The Art of Cello Playing [2 ed.] 0874870712, 9780874870718

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The Art of Cello Playing

The Art Of Ullo .

.Playing

Alfred Music P.O. Box 10003 Van Nuys, CA 91410-0003 alfred.com

© 1980 Summy-Birchard Music division of Summy-Birchard Inc. Exclusive print rights administered by Alfred Music All rights reserved No part of this book shall be reproduced, arranged, adapted, recorded, publicly performed, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted by any means without written permission from the publisher. In order to comply with copyright laws, please apply for such written permission and/or license by contacting the publisher at alfred.com/permissions.

ISBN-10: 0-87487-071-2 ISBN-13: 978-0-87487-071-8

Table of Contents

PREFACE 1. PRINCIPAL PARTS OF THE CELLO AND BOW •

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2. CARE OF THE INSTRUMENT

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Page 1

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2

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4

Strings;· Bridge; Pegs; Openings, Cracks; Soundpost; Fingerboard; Bow; Cleaning the Instrument; Storing and Carrying the Instrument; Size of Instrument 3. SOME RUDIMENTS OF MUSIC • The Staff; Treble Clef; Bass Clef; Tenor (C) Clef; Measures and Meter; Note Values; Sharps, Flats, and Naturals; Key Signatures; The Scales; Ties and Slurs; Explanation of Some Common Signs and Terms; Intervals 4. SUGGESTIONS FOR PRACTICING •

•

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9

5. TUNING THE CELLO • . • . • . . • • .

• 10

6. ESTABLISHING THE PROPER PLAYING POSITION.

• 11

Holding the Cello 7. THE PIZZICATO .

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8. ESTABLISHING CORRECT POSITION AND USE OF THE LEFT HAND • (POSTURE I) 9. THE FIRST PLAYING LESSONS •

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•· •

10. HOLDING AND USING THE CELLO BOW .

• 13

• 15

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• 17

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• 22

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• 29

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. 40

Playing with the Bow 11. USING THE LEFT HAND AND BOW TOGETHER

Open String and First Finger; Adding the Third Finger; Using All Four Fingers; Tunes Based on the Five-Tone Major Scales; The Complete One-Octave Scales; Two Projects in Bow Management 12. THE USE OF THE SLUR •

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The Portato Bowing; Crossing the Strings with Larger Intervals 13. THE DETACHE BOW STROKE

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. 54

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. 61

The Dotted Quarter and Eighth Note 14. REFINING THE CHANGE OF BOW- TONE QUALITY • Suggestions for Practice; Some Remarks on Tone Quality

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64

15. THE BOW PROBLEM IN CROSSING THE STRINGS . Crossing the Strings in Arpeggio Style 16. THE LEFT HAND EXTENSIONS (POSTURE 2)

70

The Backward Extension (or Lowered Form); The Forward Extension (or Raised Form); Alternation Between Forward Extension and Regular (or Natural) Position; Supplementary Finger Exercises; Some Suggestions on Intonation 17. PLAYING DOUBLE STOPS .

88

18. THE "ON-STRING" STACCATO (THE MARTELE OR MARTELLATO) .

90

Martele and Detache Combined; Martele and Legato Combined; Three Etudes for Facility and Coordination

96

19. THE FOURTH POSITION . A Survey of Fourth Position; Backward Extension; ·Forward Extension; The Shift to Fourth Position; The Half-String Harmonic 20. THE VIBRATO

108

Suggestions for Vibrato Practice 21. REFINING THE SHIFT.

114

A Few More Shifting Studies 22. THE "LINK" OR "HOOK" BOWING AND THE STACCATO

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118

The Staccato Bowing 23. THE SECOND POSITION

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124

24. THE THIRD POSITION .

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129

Crossing the Strings in Third Position; Raised Form of the Third Position; Shifting Studies; Studies Involving First through Fourth Positions 140

25. THE HALF POSITION . "Pattern-Group" Scale Practice 26. THE SPICCATO BOWING STYLES .

145

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Spiccato Studies; Sautille Studies 27. THE PLAYING OF CHORDS .

159

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Playing Chords With the Bow (Arco); Playing Chords and Double Stops With Pizzicato 28. THE TREMOLO .

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29. THE HIGHER POSITIONS (POSTURE 3) (FIFTH, SIXTH, AND SEVENTH POSITIONS) Fifth Position (and Tenor Clef); Shifting Studies; Sixth Position; Shifting Studies; Seventh Position; Shifting Studies; Two-Octave Scales and Triads Not Yet Presented; The Chromatic Scale

162 163

30, TRILL SnJDI~ (AND ORNAMBNTS) • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

178

Double Stop Finger Studies; Ornamentation: '.1be Turn, 'l1ae Monlent (or Inverted Mordent), 1be Appoglatura1 The Grace Note 31. INTRODUCING nfB ~ PCBmONS • • • . • • • • • • • • • • Two-Octave D Major 8'4 Minor Scales In Ole Thumb Poaltloa; in the 'lbumb Positions; 'lbumb Studies with Shi~•

183

Shiftlnl •

32. ·PJ(JJj BOWING; TWO PRINCIPLES OP PINOBIUNG • • • • • . • • • • . 190 33. NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL HARMONla AND PLAYING OCTAVP.S • • •

193

Natural Harmonica; Artificial Harmonica; Playing Q:tav•

34. SCALEm AND ARPEGGIOS IN THRBB AND POUR OCTAVD • • • • • • (INCLUDING SCALP.S IN BRClCBN THll\IS)

196

Scale Bowing• and Rhythms; Scale1; Arpealoe; Scales In Ji*en 11drd8 ('lbree Octaves) 35. ORCHP.STRAL PASSAGP.S. · • • . • • • • • • • . • • · • • • • • •

213

36. CBLLO RBPBRTOIRB LIST • • • • • • • • • .• • • • • • • •

218

L Studtes; II. Soloe (Blementary to Medium Advanced); llL Sol• (Medium Advanced to Advanced); IV. So1oe (Advanced 11lroup llPIJ Advanced); V. Sonatas and Work• of_Simllar Scope, ·11t Duo Style, Por Cello and Plano; VI. Concertos and Worb of Siml1'1" Scope wida Orchestra and/or Plano; VII. Collections; VllL Orcbeatral St11dl•: IX. Cello P.neemblea; X. Some look• on Cello Playing·

LIST OF MUSICAL £JCAMPUS

Page Old Folks at Home Lightly Row . . . Lightly Row . . . Twinkle. Twinkle. Little Star Melody in G . . . · A Tune for "Dee" Serenade in C Finger Study . Melody in C . A Duet . . . Long, Long Ago Two Duets in C Finger and Intonation Studies Abide With Me . . My Bonnie . Berceuse . . Etude . . . . Adeste Fideles . . Silent Night . . . . . . . Finger Dexterity Studies A Duet . . . . . Potomac Serenade . . . Song for Audrey . . . . A Study with Larger Intervals . Two Patriotic Songs America . . . . . . . . America the Beautiful . . . . . Two Duets for Lou and Eva Hark, the Herald Angels Sing Santa Lucia . . . . . . . Old Black Joe . . . . . There's Music in the Air A C.Omprehensive Etude . . Etude with Syncopation . Duet for Roberta and John . Etude for First and Fourth Positions . Barcarolle . . . . . . . . . . . Drink to Me Only with Thine Eyes Auld Lang Syne . • . . . . . . • An Etude in Triplets and Duplets . .

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28 32 33 34 35 36 36 36 39 42 43 44 45 46 49 49 52 53 53 55 56 57

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·58

59 60 . . . . . 74 . • . • . 75 76 81 85

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86

93 104 106 110 113 118

. 123

Waltz in D . . . . . . . All Through the Night America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Lorelei . . . . . . • • . . • . . . A O:>uble Stop Etude . A Rhythmic Etude . . . . Nocturne . . . . . . . . . . . . . Two Short Studies . . . . . • . . Etude Caprice . . • . . . • • . Alla Marcia . . . • . An Etude for Fifth Position • . . • • . An Etude for Sixth Position . . . • . . An Etude for Seventh Position • . • . . • • . Gavotte Chromatica . . . • . . . . . A Trill Etude . • . • • Duet for "Hi" and "I...o" • • • • • • Etude for Pique Bowing • • • . . . . Natural Harmonics on D, G, and C Strings Overture "Oberon" (Weber) • • . • • • Symphony No. 5 (Dvofik) . • Symphony No. 8 (Schubert) • • Symphony No. 40 (Mozart) • . . Symphony No. 5 (Beethoven) . . • • .

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126 128 131 137 138 138 142 150 152 160 164 168 172 176 181 187 191 195 213 214 214 215 216

UST OF 11.1.USTRATIONS

Page Figure 1. Figure 2. Figure 3. Figure 4. Figure 5. Figure 6. Figure 7. Figure 8. Figure 9. Figure 10. Figure 11. Figure 12. Figure 13. Figure 14. Figure 15. Figure 16. Figure 17. Figure 18. Figure 19. Figure 20. Figure 21. Figure 22.

Principal parts of the Cello and bow Playing position, bow at frog. . . "Rest" position • • . • • • • • Pizzicato position, left hand in rest position. Pizzicato position with bow in hand. . • • Preparing left hand. • • • • • • • Posture l • . . . . • • • Position of left thumb on neck • • • • • Preparing bow position. • • • • • • • Bow grip . . • • Bow grip . . • . • • . • Bow grip . . • • • • • • • . • • Bow at the point • • • • • • • • Posture 2 . • • • . . • • • • • • Posture 2 • • . • . • . . • . Posture 2 • • • . • • . • • • Left hand in fourth position • . • • Half-string harmonic • • . . • . • • Wrong arrangement of fingers for vibrato • Correct arrangement of fingers for vibrato. Posture 3 . • • • . • • Posture 3 • . . • . . • • • • • . Posture 4 • . • • • • . • • • • •

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12 12 12 13 15 15 16 22 22

23 23 24 70

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77 96

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101 110 110 163 171 183

77

Preface

The increasing proliferation ci. cello playing in recent years is a heartening combination of several factors: 1. The splendid growth of our school orchestras, thanks to the dedicated efforts of such professional grQups as American String Teachers Association, Music F.ducators National Conference, Music Teachers National Association and others, and to many fine music educators and instrumental directors throughout the nation. 2. Theinherentexpressive qualities ofthe instrument itself- its rich, sonorous tonal resources, its wide range of effects, and the singularly satisfying effect upon the player as an outlet for aesthetic expression. 3. The marked advances in recent years in the technical and musical resources and repertoire of the cello, under the inspiring leadership of such masters as Casals, Feuermann, Piatigorsky and others. My purpose in writing this textbook-method for the cello is to present a progressive sequence of commentary and material as a basis for acquiring a sound technical foundation and basic playing competence to prepare the player for exploring the rich solo, orchestral, and chamber music literature of the instrument. It is, quite naturally, based on the principles and approaches I have evolved in my own teaching experience. Parenthetically, I should say that I consider myself fortunate to have had the opportunity to work with and observe the pedagogical pursuits of many splendid string colleagues, working toward the same goals, in other loca-

tions and situations; and to have been in a position to teach many fine young people whose individual problems and needs provided a strong and fascinating pedagogical challenge for analysis, study, and fulfillment. I am indebted to these for whatever success I have had in evolving a sequence and pattern of method in teaching this beautiful instrument. I have embarked upon this pedagogical venture with the goal of providing in one volume a rather comprehensive textbook and reference manual on cello technic, combined with a progressive study method for both the private lesson and the homogeneous cello class. This may seem to be an approach fraught with danger, but after all, the aims and needs of both the private lesson and the class situation are the same; only the pace and setting should differ. There is no doubt, however, that the wide variation in talent and in the rate of individual progress and the more intensive refinements of advanced cello technic limit the class approach to the basic, elementary stages of study. For the younger student, whose assimilation of some of the text portions of this book might be less than likely (depending, of course, upon the age and interest level), the teacher should draw upon his or her own resources and experience to guide and direct the study, together with whatever assistance this text can provide in the sequence of technical development. It is the author's cherished hope that the needs of both will be adequately served. Louis Potter, Jr.

Scroll

Tuning Pegs Peg Box Saddle (Nut)

Strings

Neck

Upper Half

Point (Tip) Hair Stick

Fingerboard Rib (Side)

Lower Half

Top

Grip

F (Sound) Hole Bridge Back (Reverse side)

Frog (Nut) Adjusting Screw Tail-piece Gut

Tail-piece Tail-piece Saddle End-pin

.2 Care of the Instrument STRINGS

For the young beginning student a complete set of four wound metal strings, with a tuner for each string, is recommended, primarily because of the easier tuning and longer wear. Most advanced players and professionals prefer a wound metal string built around a flexible core of fine wires, with a tuner, for the A and O strings; and a silver wound (or silverplated wound) on gut core string for the G and C. In using metal strings it is quite important to use the rubber tone filters provided by the manufacturer. The advantages of the flexible core string over the solid steel string are the lack of excessive tension on the instrument and ease of playing.

the bridge height. Bridge-changing mechanisms which retain the tension of the strings during the change (to prevent the sound-post from falling down) are available for a nominal sum. .Keep the strings in tune in order to keep even tension on the instrument-do not allow them to be tuned too high, nor slip down to no tension at all. PEGS

Tight, noisy pegs may be lubricated with a bit of dry soap and a little chalk, with a soft graphite pencil, or with a regular peg· dope available from string instrument dealers~ Slipping pegs may be helped with a little chalk. If. none ·of these suggestions helps the condition; a string repairman wilL have to refit the peg.

BRIDGE OPENINGS, CRACKS

The bridge should be sufficiently rounded in order to have enough clearance when playing on the middle strings. Great care must be taken to have the correct height of the strings above the fingerboard. The proper elevation of the strings at the end of the fingerboard should be: A, 5/32 of an inch; D, 7/32 of an inch; G, 1/4 of an inch; and C, 5/16 of an inch. The notches for the strings should be smooth and rounded to avoid string breakage, and the string should not be seated in the notch lower than its diameter. When putting on a new string it is helpful to lubricate the notch (and the saddle groove at the top) with a soft graphite pencil point. The notches on the bridge must be equally spaced, in accordance with the specifications of an expert string craftsman. The feet of the bridge should be in line with the center notches of the F-holes. As the tension of the strings tends to pull the bridge forward, it should be checked and adjusted at intervals. Generally, it is necessary to have two. (or in northern climates, even three or four) fitted bridges to interchange in order to allow for the effect of seasonal changes on 2

Rattles and buzzing sounds may be caused by open seams, cracks, loose bass-bar, loose inside linings, loose wrappings on strings, and so forth. To locate the cause knock gently with a knuckle around the ribs and along the bassbar, and also along the end-pin. SOUNDPOS'F

The soundpost should not be too tightly nor too loosely set. If it falls down, loosen the strings immediately and have a repairman reset it. It should be in a position about a quarter of an inch behind the left foot of the bridge, and only an expert string craftsman should set or adjust it. FINGERBOARD

A worn or warped fingerboard should be sanded and adjusted by a string repairman. Ckcasionally the saddle may not be exactly at a '.right angle to the strings, thus causing faulty fifths.

... Keep the fingers off the bow hair at all dmes. Bow hair should be clean and fresh, and the bow should be rehaired at intervals. Use a good quality cello rosin frequently, but only a little at a time. Too much rosin causes a gritty tone; too little prevents the hair from engaging the string sufficiently. When the bow is in use the hair should be moderately tight; when not in use the hair must be loosened, leaving just a very slight tension. Keeping the bow hair tight when not playing will weaken and eventually ruin the bow stick.

STORINQ MD CARRYING l'HE llfSl'RUMEN'J'

Keep the instrument in its bag or case when not being used, to minimize temperature changes and to keep out the dust. Be sure it is not at any time placed near radiators, heaters, hot water pipes, or walls containing heating pipes. It is equally harmful to leave the cello out in the winter cold for any length of time. When you carry the cello in its bag keep the bridge toward you and just back of the knee as you walk. Carry it in front of you as you go through doors or down stairways. Never allow the instrument to be set down suddenly or hard nor to be hit or bumped by objects or persons. SIZE OF INSl'RUMElfl'

Keep a soft cloth at hand to wipe off rosin dust from the strings, fingerboard, and the top of the instrument after each playing. The fingerboard and strings may, in warm humid weather, be cleaned occasionally with a soft cloth dampened with a _small amount of alcohol; but be sure not to lei: any alcohol come in contact with the varnish of ~e instrument.

It is difficult to suggest categorically the proper size instrument for a student because of the wide variability in individual size and physical build. A general guide to follow is that a student from about seven to ten years of age should use a half-size cello; a student from about eleven, twelve or thirteen years of age should use a three-quarter size cello. The majority of students from thirteen to fourteen years of age and over are ready for a full-size instrument.

3

3 Some Rudiments of Music THE STAFF

I • I

BASS CLEF

a • '

I -

a

2

I

This sign ( ,?) placed on the staff arranges the sequence of notes as follows:

i

'

The musical staff is composed of five lines and four spaces, and musical sounds are represented by the use of the first seven letters of the alphabet: A 8 C D E F G. In addition to these lines and spaces, so-called leger lines may be wr~tten either above or below the regular staff in order to increase the range of notes to accommodate the particular situation.

•

••

.... :t

I .

ii

"

0.0

The bass clef is the staff used in cello writing to a considerable extent, because of the size and range of the instrument. TENOR {C) Cl.EF

TR£8U Cl.EF

18)

This sign ( placed so that it centers on the fourth line of the staff indicates the "middle" C at this point, and is called the tenor clef. It is also used a great deal in cello writing •

-This sign ( l. ) is called the treble clef. When it is place? on the staff the pattern of .notes is: a.A

.......

0

ACE GB OF AC

' II

... c

'U ...

u

D

F

E

'

n

n

•

n

•

II

G A

B

c

D

E

•

.....

II

ii

t 0

•D

u E

•

n

•

p

G

A

•F

•• ••

.... : t

o" "

BOFACEGB

DFACEGB

c

4

n

a

0

B

u

•

a

G

A

B

... c

l c

I

... c

.A ~

.A~

D

E

F

ii

•

0

... ... l

D

E

F

G

D

•E

a.A

.0

:t

0

n

CEGBDFA

.0

G A

Ii

B

c

B

c

.0

A

n

•

ii

F

G

A

! • ! II

B

c

u

•

0 ... .0 ...

D E F G A B

c

MEASURES AND MIE1'£R

Music is arranged in some sort of predetermined rhythm and meter, and the staff is therefore divided by means of vertical lines called bar lines. The space between two of these is called a measure:

The meter signature placed in the staff indicates the meter and time value of the music. The top number indicates the number of beats (counts) in a measure; the bottom number tells thevalue"of a note which receives one beat.

NOT£ VALUES

NOTE 0

J J

) )t

REST

.....

whole note or rest.

.-.

half note or rest .

I

quarter note or rest. .

;

eighth note or rest.

~

sixteenth note or rest.

)

~

I

J J J- J I

thirty-second note or rest.

Examples:

u

J.

J J

J

I

Note: A dot written to the right of a note adds one half of the note's value.

SHARPS, FLATS, AND NATURALS

Notes can be altered with the· following signs: a sharp ( # ), which raises the note a half-step; a flat ( ~ ), which lowers the note a half-step; and a natural ( ~ ), which restores the note .to its original position, cancelling either a sharp or flat. KEY SIGNATURES

Sharps, flats, or naturals placed within a single measure are referred to as accidentals. When these are placed in a predetermined num-

ber and order at the beginning of each staff they designate a certain key or tonality. There are as many keys as there are half steps in the octave (twelve consecutive half steps in ascending or descending order). Each major key has a minor counterpart called its relative minor key. These are called relative keys because they are bound tbgether, so to speak, by having the same number of sharps or flats in their key signatures, and hence, also have chords in common. The key of C ·major and its relative key (A minor) have neither sharps nor flats in their signatures. 5

Key signatures:

n

C major

A minor

,.,•

D

u

G major

E minor

11•

II

"

II§ • D major

"

• B major

•

•

F major

D minor

• Bf, major

• G minor

a, major

• Bf, minor

E major

C#minor

• A~

• GI minor

•

major

F minor

Parallel keys are keys which begin on the same letter note and hence have parallel notes but do not have the same key signatures: C major and C minor; A major and A minor, and so forth.

'

C

THE SCALES

The diatonic scale of our western culture consists of an arrangement of five whole steps · and two half steps. The major scale has its half steps between the third and fourth tones and between the seventh and eighth tones. The others are all whole steps. I-step

~-step

'

8

.1 2

I

~ ....

3 4

5

e

•.t~ •

6 7 8 7

!-step

a

•J:. A

e

ii

I

A major

F#minor

•

•

F#major

D#minor

n

"'

--" b~

I I I

ii

C minor

I

u

''

Gmajor

Eb minor

Ii

!-step {).

!

i-s~p

-sl3p

ii' • "fe ttF ~u l•ii

8

·'i

II

I

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

The harmonic minor scale has its half steps between the second and third tones, fifth and sixth tones and between the seventh and eighth tones ·in both ascending and descending order. The seventh tone is raised ("borrowed" from the parallel major key) in both ascending and descending the scale, thus creating the odd scale interval of one-and-a-half steps between the sixth and seventh tones, called an augmented second interval.

6 5 4 3 2 1

The melodic minor scale has its half steps between the second and third tones and between the seventh and eighth tones ascending and be6

•

&major

11 1:.Jt

i-step

'

A minor

11.~b

•

tween the fifth and sixth tones and the second and third tones descending (called the natural minor form). Accidentals ''borrowed" from the parallel major key are used for the sixth and seventh tones ascending:

I

If&C minor •• 15'A major a

n major

ii

• B minor

ii

1

23

us

Ii

4 5LJ8 4 3 2 1 aug. 2nd aug. 2nd

I

TIES AND SI.URS

the note is merely held for the duration of the total beats indicated. If the curved line is used to connect two or more notes of different pitches the effect is called a slur. In string instrument playing this is the method used to indicate tones played in one single bow direction.

When two notes of the same pitch and name are connected with a curved line (-)the effect is called a tie. This means that the first note of the tie is sounded but not the second, and Tie

21 Count

t 1

~ ~

.....-

2

3

Tie

I Jc)

4

s~

?i J r r J EXPLANATION OF SOME COMMON SI.CNS AND TERMS

• A dot placed above or below a note means to play it staccato (short) and detached from the adjacent notes before and after. A slur and dots above or below a group of notes means to play these in one bow direction but detached from each other. - A horizontal bar above or below a note means to broaden it or play it well sustained. T Accented but sustained; a marked pulse on each note. -=::::::::: Crescendo; increase the volume of tone. Diminuendo; decrease the volume of tone. > Accent the note. I':\ Fermata; hold the note or rest. :;: Repeat thepreceding measure or group of notes. II Double bar; end of a section or piece. =II Repeat the section preceding this sign. II: :II Repeat the section between these signs. D.S. Dal Segno; repeat from the sign: I . D. C. Da Capo; repeat from the beginning. Fine End. al Fine To the end. n Down Bow; draw the bow from frog to point. V Up Bow; draw the bow from point to frog. Fr. At the frog of the bow. Pt. At the point of the bow.

-

::::----=--

1

2

~ ~ &

Slur

I[

..........--

3

~ II 4

r -r

I

W.B. Use the whole bow. arco Play with the bow. pizz. Pizzicato; pluck the strings. M.B. Middle of the bow. U. H. Upper half of the bow. L.H. Lower half of the bow. o Open string or harmonic. 9 Play this note with the thumb. - - - Keep this finger pressed down for the duration of the sign. sul tasto or sur la touche: Play over or near the end of the fingerboard. sul ponticello: Play very close to the bridge. col Iegno ("with the wood"): Play by dropping the bow to the string (as a type of staccato stroke) using both the wood and hair together. Double Stop: Two tones (strings) sounded together. con sordino or avec sourdine: With mute. senza sordino or sans sourdine: Without mute. INTERVALS

An interval is the distance between two musical tones (either a melodic interval, sounded consecutively, or a harmonic interval, sounded simultaneously). The general name for an interval is found by counting the letter name of both notes and the intervening lines and spaces. The classifying name for an interval refers to its individual quality; whether it is major, minor, augmented, diminished or perfect. Detailed explanation of intervals is available in any manual of music theory, but here are a few examples . (the various intervals of the scale tones obviously form the basis for such study):

7

,

ln'lervals:

ii

II

. •,

Unison

'

.,

e

I

e

ii

I

Perfect 4th

le

II

Augmented 4th

u II

e

II

e Minor 7th

~

II

?

e

le II

e

Minor 3rd

e

Diminished 7th

Major 6th

:Z:

II

e

II

.e

e Major 3rd

II

II

ba

le

Augmented 6th

e

Major 3rd

Ii

II

&u

e

I

Minor 6th

I

"

I

Minor 3rd 1 whole step and a half

ii

a II

I

Major 7th

bet

II

II

II

Augmented Sths

a 0

II

Major 7th

II

II

From these examples it can be seen that: 1. A minor interval is a half step smaller than a major interval. 2. An augmented interval is a half step larger than a major or a perfect interval. 3. A diminished interval is a half step smaller than a minor or a perfect interval.

8

I

II

Major 3rd 2 whole steps

Major 6th

e

II

Diminished Sths

Minor 6th

II

II

Perfect 5th

.,

.,

II

e

Minor 2nd 1 half step

Major 2nd 2 half steps (whole step)

lj

ii

,e le Augmented 3rd

~a 0

II

Minor 7th

II

e ,e Diminished 3rd

~II

ju

I

Diminished 7th·

II

le .e

II

Diminished 3rd

Note: A good knowledge of intervals is indispensable to the string player, and the student must develop the ability and habit of hearing tones mentally before playing them. Ear training and sight singing are necessary adjuncts to the study of a string instrument, and the student should develop the hearing of the relationship of one tone to another by consistent interval practice.

4 Suggestions for Practicing

1. Regular practice is of utmost importance for satisfactory progress, whether it be one hour a day or four hours a day. 2. Budget practice time. Students should provide about ten to fifteen minutes of an hour's practice period for pure technic-scales, arpeggios, finger dexterity studies, etc. Another fifteen or twenty minutes should be allotted to the study of an etude, and the remainder of the hour period to the practice of a solo piece, sonata movement, etc. This outline is obviously intended as a general guide-not as a prescription to embrace all study circumstances. As the student's skill and musicianship grow he will want and will need to extend the length of his practice time. 3. Don't let the practicing degenerate into a routine of "playing over" and correcting the mistakes which so easily become habits that must be unlearned. This procedure wastes time. Slow, careful practice of passages, without making repeated mistakes which have to be corrected, and gradually increasing the speed, as required by the music, is the proper approach. 4. Avoid just playing through, over and over again the piece or study; rather, stop and work out the more difficult spots. Then back up a few notes or measures and play the phrase or passage through, "programming" that spot or fragment into the context of the whole. Be willing to work on even tiny fragments of a passage for total mastery-"overlearning" -for that extra margin of security and for ample technical resources. Remember: the chain is never stronger than its weakest link! However, there should be times for playing

the piece, study or section through without stopping. This will serve to develop continuity and consistency in performance, and also to point. up the parts and details which need further work. Moreover, playing through without stopping at times will help a number of the technical and interpretative details fall into place. 5. E. van der Straeten, in his Technics of Violoncello Playing, has aptly observed that the thoughtful student is conscious of the way in which he arrived at a certain result, and can proceed in the same way again and again to achieve the same result. 6. Use as technical exercises (especially advanced players) passages from repertoire being studied (sonatas, solos, concertos) and orchestral and chamber music literature. This is both economical and practical. 7. From the beginning, the student must be ever alert and sensitive to correct pitch and rhythm, in which there can be no compromise. He must aspire constantly to beauty of sound and phrase. (Yes, with exercises too!) The disciplineshabits-of fine intonation and rhythm, and musical nuance, phrasing, and interpretative sensitivity must apply to etude study, and will transfer naturally to the solo repertoire. An attitude of "almost right" has no place in the realm of intonation and rhythm; these are arithmetical values and there are no "shades of gray." The rewards realized by both player and listener in serving the art with competence, discipline, and integrity are of immeasurable aesthetic satisfaction.

9

5 Tuning the Cello

Good cello playing begins with accurate, meticulous tuning of the instrument. Use a piano or pitch-pipe for tuning your cello, and learn to tune carefully an~ skillfully, talcing a proper pride in accomplishing this necessary task. Later the tuning should be managed by sounding only the A on the piano or pitch-pipe, tuning the other three strings in perfect fifths: D, G, and C. It may help to sing sol for the upper note, and then down to do for the lower note-or, if it helps more, to sing sol-(mi)-do (first three notes of the "Star-Spangled Banner").

When first learning to tune hold the cello firmly at the neck, with the strings toward you. Pluck the A string with the left hand and tune it to the pitch A by turning the A peg with the right hand. H the pitch is too low the string must be tightened; if too high, it must be loosened. Then tune the D string in the same way. Tune the G and C strings by plucking with the right hand and turning the pegs with the left hand. Mechanical tuners, mounted on the tail-piece, are necessary for any metal strings used. They simplify accurate tuning of the instrument. Be sure that the strings do not slip while tuning. This is not only very annoying but also has a damaging effect on both the instrument and the strings. Push the toning peg firmly in toward the peg-box as you turn it-don't let it slip, as this only causes difficulty aRd wastes time. Later, when tuning in fifths, get well acquainted with the sound of these double stops (play them evenly and clearly):

,

10

f f

6 Establishing the Proper Playing Position

The primary concern of the first lessons should be the developing of the proper "set" of the .body, arms, feet, hands, and fingers in relation to the instrument for managing it competently and effectively plus a thorough basic schooling in correct habits of left .hand and bow management and in pitch and rhythm discrimination. It is a fortunate circumstance that some of the motions involved in playing the cello are quite analogous to some of those of routine living, as will be noted in the context of some of the pedagogy to foil ow. The imaginative teacher will draw upon these .similaritie~ in explaining technical matters, linking these familiar movements to the movements involved in many aspects of cello playing. This will promote self-confidence and a quicker grasp of the problems involved.

HOLDING THE CEl.1.0

1. The player sits well forward on a substantial straight chair; preferably a chair with the seat on a level with the player's knees or slightly higher. The player's back should be straight, the body leaning very slightly forward, the feet drawn back on the floor somewhat. Most folding chairs are not suitable because they slope backwards; contour chairs are also quite unsuitable. 2. The cello end-pin is adjusted so that when the instrument is placed between the knees the upper rim of the back ,of the instrument, just to the right of the neck, rests against the middle of the player's chest, just under the chest-bone and just above the stomach. The point of the end-pin should rest on the floor in line with the center of the body.

3. The bottom of the scroll of the cello must not rest on the player's shoulder, but should be from one to three inches above the shoulder (depending upon the build of the individual). A general guide for most players is that the lowest tuning peg will touch the bottom of the left earlobe when the head of the player is held up straight. 4. The knees do not actually hold the instrument but must steady it firmly. The instrument is held at a slight angle toward the right-in a position to assure maximum playing comfort for the two outside strings (A and C) without having to readjust the position of the instrument between the knees when playing from one string to another. The position of the feet may vary according to the build and preference of the individual player. Since the body balance should be slightly forward, most players prefer to have both feet drawn back somewhat; but some like to have the left foot more forward than the right. In general, the right foot should not be advanced forward to achieve good body balance and clearance for playing on the lowest string. S. The edge of the lower left corner of the back of the cello usually fits into the hollow of the inside of the left knee. The right knee rests against the lower right rib of the instrument, with the upper part of the calf touching the cello at about the widest part of the instrument. 6. The neck of the cello should not be held against the player's neck but a little away from the neck for maximum flexibility and comfort. 7. Finally, the playing position of the cellist must at all times be flexible and resilient, not immobile. (See Figures 1, 2, and 3.)

11

Fig. 1 Playing position, bow at frog

Fig. 2

Fig. 3 Pizzicato position-left hand in "rest" position 12

·~Rest"

position

7 The Pizzicato

Since the plucked string soond is the easiest method of producing music from the strings, the first playing will be without the bow. The sound is produced with the fleshy part of the tip of the first finger of the right hand (occasionally with the ~~onq finger); with the right thumb resting against the right side of the fingerboard as a sort of brace or fulcrum. Pluck the string about three inches above the end of the fingerboard, making sure to pull

the string to the side so that it does not "slap" against the fingerboard. A sharper, more strident sound can be produced by plucking close to or just at the end of the fingerboard. Place the left hand, meanwhile, at "rest" position, resting the hand on the upper left rib of the cello, just to the. left of the neck. (See Figures 3 and 4.) If preferred, ~n order to avoid too much contact of the hand with the varnish of the instrument, the hand may simply rest on the left knee.

Fig. 4 Pizzicato position with bow in hand

13

Proceed to practice, identifying the strings, making a musically pleasing plucked sound. Exercises such as the following may be used:

1.

'I

pizz.

r r Ir r I J J IJ J I J J IJ J I r r

' J J 1r r Irr 1r r IJ J Irr IJ J 14 - 11 2.

'I

3.

'I

4.

.

pizz.

r r r 1r r r 1r r r r 1J J

J

w

r

1r

pizz.

r r r 1r r r

pizz.

'' r 14

1r

r 1J J

$

1r

r r J 1r J 4 1J

J 1r J r 1J 4 1J J J 1r r

~ ~

:· t:

r1

111

8 Establishing Correct Position and Use of the Left Hand (Posture 1)

The following method for establishing the correct placement of the left hand in the regular basic position has proved quite satisfactory. First, drop the left hand to the side, completely relaxed. In this relaxed position the fingers will be naturally curved. Now raise the left arm out to the side and on a line with the shoulder, with the palm facing down and the handon a level with the arm, and the wrist flat. Then stretch out the fingers slightly and bend the first and second joints (as if for scratching, or holding a baseball), at the same time placing the thumb underneath the second (middle).finger. (See Figure 5.)

Now bend the forearm toward the body from the elbow, while turning the palm of the hand toward the cello neck. Place all four fingers on a middle string (D or G). The first finger shoul~ be located about three inches below the saddle (nut) of the cello fingerboard, with the fingers equally spaced and at right angles to the strings in a relatively "square" position. (See Figures 6 and 1.)

Fig. 6 Posture 1

Fig. 5 Preparing left hand

The tip of the thumb should rest lightly . (without necessarily being bent) against about the middle of the neck of the instrument, opposite the second finger. The inside knuckle- base

15

of the fingers must not be held too close to the side of the fingerboard, as this will weaken the striking power of the fingers and jeopardize intonation. Moreover, the thumb against the neck acts as a natural support to the arch of the hand. (See Figure 7.)

Fig. 7 Position of left thumb on neck

The left wrist should be basically flat and on an even plane with the forearm, and should not be bent, with the elbow sagging down. The forearm should actually form a straight line from the hand to the elbow. Because of the different level of the strings over the fingerboard the left elbow and forearm

16

are on a slightly higher level for each }:"espectively lower string, from the A to the C, and the thumb moves slightly toward the left side of the neck of the cello for each lower string. The knuckle-base of the hand, however, is kept in line (parallel) with the side of the fingerboard, but not too close to it. It is--fmportant to watch that the arch of the left fingers is maintained and that the left hand never ''caves in'' at the thumb joint. The fingers when lifted should be about an inch above the string, and must be held over the string in the proper position, ready for each note, in order to assure correct intonation. (Check with Figures 6 and 7 again.) When stopping a note, the fingers should drop vertically to the string and fingerboard firmly and decisively, from the knuckle-base. When in contact with the string the fleshy part of the finger-tips should surround the string on both sides-not, however, in a flattened down position, nor yet too close to the fingernails (which must be kept short, obviously I). Moreover, in order to "school" the hand properly, to develop sufficient strength, to facilitate accurate intonation and to avoid excessive finger movements, the elementary player's fingers should remain pressed down on the string as long as possible and practicable in a musical passage. When the second finger stops a note, the first finger should support it; when the third finger stops a note, the first and second fingers should be pressed down also; when the fourth finger stops a note, all the fingers should be pressed down. The position described here for the left hand, with the fingers equally spaced in halfsteps, will from now on be referred to as the "regular" or "natural" left hand posture-i.e., Posture 1. (There are actually four different "postures" to be considered in the total left hand technic of the cello.)

9 The First

Playing Lessons Be sure to set the hand position correctly before playing (as described in Chapter 8) . Make a little test of the first finger placement in relation to the open string (one whole-step above it), then add the second, third, and fourth fingers. The fourth finger may then be tested for the octave with the next lower string. The first finger acts as a base or "guide" finger for establishing the left hand playing position. After preparing the hand carefully, lift the fingers not required for the first note of music and then drop them firmly to the string as needed. Lifted fingers should be about an inch above the string and kept in proper position, ready to play the correct notes. Here is the fingering sequence for the five-tone scale (the line below the number indicates the lower open string; the line above the number, the upper open string): 001133 440044331100. (The scale on the A string will, of course, be only a four-tone scale.)

The approach to be followed here is based on the placing and use of all four fingers of the left hand right from the start. This method has the obvious advantage of developing the complete "set," span, and instinctive feeling, or physical sensation, for the correct posture and use of the left hand (the "cello instinct"). For the student this approach provides an immediate melcxiic experience, if at a rudimentary level. The teacher may at first, to provide for complete concentration on the left hand technic and intonation, use large numbers on a blackboard or on cards, for rote playing. Thus, for the time being, there is not even a note-reading problem to distract from the proper mastery of these fundamentals. The first playing, using immediately all four fingers, is the rote playing (using pizzicato) of the five-tone major scale, using various pairs of the strings, and starting preferably with the middle strings.

pizz. 0

1

l

0

?2 J J I ~ 'fbizz.

0

~

1

1

'2 F F Ir

~

pizz. 0

22

0

1

J J 14

I J J I ~ ~ I F F I. ~ ~ I J J I ~ a I J J =II 3

3

3

11E E

l

~

3

3

0

1

'I r r Ir

4

Ir

~

4

4

I~ ~ I a

pizz. 0

3

4

1

r

~

0

0

0

0

IE E 0

0

4

4

4

4

3

1

3

4

4

3

3

~ I~ ~ 3

3

1

0

1

0

l

1

I~

-~

Ir r •II

1

1

0

3

I~ ~ 11E E

IJ J I~

I~ E 1f f 3

3

I~ J 1

0

0

0

14 J =II 0

0

i'r E I r r I r r

111 17

The student may now proceed from fivetone scale playing to the playing (pizzicato) of simple tunes, using these finger combinations. Numbers, such as the following combinations, may be used on large cards or a blackboard and the tunes played on various strings. As before, the line below the number indicates the lower string; the line above the number, the next high-

r:"I

r:"I

0 1 3 1 0 1 3

1.

r:"I r:"I

3 i

3.

a

aa 1 i a a

4.

0 3 1 1 0 r:"I

r:"I

i 3 3 3

1 1 1

0 0 0 1 3 1

1 4 3 1

0131

0

0 0

'

3101

0

1

4.

1 l

333

N1 r r r r r rr

1

1

3

1

1

0

0

e

0

3101

0

3101

1

3

j

3333

0

3

1

1

IJ J JJ I • 1131

1134

310

30

0

0

4

4

3

1144

1

1

0

:II: F F F F I r

rr

1001431

0

1

=II

=11

330

'' r r r r tr r r r r r r r r r r r r r r 18

0

1

1

3

1

I J r J JI J

3 0 0

1

0

r r r r r r r 1rrrr1rrr

1144

3434

r r r r rr 1r r rr 1r r r r 1r r rr:r-•·

0011340

''• t

4 3

I J J JJ I J J J J I J J J J I •

''2 J r J J I J J I J J J J I 3.

a ao4

Here are the same tunes written with musical notes on the staff, together with others. Practice them, reading the notes and being sure to maintain as carefully as before the correct playing position at all times: 3101

1

3

1 1 4 4 3 3

II

013

1

'6' I r:"I

1 1 4 4 3 3 0

21 f JJ J J I JJ J 2.

II

r:"I

More simple tunes, using these numbers, based on the five-tone scales, may be composed by the teacher or the student, to provide further experience at this level, as needed.

1.

a

300 3 1 0 1 3 3 3 3 1 1 3 1

1 1 3 4 3 1 0

1>'

0 3 1 i

r:"I

r:"I r:"I

a

II

3 1 0 1 3 4 3 4 3 1 0 1 0 r:"I r:"I

r:"I

1 3 4

r:"I

1 3 4 3 1 3 4 r:"I

0 0 0 1 3 1

2.

er open string; the I:'\ a point of rest, or hold. The student must always take time to set the entire handin the correctpositionbefore any playing, making the little test with the first finger and placing all four fingers in the proper spacing order, with equal distance between them. Any lifted fingers must be always kept over the string, ready to play the correct notes:

1 • •11

,., ,,, r r r ,,., r r ,, J

Sa.

1

0

3

J I J J I J J I J, J (Fingerings may be written, but only if necessary.) Sb.

0

1

3

F Ir

I

Sc.

1

0

Sci.

1t

1

0

3

F I

IJ J J IJ J

J. •I

r Ir r

r· :II

r·

IF F

r·

Ir

r Ir r

r r 1f r

r·

•II

J

=I

3

J 14 J

'J

J

l

14 J J 14 J

6a.

211 JJJJIJ JJjJJJ IJ J IJJJ IJ. JIJJJJl.ijl 6b.

211• 2

7.

r r r r 1r t t 1tr r 1r

r r r r r· r r r r r 1

1

1

3

,., 1 r '

1• 4

1

r ' 1r r r ' 1 r ' r ' 1 r r r ' 1r r 1r r 1 r r r r 1

1

''• r r r r 1 r r ' 1 ' r r r 1 r r 1 r r r '

11

r r r 1r r

'.. F F F I I r - I r - I r r I F r F r I r

r

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10

Holding and Using the Cello Bow

In the first lessons the left hand and bow should not be used together until each has been developed separately to a point where the student will be able to combine the two with a reasonable degree of control. However, to sustain interest and assure more equal progress, the two may be studied and practiced concurrently, with alternate periods of study for each. Hence the first bowing studies will be rote open string practice. To achieve the correct bow position, first hold the stick of the bow at about the middle with the left hand, on the middle strings halfw-ay between the bridge and the end of the fingerboard. Now drop the right arm and hand to the side, completely relaxed. The fingers when relaxed are naturally somewhat curved and ready to hold the bow. Next draw up the right forearm from the elbow joint, the hand hanging down, fingers and wrist still relaxed. (See Figure 8.)

curved over the bow stick at the leather and silver thread (or plastic) bow grip. lhe fourth (little) finger is then placed against approximately the middle of the frog, its first joint curved slightly over the stick. The third (ring) finger falls in line with the fourth finger, its first and secondjoints against the frog and stick, usually with the fleshy part of the tip of the finger against the silver mount of the bow. The second (middle) finger falls in line with the first and third fingers, its first and second joints also against the frog and stick, and the fleshy part of its tip usually against the hair of the bow just where the hair joins the silver mount of the frog. (See Figures 9-and 10.)

Fig. 9 Bow grip Fig. 8 Preparing bow position Now place the right side of the tip of the curved thumb against the inner end-comer of the bow stick and frog, just where the stick and frog meet. The first joint of the first (index) finger (counting from the tip of the finger) is now

22

The cello / bow position differs in important aspects from the violin bow position, but is quite similar to the position of the French bow in bass playing. Note that the thumb, which is about opposite the middle finger, will act as a fulcrum, with the first and fourth fingers exerting the slight pressure needed to hold and balance the bow. All fingers on the bow are slightly separated and are rounded outward (not stiff

or straight), the first finger being slightly more curved than the others. The thumb is also arched outward (curved) slightly (but not doubled under), the degree depending upon the build of the individual hand. Rounded finger and thumb joints are necessary in order to promote flexibility and a smooth, relaxed bow change, and to assure the freedom and use of the tendons for the various types of bowing, control, and tone production. It is worth noting, finally, that there is a rounded space (or sort of "cave") between the top of the bow stick and the inside pf ,the hand (when playing in the lower part of the bow). · (See Figures 9~ 10 and 11.)

PLAYING WITH THIE BOW

To obtain a good, clear quality of tone the bow should be drawn consistently at a right angle to the string (parallel with the bridge), and for the initial schooling, halfway between the bridge and the end of the fingerboard. In order to avoid tension and stiffness the very first bow strokes should be fairly short, active strokes using the middle third of the bow (starting at about the balance point). Play the following, by rote, on the various strings, starting with one of the middle strings (do not lift bow from strings during these exercises):

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23

To keep the bow in alignment during the stroke (i.e., parallel to the bridge), the arm gradually straightens and the wrist is gradually lowered in the down-bow stroke. (But it must not actually "cave in" when the bow is at the point.) On the up-bow stroke the action of wrist and arm is reversed, the wrist gradually rising and arching somewhat toward the fingerboard and strings as the frog is approached. (See Figures l and lZ:.) These show the arm and hand position at both the frog and point of the bow.

The bow stick is leaned somewhat toward the end of the fingerboard and the full, "flat hair of the bow need not be used, especially on the upper strings (nor for starting a tone on any string with clarity). In strong playing full hair will be brought to bear on the string simply by the greater muscular intensity applied into the bow stick. A clear, healthy tone quality will depend upon having a relaxed, flexible arm, wrist, and hand combined with the necessary control for evenness and consistency of sound. When playing on the C string the arm is rather close to the body, and on the A string it is away from the body.

The student should think of drawing the tone out of the instrument (not forcing), by using the appropriate leverage of the first finger (supported by the second finger) and thumb( :Ggainst the bow stick. A thin, "whistling" tone quality may be due to one or more of the following factors: 1. Bowing too close to, or even over, the end of the fingerboard. 2. Moving the bow at too great a speed in relation to the amount of pressure applied to the stick. 3. Not stopping the string with sufficient firmness of the left fingers. The student should now proceed to the following studies for open string bowing. After achieving the proper bow position keep the left hand comfortably at "rest" position on the upper left rib of the cello adjacent to the neck during the practicing. (It may be advisable to practice using the whole bow by rote study, before proceeding to the note-reading studies.)

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13 The Detache Bow Stroke

The detache bow stroke is, as the term implies, a series of detached notes played with separate individual bow strokes, but without the bow leaving the string. The bow is changed smoothly, without interruption, but the effect of each note played with a separate bow is quite different from the effect of groups of notes played in slurred bowings. The latter effect is associated more with legato, sustained playing. The detache stroke can be played in various parts of the bow, with different lengths of bow stroke (depending upon the tempo, note values, or dynamic strength involved), and at many different bow speeds. Hence it is a very important bow stroke and is used in many different contexts and styles of music, including a wide range and variety of orchestral, chamber music, and solo passages. It is most often exe1.

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In making the forward extension the hand moves a little toward the bridge of the instrument (hence the term "forward extension''). To execute this extension the tip of the first finger remains in its usual place (on the proper note) in the regular (or natural) position. The rest of the hand, including the thumb, advances down the neck of the instrument a half-step, with the thumb moving along underneath the second finger. The first finger, as the hand advances, pi v ots a little on its tip. The finger itself straightens and assumes the position of pointing upward toward the player's ear lobe. Thus the movement required to expand the reach of the hand is just the opposite of that in making the backward extension. But after the

Fig. 14 Posture 2 It is not enough just to stretch the second finger on the forward extension. This fault, while achieving the distance between the first and second fingers, places the third and fourth fingers out of position for their proper notes, jeopardizing the intonation. Moreover, an extra,

execution of the forward extension the hand. and fingers appear just as they did in the backward extension. Hence the appearance and aspect of the arm, hand, and fingers are the same for both extensions-only the executions are different. In making the forward extension the thumb moves along the neck of the cello a little, underneath the second finger, in a single, simultaneous movement with the second, third, and fourth fingers (and hand and arm too). The first finger tip remains in its regular place and the finger pivots (as already described). It is very important that the second, third, and fourth fingers remain in proper alignment over the string, poised over their new respective notes and ready to play these tones, to insure correct intonation. (See Figure 14, all the fingers down, and Figure 15, first finger down and others ready to play.)

Fig. 15 Posture 2 awkward rolling movement of the hand has to be made to bring these fingers back into proper alignment over the string. The single, coordinated movement in making the forward extension of all the elements involved (arm, hand, and fingers), with the thumb moving along the neck 77

underneath the second finger, as explained here, avoids a forced, cramped stretch. It keeps the fingers in proper alignment for correct intonation, and minimizes the amount of movement required in executing the forward extension. This insures clarity and facility, especially when playing rapid passages involving this extension.

pressed down on the E, while the rest of the hand and fingers (and the thumb underneath the second finger) advance a half-step as the second finger moves from F natural to F sharp. The conversion back to the regular (or natural) position (closed hand) in going down the scale from F sharp to F natural is also a single, coordinated movement of the thumb, hand, and fingers, in reverse order (keep each successive finger down during the playing):

Here is a preliminary rote study for the forward extension. The first finger tip remains

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ALTERNATION BETWEEN FORWARD EXTENSION

AND REGULAR (OR NATURAL) POSITION

The execution of the forward extension and the conversion back to regular position are somewhat more involved, in the early stages at least, than the backward extension and its conversion back to regular positioo, so some special attention is needed in the alternation between the forward extension and regular position. This is necessary to gain the quick recognition of its application to various musical passages, as well as facility and speed of execution. It is a technical problem unique to the cello, and not particularly related to the technic of any other of the string instruments. The forward extension, or the conversion back to regular position, will be executed in either one of two sets of circumstances, according to the immediate requirements of a musical passage: (1) While the first finger is pressed down for a note. (2) While an open string is being played. It is highly important, in either case, to make the forward extension so that all the fingers are kept lined up in a group, properly s~ced and over the string, so that they are immediately ready to play the correct notes. Moreover, the correct span of the hand, from first to fourth fingers, in the forward extension execu-

tion (a major third), must be immediately ready and set for the particular situation-whether the passage is on the same string or involves a string crossing. The hand prepares for the whole group of notes (1-2-4), not just a single note. When making the forward extension (or closing the hand to the regular. position) with the first finger already pressed down, the student must be sure to make the little pivoting motion on this finger. The thumb moves along the neck of the cello underneath the second finger (as already explained). When making the forward extension (or converting back to the regular position) while playing an open string (the fingers all lifted) the same decisive motion must be made. The thumb moves along the neck of the cello underneath the second finger, only without any fingers down on the string-"snapping" the whole hand into the proper extended position. All the fingers are ready to play the correct notes and the tip of the first finger remains over its proper note. The following D major two-octave scale and studies will aid in developing the necessary skill and facility (remember when two consecutive whole steps occur between first and founh fingers, the pattern 1-2-4 is used):

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19 The Fourth Position

After achieving a reasonable mastery and competence in the use of the first position and extensions, with a commensurate skill in tone and bow control, the student is ready to proceed to the use of the fourth position. The advantages of studying the fourth position following the first position are: (1) It extends the range considerably in a natural sequence from first position. (2) The shift from first to fourth position involves a distance the hand and arm can execute comfortably. (3) The thumb resting at the crook of the neck of the cello acts as a reliable guide and goal for the shift. This promotes the feeling of security and "naturalness" about the fourth position. (4) The fourth position is one of the three principal or basic playing areas of the cello-the other two are first and seventh positions. (Seventh position in this context includes playing at the half-string harmonic with either the first finger or the thumb.) Fourth position on the cello is comparable in importance to third position on the violin. In placing the hand at fourth position (the shift will be studied a little later) it is important not to hold the end of the thumb too far around the crook of the neck of the cello, and not to rest the side of the hand and arm on the rib of the cello. This would bring the hand and arm into a too-low position and also bring the inside base of the fingers too close to the side of the fingerboard, hampering the action of the fingers. It is also important not to let the elbow drop ("sag''), and not to raise the wrist ("hump up"). Actually, the finger, hand and arm relationship should remain much the same as in first posi-

96

tion--except for the fact that the half-steps are slightly closer together because of the shortened string length. (See Figure 16.)

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THE SHIFT TO FOURTH POSITION

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THE HALF·STRING HARMONIC

By merely couching the string lightly at the point exactly half the distance between the saddle of the fingerboard and the bridge, you can produce a tone one octave higher than the open string. It has a distinctive quality, different from the regular tone produced by stopping the string solidly with the fingers. When playing the harmonic the string is actually left free to vibrate in two equal segments (or three, four, six, etc., with other harmonics), because the finger touches the string at one of the so-called "nodes." The finger must be placed accurately and no other fingers may come into contact with the string, to produce a clear harmonic. The harmonic tones thus produced are called "natural" harmonics, and these are indicated by a tiny, circle placed over the note (the same indication as for an open string). ''Artificial" harmonics are produced in a different manner and are employed much less often than natural harmonics. So these will not be explained at this stage of the study. Without removing the thumb from the neck of the cello merely reach the third finger (the finger perhaps most often employed for the halfstring harmonic) a whole step beyond the note played by the fourth finger in regular fourth position. (See Figure 17.) After playing the ha r monic do not slide to the next note to be played (a squeak might result). Rather, lift the finger (the harmonic will continue to sound) and then immediately drop the next finger, or fingers, de-

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