelesen 1 0 (Octobe r 1963): 1191 .

252 NOTE

S

10. The Letters of Rainer Maria Rilke and Princess Marie von Tburn und Taxis, trans, an d intro . Nor a Wydenbruc k (Ne w York : Ne w Directions , 1958) , 241.

11. Lette r date d Ma y 18 , 1897 , quote d b y Prater , 36 , from a manuscript o f a biography b y Car l Siebe r i n th e Rilke-Archi v a t Gernsbach . 12. Quote d fro m Lebensriickblick b y Leppmann , 81 . 13. Quote d fro m Lebensriickblick b y Prater , 39. 14. Leppmann , 80 . 15. Se e Prater , 39 , an d Binion, 228-2 9 a n d 2 9*>. 16. Quote d fro m Rilke' s diar y b y Leppmann , 79. 17. Quote d b y Binion , 299 , from Rainer Maria Rilke —Lou Andreas-Salome: Briefwechsel, ed . Erns t Pfeiffe r (Zurich : Max Niehans , Wiesbaden : Insel , 1952) . Hereafter thi s volum e o f letter s wil l b e designate d Briefwechsel i n thes e notes . An expande d edition , publishe d b y Inse l i n 1975 , will b e cite d hereafter . 18. Briefwechsel, 197 5 ed. , 55-56 . 19. Samtliche Werke, 3:171 . 20. Briefwechsel, 60-61 . 21. Lette r o f Augus t 7 , 1903 ; Ibid., 87 . 22. Ibid. , 76. 23. Ibid. , 76-77> 24. Ibid. , 125-26 . 25. Ibid. , 76-77. 26. Ibid. , 90.

Chapter 5 , Part I I 1. Kohut , The Analysis of the Self (New York : Internationa l Universitie s Press, 1971) , 116 . 2. Kohut , The Restoration of the Self, 136 . 3. Rilke , Tagebiicher aus der Friihzeit, eds . Ruth Sieber-Rilk e an d Carl Sie ber (1942 ; rpt. Frankfurt : Insel , 1973) , 119 . 4. Ibid. , 115 . 5. Rilke , Letters to a Young Poet, 49-50 . 6. Rilke , Tagebiicher aus der Friihzeit, 11 6 an d 115 . 7. Ibid. , 118 . 8. Ibid. , 116 . 9. Ibid. , 117 . 10. Se e Binion, 281. 11. Briefwechsel, 45 ; Lebensriickblick, 146 . 12. Alic e Balint , "Lov e fo r th e Mothe r an d Mothe r Love, " chapter 6 of Primary Love and Psychoanalytic Technique, th e rest o f whic h wa s writte n b y Mi chael Balin t (Ne w York : Liveright , 1953) , 95-96. 13. Michae l Balint , Primary Love and Psychoanalytic Technique, 83 . 14. Alic e Balint , 103 .

NOTES 25

3

15. Rilke , Tagebiicher aus der Friihzeity 115-16. 16. Ibid. , 117-18 . 17. Leppmann , 107-08 . 18. Briefwechsely 51. 19. Se e Tagebiicher aus der Friihzeity $46-49. Th e entr y wa s writte n o n th e night o f Decembe r 13 , 1900 . 20. Briefwechsel, 124-25 .

Chapter 5 , Part II I 1. Briefwechsely 60 an d 61.

Chapter 6 , Par t I 1. Rilke , Tagebiicher aus der Friihzeity 237. 2. Ibid. , 250 .

3. Ibid. , 250 . 4. Hendry , 39-40 . 5. Rilke , Tagebiicher aus der Friihzeity 250-53. 6. Ibid. , 214 . 7. Ibid. , 237 . 8. Ibid. , 216 . 9. Rilke , Samtliche Werke 1:172-81 . 10. Ibid. , 374-75 11. Ibid. , 375 . 12. Leppmann , 220-22 . 13. The Selected Poetry of Rainer Maria Rilke } ed . and trans. Stephen Mitchell, intro . Rober t Has s (Ne w York : Rando m House , Vintag e Book s ed . 1984) , 78-79. Hereafte r pag e number s wil l b e cite d i n th e tex t with th e designation SP. 14. Se e Prater , 74. 15. Ibid. , 76. 16. Ibid. , 77. 17. Rilke , Samtliche Werke 3:738-39 . 18. Rilke , Tagebiicher aus der Friihzeity 115-16 . 19. Se e Prater, 86, and Paula Modersohn-Becker in Brie fen und Tagebuchern, ed. Giinte r Busc h un d Liselott e vo n Reinke n (Frankfurt , 1979) , 309. 20. Leppmann , 138 . 21. Butler , 101 .

22. Rilke , Tagebiicher aus der Friihzeity 250. 23. Ibid. , 338-39 24. Samtliche Werke, 1:270-71 . 25. Rilke , Stories of God y trans . M. D . Herte r Norton (1932 ; rpt. New York : Norton, Norto n Librar y 1963) , 76-77. 16. Ibid. , 77-79-

254 NOTE

S

Chapter 6 , Par t I I i. Binion , 322 . 2. Heinric h Wiegan d Petzet , Forewor d t o Rilke , Letters on Cezanne, ed . Clara Rilke , trans . Joel Age e (Ne w York : Fromm , 1985) , xxv-xxvi .

Chapter 6 , Par t II I 1. Sigmun d Freud , "Mournin g an d Melancholia, " i n Standard Edition 14:239-258.

Chapter 6 , Par t I V 309.

1. Se e Prater, 86 , and Paula Modersohn-Becker in Brie fen und TagebUchern,

2. Quote d b y Leppmann , 140 , from Rilke , Briefe an Sidonie Nddherny von Borutin, ed . Bernhar d Blum e (Frankfurt : Insel , 1973) , 200-201. 3. Quote d fro m Briefwechsel, 259-61 , b y Prater , 209. 4. Leppmann , 263-64 . 5. Briefwechsel, 88 . 6. Ibid. , 125-26 . 7. Ibid. , 126 .

Chapter 7 , Par t I 1. Simenauer , 328 . 2. Vo n Hattingberg , 8 . 3. Searles , Collected Papers on Schizophrenia, chaps . 7 and 12 . 4. Butler , 13 . 5. Joyc e Edward, Nathene Ruskin , Patsy Turrini, Separation-Individuation: Theory and Application (Ne w York : Gardne r Press , 1981) , 63. 6. Ibid. , 63. 7. Ibid. , 25 . 8. Fo r th e yea r i n Rilke' s lif e o n whic h th e stor y i s base d se e Prater, 25. 9. Sieber , 101-02 . 10. Rilke , Ewald Tragy, 21 .

Chapter 7 , Part I I 1. Sieber , 73. 2. Lette r t o hi s mothe r fro m Linz , summe r o f 1892 ; Sieber, 103 . 3. Leppmann , 28 ; Prater, 9.

NOTES 25

5

4. Leppmann , 155 . 5. Ibid. , 4. 6. Ibid. , 30 .

Chapter 7 , Part II I 1. Sieber , 43. 2. Ibid. , 42. 3. Ibid. , 43. 4. Ibid. , 101-2 .

5. Prater , 3. 6. Se e Leppmann , 213. 7. Quote d fro m Hausenstein , 249-50 , b y Leppmann , 303 . 8. Salome , The Freud Journal of Lou Andreas-Salome, 181 . 9. Ibid. , 184 . 10. W . W . Meissner , Internalization in Psychoanalysis (Ne w York : Interna tional Universitie s Press , 1981) , 26 . Meissne r i s influence d b y bu t argue s wit h Roy Schafer' s definitio n o f introject s i n Aspects of Internalization (Ne w York : International Universitie s Press , 1968) .

Chapter 7 , Part I V 1. Prater , 112 . 2. Ibid. , 118 . Prate r is quotin g fro m a letter o f Marc h 2 , 1905 . 3. Ibid. , 118 ; letter t o Elle n Key , Marc h 9 , 1905 . 4. Ibid. , 118 . 5. Ibid. , 125 . 6. Se e Simenauer , 320 . 7. Quote d b y Prater , 131 , from Rilke , Briefe 1904-190/, eds . Rut h Sieber Rilke an d Car l Siebe r (Leipzig : Insel-Verlag , 1939) , 122 . 8. Prater , 150 . 9. Sigmun d Freud , The Ego and the Id, trans . Joan Riviere , rev . an d newl y ed. by James Strachey (Ne w York : Norton, Norto n Library , 1962) , 18-19 ; Standard Edition, vol . 19 . 10. Freud , "Mournin g an d Melancholia, " Standard Edition, vol . 14 , 239-58. 11. Se e not e 1 0 of par t III , above . 12. Melani e Klein , "Mournin g an d It s Relatio n t o Manic-Depressiv e States," in Death: Interpretations, ed . an d intro . Hendri k M . Ruitenbee k (Ne w York: Dell , Delt a Book , 1969) , 248-49 . Th e essa y i s include d i n Love, Guilt and Reparation, and Other Works 1921-1945, vol . 1 o f The Writings of Melanie Klein, ed . Roge r Money-Kyrl e e t al. , 4 vols . (Ne w York : Fre e Press , 1975)-

256 NOTE

S

Chapter 8 , Part I 1. Butler , 100 .

2. Se e Rilke , Tagebucher aus der Fruhzeit, 24 4 an d 319-21 . 3. Se e D . W . Winnicott , "Th e Relatio n o f a Mothe r t o He r Bab y a t th e Beginning," i n The Family and Individual Development (London : Tavistock , 1965), 17 . 4. Prater , 7. 5. Schafer , 174 . 6. Rilke , Rodin, par t 2 (1907), i n Where Silence Reigns, 143 . 7. Lette r date d Marc h 17 , 1926 ; Rilke, Briefe, 2 vols. (1897-191 4 an d 1914 1926) (Wiesbaden : Insel , 1950) , 2:517 . 8. Butler , 139 . 9. Se e Sieber , 45-53. 10. Se e Edward , Ruskin , Turrini, 63.

Chapter 8 , Part I I 1. Fo r a definition o f transferenc e i n term s o f recen t psychoanalytic theory , see Meissner , 121 . 2. Kohut , The Restoration of the Self 137 . 3. Kohut , The Analysis of the Self xiv , 3 , and 26-27 . 4. Ibid. , 37 . 5. Ibid. , 28 . 6. Ibid. , 4 6 an d 48. 7. Kohut , The Restoration of the Self 137 . 8. Ibid. , 155 . 9. Arnol d H . Modell , Object Love and Reality: An Introduction to a Psychoanalytic Theory of Object Relations (Ne w York : Internationa l Universitie s Press, 1968) , 147 . 10. Ibid. , 148 . 11. Ibid. , 56 .

12. Freud , Beyond

18:14.

the

Pleasure

Principle,

i

n Standard

Edition

Chapter 8 , Part II I 1. Norma n Holland , The Dynamics of Literary Response (Ne w York : Ox ford Universit y Press , 1968) , 42 . Willia m Shakespeare , Two Gentlemen of Verona, ac t 3 sc. 1 , lines 104-5 . 2. Fran z Kafka , Letter to His Father, trans. Ernst Kaiser and Eithne Wilkins (New York : Schocken , 1954) , 1 9 and 21. 3. Ibid. , 8 9 an d 91. 4. Ibid. , 17 .

NOTES 25

7

Chapter 8 , Par t I V 1. Winnicott , Playing and Reality (1971 ; rpt. Ne w York : Tavistock , 1982) , I 25

~ * 2. Rilke , "Som e Reflections o n Dolls, " in Where Silence Reigns, 45-50. Vo n Hattingberg, 128-31 . 3. Winnicott , Playing and Reality , 9-14 . 4. Se e Rilke , Tagebiicher am der Friihzeit, 245 . 5. Rilke , "A n Experienc e (II) " (1913), i n Where Silence Reigns, 37 . 6. Modell , 38-39 .

Chapter 8 , Par t V 1. Lette r o f Nov . 8 , 1905 . Quote d b y Prater , 125 , fro m Lettres a Rodin (Paris: £mile-Paul, 1931) , 50-51 . 2. Charle s Brenner , An Elementary Textbook of Psychoanalysis, rev. ed . (1955 ; rpt . Ne w York : Doubleday , Ancho r Books , 1974) , 89-90. 3. Se e Rilke, Letters, 1:210-16 , an d Prater , 132-33 . 4. Se e Simenauer , 369-70 . 5. Butler , 163 . 6. Modell , 59 . 7. Ibid. , 58 .

Chapter 8 , Par t VI 1. Se e not e t o thi s lette r (no . 159 ) i n Letters, 1:393 . 2. Quote d fro m Rilke , Letters a Rodin, jd y b y Prater , 152 .

Chapter 8 , Par t VII 1. Prater , 156 . 2. Ibid. , 158 . 3. Leppmann , 112 . 4. Ibid. , 112-13 . Se

24-25.

e Werke

in

drei

Bdnden

1:17

, 23

, an d

5. Rilke , Das Stunden-Buch, Zweite s Buch: "Das Buch von der Pilgerschaft " (1901), i n Werke in drei Bdnden, 1:68 .

Chapter 8 , Part VII I 1. Rilke , New Poems, trans . Edwar d Sno w (Sa n Francisco : Nort h Poin t Press, 1984) , 27-31 . I hav e altere d Snow' s translation . 2. Ibid. , 29 .

258 NOTE

S

Chapter 9 , Par t I 1. The Letters of Rainer Maria Rilke and Marie von Thurn und Taxis, 105. 2. Vo n Hattingberg , 87 . 3. Rilke and Benvenuta: An Intimate Correspondence, 7 8 an d 79 . Se e als o von Hattingberg , 91-92 .

Chapter 9 , Par t II 1. Freud , The Ego and the Id, 18-25 .

Chapter 9 , Par t II I 1. Rilke , The Sonnets to Orpheus, trans. Stephen Mitchell (New York: Simon and Schuster , 1985) , 159-60 . Hereafte r pag e number s wil l b e cite d i n th e tex t with th e designatio n SO. 2. Vo n Salis , 139 . 3. Rilke , Letters to Merline, 47-48 . 4. Rilke , Sonnets to Orpheus, trans . M . D . Herte r Norto n (1942 ; rpt. Ne w York: Norton, Norto n Library , 1962) , 155 .

Chapter 9 , Par t I V 1. Rilke , Werke in drei Banden 1:106-7 . 2. Quote d fro m J. Needham, History of Scientific Thought, vol . 2 of Science and Civilization in China (Cambridge : Cambridg e Universit y Press , 1956) , 58 , by Norma n O . Brown , Life against Death: The Psychoanalytic Meaning of History (Ne w York : Random House , Vintag e Books , 1959) , 134 . 3. Freud , "Some Psychological Consequence s o f the Anatomical Distinctio n between the Sexes" (1925), trans. James Strachey, in Sexuality and the Psychology of Love, ed . an d intro. Phili p Rief f (Ne w York : Crowell-Collier, Collie r Books , 1963), 185 ; Standard Edition, vol . 19 . 4. Freud , "Dostoevsky an d Parricide, ,, trans. D. F. Tait, rev. James Strachey, in Character and Culture, ed . an d intro . Phili p Rief f (Ne w York : Crowell Collier, Collie r Books , 1963) , 28 2 an d 276 ; Standard Edition vol . 21 . 5. Freud , "O n Narcissism : A n Introduction, " trans . Ceci l M . Baines , i n General Psychological Theory, ed . an d intro . Phili p Rief f (Ne w York : Collie r Books, 1963) , 7 4 an d 80 ; Standard Edition vol . 14 . 6. Freud , The Ego and the Id, 20 .

Chapter 9 , Par t V 1. Pau l Valery i n Reconnaissance a Rilke: Les Cahiers du mois 23/2 4 (Paris : fimile-Paul, 1926) , 9f .

NOTES 25

9

2. Winnicott , The Maturational Processes, 29 . 3. Winnicott , Playing and Reality, 56 , 64, an d 65. 4. Winnicott , The Maturational Processes, 33 . 5. Ibid. , 32-34 . 6. Ibid. , 33-34 . 7. Ibid. , 34 . 8. Ibid. , 32 . 9. Marth e Henneber t wa s seventee n whe n Rilk e me t her , accordin g t o Leppmann (261) . Sh e was eightee n a t the time , accordin g t o Prater , (189). 10. The Letters of Rainer Maria Rilke and Princess Marie von Thurn und Taxis, 2in .

Chapter 9 , Par t VI 1. Winnicott , Playing and Reality, 73 . 2. Ibid. , 73-74 . 3. Ibid. , 77. 4. Se e Leppman , 300 , 317 , 382-83 . 5. Winnicott , Playing and Reality, 78 .

Selected Bibliograph y

Editions o f Rilke' s Work s Sdmtliche Werke. Ed . Ernst Zinn. 6 vols. Wiesbaden an d Frankfurt: Insel , 1955— 66. Werke in drei Bdnden. Ed . Erns t Zinn . 3 vols. Frankfurt : Insel , 1966 .

Rilke's Letter s an d Diarie s Sieber-Rilke, Rut h an d Carl Sieber , eds. Briefe und Tagebiicher aus der Friihzeit 1899-1902. Leipzig : Insel , 1933 . . Tagebiicher aus der Friihzeit. 1942 ; rpt. Frankfurt : Insel , 1973 . . Briefe aus den Jahren 1902 bis 1906. Leipzig : Insel , 1930 . . Briefe aus den Jahren 1904 bis 1907. Leipzig : Insel , 1939 . . Briefe aus den Jahren 1906 bis 190-/. Leipzig: Insel , 1930 . . Briefe aus den Jahren 1907 bis 1914. Leipzig : Insel , 1933 . . Briefe aus den Jahren 1914 bis 1921. Leipzig : Insel , 1937 . . Briefe aus Muzot 1921 bis 1926. Leipzig : Insel , 1936 . Briefe. 2 vols. (1897-191 4 an d 1914-26 ) Wiesbaden : Insel , 1950 . Rainer Maria Rilke —Lou Andreas-Salome: Briefwechsel. Ed . Erns t Pfeiffer . Ex panded edition . Frankfurt : Insel , 1975 . Briefe an Auguste Rodin. Leipzig : Insel , 1928 . Letters of Rainer Maria Rilke. 2 vols . (1892-191 0 an d 1910-1926) . Trans . Jane Bannard Green e an d M . D . Herte r Norton . 1945 , 1947 , an d 1948 ; rpt . Ne w York: Norton, Norto n Library , 1969 . The Letters of Rainer Maria Rilke and Princess Marie von Thurn und Taxis. Trans, an d intro. Nor a Wydenbruck . Ne w York : Ne w Directions , 1958 . Letters on Cezanne. Trans . Joel Agee . Forewor d b y Heinric h Wiegan d Petzet . New York : Fromm , 1985 .

261

262 SELECTE

D BIBLIOGRAPH Y

Letters to Merline, 1919-1922. Trans . Viole t M . MacDonald . Intro . J. B . Leish man. London : Methuen, 1951 . Letters to a Young Poet. Trans . M . D . Herte r Norton . Rev . ed . 1954 ; rpt. Ne w York: Norton , Norto n Library , 1963 . Rilke and Benvenuta: An Intimate Correspondence. Ed. Magda von Hattingberg . Trans. Joel Agee . Ne w York : Fromm , 1987 .

Translations o f Rilke' s Work s Gruenthal, Lola , trans . Ewald Tragy. Ne w York : Twayne, 1958 . Houston, G . Craig , trans . Where Silence Reigns: Selected Prose. Forewor d b y Denise Levertov . i960 ; rpt. Ne w York : New Directions , 1978 . Leishman, J. B., trans. Selected Works. Vol 2 : Poetry. Ne w York : New Directions , i960. . Poems 1906 to 1926. 2n d ed . London : Hogart h Press , 1968 . Leishman, J. B., and Stephen Spender, trans. Duino Elegies. 1939; rpt. New York : Norton, Norto n Library , 1963 . Mitchell, Stephen , trans. . The Notebooks of Make Laurids Brigge. Ne w York : Random House , 1982 . . The Selected Poetry of Rainer Maria Rilke. Forewor d b y Rober t Hass . 1982; rpt. Ne w York : Rando m House , Vintag e Books , 1984 . . The Sonnets to Orpheus. Ne w York : Simo n an d Schuster , 1985 . Norton, M . D . Herter , trans . The Notebooks of Make Laurids Brigge. 1949; rpt. New York : Norton , Norto n Library , 1964 . . Sonnets to Orpheus. 1942 ; rpt . Ne w York : Norton , Norto n Library , 1962.

. Stories of God. 1932 ; rpt. Ne w York , Norton , Norto n Librar y 1963 . Snow, Edward , trans . New Poems. Sa n Francisco: North Poin t Press , 1984 .

Secondary Work s Alleman, Beda . Zeit und Figur beim spaten Rilke. Pfullingen : Giinthe r Neske , 1961.

Andreas-Salome, Lou . Rainer Maria Rilke. Leipzig : Insel , 1929 . . Lebensriickblick: Grundriss einiger Lebenserinnerungen. Rev . ed . Ed . E. Pfeiffer. Frankfurt : Insel , 1977 . . The Freud Journal of Lou Andreas-Salome. Trans . Stanle y Leavy . Ne w York: Basi c Books , 1965 . Balint, Michael . Primary Love and Psycho-Analytic Technique. Ne w York : Liv eright, 1953 . Betz, Maurice . Rilke vivant: Souvenirs, lettres, entretiens. Paris : £mile-Pau l Freres, 1937 . . Rilke in Paris. Trans. Willi Reich . Zurich : Arche, 1948 .

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPH Y 26

3

Binion, Rudolph . Frau Lou: Nietzsche's Wayward Disciple. Princeton : Princeton University Press , 1968 . Bollnow, Ott o Friedrich . Rilke. 2n d ed. , rev. Stuttgart : Kohlhammer, 1956 . Bradley, Brigitt e L . Zu Rilke's Make Laurids Brigge. Ber n an d Miinchen : Francee, 1980 .

Brown, Norman O . Life against Death, The Psychoanalytic Meaning of History. New York : Rando m House , Vintag e Books , 1959 . Butler, E . M . Rainer Maria Rilke. Ne w York : Macmillan , 1941 . Chodorow, Nancy J. and Susan Contratto. "The Fantasy of the Perfect Mother." In Nanc y J . Chodorow , Feminism and Psychoanalytic Theory, 79-96. Ne w Haven: Yale Universit y Press , 1989 . Delevoy, Rober t L . Dimensions of the 20th Century: 1900-194$. Trans . Stuar t Gilbert. Geneva : Skira, 1965 . de Man , Paul . Allegories of Reading: Figural Language in Rousseau, Nietzsche, Rilke, and Proust. Ne w Haven : Yale Universit y Press , 1979 . Demetz, Peter . Rene Rilkes Prager Jahre. Diisseldorf : Euge n Diederichs , 1953 . Edward, Joyce , e t al . Separation-Individuation: Theory and Application. Ne w York: Gardne r Press , 1981 . Ehrenzweig, Anton . The Hidden Order of Art. London : Weidenfiel d an d Ni colson, 1967 . Engelhardt, Harmut , ed . Materialien zu Rainer Maria Rilke, "Die Aufzeichnungen des Make Laurids Brigge." Frankfurt : Suhrkamp , 1974 . Erikson, Erik , Childhood and Society. 2n d ed . Ne w York : Norton , 1963 . . Identity, Youth and Crisis. New York : Norton , 1968 . . Young Man Luther: A Study in Psychoanalysis and History. Ne w York : Norton, Norto n Library , 1962 . Exner, Richar d an d Ingri d Stip a "Da s Phanome n de r Androgyni e de s Schaf fenprozesses i m spate n Rilke : Da s Beispiel . 'Solan g d u Selbstgeworfne s fangst...' " I n Rainer Maria Rilke, ed . b y Rudige r Gorner . Weg e de r For schung, Vol. 638 . Darmstadt: Wissenchaftliche Buchgesellschaft , 1987 . 350-83. Forrest, Davi d V . "Poiesi s an d th e Languag e o f Schizophrenia. " I n Language Behavior in Schizophrenia, ed . Harol d J . Vetter , 153-81 . Springfield , 111. : Charles J. Thomas, 1968 . Freed, Ann e O . "Differentiatin g betwee n Borderlin e an d Narcissisti c Personali ties." Social Casework: The Journal of Contemporary Social Work 65 , no . 7 (September 1984) : 395-404. Freud, Sigmund . The Interpretation of Dreams. Trans , an d ed . James Strachey . New York : Avo n Books , 1965 . . Introductory Lectures on Psychoanalysis. Trans, an d ed . James Strachey . New York : Norton , A Liverigh t Book , 1977 . . "O n th e Universa l Tendenc y t o Debasemen t i n th e Spher e o f Love, " Standard Edition, vol . 11 , 179-90 . . "Mournin g an d Melancholia. " I n Standard Edition, vol . 14 , 239-58 .

264 SELECTE

D BIBLIOGRAPH Y

. New Introductory Lectures on Psychoanalysis. Trans , an d ed . Jame s Strachey. Ne w York : Norton, 196 4 an d 1965 . . The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud. Ed . James Strachey . 2 4 vols. London : Hogarth , 1953-74 . Hartman, Geoffre y H . The Unmediated Vision, An Interpretation of Wordsworth, Hopkins, Rilke, and Valery. Ne w York : Harcourt , Brac e an d World , Harbinger Books , 1966 . Hass, Robert . Twentieth Century Pleasures: Prose on Poetry. Ne w York : Ecc o Press, 1984 . Hattingberg, Magd a von . Rilke and Benvenuta. Trans . Cyru s Brooks . Ne w York: Norton, 1949 . Heidegger, Martin . Poetry, Language, Thought. Trans . Alber t Hofstadter . Ne w York: Harpe r an d Row , 1971 . Heller, Erich. The Artist's Journey into the Interior and Other Essays. Ne w York : Random House , Vintag e Books , 1968 . . The Disinherited Mind: Essays in Modern German Literature and Thought. Harcour t Brac e Jovanovich, Harves t Books , 1975 . Hendry, J. F. The Sacred Threshold: A Life of Rainer Maria Rilke. Manchester , England: Carcanet New Press , 1983 . Holland, Norma n N . The Dynamics of Literary Response. Ne w York : Oxfor d University Press , 1968 . — . Psychoanalysis and Shakespeare. New York : McGraw-Hill , 1966 . Holthusen, Han s Egon . Portrait of Rilke: An Illustrated Biography. Trans . W . H. Hargreaves . Ne w York : Herde r an d Herder , 1971 . Huyssen, Andreas , "Paris/Childhood : Th e Fragmente d Bod y i n Rilke' s Notebooks of Make Laurids Brigge." In Modernity and the Text: Revisions of German Modernism, ed . Andrea s Huysse n an d Davi d Bathrick , 113-41 . Ne w York: Columbi a Universit y Press , 1989 . Jacobson, Edith . The Self and the Object World. Ne w York : Internationa l Uni versities Press , 1964 . Kafka, Franz . The Penal Colony, trans . Will a an d Edwi n Muir . Ne w York : Schocken Books , 1961 . Kierkegaard, Soren. Concluding Unscientific Postscript. Trans. David F . Swenso n and Walter Lowrie . Princeton : Princeton Universit y Press , 1941 . Klein, Melanie . "Mournin g an d It s Relatio n t o Manic-Depressiv e States/ ' I n Love, Guilt, Reparation, and Other Works 1921-194$, vol . 1 o f The Writings of Melanie Klein, ed . Roge r Money-Kyrle . Ne w York : Fre e Press , 1975Kohut, Heinz . The Analysis of the Self. New York : Internationa l Universitie s Press, 1971 . . The Restoration of the Self. Ne w York : Internationa l Universitie s Press , *977> Komar, Kathlee n L . Transcending Angels: Rainer Maria Rilke's Duino Elegies. Lincoln: University o f Nebrask a Press , 1987 .

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPH Y 26

5

Lacan, Jacques. tcrits: A Selection. Trans. Alan Sheridan. London and New York : Tavistock an d Norton, 1977 . Laing, R. D. The Divided Self. Ne w York : Viking Penguin, Pelican Books, 1965 . Leppmann, Wolfgang . Rilke: A Life. Trans . Russel l M . Stockman . Ne w York : Fromm Internationa l Publishing , 1984 . Lesser, Simon. Fiction and the Unconscious. Ne w York : Random House, Vintag e Books, 1962 . Livingstone, Angela . Salome, Her Life and Work. Mt . Kisko , N.Y.: Moye r Bell , 1984Martin, Biddy . "Wome n an d Modernity : Th e [Life ] Styl e o f Lo u Andreas Salome." I n Modernity and the Text: Revisions of German Modernism, ed . Andreas Huysse n an d David Bathrick , 183-99 . New York : Columbia Univer sity Press , 1989 . Masterson, James F . The Real Self: A Developmental, Self, and Object Relations Approach. Ne w York : Brunner/Maze l Publishers , 1985 . Meissner, W. W. Internalization in Psychoanalysis. New York : International Uni versities Press , 1981 . Modell, Arnold H . Object Love and Reality: An Introduction to a Psychoanalytic Theory of Object Relations. Ne w York : International Universitie s Press , 1968 . Nietzsche, Friedrich . Basic Writings of Nietzsche. Trans , an d ed . Walte r Kauf mann. Ne w York : Moder n Library , 1968 . . The Portable Nietzsche. Trans , an d ed . Walte r Kaufmann . Ne w York : Viking, 1954 . Peters, H . F . Rainer Maria Rilke: Masks and the Man. Ne w York : McGraw Hill, 1963 . Prater, Donald. A Ringing Glass: The Life of Rainer Maria Rilke. Oxford : Clar endon Press , 1986 . Rolleston, James. Rilke in Transition: An Exploration of His Earliest Poetry. Ne w Haven: Yale Universit y Press , 1970 . Salis, J . R . von . Rainer Maria Rilke: The Years in Switzerland. Trans . N . K . Cruickshank. Berkele y an d Lo s Angeles : University o f Californi a Press , 1964 . Schafer, Roy . Aspects of Internalization. Ne w York : Internationa l Universitie s Press, 1968 . Searles, Harold F . Collected Papers on Schizophrenia and Related Subjects. Ne w York: Internationa l Universitie s Press , 1965 . . The Nonhuman Environment in Normal Development and in Schizophrenia. Ne w York : Internationa l Universitie s Press , i960 . Sewell, Elizabeth . The Orphic Voice: Poetry and Natural History. Ne w York : Harper an d Row , Harpe r Torch Books , 1971 . Shaw, Priscilla Washburn. Rilke, Valery and Yeats: The Domain of the Self. Ne w Brunswick, N . J. : Rutgers Universit y Press , 1964 . Sieber, Carl . Rene Rilke: Die Jugend Rainer Maria Rilkes. Leipzig : Insel , 1932 . Simenauer, Erich . Rainer Maria Rilke: Legende und Mythos. Bern : Paul Haupt , 1953-

266 SELECTE

D BIBLIOGRAPH Y

. Der Traum bei R. M. Rilke. Bern : Paul Haupt , 1976 . Sokel, Walter H. "Th e Devolution o f the Self in The Notebooks of Make Laurids Brigge." In Rilke, The Alchemy of Alienation, ed . Frank Baron, Ernst S. Dick , and Warren R . Maurer . Lawrence : Regents Pres s o f Kansas , 1980 . Steiner, Jacob. Rilkes Duineser Elegien. 2nd ed. Bern and Munich: Francke, 1969. Stephens, Anthony, Rainer Maria Rilke*s "Gedichte an die Nacht." Cambridge : Cambridge Universit y Press , 1972 . Storr, Anthony. The Dynamics of Creation. Ne w York : Atheneum , 1972 . Strauss, Walte r A . Descent and Return. Cambridge : Harvar d Universit y Press , l9?l ' Thurn un d Taxis , Mari e von . Erinnerungen an Rainer Maria Rilke. Frankfurt : Insel, 1966 . Webb, Kar l Eugene . Rainer Maria Rilke and Jugendstil: Affinities, Influences, Adaptations. Universit y o f North Carolin a Studies in the Germanic Language s and Literatures no. 90. Chapel Hill : University o f Nort h Carolin a Press, 1978. Winnicott, D . W . The Maturational Processes and the Facilitating Environment. London: Hogart h Pres s an d th e Institut e o f Psycho-Analysis , 1965 . . Playing and and Reality. Ne w York : Tavistock Publications , Socia l Sci ence Paperbacks , 1982 . . Through Paediatrics to Psycho-Analysis. Ne w York : Basi c Books , 1975 . Wood, Frank. Rainer Maria Rilke: The Ring of Forms. New York : Farrar, Straus and Giroux , Octago n Books , 1970 .

Index

Aestheticism, 14-1 6 Albert-Lazard, Lulu , 24 3 Alcoforado, Marianna , 19 6 Angels: in First , Second , an d Sevent h Ele gies, 139-40 , 200 , 232 ; as vital for m o f poet's genius , 224 , 232-3 3 Andreas, Friedric h Carl , 8 8 Andreas-Salome, Lo u (Luise) , 1 , 7-9, 11 12, 16 , 26 , 40, 42 , 45, 48, 52 , 63, 66, 6S, 71, j % 81, 88-109, II0 > I I 2 - I 3 > 116-18 , 121-22, 124-28 , 130 , 132 , 151-52 , 154 ,

158, 163 , 165 , 176 , 178 , 182-83 , 2 I 2 _ I 4> 218, 230 , 237 , 241 ; as a destroyer, 92 , 107; empathetic responsiveness , 97-98 ; fantasy o f unit y with , 109 ; idealization of, 102 , 107-8 ; a s a maternal figur e wit h the Creator' s power , 90-92 ; maternal mirroring, 97-100 , 102 , 104 ; and Nietzsche, 88-89 ; oedipal dimensio n o f Rilke's relationshi p with, 81-82 ; response t o Rodin, 94-95 ; an d Rilke' s fea r of a devouring mother , 92 ; on Rilke' s growth a s a n artist, 94-96 ; Rilke's let ters to , 174 , 182 ; and Rilke' s nee d o f mothering, 88 ; Rilke's pai n a t separatio n from, 218-19 ; a s second mother , 88 , 9192, 94 , 100 , 102 , 105 ; as shelter, 109 ; as a source o f Rilke' s sens e o f hi s ow n reality, 94-95 , 105-7 ; a s a source o f shame, 100 ; stature i n Germa n worl d o f letters, 90 ; as informal therapist , 10 6 "Archaic love, " 10 1

Aristocracy: friend s an d patrons, 55 , 57 , 59; fantasies o f ancestra l heroes , 143 ; myth o f aristocrati c Rilkes , 80 , 81 , 143 , 173; Rilke's persona , 52 , 58-5 9 Arnim, Bettina , von , 194 , 225 , 230 , 23 1 Art: abstrac t form , 115 , 146-47 ; "anony mous work, " 19 ; autonomous art , 20 21; a s a n artist's defens e agains t distur bance, 183 ; characterization, 146-47 ; childhood prototypes , 181 ; corrupted forms o f writin g i n Rilke' s view , 20 ; fragmentary for m i n The Notebooks, 2 ; fragmentary for m i n Picass o an d Joyce, 2; indirection an d concealmen t in , 53 54; irony, 53 , 146-47 , 149 ; metamorphosis in , 221 , 224; modernists an d post-modernists, 13 , 46; "my art, " 210; "objective expression, " 20, 39 ; as a n artist's mean s o f objectifyin g an d distanc ing, 159 ; portraits o f Parisia n figure s i n Rilke's letters , 95-96 ; "real , still things, " 182; Rilke's conceptio n o f genius , 203, 216, 222-24 ; Rilke's contras t betwee n sculpture an d writing, 179-80 ; Rilke o n unity o f ar t object , 35 ; Rodin's disinte grative an d reintegratin g sculpture , 36 ; schizophrenic art , 46; writing a s "self treatment," 44. See also AndreasSalome, Lou ; Creativity; Rilke's writ ings; Rodin, Auguste ; Satiri c iron y i n Rilke's writings; Transformation i n Rilke's writing s

267

268 INDE

X

Artist, Rilke' s conceptio n of , 97-98, 22 4 Artists* community a t Worpswede, n o . See also Modersohn-Becker, Paula ; Rilke-Westhoff, Clar a "Auditory imagination, " 1 0 Autobiography of a Schizophrenic Girl, 3 5

Condensation, 24 1 Contratto, Susan , 65-6 6 Core o f th e personality , 56 , 60; Modell o n core o f identification , 17 5 Creativity: an d bisexuality , 243 ; creative activity a s a defense, 183 ; creative nar cissism, 10 , 217, 235 ; creative thinkin g vs. compliance , 238 ; Rilke o n gazing , 123; genius in , 2 , 40, 47 , 217 , 223-24 , 230-31, 233-34 , 240-41 ; intersection o f genius an d abnormality , 181 ; "learning to see " in The Notebooks, 170 ; and "loss o f eg o control, " 46; psychology o f creative process , 2 , n , 15-16 , 45-47 , 139-40, 143 , 242; Rilke's insight s int o the creativ e process , 123-24 ; schizoi d fragmentation in , 45; and solitud e 62 63, 237-40 . See also Narcissis m Cubist painting , 4 6

Balint, Alice , 10 1 Balint, Michael , 10 2 Baudelaire, Charles , 13 , 16 , 20, 39 ; "Une Charogne," 47, 195 , 21 2 Beethoven, Ludwi g van , 62 , 194 , 231 Benjamin, Walter, 1 3 Betz, Maurice , 7 5 Binion, Rudolph , 12 1 Bisexuality, 233-34 , 243 ; androgyny, 14 , 16; confusion abou t sexua l identity , 76, 243; hermaphroditic wholeness , 9 , 231 35, 243 ; hermaphroditic motherhood , 183, 231 , 233; Winnicott o n sexua l am biguity, 242-4 4 Body image : decomposition of , 32 , 34, 175; confusion about , 76 Bosch, Hieronymous , "Temptatio n o f Saint Anthony " (painting), 84-8 5 Boundaries o f th e self, 50 , 83 , 85 ; dissolution of , 6 , 33 , 38 , 225-26 . See also Dif ferentiation; Engulfmen t Bourgeoisie, Rilke' s aversio n to , i n th e Fourth Elegy , 153 . Bradley, Brigitt e L. , 13 , 19-2 1 Brown, Norma n O. , 23 3 Butler, Eliz a M. , 81 , 118 , 134 , 165 , 170 , 187

Dante Alighieri , Inferno, 20 6 David-Rhonfeld, Valeri e von , 70 , 13 4 Death: Rilke's conceptio n of , 39 , 41-43, 45, 159 , 162 , 221, 228; continuing con nection wit h th e dead , 133 , 158-59 , 161 , 216-17, 2 2 I - 2 5> 2 4i"42J denia l of , 159 , 228; effects o f a parent's, 163-64 , 187 ; as fetus an d fruit growin g withi n us , 39; as plenitude an d fulfillment , 229. See also Knoop , Vera Dehumanization, 5 , 20, 37 , 50 , 5 9 Denial, 5 2 Depersonalization, 37 , 56 , 76, 152 , 161,

Cezanne, Paul , 3 , 20 , 39 , 41, 19 5 Characterization, abtractio n an d integra tion i n The Notebooks, 146-4 7 Charles th e Bold , Duk e o f Burgundy , i n The Notebooks, 3 6 Child's experience : earliest possessions , 180-81; effect s o f lov e fo r mentall y il l mother, 83 ; fear o f destroyin g mother' s love, 219 ; love fo r th e mothe r a s part o f self, 127 ; Make's fear s i n The Notebooks, 79-80 , 85 ; prototypes o f work s of art , 18 5 Chodorow, Nanc y J., 65-6 6 Choiseul, Duchess e Luci e Mari e de, 19 8

Derealization, 16 1 Differentiation, 6 , 11 , 33, 35 , 38 , 48; capacity for , 238 ; impairment of , 48 , 50 51, 53 , 72, 238 . See also Boundaries o f the Self ; Impingemen t Disintegration, 2 , 39 , 47; fantasies of , 3 , 33, 36 , 45, 7 1 106 ; fear of , 78 , 148 , 171, 174, 177 , 182 ; as a stage i n the creativ e process, 46 , 240 ; fragmentation, 34 , 78, 82-83, I 74~75- $ ee a k° Integratio n Displacement, 72 , 81 , 83-84, 99 , 106 , 139 , 178, 231 , 233 , 241 ; in "Davi d Sing s be fore Saul, " 207; in Rilke' s conceptio n o f Rodin's art , 18 5

197

INDEX 26 Dostoevsky, Fyodor , 16 , 44, 234 ; Notes from Underground, 51 , 214 Drozhzhin, Spirido n D. , 10 3 Duse, Eleonora , 52-5 4

Gebsattel, Victo r Emi l von , 11 , 10 6 "Gegenstandlichkeit," 1 7 Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von , 23 1 Greenacre, Phyllis , 31 Grosz, Georg , satiri c ar t of , 14 6

Earth i n th e Nint h Elegy , 22 5 Ego: Freud on , 162 ; id and , 162 ; and iden tity formation , 11 , 162 ; impairment o f ego functions , 174 ; and sublimation , 16 2 Ego ideal , 140 , 23 4 Ehrenzweig, Anton , 2 , 45-4 7 Eliot, T . S. , 1 0 Eloui, Nimet , 24 3 Ende, Han s am , 2 4 Engulfment; 3, 5 , 38 , 51-52 , 53 , 55-57 , 62 , 72, 74 , 83 , 128 , 174 , 197 , 219 ; defense s against, 5 , 52 , 152 , 158 ; and th e fea r o f being devoured , 52 , 55 , 72 , 128 ; and flight fro m women , 113 ; merging, 48 ,

Hamburger, Kate , 1 3 Hass, Robert , 66 Hattingberg, Magd a von ("Benvenuta") , 66, 7h 77> H3 > I 3I~33» l 4% 181 , 210 -

5°-5i> 17 4 Eurydice, 223-24 , 228-2 9 Exner, Richard , 14-1 6 Face, concep t of , 54-55 , 60 ; effacement , 37; in "T o Lo u Andreas-Salome, " 10 9 False self , 55-57 , 59-61 , 152 , 190 . See also Schizoid illness ; True sel f Father: ambivalence about , i n Ewald Tragy, 136 ; anger of, i n Ewald Tragy y 139; encourages child' s contac t wit h ex ternal world , 171 ; encourages separatio n and differentiatio n o f sel f an d other , 135; fear o f a vengeful, punishin g parent, 108 , 139 ; images o f th e fathe r i n Rilke's writings , 133-40 , 145-46 , 146 54, 197-98 , 200 , 203-8 ; oedipal father s in Kafk a an d Lawrence , 138-39 ; Rilke on effect s o f a father's death , 15 6 Figurative language : and th e artist' s nee d for concealment , 53-54 . See also Art; Kierkegaard, Soren ; Nietzsche, Fried rich; Winnicott, D . W . Flaubert, Gustave , 16 , 20 ; "St. Julien l'Hospitalier," 19 5 Freud, Sigmund , 16 , 27 , 32 , 34 , 40-41, 44 , 80, 89 , 113 , 115 , 126 , 158 , 162 , 176 , 182 , 218, 233 , 235

9

12, 216-1 8

Hausenstein, Wilhelm , 55 , 58 , 60, 15 1 Heller, Erich , 5 2 Hendry, J. F. , 1 1 Hennebert, Marthe , 24 1 Hero, the , i n th e Sixt h Elegy , 14 4 Heydt, Kar l vo n der , 187 , 192 , 23 7 Hitschmann, E. , 8 1 Holland, Norma n N , 17 8 Home, Rilke' s concep t of , 124-25 , 13 0 Homelessness, 5 9 Hulewicz, Witol d von , 36 , 86 , 20 1 Hume, David , 3 1 Huyssen, Andreas , 12 , 1 9 Hypochondriacal fantasies , jS y 17 5 Ibsen, Henrik , 52 , 88-8 9 Idealization: of Lo u Andreas-Salome , 107 8; of parent s an d parental figures , 8 , 64, 106-8, 158 , 164 , 172-73 , 175 , 232 ; of perfect self-containment , 184 ; of Rodin , 157, 166 , 171 , 186 , 192 ; of th e superego , 174; of wome n i n love , 21 8 Identification, 8 , 11 , 32, 163 , 181 , 244; child's wit h mentall y il l mother , 82-83 , 85; with th e Creator , 97 ; with dea d parents, 162 ; with "goo d enough " parents, 176; fear of , see Engulfment ; wit h th e hero o f th e Cornet, 143 ; with Josef, 145 , 151-52, 169 ; models for , 169 ; Make's with Maman , 84 ; with omnipoten t pa rental figures , 175 ; of th e poe t wit h hi s poems, 184 ; with Phia , 101 , 218; and redirection o f libido , 235 ; with Rodin , 177, 191 ; with Salome , 218 ; with women i n love , abandoned , 21 8 Impingement, 50 , 55-56 , 61 , 72, 85 ; defense against , 239 ; Rilke's vulnerabilit y to, 24 0

2jo INDE

X

Incestuous feelings , 81-82 , 90, 11 3 Incorporation, 11 , 163 , 177 ; and identifica tion, 21 8 Integration, n , 32-33 , 175 , 238 ; impairment of , 34 , 36 , 45, 72 . See also Disintegration Internalization, 8 , 11 , 86; of th e femal e world, 217-18 ; "interna l objects, " 180, 240-41; o f idealize d parents , 106-7 ; ° f Josefs fear , 153 ; of object s tha t hav e been lost , 163 ; of Ver a Knoop , 23 7 Introject, 154 , 159 , 163 ; of punishin g parent, 163-6 4 Introjection, 9 , 11 , 153-54 , 159 , 162-63 , 235; of parents , 174 , 176 ; in Sonne t 1.2 , 224; of a supportive, empatheti c mother , 239; of Ver a Knoop , 231 , 241 "Invisible, the/ * 64, 225 , 236 , 24 0 Isolation: as a defense agains t engulfment , 51; Make's, 62 , 238 ; exacerbation o f ill ness, 184 ; at Muzot, 238 ; of negativ e from positiv e feelings , yy, 146 , 157-58 ; of sexualit y fro m idealizin g love , 113 . See also Solitud e Jacobsen, Jens Peter , 1 6 Joyce, James, 2 , 46; A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man, 11 5 Jugendstil, 20 , 2 4 Kafka, Franz , 7 , 138 ; Letter to His Father, 178-79; "The Judgment," 199 ; "The Metamorphosis," 19 9 Kant, Immanuel , 11 5 Kappus, Franz Xaver , 62 , 6y Keats, John, 21 1 Keller, Gottfried , 8 1 Key, Ellen , 71 , 75, i3*-39 > *S4 > l & J 59 Kierkegaard, S0ren , 5 , 16 , 53 , 61, 158 , 19 5 Klein, Melanie , 163-64 , 24 0 Kleist, Heinric h von, 16 ; On the Marionette Theater, 18 1 Klossowska, Elizabet h Dorothe e ("Bala dine," "Merline"), 40, 63 , 218 Knoop, Vera, 10 , 220-28, 230-31 , 235, 251, 243-44 ; dancer, musician , an d artist, 223-24 , 226 ; illness an d death, 221, 226, 229 , 242 ; openness t o th e world , 225; an d Rilke' s inne r Madchen, 242;

Rilke's internalizatio n of , 231 , 237, 241; Rilke's sens e o f intimac y with , 22 2 Kohut, Heinz , 5 , 7 , 33 , 77-78, 86 , 96-97 , 106-7, 172-7 5 Kokoschka, Oskar , 14 6 Komar, Kathlee n L. , 1 4 Lacan, Jacques, 32-3 3 Laing, R . D. , 5 , 7 , 33 , 50 , 56 , 62 Lawrence, D . H. , Sons and Lovers, 138 , 145-46 Leppmann, Wolfgang, 11 , 55 , 59 , 81 , 90, 115, 142 , 19 4 "Lyric I , the, " 13 Mackensen, Fritz , 2 4 "Madchen": in Rilke' s diaries , m ; i n "Lieder de r Madchen " and "Vo n de n Madchen," 111-13 ; in The Notebooks, 112; in The Sonnets to Orpheus, 219-21 , 223-25, 229-30 , 241 ; in "Wendung " ("Turning"), 215-17 , 241-4 2 Magical thinking , 175-76 , 180 , 186 , 23 7 Masks an d masking , 6 , 54 , 60; acting as, 52; in The Notebooks, 52 , 57 , 190 ; in the Fourt h Elegy , 153 . See also Fals e self; Sense o f Sel f i n Rilke , an d Socia l personas Mastery: i n Rilke' s art , 70 , 145 , 192 , 202, 231; of hi s fathe r i n his art , 159 ; mastering hi s fear s throug h hi s art , 182 ; in Rilke's relationshi p with Clara , 117 ; self-mastery, 149 , 15 1 Meissner, W . W. , 154 , 155 , 15 9 Michelangelo, Buonarotti : in The Book of Hours, 118-19 ; in Stories of God, 119 20

Military school , 155 , 16 2 Mirrors an d mirroring, 8-10 , 32 , 125-28 , 239; maternal mirroring , 168 , 174 ; as metaphor fo r Angel s i n th e Secon d El egy, 232 ; in The Notebooks, 37-38 , 231 , 232; in Sonne t II.4 , 232 . See also An dreas-Salome, Lou ; Mother; RilkeWesthoff, Clar a Mitchell, Stephen , 22 5 Modell, Arnol d H. , 7 , 175-76 , 185 , 18 8 Modersohn, Otto , 24-26 , 104 , n o , 11 6 Modersohn-Becker, Paula , 24 , 103 , n o -

INDEX 27 14, 116 , 118 , 120 , 122 , 124 , 127-28 , 167 ;

opposition betwee n ar t an d motherhoo d in he r life, i n "Requie m fo r a Friend," 113-15, 12 0

Mother: as comforter an d protector i n The Notebooks an d th e Thir d Elegy , 10 , 64, 71 , 73, 105 , 168 , 180 ; painful de pendence on , 100 ; desire t o inven t a lovable mother , 81 ; as destroyer, 74 , 108; disguised surrogat e i n The Sonnets, 231-32, 241 ; effects o f lac k o f empathy , 77-78; effect s o f menta l an d emotiona l illness o n child , 78 , 82-83 , 85-86 ; fantasy o f fusio n with , 102 ; fantasies o f maternal perfection , 65-66 , 108 , 143 , 239; "goo d enough " (D. W . Winnicott' s concept), 168 ; maternal fac e an d presence, 99 ; fear o f a vengeful, punishin g parent, 108 ; maternal failure s an d destructiveness, 65 ; maternal figure s i n Rilke's works , 10 ; maternal mirroring , 10, 77-78 , 97-98 , 104 , 168 , 174 ; narcissistic, 77-79 ; original unit y with , 109 ; as a parasite, 74 ; as part o f self , 217 ; polarizing o f Phi a Rilk e an d Salome , 107-8 ; possessive mothe r i n Sons and Lovers, 138—39; primal mothe r i n Unfinishe d Elegy o f 1920 , 217 ; and "protectiv e en vironment," 239-40 ; Rilke's searc h for , 108, 167 ; as source o f child' s sens e o f solidity an d form , 105 . See also An dreas-Salome, Lou ; Rilke, Sophi e (Phia) ; Rilke's writings , Duino Elegies, Ewald Tragy, Notebooks of Make Laurids Brigge, The; Rodin, August e Mourning: Freud on , 162 ; Klein on , 163 64; comparison o f Freud' s idea s o n re sponses t o deat h with Rilke's , 161-6 2 Muther, Richard , 23 Narcissism, 5 , 11 , 210-12, 234 ; and creativity, 10 , 217, 235-36 ; an d egocentrism , 101; in emotiona l illness , 8 , 10 ; grandiosity, 77, 79 , 97~9%> I02 > IO 4> I9S > *io; infantile, 171 ; narcissist's idea l fantas y of self-realization , 166 ; narcissistic ill ness, 172-75 , 212 ; and omnipotence , 172, 232 ; narcissistic perfection , 172 , 234; in Rilke' s fantas y o f a perfect com -

1

panion, 64 ; and self-sufficienc y i n isola tion, 185 ; in sublimation , 235 ; and symbiotic relatio n o f mothe r an d infant , 232. See also Mother; Omnipotence ; Rilke, Sophi e (Phia ) Narcissus, 32 , 126 ; in "Narcissus " (2 poems), 212-13 ; m Sonne t II , 3 , 12 6 Nature, relationshi p with , 215 , 226 , 228 39. See also Knoop , Vera Nevar, Ely a Mari a (Els a Hotop) , 24 3 Nietzsche, Friedrich , 5 , 7, 16 , 31 , 52-53 , 88-89, 98 , H5 > *95 > 2 I 2 "Nonface, the " ("Das Nichtgesicht") , 27 28, 3 0 Oedipal feelings , 10-11 , 81-84 ; attachment, 158 ; conflict an d hostility, 131 , 158, 195 ; sexual competitivenes s i n "David Sing s befor e Saul, " 139 , 206-8 ; in The Notebooks, 145-4 6 Omnipotence, 8 , 177 , 231 ; creation o f om nipotent parent , 172-73 , 175 , 232 ; and ego ideal , 234 ; and narcissisti c fantas y of self-sufficiency , 185 . See also Narcissism "Open, the " ("Das Offne") , 6 , 228 , 24 0 Orpheus, 221-23 , 2 2 9 Otrepyov, Grishk a (Fals e Cza r Dmitri) , i n The Notebooks, 86-8 7 Outcasts, 59-60 , 62 , 83 Perfect companion , Rilke' s conceptio n of , 63-64, 66 y 209, 24 0 Petzet, Heinric h W. , 12 2 Picasso, Pablo , 2 , 4, 4 6 Pineles, Friedric h ("Zemek") , 9 1 Plato, "Th e Symposium, " 233 Poet's relatio n t o th e world, 6 Prater, Donald , 11 , 155-56 , 16 1 Pre-oedipal psychology , 11 , 131 , 13 4 Prodigal So n story : in "Th e Departur e o f the Prodiga l Son, " 189-90 ; in The Notebooks, 51-52 , 54 , 57 , 62, 87 , 190 ,

238

Projection, 45 , 106 , 139 , 163 , 214, 243 ; in the creatio n o f gods , 195 ; in "Davi d Sings befor e Saul, " 207; of idealize d pa rental figures, 172-73 , 75 ; in relation -

272 INDE

X

ship with Rodin , 172 , 175 , 185 , 186 ; of sister-self, 216-17 Psychoanalysis: classical analysis , 10 , 131, 178, 195 ; oedipal paradig m in psychoan alytic theory , 10-11 , 66, 131 , 139; Rilke's attitude s toward , 40-41 , 43-44 , 106; psychoanalytic therapy , 188 . See also Balint , Alice; Balint, Michael ; Cho dorow, Nanc y J.; Contratto, Susan ; Ehrenzweig, Anton ; Freud, Sigmund ; Gebsattel, Victo r Emi l von ; Greenacre , Phyllis; Klein, Melanie ; Kohut, Heinz ; Laing, R . D. ; Meissner, W . W. ; Modell , Arnold H. ; Schafer , Roy ; Searles, Har old F. ; Simenauer, Erich ; Winnicott, D . W. Reaction formation , 11 , 81-82, 131-3 3 Repression, 11 , 77, 82 , 133 , 158 ; of ideal ized paren t imago , 17 4 Rilke, Clara . See Rilke-Westhoff, Clar a Rilke, Jaroslav, Ritte r von Ruliken , 24 , 58 , 81 Rilke, Josef, 7-8 , 131-64 , 167 ; as an antimodel, 154 ; anxiety abou t son , $6, 132 , 134, 137 , 153 ; aspirations fo r Rene , 57 58, 143 , 169 , 173 ; attempts t o reassur e him abou t son' s vocation , 155-56 ; and the bourgeoisie , 153-54 ; capacity fo r love (conflictin g views) , 131-34 , 154 ; constriction, 7 , 131 ; conventionality, 131, 152 , 173 ; death of , 156-64 , 187-88 ; failures of , 7 , 152 , 173 , 201 ; images o f a s a young hero , 143-44 ; military career , 7 , 173; old age , 208 ; opposition t o son' s vocation, 131 , 136-37 ; in "Portrai t o f My Fathe r a s a Youth," 160 ; Rilke's ambivalence about , 7-8 , 131 , 134 , 137 , 152, 208 ; Rilke's childhoo d fea r o f hi s death, 161-62 ; Rilke's identificatio n with, 132 , 133 , 151-52 , 157 , 162-63 , 169-70; Rilke's redemptio n an d restora tion of , 157-58 , 161 , 186 , 191 ; Rilke's sense o f affinit y with , 154 , 161 . See also Father Rilke, Ruth , 7 , 24 , 113-14 , 116 , 121 , 129, 220

Rilke, Sophi e (Phia) , 7 , 9 , 113 , 147 , 148 , 158, 192 , 234 ; "connected wit h noth -

ing," 68, 72 , 104-5 ; defenses against , 108; destructiveness of , 65 , 69-70, 107 , 211; desire t o identif y Ren e wit h her self, 77, 211 ; emptiness, 71 , 77; encouraged Ren e t o writ e poetry , 57 , 7% 168; ideal imag e o f son , 79 ; lacked empathy , 174; loss of , 218-19 ; narcissistic blind ness 7 , 65 , 69-70, 73 , 101 , 107 , 173 , 211; Rilke's ambivalenc e about , 73 , 81-82 ; Rilke's enmeshmen t with , 133 ; saw he r son i n term s o f he r ow n preconcep tions, 7 , 56-57 , 69; self-deceptiveness, 7 , 58, 153 , 171 ; separation fro m family , 154, 173 , 181 , 212; treated Ren e a s a girl, 56-57 , 71 , 75-77, 85 , 169 , 242; unreality of , 57 , 68, 75 , 77, 105 , 171 , 17 3 Rilke's writings : "A Festiva l fo r You " ("Dir zu r Feier") , 92; "Abishag" ("Abisag"), 206 ; Advent, 23 ; "Alas, m y mother tear s m e down " ("Ach wehe , meine Mutte r reiss t mic h ein") , 6% "Anti-Strophes" ("Gegen-Strophen") , 229; "Archaic Tors o o f Apollo " ("Ar chai'scher Torso Apollos") , 215 ; "As long a s you catc h wha t yo u yoursel f have throw n . . . " ("Solan g d u Selbstge worfnes fangst.. . ") , 14-15; Book of Images, The (Das Buch der Bilder), 23 . 188; Book of Hours, The (Das StundenBuch), 9 , 23 , 97-98, 103 , 118-19 , 159 , 183, 194 , 197 , 214 , 231 , 233; "David Sings befor e Saul " ("David sing t vo r Saul"), 139 , 203-8; "Deat h o f th e Poet , The" ("Der To d de s Dichters") , 226 ; "Departure o f th e Prodiga l Son , The" ("Der Auszu g de s verlorene n Sohnes") , 189-90; Diaries (Tagebiicher aus der Fruhzeit), 91 , 97, 99-100 , 184 ; 102 , 110 11, 117 , 125 , 165 ; "Dolls" "(Puppen"), 180-81; Dream-Crowned (Traumgekront), 23 ; Duino Elegies (Duineser Elegien), 6, 9-11 , 13-14 , 16 , 18 , 40-42, 54 , 56, 63 , 71, 105 , 115 , 132-34 , 143-44 , 149, 153 , 157-58 , 161 , 168 , 180 , 196 , 200-201, 209 , 214 , 217-18 , 221 , 225 ,

228-29, 2 32> 2.35—38 , 240, 243 ; "An Ex perience II " ("Erlebnis II") , 6, 54 , 61, 240; Ewald Tragy, 57 , 88 , 92 , 134-39 * 140, 146 , 148 , 152 , 159 ; "Five Hymns "

INDEX 27 (Fiinf Gesange") , 143-44 ; "From a Stormy Night " ("Au s eine r Sturm nacht"), 216 ; "Improvisations ou t o f th e Caprisian Winter " (Improvisationen au s dem Caprese r Winter") , 28-30 ; In Celebration of Myself (Mir zur Feier), 23; "I stand i n th e dar k an d a s if grow n blind" ("Ich ste h i m Finster n un d wi e erblindet"), 91-92; Last Ones, The (Die Letzten), 23 , 81 ; Lay of the Love and Death of Cornet Christoph Rilke, The (Die Weise von Liebe und Tod des Cornets Christoph Rilke), 141-42 ; Letters on Cezanne (Briefe uber Cezanne), 44 , 122; Letters to a Young Poet (Briefe an einen jungen Dichter), 44 , 98 , 115 , 224, 230; Life and Songs (Leben und Lieder), 23; "Of Maidens " ("Von de n Madchen"), 112-13 ; "Modern Poetry " ("Moderne Lyrik") , 18 , 20 ; "Narcissus" ("Narziss"), 212-13 , 2I 7J New Poems (Neue Gedichte), 3-4 , 9 , 53 , 63, 157 , 165-66, 170-71 , 184 , 192 , 193 , 193-94 , 203-8, 214 , 226 ; Notebooks of Make Laurids Brigge, The (Die Aufzeichnungnen des Make Laurids Brigge), 1-3 , 5 , 6, 9-10 , 13 , 18 , 19 , 20-21 , 25-28 , 31 , 33, 36, 40 , 4M9 > 5!-5 2» 59" 6o> 62-65 , 7 i 75> 77~7%> 8o > 8l > 82-87 , 9 2> 96-97* IOS> 112, 117 , 125 , 128 , 137-39 , 140 , 145 , 146-50, 154 , 157-59 , 161 , 165 , 168 , 170 , 174, 182 , 185 , 188 , 190 , I95~97 > 2 °9> 214, 216 , 224 , 227-28 , 230 , 231 , 235-36 , 238, 240-41 , 243 ; Offerings to the Lares (Larenopfer), 23 ; "Orpheus, Eurydice , Hermes" ("Orpheus, Eurydike , Hermes"), 222 , 228-30 ; "Poem s t o th e Night" ("Gedicht e a n die Nacht") , 16 ; "Portrait" ("Bildnis"), 52 ; "Portrait o f My Fathe r a s a Youth" ("Jugend Bildnis meine s Vaters") , 160 ; "Requiem for a Friend" ("Requiem fu r ein e Freundin"), 113-14 ; Rodin, 94-96 , 161, 201 , 219-28, 230-31 , 231-32 , 235 37, 240-41 , 243 ; Stories of God (Das

3

Buch vom lieben Gott und Anderes), 23 , 66, 71 , 119 , 136 , 210 ; "To Lo u An dreas-Salome," 109 ; "Turning" ("Wen dung"), 10 , 170 , 214-15 , 217 , 219 , 225 , 232, 236 , 241-42 ; Two Prague Stories (Zwei Prager Geschichten), 23 ; Unfinished eleg y o f 192 0 ("Las s dir, dass Kindheit war , dies e namenlose") , 217 , 224; White Princess, The (Die weisse Furstin), 23; "You beautifu l dar k lute , given t o me " ("Du schon e dunkl e Laute, mir gegeben") , 117 ; "You wh o never came , / Beloved , los t fro m th e be ginning" ("Du i m Voraus / verlorn e Geliebte Nimmergekommene") , 21 0 Rilke-Westhoff, Clara , 8 , 24 , 66, 91 , 103, 110-30, 147 , 153 , 201, 241; character o f marriage, 120-30 , 167 ; decline o f friend ship wit h Rilke , 128-29 ; a s a lette r writer, 122-23 ; as Madchen, m - 1 3 ; maternal rol e wit h Rilke , 116 ; and "mirroring," 125-28 ; narrative gift , i n ; as perfect collaborator , 127 ; and Rilke' s distaste fo r possessiv e love , 117 ; and Rilke's feeling s abou t sculptors , 118-20 ; Rilke's letter s t o her , 122-24 ; an< ^ Rilke's nee d fo r mastery , 117 , 123-24 , 128; her sculpture , 118 , 120 , 126 , 201; strength o f character , 118 ; studied wit h Rodin, i n , 165 ; as unwelcome visitor , 129 Rodin, Auguste , 3 , 7, 8 , 18 , 23 , 25 , 30 , 79, 82, 103 , 122 , 151 , 156 , 165-209 , 237 ; ambivalence toward , 191 , 208; associated wit h Creato r i n Genesis , 166 ; associated wit h "a n easter n god, " 166 ; break with, 186 , 191 , 192 ; capacity fo r moth ering himself , 183 ; center o f hi s ow n world, 166 ; changes i n th e relationship , 188, 193 , 194 , 197 , 200 ; conferred real ity an d certaint y o n things , 173 ; connection wit h th e world , 118 , 181 ; death of , 201; and "Davi d Sing s befor e Saul, " 203-8; deca y an d decline , 197-201 , 206; disintegrative an d reintegratin g sculp ture, 36 ; fantasy o f a dangerous, destructive master , 198-200 ; emphasis o n constant labor , a s agains t inspiration , 169-70; idealization of , 157 , 166-69 ,

274 INDE

X

171, 191 , 192 ; identification with , 177 , 191; influence of , o n Rilke' s art , 165 , 170-71, 177 , 201 ; as "master, " 177-78 , 183, 191 , 201; mastering th e master , 177, 184 , 206 ; as a maternal figure , 168 , 171, 192 ; as model, 167-69 , 171 , 184, 201, 196 ; negative effect s o n Rilke , 178 79; reconciliation with , 192-93 ; retrospective view , 201-3 ; Rilke o n Rodin* s art, 181-85 ; Rilke's dependenc e on , 180 ; Rilke*s secretarial labor s for , 180 , 186 87, 199 ; Rilke*s vision of , 182 ; as secon d father, 145 , 165 , 168-70 , 178 , 187 , 190 92, 201 , 208; as "shelter/ * 167-68 ; as "very nea r tower/* 167 ; transference re lationship with, 157 , 171 , 174-77 , x 8688; ultimate effect s o n Rilke , 191 ; view of wome n contraste d wit h Rilke*s , 196 ; way o f working , 17 7 Salis, Jean Rudolp h von, 5 2 Satiric iron y i n Rilke* s writings, 146-47 , 149, 15 9 Scapegoat, Mak e Laurid s Brigg e as , 44 Schafer, Roy , 163 , 16 9 Schiller, Friedric h von, 57 , 79 Schizoid illness , 5 , 11 , 34, 37 , 57 , 60-61 , 72, 83-84 ; defenses in , 62; false sel f in , 190; fantasies o f omnipotenc e an d self sufficiency in , 18 4 Schizophrenia, 2 , 37 , 60 , 72 , 83-84 ; origin s of, 83 ; paranoid schizophrenia , 39 ; schizophrenic ar t and language, 2 , 11; self-destructiveness o f schizophrenic , 4 5 Schopenhauer, Arthur , 11 5 Schwarz, Egon , 2 2 Searles, Harold F., 4 , 7 , 32-34 , 37 , 78 , 82 ^3> 85, 13 4 Self-love an d self-esteem , 97, 194 ; confirmation i n childhood, 16 8 "Self-object/* a s defined b y Kohut , 17 4 Sense o f self , 11 , 154 ; dread o f los s o f self , 78; healthy socia l self , 60-61 ; inne r sel f 56, 61 ; mental an d emotiona l equilib rium, 174 ; and "mirroring/ * 32 ; selfdivision, 190 ; sense o f reality , cohesion , and identity , 32 , 72, 174-75 ; sense o f in dividuality an d separateness , 156 , 159 ; solipsistic stat e o f mind , 32 ; threat o f

annihilation, 78 , 148 , 174 , 182 . See also Body imag e Sense o f sel f i n Rilke , 3 , 5 , 53 , 55 , 151, 193; fear o f annihilation , 71 , 113 , 182; "intermediate space* * between himsel f and others , 54-55 , 62 ; longing fo r "Wirklichkeitsgefuhl," 96 , 130 ; longterm transformation , 241 ; self-division, 171-72, 177-78 ; and socia l personas , 5 , 55, 62 , 152 ; alienation, 3 ; autonomy, 3; sense o f hi s ow n "sickness/ * 212 ; formlessness, 105 ; identity, 3 , 50 , 191 ; impotence a s a n artist, 178 , 183 ; individuality and separateness , 65 ; inner self, 54 , 56 , 60; mastery an d self-mastery , 191 ; personal unit y an d integration i n hi s poems, 243 ; sense o f realit y an d cohe sion, 77, 105 , 168 ; sexual identity , 76, 169, 243 ; sense o f hi s ow n uniqu e ge nius an d artisti c independence , 193 ; sense o f unrealit y o f sel f an d world, 95 , 105-6, 108 , 171 , 177-7% 183 Shakespeare, William: Hamlet, 107-8 ; King Lear, 107 ; Two Gentlemen of Verona, 17 8 Shaw, Georg e Bernard , 19 8 Shaw, Priscill a W. , 2 8 Sieber, Carl , 59 , 85 , 136 , 141 , 147-49 , I 7° Simenauer, Erich , 10-11 , 13 , 16 , 131 , 133 34, 139 , 158 , 19 5 Simmel, Georg , 1 3 Sister, 9 , 75 , 216-17 ; Rilk e a s substitut e for, 9 , 75-76 , 217 , 231 , 242-43; in "From a Stormy Night/ * 216 ; and th e Sophie gam e i n The Notebooks, 75-76, 216, 231 , 242. See also Woman (o r girl ) within Sizzo, Countes s Margot , 133 , 16 2 Sokel, Walte r H. , 4 9 Solitude, 63-64 , 66, 190 , 194 , 220 , 237-3^, 240; negative consequences , 184 . See also Creativity; Isolatio n Spitz, Ren e A. , 31 , 33 Splitting an d polarization, 157-58 ; of th e father, 107-8 , 160 ; of th e mother , 107 8. See also Isolatio n Steiner, Jacob, 13-1 5 Stephens, Anthony, 14 , 16-1 7 Stipa, Ingrid , 14-1 6

INDEX 27 Sublimation, 9% 16 2 Superego, 131 , 140 , 194 . See also Angels; Ego idea l Symbiotic relationshi p o f mothe r an d child, 74 , 78 , 82 , 85 , 135 , 211 , 231; and "The Unfinishe d Elegy, " 217 ; and The Sonnets, 231 Symbolists, 2 0 "Things," 11 , 159 "Those who hav e die d young, " 218 . See also Knoop , Vera Thurn un d Taxis, Princes s Mari e von, 64, 66, 70 , 79 , 90, 209 , 240-4 1 Tolstoy, Coun t Leo , 41-43 , 103 , 202 Transference, 81-83 , I02 > I0 *>> 157—58; "idealizing transference, " 106 ; "mirror transference," 96-97 ; o f rag e from Ma man t o Her r Brigg e i n The Notebooks, 146; in the relationshi p with Rodin , 171 , 173-77, 188 ; and transitiona l objects , 181 Transformation i n Rilke' s writings , 11 , 17, 215, 221 , 224, 241 ; in th e Ninth Elegy , 158-59, 225 , 232 , 23 6 Transitional objects , 176 , 181-82 , 184-8 5 Traumatic disappointment , 173-7 4 True self , 56-57 , 60-62 , 190 . See also Fals e self; Schizoid illnes s Unconscious menta l processes , 27 . See also "Invisible, the "

5

Undifferentiated, unintegrate d condition , 9> 23 9 Undoing, 155-56 , 186 , 188 , 19 4 Unicorn tapestries , 11 2 Unintegrated condition , 9 Unrequited love , i^6-9J y 218 , 23 0 Valery, Paul , 238 ; "L'ame e t l a danse," 224

Van Gogh , 4 1 Vogeler, Heinrich , 24 , 10 3 Wassermann, Jakob, 90 "Weltinnenraum," 1 7 Whitman, Walt , "Son g o f Myself, " 23 5 Winnicott, D . W. , 5-7 , 9 , 33 , 50 , 54 , 56 , 60-62, 168 , 180-81 , 238, 240 , 242-4 4 Wolff, Kurt , 9 0 Woman (o r girl ) within, 209-44 ; in The Notebooks, 216 ; in th e Nint h Elegy , 236; in th e Sevent h Elegy , 225 , 232 , 235, 237; in The Sonnets, 219-26 , 230-32 , 235, 237-38 , 241-44 ; in "Th e Unfin ished Elegy, " 217 ; in "Wendung " ("Turning"), 215-17 , 219 , 232 , 241-42 . See also Knoop , Vera Woman's awareness , 22 8 Women i n love , 196-97 , 218 ; man's com parative inabilit y t o love , 154 , 196-9 7 Worpswede colony , 2 4 Wunderly-Volkart, Nanny , 7 9