The Archaeology of an Early Historic Town in Central India 9781841711973, 9781407323831

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The Archaeology of an Early Historic Town in Central India

Monica L. Smith

BAR International Series 1002 2001

Published in 2019 by BAR Publishing, Oxford BAR International Series 1002 The Archaeology of an Early Historic Town in Central India © Monica L. Smith and the Publisher 2001 The author’s moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9781841711973 paperback ISBN 9781407323831 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9781841711973 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com BAR Publishing is the trading name of British Archaeological Reports (Oxford) Ltd. British Archaeological Reports was first incorporated in 1974 to publish the BAR Series, International and British. In 1992 Hadrian Books Ltd became part of the BAR group. This volume was originally published by John and Erica Hedges in conjunction with British Archaeological Reports (Oxford) Ltd / Hadrian Books Ltd, the Series principal publisher, in 2001. This present volume is published by BAR Publishing, 2019.

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C on ten t s L is to ff i gure sa nd t ab le s

i

A cknow ledgmen t s C hap ter 1 : I n troduc t ion Chap ter 2 : Ma ter ia l C u l ture a nd S oc ia l Organ iza t ion : Why T rade O ccur s C on s truc t ing mode ls f o rt h ea nc ien te conomy B oundar ie s

1 5 5 7

C o inage a nd mone t ized e conom ie s S ca r c i ty i nt h e ma rke t T he o r ig in so fe x change a c t iv i ty : Who t r ade s , a nd w hy?

8 9 1 0

T he g eog raph ic s c a le o fe xchange : H ow i se xchange a ch ieved? T he I nd ian s ubcon t inen ta s al o cu so ft r ade a c t iv i ty

1 5 1 6

Chap ter 3 :S oc ia l a nd P o l i t ica l Organ iza t ion i nt he I nd ian S ubcon t inen t i nt he E ar ly H i s tor ic P er iod P o l i t ie so ft h eE a r ly H is to r ic p er iod S oc ia lc ohe s ion i nt he E a r ly H i s to r ic p er iod T he r e su rgence o fc en t ra l ized p o l i t ie si nt h ef our th c en tu ry A .D C onc lu s ion

1 7 1 7 1 9 2 1 2 3

Chap ter 4 :T rade i nt he I nd ian S ubcon t inen t i nt he E ar ly H i s tor ic P er iod L ong -d is tance e xchange R eg iona le xchange L oca le xchange P roduc t ion f o re xchange T he d eve lopmen to fl o ca le conom ie si nc en t ra l I nd ia A r chaeo log ica la s se s smen t so fs oc iopo l i t ica lc omp lex i ty

2 4 2 4 2 5 3 1 3 1 3 2 3 7

Chap ter 5 : S ur face S urvey a t Kaund inyapura a nd I t s E nv iron s G eo logy o ft h eV ida rbha r eg ion B a s ic c oncep t so fa rchaeo log ica l s urvey I n te rp re ta t ion o fs u rf ace m a te r ia l s A r chaeo log ica ls urvey a tK aund inyapu ra

3 9 3 9 3 9 4 2 4 4

S urvey i nt h e 1 0 -k i lome te rr ad iu sa round K aund inyapu ra

5 4

Chap ter 6 : Ma ter ia l C u l ture a t Kaund inyapura : C eram ic sa nd O ther Ob jec t s T heo r ie so fc l a s s if ica t ion T ype so fE a r ly H i s tor ic c e ram ic s

5 8 5 8 6 1

A na ly s i so fc e ram ic w a re sa tK aund inyapu ra : T he t y pe c o l lec t ion D iscu s s ion o ft ypo logy

6 3 6 6

O the rm a te r ia l sr e covered i nt h e s u rvey C e ram ic c h rono logy

6 9 6 9

O the rc h rono logy S umma ry o fc h rono logy

7 4 7 4

Chap ter 7 :S oc ia l Organ iza t ion a nd E conom ic A c t iv i t ie sa t Kaund inyapura T rade g ood s P roduc t ion o fg ood s L oca lp roduc t ion o fd u rab le g 9od s L oca lp rodu c t ion o fp er i shab le g ood s T he e xp lo i ta t ion o ff o re s tp roduc t s Mode so ft r an spor t S oc ia lo rgan iza t ion a nd s u rp lu sp roduc t ion R e la t ion sb e tween K aund inyapu ra a nd i t s i mmed ia te h in te r land C hap ter 8 :C onc lus ion

7 5 7 5 8 1 8 5 9 0 9 5 9 6 9 7 1 01 1 02

A ppend ix A : C o l lec t ion u n i t r e co rd ing f o rm , K aund inyapu ra p ro jec t

1 04

A ppend ix B : L oca l i ty r e co rd ing f o rm , K aund inyapura p ro jec ta rea

1 05

A ppend ix A ppend ix A ppend ix A ppend ix

1 06 17 1 29 1 35

C : C e ram ic t y pe c o l lec t ion D : R im f o rm s f r om K aund inyapu ra a nd Dhaman t r i E : F requenc ie sa nd d a te sf o rr im f o rm sf r om K aund inyapu ra a nd Dhaman t r i F :U se so fw i ld f l o ra i nt h eK aund inyapu ra r eg ion

R ef e rence s I ndex

1 42 1 63

1

L i s to fF igure s

1 . 1 . L oca t ion o fV ida rbha ( s haded ) a nd m a jo rr i ve r si nt he I nd ian s ubcon t inen t .

2

1 . 2 . T he V ida rbha r eg ion , s how ing mode r nd i s t r ic tb ounda r ie sa nd t own sm en t ioned i nt h et e x t 3 . 1 . Ma jo rk nown p o l i t ie so ft h ef i r s tc en tu ry A .D . i nt h eI nd ian s ubcon t inen t

3 1 7

4 . 1 . R e la t ive f r equency o ft r ade g ood si ns i te so ft h eE a r ly H is tor ic p e r iod

2 5

4 . 2 . S i te si nt he I nd ian s ubcon t inen tw i th s ub s tan t ia lp ub l ished i n f o rma t ion a bou t E a r ly H i s to r ic ma te r ia l s

2 7

4 . 3 . C ro s s sec t ion o fT urb ine / la p y rum s he l l .

2 9

4 . 4 . A rchaeo log ica l ly recove red s amp le so fT urb ine / la p y rum s he l l , f r om t h e s i te o fN eva sa 4 . 5 . E a r ly H is to r ic man a nd w oman w i th or namen t s

2 9 3 0

4 . 6 . Mega l i th ic a nd E a r ly H i s to r ic s i te si nC en t ra l I nd ia 5 . 1 . T he l o ca t ion o fK aund inyapu ra i nt h e Wa rdha r i ve rv a l ley

3 4 0

5 . 2 . E xcava t ion sa tK aund inyapu ra , 1 962 a nd 1 964

4 1

5 . 3 . A r chaeo log ica l mound s , s amp le a r ea s , a nd l o ca t ion o ft h e moder nv i l lage a tK aund inyapu r a

4 5

5 . 4 . Mound sa ts i te o fK aund inyapu ra 5 . 5 . S i te o fK aund inyapu ra f r om a c ro s st h e Wa rdha R ive r

4 6 4 6

5 . 6 . S ou thwe s te rn f l ank o f mound KDN I I ( c o l lec t ion a rea s2 04 , 2 08 ) s how ing f i e ld s

4 7

5 . 7 . V i l lage o fK aund inyapu ra ,t aken f r om " i s land " i n Wa rdha R ive r

4 7

5 . 8 . E ro s ion o nt he n o r thwe s ts i de o ft h eB h im T ekd i mound

4 8

5 . 9 . E xamp le o f as y s tema t ic n on -a l igned s amp le g r id

5 0

5 . 10 . C o l lec t ion o f as amp le u n i t

5 1

5 . 11 . S y s tema t ic a nd j udgmen ta l s amp le sa tK aund inyapu ra

5 2

5 . 12 . A rea so fs y s tema t ic p ede s t r ian t r an sec t sa r ound t h e s i te o fK aund inyapu ra

5 3

5 . 13 . K aund inyapu ra s urvey z one , 1 994 -95

5 5

5 . 14 . S i te o f Dhaman tr i

5 6

5 . 15 . Dhaman t r i , mode rn u se s

5 6

5 . 16 . S amp le u n i t sa t Dhaman tr i

5 6

6 . 1 . R ed P o l ished Wa re f o rm s

6 2

6 . 2 . I n i t ia ls o r t ing c r i ter ia f o rc r ea t ing t h et y pe c o l lec t ion .

6 5

6 . 3 . E xamp le so fm icaceou sw a re f o rm K aund inyapu ra .

6 6

6 . 4 . N onve s se lc e ram ic f r agmen t sf r om K aund inyapu ra

7 0

6 . 5 . N once ra rn ic a r t if ac t sf r om K aund inyapu ra a nd Dhaman tr i

7 0

6 . 6 . S and s tone o b jec t sf r om K aund inyapu ra a nd Dhaman t r i

7 1

6 . 7 . C he ri r aw ma te r ia ls f r om K aund inyapu ra

7 1

6 . 8 . T i le f r agmen t sf r om K aund inyapu ra 7 . 1 . D is t r ibu t ion o fm icaceou sw a re a tK aund inyapu ra

7 4 7 6

7 . 2 . D i s t r ibu t ion o fm icaceou sw a re a t Dhaman t r i

7 7

7 . 3 . D i s t r ibu t ion o fs and s tone a tK aund inyapu ra

7 8

7 . 4 . D is t r ibu t ion o fs and s tone a t Dhaman t r i

7 9

7 . 5 . F ragmen to f monumen ta lp i sd w a l la tG ho ta

8 4

7 . 6 . X ray d if rac t ion a na ly s i so fs he rd so fh igh -po l i sh " b lack a nd r e d " w a r ef r om K aund inyapu ra , D haman t r i , a nd R a ipu r . 7 . 7 . C her ts ou rce a tL oca l i ty 2 7 , 5k i lome te r se a s to fK aund inyapu ra 7 . 8 . D is tr ibu t ion o f mod if ied c he r t sa tK aund inyapu ra

8 6 8 7 8 8

7 . 9 . Me ta l s l ag a nd o the rm e ta l -p roduc t ion i nd ica to r sf r om s y s tema t ic c o l lec t ion u n i t sa tK aund inyapu ra

8 9

7 . 10 . Mo s tc ommon p a leobo tan ica lf i nd si nc ha lco l i th ic , mega l i th ic a nd E a r ly H i s tor ic s i te s i nt h eD eccan r eg ion o fc en t ra lI nd ia . 7 . 11 . C ompa ra t ive whea t ( T r i t icum s p . )y i e ld sf o rt h ea rea a round K aund inyapu ra , 1 881-1927

9 2 9 4

7 . 12 . C ompa ra t ive g ram ( C icer a r ie t inum )y i e ld sf o rt h e a rea a round K aund inyapu ra , 1 881-1927

9 4

7 . 13 . P o ten t ia lr e spon se st oe nv ironmen ta lf l uc tua t ion a nd f ood s t r e s s

9 5

7 . 14 . E xchange g ood si nt h eg r ea te r Wa rdha v a l ley d u r ing t he E a r ly H i s tor ic p e r iod

9 8

7 . 15 . U se -a rea sa tK aund inyapu ra i nt h eE a r ly H i s tor ic p er iod

9 9

11

L i s to fT ab le s 6 . 1 . N once ram ic a r t if ac t sr e cov e red f r om c o l lec t ion u n i t sa tK aund inyapu ra . 7 . 1 . P opu la t ion f i gu r e sf o rt own sa nd r e g ion si nt h ev i c in i ty o fK aund inyapu ra i nt h el a te n ine teen th a nd e a r ly t wen t ie th c en tu r ie s . 7 . 2 . C e ram ic d i s t r ibu t ion sf r om K aund inyapu ra s amp le u n i t s

i v

7 2 8 1 1 00

A cknow ledgmen t s

T h i sv o lume r e p r e sen t sn o to n ly t h er e po r to fa na r chaeo log ica ls i t eo fm any c en tu r ie sa go ,b u ta l so t h e a c t ive i n vo lvemen t o f t ho se w ho a c t ive ly w o rk t o day t op r e se rve t h e p a s t . Iw ou ld f i r s t l i ke t ot h ank t h e A r cha eo log ica l S u rvey o fI nd ia f o rg r an t ing t h ep e rm i tw h ich p rov ided m ew i th t h eo ppor tun i ty t ou nde r take t h e f i e ldwo rk d e sc r ibed i nt h i sd o cum en t . D r . B . L .N aga r ch , D r . R . S .B i sh t , a nd D r . Ama rend ra N a th w o rked t o f a c i l i ta t et h ed a i ly f i e ldwo rk a nd t h el o ng range g oa l so ft h ep r og ram , a nd Ia mi n d eb t ed t ot h em a l . T h ei n s t i tu t iona ls uppo r to ft h e Ame r ican I n s t i tu te o fI nd ian S t ud ie sw a si n s t rumen ta li nm ak ing p o s s ib le t h i s r e sea r ch a nd i nf a c i l i ta t ing i t si mp lemen ta t ion . D r . P .R . Mehend i ra t ta p rov ided e s sen t ia l a dm in i s t ra t ive s uppo r tt h roughou tt h i sp ro jec t ,a nd Iw ou ld l i ke t ot h ank h im f o rt a k ing ap e r sona l i n te re s ti nt h es u cce s so ft h e r e s ea r ch . My t h ank sa l so g ot ot h em embe r so ft h eA I IS s t af fi nN ew D e lh i ,P un e ,a nd C a lcu t ta f o rt h e i rp a t ience a nd h e lp f u lne s si nm a t te r sg r ea ta nd s ma l l ,f r om f a c i l i ta t ing u s eo ft h e i re x ce l len tl i b ra r ie st ot h er o u t in em a t te r s o ft r av e l , a c commoda t ion a nd s t o rag e . I nP une , Ie n joyed m any f r u i tf u la nd p l ea san ti n t e ra c t ion sa tD eccan C o l lege a nd t h et im es p en ta mong t h ec o l le c t ion sa nd i nt h e i re xce l l en tl i b ra ry i sf ond ly r em embe r ed . Among t h em any f a cu l ty m embe r st h e r ew ho e n cou rag ed m yw o rk ,m ys p e c ia lt h ank sg ot oP rof e s so rV .N .M i s ra ,D r . V .S h inde ,a nd D r . V . G og t e . D r . G og t e a l so p rov ided t h er e su l t so fx ray d if ra c t ion d i scu s sed i nc hap te r7 . T he r e sea r ch t h a tc u lm ina t ed i nt h i sd ocum en ti n vo lv ed h i s to r ica ls ou r ce sa sw e l la sa r t if a c t s . My t h ank s g ot oO l iv ie rG u i l laume ,t h en o ft h eC en t r ed e sS c ience sH uma ine s ,f o rm ak ing t h ee xce l len ta nd p l ea san tl i b ra ry o ft h eC en t re a va i lab le t om ei nN ew D e lh i ,a nd a l so t o Mr s .B ha l la a nd t h eC SH s t af ff o r mak ing m ea lway sf e e l w e lcom e . A dd i t iona l l i b ra ry r e sea r ch w a s u nde r taken a tM .S . U n iv e r s i ty B a roda , whe re Ia pp r ec ia ted t h e o ppo r tun i ty t oi n t e rac tw i th f a cu l ty a nd s t uden t s ; a nd a tt h eE co le F ran ça i se d ' Ex t r 8me O r ien t i nP ond iche r ry , w h e r e Iw ou ld l i ke t ot h ank F ranw i s e L 'He rnau t a nd J e an D e loche f o rt h e i rh o sp i ta l i ty . A t t h e U n iv e r s i ty o f Mad ra s , Iw ou ld l i ke t ot h ank P ro f . K . V . R aman f o rp e rm i t t ing t h e u s e o ft h e l i b ra ry a nd o t he rd epa r tmen ta l f a c i l i t ie s . F ina l ly , ap l ea san ta nd p roduc t ive s t op i nT han javu rw a sm ad ep o s s ib le b yY . S ubba raya lu o ft h eT am i l U n ive r s i ty , w ho a l so k ind ly s ha r ed h i se xper t i se o nr e g iona la r chaeo logy . Iw ou ld l i ke t ot h ank I a nB a r row f o rv e ry h e lpf u l i n f o rma t ion o n n i ne teen th -cen tu ry s ou r ce s . T h i sl e d m et ot h eN a t iona lA rch ive si nN ew D e lh i ,w he r et h es t af fp rov ided i mpo r tan th i s to r ica lm a te r ia l sr e la ted t oc en t ra l I nd ia . My t h ank sg ot ot h eN eh ru L ib ra ry a nd t ot h el i b ra ry o ft h eP u sa I n s t i tu t e ,b o th i nN ew D e lh i ,f o rt h eu se o ft h ec o l lec t ion s . Iw ou ld a l so l i k et ot h ank t h e s t af fo ft h e l i b ra ry o ft h e G eo log ica l S u rvey o fI nd ia f o rt h e i r a s s i s tan ce i ni d en t if y ing u se f u l r e sea r ch m a te r ia l sf o rt h e s t udy o fs and s ton ea nd m ica s ou r ce si nt h e V ida rbha r e g ion . A dd i t iona li n f o rma t ion a bou tI nd ian g eo logy w a sp rov ided b yM .P .T iwa r ia nd H .M .R amchand ra o ft h e G eo log ica l S u rv ey o fI nd ia of i ce i nN agpu r . I nK aund inyapu ra ,o u rw o rk w a sf a c i l i ta t ed b yt h ee f o r t so ft h ev i l lag eh eadwoman ,R amaba iL axmanRao B haga i ,w ho a s s i s t ed u sw i th m any l o g i s t ica ld e ta i l s . I n1 994 ,t h ep ro jec tw a sb a sed i nA rv i ,w he r ew ew e r ek i nd ly h o s t ed b yM r .H .U .P achgha r ea nd h i sf am i ly . D u r ing t h e 1 995 s e a son ,t h ep ro jec th eadqua r te r sw e r el o ca ted f o r ap o r t ion o ft h es e a son i nt h eR ukm in it emp le c omp lex a tK aund inyapu ra . Wh i le w o rk ing i n Dhaman t r i ,w ew e r e t h eg u e s t so fS h r i S wam i R a thang i r i . Ia m g ra te f u l f o rt h ec h ee r f u l a nd u n s t in t ing h o sp i ta l i ty o f e red b y m any h o s t sa sw et o u r ed t h ev i l lag e so ft h ew ide rs ur v ey r e g ion a r ound K aund inyapu ra . O u rs u rvey d ay sw e r e m ade p l ea san tb yi n t e ra c t ion sw i th h ou seho lde r sa nd s choo l teach e r s ,w ho t o ok a ni n te r e s tm yw o rk a nd w ho s en tu so n o u rw ay w i th m any ac up o ft e a o rb und le o fo range s . T h roughou tt h ef i e ldwo rk , Iw a s a s s i s t ed b y Mr . N . C . P raka sh ,w ho s ed i l igenc ea nd g ood h umo rw e re k ey f a c to r si nt h ed eve lopmen to fa n ef i c ien ta nd p r oduc t ive f i e ld p ro jec t . T he f und ing f o rt h i sr e sea r ch w a s g ene rou s ly s upp l ied b y an umbe ro fs ou r ce s . I n i t ia l s uppo r tf o rt h i s p ro je c tw a sp rov ided b yt h eF r en ch F und o ft h eD epar tmen to fA n th ropo logy , U n ive r s i ty o fM ich igan , i n 1 992 . F und ing f o rt h e1 994 s e a son w a sp rov id ed b yt h eR ackham S choo lo fG radua t eS t ud ie s ,t h eI n te rna t iona lI n s t i tu te , a nd t h eG r if f in F und o ft h eD epa r tm en to fA n th ropo logy ,a l lo ft h e Un ive r s i ty o fM ich igan . Ma jo rs uppo r tf o rt h e 1 995 f i e ld s e a son w a s p rov ided b yt h e Wenne r -G r en F ounda t ion f o rA n th ropo log ica l R e sea r ch ( g ran t n umbe r 5 860 ) . A dd i t iona l s uppor td u r ing t h ea na ly s is a nd w r i te -up o ft h i sp ro je c tw a sp rov ided b yt h eD epa r tmen to f A n th ropo logy ,U n iv e r s i ty o fM ich igan . Wh i le t h i s d o cumen t w a s b e ing r e v i sed , Ir e ce iv ed i n s t i tu t iona l s uppo r t f r om t h e D epar tmen t o f A n th ropo logy a tS ou the rn Me thod i s tU n iv e r s i ty ; Iw ou ld l i ke t ot h ank D av id Me l tz e rt h e re f o rg ene rou s ly s ha r ing h i sl a bo ra to ry f a c i l i t ie s . T h eC en te rf o rS ou th a nd S ou thea s tA s ian S t ud ie s ( n ow t wo s e pa ra te b od ie s )p rov ided s uppor tf o rf o l low -up l i b ra ry w o rk i n1 998 . Iw ou ld a l so l i k et oa cknow ledg ew i th g r ea tt h ank st h es u ppor to f e r ed t om y S ou th A s ian r e sea r ch b y M indy Z eder t h rough t h e f a c i l i t ie s o ft h e D epa r tmen t o f An th ropo logy a tt h e N a t iona l Mu seum o fN a tu ra lH i s to ry , Sm i th son ian I n s t i tu t ion . A st h em anu sc r ip tw r i t ing d r ew t o ac l o se ,K a thy Meye rp rov id ed t ime ly a nd s k i l l f u le d i t ing .

Much a f ec t ion g oe st ot h ef r iend s ,f am i ly ,a nd m en to r sw ho c on t r ibu ted t ot h ep ro jec ta nd w ho c on t inue t os uppo r t m y r e sea r ch i nS ou th A s ia . I n t h e r e la t ive ly s ho r t t im e s i nce t h i s w o rk c omm enced , t h e e l ec t ron ic r e vo lu t ion h a st r an s f o rmed o u ro v e r sea sc ommun ica t ion sb e tween s e nd e ra nd r e c ip ien tf r om ama t te ro fw eek st o am a t t e ro fs e cond s . " Home " h a s n eve rb een j u s t o ne p l ace f o rm e , a nd It h ank a l l o fy ou , e s pec ia l ly J ame s , f o r b e ing a b le t ob et o ge the r wha tev e rt h ep l ace o rt ime . P i t t sbu rgh S ep tembe r2 001

v i

C hap ter 1 I n troduc t ion

E conom ic a c t iv i t ie si nc omp lex s o c ie t ie sa r eo ne o ft h em any f o rm so fi n te rac t ion t h a tp l ace i n d iv idua l s i n f a ce to f a ce c on tac t w i th o t he r i n d iv idua ls . A s p opu la t ion i n c r ea s e s a nd s o c ia l c on s t ruc t s m u l t ip ly , t h en umb e ro fi n te rac t ion sf r om w h ich i n d iv idua l sa nd h ou seho ld s c an c hoo se t o s upp ly t h e i r n eed s a l so g r ow s . T he p hy s ica l w o r ld s e rve s a s t h e b a s is f o r t h o se i n te rac t ion s , e s pec ia l ly a s m an if e s ted i n t h e m a te r ia l o b jec t s t h a t p eop le o b ta in , e xchange , a nd u t i l ize . S uch o b jec t s may s e rve i n av a r ie ty o f c apac i t ie s , o f ten s imu l taneou s ly : d a i ly u s e o r r i tua l u s e , d om e s t ic u se o rp o l i t ica l u s e , i n d iv idua l u s e o r g r oup u s e . W i th t h e p hy s ica l w o r ld s e rv ing a sa n e s sen t ia l c omponen t o fh uman a c t iv i t ie s , g ood s a r e d e s i rab le b ecau se t h ey s ymbo l ize t h ec ommon t r ad i t ion ss ha r ed b y g roup s o f p eop le . S oc ia l r e la t ion sh ip s a r e m an if e s t ed n o t o n ly b yo b jec t si na c t ive u s e , b u ta l so b y t h e w ay i nw h ich o b jec t s a nd t h e i r s u r round ing s c on s t i tu t e af r amewo rk f o rc ommun ica t ion a nd s o c ia l a c t ion . T he d e s i re f o r ma t e r ia l g ood s a ss ymbo l s o f l i nk s a c ro s s al a nd scape a nd w i th in s o c ia l g r oup s b ecome s h e igh ten ed a s s o c ia l c omp lex i ty i n c r ea se s , e s pec ia l ly a sn ew p o l i t ica la nd s o c ia lc on s t ru c t si n v i te i n d iv idua l s t o d i sp lay a nd p roc la im t h e i r mu l t ip le i n te rconnec t ion s . T he c a s e s t udy o f e r ed i nt h i sb ook i sb a sed u pon a n a r cha eo log ica l e xam ina t ion o ft h e E a r ly H i s to r ic t own s i te o fK aund inyapu ra i nc en t ra l I nd ia . I nt h e E a r ly H i s to r ic p e r iod ( t h i rd c en tu ry B .C . t of ou r th c en tu ry A .D . ) t h e I nd ian s ubcon t inen t p r e sen t s w ide sp r ead e v id ence f o r l o ng -d i s tance e xchange i n d u rab le g ood s a t at ime w hen p o l i t ica l e n t i t ie s w e re r e la t ive ly s hor tl i ved a nd h ad f ew r e sou r c e st oi n ve s t i n t h e f a c i l i ta t ion o f e xchang e . D e sp i t e al a ck o f c en t ra l ly p rov ided e conom ic i n f ra s t ru c tu r e , t h e c ommun i t ie s o f t h e s ubcon t in en t s ha r ed a m a te r ia l c u l tu re t h a td emon s t ra ted c ommun ica t ion a bou ts t y le a sw e l l a st h e p hy s ica l movemen t o fo b je c t s . E ven s ma l l t own sl i ke K aund inyapu ra w e r ep a r t ic ipan t si n t h e se p a t t e rn s o f r e g iona l e xchang e , i n w h ich h ou seho ld s e ngaged i n p roduc t ion a nd d i s t r ibu t ion a c t iv i t ie st h a te nab led t h em t o ma in ta in l i nk sw i th t h e w id e r r e g ion t h rough t h e c on sump t ion o f as ha r ed c o rpu so fm a t e r ia lg ood s . T he a r chaeo log ica l f i e ld r e sea r ch a t K aund inyapu ra a nd i t se nv iron s c on s i s ted o f as e r ie s o fs y s tema t ic s u r f ace c o l lec t ion s u nd e r taken i n1 994 a nd 1 995 . T he se c o l lec t ion s s how a v a r ie ty o f p roduc t ion a nd c on sump t ion a c t iv i t ie s i n t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o fm o re t h an 3 4 ,000 c e ram ic s he rd s a s w e l l a so b jec t s o fs t one , m e ta l , a nd s h e l l . N on loca l g ood s s u ch a s s and s tone a nd m ica d emon s t ra t e t h a t

i t em so fc ommon u se d u r ing t h eE a r ly H i s to r ic p e r iod w e r e w ide sp read a t K aund inyapu r a a l though t h e s ou r ce a r ea s f o r t he se ma te r ia l s w e r e a t l e a s t 7 5 k i lome te r s a way . C ompa ra t ive p a leobo tan ica l d a ta f r om e a r l ie r i nve s t iga t ion s a t K aund inyapu ra a nd n e ighbo r ing s i te sa l so s how t h ep r e sen ce o fn on loca l f o od s tuf f ss u ch a sr i ce ,w h ich m ay h av eb een i mpo r ted i n to t h es i te f r om t h e s ame a r ea st h a tp roduced m ica a nd s and s tone . T rade a c t iv i t ie sf l ou r i shed i nt h i sp e r iod b ecau se o f aw ide sp r ead n eed f o ro b jec t st h a t s e r ved mu l t ip le r o le s : a sv i s ib le m an if e s ta t ion s o fk i n sh ip , r e l ig iou s , a nd s o c ia l t i e s a c ro s s a n e conom ica l ly d i ve r se l a nd scape , a s w e l l a s s ymbo ls e xp r e s s iv e o f h i e r a r ch ica l s o c ia l s t ruc tu re s w i th in t own s a nd v i l lage s . I no r de rt om ake t h ee xchange o ft h e se g ood sp o s s ib le , i n d iv idua l sa nd h ou seho ld sm anaged l a bo ra nd l o ca l ly p rodu ced g ood s t op rov ide ac on s i s ten t s u rp lu s t h a t c ou ld b e t r aded a way f o r t h e d u rab le g ood s a nd f o od s tuf f st h a tc ame i n to t h es i t e . I n m any p a r t s o f S ou th A s ia , t h e m od e rn a nd r e c en t e t hnograph ic r e co rd c on t inue s t o p rov ide i n f o rma t ion f o r m ode l ing a nc ien t e conom ic a c t iv i ty . A l though w e s hou ld b e w a ry o fe mbedd ing m ode rn s o c ia lc on s t ruc t si n to t h e se m od e l s , h i s tor ica l r e co rd s f r om t h e r e cen t p a s t a r e p a r t icu la r ly u se fu l f o r a r chaeo log is t s b ecau se t h ey e nab le u s t oa s se s s t h e e nv i ronmen ta lp a rame te r sf o re conom ic a c t iv i t ie sp r io r t o m ode rn m echan iza t ion a nd t r an spor ta t ion . D o cumen t s f r om t h e n ine teen th a nd t wen t ie th c en tu r ie s r e vea l t h e t y pe s o f a c t iv i t ie s i n t h e l o ca l e nv i ronmen t o fc en t ra l I nd ia . C oup led w i th a r chae o l og ica l d a ta , t h is i n f o rma t ion e nab le s t h e d ev e lopmen t o f a n e conom ic m od e l i n w h ich p e r i shab le g ood s , s u ch a s f o r e s t p roduc t s , f o rmed a v i ta la spec to ft h et r ade n e two rk i nt h ee a r ly c en tu r ie s A .D . T h i s v o lume b eg in s w i th a n e va lua t ion o f t h e i n t e ra c t ion b e tween p eop le a nd m a te r ia l g ood s t h a t f o rm s t h e s o c ia l b a s i s u pon w h ich t r ad e f l ou r i she s . C hap te r 2i d en t if ie s h ow t h e e xchange a c t iv i t ie s o f p r emod e rn s o c ie t ie sc an b ea na lyzed u t i l iz ing m ode l s d e r iv ed f r om e t hnog raph ic s t ud ie s o f s ma l l s ca le s o c ie t ie sa sw e l l a sf r om f o rma l m od e l sd eve loped t o d e sc r ib et h ee conom ie so f moder ni n du s t r ia l n a t ion s . S i n c e t h e se a na ly t ica l a pp roa che s b o th r e ly o n t wen t ie th -cen tu ry o b serva t ion s , t h ey p r e sen t c e r ta in l im i ta t ion si nt h ea na ly s i so fp r emod e rn ,p r e indu s t r ia l s o c ie t ie sf o rw h ich t h e re i sn oc on tempo ra ry a na log . We c an e xpand t he u t i l i ty o ff o rma l e conom ic m od e l s b y e va lua t ing t h e c r i t ica l c omponen t s o ft h e e x change s y s tem s t h a t s o c ie t ie s c on s truc t f o r t h e t r an sf e ro fg ood s . T ran sf e r sc an b es e en a s am a t t e ro f 1

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F igure 1 .2 . T he V ida rbha r e g ion , s how ing m od e rn d i s t r ic tb ounda r ie sa nd t own sm en t ioned i nt h e t e x t .

A dap ted f r om T .T . Map sa nd P ub l ica t ion s , 1 992 . e nv i ronmen ta l m anagem en t , m ov ing f o od a nd o t h e r b i o log ica l n ece s s i t ie s f r om o n e r e g ion t o a no th e r t h rough e xchange , o r f r om t h e p a s t t o t h e p r e sen t t h rough s t o rage . B u tt h et r an s f e ro fg ood st h a to c cu r s i n t h e e xchang e p roce s s i sa l so a c r i t ica l f o rm o f i n f o rma t ion t r an sf e r . S oc ia l s ymbo l i sm i sf o und n o t o n ly i n g ood s a c co rded h i gh s t a tu s , b u t a l so i n t h e o r d ina ry d ome s t ic g ood st h a tc omp r i se t h eh ou seho ld r e pe r to i re . A ss o c ia lc omp lex i t yi n c r ea se s ,a dd i t iona l s o c ia l m a rke r s a s s is t i n t h e i d en t if i ca t ion o f i n d iv idua ls a s m embe r s o f c r o s s -cu t t ing s o c ia l , p o l i t ica l , a nd r e l ig iou s g roup s , w he r e g ood s c onv ey i n f o rma t ion a bou te me rgen th i e ra r chy a sw e l la sg roup m embe r sh ip . T he d e s ir ef o rg ood sb ya l ls e c to r so ft h e p opu la t ion , a nd t h e ir v a lue i ns o c ia l c ommun ica t ion , i s ac r i t ica l f a c to r i n t h e d ev e lopmen t o fe conom ic a c t iv i t ie s i n c lud ing t h e p roduc t ion o f at r adab le s u rp lu s . F o l low ing t h i s d i scu s s ion o ft h e s o c ia l v a lu e o f g ood s , C hap te r 3i n t roduc e s t h e I nd ian s ubcon t inen t a nd t h eg eog raph ic a r ea o ft h ec a se s t udy . I nt h eE a r ly H i s to r ic p e r iod ,t h i sr eg ion i sc ha ra c te r iz ed b ys t rong e l emen t s o f s o c ia l c ohe s ion : t h e s ha r ed r e l ig ion s o f B uddh i sm a nd J a in i sm ,s ha r ed l i t e ra ry t r ad i t ion s ,a nd s ha r ed l a nguage s . T he r e i sa r cha eo log ica l e v id en ce f o r n umerou s c i t ie s , n umb e r ing i n to t h e t e n s o f t h ou sand s , a s w e l l a s m any d i spe r sed t own s a nd v i l lage s w ho se a r chaeo log ica l r ema in s s how s ha r ed

t r ad i t ion s o ft o o l s , p o t t e ry a nd o rnamen t s . B u t t h is s o c ia lc ohe s ion w a sn o tm a tched b yp o l i t ica lc ohe s ion , a nd p o l i t ica ld oma in sc on s i s ted o ff r equen t ly s h if t ing a l l iance sw i thou tc on s i s ten tt e r r i to r ia lb oundar ie s . P o l i t ica l d yna s t ie s a ppea r t o h ave h ad l i t t le c apac i ty t oe x t r ac t a nd a dm in i s t e r s u rp lu s , m ean ing t h a tc en t ra l ized i n ve s tmen tw a s l ow i ni n f ras truc tu r e s u ch a s r o ad s a nd t e r r i to r ia l s e cu r i ty . U nde r s u ch c i r cum s tan ce s ,o ne m igh te xpec tt r ad ea c t iv i t ie st ob e m ino r ,b u tt h ea r chaeo log ica l e v id en ce i n s tead s how s t h a t t h e c ommun i t ie s o f S ou th A s ia s uppor ted a v i b ran t e x change e nv i ronmen t w i thou t c en t ra l ized s t a te s . I n s t ead , t r ad e w a s f a c i l i ta ted b y s o c ia l i n s t i tu t ion s s u ch a s B uddh i sm a nd J a in i sm , w h ich w e r e m an if e s ted i n m ona s t e r ie s a nd p l ace s o f p i lg r image t h a t a l so b ecame z on e s o f e conom ic a c t iv i ty a nd s o c ia l i n te rac t ion . C hap t e r 4 e va lua te s t h e a r chaeo log ica l a nd h i s to r ica le v iden ce f o rt h et r ad et h a tf l ou r i shed i nt h e s ubcon t in en t i n t h e e a r ly c en tu r ie s A .D . L ong d i s tance t r ade w i th t h e R oman Med i ter ranean a nd S ou thea s t A s ia p rov id ed s p ec tacu la r a r chaeo log ica l e v idenc eo fl o ng -d i s tance c on tac t ,b u tt h is a c t iv i ty h ad f a r l e s s i mpa c t o n d a i ly l i f e t h an l o ca l a nd r e g iona l e xchang e . T he d i scu s s ion o fr e g iona lt r ad ef o cu se so n t h ee a s t e rn p o r t ion o ft h e m ode rn Maha ra sh t ra s t a t e . T he t e rm V ida r bha i su sed t od e s c r ibe t h is r e g ion , b o th b ecau s e i t c omp r i se s a r e la t ive ly l im i ted 3

t h eo r iz ing th et y po logy d eve loped f o rt h i sp ro jec ti s t h en c ompa r ed t ot h e t r ad i t iona l c e ram ic t y po log ie s u s ed f o r S ou th A s ia . B ecause t h e a r cha eo log ica l ly r e cove r ed c e ram ic sa tt h e s i te s howed ag r ea t d ea l o f d i v e r s i ty , as o r t ing t y po logy w a sd eve lop ed t h a tw ou ld a low t h is d i v e r s i ty t ob e r e t r ieved t h rough c ompu t e r d a taba se p r og ram s . C e ram ic sf o rm t h em a jor i ty o ft h e i t em sr e cov e r ed i nt h es y s tema t ic c o l lec t ion p rog ram ; h owev e r , o t he r t y pe s o fm a ter ia ls s u ch a s s and s ton e g r ind ing s u r f a ce s ,m e ta ls l ag ,a nd o rnam en t sw e r ea l so r e cove r ed a nd a r ed i scu s sed . T he se m a t e r ia lr ema in so ft he a n c ien ti nhab i tan t s ' d a i ly l i ve s p rov ide i n f o rma t ion t oe va lua te t h e s o c ia l a nd e conom ic t i e s m an if e s ted i nt h e p r odu c t ion a nd c on sump t ion o f g ood s a t K aund inyapu r a a nd i t s e nv i ron s . C hap te r 7e va lua te s t he w ay i nw h ich t h e w ide sp r ead d i s t r ibu t ion o fn on loca l g ood sa tt h e s i te , i n c lud ing m ica ceou sp o t te ry a nd s and s tone , i nd ica te s t h a tt h e ma jo r i ty o fh ou seho ld se ngaged i ne xchange . T o p roduc e i t em s f o r e xchange , t h e i n hab i tan t s o f E a r ly H i s to r ic K aund inyapu ra made u s eo fn ume rou s l o ca l r e sou r ce s , i n c lud ing a gr icu l tu r a l g ood s , f o re s t p roduc t s , a nd l o ca l ly a va i lab le c he r t . Av ar ie ty o f s t ra teg ie s w e r e r e qu i r ed t o s ucce s sf u l ly m a in ta in a d e s i r ed l e v e l o f p roduc t ion ; a t K aund inyapu ra , t h e p e r c e ived m in imum l e ve l o fp roduc t ion i n c luded t h e a l lowance f o r at r adab le s u rp lu st o ma in ta in s o c ia la nd e c onom ic t i e s w i th o t he r s i te s i n t h e r e g ion . P rodu c t ion n o t o n ly f u lf i l led t he b a s ic r e qu i remen t s f o r b i o log ica l s ub s i s ten ce , b u t a l so w a s a imed a t f u lf i l l ing t h e r e qu i r emen t s o f " soc ia l s u b s i s tence , " d ef ined a st h ea cqu i s i t ion o fg ood sa nd p a r t ic ipa t ion i n r i tua l r e qu i r ed t o m a in ta in a h ou seho ld ' s s t and ing w i th in t h ec ommun i ty ( Sm i th 1 999a ) . C hap te r 8s umma r ize sh ow Kaund inyapu ra s er v e s a sa ne xamp le o ft h eb r idg ing e f ec t so fc omme rce i n a r ea s o f d i spe r sed p opu la t ion wh e r e e conom ic a c t iv i t ie sa r ei n t ima te ly t i ed t os oc ia l s t ru c tu r e . P r io r t o t h e d eve lopmen t o f s t a te leve l p o l i t ica l o rgan iza t ion ,t own sa nd v i l lage s s e rv ed a sc en te r so f b o th s o c ia l a c t iv i t ie s a nd c omme rce i n w h ich t h e p r oduc t ion ,d i s t r ibu t ion ,a nd c on sump t ion o fm a ter ia l g ood sp rov id ed aw ay f o ri n d iv idua l sa nd h ou seho ld s t oc on s t ruc t a nd d i sp lay t h e i r mu l t ip le c onnec t ion s a c ro s st h el a nd scape .

g eog raph ica l e xpan se , a nd b e cau se i th a s av e ry o l d h i s to r ica l i d en t if i ca t ion w i th t h ea r ea . T he u s eo ft h e t e rm V ida rbha t o i d en t if y aj anapada , ac ohe s ive e t hn ic a nd p o l i t ica l t e r r i to r ia l u n i t , i sd ocum en ted i n e a r ly V ed ic t e x t s ( f o r e xamp le , t h e A i ta r eya a nd J a im in iya B rahmana s ) , w h i le t h e f i r s t d ef in i te i nd ica t ion o ft h el o ca t ion o ft h eV ida rbha j anapada i s g i v en b y t h e Mahabha ra ta w h i ch r e f e r s t o at own n amed K und ina -of t en i d en t if i ed w i th mode rn K aund inyapu ra -a s i t s c en t ra l t own ( Raychur i 1 982 [1960 ] ) . I n mode rn t e rm s , V ida rbha c on s i s t so f n in e d i s t r ic t s i ne a s te rn Maha ra sh t ra s t a t e , b e tween 1 8 °41 'a nd 2 1°46 'N or th l a t i tud e ,a nd b e tween 7 5°57 ' a nd 8 0 °00 'E a s tl o ng i tud e( f igu r e s1 . 1 , 1 . 2 ; Mukhe r jee 1 967 ) .2 I n C hap te r 5 , ad i scu s s ion o f s u r f ace s u rvey t e chn iqu e s p r e f ace s t h e d e ta i led d e sc r ip t ion o f t h e s u rv ey s t ra tegy u t i l ized a t K aund inyapu ra a nd i t s e nv i ron s . B ecau se t h e s i te a ppea r s t o h ave b een a bandon ed a f t e r t h e E a r ly H i s to r ic p e r iod , t h e u pp e rmo s t d epo s i t s w ho se r ema in s c on s t i tu te t h e s u r f ace o f t h e s i te c an b e t a ken a s b road ly r e p r e sen ta t ive o f t h e l a s t p e r iod s o f t h e s i te ' s o ccupa t ion . T he r e sea rch s t ra t egy , i nw h ich s u r f ace c o l lec t ion sw e r et a ken a tr egu la ri n te rva l st h roughou t t h e s i te , t hu s p rov ide s i n f o rma t ion a bou t t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o f a r t i f a c t s s u ch a s p o t te ry , p roduc t ion d eb r i s , a nd a r ch i tec tu ra l f r agmen t s . T h e a r chaeo l o g ica lc o l lec t ion sf r om K aund inyapu ra a nd as ma l le r c on tempo ra ry s e t t lemen t a t Dhaman t r i w e re c a ta logu ed a nd p roce ssed t oe nab le t h er e t r ieva lo fa n umbe r o f d if e r en t k ind s o f i n f o rma t ion a bou t p rodu c t ion a c t iv i t ie s ,t h eu se a nd d i s t r ibu t ion o fg ood s , a nd c h rono logy . C hap te r 6f o cu se s o n t h e a na ly s i s o f t h o se m a t e r ia l s . F o l low ing ad i scu s s ion o fc l a s s if ica t ion -a s ub jec tt h a to fl a te h a sb een d o rman ti na r chaeo log ica l

' Though t h e r ea r en oc l ea rr e f e r ence st oa ny c i ty s ou th o ft h eV indhyan m oun ta in r a nge i nt h eV ed ic t e x t s , " t h ec ognomen K aund inya a pp l ied t oV ida rbh i i nt h eB r ihada rayaka U pan i shad m ay p o in tt ot h e e x is t ence o ft h ec i ty o fK und ina i nV ida rbha o r B e ra ri nt h ea ge o ft h eU pan i shad . T he c i ty w a s c e r ta in ly k nown i nt h e Mahabha ra ta a nd i sp o s s ib ly r e p r e sen t ed b yt h e mod e rn K aund inyapu ra o nt h e b ank so ft h e Wa rdha i nt h eC handu rt a luk [ n ow T iv sa t a luk ] o f Am rao t i " ( R ay chu r i 1 982 [ 1960 ]: 5 4 ) . 2

O the rd e sc r ip t ion so fV ida rbha a r es im i la r ,

t h ough t h el o ng i tude a nd l a t i tud em ay v a ry . F o r e xamp le , Mohan ty a nd J o sh i ( 1 996 :158 ) i d en t if y V ida rbha a st h ea r ea b e tw een 1 9 °26 'a nd 2 1°47 ' N or th a nd 7 6 °56 'a nd 7 9 '23 'E a s t . As l igh t ly l a rge r a r ea i si n d ica ted b yR anade ( 1 990 :2 ) , w ho d e sc r ibe s V ida rbha a st h ea r ea b e tween 1 7 °51 'a nd 2 1°46 ' N o r th a nd 7 5°57 'a nd 8 0 '59 'E a s t . 4

C hap ter 2 Ma ter ia l C u l ture a nd S oc ia l O rgan iza t ion : Why T rade O ccur s

A s ah uman p henomenon ,t h ee xch ange o fg ood s i sn o t m e re ly a n e conom ic a c t iv i ty b u t a l so as o c ia l o n e . B ecau se m a te r ia lg ood sa nd s p ace a r eu sed a st h e f r am e s f o r h uman c ommun ic a t ion , p o r tab le o b jec t s o f t en e mbody n umerou s l e ve ls o f m ean ing s imu l tan eou s ly . O b jec t se nab le i n d iv idua l st oc onf irm a nd d i sp lay s o c ia l s t a tu s , a nd t h e e xchange o ft h o se o b jec t s i s e nv e loped i n s t ra t eg ie s o f k in sh ip a nd p o l i t ic s . E ven s u b s i s tence g o od s s u ch a s f ood a r e i n v e s t ed w i th c u l tu ra lm ean ing ,s ot h a tt h es um t o ta lo f t h em a t e r ia lg ood su sed b y ac ommun i ty ' sh ou seho ld s p rov ide s aw ay t o l o ok a t s o c ia l t i e s a nd g roup i n t e r ac t ion s .

i n te rmed ia r ie s . S ub sumed i nt h e se g ene ra l iza t ion sa r e i mpo r tan t a s sump t ion s t h a t m e r i t mo re t h o rough e xam ina t ion . O ne i st h a t i n d iv idua l s , b o th a sb uye r s a nd s e l le r s , a r e v i ewed a sa t om is t ic a nd r a t iona l i n t h e i rm ax im iza t ion p u r su i t s . T he s e cond a s sump t ion i st h a t t h e m a rke t o f f o rma l e conom ic m ode l s i s c ha rac te r iz ed a s a" p e r f ec t " m a rke t , i nw h ich t h es o le r e gu la to ry m echan ism i sp r ice , a nd e ach e x change a c t iv i ty o ccu r sw i thou tr e ga rd t op a s to rf u tu r ea c t ion s o nt h ep a r to ft h et r an sac to r s . O b se rva t ion s o f t r iba l s o c ie t ie s i n t h e e a r ly t wen t ie th c en tu ry i nd ica ted t h a t t h e s o c ia l a spec t s o f t r ade t o ok p r ecedence o v e rw ha tm igh tb ep e rce ived a s r a t iona l s ho r t te rm b ehav io r . T he e mpha s i s o n ' e conom ic ' m an p ropo sed b yf o rma l m ode l sw a s s e en a s l im i t ing b ecau se s ma l l sca le s o c ie t ie s w e r e p e r ce ived t ob e " mo r e c onc e rned w i th s o c ia l , r i tua l , a nd i d eo log ica l m a t te r st h an w i th t h e mo r e mundane p rob lem so fs ub s i s ten ce , t e chno logy a nd e conom ic s " ( Ho le 1 983 :14 ) . E thnog raph ic s t ud ie s r e vea led t h a t t h ea cqu i s i t ion , a sw e l la st h eu se , o fg ood s i ns ma l l s c a le s o c ie t ie s i sa ch ieved i n as phe r e d om ina ted b y s o c ia l r e la t ion s . E xchange i nw ha t w a s a tt h a tt ime d e sc r ibed a s a" p r im i t ive "e c onomy i se va lua ted b yt h e p a r t ic ipan t sf o ru se v a lue r a the rt h an f o rm oney , a nd f o r t h e b enef i t o f s o c ia l r e la t ion s r a the r t h an f o r s ub s i s t enc en eed s( Sah l in s1 972 ) . T he se o b ser va t ion s , c u lm ina t ing i n ac r i t iqu e o f t h e u se o f f o rma l e conom ic m ode l s t o d e sc r ibe s ma l l sca le s o c ie t ie s , w e r ec a tego r ized a st h e " s ub s tan t iv i s t "v i ew . T ho se w ho s t ud ied e xchang e a c t iv i t ie s i ns ma l l s c a le s o c ie t ie s p e rce ived a d i s t inc t d i v is ion a mong u t i l i ta r ian g ood sa nd o b jec t sw h ich c a r r ied s o c ia la nd p r e s t ige v a lu e . I n Ma l inow sk i ' s( 1 932 [ 1922 ] )s t udy o f t h e k u la r ing t r ade i n Me lane s ia , t h ree e xchange s ph e r e s w e r e d ocumen ted : t h e " nob le " t r ade o ft h e k u la , t h e g imwa l i t r ad e i n vo lv ing n on -nob le c ommod i t ie s , a nd t h e w a s i t r ade , w h ich t o ok p l ace b e tween e nv i ronmen ta lz on e s . A l though t h ep a r tne r s f o ra l lt h r ee e xchange t y pe sw e r ef r equen t ly t h es ame , t h e t r ade o f " nob le " o b jec t s t o ok p r ecedenc e i nt h e d e sc r ip t ion o f t h i s e l abo ra t e s o c ia l n e two rk b y t h e i nves t iga to r a nd s ubsequen t c ommen ta tor s ( Ma l inow sk i1 9 32 [1922 ] ; Mau s s 1990 [1950 ] ;R enf r ew 1 975 ) . Mau s s a l so d i scu s sed t h e i n s t i tu t ion o f p o t la t ch . p r a c t iced o n t h e n or thw e s t c oa s t o fN o r th Am e r ica , w he re p r ec iou s t h ing s w e r e " a s i gn a nd a p l edg eo fw ea l th " ( 1990 [ 195 (1 :44 ) . T he i n v e s t iga to r s 'b i a se si ne xam in ing t h e" nob le " a sp ec t s o f t r ade i n t h e i r e t hnog raph ic s t ud ie s w a s p e rhap sd u ei np a r tt ot h e i rp e r sona la s soc ia t ion sw i th h i ghe r s t a tu s g roup s d u r ing t h e c ou r se o f t h e i r

C on s truc t ing m ode ls f or t h ea nc ien te conomy Two p r inc ipa l a venue s o f i n ve s t iga t ion a r e a va i lab le f o rt h ea na ly s is o fa n c ien tt r ade : t h es t udy o f e x change i ns ma l l sca le s o c i e t i e s , a nd t h e e va lua t ion o ft r ad eu nde rt h ep a rame te r so ft h en a t ion s ta te . T he e x am ina t ion o ft r ade a s ac omponen t o ft h e modern n a t ion s ta te h a sb e en a ni mpor t an tp a r to fp o l i t ica la nd s o c ia lt h eor iz ing s i nce a tl e a s tt h es e v en teen th c en tu ry . T h eg r ow th o fl a rg e sca le m anu f a c tu r ing p ro ce s se sa nd t h e p u rpo sefu l d eve lopmen t o f c o lon ia l e x t rac t ive e conom ie s c au sed s o c ia l p h i lo sophe r st oc on s ide rt h e r a t iona le a nd e f e c t s o f t r ad e a s i ta f ec t ed n a scen t n a t ion s ta te s . B y t h e e a r ly t w en t ie th c en tu ry , a n th ropo log is t s h ad b egun t oq u e s t ion t h e e x ten t t o w h ich a b s t rac tp r inc ip le ss u ch a ss upp ly a nd d emand c ou ld b e u sed t o d e scr ibe s ma l l sca le s o c ie t ie s . E thnog raph ic r e s ea r ch d ocum en t ing t h e mo t ives a nd a c t ion s o f p eop le i n s ma l l g r oup s ( mo s t ly i n n on We s t e rn s e t t ing s ) , i nd ica t ed t h a t t h e f o rma l e conom is t s 'a s sump t ion so f a" r a t iona l "i n d iv idua lw a s m ad e m o re c omp lex b y t h e s o c ia l f a c to r s t ha t m igh t a f e c tt h ep rodu c t ion , d i s t r ibu t ion , a nd a cqu is i t ion o f g ood s . B o th p e r spec t ive s p r ov ide i mpo r tan t d e ta i l s a bou tt h e m echan ic so fe xchang eo nt h e b road s c a le , a nd t h e s oc ia l v a lue o f e xch ange a nd o f e xchange g ood sf o ri nd iv idua lp ar t ic ipan t s . F o rma l e conom ic mode l sw e r ed eve lop ed w i th in t h ec on tex to fe a r ly m e rcan t i le c a p i ta l i sm b eg inn ing i n t h es e v en teen th c en tu ry . I nt h e s em ode l s ,p ar t ic ipa t ion i ne c onom ic a c t iv i t ie si sv i ew ed a sb e ing d r iven b yt h e d e s i r e t o a ch ieve t h e m ax imum b enef i t w i th t h e m in imum e xp end i tu re : s e l l e r s s e ek t o m ax im ize p rof i t s , a nd b uy e r s s e ek t o m ax im ize u t i l i ty . T he i n s t i tu t ion p e rm i t t ing t h i sm ax im iza t ion i st h em a rke t , w h ich c an b ed ef ined a s ar e a lo rv i r tua l s pace whe r e " b uy e r s " a nd " s e l le r s " m ee t a nd w he r e e xchange p a r t ie s i n terac t e i the r d i r ec t ly o r t h rough 5

a c tua l r e sou r ce s a sw e l la sp o ten t ia lr e sou r ce s , w he r e t h e a l loca t ion o f p ro je c t ed f u tu r e r e sou r ce s c an b e v i ewed i n t e rm s o f " o ppor tun i ty c o s t " ( t he c o s t s i n cu r red w h en r e jec t ing ap o ten t ia l ly l u c ra t ive o p t ion i nf a vo r o f al e s s l u c ra t iv e o p t ion w h ich h as o the r p e r ce ived b en ef i t s ) . B o th f o rma l a nd s u b s tan t iv is t e va lua t ions h ave p r ov ided t e rm ino log y a nd m e thod so fi nqu i ry f o rt h e s t udy o f t r ad e . F o rma l m ode l s d e sc r ibe t h e i d ea l t r a jec to ry o fs u rp lu sp roduc t ion , w i th t h e a s sump t ion t h a tt h es a t i s f a c t ion o fw an t si sa ccomp l i sh ed t h rough t h e a l loca t ion o ff i n i t e r e sou rce s . T h e s ub s tan t iv i s t c r i t ique h a s i lu s t ra ted t h a t t h e s o c ia l c omponen t o f e c onom ic i n te rac t ion sp l ay s ac on s ide rab le r o le i nt h e a loca t ion o f t h o se r e sou r ces , a nd t h a t " r a t iona l " d ec i s ion -mak ing i s u nd e r taken w i th r e f e rence t o s o c ia l s t anda rd s o f v a lue w h ich a r e o f t en c on tex t s p ec if i ca nd n ego t iab le ( s ee G ranov e t te r1 985 ;O r love a nd R u tz 1 989 ) . B o th c a t ego r ie s o fe c onom ic t h ink ing h e lp u s t o e va lua te a n c ien t s o c ie t ie s f o r wh ich o u r e conom ic i n f o rma t ion c on s i s t s o n ly o f m a t e r ia l r ema in s .

r e sea r ch , w he r e d i scu s s ion s o f t h e s o c ia l v a lue o f p ar t icu la r g ood s w a s t h e f r amewo rk f o r s oc ia l i n te rac t ion . H ow eve r , t h e d i v i s ion o fg ood sb e tween u t i l i ta r ian a nd n ob le b ecome s p a r t icu la r ly d if i cu l t w hen t h ey a r ec on s ide red f r om as o c ia l p e r spec t ive i n w h ich a l l e xchang e sc a r ry s o c ia l m ean ing . T ak ing a b roade r v i ew o ft h e w ay i n w h ich a l l t y pe s o ft r ade c i r cu la ted i nt h e s ame n e two rk b y t h e s am e p e r son s a nd t h rough t h e s ame a venue s o fe xchang e , D oug la s a nd I s h e rwood ( 1 979 :148 )p ropo se t h a tw ha ti sr ea l ly t r an sac ted i s" s ha r ed k now ledge a bou t an e two rk o f mu tua lc onf id en ce ." O ne o f t h e mo s t i mpo r tan t d eve lopmen t s i n c on tempo ra ry e conom ic t h eo ry i s t h e i n c rea s ing r e cogn i t ion o f s o c ia l f a c to r s i n e conom ic d ec is ion m ak ing . B runo F r ey ( 1999 :16 1 ) h a s e va lua ted t he e conom ic c on cep t o fp r ice a s t h e b a s ic r e gu la to r o f m a rke t s , n o t ing t h a t b ecau se o fs o c ia l ly c on s truc ted m ora l i t ie s , " e conomy a nd s o c ie ty c an o n ly b e a dequa te ly u nd e r s tood i fo n e g oe s b eyond t h e p r ice s y s tem ." I nt h eo ry ,f l uc tua t ion si np r ice e nab le t h el aw o fs upp ly a nd d emand : h ighe rp r ice s s hou ld d ampen d emand ,w h i le l ow e rp r ice ss hou ld a cce le ra te d emand , u n t i lt h e r ei sap e r f ec t ma tch b e tw een t h ea moun to fa r e sou r ce d emand ed a nd t h e a moun t s upp l ied . I n p rac t ice , h ow eve r , s o c ia l c oncep t s o f f a irne s s , d i s t r ibu t ion , a nd e qu i ty s upe r s ed e t h e l aw o fs upp ly a nd d emand . T he p e r c ep t ion s t ha t F r ey a pp l ied t o t he u nde rp inn ing so fm a rke tt h eo ry a r ea l so a pp l ied t ot h e d a i ly w o rk ing so fe c onom ie si na l lo ft h e i ra s pec t s . I n aw id e rang ing c r i t ique o f e conom ic t h eo ry t ha t b r idge s a n th ropo log ica l r e sea r ch a nd o b se rva t ion s o f m a rke t s , S l a t e r a nd T onk i s s ( 2 001 ) n o te t h a t s oc ia l f a c to r s p rov ide t h e b a s i s u pon w h ich e conom ic o u tcome s a r e d e te rm ined . U s ing e xamp le s f r om t h e m ode rn w o r ld , t h ey c onc lud e t h a t " Econom ic p roce s se s in c lud ing m a rke tp roce s se s -a r ee mbedded i n c u l tu ra l n o rm s a nd p rac t ice s ( f rom d e s t roy ing a s u rp lu st ol e av ing at i p ) , i n s t i tu t iona ls t ruc tu re s( f rom k in sh ip r e la t ion s t o j o in t s tock c ompan ie s ) , i n te rna l ized r u le sa nd k now ledg e s( f rom t im ing ag i f t t o p ay ing i n a s hop ) , a nd l e ga l a nd p o l i t ica l f r amewo rk s ( f rom v i l lage h i e ra r ch ie s t o l aw s o f c on t rac t ) " ( 2 001 :101 ) . T he i n t roduc t ion o f ap e r sona l a nd s i tua t ion s p ec if ic e l emen ti n to ma rke te x change ,h ow ev e r ,d oe s n o tm ean t h a tf o rma le conom ic p r in c ip le sa r ei n va l id . A n th ropo log i s t se va lua t ing t r ad ea c t iv i ty a cknow ledge t h a tf o rma le conom ic mode l sc an n e i the rb ea ccep ted n o r r e jec ted w ho le sa le (M i l le r 1 995 ; P l a t tne r 1 989a ; G ranov e t te r1 985 ;G ledh i l la nd L a r s en 1 982 ) . I n s tead , t h e s o c ia l a spe c t s o f t h e ma rk e t a r e t h e m ean s b y w h ich s t r ic t ly e conom ic i n te r change s a r e mod if ied , a me l io ra t ed ,o ra ugmen ted . S t anda rd f o rma le conom ic p r inc ip le s s t i l l a pp ly i n t ha t d ec i s ion s a r e m ade b y i nd iv idua l s a bou t t h e a l loca t ion o fr e sou r ce s t owa rd v a ry ing g oa l s . I nd iv idua l s mu s t d ec id e h ow t o u se

H oweve r , t h e d ocumen ta t ion o fe xchange a c t iv i ty i n s ma l l sca le s o c ie t ie s ,b a s ed o ne t hnog raph ic c a se st h a t d e s c r ibe f a c e to -f ace i n te r ac t ion sb e tw een i nd iv idua l s w ho h ave al i m i ted r ang eo fg ood sa nd as ma l ln umb e r o fe xchang e p a r tne r s , p r e sen t s g rav e l im i ta t ion s f o r t h e i n te rp r e ta t ion o f e x change a c t iv i t ie s u nde r c ond i t ion s o f g r ea te r s o c ia l c omp lex i ty a s k nown t h rough a r chaeo log ica l ly a nd h i s to r ica l ly d o cumen ted c a s e s . T h e p r e sence o f ah i ghe r p opu la t ion d en s i ty , g r ea te r t e r r i to r ia l e xpan se , a nd mu l t ip le a nd o f ten o ver lapp ing l a yer s o f g roup i n terac t ion , i n te rdepend ence , a nd d om inance r e qu ire t h e d eve lopmen t o f amod e l t h a t a ccoun t s f o r i n c rea sed l o c ia nd f a c i l i ta to r so fe x change , a sw e l la si n c rea sed q uan t i t ie so fg ood s , p rov id e r s , a nd c on sume r s . A s ar e su l t , w hen a n a nc ien t s o c ie ty u nde r i n v e s t iga t ion i sc l ea r ly m o r ec omp lex t h an t h e t r iba l l e ve l o fs o c ia lo rgan iza t ion , t h ea na log so fe conom ic b ehav io r a r e o f t en s ough t i n r e f e r ence t o t h e i n te rac t ion o fp o l i t ica l a nd e conom ic s phe r e s i n t h e m od e rn w o r ld . I n t h e p a s t , t h e se d i scu s s ion s h av e p o la r ized o n t h e i s sue s o fw he the r t h e o b se rva t ion s a bou t t h e f u nc t ion a nd s c ope o f t h e e conomy i n m ode rn n a t ion s ta te s c ou ld ( F rank 1 992 ; S chne ide r 1 977 )o rc ou ld n o t( K rad e r1 992 ;P o lany i 1 975 [1951 ] ; R o t s te in 1 970 ) b e a pp l ied t o a n c ien t e conom ic s y s t em s . A n e xam ina t ion o f t h e c omponen t s o f l a rg e e c onom ic s y s t em s s how s t h a t t h e re a r e a s sump t ion s t h a t s hou ld b e s c ru t in iz ed b ef o re a pp ly ing mode l s d e r ived f r om m ode rn n a t ion s ta te st oc omp lex a nc ien t e c onom ie s . F o rma l e conom ic mode l s i n co rpo ra te a n umbe r o f c ond i t ion s v i s ib le i n t h e w o rk ing s o f m od er nn a t ion s ta te s ,s u ch a st h ep r e sence o fa b so lu te b ounda r ie s b e tw een a nd w i th in p o l i t ie s , f u l ly m on e t ized e c onom ie s , a nd s c a rc i ty i n t h e ma rke t 6

w h ich i s ap roduc t o fb o th t h e n a tu ra l l im i t s o fr aw m a t e r ia ls upp ly a nd p o l i t ica lc on s t ra in t so ne xpo r t so f r aw m a t e r ia ls a nd f i n ished p roduc t s . A b r ief e xam ina t ion o ft h e c ond i t ion s u nde r w h ich m ode rn e conom ie s f l ou r ish i n d ica te s t h a t n o t a l l o f t h e se c ond i t ion s mu s tb ef u lf i l led i no rde rt oh av e aw o rk ing m a rk e t s y s tem , a nd t h a t m a rk e t f o r ce s a r e a c tua l ly p r ed ica t ed o n r e la t ive ly f ew p o l i t ica l r e qu i r em en t s . T h r e e f a c to r s t h a t w e c an s e e a r chaeo log ica l ly ( b ounda r ie s ,c o inage ,a nd t h es ou r ce -ba sed s c a r c i ty o f m a t e r ia l s ) a r e e va lua ted f o r m ode rn n a t ion s ta t e s a s w e l la sf o rp r emode rn s t a te s ,s how ing t h a tt h ey a r en o t t h ei n f lex ib le i nd ica to r so ff o rma le conom ie st h a tt h ey m igh ta ppea rt ob e .

f r on t ie r t h a t d ef ine s t h e n e ighbo r ing p o l i ty ' s l im i t s ) . T h rough b ound a ry m ak ing , c en t ra l ized p o l i t ica l s y s t em sa t t emp tt oe xe r c i se c on t ro lo ve rt wo f o rm so f c ompe t i t ion : t h e ir p o ten t ia lc omp e t i to r sf o rt h eu ppe r r ank s o ft h e p o l i t ica l h i e ra r chy , a nd c ompe t i to r s f o r t r ibu t e a nd t e r r i to r ia l c on t ro l b y a l l p ar t s o f t h e p o l i t ica l h i e ra r chy . T h es t ruc tu re o fa nc ien tp o l i t ica lo rgan iza t ion sa t t h ec en t r a l l e ve l p rov ided m any o ppo r tun i t ie sf o rt h e u su rpa t ion o fb u r eauc ra t ic r o le sb yp e r son sc on t end ing f o r p o l i t ica l a nd m i l i ta ry a u tho r i ty , w he r e t h e c ompe t i t ion w a s o f t en p lay ed o u t i n t h e t e r r i to ry a dm in i s t e r ed b y i nd iv idua l s . T o m anage t h e t h r ea t s p o sed b yc ompe t i to r sf o rt h eh i gh e s tp o l i t ica ll e ve ls ,a c en t ra la u tho r i ty c ou ld a s s ign i n d iv idua l st ot e r r i to r ie s a way f r om t h e i r a nce s t ra l l a nd s , k eep ing t h em f r om d eve lop ing ap owe r b a se ; i na dd i t ion , t h e t e r r i to r ie s m igh t b e d i v ided i n to n oncon t iguou s t r ac t s . O the r t a c t ic st or e duce c ompe t i t ion i n c lude t h ea s s ignmen to f p o t en t ia lr i va l st os epa ra te ,n onpo l i t ica lr e a lm ss u ch a s r e l ig iou s e s tab l i shmen t s . T he a l l iance s b e tween s ma l le ra nd l a rge rp o l i t ica l e n t i t ie s i n cu r ac on t inua l s e r ie so fn ego t ia t ion sa st h el a rg e re n t i t ie ss e ek g r ea te r a moun t so ft r ibu te a nd s uppor tw h i le t h el o ca ll e ade r s s e ek t o l e s sen t h e i r b u rden a nd /o r i n c rea s e t h e i r r ewa rd s . D oug la sa nd I s herwood ( 1 979 )h ave d e sc r ibed t h e l o ca l i mpa c t o f t h i s t y pe o f c on t inued n ego t ia t ion d u r ing t h eE u ropean H und r ed Y ea r s ' Wa r( 1 337 1453 A .D . ) . Wh i le m any o ft h el o ca ll o rd sh ad t i e se i th e rt o E ng land o rt oF rance ,t h e se l o ya l t ie sc ou ld b es w i t ched a s e i the r r o ya l h ou se o f e r ed a b e t te r i n cen t ive : " Be tw een t h e m a in r ank s o f a dve r sa r ie s s t ood a c on f u sed c r is sc ro s s o f l o rd s w ho s n if f ed t h e w ind , w e igh ed t h e r i sks o f ac hange i n a l leg iance , a nd p a s s ed f r om o ne c amp i n to t h e o t he r , t r a ff ick ing i n l o ya l ty "( Doug la sa nd I s herwood 1 979 :34 ) . S im i la r ly , S t ewa r tG o rdon ( 1987 :35 )h a sn o t ed t h a tt h eh i s to ry o f t h e s e ven t een th a nd e i gh teen th c en tu r ie s o fw e s te rn I nd ia i so n e m a rked b yp o l i t ica lt i e sr a the rt h an l i ne s d rawn o nm ap s :

B oundar ies T he p r e sence o f e f ec t ive b ounda r ie s i n t h e m od er nw or ld c an b ec on s id e r ed a no u tg row th o ft h e n e ed a nd a b i l i ty t om a in ta in e xc lu s ive t e r r i to r ia lr i gh t s o v e rr e sou rce s s uch a sl a bo ro ra g r icu l tu ra l l a nd . A s l a rge m e rchan th ou se sg r ew i n to p rom inen ce i ne a r ly m od e rn E u rope , t h e i r i n te rac t ion w i th t h e p o l i t ica l h i e ra r chy e ncou raged a nd s uppo r ted t h ea cqu i s i t ion o f n ew l a nds u nde r an a t iona l i s t ic b anne r ( B raude l 1 992 [ 1979 ] ) . T h i s r e su l ted i nc ompe t i t ion b e tw een e me rgen t n a t ion s ta te s a nd t h e s t r eng then ing o f b ounda r ie s n o t o n ly b e tween t h o s e s t a t e s i nE u rope , b u t i nt h e i r c o lon ia l l a nd s a b road . I n t h e c o lon ia l d oma in s , t h e r e inf o r cemen t o f e x t er na l ly i mpo sed b ounda r ie s r e su l ted i n w a r f a r e b e tw een c o lon iz ing p owe r sa sw e l la su pon i nd ig enou sg r oup s . I nf i gh t ing t h e se w a r s , c o lon iz ing p ow e r s h ad t wo d i s t inc t a dvan tage s : s upe r io r w eapon ry a nd m o r e e x t en s ive r e sou r c e so fc r ed i t , t h el a t te rp e rhap sb e ing t h e m o r e s i gn if i can ta dvan tage ( Go rdon 1 993 ) . H oweve r , as u rp r i s ing n umbe r o f a r ea s h ave b ounda r ie st ha tr ema in i nd i spu te , r e su l t ing i nd o t ted l i n e s o n m ap s t h a t s i gna l t h e i r c on t e s ted s t a tu s . B ounda ry d i spu te s c u r r en t ly e x i s t b e twe en E cuado r a nd P eru i nS ou th Ame r ica ;b e tween C h ina a nd I nd ia f o r as e c t ion o f t e r r i to ry i n t h e H ima laya s ; a mong N ica r agua , C o s ta R ica , a nd H ondu ra s ; b e tw een E th iop ia a nd E r i t r ea ;a nd b e tw een K uwa i ta nd I r an ( t o n am e o n ly a f ew e xamp le s ) . B ounda r ie s a s i n t er na l d i v i s ion sa r ea l so m a in ta ined i nm od e rn n a t ion s ta te s , a nd t h e p re sen ce o f mu l t ip le b ounda r ie s s om e t ime s m ean st h a tc ommun i t ie sd ef in ed a sa ni n teg ra lw ho le b yo n et y pe o fb ounda ry a r ed i v ided b ya no the r . T hu s , w e h av e t h e p henomena o f c i t ie s w ho se c on t iguou s n e ighbo rhood s a r e s e pa ra ted b y o t he rw i se i n v i s ib le c oun ty b ounda r ie s w i th i mp l ica t ion sf o rm a in tenance a nd t a xa t ion ;o rc ommun i t ie st h a ta r ew i th in t h es ame s t a t eb u ti nd if e ren tt im ez one s . T h e f unc t ion o fb ounda r ie s , w he r e t h ey c an b e m a in ta ined , i s t o s e rv e b o th a s ac on ta in e r f o r a dm in i s t ra t ive a c t iv i ty ( s uch a s t h e e x t rac t ion o f r e v enue )a nd a s ap r ec i se d e l inea to ro fr e spon s ib i l i ty ( a

w ee xp l ic i t ly r e jec tk ingdom " b ounda r ie s "a s au s e f u l o rf unc t iona l w ay o fu nd e r s tand ing t h e c omp lex p o l i t ica l e n t i t ie s o f t h e s e ven teen th -a nd e i gh te en th cen tu ry D ec can . R a th e r ,w e mu s ts e ef am i l ie sw i th c l u s te r so f " n e s t ed " r i gh t s , wh ich a r e o f ten h igh ly i n te rpen e t ra ted w i th o t he r f am i l ie s ' r i gh t s . When a f am i ly s ough t s e rv ice w i th a c omp e t ing f a c t ion o r a no the r p o l i ty , i t w i thd r ew a w ho le c l u s te r o f r i gh t s r i tua l , e c onom ic ,j ud ic ia l ,m i l i ta ry -f rom o ne p o l i ty a nd g ave i tt o a no the r . F am i l ie s s h if ted l o ya l ty much mo re o n t h eb a s i s o ff a c t iona l p o l i t ic s t h an t h ey d i d o n t h e b a s is o f p r ox im i ty t os ome th ing l a t e rh i s to r ian sw ou ld c a l l a" f ron t ie r " w i th an e ighbor ing p o l i ty . 7

w he r e t h e s e pa ra t ion o ft h e c u r r ency s y s t em s w a s a c au se o fr e co inage ( Howgego 1 990 ) . C o in s c ou ld b e s t ruck b y av a r ie ty o f a genc ie s o n b eha l f o f m any c u s tome r s , s ot h a t m in tma s te r sc ou ld m ak e c o in s f o r i n d iv idua l s w hen s upp l ied w i th b u l l ion ( Howgego 1 990 ) . T h ep r ac t ice o fm in t ing c o in sf o r i n d iv idua l s w a s k nown i n m ed ieva l E u rope a s w e l l ; a nd " p in t h o se c a se si nw h ich ak ing h im se lf r a n am in th ea l so a c ted m o r e o f t en a s ap r iva te e n t r ep r eneu r t h an a s h ead o ft h eS t a te " ( C ipo l la 1 967 , c i ted i n Wa l le r s te in 1 974 :46 ) . Mu l t ip le m in t ing l o c i a l so r e su l t w hen t h e d emand f o r c o inage i s g rea te r t h an t h e a b i l i ty o f c en t ra l m in t s t os upp ly t h a t d emand , l e ad ing t ot h e s upp lemen ta t ion o fb a se m e ta l c o inag e w i th l a rge s c a le p rodu c t ion o fl o ca li m i ta t ion s( Howgego 1 992 ) . Of t en ,i ti sn o tc l ea rw ha tt h er e la t iv ee x change v a lue s o ft h e se l o ca li s sue sa nd i m i ta t ion sw ou ld b e ; a ne ven m o re c omp lex i s sue i st h ec hange i nt h er e p r e sen ta t ive q ua l i t ie so fc o inage , t h a ti s ,t h ep o in ta tw h ich ac o in b ecom e s ar e p r e sen ta t ion o f v a lue r a the r t han a n a c tua l v a lu e . T he c hang e i n v a lue f r om a c tua l ( b u l l ion )v a lue t or e p r e sen ta t ive v a lu ec an b et r acked i nt h eR oman w o r ld w hen d eba semen t so fc o in w er e u nde r taken o n al a rge s c a le ,f i r s tb yt h ee mp e ro rN e ro i n5 4A .D . ( Lo C a sc io 1 981 ) . T he se d eba semen t sh ad ad ua le f ec t : w i th in t h ee mp ire , t h ev a lu eo ft h ec o in r ema ined s t eady , b u t o u t s id e t h e e mp i r e , i t sv a lue a s b u l l ion d ropped c on s ide rab ly ( f o r e xamp le i nI nd ia ; s e e MacDow e l l 1 990 ) . H oweve r ,t h i st r an sf o rma t ion , i n t h e a b senc e o f h i s tor ica l d ocum en t s r e ga rd ing m in t s , i s mu ch m o r ed if icu l tt oa s se s sf o ro t he rp a r t s o ft h ea nc ien tw o r ld . G iven t h e a b i l i ty o f c o in s t o c a r ry s ymbo l ic , b u l l ion ,a nd e xchange v a lu e ,t h ea s se s smen to ft h er o le o fc o inage m u s tb e m ade f o r a n a nc ien t e conomy i n c oncer tw i th o t h e rd ocumen ta ry e v iden ce . T h ev o lume o f c o inage m ay i nd ica te i t s r o le a s am ed ium o f e xchange ; h ow eve r , c o in v o lume s m ay b e l ow i nt h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd d ue t o t h e r eme l t ing o r r e s t r ik ing o fc o in s( b y mode rn c o l lec to r sa sw e l la si n a n t iqu i t y ) a nd b y t h e h aphaza rd r e cov e ry o f c o in h oa rd s . Al ow v o lume o f a c tua l p hy s ica l c o inage o n ly h ampe r si t su s ea s am ed ium o fe xchang e ; i tc an s t i l l b e u sed a s ac onven ien t s t anda rd o fv a lu e i nw h ich o t he r c ommod i t ie s a r e m ea sured e v en a s t h ey a r e e xchanged i nk ind u nde r as y s tem o fb a r t e r . T he u se o fc o inag ea sp r ima r i ly as t anda rd o fv a lu ew a ss e en i n e a r ly S pan i sh N ew Mex ico , f o r e xamp le , w he r e t h e f a r f lung p rov in ce h ad s u ch as ho r tag eo fc o in st h a ta d ua l v a lua t ion d eve loped . When a c tua l money c hang ed h and s ,i t em sw e r ev a lued i n" p e so sd ep l a ta ," b u t t h e m a jo r i ty o f t r an sac t ion s o c cu r r ed w i th t h e i mag ina ry c u r rency o f" p e so sd et i e r ra , " i nw h ich t h e t r aded i t em w a sv a lued a ts ome f r ac t ion o ft h e h a rd c u r r ency p r ic e . T hu s , as h eep v a lued a tt wo p e so sd e t i e r ra m igh tb ew o r th o n ly o ne -f ou r th t oo ne -ha lf p e so s

B ounda r ie s a f f ec t n o t o n ly ap o l i ty ' s r i va l s , b u t a l so t he t e r r i to ry e ncompa s sed w i th in a f r on t ie r . H oweve r ,t h e se b ounda r ie sa r ea l so l i ke ly t ob ef l ex ib le a nd p o rou s ,w i th i n d iv idua lp opu la t ion c en te r sf a l l ing i n d if e r en t j u r i sd ic t ion s s imu l taneou s ly . R obe r t F rykenbe rg ( 1 979a ) h a s e va lua ted t h el o ca l i mpac to f p o l i t ica lo rgan iza t ion sf o rt h eG un tu rr e g ion o fS ou th I nd ia s t a r t ing i n t h e m ed ieva l p e r iod ( a f t e r t h e f ou r teen th c en tu ry A .D . ) , ap e r iod f o rw h ich r e co rd s e x i s tt ha tp rov ide d e ta i led i n f o rma t ion . H en o t e st h a t t h e c on t ro l o f v i l lage s c ou ld b e c l a im ed b y r i va l s up rav i l lage o rgan ize r s ; a t t h e s t a te l e ve l , t h e s am e t e r r i to ry c ou ld b ec r o s sed o ve ro re ven c l a imed b yr i va l s t a t e s . S t ewar tG o rdon ( 1 993 :119 )a dd i t iona l ly n o te s t h a ti nt h e 1 720 sf o rt h ec en t ra l -we s te rn s ubcon t inen t , " t he r i gh t s o ft h e N izam a nd t h e Ma ra tha s n o t o n ly i n te rpene t ra ted ,b u tt h ey o f t en c o l lec t ed r e venue f r om t h es ame p a rgana o rv i l lage ." C o inage a nd m one t ized e conom ies Ab r ief e xam ina t ion o ft h ef unc t ion o fc o inag ew i l l h e lp t od i sband s ome o ft h e a s sump t ion s o f ten m ad e a bou t a nc ien t p o l i t ica l e conom ie s a r cha eo log ica l ly r e p re sen ted b y c o in s . C o inage a s a f o rm o f s t anda rd ized m e ta l u n i t s w a s f i r s t d eve loped i nt h e s e ven th c en tu ry B .C . i nt h e G r eek speak ing r e g ion o f L yd ia i n w e s ter n A s ia M ino r . Wh i le c o inage i s a s sumed t oh ave al i nk t os t rong p o l i t ica la u tho r i t ie s , t h e u se o fc o inage a nd o the r m one ta ry i n s t rumen t s a c tua l ly i n d ica te st h a ts o c ia lf a c to r ss t rong ly c ond i t ion i t su se i ns p i te o fp o l i t ica ld i c ta te s . T he d if i cu l t ie s o f m a in ta in ing a mu l t ime ta l s y s t em , a nd t h e s e t t ing o fe qu iva lency r a t e s b e twe en g o ld , s i lve r , a nd o t he rm e ta l s , m ean tt h a te ven w i th in ap o l i ty ,t h ee xchange r a tes b e tween s t andard ized c o in s m igh tv a ry ( Lo C a s c io 1 981 ) . A sa ne xamp le ,w ec an l o ok a tt h er o le o fc o inage i nt h eR oman w o r ld ,w he r e e ven i nt h ep re sence o f as t rong c en t ra la u tho r i ty t h e r e w e r ed ef in i te d i sc r epanc ie si nt h ec i r cu la t ion o fm oney i n d i f f e r en t p a r t s o f t h e e mp i r e . A l though f i rm ly w i th in t h e I mpe r ia l o rb i t , E gyp t " op e r a ted a c l o s ed c u r rency s y s t em b a sed o n b a se s i lve r t e t rad rachm s s t ruck a tA lexand r ia . S i lve rc o in s o ft h e k ind s u s ed e l sewhe r ei nt h e Emp i r ew e r ec e r ta in ly e xc luded f r om E gyp t ,a nd i tr ema in sd oub tf u lw h e the rt h en o rma lu s e o fg o ld c o in w a sp e rm i t ted t h e r e "( Howgego 1 992 :11 ) . T hu s ,t h ec u r r ency s t ruck b y ap o l i ty 's c en t ra la u tho r i ty m ay n o t b e u n ive r sa l ly a ccep ted e ven w i th in t h e b ound so ft h a tp o l i ty . T he s anc t i ty o ft h ec o in f o rm i nt h em ode rn w o r ld r e su l ted i np roh ib i t ion sa ga in s tt h em e l t ing o fc o inag e a nd t h e r e ten t ion o ft h ee xc lu s iv er i gh tt om in tc o in s b yt h es t a te . H ow eve r ,i nt h ea nc ien tw o r ld ,c o in sw e r e s ome t ime s ac onv en ien tm ean s o fb u l l ion t r an sf e rb y m e rchan t s t r av e l ing f r om o ne p o l i ty t o a no th e r ( MacDow e l l 1 990 ) . W i th in t h eb ound so f ap o l i t ica l u n i t , b u l l ion t r an s f e r m igh t a l so o ccu r a s i nE gyp t , 8

d ep l a ta ( Bax te r 1 987 :43 ) . A t temp t st os upe r cede l o ca lc u s tom si nc o in u s ag e w e r e g enera l ly u n tenab le i n t h e a nc ien t w o r ld .

P o l i t ica l l e ade r sa l so c r ea te a nd manage s c a rc i ty b y p rov id ing r e sou r ce s o ft ime , l a bo r , a nd m a te r ia l s . I nm ode rn n a t ion s ta t e s , t h ec on t inu i t y o fl e ade r sh ip a nd t h e c on t ro l o ft h e c en te r o ve r s ubo rd ina te s ( f o r e xamp le b yf o r ce o rb y s ymb io s i s ) m ean st h a t c ap i ta l i n ve s tmen tc an b eh i gh ;t h i sc ap i ta li n ve s tmen ti so ne o f t h e p r inc ipa l b u i ld ing b l ock s o f e conom ic a nd p o l i t ica l s t ruc tu r e( M .E . Sm i th 1 99 1 ) . A s ar e su l t ,i n t h em ode rn r e a lm t h ee f ec to fp o l i t ica ls t ab i l i ty i sn o t l im i ted t o c ap i ta l i n ve s tmen t s b u t i ss e en a s b e ing f undamen ta l ly i n ter tw ined w i th e conom ic s t ab i l i ty :

Of f i eux a nd S chm i t tP an te l( 1 999 [1995 ]: 1 98 )n o t et h a t i n t h e f i f th c en tu ry B .C . t h e A then ian e mp i r e a t t emp t ed t os upp lan tt h en ume r ou sl o ca lc i ty c o inage s o fi t sr e a lm b yi mpo s ing t h eu s eo fA th en ian c u r r ency , am ove t h a tw a su n su cce s sf u l . E ven s t range rm one ta ry h ab i t s h ave b een s e en i n t h e mode rn w o r ld , f o r e xamp le i n t h e " do l la r iza t ion " o f t h e E cuado r ian e c onomy i n 2 000 r e su l t ing i n t h e g ove rnm en t r e p la c ing t he s ove r e ign c oun t r y ' s l o ca l c u r rency w i th U .S . d o l la r s . P e rhap s t h e m o s t s i gn if i can t p o l i t ica l s u p e rpo s i t ion o ft h i sk ind w i l lt a ke p l ace i n2 002 w i th t h e s i ng le s t anda rd c u r rency k nown a s t h e " Eu ro " s u pp lan t ing t h e u s e o f n a t iona l c u r r en c ie s i n m any E u ropean c oun t r ie s . C o inage m ay t h u sb ep e r c e ived a sf i t t ing i n to a n e c onomy a tv e ry d if e ren tl e v e l s ,e ven s imu l taneou s ly , s ot h a tw ha ti sr e ga rded a s af i x ed s t anda rd o fv a lu ei n o n e p o l i ty ( o r i no ne p o r t ion o f ap o l i ty ) , i sr e ga rded o n ly a sa n i n s t rumen t o fn ego t ia ted v a lue e l sewhe r e . I nt h ea b sence o fs t anda rd ized m oney i t em s ,a nd p r io r t ot h ei n ven t ion a nd u se o fc o inag e , s t anda rd so fv a lu e a r e m a in ta ined b y a l l p a r t ie s i n a n e xchange ; t h e p r e s ence o f m oney i t em s s u ch a s c o in s m e r e ly s t r eam l ine st h i sp r oce s s .

Ma rke t s [ d ef in ed a s as o c ia l i n s t i tu t ion o fe xchange ] b ecome r e gu la r , a dequa te a nd s e cu r e w hen r e g ion s a r e i n teg ra ted e conom ica l ly , p o l i t ica l ly a nd s oc ia l ly . R eg iona l i n teg ra t ion c ome s f r om i n ve s tmen t i n i n f ra s t ruc tu r e , m ean ing t h e b a s ic t e chno logy o f t r an spo r ta t ion a nd c ommun ica t ion . [ P la t tner 1 989b :181 ] P la t tne r e l abo ra te s u pon t h e se i t em s o f i n f r a s truc tu r e : s u ff i c ien t a nd r e a sonab ly p r iced t r an spor ta t ion a nd t r an spor ta t ion s uppo r t n e two rk s , s t o r age f a c i l i t ie s , t h e m ean s t ot r an sm i t i n f o rma t ion a bou t g ood sb e ing t r aded , a nd p o l i t ica l i n teg ra t ion o f r e g iona ls o c ie t ie s . T he l a s tc ond i t ion ,t h a to fp o l i t ica l i n t eg ra t ion , i sn eeded " s ot h a t t r ade r sa r e n o t s ub jec t t oe xp lo i ta t ion b yl o ca l of i c ia l sw h en t h ey c r o s sl o ca l b o rde r sa nd s ot h a tt r ad ei sn o td i sr up ted b yv io lence . Wa r f a r e o bv iou s ly m ak e s n o rma l t r ade d i f f icu l t o r i mpo s s ib le " ( P la t tne r 1 989b : 1 81) . T he se v i ew s a r e p r ed ica ted o n t h e t y pe s o f r e g iona l e n t i t ie s , f i xed b ounda r ie s , a nd a l l inc lu s ive w a r f a r e o ft h e m ode rn n a t ion s ta t e ; i ta l so a s sume st h a t t r ade r s a r e t i ed t oa s p ec if i cp o l i t ica l s y s tem . T he o b se rved i n sepa rab i l i ty o ft h e e conom ic a nd p o l i t ica l s ph e r e s i nt h e moder n w o r ld i s s ome t imes i n co rpo ra ted i n to t h e v e ry d ef in i t ion o f t r ad e : " howeve r t h e se t e rm s ( t rade , c i v i l iza t ion s , s t a te s ) a r e d ef ined , t h ey i mp ly a n o rgan iza t ion , as p ec ia l ized a dm in i s t ra t ion , w h ich r egu la te s h uman a c t iv i t ie s b o th i n t e rm s o f p rocu remen t ( movem en t o f g ood s i n c lud ing r aw m a te r ia l s ) a nd o fs o c ia l r e la t ion s ( h uman e ncoun te r s w i th e xchange o fi n f o rma t ion a nd g ood s ) " ( R en f r ew 1 975 :4 ) . T he p r eced ing d i s cu s s ion i n d ica te st h a tp o l i t ica l e n t i t ie s a nd t h e i r c omponen t p a r t s a r e s ub jec t t o a v a r ie ty o f s t r e s se s w h ich r e qu i r e t h e r e so lu t ion o f c on f l ic ta nd t h em i t iga t ion o fc oop t ion . T he i nhe r en t s t r a in s o fs u cce s s ion a nd a dm in i s t ra t ion a nd t h ec o s t o f m i l i ta ry a c t iv i t ie s l e d t o ap r ed ic t ion t h a t t r ade c ou ld n o t b e a c comp l i shed e f ec t ive ly i np remode rn c omp lex s o c ie t ie s b ecau se c ap i ta l a c cumu la t ion f o r e conom ic i n v e s tm en tw a s l ow . Y e t , t h is w as n o tt h e c a se , a st h e r ea r ev o lume so fa r cha eo log ica le v idence t h a t a t te s tt om ed ium -a nd l o ng -d i s tance t r ade . T he

S ca rc i ty i nt h em a rk e t G iven t h e s t rong s o c ia l f a c to r s i nvo lved i n s e em ing ly s t ruc tu r ed c oncep t s s u ch a s c o inag e a nd b ounda r ie s , h ow c an w e s a y t h a t f o rma l e conom ic m od e l sw o rk a ta l l? R a the rt h an u s ing t h ep r e sence o f s om e p hy s ica l e n t i ty a s ab a s i s f o r u nder s tand ing p r emode rn ( o re v en mode rn )e c onom ie s ,c oncep t ss u ch a s s c a r c i ty a nd t h e e n su ing n ece s s i ty o f a l loca t ing r e sou r ce s may b et h e mo s tc r i t ica la spe c ti nd e sc r ib ing h ow l a rge sca le e conom ie sw o rk . I ng ene ra l , s c a r c i ty i sap roduc to fb o th n a tu ra la nd c u l tu ra lc on s t ra in t so n a c c e s st od e s ir ed m a te r ia l s . A l l s oc ie t ie sw o rk w i th in f i xed p a rame te r so ft h e n a tu ra l e nv ironm en t , i n c lud ing l im i t s o n p hy s ica l r e sou r ce s( f ood ,w a te r ,c on s tru c t ion m a te r ia l s )a sw e l l a si n tang ib le s s u ch a s t im e . G iven t h e l ow l e ve l o f m e chan iza t ion , w ha t w e m ay s e e a s ak ey s ou r ce o f s c a r c i ty i n t h e a n c ien t w o r ld i sp robab ly d ue t o a s h o r tage o f l a bo r r a the r t h an as ho r tage o f l a nd o r p r oduc t ive c apa c i ty . I n aw o r ld w he re c en t ra l a u tho r i t ie s mu s tn ego t ia te w i th l o ca ll e ade r sa nd f e nd o f c ompe t i to r s f o r c en t ra l a u tho r i ty , t h e r e w a s p r obab ly l i t t le o ppo r tun i ty f o r t h e l o ng t e rm s u rp lu s e x t ra c t ion wh ich w ou ld p rov id et h eu pkeep f o rc ap i ta l i n v e s tmen t s . When l a rg e sca le p ro jec t s w e r e u nd e r taken i n t h e a nc ien t w o r ld , t h ey w e re u sua l ly a s soc ia ted w i th a p a r t icu la r ly s u cce s sf u l c en t ra l l e ad e r sh ip .

9

T he s t udy o f d i sp e r sed i t em s p r ov ide s t h e a r chaeo log ica l d a ta t o s uppor t m od e l s o f t r ad e i n te ra c t ion . T he c ho ice o f d a ta p r ov ide s t h e p a rame te r sf o rt h er ang eo fe xp lana t ion sw h ich c an b e e xp ec t ed f r om t h e mod e l . D if f e ren ts t anda rd so fd a ta c o l lec t ion a nd r e por t ing a f ec tt h es c op eo fi n qu i ry ;i n a dd i t ion , f a c to r so fp r e s e r va t ion m ay f u r the rl im i tt h e d a ta s e tw h i ch i n f o rm su pon t h er ang ea nd v a r ia t ion o f a n c ien tt r ad e . T he se l im i ta t ion sa r ep a r t icu la r ly f e l ti n d i scu s s ion so ft h eo r ig in so ft r ade a c t iv i ty i nw h ich t h e f o cu s i so f t en o n t he e x change o f n on sub s i s tence g ood sb yp o l i t ica le l i te s . R e sea r ch o n t h e b eg inn ing s o ft r ad e i n te rac t ion s ugge s t s t h a t t h e e xpan s ion o f t h e e a r l ie s t t r ade i n p r emode rn c omp lex s o c ie t ie sw a sa im ed a ts a t i sf y ing t h es t a tu s r e la t ed n eed so fe l i te s . B rum f ie la nd E a r le ( 1 987 :6 ) f i nd t h e d i s t in c t ion b e twe en l u xu ry a nd u t i l i ta r ian g ood s a s s e t t ing t h e s t age f o r t h e o rgan iza t ion o f e conom ic a c t iv i ty i ne a r ly c omp lex s o c ie t ie s ,c i t ing " t he l a ck o fi mpor tan c eo fs ub s i s tenc e g ood s f o rp o l i t ica l d ev e lopmen t ." I na dd i t ion t ot h e e mpha s i so ne l i te g ood sa st h ed r iv ing m echan i sm f o r t h ed eve lopmen to ft r ade ,t h e re i s as t rong t e nd ency t o e mpha s ize t h er o le o fe l i te g ood st h roughou tt h et im e p e r iod u nd e r i n ve s t iga t ion . Wa l le r s te in ( 1 974 :20 ) , s p eak ing o fE u ropean f e uda l t r ade , s a y st h a t i tw a s a t r ad e i nl u xu r ie s , w h ich " d epended o n t h e p o l i t ica l i n du lgence a nd e conom ic p oss ib i l i t ie s o f t h e t r u ly w ea l thy ." T he s e qu enc ei n wh ich t y pe so fg ood sb ecome p a r t o f t h e r e a lm o f e x change i s e xp la ined a s a n e vo lu t iona ry s e quence w h ich p a ra l le l sd ev e lopmen t si n s o c iopo l i t ica l c omp lex i ty s ot ha t , " a s t r ad ing r ou te s a nd t r ad ing r e la t ion sh ip s b ecame m o r e f i rm ly e s tab l i shed , e ve ryday g ood s w e r e a dd ed t o t h e m e r chan t s ' r e per to i r e . .. a nd c ame t os upp ly n o to n ly v a luab le i t em s f o r e l i t e s b u t a l so f o od s t ap le s a nd u t i l i ta r ian w a r e s f o rp eop le i nt he s o c ie t y g ene ra l ly " ( Be rdan 1 989 :99 ) . T h i sd i v i s ion o f" n ec e s s i t ie s " a nd " l uxu r ie s " c l o se ly f o l low s t h e w o rk o fK a r l P o lany i , w ho c on s ide r ed t h ef o rme rt ob ei t em ss u ch a st e x t i le s a nd h ou seho ld a r t ic le s ; " l uxu r ie s " i n c lud ei t em ss uch a s" p r ec iou ss t one s ,s i lk a nd l e a the rf i ne r y ,c o sme t ic s , a nd a do rnm en t s " n eed ed s o le ly b y t h e r i ch a nd p ow e rf u l ( P o lany i 1 975 [1951 1 :135 ) . T h i s a na ly s i s s ugg e s t s t h a t e xchang e a c t iv i ty i s b a s ed o n t h e d emand s o f as ma l l s e c to r o f s oc ie ty a nd t h a t t h e m echan i sm s o f t r ad e i n exp l icab ly e xpand t o a c commoda t e t h e d emand s o f ab roade r s e c t ion o f s o c ie ty . P r io r t o t h e e xpan s ion o f t r ade r ou te s , u t i l i ta r ian g ood s( e spec ia l ly c ome s t ib le s )a r ea s sumed t ob e t h e r e su l t o fs e lf suf f ic iency , a nd t h e r e f o r e n o t p e r ce ived t ob e ad r iv ing m echan i sm f o r i n c r ea sed t r ad e . T hough u t i l i ta r ian g ood s a r e n eed ed b ya l l , i t a ppea r s t h a t o n ly w hen p o l i t ica l s t ru c tu r e s b ecome l a rge a nd c omp lex d o t h ey b ecome i n vo lv ed i n t h e a c t iv i ty o f p r ov id ing , c on t ro l l ing , a nd t r an spo r t ing b a s ic s ub s i s t enc e g ood s , a s s e en i n t h e l a rg e g ra in -

a s sump t ion t h a ts t rong p o l i t ica ls y s tem sa r en ece s sa ry f o rv i ab le e xchange e nv i ronmen t sm ean st h a to f ten t h e p o t en t ia l c omp lex i t ie so fa n a nc ien te conomy m ay b e n eg lec t ed a p r ior i d ue t o k nown h i s to r ica l c i r cum s tan ce ss uch a sp o l i t ica li n s tab i l i ty . B yv i ew ing e conom ie s a s s o c ia l ly c on s truc ted r a the r t h an p o l i t ica l ly d i c ta ted , o ne c an u nde r s tand t h e c om p e l l ing n a tu r e o f e conom ic a c t iv i ty i n p r emod e rn s o c ie t ie s . T he o r ig in so fe xchange a c t iv i ty : Who t r ade s ,a nd w hy? T he r e i s ac o r re la t ion b e tween i n c rea sed s o c ia l c omp lex i ty a nd t h e s um t o ta l o fg ood s a sw e l l a st h e r ange o fg ood s a va i lab le , c u lm ina t ing i no u r mod e rn w o r ld w i th i t ss i xb i l l ion p eop le a nd c oun t le s sv a r ie t ie s o fm a te r ia lg ood s . T he c on sc iou sm an ipu la t ion o ft h e p hy s ica lw o r ld a ppea r st ob e ac omponen t o fw ha tm ake su sh uman ;a se a r ly a s 1 . 8m i l l ion y ea r s a go , t h ee a r l ie s t s t one t o o l sa tO lduva i G o rge i nE a s t A f r ica w e r e m ade o fn on loca l s t one s s uch a sq ua r tz , f l in t , a nd c h e r tt ha tw e r ec a r r ied i n to t h e s i te sw he r e t h ey w e r eu s ed ( Campbe l la nd L oy 1 996 :276 -80 ) . C ogn i t ive s c ien t i s t sh av ea l so e va lua ted t h ew ay i n w h ich i n f o rma t ion a bou t o b jec t s i sp roce s sed a nd s t o r ed i nt h e h uman b ra in ; t h e i r r e su l t s s ugge s t t h a t l a nguag e a nd c ogn i t ion a r e c l o se ly t i ed t o t h e m an ipu la t ion o ft h ep hy s ica lw o r ld . I n as t udy o fh ow t h e b ra in s t o r e s i n f o rma t ion a bou t a n ima te a nd i n an ima t eo b jec t s ,A lex Ma r t in ( 1 998 )u sed P ET b ra in s c ann ing t e chno logy t oe va lua te t h ea c t iv i ty r e g i s te r ed b yd if e r en ts e c t ion so ft h eb r a in . H ef ound t h a tw h i le i n f o rma t ion a bou t a n ima l s w a s l i nked t o v i sua l ly d e r ived d e sc r ip t ive q ua l i t ie sa nd t hu sw e r es t o r ed i na v a r ie ty o fl o ca t ion s , i n f o rma t ion a bou tt o o ls a ppea red t ob es t o r ed i nt h es ame r e g ion o ft h eb ra in t h a t mo t ion a c t iv i t ie s a r e a l so s t o r ed . I n m ak ing ac a se f o r t h e s t rong c onne c t ion b e tween l a nguag eu se a nd h uman m ade o b jec t s -bo th f undamen ta l a spec t s o f wha t i t m ean st ob e " human " -Ma r t in c onc lude sh i s s t udy b y c i t ing t h el i ngu i s tG eo rge L akof ft h a t " t he c o r eo fo u r c oncep tu a ls y s tem si sd i r ec t ly g rounded i np e r cep t ion , b ody m ov em en t , a nd e xpe r ience o ft h e p hy s ica l a nd s o c ia lo rd e r " ( 1 998 :85 ) . G iven a c onn ec t ion b e tween l a nguage a nd m a te r ia lc u l tu re ,e xchange i sal o g ica ls t ep f o rh uman c ommun ica t ion ,i nw h ich s o c ia lr e la t ion sa r ee nhanced a nd m ad em an if e s tb ym a te r ia lo b jec t s . A ni n c r ea se i n p opu la t ion i n a ny h uman c u l tu r e w ou ld t h e r ef o r e e xp la in s ome o ft h ei n c r ea se i ne xchange a c t iv i ty o ve r t ime . H oweve r , h uman s o c ia l d ynam ic s g o b eyond m e re n umbe r s t o i n c lud e r e la t ion sh ip s b e tween i nd iv idua l s , h ou seho ld s , a nd g roup s . S oc ia l c omp lex i ty c an b ed ef ined a st h ed en s i ty a nd f r equency o ft ho se i n t e rac t ion s , a l l o fw h ich a r e d emon s t ra t ed t h rough t h em an ipu la t ion o fm a te r ia lg ood sa nd s pa ce .

1 0

s t o rag es t ruc tu r e so ft h eI nka e mp i r e( Snead 1 992 )o r t h e l a rge sca le r a t ion p rog r am s o ft h e U ruk p o l i t ie s ( J ohn son 1 975 ) . E ven t h en , t h e p rov is ion o f s ub s i s t ence g ood s i s s pec if i c a l ly t i ed t o p ro jec t s s p on so r ed b yt h es t a te , i nw h ich s ub s i s tenc eg ood sa r e s t o ckp i led t os u s ta in l a bo r e r s a nd o t herw i se u t i l ized o n ly i nt ime s o fd i sa s te r ( Ea r l e a nd D 'A l t roy 1 982 ) . T h e l a rge sca le c on sump t ion o f g ood s r e ached i t s a poge e i n t h e m ode rn w o r ld , w he r e t h e i n c rea sed p u r cha s ing p owe r d ur ing t h e I ndu s t r ia l R evo lu t ion p r omp t ed t h ei n f la t ion o fs o c ia l ly c on s truc ted n eed s ,s o t h a t" luxu r ie s 'c ame t ob es e en a sm e r e' d ec enc ie s ' ,a nd ' d e cen c ie s ' c ame t o b e s e en a s ' n ece s s i t ie s" ( M cKend r ick 1 982a :1 ) . T h ec on sump t ion o fo rd ina ry g ood s i s t h e r e f o r e v i ewed a s a n e vo lu t iona ry p r og r e s s ion , c u lm ina t ing i n t h e moder n c on sume r s o c ie ty . T h ed iv is ion b e tween u t i l i t a r ian a nd l u xu ry g ood s i st h u s m ade w i th t h e a ccomp any ing a s sump t ion s o f t h ep o l i t ica li mpor tance a t ta ch ed t os u ch t r ade . When s c a r c i ty o rl a bo ri n ve s tmen ti sm an if e s ted i na no b jec t , t h a to b jec ts e rv e sa s as ymbo lf o rt h eo wn e r ' sc apa c i ty t o g ene ra te s u rp lu s w ea l th f o r t h e s uppor t o f c r a f t smake r s . I np o l i t ica lt e rm s ,t h ep o s se s so r so fr a r e g ood sa r e s e en a sh av ing ap l a ce i nt h e h i e ra rchy o f s o c ia lo rgan iza t ion t h rough r e l ig iou so rp o l i t ica l of ice ; i n t h e p o l i t ica l r e a lm , c on sp icuou s c on sump t ion i s e conom ica l b ecau se i tc r ea te s ad i s t inc t ion b e tween r u le r s a nd t h e r u led ( Sah l in s 1 963 ) . T he v i s ib le d i sp lay o fo b jec t si n to wh ich a r ei n corpo ra ted e l emen t s o f l a bo r i nv e s tmen t o r d i s tan t o r ig in s s i gna ls t h e p o s se s so ra s am embe ro fa ne l i te :

v a lue i sl im i ted t or a r ei t em s . H oweve r , t h i sd i v i s ion b e tween " l uxu ry " a nd " u t i l i tar ian " o r " s ub s is tenc e " g ood s o b scu r e s t wo c r i t ica l a spec t s o f e conom ic i n te rac t ion a s ad ynam ic p roce s s : i ta s sum e st h a t t h e a r chaeo log i s t c an u namb iguou s ly d e te rm ine w h ich i t em s c on s t i tu te s u b s i s tence a nd l u xu ry g ood sf o r a n a nc ien t e conomy , a nd i ti g no r e s t h e p o ten t ia l f o r s ymbo l ic u b iqu i tou s g ood s w h ich a r e r e qu i r ed t h roughou t as o c ia l s y s tem a nd u t i l ized b y p e r son s t h roughou tt h es o c ia la nd p o l i t ica l h i e ra r chy . T he i d en t if i ca t ion o f l u xu ry g ood s i n a n a r chaeo log ica l c on tex t i s o f t en m ade t h rough a n e va lua t ion o ft h e i rs c a r c i ty i n as i te o r ar e g ion ,a nd /o r t h e d i s tance t o a s ou r ce o f s upp ly , w i th t h e i mp l ica t ion s o f w ea l th o r p r iv i lege a dd i t iona l ly i n f e r red t h rough r a r e o r e l abo ra t e i c onog raphy , m a t e r ia l s , o rl a bo r in t en s ive c r a f t sman sh ip . B u t t h e i d en t if ica t ion o fw ha tc on s t i tu te s al u xu ry g ood m ay c hange t h rough t h e t ime p e r iod u nde r i n ve s t iga t ion s i nce d ynam ic i n t e rac t ion s b e tw een p o l i t ica l ly u n l inked t r ade r e g ion s o r s h if t s i n i n te rna l s o c iopo l i t ica lo rgan iza t ion c an t r an sf o rm t h es t a tu so f g ood s . T he r e a r e c a se s w he r e o n e e r a ' s l u xu ry g ood b ecome st h en ex te r a ' sb a s ic s u b s i s tence c ommod i ty ,a s R ic e s how sf o rt h eu s eo fo b s id ian i nt h e C la s s ic a nd P o s tc la s s ic Maya p e r iod s( R ice 1 987b ) . C hange i nt h e s t ruc tu r e o f s upp ly w h ich i n c r ea se s o r d ec r ea se s a va i lab i l i ty c an a f ec t as t a tu sm a rke r . I nM ing C h ina , t h e q uan t i ty o f p eppe r b rough t i n t r ibu te b y t h e e xp lo r e r Z heng H o r e su l ted i ni tp lung ing f r om a n e l i te g ood t o as ub s i s tence o ne ( F in lay 1 992 ) . A nd i n B r i ta in a tt h eb eg inn ing o ft h e I ndu s t r ia l R evo lu t ion , c a l ico c l o th f r om S ou th A s ia w a si n i t ia l ly p e r ce ived a s al u xu ry m a te r ia l b u t s oon w a s i mpor ted i n s u ch q uan t i t ie s t h a t i tb e came w ide ly a va i lab le ( M i l le r 1 987 ) . B yc on t ra s t ,o rd ina ry g ood sc an b ee l eva ted t o t h e s t a tu s o fp r ec io s i t ie s u nd e r c ond i t ion s o f n eed ; g r a in ,u sua l ly c on s id e r ed al ow -va lue ,b u lky i t em ,c an d r ama t ica l ly i n c r ea s ei ns t a tu sa nd p r ice w hen s c a r c i ty n e ce s s i ta te s i mpo r t , a s B raude l i nd ica te s f o r e a r ly mod er nE u rope : " Whea t , ah eavy a nd c ompa ra t iv e ly c heap c ommod i ty ,t r ave l led a sl i t t le a sp o s s ib le ,i nt h e s e n se t ha t i tw a s g r own e v e rywhe r e . B u t i f ab ad h a rve s t m ean t t h a t i tw a s i n s hor t s upp ly f o r a ny l e ng th o ft im e ,i tm igh tb es en to nv e ry l o ng j ou rn ey s " ( Br aude l 1 992 [1979 ] :178 ) . C hang ing s o c ia lv a lue sa l so a f ec tt h ep e rc ep t ion o f ag ood ' ss t a tu s :f r om t h es i x teen th c en tu r yE u ropean p o in t o fv i ew , p eppe r w a s " no t q u i te " al u xu ry g ood b ecau se i tw a s u s ed i n t h e p r e ser va t ion o f f o od ; l i kew i se , s p ice s w e r eu s ed a sm ed ic ine s (Wa l le r s te in 1 974 :333 ) . F rom t h e moder n p o in t o f v i ew , g o ld a ppea r s t ob e a n e l i t e i t em b yv i r tue o fi t s r a r i ty a nd u n ique m e ta l lu rg ica l q ua l i t ie s . H oweve r , t h e p e r cep t ion o f t h e se i t em s b y t h e s o c ie ty u nde r e xam ina t ion m ay h ave d epended o nf a c to r so t he rt h an r aw m a te r ia l . Ma ry H e lm s( 1 979 ) ,i na ne xam ina t ion

We w ou ld e xpec t t h e m embe r s o ft h e n ob le s t ra tum t o u s e s pec if ic s ymbo l s in r i tua l p e r f orman ce , p o l i t ica l a c t ion s , a nd s o c ia l d i sp lay -wh ich c on t ra s t s w i th t h o se u s ed b y o rd inary p eop le i n t e rm s o ft h e b r ead th o f t h e i rr e f e r ence a nd t h e i re v oca t ion o fc on t ro l o ve rn a tu ra lf o rce s . [ W r igh t 1 984 :54 ] L uxu ry g ood s e s pec ia l ly s e r v e t oi d en t if y i mpo r tan t s o c ia l a c to r s d u r ing t ime s o f s o c ia l c hange , a s H am i l ton a nd L a i ( 1989 :265 ) i lu s t ra te f o r l a t e i mp e r ia l C h ina , w he r e t h e " c on s tan t r i se a nd f a l l o f f am i ly w ea l th a nd p o s i t ion a nd t h eu ncer ta in ty o fo ne ' s f am i ly ' ss t a tu sa ta ny o ne p o in ta c cen tua ted t h eu se o f m a t e r ia l s ymbo ls t o ma rk s t a tu s ." H oweve r , s u ch e xam ina t ion sg i v eu ndue e mpha s i st o as ma l lv o lume o f e l i te -con t ro l led g ood s , r a th e r t h an t h e g rea te r v o lume o fg ood sc on sumed b ya l l . I na r chaeo log ica l r e sea r ch , t h i se mpha s i sm ay b ed ue t ot h re ef a c to r s : a l o ng s tand ing b i a s t owa rd t h e r e cov e ry o f e l i te r e s id en t ia l a nd b u r ia l c on t ex t s ( w i th c oncom i tan t s o c ia l s t a tu s a ch ieved b y a r cha eo log i s t s w o rk ing i n s u ch c on tex t s ) , t h e g rea t e r i n v i s ib i l i ty o fp e r ishab le c ommod i t ie s s u ch a s f o od s a nd t e x t i le s i n a r chaeo log ica ls i t e s , a nd t h ep e r cep t ion t h a ts ymbo l ic 1

B o th e t hnog raph ic a nd modern m a te r ia l c u l tu r e s t ud ie si n d i ca t et h a to b jec t sa r ei nve s ted w i th s ymbo l ic v a lue a nd a r e u t i l ized t o v i sua l ly r e inf o rce s o c ia l c a tego r ie s a nd r e la t ion sh ip s . E thnog r aph ic a nd a r chaeo log i ca ls t ud ie sh av eu sua l ly e mpha s ized h i gh -

o ft h eu se o fg o ld o rnam en t si na nc ien tP anama , make s as t rong a rgumen tf o rt h ed i s t inc t ion o fg o ld p i ece so n t h eb a s is o ft h em anu f ac tu r ing t e chn ique :o rnamen t so f b ea t en g o ld w e r e r e la t ive ly p l en t if u l , i nd ica t ing g en e ra l a cce s s , b u to b jec t so fp ou r ed g o ld w e r e r a r e r . H e r i n te rp re ta t ion s ugge s t s t h a t t h e d if e r en t ia l t e chn ique o f m anuf ac tu r e , r a th e r t h an t h e r aw ma t e r ia l , r e in f o r ced a nd i d en t if i ed s o c ia ld i s t inc t ion s a mong t h ea n c ien tP anaman ian s( He lm s 1 979 ) . Af u r the r e xamp le o ft h e p o ten t ia l ly m i s lead ing c on sequence s o f m oder n a e s the t ic s c ome s f r om t h e Med i te r ranean w o r ld . F rank incen se a nd m y r rh ,w h ich a r ec on s ide red l u xu ry i t em sb y mode rn s c ho la r s ,w ou ld n o th ave b een s or e ga rded b ya n c ien ts t anda rd s , s i nce

v a lue g ood sa si t em so fp r e s t ige managem en t ,c l o se ly l i nk ed w i th t h ed emon s t ra t ion o fp o l i t ica ls t r eng th . B y c on t ra s t , m ode rn m a t e r ia l -cu l tu re s t ud ie s s how t h a t e very o b je c t e mbod ie s as ymbo l ic a sp e c t . T h i s s ymbo l ic v a lue i sc r ea t ed a nd n ego t ia ted b yi n d iv idua l s i nc u l tu ra l c on t ex t s , w h e r e " any ma ter ia l c ommod i ty c an a s sume am u l t ip l ic i ty o fm ean ing st h rough s o c ia l i n te ra c t ion " ( Go t td iene r 1 995 :179 ) . C on sump t ion i t se lf b ecom e sp a r t o ft h e s o c ia l ly n ego t ia t ed s phe r e ; e conom ic h i s to r ian s G . H am i l ton a nd C . -K . L a i o b se rve t h a t" Con sump t ion ,l i ke l anguag e ,i saf o rm o f s ymbo l ic c ommun ica t ion , t h e f o rm a nd c on ten t o f w h ich i s n o t r e duc ib le t o t h e i nd iv idua l a c to r " ( 1 989 :268 ) . O the r s h ave r e ana lyzed e t hnog raph ic d a ta t os how t h a tc on sump t ion i sn o t ap a s s iv ee l emen t o f s o c ia l i n t e r ac t ion , b u t c on ta in s t r an s f o rma t ive e l emen t s : " s inc et h eu s e o fg ood s c an b o th m a rk a nd c hange s o c ia l r e la t ion s , c on sump t ion f o rm sa na r ena f o r o t he r c onf l ic t s g ene ra ted b y c hange s w i th in t h e

t h ey w e r eu sed f o rm ed ic ina l , r e l ig iou s , a nd f une ra ry p ra c t ice s ( S idebo tham 1 989 ) . H ow ev e r , t h ey c ou ld o n ly b e o b ta ined a ts p ec if i c l o ca le s i nt h e A rab ian p en in su la ,a nd w e r et r an spo r ted f r om t h e r et h roughou t t h e Med i t e r ranean . T he se s p ec ia l -pu rpo se g ood sa r e d i ff i cu l tt od ef ine a se i the rl u xu ry o ru t i l i ta r ian , s i nce t h ey w e r e d eemed e s sen t ia l , o ra tl e a s t d e s i r ed , b y a l a rge s egmen to ft h ep opu la t ion a nd a ppa r en t ly c ou ld b e o b ta in ed r e ga rd le s s o fp o l i t ica l c ond i t ion s i n t h e s ou r c ea r ea . T ime a nd d i s tance c an a l so t r an sf o rm o rd ina ry u t i l i t a r ian g ood si n to p r ec io s i t ie st h a tm ay c ome t ob e v i ew ed a sl uxu r ie s . A n t ique sa r eo f t en t r an s la ted i n to l u xu r ie sm e re ly t h rough t h ep a s sage o ft im e i n wh ich f r ag i le i t em sg radua l ly d im in i sh t h rough d e te r io ra t ion o rb r eakag e . T ho s ei t em st h a td os u rv iv et h ep a s sage o ft ime i ni n tac tf o rm o f t en b ecome s i gn if ie r so fs o c ia l s t a tu s . H e i r loom sa r e as im i la rt y pe o fg ood , b ea r ing t h ea dded s i gn if icance o f ap e r sona lc onne c t ion t ot h e o r ig ina l o wne r s . S im i la r ly , t h e m e r e a c t o f t r an spo r t ing g ood st h a ta r ea bundan ti nt h e ir p l ace o f o r ig in t oa nu n f am i l ia r l o ca le c an t r an sf o rm o rd ina ry g ood st ol u xu ry s t a tu s . T he s t udy o ft r ade i ne l i te c ommod i t ie s n o t o n ly h a sa f ec ted t h ea s se s smen to ft r ade ' so r ig in s , b u t h a s o b scu red d i scu s s ion o ft h er o le o fe x changed g ood sf o r a l ls e c to r so f ap opu la t ion ( s ee a l so S he e t s2 000 ) . T he d i v i s ion o fg ood si n to l u xu ry a nd u t i l i ta r ian c a t ego r ie s c r ea t e s af a lse d i cho tomy , o b scu r ing t h e i mpor tance b o th o fg ood sw ho se s t a tu si samb iguou so rc hang ing , a nd o fg ood sw id e ly u sed b ya l ls e c to r so f ap opu la t ion . A r cha eo log ica la nd h i s to r ica ld ocumen ta t ion c on f i rm s t h a t t h e v a s t m a jo r i ty o fe xchange g ood s i nt e rm s o f b o th v o lume a nd f r equen cy c on s i s t o fg ood s who se a cce s si sn o t r e s t r ic ted t op o l i t ica lo rr e l ig iou se l i te s . T he v a ry ing d e s i rab i l i ty o fg ood s i lu s t ra tes t h a t s o c ia l f a c to r s p l ay ac r i t ica l r o le i nd e te rm in ing t h e p e r ce ived v a lue o f g ood s . E v en t h e m o s t b a s ic s ub s i s tenc eg ood s ,s u ch a sf o od ,a r ec u l tu ra l ly e ncoded b eyond t h e i ra b i l i ty t os a t i s f yb i o log ica ln eed s . I nt h e d e s ign o ff o od p rog ram sf o rr e f uge e s ,o n ly r e cen t ly h a s t he c u l tu ra l i d eo logy o ff o od p l ayed ar o le i nm ak ing d ona t ion e ven t sm o r es u cce s sf u l .

l o ca le conomy " ( O r love a nd R u tz 1 989 :3 ) . T he s ymbo l ic a spec t so fc on sump t ion p o in to u tt h e l im i ta t ion s o f f o rma l m ode l s wh ich a s sume t h a t i n d iv idua ls a c t r a t iona l ly s o le ly o nt h eb a s i s o fp r ice e va lua t ion si nt h em a rke t . T he a s sump t ion o fr a t iona l b ehav io r a l so p r ed ic t s t h a t p eop le w i l l p r io r i t ize c on sump t ion a c t iv i t ie s t o e n su re t h a t t h e n eed s a s soc ia ted w i th p hy s ica ls u rv iva lw i l lb em e ta s af i r s t p r io r i ty . H owev e r , a ss o c ia l s c ien t i s t s o f ten l amen t , t h ea l loca t ion o fr e sou r ce st owa rd s ub s i s tence g ood sb y t h e p oo r e r s e c to ro fs o c ie ty o f ten f a i l s t om a tch t h i s p r ed ic t ion ,w i th t h ec on sump t ion o fa ppa r en tl u xu r ie s i n s tead e a t ing u p al a rg ep ropor t ion o ft h eh ou seho ld b udge t ( s ee D oug la s a nd I s herwood 1 979 ) . N one the l e s s , ar a t iona le xp lana t ion e x i s t sf o rt h is f o rm o fc on sump t ion . F o re xamp le , t h ec on sump t ion o fg ood s i nt h e s o c ia l a r ena m ay i n c lude t h es o c ia l ly s anc t ioned e xpec ta t ion t h a tt h eb e t te r -pa id e mp loyee s w i l l s p end a g r ea t e r p ropor t ion o f t h e b i l l s f o r c ommuna l e n t er t a inmen t , s ub s id iz ing t h el e s se r -pa id i n d iv idua l sa nd m a in ta in ing s o c ia lh a rmony ( Doug la s a nd I s he rwood 1 979 ) . T he c on sump t ion o fe xpen s ive g ood s b y t h e e c onom ica l ly d i sadvan taged m ay a l so c onvey e xpe c t a t ion sa bou tf u tu re e a rn ing s , p e rc e ived s t a tu s , o rt h e d e s i r e t oi n g ra t ia te t he i nd iv idua l w i th m o r ei n f luen t ia lm embe r so ft h eg roup i na n t ic ipa t ion o f r e c ip roc i t y ( Doug la s a nd I s herwood 1 979 ; f o r e xamp le s , s e e W i lk 1 990 f o rB e l ize ; F r iedman 1 990 f o r We s te rn A f r ica ) . D annhaeu se r ( 1 989 :224 ) d i s cu s se st h ep u r cha s eo fl u xu ry g ood ss u ch a s VCR s , t e lev i s ion s ,a nd p a ckag ed f o od sb yl ow incom es e c to r s o f u rban p opu la t ion s i n v a r iou s mod e rn s o c ie t ie s . T he se g ood s a r e p u r cha sed o n c r ed i t a nd r e f lec t f a c to r s o f p e rc e iv ed n ece s s i ty , c onv en ien c e , a nd 1 2

p re s t ige ( Dannha eu se r 1 989 ) . T he s e e xamp le s i nd ica te t h a t t h e " p r ice " o f ag ood i s n e i the r a n i nd ica to ro ft h ew ea l th ine s so ft h eh ou seho ld n o rt h e s o c ia lc l a s so ft h eo wne r ;i n s t ead ,t h ev a lu eo fg ood si s e va lua t ed b yp u r cha se r s i nt e rm so ft h e i rs o c ia lv a lue a sw e l la si nt e rm so fm one ta ry c o s t . T he p e rcep t ion t h a tg ood sa r ei n ve s ted w i th s o c ia l s ymbo l i sm i lu s t ra t e st h a tt h e " r a t iona l i n d iv idua l " o f f o rma l m ode l s a c t s n o t o n ly o n t h e b a s i s o f as i ng le v a r iab le s u ch a sp r ice b u ta l so o ns o c ia lv a r iab le st h a t m ay b em o re d if i cu l tf o ra na n th ropo log i s tt oe va lua t e . N o rc an t h e r e b e a n e xc lu s ive ly l o g ica l o rf unc t iona l i n t e rp r e ta t ion o ft h eg ood st h em se lve s . I ns ome c a se s , s t r ic t ly f unc t iona l a spec t s o fi t em s m ay b e r e nde r ed l e s se f ec t ive b ecau se o fc u l tu ra lp r e sc r ip t ion s . Wh i le t h e r a p id s t y l i s t ic e vo lu t ion o f m ode rn a u tomob i le s m ay b e t h e mo s t s t r ik ing i lu s t ra t ion a va i lab le , i ti s p e rhap sm o re u se f u lt oe xam in et h ec u l tu ra le l emen t s p r e sen ti nl ow t echno logy g ood st oi lu s t ra te t h ew ay i nw h ich s ymbo l ic v a lue sa r ea ni n teg ra lp ar to fb a s ic " u t i l i ta r ian " i t em s . D an ie l M i l le r , i nh i s s t udy o ft h ec ook ing v e s se l r e p er to i r eo fh ou seho ld si nt h e Ma lwa a r ea o fw e s t e rn I nd ia ,e va lua ted t h ep hy s ica lp r ope r t ie so fv e s se l sa nd p r ed ic t ed t ha tv e s se l s f o r i t em s t h a t r e qu i red g r ea te r a t t en t ion w h i le c ook ing w ou ld h av el a rg eo pen ing st o f a c i l i ta te s t ir r ing , a s w ou ld w a te r p o t s s i nce l a rge o p en ing s w ou ld f a c i l i ta te d i pp ing ( M i l le r 1 985 ) . C oun t e r in tu i t iv e ly ,h ef ound t h a tb o th w a te rc on ta ine r s a nd m i lk -cook ing v e s se l sh av e an a r row o pen ing . T he v e s s e l s ' s hape w a s p r edom inan t ly d i c ta ted b y p r e s c r ip t ion s o f s o c ia l p u r i ty , i n w h ich g r ea te r r e s t r ic t ion c o r r e sponded t o ag r ea t e rp e r c e iv ed p u r i ty i n f o od s ( M i l le r 1 985 ) . C la im s o f " ef i c iency " o r " u t i l i ty "b yo b jec tu s e r s may t h e r ef o r en o tb ea rs c ru t iny u nd e r a l te rna t e v a lue s y s tem s , s o t h a t q ue s t ion s o f e f ic ien cy m ay b e h a rd t os ub s tan t ia te o re s t ima te f o r a nc ien tp opu la t ion s . T he e ndu r ing p re sence o f t h e p hy s ica l w o r ld m ean s t h a t p eop le d o n o t h av et ob e a c t ive ly p re s en t f o ri n f o rma t ion t ob ec onvey ed ,s ot h a tm a te r ia lo b jec t s s e r ve a s af o rm o fi n f o rma t ion s t o rage . ' O b jec t s a r e n o t a m e re r e f lec t ion o r p a s s iv e c on ta ine r f o r c ommun ica t iv em e s sage s ;t h e i re x i s tence a se mp i r ica l r e a l i t ie si sr e qu i r ed f o ra ny c ommun ica t ion a ta l l . M . G o t td iene r ( 1995 ) p ropo se s t h a t t h e u se o fm a t e r ia l o b je c t sc on s t i tu t e s af o rm o fi n f o rma t ion t r an sf e r ,t h e s t udy o f wh ich h et e rm s s o c io sem io t ic s . T h eu se o f as o c io sem io t ic sa pp roach r e so lve st h ed i lemma o ft h e p rodu c t ion -con sump t ion d i cho tomy o fo t he re conom ic a na ly se sb ecau s ei t" c ap tu r e st h ep o in to fv i ew o fb o th t h ep rod ucer so fc u l ture a nd t h ec onsume r so f cu l tur e " ( 1 995 :29 , e mpha s i s o r ig ina l ) . S i gn s a r e c r ea ted ,

1M .

e xp rop r ia ted ,a nd u sed a tt h el e ve lo fl i ved e xp e r ienc e a nd p e rmea te e ve ryday l i f e : " The p r em ise o fs o c io s em io t ic s i st h a t a ny g i ven c u l tu ra l o b jec t i sb o th a n o b je c t o f u s e i n as o c ia l s y s tem w i th a g ene r a t ive h i s to ry a nd s o c ia lc on tex t , a nd a l so ac ompon en t i na s y s tem o fs i gn if ica t ion " ( 1 995 :29 ) . G o t td iene rc a l l su pon P e i r c ian s em io t ic sa s ab a s i s f o r u nde r s tand ing t h e " mo re g l oba l r e la t ion sh ip b e tween m ode s o f r e p r e sen ta t ion a nd c u l tu r e , i n c lud ing m a ter ia lf o rm s , " i nw h ich t h e re i sa lway sa r e f e r en tt oe mp ir ica lr e a l i ty ( 1 995 :11 ) . T h i se mp i r ica l r e a l i ty o f t en r e f e r s t o s o c ia l r e la t ion s , i n w h ich i nd iv idua l sr e ad m a te r ia l c u l tu r ee n semb le s t ol o ca t e t h em s e lv e s v i s -à -v i s o t h e r p eop le a nd g r oup s . E xp la in ing h i s v i ew o f t h e s upe r io r i ty o f P e i r c ian s em io t ic s ,G o t td iene r( 1 995 :54 -5 )e l abo ra te st h a t" A l l s i gn v a lu e i mp l ic i t ly p r e suppo se s i t s m a te r ia l e xp r e s s ion , a nd , i nt h es ame w ay ,a l l m a te r ia lo b jec t s e x i s t w i th in s o c ia l ly c on s truc ted s eman t ic f i e ld s i n o rd e r f o r t h em t ob e u nde r s tood a nd u sed ." A s a r e su l t , " o rd ina ry " g ood s c onvey i n f o rma t ion i nt h e s ame m ann e r a s l u xu ry g ood s ; l i kew ise , b o th " t rad i t iona l " a nd " mod e rn " g ood s a r e e ncod ed w i th s o c ia lv a lu e s . G iven t h ef l ex ib i l i ty w i th wh ich l u xu ry g ood sc an b ecome u t i l i ta r ian a nd v i ce -ve r sa , t h ev i ew t h a to b je c t ss i gna ld ynam ic s o c ia lr e la t ion sa sw e l la s f un c t iona l s t a tu si s ap l au s ib le o n e . T he v a lue o f a l l t y pe s o f d i sp lay i t em s i s t r an sm i t ted t oa l l p e r son s i n ac u l tu r e , i n c lud ing t o t h o s ew ho d on o tt h em se lve sh av et h ew ea l th o rs o c ia l s t and ing t o a cqu i r e a nd p o s se s s t h e se g ood s . A s i n d ica t ed b y Wr igh t( 1 984 ) ,t h eu se o fl u xu ry g ood sb y p o l i t ica l e l i t e s e s tab l i she s af r ame o fr e f e r enc e . T he u se o f l u xu ry g ood s i s a n e f ec t ive m ean s o f n on l ingu i s t ic c ommun ica t ion w h ich r e in f o r ce s a nd s ymbo l ize s p owe r r e la t ion s a ch iev ed i n o t he r s o c ia l s phe r e s ( f o re xamp le t h rough b i r th r igh t o rw a rf a re ) . B u t t h ep ro jec t ion o fs ymbo l ic v a lue i so n ly p o s s ib le w hen t h a t n o t ion o fv a lue i ss u s ta ined b y t h e e n t i r e g roup . T h e r e cogn i t ion o f v a lu e i s wha t e nab le s m a t e r ia l o b jec t s t o s ymbo l ize s t a tu s f o r p o l i t ica l o r r e l ig iou se l i te s ; l i kew i se , h ou seho ld g ood sa nd i t em s i nt h ed ome s t ic s phe r es e rv et h es ame p u rpo se b ecau se t h ey r ef l e c t s o c ia l ly s anc t ioned c on s truc t ion s o f i n d iv idua l a nd h ou seho ld i d en t i ty . W i th in g roup s , v i s ib le s ymbo l i sm s u ch a s o rnamen ta t ion o r o t h e r d i sp lay g ood ss e rve st or e a ff i rm i n d iv idua li d en t i ty a nd m embe r sh ip i n t h e g roup . I n c omp lex s o c ie t ie s , v i s ib le s ymbo ls b ecome e sp ec ia l ly i mpor tan t a s a m ean s o f ef i c ien t c ommun ica t ion b e tween m emb e r s o fl a rge rp opu la t ion g roup sw ho n ol o nge rh av ef a c e t o f ace i n te rac t ion a nd r e qu i r e am ean so fi d en t if y ing i n d iv idua l s t a tu s a s ap r ede te rm inan t o fa pp rop r ia te a nd p e rm i t t ed i n te rac t ion s . M icha e l S ch if f e r( w i th M i l le r 1 999 ) h a sr e cen t ly p ropo sed an ew a s se s smen t o fc ommun ica t ion b a sed o np eop le a sr e ce ive r s( r a the rt h an t h et r ad i t iona lv i ew o f s e nde r s ) a s t h e b a s i s f o r u nde r s tand ing

Wob s t( 1 977 ) m ake s as im i la rp o in ti nh i s

d i s cu s s ion o ft h eu se o fh eadg ea ra mong t h e i n hab i tan t so f( t he f o rme r )Y ugo s lav ia . 1 3

e l ec tt ow ea ro rc a r ry c ommon a r t if a c t st oa r t if i c ia l ly d im in i sh t h e i rs t a tu so ns ome o cca s ion s . T he d i sp lay o f c u l tu ra l ly d e te rm ined l uxu r ie s i s p a r t icu la r ly e f ec t iv e i n f r am ing t h e d i scu s s ion s u nde r taken b y s upe r io r sa nd s ubo rd ina te s . B u th i e ra r chy i so n ly o ne t y pe o fd i s t inc t ion t h a ti sa ccomp l i shed w i th m a te r ia l g ood s . T he u s eo fp hy s ica l g ood sa nd s pace i s aw ay f o rg roup st od i s t ingu i sh t h em se lve sf r om e ach o t he r . T he c on sump t ion o fg ood si sa l so t h em ean sb yw h ich i n d iv idua l s s t a te t h e i r i d en t i ty , o f ten a s am embe ro f s e ve ra lc r o s scu t t ing s o c ia lg roup s . T he a cqu is i t ion o fg ood st hu se nab le si nd iv idua l s a nd h ou seho ld s t od i sp lay a nd n ego t ia te s t a tu s a nd g roup i d en t i ty ,w h i le t h ee xchange o fo b jec t ss e r ve sa s am ean s o fc onf i rm ing i n f orma t ion c r ea ted t h rough o t he r f o rm s o fc ommun ica t ion . A s s e en a bove , t h e k u la r i ng n e two rk c ompr i se s p ar tn e r s w ho n o t o n ly e xchange v a luab le s , b u t a l so e xchang e s ub s is t ence g ood s , s om e t im e s a c ro s s e nv ironmen ta l z one s . T he c ommun ica t ion s u s ta ined d u r ing t h ek u la t r an sac t ion s i n c lude s i n f o rma t ion a bou t t h e t y p e s , q ua l i ty , a nd q uan t i ty o f g ood s p o t en t ia l ly a va i lab le , a s w e l l a s i n f o rma t ion a bou t t r u s two r th ine s s a nd t h e e xchange p a r tne r ' s a b i l i ty t o d e l ive r s ub s i s tence g ood s w hen n eed ed . I no rde r f o r a n i nd iv idua l o r h ou seho ld t ob e a v i ab le c ompon en t o f a c ommun i ty , c u l tu ra l ly p re sc r ibed n o rm s f o r m a t e r ia l g ood s mu s t b e m e t . T h i s n eed c an b e v i ewed a s " s oc ia l s ub s is tence , " a c oun te rpar tt ob i o log ica ls ub s is tence . Wh i le b i o log ica l s ub s is tence r e f e r s t o t h e p hy s ica l r e qu i remen t s t o s u s ta in l i f e , s o c ia l s ub s is tence c an b ed ef ined a s" t he a c t iv i t ie st h rough w h ich h ou seho ld sd emon s t ra te t h a t t h ey a r e p a r t o f ac ommun i ty , i n c lud ing t h e u se o f a pp rop r ia te c l o th ing , a r ch i tec tu r e , f o od s , a nd r i tua l i t em s " ( Sm i th 1 999a :127 ) . T he u s e o fr i tua l a s a n i n d ica to r o fs o c ia l s ub s is tence i se s p ec ia l ly c l ea r i n m any a r cha eo log ica l c a s e s . R o sema ry J o yce ( 1 991 :121-22 ) d i scu s se s s t h i s p henomenon w i th r e f e r en ce t ot h e Maya c en te r o fC e r ro P a lenque , i n w h ich s he i n v e s t iga te st h em a te r ia lc u l tu r eo fd ome s t ic c on tex t s : " Food p repa ra t ion , s t o rage , a nd c on sump t ion , s t one t o o lp roduc t ion , a nd s l eep ing a r e a r chaeo log ica l ly d e tec ted a c t iv i t ie sw h ich a dd r e s st h e c ommon g oa l o f m a ter ia l s u rv iva l . T h e a bundan t e v idence f o rr i tua lw i th in t h ep a t io g r oup t e s t if ie st oa c once rn o nt h i sl e v e lw i th s o c ia l s u rv iva la sw e l l ." I n s um , t h e u se o f ma te r ia l o b je c t s e xpand s t o e nab le i nd iv idua l s a nd g roup s t o i d en t if y a nd d i s t ingu ish t h em se lve s w i th in p a rame te r s t h a t a r e s o c ia l ly d r iven a nd c u l tu ra l ly p re sc r ib ed . T h rough t h e e xchange , c on sump t ion , a nd d i sp lay o f g ood s , i n d iv idua l s s e ek t o p rov id e t h em se lve s w i th t h e p hy s ica l f r am e t h a t f u lf i l l s av a r ie ty o f r o le s . A s ymbo l ic i nv e s tm en t i s mad e i na l l t y pe s o fm a te r ia l g ood s , a nd p r ov ide s p eop le w i th t h e m ean s o f c onvey ing av a r ie ty o fi n f o rma t ion i n amu l t ip l ic i ty o f c on tex t s . F rom t h e n eed s a s soc ia ted w i th b i o log ica l

c ommun ica t ion . T h is v i ew o f ar e c e ive r -ba sed c ommun ica t ion m ean s t h a t m any a g en t s ( i nc lud ing i n an ima te o b jec t s t h a t p rov ide af r ame o fr e f e r ence e ven w hen n o t a c t iv e ly i nu se ) h ave a n i mpac t u pon t h e r e c ip ien t . S ch if f e r n o te s t h a t s i nce v i r tua l ly a l l h uman a c t iv i t ie s i n vo lve a r t if ac t s , a c t iv i t ie s c an b e r e d ef ined a s " a r t if ac t laden o ccu r r en ce s t h a t a l so h appen t oi n c lude p eop le " ( 1999 :5 , 2 7 ) . T he c onf igu ra t ion o fm a te r ia lg ood sa nd s p ace a c t s a s a" f rame " f o r s ymbo l ic a c t iv i ty , w he r e a" f rame " r e f e r s t ot h e p o t en t ia l r ange o fm ean ing st h a t c an b e s ymbo l ized i na n o b jec t e ven t hough n o ta l l o ft he se m ean ing sa r es imu l taneou s ly e xp r e s sed o re mpha s ized ( M i l le r 1 985 ) . J u s ta sl a nguage i sb o th c on s t ra ined b y g ramma r a nd v ocabu la ry a nd i nf in i t e ly f l ex ib le i n t e rm so fp o ten t ia lp h ra se s ,t h em ean ing so fo b jec t sa nd t h e i r a r rangemen t s i s c u l tu ra l ly c on s truc ted a nd u nd e r s tood . G o t td iene r ( 1995 :24 ) n o t e s t h a t i n p rac t ica lt e rm s t h ep r e sence o fc u l tu ra l c on tex t -and o ft h ee mp ir ica lw o r ld i ng ene ra l -p lace sl i m i t so nt h e n umbe r o f p o ten t ia l m ean ing s . F u r the rmo r e , c o l lec t ion so fm a te r ia lc u l tu r ei t em ss hou ld b ea s se s sed a s ag roup s i nce " mean ing i si nt h er e la t ion sb e twe en a l l o f t h e g ood s , j u s t a s mu s ic i si n t h e r e la t ion s m a rked o u t b y t h e s ound s a nd n o t i na ny o ne n o t e " ( Doug la s a nd I s he rwood 1 979 :72 -3 ) . T h e s t udy o f g roup s o f i t em s i n t h e i r c on tex t s e nab le s t h e s ymbo l i sm o f c r o s s -cu t t ing a r t if ac t g r oup s t o b e a s se s sed w i thou t n ece s s i ta t ing t h e d i scov e ry o f t h e s p ec if i cm ean ing o fa ny o b jec to ro b jec tc l a s s . T h ep r e sence a nd a r rangemen t so fg ood sp rov ide s ar e f e r ence f o rt h et y pe so fa c t iv i t ie st h a to b s er ve r sa nd p ar t ic ipan t s c an e xpec t w i l l t a ke p l a ce . M ichae l S ch if f e r ( w i th M i l le r 1 999 :23-5 ) r e f e r s t o t h e se a r t if a c t s a s p l a t ia l o r s i tua t iona l : p la t ia l r e f e r s t o a r t if ac t st h a ts i gna lt h ef unc t ion o f ap l ace e v en w hen s u ch a c t iv i t ie s a r e n o tc u r r en t ly t a k ing p l ac e( s uch a s u t en s i l si n ak i tchen t h a ti nd ica te t h a tc ook ing i sd one t h e r e ) w h i le s i tua t iona lr e f e r st oa r t if a c t st h a t " a r r ive w i th p eop le o rt u rn u pa t ap l ace f o rt h ec onduc to fa n a c t iv i ty . C ommon e xamp le s i n c lud e c ane s a nd w hee lcha i r s t h a t c ome a l ong w i th a p e r son , r i tua l p a raphe rna l ia b rough tf r om ac l an h ou se t o ad ance i n t h ev i l lage p l aza [ a nd ] g o lf c l ub st o ted t ot h ec ou r se " ( S ch if f e rw i th M i l le r 1 999 :24 ) . A r t if a c t sa r e u sed t o i n d ica te t h e s pac e a nd n a tu r e o fb o th p o t en t ia l a nd a c tua l a c t iv i t ie s , p rov id ing t h e e s sen t ia l b ackg round a ga in s tw h ich l a nguage -ba sed c ommun ica t ion c an t a k e p l ace . T h i sc ommun ica t ion i sa l so f r amed b yt h e s o c ia l r e la t ion sh ip s o ft h e s p eake r st oe a ch o t h e r . R e la t ive p o s i t ion s i n ah i e ra rchy c an c l ea r ly b e d i sp layed t h rough b o th p l a t ia l a nd s i tua t iona l u s e o fa r t if ac t s . T he u se o fa r t if a c t si sc r i t ica l ,b ecau se h i e ra r ch ie sc an s h if t d epend ing o n t h e a c t iv i ty e conom ica l ly p owe r le s s i nd iv idua l s may h ave i mpo r tan t r i tua l f unc t ion st h a te l eva t et h e i rs t a tu sw hen c e r ta in o b jec t s a r ec a r r ied o rw o rn ;s im i la r ly ,w ea l thy i n d iv idua l sm ay 1 4

s u r v iva l t o t h e m a te r ia l e xp r e s s ion o f a b s t rac t p h i lo soph ica l a nd t h eo log ica l c oncep t s , t h e m an ipu la t ion o ft h e p hy s ica l r e a lm i s af undam en ta l c omponen to fh uman a c t iv i ty .

T he m ov emen to fp eop le a round t h el a nd scape i s f a c i l i ta ted b y t h e u se o fp hy s ica l m a rke r s o fs ha red s o c ia l c on s truc t s , s u ch a s o rnamen t s a nd m ode s o f d r e s s . P opu la t ion l o c i w ou ld a l so c on ta in p hy s ica l m a rke r so fs ha r ed c u l tu r ei nb o th p ub l ic a nd d ome s t ic s phe r e s , w he r eg ood sa nd a r ch i tec tu r ew ou ld p rov ide e s sen t ia lf r ame so fr e f e r ence f o rn on inhab i tan t s . S ome o f t h e se s o c ia l c on s t ruc t s , s uch a s r e l ig iou s i n s t i tu t ion s , m igh t w e l l e vo lve t o i n c lude a b u r eauc ra t ic o r a dm in is t ra t ive s t ru c tu r e a nd a ccumu la te c ap i ta l a s ac orpo ra te g roup t oa dd re s s l im i ta t ion so ft h e l a nd scape , w he re c o rpo ra te p owe r s o fe n f o r cem en ta nd i n ve s tmen ta r eg r ea te rt h an t h a to f s i ng le i n d iv idua l s . When g ood s a r e s e en a s t h e m a te r ia l c o r r e la te s o fs o c ia l a c t iv i t ie s , a l l g ood s a r e a cknow ledged t ob e i n v e s ted w i th s o c ia l s ymbo l i sm . When e nv i ronm en ta l o r s o c ia l c ond i t ion s d i c ta te c on tac t w i th n e ighbo r ing k in g roup s , t h en t r aded g ood sf r om t h o se r e g ion sb ecome i mpo r tan ts ymbo l ic f a c to r sf o ri n d iv idua l sa nd f am i l ie ss e ek ing t od i sp lay t h o se t i e st h rough t h e i re v e ryday a c t iv i t ie s . T he d i v i s ion sb e tw een l o ca l , r e g iona l , a nd l o ng d i s tance e x chang ea r er e la t ive a nd c an s h i f td epend ing o nt h es i ze a nd c en te ro fo ne ' sf r ame o fr e f e r ence . O f t h e t h r e e t y pe s o f t r ade , l o ng -d is tance e xchang e a ppea r st ob et h ee a s ie s tt od ef ine : l o ng -d i s tance t r ade f r equen t ly t a k e s p l ace a t p or t s -of t rad e , b e tween c u l tu ra l z one s , w he r et r ade " p rov ide se c onom ic l i nk s b e tween m o r eo rl e s si n dependen ts e t t lemen ts y s tem s " ( J ohn son 1 975 :285 ) . L ong -d i s tance e x change i s e spec ia l ly a ppa r en t w hen g ood s a r e f o und i n a r chaeo log ica lc on tex t sf a rr emoved f r om t h e i rn a tu ra l s ou r ce . T h i se xchang e c an b e a ch ieved t h rough t wo m echan i sm s : d i r ec t e xchange a nd d own the l ine e xchang e . D i r ec t e xchange c an b e e f e c ted b y i n d iv idua l s o r c o rpo ra te g roup s a cqu ir ing g ood s t h rough as i ng le t r an s f e r , ap roce s sp a r t icu la r ly v i s ib le i n m ar i t ime e xchange ( a s i nt h e I nd ian O cean ; s e e C a s son 1 989 ) . A l te rna t ive ly , g ood s m ay t r ave l c on s id e rab le d i s tance sa st h er e su l to f as e r ie so fl o ca l o rr e g iona l e xchange s . T he r e su l tan t d own the l ine e xchang e c an m im ic t h e e f ec t s o f l o ng -d i s tance t r an spo r t , b u t t h e p o s se s so r s a s t h ey a r e r e cove r ed a r chaeo log ica l ly a r em any s t ep s r emov ed f r om d i r ec t c on tac t w i th t h e o r ig ina l s ou r ce o fs upp ly ( R en f r ew 1 975 ) . I n h i s l o ca t iona l a na ly s is o f U ruk e xchange s y s t em s , J ohn son d ef ine s l o ca l t r ade a s o ne wh ich p rov ide se conom ic l i nk sw i th in i nd iv idua ls e t t lemen t s y s tem s ,t h ough " t h ee xac tf o rm , e x ten ta nd i n ten s i ty o ft h i s m ov emen ti sn o t s p ec if ied a nd m ay v a ry f r om c a se t oc a se "( J ohn son 1 975 :286 ) . Wh i le i n te rmed ia te t r ad eh a st r ad i t iona l ly b een t h e mo s td if i cu l tt od ef ine , i ti s o f p a r t icu la r i mpor tance b ecau se i t" i s t h e e xchang ew ho se e f ec t mu s th ave b een t op roduce a nd m a in ta in t h eu n if o rm i ty o fc u l tu r eo rc i v i l iza t ion a sa w ho le " ( R en f r ew 1 975 : 1 8 ) . H ow eve r ,R en f r ew g i ve s l i t t le i n d ica t ion o fh ow t h i si n te rmed ia t et r ad es hou ld

T he g eograph ic s ca le o fe xchange :H ow i se xchange a ch ieved? T he n eed f o ra ne xpanded p a rad igm f o rn on e l i te t r ad e i sn ece ssa ry b ecau s e t h i st r ade i sn o t p r ima r i ly p o l i t ica li no r ig in ; t h a ti s ,p o l i t ica lc i r cum s tance sc an a f ec t , t hwa r t , o r f a c i l i ta te t r ade , b u t i ti sn o t t h e d r iv ing m o t iva t ion f o rt h a t t r ade . I n ar e cen t a r t ic le t h a te va lua te sh ow h ou seho ld sp a r t ic ipa te i ne xchange e v en w h en t h e s phe re o ft h a te x change i sv e ry s ma l l , P a y son S hee t s( 2 000 )h a se xam ined e xchange a c t iv i ty a tt h es i te o fC e ren i nE l S a lvado r . B ecau s et h es ma l l c ommun i ty ( o fa bou t1 00 p e r son s )w a sd e s t roy ed b ya n a sh f a l l t h a t s ea led t h e h ab i ta t ion d epo s i t s , t h e r e i s e x c e l len tp re serva t ion o fo rgan ic m a te r ia ls u ch a sp l an t r ema in s t h a t n o rma l ly d o n o t s u rv ive i n a n a r chaeo log ica ls i te . E ach o ft h ef o u rh ou s eho ld si nt h e s t udy a r ea p roduced b eyond i t so wn n eed si ns om et y pe o f i t em , w he the r g ou rd s , a gave p l an t s , s p inn ing i mp lemen t s , o rg r ind ing c apac i ty . I n S hee t s ' s v i ew , h ou seho ld lev e l s u rp lu s p r odu c t ion a tC e r en w a sn o tj u s t am a t t e ro fp r oduc t ion e f i c iency , b u t w a s a l so w a s r e la ted t os o c ia l f a c to r s s u ch a sk in n e two rk s , i n f o rma t ion e xchang e s , s o c ia l e xp e c ta t ion s , a nd r e c ip roc i ty ( 2 28 ) . I na dd i t ion t ot h e e x change u nde r taken a mong h ou seho ld s i n t h e c ommun i ty , h ou seho ld s a l so h ad a r chaeo log ica l e v id en ce o fl ong -d i s tance e x change , s u ch a so b s id ian t o o l s , j ade a xe s , a nd c e r ta in c e ram ic s . T h e r e w e r e m any l o ca l c en te r s i n w h ich C e r en r e s iden t s c ou ld t r ade t h e i rs u rp lu sg ood s ,r e su l t ing i n ah i gh ly f l ex ib le t r ad ing n e two rk " qu i te d if e r en tf r om t h ev i ew o ft h e t o po ft h ep y ram id w h ich g ene r a l ly d ep ic t sc ommone r s a s t h e e xp lo i ted c l a s s a tt h e b o t tom o f ap owe r f u l p o l i t ica la nd e conom ic h i e ra r chy " ( Shee t s2 000 :217 ) . T ie s b e tween h oueho ld s a r e c r i t ica l e v en i n m od e rn n a t ion s ta t e s . U nd e rc ond i t ion s o fi n c r ea sed p opu la t ion a nd i n c r ea sed c omp lex i ty , mu l t ip le ,s ma l l s c a le t i e s a c ro s s t h e l a nd scap e a r e u s ed t o e n su r e i n d iv idua l a nd f am i ly -ba sed s u rv iva l d u r ing t ime s o f e nv i ronmen ta l h a rd sh ip , w h e r e s u ch h a rd sh ip i s c ha r ac te r ized b y f am ine , n a tu ra l d i sa s te r s , o r w a r . I n d iv idua l s , b o th b uye r s a nd s e l le r s , f o rm t r ave l ing g r oup st oo ve r come l im i ta t ion so f ah o s t i le p o l i t ica lo r n a tu ra l l a nd scape a nd a r e f l ex ib le i nt h e i r c ho ice s o f r o u t e sa nd t r ave lt ime s . L oca li t i ne ran tm e r chan t sa l so m ov ea r ound t h el a nd scape f i l l ing i nt h eg ap so fs ma l l n e ed s( o rnamen t s , m e ta l g ood s ) , a sw e l la sp rov id ing r e pa i r . T he se i t ine ran tm e r chan t sa l so f a c i l i ta t ed own t h e l in e t r an sf e r o f n on loca l g ood s , a s w e l l a s d i sp e r s ing i n f o rma t ion a bou t r ou te s ( s e e R enf r ew 1 9 75 ) .

1 5

o f ap a r t icu la r c omp lex o fg ood s r a th e rt h an u pon a s p ec if ic s pa t ia lc onf igu ra t ion . N o te t h a tt h ed i s t inc t ion o ft h et h r ee t y pe so ft r ad e ( l oca l , r e g iona l , a nd l o ng -d i s tance ) , i sh e r eb a sed o n l o g i s t ic s a nd d i s tance o n ly , n o t t h e t y pes o fg ood s e xchanged . T h i si sb ecau se ag ood c an p a s st h rough a l l t h r ee t y pe so fn e two rk s : e ven t h er a r e s to fe xo t ica b ound f o rd i s tan ts ho r e s mu s tf i r s tp a s st h rough al o ca l s y s tem o fe xchang e ( Sm i th 1 996 ) . T h ei n te rmed ia te r a nge o ft r ave lc an b ed up l ica ted b y as e r ie so fs t r ic t ly l o ca l e xchang e s w h ich r e su l t s i n a' d own the l in e ' m od e o f t r an sf e r . T he u se o f al o g i s t ic s /d is tance p a rame te rr e in f o r ce st h ev i ew t h a te xchang ea c t iv i t ie s a r ep r inc ipa l ly am a t t e ro fi n f o rma t ion a nd l o g i s t ic s , n o t am a t te ro fp r e c io s i ty a sp e r ce ived b yt h e( mode rn ) i n ve s t iga to r . F ina l ly ,t h ep hy s ica lr ou te so ft r ave la nd t h ec on s t ra in t su pon m ovemen ta r ei d en t ica lw he the r ap a r t icu la rg eog raph ica l e xpan se i sb e ing u sed a sa l o ca l ,i n te rmed ia t e ,o rl o ng -d is tance r o u t ea ta ny g i ven p e r iod o ft ime .

b e d ef ined o r e xam ined , t h ough h e d oe s n o te t h a t m a r r iage e xchange i sa ni mpo r tan tp ar to ft h ed i v i s ion o fg roup s a tt h e i n termed ia te l e ve l ( R enf r ew 1 975 ) . O the r s u s e t h e c oncep t o f r e g iona l o r i n te rmed ia te t r ade w i thou t d ef in ing i t , s e e ing i t a s av ague c oun te rpa r t o fl o ng -d i s tance e xchange ( f o r e xamp le , We lch 1 989 ) . F o rt h ep u rpo se so ft h ed i scu s s ion o ft h ee xchang e n e two rk s o fc en t ra l I nd ia i nt h e e a r ly c en tu r ie s B .C . a nd A .D . , t h e f o l low ing d ef in i t ion s w i l l b e u t i l ized . L oca lt r ad ei sd ef ined a so n et h a tc an b ea ccomp l i shed w i th in a o ne -day t r av e l ing r a nge b y t h e f a s te s t a va i lab le m ean so ft r an spor t . S uch t r ade r e qu i r e sl i t t le i n f ra s t ru c tu r e b ecau se t h e v oyage r ( e i the r t r ad e r o r b uy e r )i sn o tr e qu i red t os p end t ime a way f r om h ome , w h ich w ou ld e n ta i l t h e e s tab l i shmen t o f al o dg ing r e la t ion sh ip i n an onhom el o cu so rt h eu se o fl o dg ing f a c i l i t ie s . L ong -d is tance t r ade i s d ef ined a s a n e xchang et h a tt a ke sp l ace a c ro s sg eog raph ica l ly la rge e xpan se sw he r et r an spo r tt ime i so nt h es c a le o fw eek s o rm on th s . L ong -d i s tance e xchang em ay c r o s sc u l tu ra l b ounda r ie s , b u t t h e e f ec t s o f s u ch b ounda r ie s a r e m i t iga ted b y t h e p re sence o fs pec ia l ized t r ade r s w ho e mp loy l a nguag e a nd o the rs k i l l si nt h e i rn ego t ia t ion o fp hy s ica la nd c u l tu ra ld i s tance s( Cur t in 1 984 ) . I n te rmed ia te t r ade , h e r e t e rmed r eg iona l t r ade , w i l l b e d ef ined a s t ha t e xchange w h ich t a ke s p l ace w i th in c u l tu ra l u n i t s , u t i l iz ing t h e b a s ic m ean s o f t r an spor t b u t o f t en i n am o r e e f ic ien t ly o rgan ized m anne ro ro n al a rge rs c a le , s u ch a sc a ravan so fp ack a n ima l s . T rav e lt ime i n c lude sn i gh t ss pen ta way f r om t h e v oyage r ' s h ome a nd t hu s e n ta i l s e i the r t h e e x i s tence o ft r ave le r s ' f a c i l i t ie s s u ch a sn igh t -ha l t so r c a ravan se ra i so rp e r sona lr e la t ion sm a in ta ined b yt h e v oyage r . I n te rmed ia te t r ade m ak e s u se o ft h e s ame t r an spo r ta t ion a nd c ommun ica t ion sn e two rk sa sl o ca l t r ade , a nd m ay m im ic l o ng -d i s tan ce e xchange i nt h e e ven tua l t r an sf e ro fg ood s f a rf r om t h e i r o r ig in s , b u t i n te rmed ia te t r ade i sd i s t inc t b ecau se t h e r e m ay b e

T he I nd ian s ubcon t inen t a s al o cu so ft r ade a c t iv i ty T he I nd ian s ubcon t inen t o f t h e E a r ly H i s to r ic p e r iod ( c . t h ird c en tu ry B .C . t of ou r th c en tu ry A .D . ) p rov id e s ap a r t icu la r ly c ompe l l ing c a se s t udy f o rt h e e va lua t ion o f s o c ia l ly c omp lex e conom ie s . I n t h e a b s ence o f ad om inan tp o l i t ica l a u tho r i t y , t own sa nd c i t ie sc r ea ted f l ex ib le t r ade n e two rk sa nd h ou seho ld s e s tab l i shed t h e i r t r ad e l i nk s t h rough a v a r ie ty o f m echan i sm s . T he se t r ad ing a c t iv i t ie st o ok p l ace i na v a r ie ty o fl o ca le s , i n c lud ing r e l ig iou si n s t i tu t ion sa nd p opu la t ion c en te r s . I n l a nd scape s o f i n c r ea s ing p opu la t ion ,t own ss u ch a sK aund inyapu r ab e came t h e c o l lec t ive m ean sb yw h ich h ou seho ld sc ou ld n ego t ia te a nd m anage f l ex ib le e conom ie s . T h ey p r ov ided a f i xed l o ca le f o rt r ad et r an sac t ion sa nd af i x ed p o in tf o r c ommun ica t ion a nd t r an spor ta t ion . R ou t e sb e tween p opu la t ion c en t e r s c ou ld b e a l te red o n t h e b a s i s o f t a ng ib le f a c to r s s u ch a s w ea the r , c ond i t ion o f p a thway s , p r e sen ce o f b and i t s , t h e a va i lab i l i ty o f d e s i r ed g ood s ,a nd p o ten t ia lm a rke t sf o rt h eg ood st h a t t r ade r s d e s i r ed t o e xchange a way . I n a dd i t ion , i n d iv idua l s a nd g r oup s s t ruc tu red t h e t i m ing a nd r o u te so fv i s i t so nt h eb a s i so fk in t i e s ,l i f ee v en t ss uch a sm a r r iage s , a nd s o c ia lt i e s .

m any o ve r lapp ing r eg ion so fi n te rmed ia t et r ade w i th in as i ng le c u l tu ra lu n i t . T he s h if t ing c on f igu ra t ion so f" r eg ion s " i sd ue t o t h e i r e x i s ten ce a s d ynam ic e n t i t ie s r e f lec t ing t h e i n teg ra t ion o f c ommun i t ie s i n to l a rge r a nd s ma l le r u n i t s i n ac on t inu ing p roce s s ( C . Sm i th 1 976a ) . A t r ade r e g ion m ay s ha r e ac omp lex o ft r aded g ood s , t h ough a ny i n d iv idua l t y pe o f g ood m ay h ave b ounda r ie so fd i s t r ibu t ion w i th in ag eog raph ic r a nge t h a t i si n dependen t o f o t he r g ood s i n t h e c u l tu ra l c omp lex . T he u se o fr eg ion s , r a th e rt h an c en te r s , a s u n i t so fs t udy e nab le st h ei n ve s t iga t ion o ft h ev a r iab le a nd c hangeab le f l ow s o fg ood s , i n f o rma t ion , p eop le , a nd s e rv ice st h rough n e two rk s( C . Sm i th 1 976a ) . T he s t udy o ft h e se n e two rk st hu si n vo lve st h ee xam ina t ion o ft h es p read o ft r ad ei t em st h roughou t at r ade r e g ion . Wh i le ar e g iona lt r ade n e two rk u s e st h es ame m ean so f t r an spo r ta sl o ca le xchange ,t h ed ef in i t ion o f ar e g iona l e x chang en e two rk i sb a sed o nt h ed en s i ty a nd e venne s s 1 6

C hap ter 3 S oc ia l a nd P o l i t ica lO rgan iza t ion i nt he I nd ian S ubcon t inen ti nt he E ar ly H i s tor ic P er iod

I nm any w ay s , t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd o ft h e s ubcon t in en ti sm o r ec omp rehen s ive a nd c ohe s ive t h an t h er e co rd so fa dm in i s t ra t ion o rp o l i t ica lu n i t sf o rt h e e a r ly c en tu r ie sA .D . A l though t h ee r ai sc a l led " Ea r ly H i s to r ic , " t h e f ew t e x t s o n a dm in is t ra t ion a nd l e ad e r sh ip a r e p re sc r ip t ive d o cumen t s r a the r t h an r e co rd so fa c tua le ven t s . M i s s ing a r et h et y pe so ft e x t s t ha t p r ov ide i n f o rma t ion a bou t d a i ly a c t ion s o f b u r eau c r acy s uch a st h e t a x r o l l s , s a le s r e ce ip t s , a nd l a nd g r an t st ha tw ou ld p rov ide o b jec t iv ee va lua t ion so f t h er e la t ion sh ip sb e twe en p o l i t ic a la u tho r i t ie sa nd t h e i r t e r r i to r ie s . I ndeed , t h e l a ck o f s u ch d ocumen t s p robab ly i nd ica t e s t ha t p o l i t i ca l a u tho r i t ie s w e r e r e la t ive ly w eak a l though t r ade a nd r e l ig iou sa c t iv i t ie s w e r ew id e spr ead i nt h i sp e r iod .

H i s to r ic p e r iod b ec a l led " s ta te s ." P o l i t ie sa r ei n s tead b e t te r d e sc r ibed a s " d yna s t ie s " t h a t g ene ra l ly d o n o t e x ceed s e ve ra l g ene r a t ion s o f s ucce s s ion . T he r e la t ion sh ip a mong d yna s t ie sc an b ed e sc r ib ed a so ne o fp ee r -po l i ty i n te rac t ion ,i nw h ich e xchang e so fg ood s a nd i n f o rma t ion a sw e l la sc ompe t i t ion , w a r f a r e , a nd e mu la t ion o ccu r r ed b e tween a u tonomou s s o c io p o l i t ica l u n i t s " s i tua t ed b e s ide o rc l o se t oe a ch o the r w i th in as i ng le g eog raph ic r e g ion " ( R enf r ew 1 986 :1 ; R en f r ew a nd C he r ry 1 986 ) . I nt h eG ange sr e g ion a f t e rt h eb r ief d om inance o f t h e Maur ya s , s e ve ra ls u ch d yna s t ie so r" sma l l s t a te s " a r o se i nt h en o r the rn p ar to ft h e I nd ian s ub con t inen t ( M i ra sh i 1 981) . S i gn if ican t p opu la t ion m ov emen t s a nd p o l i t ica ld eve lopmen t sw e r ea l so o ccu r r ing a tt h e n o r thw e s te rn m a rg in so ft h e s ubcon t inen t . A f te rt h e P a r th ian r e vo l t i n 2 50 B .C . , w e s te rn A s ia 's p owe r v a cuum w a sf i l led b yt h ek ingdom so ft h eI ndo -G r eek s w ho se s phe r e o f r u le , m o s t ly a t te s ted t h r ough c o in f i nd s , a ppea r s t o h av e b een a s f a r e a s t a s T ax i la ( Bopea rachch i 1 995 ; N a ra in 1 957 ) . T owa rd t h e s e cond c en tu ry B .C . , m ovemen t so fn omad ic p eop le s i nc en t ra l A s ia b egan t oi mpac t t h e w eak en ing I ndo G r e ek k ingdom s a nd d i sp la ced t h e S cy th ian so ft h e A ra l S ea r e g ion ; t h e se S cy th ian s ( Saka s ) o ve r ran P a r th ia a nd s e t t led i nw e s te rn I nd ia ( Thapa r 1 966 ) .

P o l i t ie so ft he E ar ly H i s tor ic p er iod T h ei n c rea s ing u se o fw r i t ing i nt h eE a r ly H i s to r ic p e r iod e nab le s t h e i d en t if i ca t ion o f n umerou s e m e rg en t p o l i t ie s t h roughou t t h e s ub con t inen t . T he b e s t -known c a se i st h e o ve r t wo d ozen i n scr ip t ion s a t t r ibu t ed t ot h ee mpe ro rA sok a , ah i s to r ica l ly k nown i nd iv idua l w ho r u led t h e Mau ryan p o l i ty i nt h e l a te t h i rd c en tu ry B .C . f r om t h ec i t y o fP a ta l ipu t ra i nt h e c en t ra l G ange s ( Thapa r 1 961 ) . U nd e r A soka , t h e Mau rya se xpe r ien ced ab r ie f , e xpan s ive f l uo r e scence , a nd t h e d i s tr ibu t ion o ft h e se i n s c r ip t ion s h a s o f t en b een t h ough t t o i nd ica t e t h e b ounda r ie s o f t h e Mau ryan p o l i ty a nd t h e c en t r a l ized c on t ro l o f av a s t amoun to ft e r r i to ry ( A l lch in 1 995 :198 -200 ; D eo a nd J o sh i1 9 72 :11 ;F u s sman 1 987 -88 :43 -4 ) . H oweve r ,t h e p o l i t ica lc ond i t ion so ft h i sp e r iod p robab ly m ean t h a t t h e s p r ead o f A sokan e d ic t s r e p r e s en ted a n a r ea o f m ax imum c on ta c tr a the rt h an s t ream l in ed b u r eau c r a t ic c on t ro l . A sm any o ft h e se i n s c r ip t ion sa r er e pe t i t ive , i ti sa l so p o s s ib le t ha t l o ca l l e ade r s b o r rowed t h e c oncep to fi n sc r ip t ion s a s am ean s o fe mu la t ion a nd s pon so r ed t h ee mp lacemen to fs u ch t e x t s . T h e l im i ted n umbe r o f h i s to r ica l t e x t s a l so i nd ica t e st ha tt h e r ew e r en um e rou sd yna s t ie sa c t ive i n t h e s u b con t inen t a t t h e s am e t ime . T he P urana s , c omp i l ed b e tw een a bou t 5 00 B .C . a nd 5 00 A .D . , c on ta in t r ad i t iona l a ccoun t s o f k i ng sh ip ( Thapa r 1 966 :30 ) . F ina l ly , c o in s s how t h e p r e sence o f n ume rou s r u l ing e n t i t ie s , e s p e c ia l ly i nt h en o r thwe s t s ubcon t inen t . H oweve r , a s n o ted i n t h e p rev iou s c hap t e r , c o inag ei sn o t n ec e s s ar i ly ap roxy f o rs t rong c en t ra l ized c on t ro l b u t m ay i n s tead h ave ar e g iona l c ompon en to fm anuf ac tu r ea nd u se . T he v a r ie ty o f p o l i t i ca l r u le r s a nd t he c o r r e spond ing l a ck o f b u r eau c ra t ic i n f ra s t ru c tu r e i nd ica t et ha ti nf ew c a se sc an t h ep o l i t ie so ft h eE a r ly

K USHANAS

K SHATRAPAS • • SATAVAHANAS 4,

4,

4 1 ,

F igure .3 . 1 . Ma jo rk nown p o l i t ie so ft h ef i r s tc en tu ry A .D . i nt h eI nd ian s u b con t in en t . 1 7

S a tavahan a s h a sl e da tl e a s to ne p rom inen ts cho la rt o c on ced et h a t" e v e ry th ing a bou tt h em i sc on t rove r s ia l " ( Dhava l ika r 1 985 :29 ) . Wh i le t h e m ovemen t s a nd s t ruc tu re o f t h e S a tavahan a p o l i ty a r e c omp lex a nd d i spu ted , s ome b a s ic i n f o rma t ion a bou t c h rono logy a nd a c t iv i t ie s i s a va i lab le f r om t h ed ocum en ta ry s ou rce s . ' B ya bou t8 0 A .D . , t h e S a tavahana k ing G au tam ipu t ra S a taka rn i c l a imed t oh o ld v a s td om in ion s , i n c lud ing t h ea r ea o f e a s t e rn Maha ra sh t ra k nown a s V ida rbha , a sk nown f r om a n i n s c r ip t ion a tt h e B uddh i s tm ona s t ic s i t eo f N a s ik i nw e s ter nI nd ia ( Ba jpa i 1 967 ) .2 H owev e r , t h e s e l f iden t if i ed a s soc ia t ion o f t e r r i to ry w i th a r u l ing f am i ly p robab ly d id n o t e ncompa s s d i r ec t a dm in i s t ra t ion , g i ven d i s tance s a nd c o s t s . E v iden ce s p ec if ica l ly f r om V ida rbha i nd ica t e s t h a t l o ca l k i ng s c on t inued t o r u le ; f o r e xamp le , t h e r e i s as t one i n sc r ip t ion o ft h eB ha ra k i ng B hagada t ta f r om t h es i te o fP aun i d a t ing t ot h e s e cond c en tu ry A .D . ( M i ra sh i 1 963 ) . T he i n t e ra c t ion s b e tw een c en t ra l iz ing p o l i t ie s s u ch a st h eS a tavahana sa nd l o ca lg roup se ncompa s sed av a r ie ty o fr u l ing s t ra teg ie s . S t ra teg ic i n t erma r r iag e s b e tw een c on t e s t ing g roup s , s u ch a st h e o ne b e tw een t h eS a tavahana r u le rV a s i s th ipu t ra P u lumav ia nd t h e d augh t e r o ft h e S aka k ing R ud radaman , d i s s ipa ted t e n s ion s , i fo n ly t empo ra r i ly ; a f t e r R ud radaman ' s d e f ea to ft h eS a tavahana s , P u lumav i w a s i n s ta l led a s k ing o ve r p o r t ion s o f t h e We s tern A ndh ra d oma in ( R ao 1 982 [1960 ] ) . O u t r igh to v er th row i sa l so e v iden t , a si nG au tam ipu t ra S a taka rn i ' sc onque s to fU j ja in . T he c o s t s o f a dm in i s te r ing l a rge t e r r i to r ie s s ugge s tt h a tp o l i t ie ss uc ce s s f u l ly e xp e r im en t ing w i th s o c iopo l i t ica lc omp lex i ty i nt h is e r a w e r ep r inc ipa l ly f o cu s ed u pon i n terna l o rgan iza t ion r a the r t h an t e r r i to r ia l e xpan s ion ( d e sp i te t h e g r and c l a im s o f e x t er n a l c onque s t f ound i nd ed ica to ry i n sc r ip t ion s ) . T h em a in i n v e s tmen t su nde r taken b yt h eS a tavahana s a pp ea r t o b e c i t ie s a nd m ona s ter ie s , w i th f ew f o r t s b e ing c on s t ru c t ed i nt h i s p e r iod ( Kama lapu r 1 961 ) . T he S a tavahana c ap i ta la tP a i than w a ss e conded b ya l a rg eu rban iz ed p opu la t ion c en te ra tT e r ;t h ee mpha s i s

O ne o f t h e se n omad ic g roup s , t h e K u shana s , p re s ided o ve ra ne r ao fu rban p ro spe r i ty i nt h ec en t ra l A s ian t e r r i to ry a nd n or thw e s t I nd ia , a s s e en i n a n umbe r o f e xcava ted t own s i te s ( L iu 1 988 ) . T he K u shana k i ng K an i shka , r u l ing f r om t h ea r ea a r ound P e shawa r ( b eg inn ing c . 7 8 A .D . ) e xpand ed a dm in i s t ra t iv e c on t ro l b y a ppo in t ing a n umb e r o f s a t rap s ( a dm in i s t ra to r s ) t o g ove rn t h e c onqu e r ed p or t ion s o f S aka -occup ied a r ea s i nt h e w e s te rn a nd n o r the rn s ub con t inen t ( M ira sh i 1 981 ) . H i s to r ica l e v idence ( t ex t s , c o in sa nd i n sc r ip t ion s ) i n d ica te st h a t t h e se S an sk r i t -u s ing " K sha t rapa s "e xpanded e a s twa rd a tt h e e xpen se o f t h e S a tavahana s , w i th t h e i r f i r s t e n t rance i n to t h eU j ja in r e g ion i n6 6B .C . ( J a in 1 964 ) . H oweve r ,t h e se t e r r i to r ia lg a in sw e r eo f ten t empo ra ry , a ss t rong r u le r s r o se i na l te rna t eg ene ra t ion st op u sh b ack t h e e nc roach ing n e ighbo r s ( M i ra sh i 1 981 ) . F igu r e3 . 1 i lu s t ra te st h ei n te rac t ion sb e twe en s ome o f t h e l a rge rk nown p o l i t ie s i nt h e s ubcon t inen ta r ound t h ef i r s tc en tu ry A .D . I na dd i t ion t ot h e se l a rge r sca le p o l i t ica lc hange s w h ich s aw c i t ie st a ken o ve rb yv a r iou sr u le r s ,s ma l le r s c a le p o l i t ica l c on so l ida t ion s a r e a l so e v id en t t h roughou t t h e s ubcon t inen t , i f o n e c an t a ke n um i sma t ic e v id ence t o i nd ica t e n ew c en te r s o f p o l i t ica l s t r eng th . T he p ropen s i ty f o r l o ca l r u le r s t o i s sue t h e i ro wn c o in si se v iden tf o rb o th K sha t rapa sa s g over no r so fs ma l le re n t i t ie s a nd i nt h ep rox im i ty o f t h e S a tavahana k ingdom s ( M i ra sh i 1 981 ; T hapa r 1 966 ) . C on t empo ra ry l i te ra ry e v id ence f r om t h e w es ter nI nd ian O cean a l so i nd ica te s t h a tt h e r e w e re n ume rou ss ma l lp o l i t ie sa c t ive d u r ing t h i sp e r iod . T he P er ip lus o f t h e E ry thr ean S ea , a Med i te r ranean m e rchan t ' s d ocumen t o ft h e l a t e f i r s t c en tu ry A .D . , s t a te st h a tt h eh in te r land e a s to ft h ew e s t -coa s tp or to f B a rygaza " c on ta in sm any b a r r en a r ea s ...a sw e l la s ag rea t m any p opu lou s n a t ion s u p t o t h e G ange s " ( Ca s son 1 989 :83 ) . I n t h e c en t ra l -we s te rn s ubcon t inen t , t h e S a tavahana d yna s ty , w i th i t s c ap i ta l a tP ra t i s thana ( Pa i than ) , w a s e s tab l i shed b y t h e f i r s t c en tu ry A .D . ( Rao 1 982 [1960 ] ) . A l though t h eS a tavahana sa r et h e b e s t k nown , a nd w e re p robab ly t h e m o s t w e l l o rgan ized p o l i ty o ft h ee a r ly c en tu r ie sA .D .i nw e s te rn I nd ia , t h e r e a r e s i gn if i can t u n r e so lved c on t rov e r s ie s a bou tt h e i ro r ig in s . B ecau se t h eS a tavahana sa r ea l so k nown i n e a r ly t e x t s a s " Andh ra s , " t h e re i ss ome d i sag re emen t a bou t whe th e r t h e S a tavahana s o r ig ina l ly c ame f r om t h ea r ea o fw ha ti sn ow m oder n A ndh ra P r ade sh ( f o re xp l ica t ion , s e eM i ra sh i 1 981 ) . T he m a jo r i ty o fr e sea rche r s c u r r en t ly m a in ta in s t h a t t h e S a tavahana s w e re o r ig ina l ly f r om t h e w e s ter n s ubcon t in en t ,b u ta cqu i red t h ee p i the t" Andh ra " a f t e r t h ey s h if t ed t h e i rp o l i t ica lf o cu st ot h ee a s ta r ound t h e s e cond c en tu ry A .D . ( s ee M i ra sh i 1 981 ; S a rka r 1 987 ; Wayman a nd R o sen 1 990 ) . H owev e r , t h e r e la t ive p auc i ty o fd ocumen ta ry e v idence r e la ted t ot h eo r ig in s , p o l i t ica l o rgan iza t ion , a nd t e r r i to r ia l e x t en t o f t h e

IA i mpor tan tn ew a s se s smen to ft h eS a tavahana s b yC .S i nopo l i( 2 001 )a ppea r ed j u s ta st h i sv o lume w a sg o ing t op r e s s .

T he c h rono logy o ft h e S a tavahana p e r iod i s

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c omp l ica ted b yt h ea ppa r en ts imu l taneou su se o f d if e r en ty ea r sb yt h ev a r iou sr u l ing f am i l ie so f c en t ra la nd n o r th e rn I nd ia . A s ar e su l t ,d if e r en t d a t e sh ave b e en p r opo sed f o rG au tam ipu t ra 's r e ign , f r om c .4 0B .C . t oA .D . 1 24 ;R ao f a vo r s6 2 -82 A .D . ( 1982 [ 1 960 ]: 9 1) ,w h i le M i r a sh i ( 198 1 )p ropo se sa d a t eo fc .1 25 A .D . f o rG au tam ipu t ra ' si n va s ion o f V ida rbha . F o r ad i scu ss ion o ft h e h i s to r ica l s ou r ce m a t e r ia l , s e eJ a in 1 964 ; Mukhe r jee 1 973 ) . 1 8

u pon c i t ie si sa l so r ef lec ted i nt h ei mpo r tance o fp or t s s u ch a sB a rruka cha ( B roach )o nt h eA r ab ian S ea ,a nd b y t h e r o le o fp opu la t ion c en t e r s i nt h e i r t e r r i tor ia l c on te s t sa si lu s t ra ted b yt h ec ap tu r eo fU j ja in . T he se c on se rva t ive r u l ing s t ra teg ie sf i nd p a ra l le l s i no t he rp o r t ion so ft h es ubcon t inen td u r ing t h es ame t im ep e r iod . I n as t udy t h a te xam ine st h ed eve lopmen t o fk i ng ly r i tua la mong t h eP a l lava si ns o u the rn I nd ia ( f i r s t second c en tu ry B .C . t ot e n th c en tur yA .D . ) , N . D i rk s ( 1 976 ) p o in t s o u t t h e d i ve r s if ica t ion o fk ing ly a u tho r i ty t oi n c lude " ch ief ta in s ." F rom t h e s p ec if i c d a ta o nt h eP a l lava sa nd S a tavahana s , i ta ppea r st h a t a s a n e xpand ing d ynas ty s u cc eeded i nb ecom ing a l a rg e r r e g iona l e n t i ty , o t he r l o ca l r u le r s w e r e i n co rpo ra ted i n to t h er o ya lr i tua ls ph e r e . I ns od o ing , t h ey g ave g i f t s( f o re xamp le , t ot emp le s ) o nb eha lf o f t h ek i ng a nd c ou ld c l a im g od l ik ec ompa r i son so ft h e i r o wn a c t ion s i n t h e l o ca l s phe re . T he e ve ryday b u r eauc ra t ic a nd e conom ic r o le o ft h e se l o ca l r u le r s , h owev e r , a ppea r s q u i te l im i ted ; e ven w i th r e sp ec t t o w ar f a r e t h e re d oe s n o t a pp ea r t o h ave b een a p e rmanen ti n co rpo ra t ion o fl o ca l l e ad e r s , r a the r , " t he a rmy w a s r un o n ad ecen t ra l i sed b a s i s , a nd o n ly c oa le sced a tt h e r o ya l l e ve lf o rw a r so f ap r eda tor yo r d e f en s iv es o r t " ( D i rk s 1 976 :154 ) . T he l a s to ft h eS a tavahana k i ng s ,P u lumav iI V ,i s k nown t h rough a s t one i n sc r ip t ion a tA don i i n t h e K ur noo l d i s t r ic t o fA ndh ra S t a te ; a f t e r h i s f a l l f r om r u le i nt h e m idd le o ft h et h i rd c en tu ry A .D . , " s eve ra l s ma l lk ingdom s a ppea rt oh av er i sen i nt h ed if e r en t p rov ince s wh ich h ad p rev iou s ly b een u nd e rh i ss way " ( M i ra sh i 1 963 :xv i i ) . T ot h ew e s to fV ida rbha ,t h el a s t o ft h eS a tavahana sw a so ve r th rown b yt h eR a s t raku ta k ing a r ound t h e e nd o f t h e t h ird c en tu ry A .D . ( Kama lapu r 1 961 ) .3 T he d ec l ine o ft h e S a tavahana p o l i ty , l i ke t h e d ec l ine o f t h e Mau r yan p o l i ty , w a s a c compan ied b y ar e su rgence o fl o ca l d yna s t ie s a nd p o l i t ica le n t i t ie s .° T he p o l i t ica lo rgan iza t ion e v iden ta tt h ec en te r so f c on tempo ra ry p o l i t ie s i n t h e E a r ly H i s to r ic p e r iod

i n d ica t e s t h a t t h e re w a s t h e p o t en t ia l f o r p o l i t ica l a gen t s t oc on t ro l a nd d e r ive r e v enue f r om e conom ic a c t iv i t ie s . T he i n te rdepend en ce o f c en t ra l ized b u r eauc ra c ie s , p rov inc ia l a l l ie s , a nd l o ca l ly a rmed l i neag e s a nd v i l lage s s ugge s t s a h i e ra r chy o f o rgan iza t ion w h ich c ou ld b ee f e c t ive ly u sed t om ove a g r icu l tu ra l p roduce t oa ny c on sum ing c en te r , e i the r r e l ig iou so rp o l i t ica l . B o th p hy s ica lt r an s i tr ou te s ,a nd n e two rk s b a sed o n k in sh ip , e conom ic r e la t ion s , a nd r e l ig iou s t i e s c ou ld f a c i l i ta te t h e t r an sf e r o fp roduce ( f o re xamp le t of e ed a nd p rov i s ion a rm ie sa nd s uppo r t t h eb u r eauc ra t ic m echan ism )a nd t om ov er ewa rd sa nd s ymbo l s o fa u tho r i ty f r om t h e c en te r t oc oope r a t ive l e ad e r s . I np rac t ice , h ow eve r , a ny h i e ra r chy w a s t h e r e su l t o f ac on s tan t p roce s s o fn ego t ia t ion , i nw h ich m embe r s o fe ach h i e ra r ch ica l " l ev e l " c ompe ted w i th s up e r io r s f o r a u tonomy a nd c on t ro l , w i th p ee r s f o r t e r r i to ry , a nd w i th s ubo rd ina t e s f o r s upp l ie s a nd s uppo r t . T h eu l t ima te r e su l tw a s ap o l i t ica ll a nd scape i n w h ich c on t ro l o ve r r e sou r c e s w a s c on s tan t ly s h if t ing ,a nd w he r et h ep hy s ica lb ounda r ie sw i th in a nd a mong p o l i t ie sw e r ep o rou sa nd f l ex ib le . I ns um , t h e s e ve ra l c en tu r ie sb e tw een t h e l a rge s c a le , b u tb r ie f ly h e ld , Mau ryan p o l i ty a nd t h e G up ta s t a te w h ich e me rg ed i nt h ef o ur th c en tu ry A .D . w a sa t ime o fw ar r ing , e xpand ing , a nd c on t rac t ing p o l i t ica l e n t i t ie s i n t h e I nd ian s ubcon t in en t . A rchaeo log ica l e v id en ce a tp r e sen t s hed s l i t t le l i gh t o n t h e s e u n r e so lv ed q ue s t ion s . An umbe ro fs h a r ed c u l tu ra l a nd i c ono log ica l e l emen t s a r e p r e s en t t h roughou t t h e s ub con t in en ti nt h i sp e r iod , p r in c ipa l ly i nt h ef o rm o f B uddh i sm , w h ich c e r ta in ly s ugg e s t sc on tac tb e tw een t h e w e s t ern s ubcon t inen t a nd a r ea s t ot h e s ou th a nd e a s t . A sw i l lb ee xp lo r ed b e low ,t h ea r ea o fV ida rbha i st h en or th e rnmo s tl o ca t ion o ft h em ega l i th -bu i ld ing t r ad i t ion o f t h e s ou th , s ugge s t ing t h a t t h i s p a r t o f c en t ra lI nd ia m ay h ave h o s ted m any c u l tu r a lt r ad i t ion s i n av i b ran t , s yn c r e t ic c u l tu ra l e nv i ronmen t . O the r c u l tu ra lp r a c t ice si nV ida rbha m ay e ven tua l ly i n d ica te l i nk st os ou the rn I nd ia ,a sT rau tmann ( 1 981 )i nd ica t e s f o rt h ek i n sh ip r e la t ion so ft h eS a tavahana s .5 S oc ia lc ohe s ion i nt he E ar ly H i s tor ic p er iod

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d e f ea ted i nt h es i x th c en tu ry b yo ne o ft h eC ha lukya r u le r s , " who t h e r eby e s tab l i sh ed t h es o v e r e ign ty o f t h eC ha lu l cya so v e rt h eD eccan i nt h ee a r ly p a r to f t h e6 t hc en tu ry " ( Kama lapu r 1 961 :7 ) .

A l though p o l i t ica l e n t i t ie s i nt h e E a r ly H i s to r ic p e r iod d i d n o t h av et h ep owe r t oc on t ro l p opu la t ion s a nd f o s t e r s ha red i d en t i t ie s o n t h e b a s i s o f s ha r ed t e r r i to r ie s , s t rong s o c ia l t i e s w e re m a in ta ined t h roughou tt h es ubcon t inen tb yo t h e rm ean s ,i n c lud ing r e l ig ion ( Buddh i sm a nd J a in i sm ) a nd l a nguage ( San sk r i ta nd P ra ia-i t ) . T h er e l ig iou st r ad i t ion so fB uddh i sm a nd J a in i sm b e came h i gh ly d ev e loped i nt h eI n d ian s ubcon t inen tb y

4A si nd ica t ed b yt h ei n sc r ip t ion o ft h el o ca lk ing B havaga t ta , t h ee r ao f" Sa tavahana " r u le m ay r e f lec t t h ei mpo s i t ion o f ab u r eauc ra t ic s up e r s t ru c tu r eu pon as e r ie so fr e la t iv e ly a u tonomou sl o ca lp o l i t ie s . T he w r i t ing o ft h eh i s to ry o ft h e S a tavahana s , i n o v e r empha s iz ing t h es t r eng th o ft h a tb u r eauc ra t ic s up e r s t ruc tu re , m ay t hu se xagge ra te t h ec omp lex i ty o ft h e S a tavahana st oe nab le t h em t oc ompa r e f a vo rab ly w i th s t a te st ot h en o r th a nd s ou th ( P a ra she r -Sen 1 993c ) .

T h ec omb ina t ion o fn or ther na nd s ou thern

5

k in sh ip p r ac t ice si n mode rn Maha ra sh t ra i sa l so n o ted b yK a rve ( 1 968 ) . 1 9

a s c e ram ic s a l so f o rmed p ar t o f t h e t r ad e a c t iv i ty . T he r e i sa l so as ugge s t ion t h a t m ona s t ic i n s t i tu t ion s c on ta in ed n o t j u s t c on sume r s o f g ood s , b u t a l so p roduc e r s . T h e se a c t iv i t ie s a r e r e p r e s en ted a r cha eo l o g ica l ly b y i r r iga t ion w o rk s i n t h e v i c in i ty o f mona s t ic s i t e s , s uch a s t h e o ne s d o cumen ted f o r S anch ib y S haw ( 2000 ) , a sw e l l a sb yt h ep re sence o f m anu f a c tu r ing b y -p roduc t s ( s uch a s s h e l l -cu t t ing d eb r i sa tN aga r juna l conda ) (Sa rka r 1 987 :638 ) . S ha r ed l i ngu i s t ic t r ad i t ion s w e r e a l so a n i mpo r tan t f a c to r t h a t e nab led t h e d ev e lopmen t o f s ha r ed c u l tu ra lt r ad i t ion si nt h eE a r ly H i s to r ic p e r iod . I nd eed , l i t e ra ry a nd r e l ig iou st r ad i t ion so f t en g r ew t o s uppo r t e a ch o t he r . T he S a ra swa t i r e l ig iou s m ove m en tb r ough t ar e v iva lo fJ a in i sm i nt h ee a r ly s e cond c en tu ry B .C .w i th as ub sequen tf l o r e sc en ce i nt h ef i r s t c en tu ry A .D . , c omp r is ing t h e b eg inn ing o ft h e J a in l i t e ra ry m ov emen t . T h i sd eve lopm en ta l so c o inc id e s w i th t h eb eg inn ing so fT am i l l i t e ra tu r e ,a nd J .P .J a in ( 1 964 :126 )s u gge s t st h a tJ a ina a s ce t ic s" t ook al e ad ing p ar ti nt h el i t e ra ry a c t iv i ty o ft h eT am i l S angama ." I na dd i t ion t ot e x t s ,c op ied m any t i m e ss i nce t h e i r o r ig ina lc ompo s i t ion a nd o u re r a ,e v iden ce f o rw r i t ing c ome sf r om av a r ie ty o fa r chaeo log ica ls ou r ce s : s t one i n sc r ip t ion s , c o ins , s e a l s , a nd w r i t ing s c ra t ched i n to p o t she rd s . T he S an sk r i t l a nguag e , f o rma l ly s t anda rd ized b yt h ef our th c en tu ry B .C . , w a s u sed b y t h e S a l ca r u l e r so ft h e n or thwe s te rn s u b con t inen ta nd a l so s e rv ed a st h el a nguage o fi n sc r ip t ion ss u ch a st h a t o n t h e H e l iodoru s p i l la r d a ted t o c . 1 20 B .C . ( Chak raba r t i 1 995 ; M i ra sh i 1 981 ; Wo lp e r t 1 977 :87 ) . V a r ian t s k nown a s P rak r i t ( o r p r ak r i t s ) w e r e d eve loped f r om t h i s S an sk r i t b a s e i n am anne r t h a t c ou ld b ed e sc r ibed a sa na logou st ot h ew ay i nw h ich L a t in b e cam e mod i f ied i n to t h e m od er n r oman ce l a nguage s o fE u rope . A s s umma r iz ed b y Wo lpe r t ( 1 977 :87 ) , t h e s e p rak r i t s " eme rged a st h e d om inan t d i a lec t so fI nd ia ' sv a r iou sr e g ion s ,a nd f r om t h e se w e r e s ub sequen t ly t oe vo lve t h em any m od er nI ndo -A ryan l a nguag e so fN o r th I nd ia ,e a ch t w ice r emoved f r om i t s c l a s s ica l S an sk r i ta nce s t ry ." P rak r i t q u ick ly d om ina ted t h e l i t e ra ry a nd i n sc r ip t iona l t r ad i t ion s o ft h e E a r ly H i s tor ic p e r iod . " P rak r i tw a st h el a nguage o ft h ei n sc r ip t ion sn o to n ly o ft h eS a tavahana sb u to fa l lt h eo t h e rr u l ing f am i l ie s o fI nd ia , w i th v e ry f ew e xcep t ion s , f r om 3 00 B .C . t o A .D . 3 00 ... A sS an sk r i tw a st ot h eV ed ic a ge ,s ow a s P rak r i t t o t h i s e poch " ( Rao 1 982 [ 196 (] :76 ) . T he A sokan e d ic t s a r e i nP rakr i t , a s w e l l a sn ea r ly a l l o f t h e d o cumen t s o ft h e S a tavahana s a nd t h e We s te rn K sha t rapa s( Rao 1 982 [1960D . P rak r i tw a s a l so u sed i n c o inage ( Gokha le 1 991a ) . I n S r i L anka , t h e S an sk r i t -ba s ed P a l i l a nguage w a s u s ed f o r e a r ly B uddh i s t t e x t s ( Ba rne s 1 995 ) , w h i le t h e h i s to r ica l B uddha h im se lf u sed a d if e r en t P r ak r i t k nown a s Magadh i ( Thapa r 1 966 :63 ) . Much o ft h e w r i t ten t r ad i t ion w a sc a r r ied o u ta tt h ee l i te l e v e l ,b u tt h e r ea r e s ome i n d ica t ion s t h a t l i t e ra cy m ay h ave b een mo r e

t h eE a r ly H i s to r ic p e r iod . B o th t r ad i t ion st r ace t h e i r s i x th -c en tu ry B .C . f o unda t ion s t o i n d iv idua l s : B uddh i sm t o S iddha t tha ( S iddar tha ) , an o r the rn G ange t ic p r ince who l i ved a pp rox ima te ly 5 60 -480 B .C . ; a nd J a in i sm t oV a rhamana Mahav i ra , w i th a s t ar t ing d a t eo f5 27 B .C . ( R ea t 1 994 :1 ;J a in 1 964 :32 ) . E ach h ad as t rong i nd iv idua l iz ing c omponen tt h a ts e t i ta pa r t f r om p r eva i l ing h i e ra rch ica l V ed ic r e l ig iou s p ra c t ice s . Wh i le J a in i sm h a s am o r e p ronounced a s ce t ic w o r ldv iew , B uddh i s t a nd J a in r e l ig iou s e s tab l i shm en t s w e re s ome t ime s f o und i n r e la t iv e ly c l o se p r ox im i ty ( s uch a st h ec ave s i t e so fU dayag i r ii n e a s t ern I n d ia ) . A l though b o th r e l ig ion s w e r e b a sed u pon p h i lo soph ie so fw o r ld r enunc ia t ion a nd s p ir i tua l s e lf d e te rm ina t ion , t h ey b ecame p opu la r b ecau s e o ft h e n ume rou sw ay si n wh ich t h o se p h i lo soph ie sc ou ld b e p rac t iced . Mona s te r ie s , u sua l ly l o ca ted a way f r om p opu la t ion c en te r s , w e r ed ev e loped t os e rv ea sl i v ing q ua r te r st of u l l t ime r e l ig iou sp e r sonne l . L ay p eop le , b o th w omen a nd m en ,c ou ld a l so m ake p i lg r image st o t h e se m ona s t e r ie sa nd p a r t ic ipa te i ns p ir i tua ll i f e . T he l o ca t ion o f m ona s ter ie s a l ong t r ad e r ou t e s e nab led t r ave l ing m e r chan t s t ou s e t h em a s s a f e v enues f o r h a l t ing t h e i rc a ravan sa sw e l l a sf o r s e l l ing p roduc t s ( L iu 1 988 ; R ay 1 986 , 1 987a ) . Mona s te r ie s ,a s semb ly h a l l s ,a nd c ommemo ra t ive s i te s s u ch a st h e s t upa ( r e l iqua ry ) b ecame t h e f o ca l p o in t f o r d ona t ion s b y m e r chan t s , l a y p eop le , a nd r u le r s . S i t e ss u ch a sK anhe r io nt h ew e s tc oa s t ,S anch i a nd B ha rhu ti nt h ec en t ra ls ubcon t inen t( R ay 1 987b ) , a nd Ama rava t i i n t h e s ou th ( Sa rka r 1 987 ) b ea r n ume rou s i n s c r ip t ion s t h a t i d en t if y t h e d ono r s a nd t h e i rg i f t s . A tS anch i ,6 31 d ona t ive i n sc r ip t ion sh ave b een r e cove red a r chaeo log ica l ly , m o s t o f t h em s pon so r ed b y n on roya l p a t ron s ( Dehe j ia 1 992 ) . A t Ama rava t i ,t h e r ei se v idence f o re n t i re v i l lag e sm ak ing d ona t ion s a s ac o l lec t ive g roup . I n a dd i t ion t o i lu s t ra t ing t h e w ay i n w h ich B uddh i s t a c t iv i t ie s b ecame a c o l lec t ive f o cu s f o r a c t iv i ty , i t i s a n i mpo r tan t i n d ica to r t h a t t h e r e w e r e s om e a c t ive s o c iopo l i t ica l u n i t s , s u ch a s t h e v i l lage , t h a t w e r e l a rge rt h an s i ng le k in g roup s . D ona t iv e i n scr ip t ion s m en t ion t h e e x i s tence o f g u i ld s a s w e l l , a nd s cho la r s h ave p ropo sed t h a t i n a dd i t ion t ob e ing ar e l ig iou sm ovemen t ,B uddh i sm a s af o cu so fd ona t ive a nd m e r chan ta c t iv i ty s pon so red a " s p i r i to fe n t r ep reneu r sh ip "( Ray 1 985 :16 , 1 987b ; s e e a l so P a ra sh e r -Sen 1 993b :17 ) . I n h e r s t udy o fl o ng d i s tan ce e xchange , X in ru L iu ( 1 988 :92 102 ) h a s o b se rved t h a t t h e l i nk b e twe en t r ade a nd B uddh i s t e s tab l i shm en t s w a s f u r the r s t reng thened b y t h e f a c t t h a t t h e i t em s c a r r ied b y m e r chan t s a nd p r ized b y e l i te s w e r e a l so t h e s am e t y pe s o f i t em s t ha t w e r e d ona ted t oB uddh i s t i n s t i tu t ion s a sg if t s : s i lk , c o ra l , p ea r l s , l a p i s , c r y s ta l , a nd g l a s s . A r chaeo log ica l e v iden ce s how st h a tt h e se e l i te i t em sw e r en o tt h eo n ly f o cu so ft r ade ,h oweve r ,a nd t h a to rd ina ry g ood ss u ch 2 0

w id e sp r ead t h an t h eu ppe rmo s ts o c ia l e che lon s s i nce w r i t ing h a sa l so b een f o und o np o t she rd s . T he s c r ip t su sed f o rt h ew r i t ing o ft h e se l a nguage s v a r ied b u tt h e mo s tc ommon a l ph abe tw a st h e B rahm i s c r ip t , w h ich f i r s ta ppea r ed i nt h e t h i rd c en tu ry B .C . ( P a tpo la 1 994 :18 ) . T he s c r ip tw a s u sed f o r w r i t ing d if e r en tl a nguage s( j u s ta st h eR oman a l phabe ti su s ed f o rd if e r en tl a nguage st o day ) . B rahm is c r ip th a sb een r e cove r ed f r om s ou the rn I nd ia ( e .g . a tA r ikam edu ; B eg ley 1 983 ) ,a nd e ven a sf a ra w ay a sQ u se i ri nE gyp t ( Beg ley 1 983 ) . T he w r i t ing o n p o t she rd s c ou ld r e p r e s en t d if e ren t l a nguag e s a tt h e s ame s i te ; f o r e xamp le , R amachand ran ( 1 980 ) n o t e s t h a t a t A r ikam edu , t h e r e w e r e e i gh t een p o t sh e rd s t ha tb o r e w r i t ing i nB rahm is c r ip t : s i x teen i nT am i l( p o s s ib ly o f t h es e cond c en tu ry A .D . )a nd t wo i nP rak r i t . T he w ide sp read u se o ft h eB rahm is c r ip ta nd t h e v a r iou sS an skr i t -de r ived l a nguage sw a sp a ra l le led b y t h e a dop t ion o f s im i la r r e l ig iou s i c onog raphy t h roughou t t h e s ubcon t inen t . T h e e a r l ie s t B uddh i s t w o r sh ip i n vo lv ed t h e v en e ra t ion o ft h e s t upa a l one w i thou ta ny h uman f i gu r e s , a nd t h ef o rm h ad al a rg e g eog raph ic d i s t r ibu t ion . When t h eh uman f o rm o ft h e B uddha w a s d eve loped , i tt o o w a s r a p id ly a dop t ed a c ro s s aw ide r eg ion . T he s imu l taneou sa ppea ran ce o f t h eB uddha i mage a tr e l ig iou sc en t e r ss u ch Ama rava t i a nd Ma thu ra , s epa ra t ed b y m o r e t h an a t h ou sand k i lome te r s , h a sl e dt oi n f e r ence st h a ts c u lp tu ra ls t y le s a nd i c onog raphy w e re m an if e s t ed i nd if e r en tc en te r s b yt r ave l l ing a r t i san s ( Wayman a nd R o sen 1 990 ) . H i s to r ian sr em ind u st h a tH indu ( V ed ic )p rac t ice s c on t inued t og row d u r ing t h eE a r ly H i s to r ic p e r iod a s w e l l , a nd t ha t t h e e r a s hou ld n o t b e r e ga rded a s a c omp le te r e p lacemen to fr e l ig iou st r ad i t ion s ( s ee , f o r e xamp le ,C hak rabar t i 1 995 ) . H oweve r ,B uddh i s ta nd J a in r e l ig iou s t r ad i t ion s f o s t e red a n ew t y pe o f e c onom ic a nd s o c ia l o rde r w i th i mpa c t s o n a r ch i tec tu re ,t r ade ,a nd p o l i t ica la c t iv i ty ,w h ich h ad a n i mpa c t o n t h e w ho le s o c ie ty o f t h e E a r ly H i s to r ic p e r iod . J ame s H e i tzman ( 1 984 ) h a s e va lua ted t h e r e la t ion sh ip b e tween t h ep hy s ica ll o ca t ion o fB uddh i s t e s tab l i shmen t s a nd n o t e s t h a t p o l i t ica l p owe r , c omme r ce , a nd r e l ig iou s c omponen t s a l l c ame t ob e a s soc ia t ed i n l o ca t ion s w h e re m ona s te r ie s a nd n onmona s t ic s i te s g r ew u p a l ong t r ad e r ou te s . B y m ak ing u se o fa r ea so fp i lg r image f o rh i gh -v i s ib i l i ty d ona t ion s , r u le r s a nd a sp ir ing r u le r s c ou ld " c onf i rm t h e i r p o s i t ion s t h rough o s ten ta t iou s d i sp lay " ( H e it man 1 984 :132 ) . B o l s te red b y d ona t ion s , B uddh i s t a nd J a in i n s t i tu t ion se ngaged i ns i gn if i can tb u i ld ing a c t iv i t ie s t h a tr e su l ted i n ah igh v i s ib i l i t yo fa r chaeo log ica ls i t e s t h roughou t t h e s ubcon t inen t , i n c lud ing e l abo ra t e ly c a rved c ave m ona s te r ie s a s w e l l a s t h e d i s t inc t ive s t upa s a nd a s semb ly h a l ls t h a t m a rk ed p l ace s o f p i lg r image . I n a dd i t ion t o t h e se l a nd scape m od if i ca t ion s ,t h ew ide sp r ead s o c ia lc ohe s ion f o s te r ed b y B uddh i s t a nd J a in t r ad i t ion s a nd b y s ha red

l a nguage w a sm a tched b yt h ew ide sp r ead d i s t r ibu t ion o fp or tab le m a te r ia lg ood s . Wh i le s ome s ma l lp or tab le i t em s s u ch a s b ead s m igh t h ave b e en t r aded a t m ona s t ic s i t e sa nd t h u sd i s t r ibu ted t h roughou tr eg ion s , t h es ha r ed e t ho so fc on ta c tt h rough t r ade ,p i lg r image , a nd k in n e two rk s a l so p romo ted s ha r ed i d ea s t h a t i n f luenc ed l o ca lp roduc t ion o fi t em ss u ch a sc e ram ic s . A r cha eo log ica l ly ,t h e se a r t if ac t se nab le u st oe va lua te t h ew ay i nw h ich s ha r ed t r ad i t ion sw e r em an if e s ted i n d a i ly l i ve st h rough t r ade a nd t h ep roduc t ion o fs u rp lu s a tt h eh ou seho ld l e v e l . T he r e surgence o fc en tra l ized p o l i t ie si nt he f our th c en tury A .D . T he n ame so fm any o ft h el a rg e rs u c ce s so rp o l i t ie s t ot h e S a tavahana s a r e k nown t h rough t h e d yna s t ic l i s t s o ft h eP urana s , a sw e l l a st h rough i n scr ip t iona l e v idence . T he n ex t d yna s ty o fa ny s i z e d ocumen ted f o rt h e V ida rbha r e g ion w a s t h a to ft h e V aka taka si n t h el a te t h i rd c en tu r yA .D . T he e s tab l i shmen to ft h e V aka taka d yna s ty ' s s up remacy o v e r s ubo rd ina te p eop le s w a s a c comp l i shed t h rough t h e c onque s t o f f o rme r S a tavahana l a nd s w h ich h ad l a p sed i n to t h e c on t ro l o f l o ca l f unc t iona r ie s ; t h i s a b so rp t ion o f t e r r i to ry b egan w i th t h e s e cond n amed r u le r o f t h e V aka taka l i ne ,P rava ra sena ( 2 75 -335 A .D . )( A l teka r 1 982 [ 1 960 ]a ) . ' T h ec u l tu ra l a f i l ia t ion o ft h is r e g ion t e nded t ob e n o r thwa rd look ing , e mu la t ing p o l i t ica l f a sh ion ss u ch a st h o se t a ken u pb yt h eG up ta d yna s ty o ft h e G ange s V a l ley , w ho m ade ar e tur nt oS an sk r i t ah a l lma rk o ft h e i rs t a te . V ida rbha i nt h i se r ah a st hu s b een c ha rac te r iz ed a s" t he s ou th e rnmo s to u tpo s to ft h e i n te r re la t ed d yna s t ie s o f t h e n or ther n S an sk r i t s p eak ing p eop le , [ a ] c ha rac t e r i s t ic a ppa r en t ly c on t i nued d u r ing t h eh i s to r ica lp e r iod ,i n a smuch a sa l lt h e V aka taka i n sc r ip t ion s a r e i n S an skr i t " ( Ka rve 1 968 :57 ) . T he o r ig ina l h ome o f t h e V aka taka s , t h ough d i spu ted , i st h ough t t ob e l o ca ted n ea r t h e f amou s B uddh i s t s i te o f Ama r ava t i ( A l teka r 1 982 [1960 ]a ) . L a te r c ap i ta l s i n c lude as i te w i th in 6 0 k i lome te r s o f t h e mod e rn c i ty o f N agpu r ( a t e i th e r N andpu r o r N aga rdhana ) ; i th a sb e en s ugg e s t ed t h a tt h i ss i te w a s c ho sen a st h er o y a lc ap i ta lb ecau se o ft h ep rox im i ty o f n ea rby f o r t s s u ch a s G hughu sgadh a nd B h ivgadh ( M i ra sh i 1 963 :xx i i i ) . At h i rd n ew c ap i ta l c i ty w a s f o unded b yP rava r a s ena I( 2 75 -335 A .D . )a nd h a sb een i d en t if ied a tP auna r , a n a r chaeo log ica l s i te a bou t 6 0

6T he c h rono logy f o rt h eV aka taka si sb a sed o n M i ra sh i( 1 963 )a nd A l t eka r( 1 982 [1960 1a ) . H owev e r ,t h el im i ted d a t ed h i s to r ica le v idence f o r t h i sp e r iod h a s r e su l ted i ns ome d i spu te so ve r c h rono logy . F o re xamp le , S p ink ' s( 1 992 ) c h rono logy g i ve sd a te sa bou t3 0y ea r sp r io rt ot h o se g i ven b yM i ra sh ia nd A l teka r .

2 1

T he se p e r iod so fd om inance w e r ec ha ra c te r ized b y t h e i n co rpo ra t ion o f f o rme r p ee r d yna s t ie s i n to a s uppo r t s y s tem f o r t h e e xpand ing a nd c en t ra l iz ing c onque ro r d yna s ty . T he c on t inued e xe r c i se o fl o ca l c on t ro lb yt h ef o rme rp ee r s -now s ubo rd ina te s -mean t t h a tt h ee xp and ing d yna s ty ' sc on t ro lo ve rt e r r i to ry w a s t h e r ef o r ee i the rs hor t l ived o rw eak . T he r e la t ion sh ip o ft h e s ubo rd ina t e r u le r s t o ac en t ra l d yna s ty s u ch a s t h eV aka taka si si n d ica ted b yt h ed e s c r ip t ion so ft h r ee ' t yp e s o f" f euda to r ie s " i nt h e V aka taka g r an t s : t ho se w ho s ubm i t t ed w h i le t h r ea tened ,t h o se w ho s ubm i t ted o n b e ing a tacked , a nd t h o se who w e r e o ve r taken t h rough w a r f a r e( M i ra sh i 1 963 ) . T h ee xac tn a tu r eo f t h e i rt r ibu t e , a nd w h e the ri tv a r ied d epend ing o nt h e a moun t o f f o r ce e xe r ted b ef o r e s u bm i s s ion , i s u nknown ;t h e i ro b l iga t ion st ot he c onqu e ro r ,h oweve r , a ppea rt oh av ei n c lud ed m i l i ta ry a s s i s tance . ' T h i s m i l i ta ry a s s i s tance c ou ld b eu t i l ized b yt h e c en t ra l iz ing d yna s ty i n s e ve ra l w ay s : t op ro tec t i t s n ew ly a cqu i r ed t e r r i to r ie s ,t oc o l lec tn ew t e r r i to r ie s ,o r t ow a rd o fo t h e r c en t ra l iz ing p o l i t ie s . D ur ing t h e t i me o ft h e V aka t aka e xpan s ion i nt h e e a r ly f ou r th c en tu ry , t h e G up ta p o l i ty t o t h e n or th w a s a l so e xpand ing . Mo s th i s to r ian si nd ica t et h a tt h e G up ta s w e r e t h e m o r e p ow e r f u l e xpan s ion is t p o l i ty ; much , h ow eve r , d epend s o n t h e r e ad ing o f t h e s our ce m a te r ia lw h i ch o f ten i sb a sed o nh i s to r ica ld ocumen t s s p on so r ed b ya na s cendan tp o l i t ica le n t i t y . ' T he V aka taka s e xpe r ienced ar e na i s sance u nde r t h er u le rH a r i sena ,w ho w a sr e spon s ib le f o ri n i t ia t ing l a rge sca le c a ve c on s t ruc t ion sa tA jan ta ( Sp ink 1 992 ) . T h e A jan ta i n sc r ip t ion , w h ich d e scr ib e s h i s p o l i t ica l c onque s t s , i n d ica te s t h a t t e r r i tor ie s t oa l l s i de s w e r e s u bdued b yH a r i sena ,a sf a ra s Ma lwa t ot h en or th a nd K un ta la t ot h es ou th ,a nd t ob o th s e ac oa s t s ; h oweve r , h i s c onque s t s " d o n o t s e em t o h ave r e su l ted i n t h e p e rmanen ta nnexa t ion o ft h i sv a s tt e r r i to ry " ( M i ra sh i 1 9 63 : x xx i ) . C on tempo ra ry i n sc r ip t ion s r e vea l t h a t t h i s b r ief f l o r e scence o f t h e V aka taka s d i d h ave a c on s ide rab le i mpac t o n t h e s u r round ing p o l i t ie s : H a r i sena c ondu c ted a m a r r iage a l l ian c e w i th t h e V i shnukund in d yna s ty t ot h es ou th ,a nd t h ep e r iod o f h i sr e ign c o in c id e sw i th t h eb eg inn ing o fn ew f am i l ie s i nK a l inga ( t o t h e e a s t ) a nd i nK o sa la ( t o t h e n or th ) ( M i ra sh i 1 96 3 ) .

k i lome te r ss ou thwe s to fN agpu r( A l teka r1 982 [1960 ]a ; M i ra sh i 1 963 ) . T he f am i ly d e i ty o ft h eV aka taka sw a s a l so l o ca ted a tR am tek ( 3 7 k i lome t e r s n o r thea s t o f N agpu r ) , i n d ica t ing t h a t t h e V aka taka d yna s ty w a s s t rong ly a s soc ia ted w i th t h eV ida rbha r e g ion . T he s t ra tegy o fr u le i n c luded t h ed i v i s ion so ft h e r u l ing f am i ly i n to t wo p r inc ipa l b r anche s b eg inn ing w i th t h e s u cce s so r s t o P rava ra sena Ii n t h e f o ur th c en tu ry A .D . ( M i ra sh i 1 963 ) . T h ep r e s ence o fc om p e t ing p o l i t ie si se v iden tb o th i nt h ee x i s t ence o ff o r t s a nd t h e i n sc r ip t iona l e v id ence w h ich s how s r i va l d yna s t s 'c l a im o v e rV aka taka t e r r i to ry . I ta ppea r st h a t t h e R a s t raku ta f am i ly , i n f luen t ia l i nt h e d own f a l l o f t h e S a tavahana s , a l so m ad e i n road so nt e r r i to ry h e ld b y t h e V aka taka s , a nnex ing t e r r i to ry t ot h e s ou th o f t h eG odava r iR ive r wh ich h ad p r ev iou s ly b een h e ld b y o ne o ft h es on so fP rava ra sena I( A l t eka r1 982 [1960 ]b ; M i ra sh i 1 963 :xx ix ) . S ome o ft h e se r i va l sm ade t h e i r p r e sence f e l t e v en i nt h e p r inc ipa l t own s c l a imed b y t h e V aka taka s . F o r e xamp le , am id -f i f th -cen tu ry c oppe r -p la te g ran t , i s sued a tN aga rdhana , d ocumen t s t h ed ona t ion o f av i l lage i nt h eY eo tma ld i s tr ic tb yt h e N a la k ing B havada t tava rman ( M i ra sh i 1 963 ) . A t t h e s ame t ime t h e V aka taka d yna s ty w a s e xpand ing , t h eG up ta sc am ei n to p ow e re l sewhe r ei n t h eD eccan . I n ap roce s ss im i la rt ot h ew ay i nw h ich t h eV aka taka sh ad e xpanded t h e i rt e r r i to ry ,t h eG up ta r u le r S amud ragup ta " e ven tua l ly b rough t u nde r h i s o wn s phe r eo fi n f luence t h ed if e r en tk i ng s i nC ho ta N agpu r , B unde lkhand , B aghe lkhand , C hha t t i sga rh , a nd t h e A ndh ra c oun t ry , w ho f o rme r ly h ad b een t h e v a s sa l so ft h eV aka taka s "( A l teka r 1 982 [ 1960 1a :165 ) . A l t eka r s ugge s t s t h a t a t t h i s p o in t t h e V aka taka s t h em se lve sm ay h ave b een s ubo rd ina te t ot h eG up ta s , t h ough t h ed ea th o fB udhagup ta i n4 95 A .D . a l lowed ar e -expan s ion o fV aka taka c on t ro l ( 1 982 [1960 1a ) . A si np r ev iou sp e r iod s ,t h ep o l i t ica ll a nd scape w a s p opu la ted b y an umbe r o ft e r r i to r ia l ly s ma l l , f am i ly b a sed p o l i t ica l u n i t s w h ich c an b e i d en t if ied a s d yna s t ie s . R a th e rt h an c ha rac t e r iz ing t h e se d yna s t ie s a s r i va l s -wh ich i mp l ie s t h a t t h e r e w a s , i n f a c t , a c ond i t ion o fc on s tan tw a r f a r e i t i sm o r e a ccu ra te t o i d en t i f y t h e se p o l i t ica l u n i t s a s " p ee r d yna s t ie s " ( f o l low ing R en f r ew a nd C he r ry 1 986 ) . P ee rd yna s t ie s a s u s ed h e r e s e rv e s t o d ef ine a s e r ie s o f c en t ra l a u tho r i t ie s o fe qua l s i ze , b e tween w hom t h e r e w a s a p o ten t ia lf o rc on f l ic tn o ta lway sa c ted u pon . R e la t ion s b e tw een p e e rd yna s t ie sc ou ld b ea ch ieved b y as e r ie so f t r ea t ie s a nd o t he r c onc i l ia to ry m echan i sm s s u ch a s m a r r iag e a l l ian ce s ( s u ch a s t h e u n ion b e tween C hand ragup ta I ' s d augh t e rP rabhava t igup ta a nd t h e V aka taka k ing R ud ra sena I c .3 90 A .D . ) ( A l t eka r 1 982 [1960 ]a ) . H oweve r ,t h ei n te rac t ion sb e tw een t wo r e g iona l d yna s t ie sc ou ld e a s i ly c hange f r om p a r i ty t o d om inance , a si td i dw hen t h e d ea th o fR ud ra sena I c onve r ted t h eV aka taka r e a lm i n to ar e gency u nde rt h e r o ya l G up ta d augh te r P rabhava t igup ta ( A l teka r 1 982 [1960 ]a ; M i ra sh i 1 963 ) .

F o re xamp le , " I nt h ee i gh th U chchhva sa o ft h e

7

D a sakuma ra cha r i ta ,t h ef e uda to r ie so ft h ek ing o f V ida rbha c om et oh i sh e lp w hen h ew a sa t tacked b y t h er u le ro fV anava s i " ( M i ra sh i 1 963 : x xxv i i ) . 8S p ink ( 1 992 ) , f o re xamp le , a rgue sf o rt h e g r ea te rs t r eng th o ft h eV aka taka s , whom h es e e sa s t r an scenden ta f te rt h ed ec l ine o ft h eG up ta s f o l low ing t h ed ea th o fS kandagup ta i na bou tA .D . 4 67 .

2

A f t e rt h er u le o fH a r i sena ,t h eV aka ta l ca sb egan t o l o se c on t ro lo ft h e i rt e r r i to ry a sn ew r e g iona lp owe r s e me rged . B y a r ound 5 40 A .D . , t h r ee p ee r d yna s t ie s ( t h e K adamba s o f K arna taka , t h e K a lachu r i s o f n o r the rn Maha ra sh t ra , a nd t h e N a la s o ft h e f o rme r B a s ta r p o l i ty ) s u cceeded i n a b so rb ing mo s t o f t h e V aka t aka t e r r i to r ie s d u r ing t h e r u le o f H a r i sena ' s s uc ce s so r s( A l teka r1 982 [ 1 960 ]a :1 9 1 ) . O ft h e se t h r ee , t h e K a lachu r i s a ppea r t o h av e h ad t h e m o s t w id e sp r ead i mpac t , w i th t h e i r c o in s b e ing f o und t h roughou t t h e c en t ra l -we s t e rn s u bcon t in en t b y t h e l a t e s i x th c en tu ry ( M ira sh i 1 963 ) . T he i r s t ra t egy o f r u le , l i ke t h eV aka taka sb ef o r et h em , a ppea r st oh ave b een b a sed u pon t h eu se o fl o ca lr u l e r s . C oppe rp l a te g ran t s i s sued b y o ne S vam i r a ja f r om t h e f o rme r V aka taka s t rongho ld a t N and iva rdhana i n t h e K a la chu r i y ea r 3 22 ( 573 -74 A .D . ) i nd ica t e t h a t S vam i r a ja w a s" p robab ly af e ud a to ry o ft h eK a lachu r i ( r u le r ) K r i shna ra ja " ( M i ra sh i 1 9 63 :xxx i i ) . A t t h e s am et im e , t h e r a p id ly e xpand ing C ha lukya p o l i ty i n t h es ou th e xe r ted p r e s su r eu pon n e ighbo r ing e n t i t ie s , s ot h a tb y5 65 A .D .t h ey d om ina ted t h eg r ea te rp a r to f t h e t e r r i to ry t h a t h ad b een i n c luded i nt h e V aka taka p o l i ty ( A l teka r 1 982 [1960 ]a :189 ) . I n t h e s ou the rn s ubcon t in en t , t h e f r agm en ta ry n a tu r e o f p o l i t ica l c on t ro l i si n d ica ted b o th b y t h e r e la t ion s b e tween p o l i t ie s o f e qua l s t r eng th ( cha ra c t e r ized a s " pee r d yna s t ie s , " a bove ) , a nd b e twe en t h e a dm in i s t ra t ive o rb u r eau c ra t ic c en te r so f t ho se p o l i t ie s a nd t h e i r s u r round ing h i n t e r land . C on te s t s b e tween p o l i t ie s t o ok p l a ce i n al a nd scape w i thou tf i xed t e r r i to r ia lb ounda r ie s ,s ot h a tt h ea r ea o f c on t ro lw a sc on s tan t ly s ub jec tt or e conf igu ra t ion a st h e b a lan c e so fp ow e r s h i f t ed f r om o ne p o l i ty t oa no the r . T he g ov e rnan ce o f a p o l i t y w a s n o t u n if o rm t h roughou ti t sc onque red d oma in s ;t h ec hange st h a ta c onqu e r ing g roup w a s a b le t oe f ec t d epended " on d i s tan c e f r om t h e c en t r e o f t h e p o l i ty a nd o n t h e m i l i ta ry s t reng th o fo ppo s ing m ona r ch s " ( He i tzman 1 987 :48 ) . A l though f r om a much l a te r e r a t h an t h e o ne d i scu s sed i nt h i s b ook , t h e C ho la p o l i ty o fs ou the rn I nd ia p r ov ide s ac ompa ra t ive e xamp le i n ac a se w he r e l i t e ra ry e v idence p e rm i t s ac l o se r e xam ina t ion o f r e la t ion s b e twe en d if e r en t a dm in i s t ra t iv e u n i t s . Du r ing t h eC ho la p e r iod ( 8 50 1279 A .D . )i ns ou the rn I nd ia , t h e r e w a s ac on s tan t c on f l ic t b e tween l o ca l o rgan iza t ion s a nd r e p r e sen t a t iv e s o f t h e c en t ra l b u r eau c racy ( Ha l l 1 980 ) . T h e se l o ca l o rgan iza t ion s i n c lud ed p opu la t ion c en te r sa nd an umbe ro fd if e r en t b od ie st h a tg rouped t ho se p opu la t ion c en te r st o ge the r : t h e B rahman v i l lage a s semb ly ( s abha ) , t h e l o ca l i ty a s semb ly ( nad u ) , t h e n on -Brahman v i l lag e a s semb ly ( u r ) ,a nd t h e mu l t iv i l lage l a nd ed g r oup s( na t ta r )( S t e in 1 975 ) . T he re w e r e many c r o s s cu t t ing o rgan iza t iona l e n t i t ie s ,b u tt h ed ef en se o fl o ca li n t e r e s t sr e su l ted i na " l ack o f l i nk s b e tween l o ca l n e two rk s a nd f o rma l i n s t i tu t ion s " ( S t e in 1 975 :79 ) . R a the r t h an b e ing a

c on s i s ten t p r e sence t h roughou t t h e c oun t ry s ide , t h e " k ing ly p re sence "w a sm o s tp ronounced i nt h ec en t r a l p l ace s o ft h e C ho la p o l i ty , w h ich w e r e a l so e ndowed w i th i r iga t ion a g r icu l tu re ( He i tzman 1 987 ) . C en t ra l ized c on t ro l o ve r r e sou r ce s , w he the rp o l i t ica l o rr e l ig iou s , w a st hu s m o s ts t rong ly m an i f e s ted—and c ommemo ra ted in t h ev i c in i ty o ft h ed om inan t e n t i ty . C onc lu s ion S ome E a r ly H i s to r ic p o l i t ica le n t i t ie s ,s uch a st h e Mau rya so ft h et h i rd c en tu ry B .C . a nd t h e G up ta so f t h ef o u r th c en tu ry A .D . , c l ea r ly e xe r c i sed s ome e f ec t u pon s ubo rd ina t e sa nd t e r r i to r ia ln e ighbo r s . H ow eve r , e xam ina t ion o f t h e r u l ing s t ra teg ie s o f t h e v a r iou s s ma l le r d yna s t ie s o f t h e p remode rn p e r iod s t a r t ing w i th t h e S a tavahana s s ugges t t h a t t h e p r e sen ce o f m any c ompe t ing l o ca l a nd r e g iona lp o l i t ie st hwa r t ed t h ee s tab l i shmen to fs t rong c en t ra lc on t ro l . T he c o s t s o fo u t r igh t d om ina t ion w e r e h igh , s ot h a t s ucce s sf u l c en t ra l iz ing p o l i t ie s u t i l ized a v a r ie ty o f l ow -co s t s t ra teg ie s t o m a in ta in c on t ro l o ve r s ubo rd ina t e t e r r i to r ie s . T he se s t ra teg ie s i n c luded t h e u s eo fl o ca l k i ng s i n as uppor t ive s ubo rd ina te c apa c i ty , t h e d i v i s ion o ft h er u l ing f am i ly i n to g eog raph ica l ly b a sed b r anche s , a nd c o s t -ef f ec t ive u s e o f r e l ig iou s i n s t i tu t ion s f o r mak ing p o l i t ica l c l a im s i n d ona t ive i n sc r ip t ion s . T he c on t ro le x e r c i sed b ya ny a s cendan t c en t e r w a s u sua l ly s ho r t l i v ed , a s s hown b y t h e i n sc r ip t ion st h a tb ea rw i tne s st om any l o ca l r u le r s . T he r i ch b ody o f d a ta a va i lab le f r om t h e a r chaeo log ica l i n ve s t iga t ion o f s i te s i n t h e I nd ian s u b con t inen tp rov ide sa mp le e v idence f o rt h eo ngo ing c on tac to fp eop le sa nd g roup ss t a r t ing i nt h e l a t ef i r s t m i l lenn ium B .C . A l though p o l i t ica ls y s tem sm ay h ave l a ck ed l o ng te rm s t ab i l i ty , o t he r c ohe s ive s oc ia l m echan i sm s s u ch a s r e l ig iou s a nd m e rchan t g roup s p r ov ided t h e o rgan iza t iona l s t ruc tu r e f o r t h e p roduc t ion a nd d i s t r ibu t ion o f g ood s . T he d emon s t ra ted p r e sence o f ac ommon m a te r ia l c u l tu r e i n a r e g iona l s o c ia l s y s t em , s u ch a s c an b e d emon s t ra t ed i n V ida rbha , s e t s t h e s t age f o r t h e e xam ina t ion o f h ow i n d iv idua l p opu la t ion c en te r s p ar t ic ipa ted i nt h et r ade n e two rk , a nd h ow e xchange g ood sw e r ed i s t r ibu ted a tt h o se s i te s . I n c en t ra l I nd ia i n t h e E a r ly H i s to r ic p e r iod , p eop le a c ro s st h e l a nd scape w e r ef u l l p a r t ic ipan t s i n e conom ic a c t iv i t ie s w i thou t b e ing i n co rpo ra ted i n to w e l l -o rgan ized p o l i t ica l u n i t s . T he f a c to r s o fs t rong e x change a c t iv i t ie s , c oup led w i th w eak p o l i t ica l s t ruc tu r e s , p rov ided t h e o ppor tun i ty t oe va lua te h ow t r ad ing a c t iv i t ie sw e r e o rgan ized a nd h ow t h ey w e r e c a r r ied o u t . A l though t h er o bu s te xchange s e en i nt h e c en t ra l I nd ian s ubcon t inen t w ou ld b e i n t e re s t ing i n a ny c a se , i t s a b i l i ty t of l ou r i sh u nde r c ond i t ion s o f p o l i t ica lf r agmen ta t ion f u r th e ra l low st h ee va lua t ion o f t h e s t r eng th o fm a te r ia l c u l tu r ea nd s o c ia lt i e su nde r c ond i t ion so fe me rgen ts o c ia l c omp lex i ty . 2 3

Chap ter 4 T rade i nt he I nd ian S ubcon t inen ti nt h eE ar ly H i s tor ic P er iod

s p ec if i c ; f o r t h o se g o ing t o t h e I nd ian p or t o f B a rygaza , t h ea u tho ro ft h eP er ip lus a dv ise st ha t

T rade i nt h eI nd ian s ubcon t inen tc an b ev i ewed o n t h r ee l e v e l s : l o ng -d i s tance , r e g iona l , a nd l o ca l . U l t ima te ly , t h e se t h r ee t y pe so fe xchang ea r e l i nked , s i n ce a l l p roduc t s p a s s t h rough l o ca l s y s tem s o f e xchange b ef o r ee n coun ter ing aw ide rw o r ld t h rough t r an sf e ra c ro s s l e ng th s o ft ime a nd s pa ce . H oweve r , t h e t h r ee l e v e ls a r e au sef u l w ay t o b r eak d own p e r cep t ion s o f e xchange a c t iv i ty . L ong -d i s tance e xchange p l aced t h e s ubcon t inen t i n d i rec t c on tac t w i th o t he rr e g ion so ft h eI nd ian O cean s u ch a sR ome , w h i le r e g iona le xchange p a t te rn se nab led t r ade w i th in c u l tu ra l g roup s . L o ca l t r ade , w i th i t s c on s id e ra t ion s f o r t h e e xac t m echan ic s o fp roduc t ion , d i s t r ibu t ion , a nd c on sump t ion , p rov ided e v idence a tt h e s ma l le s t a nd m o s t p r ec i se s c a le f o r e va lua t ing h uman s o c ia l c on tac t st h rough m a t e r ia lc u l tu r e .

I n t h i s p o r t o ft r ade t h e r e i s am a rk e t f o r : w ine , p r inc ipa l ly I t a l ian b u t a l so L aod icean a nd A rab ian ; c oppe r , t i n a nd l e ad ; ...a l l k i nd s o fc l o th ing w i th n o a dor nmen t o r o f p r in ted f a b r ic ; mu l t ico lo red g i rd le s ,e i gh teen i n che s w ide ; s t o rax ; ...r aw g l a s s ; r e a lga r ; s u lph id e o fa n t imony ; R oman m oney , g o ld a nd s i lve r ,w h ich c ommand sa ne xchange a t s ome p rof i t a ga in s t t h e l o ca l c ur r ency ; u nguen t ,i n expen s ive a nd i nl im i ted q uan t i ty . .T h i sa r ea e xpo r t s :n a rd ,c o s tu s ;b de l l ium ; i v o ry ; o nyx ; ...c o t ton c l o th o fa l l k ind s ; C h ine s e [ s c . s i lk ] c l o th ; m o loch inon c l o th ; [ s c . s i lk ] y ar n ; l o ng p eppe r ; a nd i t em s b r ough th e r e " [ Ca s son 1 989 :81 ]

L ong -d i s tance e xchange

R oman c o in s , f o und b y t h e h und red s i n t h e s u b con t inen t ,h ave b een t h ef o cu so fi n ten se s t udy ( f o r e xamp le , B e rghau s 1 991 , MacDow e l l 1 990 ) . T he s e R oman c o in s p r inc ipa l ly d a te t o t h e e a r ly Emp i r e p e r iod ( t h a t i s , a f t e r t h e b eg inn ing o f p o l i t ica l c on so l ida t ion b y A ugu s tu s i n 2 7 B .C . ) . T h i s o b se r va t ion h a sl e dt oc onf l ic t ing e xp lana t ion s :e i th e r t r ad e d e c l in ed a f t e r t h e m idd le o f t h e f i r s t c en tu ry A .D . , o r t h e d e s i red o b jec t s o f t r ad e f r om R om e c hanged t o s ome o the r i t em . D av id MacDowe l l ( 1 990 :55 )o f e r st h e mo r ec omp r ehen s ive e xp lana t ion t h a t o n ly c e r ta in t y pe s o fc o in s w e r e d e s ir ed b y t h e I nd ian s , f o ru s ea sb u l l ion . I ft h eR oman c o in sw e r e i n d eed b e ing u sed a sb u l l ion , t h er e jec t ion o fd eba sed p o s t -Ne ron ian e xemp la r s w ou ld m ean a l o s s f o r Med i te r ranean m e r chan t s ; a t mo s t , i tw ou ld t a ke o n e s a i l ing s e a son f o r t h i s i n f o rma t ion t o r e turn t owa rd R om e a nd p r omp t m e r chan t s t oc a r ef u l ly s e lec t t h e c o in sd e s t in ed f o rs h ipmen tt oI nd ia . T he a c tua l v o lume o f l o ng -d i s tan c e e xchang e b e tw een t h eR oman Med i te r ranean a nd S ou th A s ia i s am a t te r f o r c on s ide ra t ion . T he h oa rd s o f R oman c o in s i n I nd ia s e em t oi n d ica te a l a rge q uan t i ty o f m a t e r ia l s -a s d oe s P l iny ' s f amou s l am en t t ha t t h e R oman t r ea su ry w a sb e ing d r a ined t op u r cha s eb aub le s f r om t h e E a s t ( Na tura l H is tory V I .101 ) . T he l i s t o f g ood sf o und i nt h eP er ip lus c on ta in s ah i gh p ropor t ion o fp e r i shab le i t em s s u ch a sc l o th , a nd w e w ou ld n o t n ecessa r i ly e xpec t t o f i nd s uch ma ter ia l s a r chaeo log ica l ly e xcep t i n c a se s o f e x t rao rd ina ry p r e se r va t ion . On es uch c a s ei st h es i te o fB e r en ike i n E gyp t , w he r e r e cen t e xcava t ion s h av e p roduced e v id ence o ft r ade w i th I nd ia i n c lud ing t wo s he rd sw i th T am i l B rahm i s c r ip t ( Beg ley 1 983 ) a s w e l l a s

S t a r t ing i n t h e s e cond c en tu ry B .C . , t h e re i s d ocumen ta ry a nd a r chaeo log ica le v idence f o rt h r iv ing e xchange a c t iv i ty a r ound t h e I nd ian O cean l i t to ra l w h ich b rough t i n to c on tac t p eop le s f r om t h e R oman Med i te r ranean , n or thea s t A f r ica , A rab ia , t h e I nd ian s u bcon t inen t ,a nd s ou thea s tA s ia . T h i so cean ic l o ng d i s tanc et r ad ea ppea r st oh ave b e en a lmo s te xc lu s ive ly d evo ted t o h i gh -va lue g ood s s u ch a s g o ld , s p ice s , r e s in s , w ine , a nd f i ne c l o th . T he se c ommod i t ie s , t h ough t h ey m ay h av eb een l o ca l ly a bundan ta tt h e i r n a tu ra l o r c u l tu ra l s ou rce s , w e r e t r an s f o rmed i n to p r ec io s i t ie s b y t h e f a c to r s o fd i s tance a nd d i ff i cu l ty e n ta i led i nt h e i ro v e r sea st r an sf e r . A ss u ch ,t h ey w e re g ene ra l ly d e s t ined p r ima r i ly f o rt h ee l i te . Ag roup o f s p ec ia l ized t r ad e r si si d en t i f ied a sr e spon s ib le f o rt h e t r an spor t a nd e xchange o fg ood s a c ro s s t h e o cean s , a nd i ti sl i ke ly t h a ts u ch m e r chan t sc on t inued t oc a re f o r t h e s h ipmen t s o fe xo t ica o nce t h ey r e a ched p o r t ( Ca s son 1 989 ; L iu 1 988 ) . H i s to r ica ld ocumen t sr e la ted t ot h eI nd ian O cean t r ad e s how t h a ti n f o rma t ion a bou tt h i se x chang ew a s c on sc iou s ly g ene ra ted a nd t r an sf e r r ed . O ne o ft h e m o s tc omp r ehen s iv es ou r ce so fi n f o rma t ion a bou tt h i s e x chang e i st h e P er ip lus o ft h e by thr ean S ea , a m e r chan t ' s d ocumen t o ft h e l a te r f i r s t c en tu ry A .D . ( Ca s son 1 989 ) . Wr i t ten a s ap rac t ica lg u id et ot r ad ing a c t iv i t ie s , t h e t e x t l i s t s t he t y pe s o f m e r chand i se d e s i r ed a tt h e v a r iou s p or t s o f t h e w e s te rn I nd ian O cean a nd n o t e st h e i rr e la t ive v a lue i nd if e r en tp l ace s ( Ca s son 1 989 ) . A s al i s to fs a leab le c ommod i t ie sf o r d if e r en tp or t s , t h eP er ip lus s e rve sa s ar em inde rt ha t t h ei n f o rma t ion n eeded b ym e r chan t si nt h e i rd ua lr o le a sb uye r s a nd s e l le r s w a s s u f f ic ien t ly v a luab le t ob e w r i t t en d own . E xamp le s o ft r ad ed g ood s w e r e q u i te 2 4

p a leobo tan ica l r ema in s a nd c e ram ic so fS ou th A s ian p rovenan ce ( Tombe r2 000 ) . T he v o lume o fR oman m a te r ia l si sr e la t ive ly s ma l l i nI nd ia . Many o ft h ea r cha eo log ica l s i t e se x cava t ed i nw e s te rn I nd ia h ave h ad r e por t so fr e cov e ry o fo ne o r t wo a mpho ra f r agmen t s , a l though ar e s tudy o ft h e se m a t e r ia l sm ay r e vea lt h a ts ome a r en o t Med i te r ranean i np rovenance . P e rhap s t h e m o s t c e leb ra ted s i t e f o r R oman e xchange i s t h a t o f A r ikam edu o n t h e s ou thea s t ern c oa s t o f I nd ia . Ac ompa r i son o f t h e e xcava t ion so f1 945 ( Whee le r ,G ho sh ,a nd D eva 1 946 ) a nd t h o se c onduc t ed n ea r ly f i f t yy ea r sl a te r( Beg ley e t a l . 1 996 ) r e vea l s t h e s h if t i nt h e t h ink ing a bou t t h e s i t e . Wh i le Whee le ra nd h i sc o l league sp r iv i leg ed t h e f i nd so f Med i te r ranean m a t e r ia lb yc a l l ing t h es i t ea n " I ndo -Roman t r ad ing s ta t ion ," t h er e cen te xcava t ion s s how av e ry l ow p ropor t ion o fi mpo r ted g ood s : e i gh t f r agmen t so fI t a l ian s i g i l la ta ,o ne f r agmen to fE a s te rn S i g i l la ta A ( ESA ) ,f o u rf r agmen t so fE gyp t ian f a ience , a nd o ne v e ry s ma l lf r agmen to f aR oman m o lded l amp ( S lane 1 996 :352 , 3 65 ) . E v en p r io r t o t h o se e x cava t ion s , h oweve r , B eg ley ( 1 983 :480 ) c onc luded t h a t A r ikamedu r ema in s " un ique " b ecau se i ti st h e o n ly s ou th I nd ian s i t et h a ts how s We s te rn c on ta c to v e r a ne x tended p e r iod o ft ime . ' I nc on t ra s tt oa na r chaeo log ica lr e co rd o fd u rab le g ood s t r ade f r om t h e Med i te r ranean , t h e v o lume o f t r ade b e tween s ou th ea s t A s ia a nd t h e I nd ian s u bcon t inen t a ppea r s t oh ave b een q u i te l ow i nt h e E a r ly H i s tor ic p e r iod , w i th i n c r ea s ed e xchange o c cu r r ing o n ly a f te r t h e f o u r th c en tu r y A .D . ( Sm i th 1 999b ) . Much o ft h ee a r l ie s ta r cha eo log ica le v idence f r om S ou thea s t A s ia t h a t h ad b een c i t ed a se xamp le s o fe a r ly " I nd ian "t r ade m ay a c tua l ly b et h ep roduc t so f l o ca l S ou thea s t A s ian manu f ac tu r e . R e cen t ly , t h i s v i ew h a s b een b o l s te r ed b y a dd i t iona l r e sea r ch o n b ead s f r om S ou thea s t A s ia f o rme r ly t h ough t t oh ave b e en o fI nd ian m anu f ac tu re ( Theun i s sen , G rave , a nd B a i ley 2 000 ) . T rade b e tween t h es ubcon t inen ta nd t h ei s land o f S r i L anka a l so o ccu r red . A s t h e t wo r e g ion s a r e g eog raph ica l ly e x t r eme ly c l o s e ,i ti sr e a sonab le t os e e S r i L anka a s ac on t inua t ion o f S ou th A s ia . T he i s land ' s a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd c on ta in s e v id ence f o r e xchange w i th o t h e rr e g ion sa l ong t h eI nd ian O cean , a l though t h ea c tua ln umbe ro fs u ch i t em si sl ow :a tt h e s i t e o f A nu radhapu ra , f o r e xamp le , K r i shnan a nd C on ingham ( 1 997 :935 ) c i te t h e p r e sence o f a H e l len i s t ic ( G r eek s t y le ) i v o ry m i r ro r s t and a nd t wo H e l len i s t ic s he rd s .

T rade r s f r om d if e r en t c u l tu r e s m e t a tp o r t s i te s a nd t r ad ing c en t e r s ,a nd g ood sw e re t r an sf o rmed f r om a bundance t o p r ec io s i ty t h e r e . H owev e r , f r om t h e p o in to fv i ew o ft h o se p o r ts i t e s ,t h eg ood sd e s t ined f o r o v e r sea st r ade c on s t i tu ted o n ly as ma l l p o r t ion o ft h e t r aff ic i ng ood so nl a nd . O n c eo nl a nd ,t h e movemen t o fe xo t ic g ood si n land t oc on sume r st o ok p l ace a l ong t h e s ame p hy s ica l r ou te s u sed t ot r an spo r t o rd ina ry g ood s f o r l o ca l u se , s u ch a s a g r icu l tu ra l p roduce , h ou s eho ld i mp lemen t s ,a nd d ome s t ic a n ima ls . T he se i n land t r ad e r ou te s w e r e u s ed n o t o n ly b y t r ade r s m ov ing t h e i rw a r e s , b u t a l so b y m any d if e ren t t y p e s o f p eop le w ho t r av e led f o r r e l ig iou s p i lg r image s , m i l i ta ry a c t iv i t ie s , a nd f am i ly r e la t ion sh ip s . T he l a rge sca le movem en t o fp eop le a nd g ood s i nd ica te s t h a t h in te r land -po r t r e la t ion s w e r e p a r t o f a w id e sp r ead , t ho rough ly d eve loped s e r ie s o f t r ade r e la t ion st h a tt h r iv ed b ecau s eo fl o ca ln eed s . Wh i le m any o f t h e g ood s t r an spor t ed i n t h e se t r ad e n e two rk s w e re p e r i shab le , a r chaeo log ica l e v id ence i n d ica te st h a tt r an s f e ro fd u rab le g ood ss u ch a s o rnamen t s , c e ram ic s , c o in s , a nd o t he r i t em s e ncompa s sed b o th au t i l i ta r ian a nd ad i sp lay v a lue . T h e u b iqu i ty o ft h e se g ood s i nE a r ly H i s to r ic s i t e s i n d ica te st h a tt h e re w a sw id e sp read e x change o fb o th s t y l i s t ic i n f o rma t ion a nd a c tua lg ood s . B ecau se m any s i t e s o f t h e E a r ly H i s to r ic p e r iod h av e b een i n v e s t iga ted , i ti s p o s s ib le t o c omp i le i n f o rma t ion a bou tt h ep r e sence o fg ood st h a tw e r eu s ed i nr e g iona l a nd l o ca l e xchange . R eg iona l e xchange T he t y pe s o f g ood s t h a t c i r cu la ted i n r e g iona l n e two rk sc an b es e pa ra ted i n to t h r ee c a tegor ie s . O ne c a t ego ry c on s i s t s o f t h e r a r e i t em s a r r iv ing i nt h e s ub con t inen t a st h e r e su l to fI nd ian O cean a nd o the r l o ng -d i s tance t r ade a c t iv i t ie s , s u ch a s R oman c o in s a nd a mpho r ae ( f ig u r e4 . 1 ) . A no the rc a t ego ry c on s i s t s

a mpho rae R oman c o ins b eads g l asswa re l o ca l c o ins m a r ine s he l l f i ne c e ram ics t e x t i les f o res t p r oduc ts a g r icu l tu ra l p r oduc ts

' I ndeed , t h ed if i cu l ty o fl o ca t ing h i s to r ica l ly k nown p o r t ss u ch a sN e lkynda a nd Muz i r i s( s e e S t e rn 1 991 :116 , 1 22 -23 ) m ay l i ei nt h ef a c tt h a tw e e xp ec ts uch s i t e st ob em ade e a s i ly a ppa r en tt ot h e a r chaeo log is tb yl a rge d epo s i t so f Med i t e r ranean g ood s .

F igur e4 . 1 . R e la t ive f r equency o ft r ade g ood si n s i t e so ft h eE a r ly H i s to r ic p er iod .

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T e r T imbarva T i rukampu l l iyur

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T r ipur i

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K o lhapur

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F i gure 4 . 2 . S i t e si nt h eI n d ian s u bcon t in en tw i th s u b s tan t ia lp ub l i sh ed i n f o rma t ion a bou tE a r ly H i s to r ic m a t e r ia l s . 2 7

0

t h ei n land p or t ion so ft h es ubcon t inen ti n d ica te st h a t t h ee xchange o ft h i sm a r ine i t em w a sc a r r ied o u to v e r l a rge a r ea s b eg inn ing i nt h e C ha lco l i th ic p e r iod . E v idence f r om t h e E a r ly H i s tor ic p e r iod , b eg inn ing a r ound t h et h i rd c en tu ry B .C . ,s ugg e s t st h a t i na dd i t ion t ob e ing as u i tab le ma te r ia lf o r or namen t s , t h i sp a r t icu la rs he l lb egan t ot ake o n as ymbo l ic v a lue a sw e l l . When m ade i n to t r umpe t s , t h ey b ecome t h e i n s trumen t sf o rs ound ing b a t t le c a l l s ,a sn o ted i nt h e T am i lp oem t h e " Madu ra ikanch i ," w r i t t en i nt h el a t e f i r s tc en tu r yA .D .( Che l l iah 1 985 ) . T h i sp o em ,w h ich d e sc r ibe s t own l i f e i nt h e s ou thern t own o f Madu ra i u nde rt h ei l u s t r iou sk i ng N edun je lyan I ,a l so s peak s o fd i ve r sf i sh ing f o rc hank s , o ft h ea c to fc u t t ing a nd f i l ing b ang le sf r om s h e l l s , a nd t h e s a le o fb ang le s i n t h es t r ee t so ft h et own . T he p oe tt e l l st h ek ing , " Thou a r e b e loved b y t h o se o fK o rka i 's t own /C on ta in ing h am le t s i nw h ich d i ve r s l i ve /Who d i ve f o r f i sh ing c hank s a nd p ea r l s m a tu r e " ( l ine s 1 27 129 ) ; " I n t h e n e i tha lt r ac ta r ef ound f i ne s pa rk l ing p ea r l s /Wh ich t h e s h in ing s e a d o th y i e ld , b r igh t b ang le s c u t /A nd s h aped s t ra igh t w i th t h ef i l e , a nd o th e rw a r e s /T ha t m e r chan t s s e l l ( l ine s 3 28 -30 ; C he l l iah 1 985 :239 , 2 49 ) . T he u se o ft h e s h e l l a s as ymbo l g r ew a f te r t h e E a r ly H i s to r ic p e r iod ; i ti so f ten ad e co ra t iv e mo t if i n r e l ig iou s a r t , a nd i s o ne o f t h e i d en t if y ing i c onog raph ic a t t r ibu te s o ft h e H indu d e i ty V i shnu . T hu s ,t h eh i s to r ica lr e co rd s ugge s t st h a tt h is s he l la nd t h e i t em s m ade f r om t h is s he l l w e r e w ide ly r e cogn ized , a nd t h a t t h i ss ymbo l ic v a lue w a s i np a r t r e spon s ib le f o ri t sp opu la r i ty i nt h es u b con t inen t . D ur ing t h i s t ime p e r iod , t h e r e i sa l so amp le e v idence f o r b ang le s m ade o f o t he r m a te r ia l s , i n c lud ing t e r raco t ta , i r on , a nd c opp e r . T he r aw m a te r ia l sf o rt h e se b ang le sw e re mo r ee a s i ly a va i lab le t h an ma r in es he l l . T he v e ry d if e r en ta ppea rance o f t h e se o the rt y pe so fb ang le s , h oweve r , p r obab ly d oe s n o t i n d ica t e a na t temp tt od up l ica t e s h e l l b ang le s i n o t he r m a t e r ia l s , b u t r a the r r e p r e s en t d if e r en t c a t ego r ie so fo rnamen t sw h ich may h av ep ro jec ted t h e o wne r s 's o c ia ls t and ing a nd w ea l th . T he s i gn if icance o f or namen ta t ion i nt h eE a r ly H i s to r ic p e r iod i ss e en i nt h e d ep ic t ion s o f i n d iv idua ls i n t h e s cu lp tu r e a t r e l ig iou s s i t e s s u ch a s B ha rhu t , S anch i , a nd Ama rava t i , a s w e l l a s o n t e r raco t ta s a nd o the r p o r tab le a r to b jec t s . B ang le sc ompr i s e ac a t ego ry o f g ood s t ha t s e rv e t h e g en e ra l p opu la t ion a sg ood s o f s o c ia l s i gn if i cance , w ide ly u sed b y a l l s e c to r s o ft h e p opu la t ion a nd o ne o fm any ma ter ia lg ood si n d ica t ive o fp a r t ic ipa t ion i n as ha r ed c u l tu re . O the r t y pe s o f o rnamen t s , s uch a s b ead s a nd e a r spoo l s ,w e re a l so w id e sp r ead i nt h eE a r ly H i s to r ic p e r iod ( f igu r e4 . 5 ) . T h ee x i s tence o fp r eva i l ing b ead s t y le si n d ica t e st h a tb o th a c tua lb ead sa nd i n f o rma t ion a bou tf a sh ion c i r cu la t ed i nt h ei n land t r ad en e two rk s . B ead sm ad ef r om r a r eo rd i s tan tr aw m a t e r ia l s , s uch a sl a p i sl a zu l i ,a r ef o und a ti n land a r cha eo log ica ls i te s

o f d u rab le g ood s m ad e a nd w ide ly u sed i n t h e s ubcon t inen t s uch a sb ead s , m a r ine s h e l l i t em s , a nd f i ne c e ram ic s . T he t h i rd c a tego ry r e p r e sen t st h et y pe s o f g ood s w h ich p robab ly c omp r i sed t h e l a rge s t p ropo r t ion o fi n land t r ade :p e r i shab le s ,i n c lud ing f o od , m ed ic ine , a nd a n ima l p roduc t s . T he se g ood s w e r e t r ad ed b e tween s i te sf o rd ome s t ic u s e ,b u ta l so b ecame p a r to ft h el o ng -d i s tan ce t r ad en e two rk b ecau se i t em s s u ch a s f o r e s t p rodu c t s ( i nc lud ing s k in s ) a nd a g r icu l tu ra l p roduc t s ( woo l , c o t ton , s p ice s ) w e r e d e s i r ed g ood sf o ro ve r sea st r ade a sw e l l( Ca s son 1 989 ) . B ecau se t h e f i r s t c a tego ry o fi t em sa r e r a r e , a nd t h et h i rd c a tego ry i sp e r i shab le ,t h ec a tego ry o fd u rab le g ood si st h em o s tc omp r eh en s ive f o ra na r cha eo log ica l d ocumen ta t ion o ft h e p r e sence o fr e g iona l a nd l o ca l t r ad en e two rk si nt h es ubcon t inen t . E xcava t ion r e por t s f r om E a r ly H i s to r ic s i te st h roughou tt h es ub con t inen t s how ac on s is ten t c a ta log o fi t em s i n c lud ing m a r ine s he l ls , o rnamen t s , f i ne c e ram ic s , a nd c o in s . T h e w ide sp r ead a ppea rance o ft h es ame t y pe so fa r t if a c t si s d ue t ot wo f a c to r s :t h et r an sf e ro fa c tua li t em s ,a nd t h e t r an sm i s s ion o f i d ea s a nd s t y le s t h a t b ecame c omponen t so fl o ca l ly m ade g ood s( f igu r e4 . 2 ) . O ne p a r t icu la r ly s t r ik ing p roof o ft h ee xchange o f m a te r ia l i t em s t h roughou t t h e s ubcon t inen t i n t h i s p e r iod i sf o und i nt h eu s eo fm a r ine s he l l s . T he l a rge g a s t ropod T urb ine l la p y rum h a s an a tu ra ld i s t r ibu t ion i n t h e s ou thea s te rn a nd n o r thwe s te rn c oa s t s o f t h e s ubcon t inen t( Na e annan N ava ra nd Mahadevan 1 974 ) . H oweve r ,i ti sf ound a tm any i n land s i te so ft h eE a r ly H is tor ic p e r iod , i nb o th w ho le a nd f r agmen ta ry f o rm ( f igu r e4 . 3 ) . Who le s he l l sw e r eh o l low ed o u tf o ru s ea s t r ump e t s ,b u tt h es he l lw a sp r ima r i ly u s ed f o rm ak ing b ang le s a nd o rnamen t s . T he d i s cove ry o f s h e l l f r agmen t sf a ri nt h ei n te r io ri nd ica te st h a tw ho le s he l l s w e r e t r an spor ted , r a th e r t h an t h e b r i t t le b ang le s . B ecau se t h e s he l l i sq u i t e d i s t in c t ive , i ti se a sy t o r e cogn ize f r agmen ta ry p or t ion s i nt h ea r chaeo log ica l r e co rd ( f igu r e 4 . 4 ) . A s t h e s he l l s o ft h e m in imum a pp rop r ia te s i ze f o rm ak ing b ang le sr e p r e sen t sa tl e a s t 1 50 g ram s , w e s e e t h a t r e g iona l e xchange w a s n o t l im i ted t ov e ry s ma l li t em s . T he r e cover yo fm a r in es h e l l si nt h ei n ter io ro ft h e s ub con t in en t i nd ica te s t h e t r an sf e r o f b o th r aw m a te r ia l s a nd t e chno logy a nd e xpe r t i se , s i nce t h e manu f ac tu re o fb ang le sf r om t h es he l lr e qu i r e ss k i l li n b r eak ing t h ei n ter io ro ft h es he l l ,a nd i ns aw ing o ft h e u ppe r r ounded p or t ion i n to b ang le s ( K enoye r 1 983 ) . T he u se o ft h i s s he l l f o r t h e m ak ing o fb ang le s a nd o the r or n amen t si sal o ng l ived t r ad i t ion i nt h eI nd ian s ubcon t in en t ,w i th t h ea r chaeo log ica lr e co rd r e vea l ing u se b eg inn ing i nt h eB ronz e A ge . S he l lb ang le sa nd w a s te f r agmen t so fT urb ine l la p y rum a r ef o und i ns i te s o ft h eH a rappan p e r iod b eg inn ing a r ound t h e e nd o f t h et h i rd m i l lenn ium B .C .o nt h ew e s t e rn s ubcon t inen t a tc oa s ta l s i te s s uch a sN age shwa r( Sonawan e 1 992 ) , a s w e l l a s a t Mohen joda ro ( Kenoye r 1 984 ) a nd H a rappa ( Kenoye r1 983 ) . T h ep re sence o f Tp y rum i n 2 8

F igure 4 . 3 . C ro s s sec t ion o fT urb ine / la p y rum s he l l . S pe c im en , p ho tog raph ed i nI nd ia , c our te sy o ft h e C en t ra l Ma r in eF i she r ie sR e sea r ch I n s t i tu te , T u t ico r in .

F igure 4 . 4 . A r chaeo log ica l ly r ecove r ed s amp le so fT urb ine I la p y rum s h e l l , f r om t h es i t eo fN eva sa ; p ho tog raphed i nI nd ia , c ou r t e sy o ft h eD eccan C o l lege P o s tg radua t ea nd R e sea r ch I n s t i tu te . 2 9

r a th e rt h an f o r e ign m anuf ac tu re ( Beg ley 1 994 ) ; a nd K r i shnan a nd C on ingham ' s( 1997 )f u r the re va lua t ion o fr ou le t ted w a r ef r om A nu radhapu r ai nS r iL anka a s aS ou th A s ian p roduc t . A no th e r i n d ica to r o f f l our i sh ing t r ad e i n t h e s ubcon t inen ti sf o und i nt h eu se o fc o in s . A sw i th t h e a ppea rance o f o rnamen t s a nd c e ram ic s , t h e w ide sp r ead d i s t r ibu t ion o f c o in s i nd ica te s s e v e ra l l e v e l so fe x change a c t iv i ty ,a se xh ib i t ed i nt h et r ad eo f p hy s ica l c o in s a s w e l l a s t h e u nde r s tand ing o ft h e c oncep t o f c o inage a s as t anda rd o f v a lu e a nd a m ed ium o fe xchange . I nt h es ubcon t in en t ,t h eu s eo f c o inage d a t e st ot h em id -f i r s tm i l lenn ium B .C . ,w h en p unch -ma rked c o in s b egan t o b e u sed i n n o r th e rn I nd ia . T h e se e a r l ie s t c o in s , s t a r t ing f r om t h e f i f th c en tu ry B .C . , a r e m e ta l s t r ip s o rf l ange s o n to w h ich s ymbo l s h ave b een c o ld -hamme red . L a te r , t h e s e p unch -ma rked c o in s w i th t h e ir c o rpu s o f c ommon s ymbo l sw e r er e p laced b yd i e s truck c o in s . T he d i s tr ibu t ion o fc o in s i sv a r ied : s ome c o in s e r ie s , t h ough t t o b e " l o ca l " i s sue s , a r e f o und i n l im i t ed a r ea s . O the r c o in s e r ie s , s uch a s t h e I n do S a s san ian K sha t r apa c o in s , a r e f ound f a r f r om t h e h ome land s o f t h e r u le r s w ho i n i t ia l ly i s sued t h em ( Sha s t r i 1 992b ) . A l though t h er o le o fp r ec iou s -me ta l c o inage i nt h e e conomy o ft h e t ime i sd eba ted , i ti s a r gued t ha t t h i s p a r t icu la r s i lve r c o in t y pe h ad w id e sp r ead u se d u e t op o l i t ica l a gen t s , e ven o u t s id e K sha t rapa d om in ion s , w ho r eproduced t h e s e c o in s b ecau se o ft h e i ra c cep tance i nt r ade ( J ha 1 99 1 ) . T he p ra c t ica lu se o fc o inage i sa l so d emon s t ra t ed b yb a se -m e ta l a nd c opp e ri s sue s wh ich c i r cu la t ed i n t h e E a r ly H i s to r ic p e r iod . T he p r e sence o f al a rg e n umbe r o fs u ch c o in s t h roughou t t h e s ubcon t in en t , w hen e ach t y p e o f ten h ad a r e s t r ic ted d i s t r ibu t ion , s ugg e s t st h eu se o fc o inag ea sb o th as t anda rd o fv a lu e a nd a s am ed ium o fe xchange ( B . L ah i r i 1 99 1 ; D . Mukhe r jee 1 99 1 ) . C o inage , w i th i t s d ep ic t ion o f p o r t ra i t s , s c r ip t , a nd s ymbo l s h ad t h e p o s s ib i l i ty o f c onvey ing mu l t ip le m ean ing s , whe the r o r n o t t h ey w e r e a l so u s ed a s a g ene ra l -pu rpo se m on ey . E xamp le s o ft h e u s e o ft h e c o in f o rm a s as ymbo l ic t o ken i n c lude t h e d up l ica t ion o fm e ta l c o in s i nc l ay f o ru s ea so rnam en t s , f r equ en t ly k nown a st e r ra co t ta b u l la e( f o re xamp le ,a tU j ja in ;s e eG up ta 1 991 ;f u r th e r e xamp le sa r en o ted i nR ay 1 985 ) . T he v a r ie ty o fc o in t y pe s a nd t h e i rd i s t r ibu t ion s a r e s t rong i nd ica to r so f t h el e ve l so fc on s tan tc on ta c tb e tween r e g ion s ,a nd t h e t r an s f e ro fb o th m a te r ia lo b jec t sa nd i n f o rma t ion . I n t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o fc o in s , w e h ave e v idence b o th f o r t h er e cogn i t ion o fc ommon f o rm sa nd s ymbo l s ,a nd o f t h e p r e sen ce o f am a rke t s y s tem i n w h ich c o in s f a c i l i ta ted e xchange . T h ea pp ea ranc eo fc o in sa nd t o ken si nt h eE a r ly H i s to r ic p e r iod d oe s n o t n ece s sa r i ly m ean t h a tt h e r e w a s ac en t ra l ly m a in ta ined m one ta ry s y s t em . S ha s t r i ( 1 992b :291 ) s e e st h ep r e -Va l ca taka p e r iod a so n e i n w h ich t h e r ew a s" an e x t en s ive u se o fb a se m e ta lc o in s

F igure 4 . 5 . E a r ly H i s to r ic man a nd w oman w i th o rnam en t s( e a rs poo l s ,b ang le sa nd a nk le t s )f r om t h e B uddh i s ts i te o fS anch i . ( f o re xamp le a tN eva sa ; S anka l ia e ta l . 1 960 ) . A tt h e s ame t ime , ac on s i s t en t s t y le o fb ead s i sn o ted f r om m a te r ia l s , s u ch a sa ga te a nd f r e shwa t e r s h e l l , w h ich a r ew id e ly a va i lab le . T he p re sence o fu nf in i shed b ead s a tm any E a r ly H i s to r ic s i te s s ugge s t st h a tb ead sw e re l o ca l ly m ade , p e rhap s b ecau se t h e g r ind ing a nd p o l i sh ing o fs t one b ead sw a s al a bo r in t en s ive b u tn o t p a r t icu la r ly s k i l led t a sk , a nd o n e w h ich c ou ld b e u nde r tak en o ppo r tun i s t ica l ly b yh ou seho ld st og ene ra te as u rp lu s o f i t em s t h a t c ou ld t h en b e u t i l ized i n a v a r ie ty o fr e l ig iou s , s o c ia l , o rm a rke tt r an sa c t ion s . E v id ence a l so e x i s t sf o ro the rt y pe so fd i sp lay a nd u t i l i ta r ian g ood ss u ch a sc ommon p o t te ry t y pe s . Many s i te s o ft h e E a r ly H i s to r ic p er iod h ave e v idence f o r w e l l -mad e c e ram ic s . T he se w a r e s s t and o u tf r om t h e r ema in ing c e ram ic c o rpu s b y t h e i r f i nene s s o fp a s te a nd s u r f a ce f i n i sh ,i n d ica t ing as t anda rd o fp roduc t ion w i th ag r ea te rl a bo ri n ve s tm en tt h an t h er ema inde ro f t h e c e ram ic c o rpu s . T he mo s t w id e sp r ead o f t h e se c e ram ic t r ad i t ion sf a l l si n to d e sc r ip t iv ec a tego r ie ss uch a sr ed p o l i shed w a r e ,p o l i shed r e dw a r e s ,a nd r ou le t ted w a r e . A l though a s ubcon t inen tw ide , s y s tema t ic c l a s s if ica t ion o f t h e se w a r e s i s l a ck ing , s e ve ra l i mpo r tan t s t ud ie s o ft h e se v e s se l c a t ego r ie s m ay b e m en t ion ed : N ancy P in to O r ton ' s ( 1 991 ) d e sc r ip t ive c a ta log o fr ed p o l i shed w a r es i te sf r om G u ja ra ts t a te i n w e s te rn I nd ia ; V ima la B eg ley ' s s t ud ie s o f r ou le t ted w a re t h a th ave e s tab l i shed t h em a sp rodu c t so fI nd ian 3 0

f o ro rd ina ry m a rke t t r an sac t ion s i nt h e D eccan a si n N o r th I nd ia ." T he a c tua l q uan t i ty o fc o in s r e cov e red i nE a r ly H i s to r ic s i te so ft h e c en t ra l s ub con t inen ta r e g ene ra l ly l ow , b u tt h i sd o e s n o t m ean t h a tt h e r e g ion l a cked am one t ized e conomy ;i ti sl i ke ly ,h ow eve r ,t h a t c o in sw e r eu sed a s as t anda rd o fv a lue i nw h ich o t he r c ommod i t ie sw e r em ea su r ed a nd t h a tc o in st h em se lve s m ay n o th av ec hanged h and si ne ve ry t r an sa c t ion .

l e ve l o fs k i l l , s uch a sg a the r ing o ff u e l , p ump ing o f b e l low s , o r w o rk a r ea c l ean ing a nd p r epa ra t ion . O the r r e pe t i t ive a nd l ow sk i l l t a sk s s u ch a s s t on e p o l i sh ing f o rmed a m a jo r c omponen t i n t h e m anuf ac tu r e o fb ead s . T he se t a sk s c ou ld h ave b e en p e r f o rmed b yu n sk i l led a s s i s tan t sa sw o rk p e r f o rmed o u t s id e o f t h e i r p r inc ipa l o ccupa t ion , s u ch a s b y f a rm e r s a tt ime sw hen a g r icu l tu ra l l a bo rn eed s w e r e l ow ( f o r a n i n te r e s t ing c ompa ra t iv e e xamp le f r om e a r ly E u rope , s e e Wh i t take ra nd G oody 2 001) . S uch t a sk sm ay a l so h ave b een p e r f o rmed b yi n d iv idua l sn o t a b le t ou nde r take m o r e s t r enuou s l a bo r , s u ch a st h e e l de r ly a nd t h ey oung . T he p r e sence o f av a r ie ty o fc e ram ic s i n c lud ing f i ne ly m ade w a r e si ns i te so ft h i st im ep e r iod i nd ica t e s t h a tc e ram ic manu f ac tu r em ay h ave b een as pec ia l ized o ccupa t ion . T h ed e te rm ina t ion o ft h eo rgan iza t ion o f p roduc t ion f r om a r chaeo log ica l r ema in s h a s b e en e x ten s ive ly d i scu s sed ( A rno ld a nd N ieve s 1 992 ; L onga c r e ,K vamme a nd K obaya sh i 1 988 ;R ice 1 984 ; S ch r e ibe r1 992 ;S i nopo l i 1 991 ;S t a rk 1 992 , 1 985 ) . I n g en e ra l , i ti s d i ff i cu l t t o i n f e r f r om t h e f i n i shed p rodu c t w he the r ac e ram ic v e s se l w a s n ece s sa r i ly p roduced i n aw o rk shop o ro n ah ou seho ld l e v e l b y i n d iv idua ls f o rt h e i ro wn u s e . H oweve r ,t h ep r e s en ce o f d if e r en t q ua l i t ie s o f g ood s i n d ica te s t h a t s om e v e s se l si n co rpo ra te ah i ghe rl e ve lo fc a r ea nd a t t en t ion i n p r oduc t ion ; s ub sequen t e xam ina t ion s o f t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd f o r l o ca t ion s o f d en se p roduc t ion w a s t e m ay a f t e rwa rd s a n swe r q u e s t ion s a bou tt h eo rgan iza t ion o fp roduc t ion f o rc e r ta in w a r e t y pe s . T he e v idence o fs p ec ia l ized o ccupa t ion s i nt h e E a r ly H i s to r ic p er iod i si n d ica t ed b yt e x tua l r e f e r en t s t ot y p e so fo ccupa t ion s . T he M ihndapanha , d a ted t o t h e s e cond c en tu ry B .C . , l i s t s a bou t s e ven ty -f iv e o ccupa t ion s ;a no the rd ocum en td a ted t ot h ef i r s tA .D . , t h e Mahava s tu , i n d ica te s n ea r ly 1 00 o ccupa t ion s i n t h ec i t ie so fR a jag r iha a nd K ap i lava s tu ( R . S .S ha rma 1 991 :12 ) . E v idence f o rl a rg e sca le m anu f ac tu r ing o f g ood si nt h eE a r ly H i s to r ic p e r iod i sl im i ted , t h ough i ta ppea r s t h a t t h e c oncep t o fl a rge sca le p roduc t ion w a s r e cogn ized , a s i n d ica ted b y i n scr ip t ion s t h a t m en t ion " gu i ld s " a s d ono r s t or e l ig iou s i n s t i tu t ion s ( Ray 1 986 ) . T he g u i ld s m en t ioned i n t h e c av e i n sc r ip t ion so f We s t er nI nd ia i n c lude w eave r s ,p o t te r s , b amboo -wo rke r s , o i l m i l le r s , a nd " dea le r s i nw a t e r m ach ine s " ( Ray 1 985 ) . T he s e g roup s e ngaged i na v a r ie ty o fa c t iv i t ie s , i n c lud ing m one ta ry i n ve s tm en t s w i th p rof i t s s ome t ime s d e s igna ted t o b en ef i t m ona s te r ie s o r p ay f o r t h e m a in tenance o f m onk s . G u i ld s e ngaged d i r ec t ly i nt r ade a c t iv i t ie s n o t o n ly t h rough t h e m anuf ac tu r ing a c t iv i t ie s o f t h e i r m embe r s , b u t a l so t h rough t h e m a in tenan ce o f p ro t ec t ive g roup s( s r en i -ba la ,o r" gu i ld a rm ie s " )t h a t a ccompan ied t r ade r so rp i lg r im s( M i ra sh i 1 981 ) . I n t h e f a r s ou ther n s ub con t inen t , t h e S angam b ody o f l i t e ra tu r e d a t ing t ot h e f i r s t f ew c en tu r ie s A .D . a l so

L oca le xchange A s p r ev iou s ly d ef ined , l o ca l e xchange i st h a t w h ich c an b ea ccomp l i shed w i th in ao ne -day t r av e l ing r ange b y t h e f a s te s t a va i lab le m ean s o f t r an spo r t . B ecau se t h e t r ade c an b e u nde r taken o n a n o ppor tun i s t ic b a s i s a s s u rp lu se s a r e p roduced o r a s d emand i sm an if e s ted , av ar ie ty o ft r ad ing m echan i sm s c an b e u s ed . I na dd i t ion t of o rma l p er iod ic o rf i xed m a rke tp la ce s i nw h ich b uye r s a nd s e l le r s m e e t o n a p red ic tab le b a s i s , l o ca l t r ade i n vo lve s s ma l l sca le t r ade , o f t en b y s p ec ia l i s t s ( p o t te r s , r ope m ake r s , w oodca r ve r s , i r onmonge r s ) w ho m ay o rgan iz e t h e ir w a r e s i n to a h ead load o r a n p a ck load f o r ad ay ' s p edd l ing . L oca l t r ade i sa l so a c comp l i sh ed b yt h o se w ho v i s i t ah ome o rw o rk shop w he r ed e s i red i t em sa r e m ade . E x change s m ay i n c lude i t em s s u ch a sf o od , a nd e x chang ep a r tn e r so f t en h ave f a ce to f ace r e la t ion sh ip s t h a t i n vo lve m a t t e r s b eyond e xchange t o i n c lude s ha red r i tua l , s o c ia l , o rf am i l ia l o b l iga t ion s ( s e e , f o r e xamp le , G e l l 1 992 ) . A r chaeo log ica l ly , t h i s k i nd o f l o ca l e x change c an b e s u rm i sed w hen e nv i ronm en t s a r e h igh ly d i v e r se b u t h ou seho ld s s how e v id en c e o f g ood s f r om e a ch e nv i ronmen t . A l t e rna t ive ly , l o ca l e x chang e i sp ropo sed w hen h ou seho ld se a ch p r oduce s ome i t em b eyond t h e i ro wn p ro jec ted n eed , s i gna l ing m u tua ld ependence f o rl a bo r in t en s iv ep roduc t st h a ta l l h ou seho ld s t h e r ef o r e n eed n o t m ake f o r t h em s e lve s ( e .g . S he e t s 2 000 ) . I nm any w ay s l o ca l e xchang e i s m e r e ly t h e i n ve r se o fl o ng -d i s tance e xchang e , i nt h a t i ti st h e l o ca l c i r cu i t t h rough w h ich d i s tan t o r r a r e g ood s i n i t ia l ly c hange h and s . A s G ea ry ( 1986 ) h a s n o ted , o b jec t s p a s s t h rough t h e s ame c ondu i t s r e ga rd le s so ft h e i re ven tua ld e s t ina t ion o rp u rpo s e . P roduc t ion f or e xchange T h e i t em so fl o ca l a nd r e g iona le xchang ew i th in t h e s ubcon t in en t w e r e o b ta in ed f r om a v a r ie ty o f n a tu ra lr e sou r ce a r ea sa sw e l l a sb e ing t h ep rodu c to f a v a r ie ty o f b o th s pec ia l ized a nd u n sk i l led m anuf ac tu r ing t e chn ique s . T h ea r chaeo log ica lr e co rd p rov ide se v iden ce f o rs p ec ia l ized m anuf ac tu r ei ni t em s s u ch a s s he l l b ang le s a nd m e ta l c o in s , w h e r e t h e e xpe r t i se a nd e qu ipmen tr e qu i r ed f o rt h em anu f a c tu r e o ff i n i shed p roduc t sw ou ld n o th av eb een a va i lab le t o a l l p e r son s . T h i s m anuf a c tu r e , h ow ev e r , a l so e ncompa s sed r e pe t i t ive t a sk st h a tr e qu i r ed o n ly al ow 3 1

r e per to i r ei n c lud ing i r on o b jec t sa nd ad i s t inc tb l ack a nd red w a r e c e ram ic . T rad e a c t iv i t ie s o n t h e r e g iona l s c a le a r e a l so e v iden t : a tT u l japu r G a rh i , a s i te o n ly 6 5 k i lome te r sn or thwe s to fK aund inyapu ra , l e ve l s o ft h e c ha lco l i th ic p e r iod ( l a t e s e cond t of i r s t m i l lenn ium B .C . ) c on ta ined b ang le s made o f T urb ine / la p y rum t h a t mus t h av e o r ig ina ted a tt h e s e acoa s t( Thoma s 1 992b ) . S i t e so ft h i se r ao f t en a l so c on ta in s ub s tan t ia l f un e ra ry a r ch i t e c tu r ei nt h ef o rm o fs t and ing s t one s , d o lmen s , c a ir nc i r c le s , a nd o t he r e l abo ra te t omb t y pe sw h ich g i ve t h et e rm " mega l i th ic " t ot h em a t e r ia l -cu l tu r ec omp lex . T h ea ppearance o f m ega l i th s a ppea r s t ob e r e s t r ic ted t o t h e s ou the rn p or t ion o ft h eI nd ian s ubcon t inen t ,w i th t h eV ida rbha r e g ion b e ing i t sn or the rnmo s te x ten s ion . ' A s o f 1 992 , a bou t f i f t een p e r cen t o f t h e n i ne ty k nown m ega l i th ic s i t e s i n V ida rbha h ave b een s ub jec ted t os ome e xcava t ion s ,a l though n o ta l lo ft h e s i te s h ave b een f o rma l ly p ub l i shed ( Thoma s 1 992 ) .2 A n e s t ima t e o f t h e t o ta l n umbe r o f b ur ia l c i r c le s ( n=2831 ) i sg i v en b y as l igh t ly l a te r p ub l ica t ion , i n w h ich i ti ss t a t ed t h a t6 9o ft h e se h av eb e en " e xpo sed " ( e xcava ted ) ( Mohan ty a nd Wa l imbe 1 993 ; s e e a l so Mohan ty a nd Wa l imbe 1 996 ) . A l though t h e p e rcen tag e o f e x cava ted m ega l i th s i s t h e r e f o r e r e la t ive ly l ow , t h e i n f o rma t ion g a th e r ed f r om t h o se e xcava t ion s i n d ica te s t h e r ange o f g ood s u t i l ized . When c omb ined w i th t h ei n f orma t ion f r om h ab i ta t ion s i te s o f t h e s am e p e r iod , a mo r e c omp le te p i c tu re e me rg e s( f igu r e4 . 6 ) . Mahu r jha r i , l o ca t ed 1 5 k i lome t e r s w e s t o f N agpu r , c on s i s t so ff o u rl o ca l i t ie sc on ta in ing a tl e a s t 1 50 s t one c i r c le s ( Deo 1 970 ) . F rom 1 970 -72 , at o ta l o f 1 5 m ega l i th s w e r e e xcava ted f r om t h e f o u r l o ca l i t ie s ( Deo 1 972 ) ; i n 1 979 , r e n ewed e xcava t ion s r e cove r ed t h e r ema in s o f 1 5 a dd i t iona l i nd iv idua l s ( Lukac s 1 98 1 ) . T he s i te i si n te rp r e ted a s ab ead p roduc t ion s i te ,a s al a rge n umbe ro fb ead sh av eb een r e cove r ed f r om t h e e xcava t ion a s w e l l a s s u r f ace i n ve s t iga t ion ( Mohan ty 1 999 ) . B ead u se w a s a l so p ro l if ic : i no ne e xcava ted l o ca l i ty ,t h r ee s t one c i r c le s p roduced at o ta l o f3 80 b ead s o fd if e r en t ma t e r ia l s . D eo o b s e rv ed t h a t " No h ab i ta t iona l r ema in s o ft h e

m ake s r e f e rence t om embe r so ft h ew a r r io rc l a s sw ho a c compan ied m e r chan tc a ravan s( Sub raman ian 1 966 ) . T h e p r e sence o f w ha t a ppea r s t ob e o rgan ized c o rpo ra te b od ie s i d en t if i ed a s make r s o f p a r t icu la r g ood s o r h o ld ing m a rke t s pec ia l t ie s i n d ica te s t h a t c e r ta in c r af ta c t iv i t ie sw e r ec a r r ied o u to rm anag ed b y g roup s w h ich o rgan iz ed s u rp lu s p roduc t ion . T he p r e sence o f g u i ld s d oe s n o t n ec e s sa r i ly i mp ly a d if e r en t t y pe o fp roduc t ion , s i nce g u i ld s m ay h ave o n ly g ove rned a nd c oo rd ina ted t h e p rodu c t ion o f c o t tage i n du s t r ie s r a the r t h an e s tab l i sh ing t h e i r o wn w o rk shop s . I t em s s uch a s t e x t i le s a nd a g r icu l tu ra l p roduc t s , d ocumen t ed b y t he h i s to r ica l a nd a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd , c ou ld h ave b een m anu f ac tu red a tt h eh ou seho ld l e ve lu s ing s u rp lu sf am i ly l a bo r . T he m en t ion o fg u i ld so ro t h e rc o rpo ra te g r oup sd oe si mp ly e xchang e s i nc e t h e p roduc t s o f t h e m anuf a c tu r ing p roce s se sw e r et ob ep roduced i ns uf i c ien tq uan t i t ie s t ob et r aded a way f r om p roduc t ion a r ea s . E conom ic i n te ra c t ion s i nt h e S a tavahana p e r iod , a sd e sc r ibed i nt h eJ a taka s , s how a n " e conomy w h ich w a s o n ly m a rg ina l ly u nde r s t a te c on t ro l a nd h ad a c omp lex m echan i sm o f t r ade , w i th c omme r c ia l t r an sa c t ion s a td if e r en t l e ve l s g ov e rned t o ag r ea t e x ten tb yt h e n a tu r e o ft h ec ommod i ty h and led " ( Ray 1 985 :20 ) . A sn o ted i nt h ep r ev iou sc hap te r , p o l i t ica l e n t i t ie sw e r en o ts t ab le e nough t og ene ra te t h es u rp lu s r e venue r e qu i r ed t om a in ta in t r ade f a c i l i t ie s a nd t o s e cu r e r ou te s o f t r av e l , e spec ia l ly i n a r ea s o f l ow p opu la t ion d en s i ty . O the r o rgan iza t ion s , s u ch a s r e l ig iou si n s t i tu t ion s ,d i df u lf i l ls ome o ft h e s en eed s ,i n m a in ta in ing m ona s te r ie sa nd o the rr e l ig iou ss i t e su sed b y t r ad e r s( L iu 1 988 ;R ay 1 986 ) . T he d eve lopmen to fl o ca le conom ie si nc en tra l I nd ia B y a r ound 1 600 B .C . , a g r icu l tu ra l v i l lag e s w e r e e s tab l i shed i n c en t ra l I nd ia , a s i n d ica ted b y t h e e x ten s ive e xcava t ion s b y H . D . S anka l ia a nd h i s c o l league si nw e s ter nI nd ia a ts i te ss u ch a s Mahe shwa r a nd N avda to l i( R . A . S ha rma 1 991 ) . T he c ha lco l i th ic p e r iod i se s t ima ted t oh ave b egun i nc en t ra l I nd ia c . 1 300 1000 B .C . , a nd i sc ha rac ter ized b yt h ep r e sence o f c opp e r a r t if ac t s , l i th ic s , a nd d i s t inc t iv e p a in ted w a re sa sr e cove r ed a tk ey s i te ss uch a sJ o rw e ,N eva sa , C hando l i ,D a imabad ,B aha l ,S ongaon ,I n amgaon ,a nd P raka sh ( Deo 1 985 ) . I np a r t icu la r , t h ee xcava t ion sa t I n amgaon h ave p rov ided a n o ppor tun i ty t oe xam ine c hange s i n m a te r ia l c u l tu r e a nd a r ch i tec tu ra l s t y le s o ve r a pp rox ima te ly 9 00 y ea r s o f o ccupa t ion ( Dhava l ika r ,S anka l ia ,a nd A n sa r i 1 988 ) . D u r ing t h i s s pan o f o ccupa t ion , t h e i nhab i tan t s o f t h e s i te c on sumed d ome s t ica ted w hea t s ,l e n t i ls ,a nd o t h e rf o od g ra in s a s w e l l a s w i ld a nd d ome s t ic a n ima l s ( Dhava l ika ra nd P o s seh l 1 974 ) . O ve r ly ing c ha lco l i th ic a r chaeo log ica l d epo s i t s i s am a te r ia lc u l tu r ea s semb lage c on ta in ing a ne xpanded

IA c on s ide rab le a moun to fa r chaeo log ica l f i e ldwo rk h a st a ken p l a ce i nw e s ter n Maha ra sh t ra a nd t h el a ck o fa ny m ega l i th sf u r the rt ot h en o r th i s w ide ly a c c ep ted . I n as umma ry a r t ic le , h ow ev e r , S . B .D eo ( 1 985 :24 ) s ugg e s ted t ha tt h em ega l i th ic t r ad i t ion i n Maha ra sh t ra n eed n o tb es t r ic t ly l im i t ed t oV ida rbha ,a st h e r ea r em en t ion so fl a rg e s tone m onumen t sa tR an ja la a nd T ekwada i nt h eT ap t i G irna v a l ley .

2E x cava t ion si np r e s si n c lude t h o se a tB o rgaon , K ha irwada , B hag imoha i i , a nd H ingna R a ipu r( a s r e por ted b yT homa s 1 992 ) .

3 2

B hag imohar i

0 T u l japu rG arh i

0

K aund inyapu ra 0

J unapan i Mahu r jha r i

0

K ha i rwada 0

0 A dam

O Ra ipu r 0

P aun i

P auna r

T aka lgha t -Khapa

0

5 0

KM

F igure 4 . 6 . Mega l i th ic a nd E a r ly H i s tor ic s i te si nV ida rbha w i th s ub s tan t ia l e xcava ted c omponen t s . T he l i ne s how st h ee dge o ft he D eccan b a sa l tp rov ince i nV ida rbha , w i th t h ea r ea t ot h el ef to ft h e l i ne b e ing t h e e a s te rnmo s te x ten s ion o ft h eD eccan b a sa l t s i nc en t ra l I nd ia . 3 3

e xc lu s ive ly ab u r ia l s i te , a nd e i gh t o ft h e m ega l i th s w e r e e xcava t ed f r om 1 984 t o 1 990 . A l l o f t h e m ega l i th ic c i r c le s c on ta ined s ome i r on ; i na dd i t ion , g o ld w a sr e cov e r ed i nt wo o ft h ec i r c le s . C oppe rw a s a l so a bundan t , r e cove red i n t h e f o rm o f u t en s i l s , h o r se t rapp ing s , a nd or namen t s ( i nc lud ing 4 6

m ega l i th ic c u l tu r e c ou ld b e e n coun te r ed n ea rby t h e S t one C i r c le s , "b u tt h a tt h e r ed o e se x i s t ah ab i ta t ion o f t h e e a r ly h i s to r ic p er iod n ea rby ( Deo 1 972 :3 ) . H ow ev e r , t h e j ux tapo s i t ion o f b u r ia l s w i th h ab i ta t ion sa tt h i ss i t em ay b er e in te rp r e ted ,e spec ia l ly a st h ec h rono logy f o rt h es i te i sd if i cu l tt od e term ine ( wh i le D eo [ 1 972 ] s ugge s t s ad a t e o fs i x th seven th c en tu ry B .C . , t h e r e w e re n o C 14 o r o the r d a t ing m e thod su t i l ized ) . T he r ef o r e ,t h ed i s t inc t ion b e tw een t h ea r t if a c t sa tt h eh ab i ta t ion a r ea a nd r e cove red i nt h e m ega l i th s m ay r e f lec t d if e r en c e s i n s ymbo l ic a nd f unc t iona l u sag e b e tween b u r ia l g ood s a nd d ome s t ic g ood sf r om t h es ame t ime p e r iod . S uch ad i s t inc t ion i nm a te r ia lc u l tu re b e tween c on t empo raneou sd epo s i t s i sn o ted a tT aka lgha t a nd Khapa , w he r e t h e c u l tu ra l a s semb lage sa r es im i la ri nb o th m or tua ry a nd d ome s t ic c on tex t se xcep tt h a tt h e s t on ec i r c le sl a ck t h ep a in ted p o t te ry a nd t e r r aco t ta o b jec t sf o und i nt h e h ab i ta t ion s i te ( Deo 1 970 ) . E xcava t ion s a tT aka lgha t -Khapa , 3 6 k i lome te r s w e s t o f N agpu r , r e cove red m ega l i th ic b u r ia l s ( a t K hapa ) a nd c on tempo raneou s h ab i ta t ion d epo s i t s a c ro s s t h e r i ve r a tT aka lgha t ( Deo 1 970 ) . A t b o th s i te s , av a r ie ty o f i r on o b je c t s w e r e r e cove r ed , i n c lud ing o rnamen t s , p ro jec t i le p o in t s , n a i l s , a nd u t en s i l ss u ch a sl a d le s ,k n ive s ,a nd c h i se l s( Deo 1 970 ) . T h is l i s t o fi r on o b jec t s i ss im i la r t ot h o se f o und i n t h ree m ega l i th s e xcava ted a tG angapu r , l o ca ted t wo k i lome t e r sn or thwe s to fT aka lgha t( Deo 1 970 ) . A si n t h e c a s e o fm any o t he r m ega l i th ic s i t e s i nV ida rbha , t h em ega l i th ic c i r c le sa t Khapa c on ta ined o n ly h uman a nd h o r s e b on e s , w h i le t h e f a una l r ema in s f r om T aka lgha t i n d ica t ed a v a r ie ty o f d ome s t ic a n ima l s i n c lud ing s heep , c h icken , g oa t , c ow , a nd p ig ( Deo 1 970 ; s e ea l so T homa s 1 992c ) . A no the r s i t e s im i la r t o T aka lgha t -Khapa i n c on ta in ing b o th h ab i ta t ion a nd m ega l i th ic c omponen t s i sf ound a tN a ikund ,l o ca ted 4 2k i lome te r sn or thea s to f N agpu r . A tN a ikund ,5 3s t one c i r c le si nf o u rl o ca l i t ie s w e r er e po r ted b yD eo a nd J amkhedka r ; o ft h e se , f o u r s t one c i r c le sw e r ee xcava ted ,a l ong w i th p o r t ion so ft h e h ab i ta t iona lm ound ,i nt wo s e a son so fw o rk ( J AR 1 977 7 8 , 1 979 -80 ) . Wh i le b o th t h em o r tua ry a nd d ome s t ic c on t ex t s c on ta ined s im i la r p o t t e ry , t h e h ab i ta t ion c on t ex t sc on ta in ed av a r ie ty o fd if e r en td ome s t ic f a una c ompa r ed w i th t h es t one c i r c le sw h ich h ad o n ly h o r se a nd h uman b one s ; i n a dd i t ion , t h e s t one c i r c le s c on ta ined as i gn if i can tq uan t i ty o fc oppe ro b jec t sw h i le c opp e rw a sn o tr e p re sen ted i nt h ed ome s t ic p o r t ion o f t h e s i t e ( J AR 1 977 -78 ) . S i gn if i c an t ly , t h i s s i te p roduced t h e f i r s t e v idence o f i r on sme l t ing i n t h e m ega l i th ic p e r iod i n Maha ra sh t r a ,w i th t h er e cove ry o f i r on s l ag , c r uc ib le s a nd af u rna ce a t ad i s tance o f5 0 m e te r sf r om t h eh ab i ta t ion m ound ( J AR 1 979 -80 ) . A no the r m ega l i th ic s i te , R a ipu r , i sl o ca ted 1 5 k i lome t e r ss ou thw e s to fN agpu ra nd c on s i s t so f at o ta l o f 2 62 s t one c i r c le s i n a n a r ea o f 1 0 h ec ta r e s ( Deg lu rka ra nd L ad 1 992 ) . T he s i t ei sn o ted a sb e ing

b ang le s ) . I n c on t ra s t t ot h i s a bundan ce o f m e ta l s , i t em s o f s t on e w e r e r a r e , l im i ted t ot wo c y l ind r ica l s t one p ounde r s . T he m ega l i th ic c i r c le sa l so p roduced an umbe r o f b ead s , t h ough t h e t y pe s o f m a te r ia l ( a ga te , j a spe r , c r y s ta l , c a rne l ian ) w e r e n o t e ven ly d i s t r ibu ted a mong t h e m ega l i th ic c i r c le s ( Deg lu rka r a nd L ad 1 9 92 ) . N o c h rono log ica l i n f orma t ion i s o f e red f o rt h es i t e ,b u ti nt h ef auna la na ly s i sT homa s ( 1 992a ) s ugg e s t s t h a t t h e s i te p r obab ly d a te s t o b e tw een 9 00 -300 B .C . B hag imoha r ia l so c on ta in s s t on ec i r c le s( at o ta l o f7 0 ) a sw e l l a sh ab i ta t ion d epo s i t s ; at o ta l o ft h r e e s t one c i r c le sa nd t wo t r enche sm ea su r ing 4x3m e t e r s w e r ee xcav a ted ( J AR 1 982 -83 ) . E xcava t ion sr e vea led g ra in s t o r ag e f a c i l i t ie s a nd h ear th s a s soc ia ted w i th w ha ta ppea r s t ob e l a rge h ou se s , a l l i n d ica t ive o fa n a g r icu l tu ra l -ba s ed e conomy w i th a n ima l h u sband ry , s upp lemen t ed b yh un t ing a nd g a the r ing ( Mohan ty a nd Wa l imbe 1 993 ) . T he a u tho r s a l so n o t e t h a t " t he o ccu r rence o f a l a rg e n umbe r o f a g r icu l tu ra l i mp lemen t sa sg r av eg ood s ,f u r the rs u b s tan t ia te st h i s h ypo the s i s " ( Mohan ty a nd Wa l imbe 1 9 93 :95 ) . T he e c onom ic a c t iv i t ie so ft h em ega l i th b u i lde r s c an b er e con s t ru c t ed o n av a r ie ty o fg r ound s . D e ta i led s t ud ie so ft h ef a una la nd b o tan ica le v id en ce a s so c ia t ed w i th h ab i ta t ion s i te s a s w e l l a s t h e m ega l i th ic c on s truc t ion s i n d ica te t h e u se o f b o th a g r icu l tu ra l r e sou rce s a nd d ome s t ica ted a n ima l s . T homa s ( 1 993 :117 )r e f e r st op l an tc u l t iva t ion a nd s a y st h a ta t B hag imoha r i , i ng ene ra l , " t he e conomy w a sb a sed o n ac omb ina t ion o fa g r icu l tu r e a nd c a t t le p a s to ra l i sm , a ugmen ted b yh un t ing a nd t h ee xp lo i ta t ion o fa qua t ic a nd a v ian r e sou r ce s ." A m ixed e conomy d u r ing t h e m ega l i th ic p e r iod i nV ida rbha i sf u r th e rs u b s tan t ia t ed b y L ukac s ( 1 98 1 ) f r om t h e i nve s t iga t ion o fh uman d en ta le v id ence ,a sw e l la sb y Mohan t ya nd Wa l imb e ( 1 993 )o nt h eb a s i so na r chaeo log ica le v idence . T he s i t eo fB hag imoha r i ,d a ted b yr a d ioca rbon t o 7 50 -450 ± 1 00 B .C . , w a s f ound t o h ave a h i gh p ropo r t ion o fb one t o o l s , s ugge s t ing t h a tm e ta l sw e r e s c a r ce ; o f t h e 56 b one s a na lyzed , 4 6 p e r cen t c on s i s ted o fc a t t le b one ,a l though t h e r ew e r ea l so w i ld f a una p r e sen t( Thoma s 1 993 ) . H owev e r ,i ts hou ld b e n o ted t h a tt h ee x cava t ion sw e re s ma l l , a moun t ing t o t wo 5x5m e t e rt r enche s( Thoma s 1 993 ) . A no the r v e ry l a rge s i te w i th m ega l i th s a nd h ab i ta t ion d epo s i t s i sl o ca t ed a t Kha i rwada , w i th a t o ta l o f1 496 s t on ec i r c le s s p r ead o u to v e ra na r ea o f s i x h ec ta r e s ( Deo 1 991 :194 ; s e e a l so J AR 1 981-82 ) . A l though t h er e po r to ft h i se xcava t ion , c a r r ied o u ti n 1 981-82 a f t e ra ne x ten s ive m app ing p ro je c t , i ss t i l li n p re s s ,s ome d e ta i l so ft h ef i nd ing sa r ea va i lab le . B o th 3 4

t h e h ab i ta t ion a nd t h e m ega l i th ic a r ea s c on ta ined s im i la r p o t te ry , w i th t h e h ab i ta t ion a r ea s how ing c on s ide rab le i n ve s tmen t i nd om e s t ic f u rn i tu r e i nt h e f o rm o f l ime -p la s te r f l oo r s a nd e l abo ra t e l e gged g r ind ing s t one s( J AR 1 981-82 ) . A l though t h ec h rono logy f o rt h em ega l i th ic p e r iod c an o n ly b e s ugge s ted d ue t ot h e r e la t ive p auc i ty o f a b so lu t e d a te s , af ew C 14 d a t e s h e lp t ob ra cke t t h e o ccu r rence o f t h e m ega l i th i c i n V ida rbha . A t T aka lgha t , aC 14 d a te s ugge s t st h a tt h eb eg inn ing o f t h e m ega l i th ic h ab i ta t ion c an b e p l aced a round t h e s e v en th c en tu ry B .C . ; t ot h e s o u thw e s t a tH a l lu r , t h e C 14 d a t e s f o r t h e n eo l i th ic -m ega l i th ic t r an s i t ion a r e p l a ced i nt h em id t en th c en tu ry B .C . ( Deo 1 985 ) . I n g en e ra l , t h e m ega l i th ic o ccupa t ion s o fV ida rbha a r e d if i cu l tt od a te ,b u t af ew C 14 d a t e sa r ea va i lab le f o r t h e a r ea w h ich g ene ra l ly b r acke t t h e m ega l i th s t h em se lve s t o 5 00 -700 B .C . , a nd t h e a s soc ia ted m ega l i th ic h ab i ta t ion a r ea s t o 8 00 -300 B .C . ( Deo 1 991 :192 -93 ; Mohan ty a nd J o sh i 1 996 :165 ) . T he a t t r ibu te st h a td i s t ingu i sh t h em ega l i th ic f r om s ub sequen t p ha s e s a r e d if i cu l t t o i s o la te . T h e g rada t ion so fw ha ti sp e rce ived a s" mega l i th ic "p o t te ry a pp ea r s t o b e p r ed ica ted o n t h e a s sump t ion t h a t " m ega l i th ic " a c t iv i t ie s a r e d i s t inc t f r om , a nd mu s t p r eda t e , E a r ly H is to r ic a c t iv i t ie s . I ti sc l ea rt h a t t h e a r t i f ac t s f r om t h e t wo p e r iod s d o n o t p rov ide a s t r a igh tf o rwa rd m ean s o f s e pa ra t ing t h e m ega l i th ic f r om t h eE a r ly H i s to r ic , s i nce t h es ame t y pe so fg ood s o f ten a ppea ri nb o th t y pe so fs i t e s . E xamp le si n c lude t h e m ega l i th ic b l ack -and r ed w a re f o und n ea r t h e B uddh i s ts t upa a tA du r ru a nd a tG ud ime l lanka ,i nt h e E a s t G odava r i d i s t r ic to fA ndh r aP rade sh ( J AR 1 962 6 3 :65 ) , t h e b l a ck -and red w a r e a s soc ia ted w i th t h e B uddh i s tr ema in sa tG un tupa I l ii nt h e We s tG odava r i d i s t r ic to fA ndh ra P rade sh ( J AR 1 961 -62 :97 ) ,a nd t h e b l a ck -and red w a r e f r om L inga ra jupa lem i n t h e V i sakhapa tnam d i s t r ic to fA ndh ra P rade sh ( J AR 1 959 6 0 :67 ) . T h eu ppe rt e rm inu so f" mega l i th ic "b l a ck -and r e dw a r e m ay b ew e l l i n to t h ef i r s t m i l lenn ium A .D . , w i th s u ch m a t e r ia l s r e po r ted ly a s soc ia t ed w i th t h e A kkanna -Madanna c ave so ft h es i x th c en tu ry A .D . a t V i jayawada ( J AR 1 962 -63 :67 ) . N o rd oes t h ec e s sa t ion o fm ega l i th ic c on s tuc t ion p rov id e ac l ea rb r eak b e tw een a r chaeo log ica lp e r iod s . I ns ou ther nI nd ia , s e ve ra l s i te s c on ta in e v id en ce t ha t t h e u s e o f c e ram ic s a s so c ia ted w i th m ega l i th s c on t inue s i n to t h e e a r ly c en tu r ie s A .D . ( Gur umur thy 1 981) . I nV ida rbha ,t h e r ea r ea l so i nd ica t ion st h a tt h e c on s t ruc t ion o fm ega l i th s may h ave c on t inued i n to t h e f i r s t m i l lenn ium A .D .3 S i gn if i can t ly , t h e l o cu s o f

3D eo ,s( 1972 )o b se rva t ion t h a tt h ee a r ly h i s tor ic s e t t lemen t sa t Mahu r jha r ia r en o ta d jacen tt ot h e s t one c i r c le sa tt h a ts i te d oe sn o tp r ec lud et h e c on tempo rane i ty o ft h et wo p o r t ion so ft h es i t e . A t m o s ts i t e sw he r et h e r ei sb o th m ega l i th ic h ab i ta t ion

m ega l i th ic c on s t ruc t ion s a ppea r s t oh av e a ch iev ed a s y nc r e t i sm w i th l a te rr e l ig iou sd eve lopmen t s ,a ss e en a ts i te s s u ch a s Ama rava t i , w he r e t h e p r e sence o f B uddh i s t s t upa s i n p rox im i ty t o m ega l i th ic c on s t ruc t ion s" po in t [ s ]t oc on t inu i ty i na r ea sr e ga rded a s s a c r ed a nd a s soc ia t ed w i th t h e d ead " ( Thapa r 1 992 :24 ) . O the r e xamp le s o f t h i s p h enomenon i n c lude t h e s i te o fY e l le swa ram ( Na lgonda d i s t r ic t , A ndh ra P rade sh ) , w he r e am ega l i th ic b u r ia l w a s r e cove r ed u nde r ab r ick s t upa ( J AR 1 960 -61 :3 ) ; a nd t h es i te o fD eu rK o tha ri n Madhya P rade sh ( Nagayach 1 990 ) . T he t r an s i t ion f r om a m ega l i th ic t o a n E a r ly H i s to r ic l e ve la tm any s i t e si nV ida rbha m ay a c tua l ly b e l i nked b y m o r e c on t inu i t ie s t h an d i scon t inu i t ie s . S i n ce t h e r e a r e n o s ugg e s t ion s o f m ig ra t ion s o r p opu la t ion c hang e s , a nd t h e l a nd scape , a g r icu l tu ra l t e chn ique s , a nd c u l t ig en r e per to i r e a l so r ema ined u n changed , w e s hou ld s e et h e c e s sa t ion o fm ega l i th b u i ld ing a s as i gna l o fs o c ia l c hang e st h a t m ade t h e c on s t ruc t ion o ft h e se s t ru c tu r e sr e dundan t ,w i th l a bo r a l loca t ion s g o ing t owa rd o t he rp u r su i t s . S i gn if i can t E a r ly H i s to r ic p e r iod i n v e s t iga t ion sh ave t a ken p l ace i nV ida rbha , i n d ica t ing t h a tt h e se s i te sa r el a rge ra nd h ave l a rge r p opu la t ion s t h an e a r l ie r h ab i ta t ion s a s soc ia ted w i th m ega l i th s , a nd t h a t g r ea te r s o c ia l i n t eg ra t ion w a s m ea su r ed b y o the r m ean s t h an m ega l i th c on s t ru c t ion . T h eE a r ly H i s to r ic s i t e sw i th t h eg r ea t e s ta moun t o fi n ve s t iga t ion h av eb een t h es i te so fA dam ,P auna r , a nd P aun i a sw e l l a sK aund inyapu r a . P auna ri st h en ea r e s tl a rge s i te t oK aund inyapu ra , l o ca ted a bou t 5 0 k i lom e te r st ot h e s ou thea s t . I tw a s d e sc r ibed b y t h e e xcava to r s D eo a nd D hava l ika r ( 1 968 )a s amound 6 0f e e t( 1 8m e te r s )h i gh a nd 2x6 f u r long s( 4 00 x1 200 m e te r s )i ne x ten t . T he s i te w a s e xcava t ed i n 1 967 ; o n t h eb a s i s o ft h e r e cove ry o fa f ew c o in s a nd t h rough c ompa r i son w i th o t h e r s i te s , t h e o ccupa t ion l a ye r s w e r e d a ted f r om t h e p r e i ron p e r iod ( 8 00 1000 B .C . )t h rough t h ef o ur t e en th c en tu ry A .D . ( Deo a nd D hava l ika r 1 968 ) . A l though n ow l o ca t ed u nd e r am od e rn v i l lag e ,e xcava t ion sa tt h es i t e h ave p rov ided i mpor tan t i n f o rma t ion a bou t a r ch i tec tu r eo ft h eE a r ly H i s to r ic p e r iod i nt h i sa r ea . T h e s i ng le l a rge t r ench o ft h e e xcava t ion ( 3 0 x2 0 m e te r s )r e cove r ed al a rge p o r t ion o f as i ng le l ime f l oo r m ea su r ing 2 3 x1 2 m e t e r s f r om P e r iod IA ( f ou r th / t h i rd c en tu ry B .C . t ot h ef i r s tc en tu ry B .C . ) (Deo a nd D hava l ika r 1 968 ) . I nt h es ub sequen tI Bp e r iod ( f i r s t c en tu ry B .C . t o s e cond / th i rd c en tur y A .D . ) , l im e f l oo r s w e re a ga in p r e sen t , a l ong w i th o t he r a r ch i tec tu r a l e l emen t s s u ch a s r i ng -we l l s a nd r o of t i l e s , a s w e l l a s s t o rage j a r s ( Deo a nd D hava l ika r 1 968 ) .

a nd m ega l i th ic t omb a r ch i t ec tu r e , t h et wo e l em en t s o ft h es i t ea r es e pa ra t ed . 3 5

g r ea t e re c onom ic a c t iv i ty ,p e rhap sl i nked w i th at r ade r ou te f r om t h e a r ea s o f S anch i a nd B ha rhu t t ot h e B uddh i s t m ona s te r ie s o f t h e s ou th s u ch a s N aga r junakonda a nd Ama rava t i . T he s i t e s ' l o ca t ion a l ong t h e Wa inganga R iv e r p rov ided a mp le o ppo r tun i t ie s f o r f a rm ing i n a dd i t ion t o t r ad e a c t iv i t ie s ; f o r e xamp le , N a th ( 1 998 :108 ) n o ted t h e p r e sen ce o f r i ce h u sk i n t h e e x cava t ion s . I n t e r e s t ing ly , m any o ft h e l a rg e E a r ly H i s to r ic s i t e s t h a t h av e b een i n v e s t iga ted s how a p e r iod o f a bandonm en ti nt h ef o ur th t of i f th c en tu r ie s A .D . O the rs i t e s o ft h e m ega l i th ic a nd E a r ly H i s to r ic p e r iod s i n V ida rbha h av e b e en i n ve s t iga t ed o n ly b r ie f ly . J unapad i i sk nown t oh ave c on ta ined m o r e t h an 3 00 s t one c i r c le s( Deo 1 970 ) . I n 1 961 , t h r ee o f t h e m ega l i th sw e r ee xcava ted , r e vea l ing av a r ie ty o f f une ra ry d epo s i t s ,i n c lud ing h uman a nd h o r se b one s , i r on o b jec t s , m icaceou s a nd o t he r p o t te ry a nd g o ld or n amen t s ( J AR 1 961-62 ) . O the r s i te s i n V ida rbha a r e a l so r e po r t ed t o c on ta in m ega l i th ic a nd E a r ly H i s to r ic r ema in s , i n c lud ing t h e s i te o f A r soda ( i n G adhch i ro l i d i s t r ic t ; J AR 1 984 -85 ) . T he l a ye r s i d en t if i ed a sE a r ly H i s to r ic a t Kha irwada y i e ld ed a n umb e ro fi r on t o o l sa sw e l la sb ead so fs em ip rec iou s s t on e s( J AR 1 981-82 ) . B ha tku l i , l o ca ted i n Am rava t i d i s t r ic t , w a s i n ve s t iga t ed b yM . G .D ik sh i t ,p robab ly i nt h e 1 960 s , p rodu c ing ar e por to n ly o nt h el im i t ed s amp le o fp l an t r ema in s w h ich w e re e s t ima ted t o b e o f t h e E a r ly H i s to r ic p e r iod ( V i shnuM i t t r ea nd G up ta 1 968 -69 ) . A rn i , i nY ava tma l d i s t r ic t , w a s e xcava ted i n 1 978 1 979 a nd a ga in i n 1 984 1985 , a nd f o und t oc on ta in r ema in s o ft h e m ega l i th ic t h rough t h e S a tavahana p e r iod ( J AR 1 978 -79 ; 1 984 -85 ) . S h i rkanda i nN agpu r d i s t r ic t h a s y i e ld ed l e ve ls t h a t d a te t o t h e E a r ly H i s to r ic p e r iod ,w i th ap o t t e ry -f i l led w e l li nd ica t ive o f w ha t t h e e xcava to r s h ave c on c luded w a s r i tua l ly l i nked d i s c a rd ( J AR 1 993 -94 :84 ) . B uddh i s t r ema in s a r e r e po r ted f r om t h e r e g ion a r ound P aun i , w he r e t h e r e a r e r u in s o f B uddh i s t s t upa s n o t o n ly a tP aun i b u t a l so a t C handkapu ra a bou t t wo k i lome te r s s ou th o fP aun i , a s w e l l a s a s e r ie so fr o ck cu tc ave sa bou t 1 6k i lome te r sn or th o f P aun i ( Deo 1 972 -73 ; J AR 1 970 -71 :24 ) . T he s i te o f Man sa r w i th i t s m ona s t ic c omp lex a bou t 4 5 k i lome t e r sn or thea s to fN agpu rh a sb een t h es ub jec to f c on t inued i n v e s t iga t ion t h rough b o th s u rvey a nd e xcava t ion ;i th a sb een d a ted t oA .D . 3 00 -650 o nt h e b a s i so fc o inage ( J AR 1 994 -95 :57 ) . S i te ss u ch a st h i s , a nd t h e r e l ig iou s s i te o fR am tek 3 7 km n or thea s t o f N agpu r ,a pp ea rt o ma rk t r an s i t ion si nt h es o c ia lf o cu s o ft h eV ida rbha r e g ion t h a tw e r ep robab ly t i ed t ot h e d ev e lopmen to ft h er e g iona lV aka taka p o l i ty . T he V ida rbha r e g ion i sr e la t ive ly w e l l k nown t hank s t ot h e d ecade s o fr e sea r ch o n t h e m ega l i th ic a nd E a r ly H i s to r ic p e r iod s . H oweve r , i n te rp r e ta t ion o ft h er e g ion ' sa r chaeo logy o f t en r e l ie so nr e f e r ence t o e ven t sa nd t e x t sf r om e l sewhe r ei nt h e s ubcon t inen t .

T he s i te o fA dam w a s t h e s ub jec t o fs ub s tan t ia l e xcava t ion si nt h el a te 1 980 s( J AR 1 989 -90 :61-5 ;J AR 1 988 -89 :50 -62 ; N a th 1 992 ) . T he s i t e i sm a rked b ya l a rg er e c t i l inea rr ampa r tt h a te nc i r c le sa na r ea o f8 00 m e t e r s x5 00 m e te r sa nd ac umu la t iv ed epo s i to fe i gh t m e t e r s . E xcava t ion s i n t he i n t e r io r o ft h e r ampar t h av e b rough t t o l i gh t n ume rou s s t ruc tu r e s o f S a tavahana a nd l a t e r d a te s i n av a r ie ty o f p l an s ( r ec tangu la r ,c i r cu la r ,s qua r e , a nd e l ip t ica l )a l though t h ep u rpo se so ft h e se s t ruc tu r e sr ema in u nknown ( J AR 1 989 -90 :64 ) . T he s i te a l so h a s e v id ence o f b ead m anuf ac tu r ing , a s s e en b y t h e r e cov e ry o fb ead s i n " v a r iou ss t age so fm anuf ac tu r e "a l ong w i th p rodu c t ion i mp lemen t ss u ch a sb ead p o l i she r s( J AR 1 989 -90 :65 ) . A tt h ee x te r io ro ft h er ampar ta r ea i saf e a tu r et h a th a s b een d e sc r ibed a s a" mud s t upa "m ea su r ing 3 4m e te r s i nd i am e t e r( Na th 1 992 :69 ;J AR 1 988 -89 :62 ) . T h es i te o fP aun ii sl o ca ted a l ong t h e Wa inganga R ive r ,a bou t 1 50 k i lome te r se a s to fK aund inyapu ra . I t a l so h a s as ub s tan t ia l r ampa r t , a bou t 1 0m e te r s h i gh , e nc lo s ing a na r ea t h a tm ea su r e s 1 400 m e te r se a s t -w e s t b y 1 500 m e t e r s n or th sou th ( Na th 1 998 :4 ) . T h i s r ampa r t d a te s t o t h e a nc ien t p e r iod , w i th s ome m ed ieva l a ugmen ta t ion s ; l i ke P auna r , t h e s i t e i sn ow c ove r ed w i th m od ern h ab i ta t ion s . T h r ee o f P aun i ' s s t upa s i te s w e r e e xcava ted i n t h e f i r s t r e sea r ch c ampa ign , ( s ee D eo a nd J o sh i 1 972 ) p roduc ing i c onog raph ic e v id ence o fl i nk sb e tw een B uddh i s ts i t e s s u ch a sS anch ii nt h en o r th a nd Ama rava t it ot h es ou th ( Na th 1 998 ) . P aun i i st h eo n ly o ne o ft h e s em a jo rs i te st oh ave h ad r e new ed e xcava t ion s i n r e cen t t im e s . I n 1 994 , r e sea r ch w a sc onduc ted t oe va lua te t h es i t e ' sh ab i ta t ion a r ea s a s ac omp lemen t t o t h e e a r l ie r r e sea r ch o n B uddh i s ts t upa s( Na th 1 998 ) . I nt h e 1 994 e x cava t ion u n i t s , f i v e o ccupa t iona l p e r iod s w e r e r e co rded b eg inn ing w i th a " p r e - Mau ryan " l e ve l . T he P aun i r ampa r ta ppea r st oh ave b een c on s t ruc t ed a tt h es ame t ime a st h e i n i t ia l o ccupa t ion , i nc on t ra s t t oA dam , w he r e o c cupa t ion p r eda ted t h e r ampa r t c on s tru c t ion ( Na th 1 998 :15 ) . " Mau ryan " l e ve l sa tP aun i p roduced a no b long h ou se w i th mud w a l l s ,p av ed w i th s t one a nd h av ing b o th ab u i l t in b ench a nd w ha tw a sd e s c r ib ed a s a n " imp rov i sed " p o rch ( Na th 1 998 :8 ) . B y t h e S a tavahana p e r iod ( ac en tu ry o rt wo l a t e ri nc a lenda r t e rm s ) , ab r ick a dd i t ion t ot he f o r t if i ca t ion w a l l w a s c on s tru c ted , a nd t h e r e w e re o b long h ou se s m ad e o f s t one a nd f i r ed b r ick s( Na th 1 998 :8 -9 ) . T he m a t er ia l c u l tu r eo ft h e s i te i n c lude se v iden c ef o rl o ng -d i s tance e xchange i n t h e f o rm o f b o th p hy s ica l o b jec t s a nd s ymbo l st h a tw e re s t amped o n to i t em so fp re sumab ly l o ca l m anu f ac tu r es u ch a sp o t te ry . T he s i te s o f P aun i a nd A dam h av e t h e mo s t e x ten s ive r e pe r to i r e o fi t em s a sw e l l a st h e g r ea te s t a r ch i t ec tu ra ld i ve r s i ty among t h es i t e si nt h eV ida rbha r e g ion . T h er e la t ive ly h igh d eg r e eo fw ea l th s i gna led b y t h e r ampa r t c on s t ruc t ion s , B uddh i s t s t upa s , a nd p or tab le o b jec t s i n d ica te s t h a t t h i s r e g ion s uppo r ted 3 6

T h e r e i so n ly o ne C 14 d a te f o r a ny E a r ly H i s to r ic o c cupa t ion i n V idha rbha ( 1 40 ± 1 20 B .C . f r om K ha irwada ,r epor ted i n Mohan ty a nd J o sh i 1 996 :165 ) . T h e m a jo r i ty o f t h e d a te s p ropo sed i n e x cava t ion r e po r t s a re b a sed u pon e s t ima te s o f t h e t ime r e p r e sen ted b yt h ea ccumu la t ion o fd eb r i s , a nd b yt h e c ompa r i son o fe xcava ted m a te r ia ls w i th o t he rs i te si n t h e r e g ion . C o inage , o f ten l i n ed t o as p ec if i c e r a o r r u l e ri nw e s tern I nd ia o ri nt h eG ange t ic p l a in , i sa l so a n i mpor tan t c h rono log ica l m a rke r f o r s i te s i n V ida rbha , a l though i ti si mpo r tan t t on o t et h a tc o in s m ay h ave c i r cu la ted l o ng a f te r t h e i r d a te o f m anuf ac tu re a nd t h e r ef o r e o n ly p rov ide a t e rm inus p o s tq uem ( e a r l ie s tp o ten t ia ld a t eo fd i s ca rd )f o rt h e i r s t r a t ig raph ic f i nd spo t . N o r d oe s t h e p r e sence o f c o inage s e rve a sp roof t h a tp o l i t ica ll e ad e r sw e r ea c t ive i nt h e r eg ion , s i n ce c o in s c an c i r cu la t e i nt r ade f a r f r om t h e i rp o in to fo r ig in . T he s i ze a nd c omp lex i ty o f m ega l i th ic a nd E a r ly H i s to r ic s i t e si sp robab ly d ue t o l o ca l f a c to r s , i n c lud ing i n c rea sed t r ade a nd c on tac t w i th r e g ion st ot h es ou th a nd t ot h en or th , r a the rt h an t h er e su l to fd i r ec tp o l i t ica l c on t ro lo ft h er e g ion .

a tb u r ia l t h e r e m ay h ave b een af u r the r d i v is ion i n s t a tu sa se xh ib i ted i nb u r ia lg ood s . Af u r the r i nd ica to r o ft h e a b i l i ty t o ama s s l a bo r p ow e r i sf o und a t t h e s i te o f K o t ra , a bou t 2 25 k i lom e t e r sn or thw e s to fK aund inyapu ra . A tt h a ts i te , i n v e s t iga ted i n1 988 1989 ,t h ei n ve s t iga to rn o ted t h a t i nP e r iod I I( 7 50 -300 B .C . )t h e r ew a s am a s s ive mud w a l l m ea su r ing 2 . 39 m e te r s w id e ( J AR 1 988 -89 ) . A l though t h e r e a r e an umbe r o fl a rge sca le w a l led c on s t ruc t ion s i n t h e E a r ly H is to r ic p e r iod i n t h e G ang e t ic v a l ley ,t h es ugge s t ion o fs u ch ac on s t ruc t ion c l o se rt oV ida rbha a ga in s ugge s t st h a t s o c ia l g roup s c ou ld b e o rgan ized t ob u i ld a r ch i t ec tu r e o n al a rge r s c a le . L a rge w a l l sa r ea l so f ound a tt h es i te so fA dam a nd P aun i . A l though A b ram s ( 1 994 ) h a s n o ted t h a t t h e se t y pe so fc on s t ru c t ion s may n o th av er e qu i red a n o ne rou s o r d if i cu l t c omm i tmen t , t h e l a rge sca le l a nd s cap em od if i ca t ion ss e en i ns ome V ida rbha s i te s i n d ica te t h e p r e sence o f s u rp lu s l a bo r a nd t h e o rgan iza t ion o fg roup s t op e rf o rm t a sk s b eyond t h e h ou s eho ld l e ve l . I nc on t ra s tt ot h e se l o ca l ly b a sed m an if e s ta t ion s o fl a bo r o r gan iza t ion a nd s o c ia l a c t ion , h ow s hou ld w e e va lua t e t h e i mpac t o f o u t s id e p o l i t ica l g roup s s u ch a st h e Mau rya s? T he Mau rya s a r e p r imar i ly k nown f r om t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o fi mp re s s iv e r o ck -cu t i n sc r ip t ion s a nd e d ic t s s e t f o r th b y t h e r u le r A soka ( Thapa r1 961 ) . T he p r e sence o ft h e se i n scr ip t ion sh a s o f t en b een t h ough t t oi n d ica te t h eb ounda r ie s o ft h e Mau ryan p o l i ty a nd t h ec en t ra l ized c on t ro l o f av a s t a moun to ft e r r i to ry ,w h ich w ou ld i n c lud et h ec en t ra l s ubcon t inen t . ' A s s e en i n c hap te r 3 ,t h e p o l i t ica l c ond i t ion s a nd c on f l ic t s o f t h i s p e r iod p robab ly i nd ica te t h a t t h e p l acemen t o f A sok an e d ic t s r e p r e s en t s a n a r ea o fm ax imum c on tac t , r a the rt h an a n a r ea o fc on ta inmen t o r b u r eau c r a t ic c on t ro l . I t m ay a l so r ema in t ob es e en whe th e rt h ee d ic t sw e r ea l l a c tua l ly c a r ved u nde r t h e r e ign o f t h e h i s to r ica l ly k nown A soka ,o rw h e the rt h ey m igh th ave b een s e tu p b ya mb i t iou sl o ca lr u le r s( much a sc op ie so ft h eU . S . D ec la ra t ion o fI ndependence a r e f o und p rom inen t ly d i sp layed i nl i b ra r ie sa nd u n iv e r s i t ie sf a ra way f r om t h ei n i t ia lt ime a nd p l ace o ft h ef i r s td ocumen t ) . T he e v idence f o r Mau ryan c on tac t i n c en t ra l I nd ia i n c lud e sA sokan i n scr ip t ion ss u ch a st h eo ne a t D eo t ek , i n C handa d i s t r ic t ( Deo a nd Dhava l ika r 1 968 ) . A sokan i n s c r ip t ion s a r e f o und i nt h e g o ld -

A r chaeo log ica la s se s smen t so fs o c iopo l i t ica l c omp lex i ty T he a ppa r en tl e v e lo fs o c iopo l i t ica lc omp lex i ty i n t h e V ida rbha r e g ion i n t h e E a r ly H i s to r ic p e r iod a ppea r s t o h av e b een r e la t ive ly l ow . I nd ica to r s o f c en t ra l ized w ea l th a nd l a bo ri n ve s tm en ta sm an if e s ted i n m onumen ta l a r ch i tec tu r e o r t own p l ann ing a r e d i ff i cu l t t o d e te rm ine f r om t h e g en e r a l ly l im i ted i n v e s t iga t ion so fh ab i ta t ion s i t e s . S t a r t ing i nt h eI r on A g e , h oweve r , t h e r e i se v iden ce f o rc ommuna l l a bo r o r gan iza t ion ,a ss e en i nt h ec on s truc t ion o fm ega l i th ic m onumen t ss u ch a st ho se a tJ unapan i , Mahu r jha r i ,a nd T aka lgha t -Khapa . A ne xpe r imen ta lr e con s tr uc t ion o f t h e f i l l ing o f am ega l i th w a s u nder taken r e cen t ly i n V ida rbha b y Mohan ty a nd Wa l imbe ( 1 996 )b a sed o n t h es i ze a nd c ompo s i t ion o fo n eb ou lde r r ing ed b u r ia l a tB hag imoha r i . B a sed o nt h e i ro b serva t ion s , t h ey c a lcu la ted t ha t at o ta lo f2 30 h uman -day sw ou ld h av eb e en r e qu i r ed t o c on s t ruc t t he m ega l i th ; w i th t h i s l e v e l o f l a bo r i n v e s tmen t , t h e a u tho r s c on c lude t h a t " t he b u r ia l p r a c t ice w a s r e s t r ic ted f o r ac e r ta in g r oup o fp eop le a nd d ef in i te ly n o te ve ry m emb e ro ft h ec ommun i ty w a s a c co rded s uch c e r emon ia l d epar tu r e " ( Mohan ty a nd Wa l imbe 1 996 :144 ) . T he l o g is t ica l d emand s o f o r gan iz ing s u ch aw o rkf o r ce i n d ica t e st h ep o ten t ia lf o r e v en t -spec if ic , a nd p e rhap s c on t inuou s , h i e ra r ch ica l s o c ia l o rgan iza t ion . T h e q uan t i ty a nd v a r ie ty o f w ea l th -ob jec t sa s so c ia ted w i th m ega l i th ic b u r ia l s ,s u ch a si r on , c oppe r ,a nd g o ld i mp lemen t sa nd o rnamen t s , a l so v a ry f r om o ne s i t e t o a no the r . Wh i le s u ch d if e r ence sm ay b e ac h rono log ica lm a rke rr a the rt h an as o c ia l ma rke r , t h e r e i sa l so t h e d i s t inc t p o s s ib i l i ty t h a te ven b e twe en i n d iv idua l sa c co rded m ega l i th s t a tu s

A ne xamp le i sg i ven b yD eo a nd J o sh i ( 1 972 :11 ) : " I ti s af a i ra s sump t ion t h a tt h et e r r i to ry o fV ida rbha l a yu nde rt h ed om ina t ion o ft h e Mau ryan r u le r s . T h el im i t so ft h e Mau ryan Emp ir e u nde rA soka a r eg ene ra l ly i nd ica ted b yt h e i n sc r ip t ion sw h ich w e r es e tu po ni t sb o rde r s . O f t h e s e ,w ef i nd o ne p i l la re d ic ta t Ma sk ii n Andh ra P rad e sh . T h i si nd ica te st h a tt h et e r r i to ry o f V ida rbha l a yw e l lw i th in t h e Mau ryan e mp i r e ." '

3 7

b ea r ing r e g ion sf u r the rs o u th n ea r My so r e , a nd i nt h e g eog r aph ic r e g ion o fa n c ien t K a l inga , t ot h e e a s t i n m oder n -day O r i s sa ( P an ig rah i 1 981 :4 ; S herwan i 1 977 ) . A dd i t iona la r chaeo log ica le v id en ce o fc on tac t w i th G ange t ic p eop le s i nc en t ra l I nd ia i sl im i ted t oa f ew s h e rd s o ft h e s t r ik ing b l ack f i newa r e k nown a s N o r th er nB lack P o l i shed w a r ew ho se m a in d i s t r ibu t ion i si nt h eG ange t ic r e g ion . T he p r e senc eo ft h i sw a r ea t a n e a r ly d a te i n s i t e s s u ch a s P aun i , a nd l a te r a t K aund inyapu ra a nd e l sewhe r e ,i n d ica t e st h a tV ida rbh a w a st h ec ondu i tt h rough w h ich t h i sw a r ep a s sed t ot h e s ou th , s i nce t h e r e a r e n o o c cu r rence s o f NBP o n t h e e a s te rn c oa s t( Deo a nd D hava l ika r 1 968 :60 ) . B u tt h e q uan t i t ie s o ft h e s e G ang e t ic w a r e s i ns i te s o fc en t ra l I nd ia a r e e xceed ing ly r a r e , s o t h e o v e ra l l i mpac t o f G ange t ic p eop le sa nd t h e Mau ryan p o l i ty i np a r t icu la r u pon t h ec en t ra lI nd ian p o l i t ica l l a nd scape a ppea r st o h av eb e en r e la t ive ly s l igh t . O th e r s ou r ce s o fi n f o rma t ion a bou t t h e c on tac t s b e tween G ange t ic p eop le s a nd t ho se o fV ida rbha a r e f o und i n l i t e ra ry d o cumen t s , a l though t h e se c on s id e rab ly p o s tda t e t h ea c t ion d e scr ibed . Af t e rt h e d ea th o f A soka c .2 36 B .C . , t h e Mau ryan d yna s ty c on t inued t or e ign t h ough i n aw eakened s t a te ; i tw a s f i na l ly o v er th rown b yP u shyam i t ra S unga c .1 85 B .C . , a c co rd ing t ot h eP urana s( M i ra sh i 1 981 ) . H ow eve r , t h es t o ry o fP u shyam i t ra S unga ' s e xpan s ion i s te f o r t s a nd h i s s t rugg le w i th t h e r u le r o fV ida rbha a r e f i r s t k nown t h rough t h et e x t so fK a l ida sa , w h ich p robab ly d a t et ot h ef o u r th c en tur yA .D . ( Rao 1 982 [1960 ] ; s e e a l so M i r a sh ia nd N av leka r1 969 ) . I nb o th l i t e ra ry a nd a r chaeo log ica l s ou r ce s , t h e s c an t e v id ence f o r t h e i mpac to fG ange t ic p eop le si nc en t ra l I nd ia p r e c lud e s t h e u s ef u l a pp l ica t ion o ft h e l a be l "Mau ryan p e r iod " f o rc en t ra lI nd ia . T oe xp la in t h ed eve lopmen to fl o ca l p opu la t ion c en te r s a nd n e two rk s , w e s hou ld i n s tead l o ok t o s o c ia l f a c to r s s u ch a s B uddh i sm a nd i t s a s so c ia ted t r ad er o u te sa sw e l la se va lua t ing t h es ma l l s c a le a nd l o ca l f a c to r s o fk i n sh ip n e two rks a nd t h e s u cce s s f u l m anag emen t o ft h e l o ca l e nv i ronm en t t o p roduce s u rp lu se s .

3 8

C hap ter 5 S ur face S ur vey a t Kaund inyapura a nd I t sE nv iron s

I n 1 993 , t h e A r chaeo log ica l S u rv ey o f I nd ia a cc ep t ed t h ea u tho r ' sp ropo sa lt oi n v e s t iga te a na nc ien t

u pon t h i s a nnua l r a in c y c le , w i th r e la t ive ly l i t t le i r r iga t ion a g r icu l tu r ep rac t iced . T he a r ea i sa l so n o ted f o rt h ei n ten se h ea tt h a tp r ecede st h em on soon , w hen t empe ra tu r e si nt h ep l a in sa r ound N agpu rr e ach 4 0° C a nd h ighe r i n A p r i l , May , a nd J un e . Much o f V ida rbha i sw i th in t h e w a te r shed o f t h e G odava r i r i v e r ,w h ich t h e r eaf t e re mp t ie si n to t h eB ay o fB enga l o n t h e e a s te rn s e aboa rd o f t h e s u bcon t inen t . T he p r edom inan t ly d r y c l ima te s uppor t s aw ide v a r ie ty o fv eg e ta t ion i n c lud ing b o th a g r icu l tu ra lc r op s a nd w i ld p l an t s . A s i nm any r eg ion s o fS ou th A s ia , t h e p r e sen t c onf igu ra t ion o ff o r e s t s i nc en t ra l I nd ia r e p r e sen t so n ly af r a c t ion o fi t sp a s te x ten t . P opu la t ion i n c rea se i nt h e p a s t s e ve ra l c en tu r ie s , a sw e l l a st h e i n t en s iv e e xp lo i ta t ion o f t h e f o re s t s u nd e r B r i t i sh c on t ro l , a r e c r ed i t ed f o rt h ed im inu t ion o ff o r e s tl a nd ( D ik sh i t 1 986 ) . B y t h e l a te t wen t ie th c en tu ry , t h e V ida rbha r e g ion o f Maha ra sh t ra c on ta ined a pp rox ima te ly f i f ty p e r cen t o f t h e s t a te ' s f o re s t s ( D ik sh i t 1 986 ) . F o r e s t s i n t h e a r ea u p t o 1 00 k i lome te r s ' r ad iu s f r om K aund inyapu ra a r e c ha rac te r ized a s " t rop ica l d ry d ec iduou s f o r e s t s , " t h ough t h i s c l a s s if ica t ion i s ab l ank e t t e rm u sed t o i d en t if y a r ea s w he re e ve rg r een a nd m o i s t d ec iduou s f o r e s t s a r e a b sen t ( D ik sh i t 1 986 ) . T he se f o r e s ted r e g ion sp rodu ce al a rge q uan t i ty o fs upp lemen ta lf o od a nd f odd e r ,a sw e l la sf u e la nd m ed ic ina lp l an t s . A g r icu l tu ra l c r op s i n c lude aw ide s u i te o fr ab i ( w in te r )a nd k ha r if ( summe r )c r op s ,i n c lud ing m i l le t s , p u l se s , a nd w hea t . I n m ode rn t im e s , t h e u s e o f i r r iga t ion h a s e nab led t h e p roduc t ion o f a dd i t iona l c r op s s u ch a ss uga rcane a nd w hea ta sw e l la sg rape s , b anana s , a nd o r ange s( D ik sh i t 1 986 ) .

s i te t h rough t h e c o l lec t ion a nd a na ly s i s o f s u r f ace r ema in s . P e rm is s ion w a sg ran ted b yt h eA S It os t udy t h es i t eo fK aund inyapu ra , l o ca t ed a pp rox ima te ly 1 00 k i lom e t e r sw e s to fN agpu r( f igu r e 5 . 1 ) . T h e s i te w a s t h es u b jec to fe xcava t ion si n1 962 a nd 1 964 b yM . G . D ik sh i t ( 1 968 ) . T he se e xcava t ion s w e r e l im i ted i n s c op e , b e ing l o ca ted o n t h e t wo m o r e p rom inen t m ound s o f t he s i te ( f igu r e 5 . 2 ) . H oweve r , t h e p ub l ica t ion o ft h e se e xcava t ion si n d ica ted t h er ange o f m a t e r ia l st h a t c ou ld b e e xpec ted a tt h e s i t e , a nd t h a t t h e s i t e s ha red m a te r ia l -cu l tu r e c ha rac t e r i s t ic s w i th o t he r s i t e s i n t h e V ida rbha r e g ion o f c en t ra l I nd ia ( D ik sh i t 1 968 ) . G eo logy o ft he V idarbha r eg ion T h e g eog raph ic c ond i t ion s a nd l a nd -ba s ed r e sou r c e s o f c en t ra l I nd ia h ave p e rm i t ted t h e f l ou r i sh ing o fd if e r en t s c a le sa nd i n ten s i ty o fh uman o c cupa t ion . S h if t s i np o l i t ica l o r e conom ic a c t iv i ty c anno t , h oweve r , b e a t t r ibu ted s imp ly t oc l ima t ic o r e nv i ronmen ta lc hange s , s i nce i ta ppea r st h a td if e r en t s o c ia l f o rma t ion s m ade u se o fe s sen t ia l ly t h e s ame l a nd scap e . T h e m o s t d i s t inc t ive g eo log ica l e l emen t i n t h e a r ea o fw e s t -cen t r a l I nd ia i st h ev e ry e x t en s ive s e r ie s o fb a sa l t ic f l ow s , a pp rox ima te ly 3 0 m i l l ion y ea r s i n a g e , k nown a st h eD eccan b a sa l tp rov inc e( s ee f i gu r e 4 . 6 ) ' T he d ecompo s i t ion o ft h i s r o ck h a sp roduced a d e ep b l a ck s o i l t h a t i sc on cen t ra ted i nv a l ley s a nd f o o th i l lp l a in s ,p opu la r ly k nown a s" b lack c o t ton s o i l " f o r i t s e x cep t iona l s u i tab i l i ty f o r c o t ton p rodu c t ion ( D ik sh i t 1 986 ) . I nt h es em i -d ry p l a teau ,b l a ck c o t ton s o i l i sc l ayey a nd r i ch i ni r on a nd h i gh i n mo is tu r e r e t en t iv ep roper t ie s ; when r e depo s i ted a l ong t h er i ve r v a l ley s , t h e se s o i l s b ecome d eepe r a nd h eav ie r ( A runa cha lam 1 985 :16 ) . T o t h e e a s t o ft h e D eccan b a sa l tp r ov ince i s ar e g ion o fg r an i te g ne i s se s , w h ich r e su l t s i n av e ry d if e ren t g eo log ica l p rof i le , s i nce i t c on ta in s i r on o r e , s and s tone , a nd aw ide v a r ie ty o f m ine r a lr e sou rce si mpor tan tt o day s u ch a sc oa l . T h e c l ima te o f c en t ra l I nd ia i sd om ina ted b y s umm e rm on soon r a in s , wh ich p rov ide t h em a jor i ty o f t h e a nnua l r a in f a l l ( D ik sh i t 1 986 ) . Mo s t o f t h e a g r icu l tu ra l a c t iv i t ie s i nc en t r a l I nd ia a r e d epend en t

B a s ic c oncep t so fa r chaeo log ica l s urvey S u r f ace s u rvey a s at e chn ique f o r a dd r e s s ing l a rg e sca le a r chaeo log ica l q ue s t ion s w a s i n i t ia l ly d eve loped a s am ean so fd i scove r ing s i t e sp r ev iou s ly u nknown t or e sea r che r s . B y t h e n i ne teen th c en tu ry , s u r vey s w e r e m ade m o r e s y s tema t ic t h rough t h e e xam ina t ion o fl a nd scape s i nt h e i re n t i r e ty , w i th t h e p r inc ipa l e mpha s i s b e ing o ne o fc h rono logy a nd t h e d e te rm ina t ion o f h ow m any s i te s w e r e o ccup ied s imu l tan eou s ly ( W i l ley a nd S ab lof f1 980 ) . I nt h ee a r ly t wen t ie th c en tu ry , s u rvey s w e re a i ded b y t h e u se o f a e r ia l p ho tog raphy , o f t en c omb ined w i th o n the g r ound r e conna i s sance a tv a r iou s s c a le s o fi n ten s i ty , f r om r o ad -ba sed t r av e ls e rv ing t ol o ca t el a rge s i te s ,t o t h e u se o f m o r e i n ten s ive m e thod s o f p ede s t r ian c ove rage , s u ch a s s u rvey s i n w h ich i nd iv idua l s s y s tema t ica l ly w a lk a c ro s s t h e l a nd scape a nd r e co rd t h ep r e sen ce o fa r chaeo log ica l m a te r ia l sn o ted o nt h e

' A l so k nown a st h e " Deccan t r ap " ; t h ew o rd t r ap , o r ig ina l ly aS cand inav ian d e s igna t ion , i sb e ing d i sca rd ed i nf a vo ro ft h e mo r en eu t ra l " b a sa l t p rov in c e " ( H . M . R amchand r a ,p e r s . c omm . 1 995 ) . 3 9

F igure 5 . 1 . T he l o ca t ion o fK aund inyapura i nt h e Wardha R ive rv a l ley .

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F igure 5 . 2 . E xcava t ions a tK aund inyapura , 1 962 a nd 1 964 . F rom D ik sh i t 1 968 , f i g . 1 .

4 1

DE I /RW ADA

p urpo se s i t e s a r e e spec ia l ly a b sen t f r om t h e d ocumen ta ry r e co rd ,t h ough t h ey m ay p e rf o rm c r i t ica l r o le s i n p rov id ing r u ra l s uppo r t f o r g row ing p opu la t ion c en te r s . T ex tua l s ou rce s , o f t en w r i t t en f r om t h e c en te r s o f a u tho r i ty a nd s ome t ime s c on ta in ing a p r e sc r ip t ive a s w e l l a s ad e sc r ip t ive e l emen t , m ay p a in t au n if orm p i c tu r e o f p ro spe r i ty ; a r chaeo log ica l i n ve s t iga t ion m ay r e vea lt h a te ven i n t ime so fg en e ra lw e l l -be ing ,s ome a r ea so f ap o l i ty m ay b en eg lec t ed a nd r e la t ive ly i mpov e r i shed . I nS ou th A s ia ,a r chaeo log ica ls u r f a ce s u r vey a nd c o l lec t ion p r og ram s h ave b een a pp l ied t os i t e so ft h e H a rappan p e r iod ( M i l le r1 994 ;V ida le 1 990 ) ,t h eE a r ly

g round s u r f ace ( s ee A dam s 1 981 , 1 965 ;A lcock 1 991 ; C he r ry , D av i s , a nd Man tzou ran i 1 991 ; R unne l s a nd v an A nde l 1 987 ;S ande r s ,P a r son s ,a nd S an t ley 1 979 ) . A l though a rchaeo log ica l s u rvey w a si n i t ia l ly d eve lop ed a s aw ay t or e cove rt h ec u l tu ra l l a nd scape a round l a rg es i te s ,i t su t i l i ty q u ick ly e xpanded b eyond mak ing m ap s . R eg iona l s ur vey s w h ich d ocumen ted t h e p r e sen ce a nd d en s i ty o f s i t e s t h roughou t a l a nd scape i nt u rn p o sed q ue s t ion sa bou tt h en u c lea ted s e t t lem en t sw ho se p r e sence a f ec t ed h uman a c t iv i t ie s i n r u ra l a r ea s ( B in t l if fa nd S nodg ra s s 1 988 ) . A s a r e su l t ,t h es ame t e chn ique so fi n v e s t iga t ion h ave b een u sed o ns i ng le s i te s ,w i th s u r f ace s u rvey u nder taken t o s y s tema t ica l ly d ocumen t t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o fa r t if ac t s a nd o t he rc u l tu ra l r ema in s . S uch i n ve s t iga t ion sh ave o f t en b een c onduc ted s y s tema t ica l ly p r io r t o , o r i n c on junc t ion w i th , e xcava t ion . G iven t h e l o g i s t ica l c on s t ra in t su sua l ly f a ced b ya r chaeo log i s t sw o rk ing o n l a rge s i t e s , s u ch a s t h e c o s t s o f e xcava t ion a nd t h e r e qu i r emen t s o f a r t if ac t s t o r ag e , e xcava t ion s c an g ene ra l ly o n ly b e c a r r ied o u t o n al im i ted a r ea o fa l a rge a nd c omp lex s i t e . S y s t ema t ic s u r f ace i n ve s t iga t ion sa s s i s t i nt h ec ho ice o fe xcava t ion a r ea s b y i d en t if y ing a r ea s w ho se s u r f a ce r ema in s i n d ica te p rom i s ing a r ea sf o rf u r the ri n ve s t iga t ion ( R edman a nd Wa t son 1 970 ) . O ne b en ef i tt h a te xcava t ion a c crue st os u rvey i sb y p rov id ing c h rono logy . S ince e x cava t ion r emove s d if e r en t c h rono log ica l p er iod s a s t h e d i gg ing p rog r e s se sd ownwa rd ,t h ea r t if ac t sf r om d if e r en tt ime p er iod s c an b e u sed a s c h rono log ica l m a rke r s t o i d en t if y t h e p e r iod o f t ime r e p r e sen ted b y as i te 's s u rf a ce ( g ene ra l ly , i t sl a te s to ccupa t ion ) . A s ar e su l t , e xcava t ion n eed n o tb eu nde r tak en o n as p ec if ic s i te i n o rde rt oa s se s s i t s a ge i fa r t if ac t s a r e f o und t h a t a r e s im i la rt ot h o se f ound a ta ny e xcava t ed , d a ted s i te i n t he r e g ion . Mo r e r e cen t ly , t h e e xam ina t ion o fl a rge s i te s h a s p ro ceeded a s s t and -a lone p ro jec ts u s ing s u r f a c es u rvey . T he f i r s t g oa l o ft h e se s u r v ey s w a s t od ocumen t t h e s i ze s o f s i t e s t h rough t ime i n o rd e r t o a s se s s p a t ter n so fg row th t h a ta f ec ted t h eu s eo fs u r round ing a r ea s( e .g . ,A lcock 1 991 ; Ma t t ing ly 1 992 ) . I na dd i t ion t o r e co rd ing t h e g row th o f c en t ra l p l ace s , s u rf ace a r t if a c t s f r om i nd iv idua l s i te s w e r e a l so u sed t o a dd r e s s q ue s t ion s a bou t as i t e ' s e conom ic a nd s o c ia l o rgan iza t ion ,e nab l ing t h ei n ve s t iga t ion o f"de ta i l so f i t s i n t e rna l o rgan i sa t ion w i th in as p a t ia l -behav iou ra l f r amewo rk " ( Wa lke r 1 984 :87 ) . I ns um ,a r chaeo log ica ls u r f a ce s u r vey c an p rov ide aw ea l th o fi n f orma t ion a bou t a n i n d iv idua l s i te a nd t h e r e la t ion sh ip o f s i te s t o e a ch o t he r a nd t o t h e s u r round ing l a nd scape ,e nab l ing t h er e con s t ruc t ion o f c u l tu ra li n teg ra t ion a nd e conom ic a c t iv i t ie s . E ven f o r p e r iod si nw h ich d ocumen ta ry e v id enc ec an b ec i ted , a r cha eo log ica l i n ve s t iga t ion p rov id e s i n f o rma t ion a bou tl a rg e sca le e conom ic p a t te rn sf o rw h ich t e x tua l s ou r ce s a r e o f t en s i len t . Sma l l s i t e s a nd s p ec ia l -

H i s to r ic p e r iod ( E rdo sy 1 988 ; Sm i th 1 999a , 2 000 , 2 001a ) , a nd t h e m ed ieva l e r a s ( Mo r r i son 1 990 ; S i nopo l i a nd Mo r r i son 1 995 ) . T he m e thod s r ang e f r om v e ry i n ten s ive s u r f ace c o l lec t ion s ( u p t o a nd i n c lud ing t h eu s eo f av acuum c l eane rt or emove e ven t h e s ma l le s t p ar t ic le s ; V ida le 1 990 ) t o r o ad -ba sed s u rvey s a nd v i l lage to -v i l lage s urvey s t h a t a r e o f t en d e sc r ibed a sa n " e xp lo ra t ion "o fa na r ea t oi d en t if yt h e l o ca t ion o fs i t e s . I n terpre ta t ion o fs ur face ma ter ia l s T he i n t e rp r e ta t ion o fh uman c u l tu ra la c t iv i ty f r om v i s ib le s u r f a ce r ema in s i s ad oma in f undamen ta l ly d if e ren tf r om t h ei n te rp re ta t ion o fe xcava ted d epo s i t s . Wh i le p r ec i s e d e te rm ina t ion s o fs pa t ia l o rgan iza t ion a nd u sage c an b e m ade f o re xcava ted c on tex t sw h ich a r ef i rm ly a ncho red i n at h r ee -d imen s iona lf r ame o f r e f e r ence ,s u r f ac er ema in sc omp r ise at wo -d imen s ion a l d i s t r ibu t ion . T he r e la t ion sh ip b e tw een s u r f a ce m a te r ia l s a nd s ub su r f ace a r chaeo log ica l d epo s i t s i n vo lve u nknown ( and s ome t ime s u nknowab le ) a spec t s , s u ch a st h ed ep th t ou nde r ly ing d epo s i t sa nd t h e d eg r ee t o w h ich s u r f a ce m a te r ia l s h ave b een v e r t ica l ly m ixed b y p o s tdepo s i t iona l d i s tu rbanc e . I n a dd i t ion , a s n o ted a bove , t h e re i st h e p o ten t ia l f o r n a tu ra lf o r c e ss u ch a sa l luv ia t ion a nd e r o s ion t oa f ec t s u r f ace d epo s i t s . T he s u r f ace o ft h ee a r th i sc on s tan t ly m od if i ed ,w h e r et h ee nv i ronmen t ,p eop le ,a nd a r t if ac t s a r e " con t inu a l ly i n te rac t ing c ompon en t s o f as i ng le s y s tem " ( Eb e r t 1 992 :11 ) . B ecau se s u cceed ing g ene ra t ion s o f l a nd u s e r e a r rang e s t h e s u r f a c e a r chaeo log ica lr e co rd ,v e s t ige so fa nc ien ta c t iv i ty a r ea s a r en o ta lway sd i sc r e te ,a nd " t he a r chaeo log ica lr e co rd i sl i ke ly t oc on s i s t o f av i r tua l ly c on t inuou s s pa t ia l d i s t r ibu t ion o fm a t er ia l o ver t h e l a nd scap e , b u t a d i s t r ibu t ion e x t r eme ly v a r iab le i n d en s i ty " ( Che r ry 1 983 :395 ; e mpha s i si no r ig ina l ) . J u s t a st h e i n te rp r e ta t ion o fe xcava ted c on tex t s r e qu ir e s a n u nde r s tand ing o f t h e w ay i n wh ich a r chaeo log ica l d epo s i t s h av e b een a f f ec ted b y p o s t d epo s i t iona l a c t iv i t ie s , t h e i n te rp r e ta t ion o f t h e a r chaeo log ica ls u rf ace r e co rd r e qu i r e sa t ten t ion t ot h e w ay si nw h ich l a nd scape sa r e mod if ied b yc on t inuou s h uman o r n a tu r a l a c t iv i ty . Me thodo log ica l i s sue s 4 2

r e ga rd ing s urvey h av e l a rg e ly c on cen t ra ted o n t h e q ue s t ion o fs i te r e cogn i t ion a nd s i t ed ef in i t ion . Wh i le s t and ing a r ch i tec tu ra l r ema in s m ay i n d ica t ea spec t so fs pa t ia lo rgan iza t ion f o ra na nc ien t s i t e , t h e f i nd spo t s o f p o r tab le o b jec t s d o n o t s a f e ly a l low t h ei n f e ren ce o ft h el o ca t ion so ft h es t ruc tu r e st o w h ich t h ey o r ig ina l ly b e long ed . I n m any c a se s , a r cha eo log ica l s i te s c on t inu e t ob e l i v ing l a nd scape s s ub je c t t o c hang e b y n a tu ra l f a c to r s a s w e l l a s b y s ub sequ en t h uman u se . T he se c umu la t ive e f e c t s , o r s i t e -f o rma t ion p roce s se s , mu s tb ea c coun ted f o ri nt h e i n t e rp r e ta t ion o fs u r f ace ma te r ia l s( S ch if f e r 1 987 ) . N a tu ra l i mpa c t s u pon s i te s i n c lud e w ind -bo rne a nd w a te r -bo rne s i l ta sw e l la sd i s tu rbanc eb ya n ima l s , p l an t s ,f r o s t , a nd e ar thquake s . C u l tu ra li mpac t su pon s i t e sa r ee ven m o r ev a r ied , a nd i n c lud e h uman r e u se o fa r ch i tec tu ra le l em en t sa nd a r t if a c t s ,d i gg ing o fp i t s , t h e u s e o f a n a r ea t o d ump u nwan ted d eb r i s , a nd s u r f a c e d i s tu rbance s uch a sp l ow ing a nd t r amp l ing . O f t en , n a tu ra l a nd c u l tu ra l f a c to r s w o rk t o ge the r : r emova l o fa r ch i tec tu r e p rov ide s c av i t ie s i n to w h ich a i r bo rn e s i l t a ccumu la te s ; w a t e r a nd p l an t s n e s t le i n t h e s e c av i t ie s a nd f u r the r b r eak u p t h e a r ch i tec tu ra l f o rm s ; p l ow ing , l e ve l ing , a nd t e r ra c ing b r eak u p s u r f a c ei r r egu la r i t ie sa nd t u rn a r chaeo log ica ls i te si n to p r oduc t ive f a rm land . Wh i le t h e se p roce s se s a ppea r d r a s t ic , t h e r e a r e c e r ta in e l emen t so ft h ea r chaeo log ica lr e co rd t h a ta r e d if i cu l t t o e r a se a l toge th e r . S ome c a t ego r ie s o f a r t if a c t sa r ep ar t icu la r ly r e s i l ien tt of r agmen ta t ion ,o r c an s t i l lp rov ide i n f orma t ion a bou tp a s th uman s o c ia l a c t iv i t ie s e ven when h igh ly f r agmen tary . A r chaeo log is t s a r e f amou s f o r t h e i r c once rn a bou t p o t she rd s , b u tt h i s i si np a r tb ecau se c e ram ic v e s se l s a r ed i ff i cu l tt od e s t roy a l toge the r , m ean ing t h a ts ome i n f o rma t ion a bou t v e s se l s hape , s i ze , m a te r ia l , i n c lu s ion s , a nd s ome t ime se v en d eco ra t ion p e r s i s t i n e v en t h e s ma l le s t f r agmen t ( S inopo l i 1 991 :1-3 ) . S im i la r ly , s t one t o o l s m ay b e s u b jec t t o f u r the r b r eakage f r om s i te -f o rma t ion p roce s s e s , b u t a r e u n l ike ly t od i sappea ra l toge th e r . T he r e cove ry o fa r t if ac t st h a ti nd ica t et h ep r e sence o f a n c ien t a c t iv i ty a r ea s m ay b e h amp e r ed b y g eomo rpho log ica l c hange s s u ch a s a l luv ia t ion o r i n f la t ion , t h e v i s ib le e f ec t s o f w h ich m ay v a ry s e a sona l ly a cco rd ing t o v eg e ta t ion c ov e r ( S ch if f e r 1 987 ) . T he v i s ib i l i ty o f a r t if ac t s a nd s t ruc tu ra l r ema in s a l so i n c rea se s o r d ec r ea s e s a c co rd ing t o m od e rn l a nd scape mod if ica t ion s s u ch a s p l ow ing ( Amme rman 1 985 ; S t e inbe rg 1 996 ; T e r r ena to a nd Amme rman 1 996 ) . G eomo rpho log ica l e va lua t ion s a nd o b serva t ion so f mode rn b ehav io ra r ound s i t e sa r e c r i t ica l i n a s s e s s ing t h e e x ten t t o w h ich s u r f ace r ema in sh ave p r ed ic t ive v a lue a bou ta n c ien ta c t iv i t ie s . T he l o ngev i ty o fs i te u se a l so a f f ec t st h ei n t e rp r e ta t ion o fs i t eg row th o ve rt ime ,s i nce a r t if ac t sf r om t h el a te s t o c cupa t ion so ft h es i te a r el i ke ly t ob em o r ev i s ib le a nd e va lua t ion o ft h ee x ten ta nd c ompo s i t ion o ft h ee a r l ie s t

o c cupa t iona lp e r iod si st h e r e f o r ec omp rom i sed b yl a te r a dd i t ion s . F ac to r so fv i s ib i l i ty v a ry d epend ing o nt h e s c a le o fi n ve s t iga t ion ,f r om a e r ia lo rr o ad -ba s ed s u rvey i nw h ich t h e l a rge s t s i te s w i l l b e mo s t a ppa r en t , t o i n t en s ive a nd s y s tema t ic g r ound -wa lk ing , w h ich r e cove r se v idence f r om much s ma l le ro ccu r rence s . T he i n ve s t iga t ion o f l a rge r s i te s a nd t h e i r s u r round ing a r ea s a l so i n v i t e st h e r e con s id e ra t ion o f w ha tc on s t i tu te s a" s i te ." Mo s ta r chaeo log ica ls u rvey s e va lua te h uman a c t iv i t ie s i nt h e l a nd scape u s ing t h e c on cep t o f as i te a s al o cu s o f p u rpo sef u l h uman a c t iv i ty i nt h ep a s t . Am i l l , ac ave w i th p i c tog raph s , o r a n a n c ien t c i ty s u ch a s P ompe i i c an a l l b e c on s id e r ed s i te s ; b y c on t ra s t , ac o l lec t ion o fa r t if ac t s w a shed a way b y af l ood a nd d epo s i ted o n ar i ve rbank c ou ld n o t . I nve s t iga to r s mu s td ec ide a t wh ich p o in t t h ed en s i ty o rs pac ing o fa r t if a c tc l u s te r s s e en o nt h e g r ound s u r f ace i ss uf i c ien t ly g r ea t t ol a be l t h em a s e pa ra t es i t e . T h e n umbe r o fs i t e s r e cove r ed i n as u rvey w i l l v a r y a c co rd ing t o t h e c r i te r ia u sed t o i d en t if y a r t if a c tua l o r s t ruc tu ra l o ccur r en ce s . As i te c an b e d ef ined a s " a d i sc r e te a nd p o ten t ia l ly i n te rp r e tab le l o cu s o f c u l tu ra l m a te r ia l s " ( P log , P log a nd Wa i t 1 978 :389 ) , b u t t h e s i ze a nd b ounda r ie s o ft h a t l o cu s a r e e s tab l i shed a tt h e d i sc r e t ion o ft h e i n ve s t iga to r . T h e t h r e sho ld f o r t h e i d en t if i ca t ion o f as i te v a r ie s f r om p r o je c tt op ro jec ta nd f r om o ne r e sea r ch a r ea t o a no the r , a nd m ay r e f le c t t h e r e sea r ch g oa l s o f t h e p ro jec ta sw e l la sa ccep t ed c onv en t ion sa nd p a s tu sage i n ap a r t icu la r g eog raph ica l a r ea . T h e m in ima l t h r e sho ld f o rt h ed ef in i t ion o f as i t em ay a l so v a ry w i th t h ee xp e c t ed d en s i t ie so fa r t i f a c t sa s soc ia ted w i th s i te s o fd if e r en tt ime p e r iod s . F o rc u l tu ra lp e r iod so fl ow p opu la t ion d en s i ty , f o re xamp le , a ni n ve s t iga to r may d ec ide t h a t as i te o ft h a t e r a i st ob e d ef ined o n t h e b a s i so ff ew a r t if ac t s ; f o re poch sa s soc ia ted w i th h igh p opu la t ion d en s i t ie s ,t h em in ima ln umbe ro fa r t if ac t s c ou ld b es e tc on s ide rab ly h i ghe r( f o ra ne xamp le , s e e K eay a nd M i l le t 1 991 ) . A l a rge u rban a r ea , f o r e xamp le , m ay b e c ompo sed o f d i s t inc t s ubzon e s w i th e nough s pace b e tween t h em t h a tt h ey c ou ld b ec on s ide r ed s e pa ra te s i t e s( f o re xamp le , a tV i jayanaga ra ) ( Mo r r ison 1 990 ; S i nopo l i 1 990 ) . S i te sc an a l so b ed if i cu l tt od ef ine i n a r ea so fv e ry d i spe r sed a r t if a c t si nw h ich h uman u se o f t h el a nd scape i sc l ea rb u th a s av e ry l ow r a t eo fa r t if ac t d epo s i t ion i nn onpe r i shab le i t em s . One s o lu t ion f o r t h i s t y pe o f a r chaeo log ica l l a nd scape h a s b een t h e P s i t e le s s "o r" non s i te /of f s i te "s u r vey s t ra tegy i n wh ich t h e a r t i f ac t i st h e m in ima l u n i t o fi n v e s t iga t ion ( s ee C h e r ry , D av i s a nd Man tzou ran i 1 991 :chap . 3 ;F o ley 1 98 1 ; Wr igh te ta l . 1 990 ) . Wh i le t h ea dvan tage so fa n on s i t e s u rvey a r e c l ea rf o rt h e e a r l ie s t t ime p e r iod s w h en b o th p eop le a nd a r t if ac t sw e re a t al ow d en s i ty , t h e a pp roa ch i s a l so u s e f u l f o r t ime s o f h igh p opu la t ion d en s i ty a nd s o c ia l c omp lex i ty , s i n ce s ome a nc i l lar ys p ec ia l t ie ss u ch a sp a s to ra l i sm i nc on junc t ion 4 3

r ema in s , a c t iv i t ie s wh ich a r e b a s ed o n l a rge sca le , r e pe t i t ive a c t ion s i nvo lv ing m a te r ia l g ood s a r e t h o se m o s t l i ke ly t ob e s y s tema t ica l ly r e cov e r ed t h rough a s u rf ace a s s e s smen t . E xamp le so fs u ch a c t ion si n c lud e h ab i tua l c on sump t ion o rp roduc t ion a c t iv i t ie s w h ich p roduc e d ebr i s s uch a s d ome s t ic t r a sh a nd w a s te p roduc t s s u ch a s d eb i tage a nd s l ag . T hus , t h e p r inc ipa l v a r ie ty o f i n f orma t ion w h ich c an b e r e cove r ed f r om s u r f ace s u rvey a ti n d iv idua l s i te s i s e conom ic i n f o rma t ion a bou t t h e w ay i n wh ich t h e i nhab i tan t so ft h e s i te a cqu i red a nd u t i l ized ma te r ia l g ood s i nt h e f u lf i l lmen t o fr egu la r r e qu i remen t s f o r s ub s i s t ence a nd s o c ia l i n te rac t ion . T h e g oa l s o f as u rvey p ro jec t a l so t r an s la t e d i r ec t ly i n to t h e o n the -g round m e thodo logy o f c o l lec t ion a nd m app ing s t ra teg ie s( Hodd e ra nd O r ton 1 976 ; J udg e a nd S eba s t ian 1 988 ; O r ton 2 000 ; P log , P log ,a nd Wa i t 1 978 ) . Sma l l s amp le u n i t se nab le t h e c ap tu r eo fp r e s ence -ab sence i n f orma t ion o ve r al a rg e a r ea ,b u ti t em st h a ta ppea ri n f r equen t ly a tt h es i te h av e al ow c hanc eo fb e ing c ap tu red i n ag i v en s amp le u n i t . B yc on t ra s t ,l a rge s amp le u n i t se nab le t h ei nve s t iga to r t om o r ea c cu ra t e ly c ap tu r et h ed i ve r s i ty o ft h ea r t if ac t a s semb lage , b u t t a ke mo r e t ime t oc o l lec t a nd a r e g ene ra l ly s p a ced f u r the ra pa r t . I nt h eK aund inyapu r a s u rv ey p ro je c t , t h e g oa l o f t h e s y s tema t ic s ur vey p rog ram w a s t oc a ta log t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o f a r t if a c t s a c ro s st h es i t ea nd t ou se t h o se a r t if ac td i s t r ibu t ion st o e va lua t e p rodu c t ion a nd c on sump t ion a c t iv i t ie s . I n a dd i t ion , t h e s i t e w a s r e la t ive ly m ode s t i n s i ze ( 6 .5 h ec ta re s ) s o t h a t ac o l lec t ion s t ra tegy o f n ume rou s s qua r e ss i zed 2x2m e te r sa nd p l aced 2 0m e ter sa pa r t w a sp ra c t icab le . T he se g oa l sa nd m e thodo logy c an b e c on t ra s ted w i th t h e r e sea r ch p ro jec ta tE a r ly H is to r ic S i supa lga rh , al a rge u rban s i te a tw h ich t h e g oa l s i n c luded a s s e s s ing t h e d i v e r s i ty o f a r t i f ac t s w i th in s amp le u n i t s ; a c co rd ing ly , t h e s amp le u n i t sa re s e ta t 5x5m e te r sa nd 5 0m e te r sa pa r t( Sm i th 2 001a ) .

w i th e a r ly u rban s i te s s t i l l f a l l u nd e r ar u b r ic o f d i spe r sed a nd i n f r equen ta r t if ac td epo s i t ion . E qua l ly i mpo r tan tf o rt h ei n te rp re ta t ion o fa nc ien t l i f eway s a nd p a t te rn s o f c u l tu ra l i n te r ac t ion i sa n a l lowan ce f o r " emp ty " s pace . E ven i fa r t if ac t -f r ee a r ea s a r e d e te rm in ed t o b e ar e su l t o f c on sc iou s a vo idance ( r a the r t han p o s td epo s i t iona l p roce s se s w h ich h ave r emoved t r ace so fa nc ien tu sage ) ,t h e r ei s n on eed t os e es u ch a r ea sa sb e ing " un impor tan tz one s o f t h e l a nd scape , " a s p h ra sed b y B in t l if f a nd S nodg ra s s( 1 991 ) . S ome a c t ive e conom ic u s e so ft h e l a nd scap el e ave f ew o rn oa r cha eo log ica lt r ace s , s u ch a s g a the r ing o f n a tu ra l r e sou r ce s o r p a s tu r ing o f a n ima l s ;l i k ew i se ,t h et empo ra ry d we l l ing sa s soc ia ted w i th t h e s ea nd o t h e rs e a sona l o ro cca s iona l a c t iv i t ie s m ay b e a r chaeo log ica l ly i n v i s ib le . I n a dd i t ion t o e conom ic a c t iv i t ie s , t h e s ymbo l ic a nd r i tua l u s e o f s pace m ay a c t ive ly i n c lude c u l tu ra l c a tego r ie s o f " emp ty " s pa ce ; s u ch s pace m ay a l so h ave s e rv ed a s b uf f e rz one sb e tw een c u l tu ra lg roup s . I ns ome p a r t so ft h ew o r ld ,s u ch a st h e Am e r ican S ou thw e s t , e ven e pheme ra l a r chaeo log ica l s i te ss u ch a st empo ra ry c amp sa r ep r e se rv ed f o rt h ea r cha eo log i s t o n r e la t ive ly u nd is tu rbed h i l l top s . Mo r e o f ten , a r chaeo log ica l s i te s a r e l o ca ted i n a r ea s o f a c t ive h uman u s e , w i th t h e mo s tc ommon o ccu r r en ce b e ing p l owed f i e ld s . H av ing n o ted t h a t a r t i f a c t f r agm en t s s u r v ive p o s tdepo s i t iona ld i s tu rbance ,i si ta l so p o s s ib le t oe va lua te p a t t erns o fa c t iv i ty i nt h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd? N ume rou sa nd r e p ea ted s t ud ie so fp l owzon e a r chaeo logy i nE u rope h ave i lu s t ra t ed t h a tw ec an s t i l l e l ic i t p a t te rn s o f a nc ien t h uman a c t iv i ty e v en i n p l owed a r ea s ( Amme rman 1 985 ; S t e inbe rg 1 996 ; T e r r ena to a nd Amm e rman 1 996 ) . I tm ay b e h ea r t en ing t ol e a rn t h a t u nd e r q u i te d ra s t ic c ond i t ion so fs i te r emova l , s ome a r t if ac t sa nd s i t e -ba sed l a nd scape mod if ica t ion ss t i l lr ema in . O n e r e cen ta r chaeo log ica ls t udy o f ap u rpo sef u l lybu l ldozed h ab i ta t ion s i te w a su nder taken t oe va lua te w he th e ra ny i n f o rma t ion c ou ld b e a ccu ra te ly o b ta ined ( Sm i th 2 001b ) . When c ompa r ed t oh i s to r ic d ocumen t s a nd m ap s , t h e l o ca t ion o f a r t if ac t s , a r ch i tec tu ra l d eb r i s , a nd e ven p a t ter n so fv ege ta t ion g row th s how ed t h a ta p a l imp se s to ft h es i t er ema ined o nt h e l a nd scape a nd c ou ld b ea na lyzed f o rs i te f un c t ion ,h ab i ta t ion s i z e ,t h e l o ca t ion o f e l i t e a nd n on e l i te a r ea s , a nd s pec ia l p u rpo se a r ea so fs i te u se . I t i sp robab ly mo re a c cu ra t e t o s ugge s t t h a t p a t ter n si ns u r f ace a r t if ac t sg i ve s ag ene ra li n d ica t ion o ft h e r ange a nd d i ve r s i ty o fm a te r ia ls p r e sen ta tt h e s i te . Sma l l -sca le o r p r ec i se mod e l ing o f s i t e c ha rac t e r i s t ic s b a sed o n s u r f ace r ema in s i s a p rob lema t ic v en tu r e ; i tw ou ld b e i n app rop r ia t e , f o r e xamp le ,t os e ea r ch i tec tu ra lf r agmen t sl y ing i n ar ow o n ap l owed s u r f ace a nd i n te rp r e tt h e se a st h eo u t l ine o f ab u i ld ing ( a l though s u ch a t temp t sh ave b een m ade ; s e e f o r e xamp le K eay , C r e igh ton , a nd J o rdan 1 991 :375 ) . I n t h e a b sence o fs t and ing a r ch i t ec tu ra l

A r chaeo log ica l s urvey a t Kaund inyapura T he p r in c ipa lf o cu so ft h i ss u rvey p r o jec tw a st h e d e ta i led s u r f ace i nve s t iga t ion o f t h e s i te o f K aund inyapu ra , l o ca ted o n t h e w e s te rn b ank o ft h e p e r enn ia l Wa rdha R ive r ( f igu re s 5 . 3 t o 5 . 7 ) . T he a r cha eo log ica lp o r t ion so ft h es i t ea r ec u r r en t ly u nd e r av a r ie ty o fd if e r en tt y pe so fv ege ta t ion ,n ece s s i ta t ing s u rvey a nd r e cove ry s t ra teg ie sw h ich c ou ld b ea d ju s ted t o o n the -g r ound c ond i t ion s . T he s o u thernmo s t p o r t ion o f t h e s i te , t h e mound n o ted a s KDN I I i n D ik sh i t ' sr e po r t , i sc u r ren t ly c ove r ed w i th v e ry d en s e v ege ta t ion w h ich w a sp lan t ed i nt h el a t e 1 960s b yt h e F o r e s t ry D ep a r tmen t . T h i sv ege ta t ion e x t end s t ot h e r i ve ro nt h ee a s ter ns i de o ft h e mound ;t h ef l a t land so n t h ew e s ta nd s o u th o ft h e mound a r ep l ow ed f i e ld s . T o t h e n or th , t h e r e a r e t wo m ino r mound s , a nd ap aved r o ad t h a t r un se a s t -we s t ( known a st h eK u rha r o ad ) . T h i s r o ad i sw e l l s ou th o f t h e c u r r en t v i l lage o f 4 4

B H IM T EKD I MOUND

K DN I l MOUND

F igure 5 .3 . A rchaeo log ica l m ounds , s amp le a reas , a nd l o ca t ion o ft h e modern v i l lage a tK aund inyapu ra .

4 5

F igure 5 . 4 . Mound sa ts i t eo fK aund inyapu r a , w i th r o ad t h a tl e ad sf r om A rv i i nt h ee a s tt o Ku rha i nt h ew e s t ; v i ew i st ot h es ou th . N o t et e a s t a l li nf a rl e f to fp ho tog raph .

F igure 5 . 5 . S i t eo fK aund inyapu ra f r om a c ro s st h e Wa rdha R ive r . N o t eb r idge p i l ing so nf a rl e f t . 4 6

F igure 5 . 6 . S ou thwes tern f l ank o f mound KDNI I ( c o l lec t ion a r eas 2 04 , 2 08 ) s how ing f i e lds . P ho to H . Wr igh t .

F igure 5 .7 . V i l lage o f Kaund inyapu ra , t a ken f r om " i s land " i n Wa rdha R iver ( s ee f i gu re 5 . 3) .

4 7

K aund inyapu ra , b u tp r io rt o1 994 an ew b r idge b egan t ob ec on s truc ted t oc onnec tt he p re sen tp or t ion o ft h e K u rha r o ad w i th a r o ad o n t h e o t he r s i de o f t h e Wa rdha R ive r . A t t h e e nd o ft h e s u rvey i nl a te 1 995 , t h e b r idge a c ro s s t h e Wa rdha r i ve r h ad n o t y e t b een c omp le ted , a l though t he e ven tua l i mpac t o n t h e s i te c ou ld b e f o re seen . T he b r idge w i l l a l low g r ea te r a moun t s o f t r af f i c t op a s s t h rough t h e a r ea , w h ich w i l l p robab ly h ave ad amag ing e f ec t u pon t he p o r t ion s o ft h e s i te t h a t b o rde r t h e r o ad . A s o f 1 995 t h e r e w a s o n ly a s ma l lt e as t a l la d jacen tt ot h er oad b e tween t h e m ino r mound s ; a t a bou t 8 00 m e te r s w e s t o f t h e r i ve r , a s ub s id ia ry s e t t lemen t h ad s prung u p w i th a d ozen h ou se s .

B o th t h e c omme rc ia l a nd t h e r e s iden t ia l

p or t ion so ft h e r o ad b o rder s w i l l i n c r ea se i ns i ze a nd a c t iv i ty a s t he r oad l i nk s t h e t wo i mpor tan t m a rke t t own s o fA rv i ( on t h e e a s tern s i de o ft h e r i ve r ) a nd K u rha ( on t h ew e s te rn s i de o ft h e r i ve r ) . T o t h e n o r th o ft h e K u rha r oad , t h e B h im T ekd i m ound i s h ome t o s evera l t emp le s a nd o ne v e ry mode s th ab i ta t ion . E ver yy ea r , t h is p or t ion o ft h es i te i sa l so t h e f o cu s o f at r emendou s a moun t o fa c t iv i ty d ur ing t h e a nnua l r e l ig iou s f a i r , w h ich a t t rac t s a pp rox ima te ly 1 0 ,000 p eop le t ot h es i te . D u r ing t h is F igure 5 . 8 . E ro s ion o nt h en or thwe s ts i d eo ft h eB h im

t wo -week a u tumna l f a ir , t h e e n t ir e a r ea b ecome s a t empo rary e ncampmen tf o rt r ave le r sa nd p i lg r im sw ho

T ekd i mound .

c amp o nt h eB h im T ekd i a nd t he r i ve rt e r race s . N or th o ft h e B h im T ekd i i s aa bandoned , e r oded

s amp l ing f r ac t ion ( i n t h i s c a se , o ne p e rcen t ) i s

z one t h a ts l ope sd own t o as ma l lp e r enn ia lc r eek . T h i s

h oweve r o n ly o ne a spec t o f t he d ec i s ion -mak ing p roce s s ; ad e c is ion mu s ta l so b e made a bou tt he s i ze o f

z one m a rk s t h e s ou the rn b ounda ry o f t h e m odern v i l lage o f K aund inyapu ra , a nd i su sed a s ar e fu se

t h e c o l lec t ion u n i t s . T he s amp le s i z e s n eeded t ob e l a rge e nough t o c ap tu re t h e p o ten t ia l v a r iab i l i ty

d ump b yt h ev i l lage r s . T o t h e n o r th o ft h ec r eek a r e t h ree d i s t inc t h i l lock s o n wh ich s i t s t h e mode rn

p r e sen t a te a ch c o l lec t ion u n i t , b u t a l so s ma l l e nough t h a t t h e mound w ou ld b e r ep resen ted b y e nough

v i l lage ;r e cen t ly ,t h ev i l lage ( o fa bou t 1 00 h ouseho ld s ) h a sb egun t oe xpand t ot h ef l a t te ra r ea st ot h ew e s t o f t h e t h ree h i l lock s . T he f o ca l p o in t f o r t h e modern

s amp les t o d emons t ra te a ny v a r iab i l i ty i n t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o f a r t if ac t s o ver t he c ou r se o f t h e

v i l lage i st h e R ukm in i t emp le , l o ca ted o n a n u p land t e r race i nt h e s ou thea s te rn c orne ro ft h ev i l lage .

a r chaeo log ica l s i t e .

On ap rac t ica l n o te , i tw a s a l so

I no rde rt oo b ta in as amp le o ft h e a r chaeo log ica l

u sef u l t o h av e as amp le u n i t who se m ea su remen t s c on s t i tu ted a r ound n umber , f a c i l i ta t ing q u ick

s i te 's s u r f ace t ha tw ou ld b er ep re sen ta t ive o ft h ew ho le ,

c a lcu la t ion sa nd s ummar ie so fd a ta . A cco rd ing ly , a n

as y s tema t ic , n ona l igned r andom s amp l ing s t ra tegy

i n i t ia lu n i t s i z eo f 2x2m e te r sw as c ho sen ; t oa ch ieve

w a s e mp loyed .

T he r e la t ive ly h igh d en s i ty o f t h e

ao ne p e rcen ts amp le w i th au n i to ft h i ss i ze , o ne u n i t

s he rd s s e en o n t h is mound s ugge s ted t h a t ao ne

n eeded t ob ep l aced e ver y 2 0 m e ter s i na l l d i rec t ion s . T he f i r s ta r ea t ob e s ur veyed i nt h ec our se o ft h is

p e rcen t s amp le w ou ld y i e ld q uan t i t ie s o f ma te r ia l s l a rge e nough t o a dd re s s q ue s t ion s o f a r t if ac t d i s tr ibu t ion b u t a l so b e o f a manageab le s i ze w i th

p ro jec t w a s t h e l o ca l i ty 2 01 ( known a s t he B h im

r e spec t t o l og i s t ica l d emand s s uch a s p roce s s ing ,

g ood , w i th v ege ta t ion b e ing l im i ted t os hor t ( f ive t o

t r an spor ta t ion ,a nd s t o rage . ' T he d e te rm ina t ion o ft h e

t e nc en t ime te r sh i gh )g ra s se sk ep ti nc heck b yg raz ing ; t h ee qua lv i s ib i l i ty o fa l lp a r t so ft he mound m ean tt h a t

2T he

T ekd i ) . G round v i s ib i l i ty o nt h is mound i n 1 994 w a s

t h e s ame c o l lec t ion s t ra tegy c ou ld b e u t i l ized t h roughou t , s ot h a t t h e l o g i s t ica l a spec t so ft he a c tua l

e s tab l ishmen to ft h is s amp l ing p ropor t ion

c an a l so b ec ompa red t os u rvey sa to t he rO ld Wo r ld s i te s . A tt h eR oman s i te o fP e i ia f lo r . S pa in , s ur f ace c o l lec t ion sc omp r ised ao ne p e rcen t s amp le ( Keay . C r iegh ton , a nd J o rdan 1 991) . I nt h e s u rvey c onduc ted a tt h ev e ry l a rge m ed ieva l I nd ian s i te o f

a ve raged a pp rox ima te ly 0 . 5 k gp er s qua re m e ter ( Mo r r ison 1 990 ) ; m y i n i t ia l e s t ima te so ft h e d en s i t ie so nt h ew e s t s i de o ft h e Bh im T ekd i f e l l w i th in t h is r ange .

V i jayanaga ra , t h ea moun t o fc e ram ic sc o l lec ted 4 8

c o l le c t ion p roce s sc ou ld b ee s tab l i shed a nd s t r eam l ined

c o l lec t ion i nt h e l a bo ra to ry a f t e rwa rd s . A l l c o l lec ted m a te r ia l sw e r ep l aced i ni nd iv idua lb ag s , t ob e t a ken t o t h e l a bo ra to ry i n N agpu r f o r w a sh ing a nd i d en t if i ca t ion ;h owev e r ,b u i ld ing m a te r ia ls ( b r ick sa nd

u nd e rt h e se i d ea lc ond i t ion s . S ome e r o s ion w a sn o t ed o n t h e w e s te rn s i de o f t h i s m ound ( f igu r e 5 . 8 ) , r e su l t ing i n ag ood v i s ib i l i ty o fl a rge r s ize c e ram ic ( t h e se c e ram ic s w e r e t op rove e s pec ia l ly h e lp f u l i n e s tab l i sh ing c a t ego r ie s o f f o rm s s u i tab le f o r c ompa r i son w i th p ub l ish ed e xemp la r s ) . A f t e r mapp ing t h e m ound w i th a B run ton c ompa s sa nd a1 00 m e te rt a pe ,t h er e su l t ing m ap w a s o v e r la id w i th a2 0 x2 0m e te rg r id i nw h ich e ach g r id s qua r eh ad o ne s amp le u n i to f 2x2m e te r sr andom ly p l a ced . As y s tema t ic n ona l ign ed r andom s amp l ing p ro cedu r e w a s u s ed , i nw h ich u n i t s w e r e s pa ced a t

t i l e s ) w e r e c oun ted a nd w e ighed a t t h e s i te a nd r e tu rn ed t ot h ee xac ta r ea o ft h ec o l lec t ion s qua re . A s c o l lec t ion p rog r e s sed , t h e r e w a s an o ted d ec r ea se i n a r t if a c t d en s i ty i nt h e f l a t land s s u r round ing t h e 2 0 1 m ound ; s amp le s i ze s w e r e t h u s i n c r ea sed t o 4x4 m e te r s o n t h e w e s t e rn f l ank o f t h e mound . T h e s amp le g r id w a sa l so e xpanded t ot h en o r th i n1 995 ,t o c o l lec t t h e p o r t ion s o f t h e e r oded a r ea wh ich w e r e b e twe en t h eo r ig ina lp l a cemen to fl o ca t ion 2 01 a nd t h e m oder nv i l lag e . T he c omp le t ion o ft h el a rg en or the rn mound ( 2 0 1 c o l lec t ion a r ea ) p rov id ed a s amp le w h ich c ou ld b e u s ed f o r p r ed ic t ive c a lcu la t ion s o f t h e s um t o ta l o f a r t if a c t d en s i ty a nd d i ve r s i ty o n t h i s p or t ion o f t h e a r chaeo log ica ls i t e . H oweve r ,t h ec onf igu ra t ion o ft h e s ou th e rn p or t ion so ft h es i te ,i n c lud ing t h e2 03 mound a nd t h em ound k nown a s KDN I I ,w a sn o tc onduc iv e t o t h i s f o rm o f i n v e s t iga t ion . T he v e ry d en se v ege ta t ion m ean tt h a tt h ep l acemen to fs y s tema t ic g r id s qua r e so ve rt h ec ou r se o ft h em ound w ou ld b eh igh ly i n ef f i c ien t ;i no rde rt oa s se s st h ea r t if ac tua lr ema in so f t h i sm ound , t h ep ro jec to b ta ined p e rm is s ion f r om t h e A r cha eo log ica l S u rvey o fI nd ia t oc l ea rt h ev ege ta t ion f r om as t r ip o fl a nd , i nw h ich s amp le u n i t sw ou ld b e p l aced s i d e -by s ide i n ac on t inuou sr ow . T h i ss amp le s t ra tegy w a sa l so u s ed o no ne o ft h e m ino rm ound st ot h es ou th o ft h eK u rha r o ad ( l oca t ion 2 03 ) , i nw h ich 2 5 s amp le u n i t se a ch 4x4m e te r si n s i ze w e r ec o l lec t ed i n as i ng le s t r ip . Two s t r ip sw e r e l o ca ted o nt h es ou th er n mound KDN I I ,t a k ing c a re t o a vo id t h e a r ea s o ft h e m ound w h e r e t h e e xcava t ion s h ad t a ken p l a ce . One s t r ip w a sp l aced o nt h en o r the rn s i de o f KDN I I ( c on s i s t ing o fe i gh teen 4 x 4 m e te r g r id s qua r e s i nt h e n umbe r s e quence 2 04 ) a nd o n e s t r ip w a sp l a ced o n t h e s ou the rn s i de ( t h ir teen 2x2 m e t e rg r id s qua r e s i nt h e n umbe rs e quence 2 08 ) . I n a dd i t ion ,o ppor tun i s t ic s amp le sw e r et a ken whenev e r v i s ib i l i ty p e rm i t ted ( f o re xamp le , i na r ea se xpo sed b y e r o s ion ) . F ina l ly , t h em ino rl i nea rm ound 2 07 , t ot h e s ou th o f t h e K u rha r o ad , w a s s amp led u s ing a c ompo s i t e m e thod : b ecau se t h e l o ca t ion o f a r t if ac t s w a s g r ea t ly c i r cum scr ibed , as e r ie s o f 2x2m e te r c o l lec t ion s qua r e s w a s p l aced a tr e gu la r i n te rva l s t o d e l im i t t h e b ounda r ie s o fa r t if a c t o ccu r r ence a nd t o p rov ide ac ompa ra t ive s amp le w i th t h e l a rge r n ea rby m ound a t2 01 . I n a dd i t ion t o s y s tema t ic s amp le s , s e ve ra l p u rpo s iv e ( n on r andom o rj udgm en ta l ) s amp le s w e r e a l so t a k en i n a r ea s whe re v i s ib i l i ty p rov ided a n o ppor tun i ty t o a cqu i r e s u r f ace m a te r ia ls . T he se p u rpo s ive s amp le s i n c luded ( f rom n or th t o s ou th ) c o l le c t ion u n i t s2 01 -50 ,2 0 1-51 ,2 01-52 ,2 04 -31 ,2 04 3 2 , a nd 2 04 -33 . A l l o ft h e s y s tema t ic a nd p u rpo s ive s amp le sa tt h es i t eo fK aund inyapu ra a r ei lu s t ra ted i n

e qu id i s tan ti n t e rva l sw i thou tu s ing a ne xac t ly r e gu la r g r id ( f o r a n e xamp le o fs u ch ag r id , s e e f i gu r e 5 . 9 ) . N umbe r s a re r a ndom ly d rawn a nd r un a l ong t h e t o p a nd b o t tom o ft h e g r id ; w i th in e a ch g r id s qua r e , t h e n umbe rs e rve s t og u ide t h ep l a c emen t o ft h e s amp le u n i t( r andom n umbe r sc an b ed r awn e i the rt h rough a c ompu t e rp rog ram ,o rb yd r aw ing n umbe r sf r om s l ip s o fp ap e r ; a no th e re a sy m e thod i st ou se t h el a s td i g i t s o f ac o lumn o fn umbe r s i n ap hone b ook [ H . Wr igh t , p e r s . c omm . 1 994 ] ) . T h ea dvan tag eo fu s ing an ona l ign ed s amp le i st o e nab le i n ve s t iga to r s t or e cov e r p a t t e rn s t h a t a r e n o t o b s cu r ed b y a ny u nde r ly ing r egu la r i t ie s i n t h e a r cha eo log ica l s i t e ; f o r e xamp le , i ft h e s i t e w a s o c cup ied i n ap a t te rn o fs t r ee t sa nd h ou se s , as imp le g r id m igh tb eu nw i t t ing ly l a id b yt h ea r chaeo log i s ti n am anne rt ha tp l ace s e ve ry s amp le u n i to ve r as t r ee t , t h u s o b scu r ing t h e h ou se s ( f o r ar e cen t s umma ry o f s amp l ing d e s ign , s e e O r ton 2 000 ) . I n p rac t ice , i t s hou ld b en o ted t h a to na ne r od ing m ound t h ec han ce s o fu nd e r ly ing r e gu la r i ty a r e s l im , a nd t h a t i n s uch c i r cum s tance s as imp le g r id c o l lec t ion w ou ld h ave t h e a dvan tage o fg r ea te rs peed i nc o l lec t ion a nd l a you t . E a ch s amp le s qua r e w a s a f te rwa rd s p hy s ica l ly l o ca t ed o nt h em ound u s ing t h eB run ton c ompa s sa nd t a p e ,w i th t h er a ndom ly g ene ra ted p o in tu s ed t os t ake o u t t h e n or thea s t c orne r o f t h e s qua r e . T he f ou r c o rne r so ft he c o l lec t ion s qua r ew e r ep egged t oh o ld a s t r ing w h ich p rov ided t h e p hy s ica l b ounda ry o ft h e c o l lec t ion s qua r e . T he a dvan tag e s o f p hy s ica l b ounda r ie sf o rc o l lec t ion a c t iv i t ie sh ave b een n o ted b y o t h e rr e sea rch e r s( Wha l lon 1 983 ) . A tK aund inyapu ra t h eb enef i t sw e r et wo -f o ld : t h eb ounda r ie sm ean tt h a t t h e a t t en t ion o f t h e c o l le c to r w a s c onf ined t o t h e c o r r e c t s ize s amp le u n i t , a nd t h ep r e senc e o fs t r ing s d i scou raged c h i ld r en f r om e n te r ing t h e c o l lec t ion z on e . E ach s amp le s qua r ew a sm e t icu lou s ly c o l le c ted t o r e cove r a l l v i s ib le a r t if ac t s a nd d eb i tage ( f igu r e 5 . 10 ) . D u r ing c o l le c t ion , ar e co rd ing s he e tw a sf i l led o u t f o re a ch s amp le s qua re , n o t ing t h ev ege ta t ion c ove r , v i s ib i l i ty , t h e p r e sence o f u nde r ly ing a r ch i tec tu ra l r ema in s , a nd a ny u nu sua l a r t i f ac t s n o ted d u r ing t h e c o l lec t ion ( s ee a ppend ix A ) . T h i s s amp le reco rd ing f o rm w a s l a te ru t i l ized i nt h ea na ly s i s o ft h e a r t if a c t 4 9

4

7 1 2 3 4 5 67

6

5

0 8 91 0 . 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 91

2 3 4 5 6

-4

7 8 9 1 0 -44

9

7

4

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0

N

F igure 5 . 9 . E xamp le o f as y s tema t ic n ona l igned s amp le g r id .

5 0

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 91 0

N on e the le s s , at h o rough s e a rch f o r s i te s i nt h e f l a t land si nt h ei mmed ia t ev i c in i ty o ft h em ound sw a s w a r ran ted t od e te rm ine w he the r s ub s id ia ry z one s o f p rodu c t ion o r h ab i ta t ion c ou ld b e f o und . T h i s i n ve s t iga t ion w a s u nde r t aken t h rough a s y s t ema t ic p rog r am o ff i e ld -wa lk ing i nt h e v i c in i ty o fb o th t h e m od e rn v i l lage a nd t h em ound sw h ich c on s t i tu ted t h e a n c ien t s i t e ( f igu r e 5 . 12 ) . T h i s f i e ld -wa lk ing w a s p r inc ipa l ly c onduc ted i n 1 995 a nd c on s i s ted o f p ede s t r ian t r an sec t sw a lk ed b yt wo p e r son sa ti n t erva l s o f1 0m e t e r s . T he e n t i r ea r ea w i th in 1 00 m e te r so ft h e m od e rn v i l lage a nd o fe ach a r chaeo log ica lm ound w a s i n ve s t iga t ed i nt h i sf a sh ion . P r io rt ot h ef i e ldwa lk ing p or t ion o ft h i sr e sea r ch p ro je c t ,t h et h r e sho ld f o rt h em in ima la r t if ac td en s i t ie s w h ich w ou ld b e r e qu i r ed t o d ef ine a s i te w e r e c on s ide r ed b a sed o n c a sua l o b serva t ion s o ft h e a r ea s s u r round ing t h em ound se a r ly i nt h ef i r s tf i e ld s e a son . C lea r ly , t h e m ound ed p or t ion s o f K aund inyapu ra c on s t i tu ted as i ng le s i t e : t h ep rox im i ty o ft h em ound s t oe a ch o t he ra nd t h e i rc ommon a r t if ac tua l r e p e r to i r e a rgued f o r t h e t r ea tmen t o f t h e mound s a s as i ng le c u l tu ra l e n t i ty d e sp i te t h e f a c t t h a t t h e m ound s a s a r t if a c t -b ea r ing l o c i w e r e s ome t ime s p hy s ica l ly s e pa ra t ed f r om o ne a no the r . I n i t ia lo b se rva t ion so ft h e a r ea i mm ed ia te ly s u r round ing t h e s i te i n d ica t ed t h a t t h e r e w a s a n e xceed ing ly l ow l e ve l o f b ackg round n o i se i n t h e f o rm o f a nc ien t a r t if ac t s , s o t h a t a ny c oncen t ra t ion o fa r t if ac t s ( a rb i t ra r i ly d ef ined a st h r ee o rm o r ea r t if ac t s i n at e n squa r e -me te rs pa ce ) w a st o b er e co rded a sa na r t if a c to c cu r r ence . T h i sr e co rd ing p rocedu r e i n c lud ed m app ing , a r t if ac t c o l lec t ion , a nd p ho tog raphy . T o p r e s er ve a l e ve l o fo b jec t iv i ty , s i nce i tw a s a lway sl i ke ly t h a t ac oncen t ra t ion o fa r t if ac t sw a sd ue t op o s tdepo s i t iona la c t iv i t ie s ,a r ea sw h ich w e re d ef ined a s a r t if ac t c oncen t ra t ion s w e r e a s s igned " l o ca l i ty " n umbe r s . ' T h i ss t ra t egy o fn omenc la tu r ea l lowed f o r t h e p r e s e rva t ion o ft h e t e rm " s i te " a s d e scr ib ing a n e n t i ty i n d ica t ive o fa c t iv i t ie sc on tempo ran eou sw i th t h ea r t if a c t sf o und t h e r e . '

F ig .5 .10 . C o l lec t ion o f as amp le u n i t . f i gu r e5 . 11 . I nt h ed i scu s s ion o fa r t if ac td i s t r ibu t ion s t h a t f o l low s , a l l o f t h e m a te r ia l s f r om j udgmen ta l s amp le sa r ea l so i n c luded b e cau se t h ey c ove ra r ea sn o t r e p r e s en t ed b y s y s tema t ica l ly s p aced u n i t s . O the r o b s e rva t ion so fa r chaeo log ica lm a te r ia l sw e r em ade a s w e r e p ea ted ly w a lked o ve r t h e g round a t t h e s i te . T h e se i n c luded t h ee mbedd ed p o t te ry f r agmen t s i na l a rg e s em ic ir c le r e co rded i n 1 994 e r od ing o n t h e w e s t e rn e dge o ft h e2 01 mound ;a nd au p tu rned m e ta l b ow lc ove r ing w ha ta ppea rt ob e h uman b on e s n o ted i n af r e sh a r ea o fe r o s ion n ea rc o l lec t ion u n i t 2 0 1-24 i n1 995 . T h e p lacemen t o f t h e s t r ip s amp le s a nd t h e p u rpo s ive s amp le s , a sw e l la sc on t inued o b se rva t ion s a bou t n on samp led l o ca t ion s , w e r e m ade t o e va lua t e n o t o n ly t h e a nc ien t r ema in s a t t h e s i te , b u t t h e p ro c e s s e sb yw h ich mode rn h ab i ta t ion m igh ta f f ec tt h e v i s ib i l i ty o ft ho s er ema in s . T h es y s t ema t ic s t r ip f r om 2 03 i n c luded s e ve ra l s qua r e s o n e i the r s i de o f t h e m ound i nt h ef a rmed f l a t land sf o rd i sce rn ing w he the r a r t if a c t s w e re t o b e f o und i n t h e f i e ld s , a nd f o r a s se s s ing h ow t h ey m igh t h ave a r r ived t h e r e : a s m a t e r ia l s e r od ing f r om m ound s , a sr e p r e sen ta t ive o f a n c ien ts e t t lem en t i nt h ef l a t land s , o ra st h er e su l to f a c t iv e " manu r ing " b y c on tempo ra ry f a rm e r s w ho m igh t e nr ich f i e ld s w i th h ou seho ld s w eep ing s a nd t r a sh ( c ompa r eW i lk in son 1 982b ) . T he c o l lec t ion o ft h e u n i t s i nt h e p o r t ion o ft h e 2 03 s t r ip wh ich w e r ei nt h em od e rn f i e ld y i e ld ed l i t t le i n t h e w ay o f a r t if ac t s ; i n a dd i t ion , a s c o l le c t ion p roc eeded t h eo n ly a r t if ac t s n o ted i nt h ea g r icu l tu ra l f i e ld s c on s i s ted o f m odern t r a sh . O b serva t ion s o f m od er n manu r ing p i t s f i l led w i th d ung s weep ing s p r ov id ed a n i n d ica t ion t h a t f i e ld s w e r e s ub jec t t o r o u t in e a dd i t ion s o f d ome s t ic r e f u se . T h i s p r ac t ice w a sa l so n o ted b yt h ec omp i le r so ft h e 1 911 G a z e t t eer o ft h e Am rava t id i s t r ic t ,w ho r e por ted t h a t" f i e ld sn ea r t h el a rge t own sa r es ome t ime sm anu red w i th t h et own s w eep ing s " ( F i tzge ra ld a nd N e lson 1 983 [ 1 911 ]: 1 94 ) .

3T he w o rd " l oca l i ty " a s an eu t ra l t e rm i sa l so f o und i nI nd ian a r chaeo log ica lu sage , f o re xamp le t oi d en t i f yt h ea r ea o fe xcava t ion ( J AR 1 987 -88 ) . A ga in , t h ea dvan tage so fu s ing at e rm s u ch a s l o ca l i ty i st h a ti tp rov ide s as e n se o fn eu t ra l i ty , s o t h a tt h ei n v e s t iga to rn eed n o ti n te rp re tt h ea r chaeo l o g ica l p h enomenon p r io rt ot h e i n ve s t iga t ion o ft h a t p h enomenon .

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F igure 5 . 12 . A rea s o fs y s tema t ic p ede s t r ian t r an sec t s a round t h e s i te o fK aund inyapu ra .

5 3

h i s to r ica la n tec eden t st om od e rn v i l lage s . T he s u r vey p rocedu r e f o r t h i s 3 14 squa r e k i lome t e r a r ea w a s p r inc ipa l ly c a r r ied o u ti nt h em anne ro f"exp lo ra t ion , " i nw h ich a l l r o ad sw e r et r av e led b yf ou r -whee l d r ive v eh ic le , a nd e a ch v i l lage i n ve s t iga ted f o rp r emode rn r ema in s . R oad -ba sed s u rv ey h a sa l so b e en u t i l ized i n o t he rp a r t so ft h ew o r ld w h e r ed if i cu l ty o fa cce s so r o t he rl o g i s t i ca lc on s t ra in t sp r omp tt h eu s eo fa va i lab le r ou te s . T h e se o ppor tun i s t ic s u rvey s r e p r e sen t " a n e f ec t ive a pp roa ch t ot h ed if i cu l tp rob lem o fs u rvey ing t e r ra i n cogn i ta " t h ough t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o fa va i lab le e v idence i sl i n ea r r a the r t h an a r ea l ( Bow e r 1 986 ) . F igu r e 5 . 13 i l u s t ra te s t h e r o u te s t a ken d u r ing t h e c ou r se o ft h i s s u rvey , a nd t h ea r ea s i nw h ich a r t if a c t c o l lec t ion w a s u nder tak en . T h e i d en t if i ca t ion o ft h e p o in t so nt h em ap a r ea l so l i s ted a sp ar to ft h a tf i gu r e . I ne a ch v i l lage o ft h eK aund inyapu ra s u r vey z on e , l a n e s w e r e w a lked a nd h ou se w a l l s i n sp ec t ed f o rt h e p r e sence o f c e ram ic s i n t h e m ud p l a s te r . A rchaeo log ica l d epo s i t sa r e c u r ren t ly a c t iv e ly m ined f o r t h e ir s o i l s , s i nce t h e p r e sence o f a sh a nd p ho spha te s m ak e s t h em i d ea l f o r mud c on s truc t ion ; t h u s , t h e p r e sence o f a r chaeo log ica l d epo s i t s i n a v i l lage s hou ld b e s i gna led b y t h e r e u se o f a r chaeo log ica lm a te r ia l si nh ou se w a l l s . H oweve r ,t h e t r an spor to fa r chaeo log ica ld eb r i si sn o tu nknown , s o t h a t o nce a ga in t h e p r e sen c e o fa nc ien t a r t if ac t s w a s n o t ag ua ran t ee t h a t av i l lag e w a s l o ca ted o ve r t h e r ema in so fa na nc ien to ccupa t ion . T hu s ,t h ep r e senc e o fa r t if ac t sw a sa ga in r e co rded a s a" l oca l i ty , "a sn o ted a bove , w i th as p ec ia l s u rvey f o rm c omp le ted f o re a ch v i l lage w h ich p roduced p r emode rn ( t ha t i s , p r e t wen t ie th c en tu ry ) ma te r ia l s ( f o r a n e xamp le o ft h i s f o rm , s e ea pp end ix B ) . B e tw een v i l lage s ,o the ra r ea sw e re i n v es t iga ted b y f o o t , s u ch a sa ny h i gh p o in t so ra r eas t h a t e xh ib i ted s o i l c o lo r c hange s o r i n d ica t ion s o f a r ch i tec tu r e . A r ea so fi n te r e s tn ow u sed a sf i e ld sw e re w a lked a t1 0 m e te r i n te rv a l s , b u t a ga in , t h e se i n ve s t iga t ion s o n ly d ocumen t ed m ode rn u se i nt h e f o rm o f av e ry l i gh t s c a t te ro ft r a sh ( g ene ra l ly i n af r equency o fa bou to n e m oder nf r agmen t e ve ry 2 00 s qua r e m e t e r s ) . I no n ly o ne c a se w a sa n a r t if ac t l o ca l i ty f o und t h a tb o r ea ny r e semb lan ce t ot h e s i te o fK aund inyapu r a , i ne i th e r a r t if ac td en s i ty o ra r t if ac tt y pe . T h i sa r ea w a sl o ca ted o n t h e w e s t ern b ank s o f t h e Wa rdha r i ve r a t D haman t r i , o n as ma l l m ound 4k i lome t er s u pr iv e r f r om K aund inyapu ra w he r e t h e r e i s n ow a s ma l l m ode rn t emp le ( f igu re s 5 . 14 , 5 . 15 ) . I n 1 995 , t h e s i te a t Dhaman t r i w a s i n ve s t iga ted t h rough as y s tema t ic s amp l ing p r og ram s im i la r t o t h a t u t i l ized a t K aund inyapu ra , i n wh ich 2 x 2 a nd 4 x 4 m e te r s qua r e s w e r e r a ndom ly p l a ced w i th in g r id s qua r e s u s ing a s y s t ema t ic n ona l igned r andom s amp l ing p rocedu r e ( f i gu r e 5 . 16 ) . A s a tK aund inyapu ra , a l a r t if ac t s w i th in s amp le u n i t s w e r e c o l lec ted a nd a na lyz ed .

Mo s to ft h ef i e ld ss u r round ing t h eK aund inyapu ra m ound s w e r ep l an ted i nc o t ton , w i th v i s ib i l i ty o ft h e g round b e ing g ood t h ough t h e p l an t s w e r e a tw a is t h igh l e ve l . A ga in , r emnan t s o f m ode rn t r a sh ( f o r e xamp le ,p l a s t ic f r agmen t s ,p o rce la in )w e r ea lmo s tt h e s o le a r t if ac tua l r ema in s n o ted i n t h e s u rvey z one . When p r emod e rn a r t if ac t s w e r e n o t ed , t h ey t w ice a ppea r ed i nc on cen t ra t ed a r ea s w h ich i n d ica ted t h e p re sence o f u nde r ly ing d epo s i t s : o n e l o ca l i ty m ea su r ing 1 5 x5 m e te r si mmed ia te ly w e s to fm ound 2 07 ( l oca l i ty 3 02 ) ,a nd o ne l o ca l i ty o n ap romon to r yo f t h e e r od ed h ead land s t o t h e w e s t o f t h e mode rn K aund inyapu ra v i l lage ( l oca l i ty 2 3 ) . O ne f i na ld if i cu l ty t ob er e so lved w a st h es u r vey o ft h em ode rn v i l lage t od e term ine t h ee x t en tt ow h ich a nc ien t r ema in s w e r e t ob e f ound u nde r t h e c u r r en t h ab i ta t ion s . T he 1 994 s u rvey h ad p a r t ia l ly a dd r e s sed t h is q ue s t ion t h rough t h eu se o fo ppor tun i s t ic " g rab " s amp le st a ken a tp l a ce si nt h ev i l lag ew h e r et h e r ew a s e xpo sed e a r th ( s uch a s r e f u se p i t s o r m anu r e p i t s ) . T he se s amp le s i n d ica t ed t h e p r e s enc e o f m odern p o t te r yt y pe sw h ich d i dn o t ma tch t h ec e ram ic sf o und o n t h e s ou ther n ( numbe r ed ) m ound s . I n 1 995 , w e w e re a f o rded t h eo ppor tun i ty t oe xam ine s ome d eepe r t r enche sa s soc ia t ed w i th t h ee xpan s ion o ft h eR ukm in i t emp le c omp lex ; a ga in , o n ly r e cen t c e ram ic s w e r e e ncoun te r ed . F ina l ly ,p rof i le so ft h eh i l lock so nw h ich t h e m od e rn v i l lage i sl o ca ted i n d ica ted av e ry t h in d epo s i to fa n th ropog en ic s o i lo n ly o n et ot wo m e te r si n d ep th , i n d ica t ing ar e la t ive ly s hor t l ived p r e sen ce . I t a ppea r st h a tt h em oder ni nhab i tan t so fKaund inyapu ra c on sc iou s ly a vo ided t h es ou the rnmo s tp o r t ion so ft h e s i te . T h i sa vo idance i sr e f lec ted i nt h eu s eo ft h ea r ea t o t h e s ou th o f t h e c r e ek a s ar e f u s e z one , c l ea r ly d e l inea t ing i ta s a" no -man 's l a nd , " a nd a l so s e en i n t h e ir t e ndency t o p l ace n ew c on s t ruc t ion s o n t h e w e s te rn p or t ion o ft h ev i l lage ,t h ough s u ch p l acemen t o f e r s l e s s p ro t ec t ion f r om f l ood s t h an i ft h ey w ere l o ca ted o n t h e h i ghe r g round o ft h e a r chaeo log ica l s i te . ' S urvey i nt he 1 0 -k i lome ter r ad iu sa round Kaund inyapura T oe va lua te t h ea nc ien ti nhab i tan t s 'e conom ic a nd s o c ia l l a nd scap e i nt h ev i c in i ty o fK aund inyapu ra , a t e n -k i lom e te rr a d iu sa r ound t h e s i t ew a si d en t if i ed a s az one f o ra dd i t iona l s urvey . T h e p r in c ipa l r e sea r ch g oa lf o rt h ee xam ina t ion o ft h i sa r ea w a st h er e cove ry o f o the r s i t e s c on tempo raneou s t o t h e m ounded p or t ion so fK aund inyapu ra , a sw e l l a st o r e co rd t h e

sT he t e ndency t oc on sc iou s ly a vo id l i v ing o n a r chaeo log ica l s i te si sa l so s e en a tA d am , w he r et h e v i l lage r sf e e lt h a tt h es i t ei sh aun ted a nd t h e r ef o r e u n su i tab le f o rh ab i ta t ion ( N .C . P raka sh ,p e r s . c omm . 1 995 ; s e ea l so N a th 1 989 -90 ) .

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F igur e5 . 13 . K aund inyapu ra s u rvey z one , 1 9 94 1995 . K aund inyapu r a i sl o ca t ed a tt h ec en te ro ft h ec i r c le ; t h e f i ne l i ne s r ep r e sen tt h e r o ad st r ave led . A r ea s i n ve s t iga ted b ys y s tema t ic w a lk ing a t1 0 15 m e t e ri n terva l sa r e i n d ica ted b ya n X .

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F o r t h e s u rvey p rog ram a t K aund inyapu ra , D haman t r ia nd t h e i re nv i ron s , an umbe r ing s e qu en ce u s ing s p ec if i c s e quence s o fn umb e r s f o re ach r e g ion w a s d eve loped t o e nab le a r a p id a s soc ia t ion o f p aperwo rk ,a r t if ac t s ,a nd p ho tog raph sw i th t h ec o r r ec t g eog raph ic l o cu s t h roughou t t h e s u r v ey a r ea . F o r r e co rd -k eep ing p u rpo se st h ep hy s ica ls e pa ra t ion o ft h e m ound sw a sr e f lec ted i nn umbe r ing s e qu ence sw h ich g ave e a ch c o l lec t ion a r ea o rm ound i t so wn n umb e r . T hu s , e a ch o ft h e mound s a tK aund inyapu ra h ad i t s o wn n umbe r ( i n as e r ie s s t a r t ing w i th 2 01 ) t ow h ich s amp le u n i t sw e r ei d en t if ied b y an umbe ra f t e r ad a sh . A r ea s w i th in 1 00 m e te r s o fK aund inyapu ra b u t n o t a c tua l ly o n amound w e re g i ven a n umb e r s t a r t ing w i th 3 01 . T h e 4 01+ s e r ie s w a s u t i l ized t oi d en t if y g rab s amp le s w i th in t h e m ode rn v i l lage o f K aund inyapu ra . T he s y s tema t ic s u rv ey a tD haman t r i u t i l ized n umb e r s p ref aced b y 5 01 a nd h i ghe r . N umbe r su nde r2 00 w e r e r e ser ved t od e s igna te s i t e s a nd l o ca l i t ie s i n t h e 1 0 -k i lom e te r r a d iu s a r ound K aund inyapu ra . T he se n umb e r ing sequ en ce s w e r e e s tab l i shed a tt h e b eg inn ing o ft h e p ro je c t i n 1 994 , p r io rt of i e ldwo rk ,a nd n o ta l lp o t en t ia ln umbe r sw e re a s s igned .

5 7

C hap ter 6 Ma ter ia l C u l ture a t Kaund inyapura : C eram ic sa nd O ther Ob jec t s

T h i s c hap te r d i scu s se s t h e c e ram ic s o f c en t ra l I nd ia ,a nd t h es p ec i f ic t y po log ica lo rgan iza t ion o ft h e s u rvey c e ram ic sf r om t h es i te o fK aund inyapu ra . T he f i r s t p a r t o f t h e c hap te r e va lua te s t h e p roce s s o f c l a s s if i ca t ion a nd h ow t h ec on s t ruc t ion o ft y po log ie s a f e c t st h es ub sequen tu t i l iza t ion o fa ny a r chaeo log ica l d a t a s e t . Ab r ief d i scu s s ion o f t h e w ay i n w h ich c e ram ic sa r eg ene ra l ly i d en t if ied a tI nd ian s i te ss how s

u n i t s o f a na ly s i s a nd o b se rva t ion e v en t h ough w e r e cogn ize t h a ts u ch i t em sa nd g roup sh ad ap o ten t ia l ly d if e ren tm ean ing f o rt h ep eop le i nt h ep a s tw ho u sed t h em ( Dunne l l 1 986 ; S pau ld ing 1 953 ) . W i th t h e l a ck o f ad om inan t p a rad igm , t h e re i s l i t t le g u ide o nh ow m any t y pe s s hou ld b ec on s truc ted f r om ag i v en a s semb lage . One c ou ld e v en a rgue t h a t a bundance i st h e r e su l t o f t y pe s , r a the r t h an t h e e l u c ida t ion o f t y p e s b e ing t h e n a tu ra l o u tcome o f a bundance . I n o t he r w o rd s , t h e p rob lem -o r ien ted c l a s s if ica t ion p roce s ss e ek so u tb road ly i n c lu s ive t y pe s s oa s t o s u cc e s sf u l ly r e duce a l a rge n umb e r o fd a ta p o in t s t o as ma l l n umbe r o fc a tego r ie s . T o a ch ieve t h i s , c l a s s if i ca t ion r e qu i re s t h e s e lec t ion o ff e a tu re s f r om a l l o f t h e d i scon t inu i t ie s p r e s en t i n a n a s semb lage ; t h e f ewe r f e a tu re s c on s ide r ed , t h e mo r e a r b i t ra ry t h e c l a s s if ica t ion ( E l len 1 979 :8 ) . T h i s s e lec t ion p ro ce s s n ece s sa r i ly r e su l t s i n o u t l ie r s , o r a noma ly : " I n a s much a s a l l c l a s s if ica t ion s a r e o f v a ry ing d eg r e e s o f a r b i t ra r ine s s , s o t h ey h ave a p o t en t ia l t oc r ea te a noma ly c on t inua l ly ...I n t h i s s e n se a noma ly i s u b iqu i tou s " ( E l len 1 979 :14 ; e mpha s is i no r ig ina l ) . P r io rt oc l a s s if i ca t ion ,a l li t em s i n a n a s semb lage a r e v i ewed a s i n d iv idua l s ; a f te r c l a s s if ica t ion ,i n d iv idua l i ty i ss ub l ima t ed t o as e r ie so f c ommon d enom ina to r s . T he f ewe rt h ed enom ina t ion s c ho sen ,t h el a rge r ac a tego ry w i l lb en um e r ica l ly ;t hu s t h e t y pe s , a s w e l l a s t h e o u t l ie r s , g ene r a ted i n t h i s p roce s s a r e a n i n te rp r e t ive r a th e r t h an a n o b se rva t iona lp henomenon . F o r t h e a n th ropo log i s t , c l a s s if i ca t ion i sd oub ly d if i cu l t , s i nc e i t i s b o th a t o o l f o r o b jec t ive o r gan iza t ion o fm a ter ia l s a nd ap o s s ib le i n d ica to r o f t h ec u l tu ra lb ehav io rw h ich i si n co rpo ra t ed i n to t ho se m a t e r ia ls . T h i sd i ff i cu l ty b ecome se ven m o r ec omp lex f o r t h e a r ch aeo log i s t , w ho se u nd e r s tand ing o f t h e m a t e r ia l c u l tu r e l e f t b y a nc ien t p eop le s c anno t b e t e s ted b yr e tu rn ing t ot h ec u l tu re t h a tp rodu ced i t .T he i n t roduc t ion o fc u l tu ra l i n te rp re ta t ion sw h ich a r e n o t p hy s ica l ly c a r r ied w i th t h e a r t if ac t , a nd w ho se s i gn if icance c an o n ly b e a s se s sed o n t h e b a s i s o f a na logy , m ean s t h a t t h e a r chaeo log i s t d ea ls w i th a r t if ac t s b o th a s c onc re te o b jec t s a nd a s p o t en t ia l ly a mb iguou s s ymbo l ic c a r r ie r s . T hu s , t h e g oa l o f c l a s s if ica t ion h a s b een t o d e r ive b o th a n e t ic a nd p o t en t ia l ly e m ic s e r ie s o f t y pe s ; t h e r e su l tan t c on f la t ion o ft h e s e d if e r en t t y pe s h a s r e su l ted i n a g r ea te re mpha s i so np rog ramma t ic s t a t emen t s r a the r t h an t h eo r e t ica l c on s ide ra t ion s o f t h e c l a s s if ica t ion p r oce s s( Dunne l l 1 986 ) . C la s s if i ca t ion i na r chaeo logy i st h u s ap r ob lem o r ien ted e xe r c i se ,i nt h a t" no s i ng le c o r r e c ta l l -pu rpo se t y po logy i sc on s i s t en t ly a pp l icab le t oa ny b ody o fd a ta

t h a t w h i le t h e se c a tego r ie s a r e u se f u l f o r b road c h rono log ica la s s e s smen t s ,f i ne r sca led t y po log ie sc an y i e ld m o r e v a r ie t ie s o f i n f orma t ion u sef u l f o r t h e e va lua t ion o f h ow d if e ren t w a r e c a tego r ie s w e r e d i s t r ibu ted a tas i t e ,p rov id ing p roxy i n f orma t ion a bou t e conom ic a nd s o c ia l d if e r ence s . T he s e cond p a r to f t h ec hap t e rd i scu s se st h ew ay i nw h ich c e ram ic w a r e s w e r e c l a s s if ied f o r t h i s p ro jec t , w i th af o cu s o n t h e E a r ly H i s to r ic p e r iod w a r e sf r om K aund inyapu ra a nd D haman t r i . T heor ie so fc l a s s if i ca t ion C la s s i f ica t ion f o rm s a n e s sen t ia l p a r t o f e p i s t emo logy , w he r et h e n am ing o ft h ing sp rov ide sa c ommon g r ound f o re xam in ing t h er e la t ion sb e tween o b jec t s a nd t h e i r i n f e r r ed i n tr in s ic p rope r t ie s . A t y po logy , i n to w h ich i nd iv idua l s ( whe the r i t em s , e ven t s , o r o b se rva t ion s ) a r e g rouped , r e p re s en t s a s e a r ch f o rs t ru c tu r ei n ad a ta s e tw h ich a l low sf u r the r i n te rp r e ta t ion st ob ec on s t ru c ted ( Adam sa nd A dam s 1 991 ; D unne l l 1 986 ; B rown 1 982 ; G a rd in 1 980 ) . I n p rac t ica l t e rm s , c l a s s if ica t ion s e rve s a s am ean s o f s imp l if y ing al a rge n umbe ro fi t em si n to g roup sw ho se b ounda r ie sa r ef o rmed b o th b yt h es im i la r i t ie sb e tween i n d iv idua l sw i th in g roup sa nd t h ed if e r ence sb e tween i n d iv idua l sb e long ing t od i f f e r en tg roup s . B ecau se n o t a l l a t t r ibu t e s o f i nd iv idua l s c an b e s imu l tan eou s ly c on s ide r ed , s ome n ece s sa r i ly t a ke p r io r i ty i n t h e c l a s s if i ca t ion p roce s s . B io log ica lc l a s s if i ca t ion h a so f t en b een u sed a st h e c ompa ra t ive e xemp la rf o ro t he rc l a s s if ica t ion s y s t em s , b u t b i o logy i s a n e xcep t iona l f i e ld b ecau se i t s p r a c t ion e r s a g r ee o n t h e g ene ra l e vo lu t iona ry p r in c ip le st h a tp rov ide ab a sa lp a rad igm f o rf o rma t ion o fg roup s . G ene t ic r e la t ion sa r et h eb a s i su pon w h ich i n d iv idua l s a r e g rouped i n to t h e m in ima l u n i t o f a na ly s i s ,t h es p e c ie s ;s pec ie sa r ea f t e rwa rd sr e la t ed t o o n e a no th e r a c co rd ing t o t he i r s im i la r i t ie s i n a h i e ra r ch ica l ly o rgan ized t r ee o fg ene t ic r e la t ion s . T he a dhe r enc e t og en e ra l e vo lu t iona ry p r inc ip le s m ean s t h a t b i o log ica l c l a s s if ica t ion p roce ed s i na n o rde r ly f a sh ion . A r chaeo logy d oe sn o te n joy s u ch ad i sc ip l ine w id e p a rad igm ; i n a dd i t ion , t h e t y pe s f o rmed t o e n compa s sa r cha eo log ica lm a te r ia l sa r ed e s igned t ob e 5 8

o r o b s e rva t ion s " ( P r ice 1 984 :2 16 : s e e a l so B rown 1 982 ; H i l l a nd E van s 1 972 ) . T he a s s ignmen t o f p r io r i t y f o r t he a t t r ibu te s w h ich c an b e m ea su r ed o n i n d iv idua l a r t if ac t s e i the r e xp l ic i t ly o r i mp l ic i t ly r e f le c t s t h e p r in c ipa l q u e s t ion s o f t h e i n ve s t iga to r . T h e se q ue s t ion su sua l ly f o l low b r oad c u r r en tt r end s , a nd s u cce s sfu l c l a s s if ica t ion s c heme s a r e w ide ly a c cep t ed b yf e l low r e sea rche r s( Dunne 1 1 1 986 ) . S h if t s i n i n v e s t iga t ive q ue s t ion s p romp t s h if t s i n c l a s s if i ca t ion m e thod s , a s d ocumen ted i n o ne i n s igh t f u l c ommen ta ry o n t h e r e la t ion sh ip b e tween p ra c t ica l t y po logy a nd a r cha eo log ica l t h eo ry ( Adam s a nd A dam s 1 99 1 ) .

g a the r ed ,a st h es i ze o fg r oup sa nd m embe r sp e rg roup d ep end n o t o n ly o n t h e t o ta l n umbe r o fi n d iv idua l s i n ve s t iga ted , b u t a l so u pon t h e s i ze s a nd c onf igu ra t ion so ft h ei n i t ia lu n i t so fi n ve s t iga t ion . A s ar e su l t ,t h el ow f r equency o fa na r t if ac tt y p em ay v e ry w e l lb e ap rodu c to ft h es i z eo ft h es amp le u n i t , when f r equ ency -pe r -un i to rp r e s enc e -ab sence i nd ica to r sa r e i n c luded a mong t h ea t t r ibu t e so f ap ar t icu la rt y pe . A n e x amp le i sp r ov ided b y t h e K eo s s ur vey , i n w h ich s ma l l u n i t s o fi n ve s t iga t ion ( a g r icu l tu ra l f i e ld s ) h ad t a l l ie so fa r t if ac t sw h ich w e r er e co rded i ns ome c a se s a s s i ng le i t em s o f ap a r t icu la r c l a s s ( n=1 ) ( Cher ry , D av i sa nd Man tzou ran i 1 99 1 ) . T he u se o fl a rg e ru n i t s o fs p a t ia la na ly s i s ,w h ich c ou ld h ave b een c r ea ted b y g r oup ing f i e ld s t o ge th e r , w ou ld h ave i n c r ea sed t h e t o ta l sp e ra na ly t ica lu n i t ,b u tw ou ld h av eo b scu red t h e f i n e -g ra ined u n i t so fd a ta c o l lec t ion w h ich t h es u rvey w a s u s ing t od e te rm ine t h e " t ra i l ing e dge " o fa r t if ac t c on cen t ra t ion s( Che r ry ,D av i sa nd Man tzou ran i 1 991 ; s e ea l so P log , P l og a nd Wa i t 1 978 ) . T hu s , w h i le t h e l ow q uan t i ta t ive a sp ec to fs i ng le e xemp la r sm ay b ea n a r t if i c ia l e f ec t o f t h e s amp l ing u n i t s i n vo lved , t h e a gg r ega t ion o ft h o se u n i t sp rov ide s ap i c tu r eo ft ho se s i ng le e xemp la r s i n a b road e r p a t t e rn wh i le m a in ta in ing s ma l l sca le s p a t ia l i n teg r i ty . Af t e rd a ta c o l lec t ion , t h e s i ze o f t h e a na ly t ica l u n i t c an b e a d ju s ted t o s u i t t h ep ar t icu la rq ue s t ion s a s ked o ft h e d a ta b a se . S ucce s s iv e g r oup ing s o fi nd iv idua l i t em s c an b e b roadened o r n a r row ed a cco rd ing t o t h e f unc t iona l , s t y l i s t ic , o r a s so c ia t iona l a sp e c t s o f t h e a r chaeo log ica l d a ta s e t . T he u t i l i ty o f mu l t ipu rpo se c l a s s if i ca t ion s i n a r cha eo logy h a sb een e xp lo r ed i nb o th t h eo r e t ica la nd p r a c t ica lt e rm s . I ne xam in ing t h el a nguag es t ruc tu r e s u s ed b yt h ef r am e r so fa r cha eo log ica lc on s t ruc t s ,J e an C laud e G a rd in ( 1 980 ) h a sp roposed t h a tt h ew o rk o f a r chaeo logy b ed i v ided i n to t wo s phe r e s : c omp i la t ion a nd e xp lana t ion . T he b a s ic s t age o f w o rk w ou ld c on s i s to f ac on s t ruc t ion o fc har t so rt a b le sw h ich l i s t a l m ea su r ed a t t r ibu t e s p e r a r t if ac t . T he s e s yn the t ic c omp i la t ion s ,w h ich c ou ld b ed eve loped a nd a dded t o b ya l a r chaeo log i s t s ,w ou ld t h en s e rve a st h eb a s i sf o r a c tua l e xp lana t ion s o fa r chaeo log ica l p henomena b y s e lec t ed ,q ua l if i ed i n d iv idua l s . G a rd in a s sume st h a ta c ompu t e r ized c a ta log ing s y s tem w ou ld b e a n a pp rop r ia te m ean st oh and le l a rge q uan t i t ie so fd a ta , b u t h e i su nc lea r a bou t t h e s p ec if ic s o ft h e w ay i n w h ich d a ta w i l l b e c a ta logu ed . S inc e c u l tu ra l m a t e r ia l sd i sp lay aw ide v a r ie ty o fv a r iab le s , i tw ou ld b ev i r tua l ly i mpo s s ib le t od e s ign ac a ta log ing s y s tem w h ich w ou ld t a ke " a l l "o ft h e se v a r iab le si n to a c coun t . A l though G a rd in i sc o r r e c ti na s su r ing t h a tt h ep owe r o fc ompu te r iza t ion c an a dd r e s s ag r ea te rq uan t i ty o f v a r iab le s a nd c on s ide r t h em s imu l tan eou s ly , t h e p r o ce s sd oe sn o tm ean t h a t an ew k ind o fc l a s s if ica t ion c an b ea ch ieved . N o r w ou ld t h e p o s s ib i l i ty o fp o s t -hoc t a xonomy b a s ed o n t h e c omb ina t ion o fc ha rac te r i s t ic s , s u ch a s

I n Ame r ican a r chaeo logy , t h e f i r s t a t temp t s a t c l a s s if i ca t ion f o cu sed o nc h rono log ica lc on t ro l ,w h ich r e f le c t ed q ue s t ion sa bou tc u l tu r a lh i s to r y( W i l ley a nd S ab lof f 1 980 ) . L a t e r , t h e c h rono log ica l -h i s to r ica l a pp roa ch f o cu s ed o n t h e m ean ing s o f t y pe s , a nd w h e th e r a n a r chaeo log i s t c ou ld a s sume t h a t a n i mpo s ed c l a s s i f ica t ion p a r a l le l ed t h e t y pe s w h ich w ou ld h ave b een i nt h e m ind so ft h ea nc ien tc r ea to r s o f t h o s e a r t if a c t s . Wh en q ue s t ion s a bou t t h e a r cha eo log ica l r e co rd w e r e r e f o rmu la ted t of o cu s o n c u l tu ra lp roce s s , n ew c l a s s if i ca t ion s , m o s t ly c en te red o n f u n c t ion , w e r e d ev i sed . I n t h e 1 960 s , n ew " s c ien t if i c " s t anda rd s w e r e s o ugh t a tt h e s ame t ime t h a t c ompu te r iza t ion b ecame a p rac t ica l m ean s o f s o r t ing , t o p roduce a s i tu a t ion i n w h ich t h e f o rmu la t ion o ft y pe sb ecame t h ef o cu so fs t udy r a the r t h an t h em ean ing o ft ho se t y pe s( Adam s a nd A dam s 1 991 ) . R ega rd le s so fh ow c l a s s e sa r ef o rmed ,t h ey s hou ld n o t b e r e ga rded a sp erman en t e n t i t ie s , s i nce f u r the r r e sea r ch m ay p romp t t h e r e con s tru c t ion o f c l a s se s . F o re xamp le , l a rge c l a s se sm ay b eb roken d own i n to f i n e r -g r a ined e n t i t ie sa t al a t e rs t ag eo fa na ly s i s . T h i s s i tua t ion o ccur r ed i nt h ea na ly s i so fF a iz Mohammed a nd Em i r w a r e s f r om t h e I ndo I ran ian b o rde r land s , w h ich w e r e f o und t o h ave g r ea te r d i s t inc t ion t h an e a r l ie r r e a l ized : " t hough b o th c e ram ic t y p e s a r e s up e rf i c ia l ly s im i la r ,h av ing b l a ck p a in ted d e s ign so n ar e du c ed g r ey w a r eb ody , r e cen tr e sea r ch h a sc l ea r ly s hown t h a tt h et y pe s a r e d i s t in c t ive i nd e s ign , s hape a nd m in e ra log ica lc ompo s i t ion "( Lamb e rg -Ka r lov sky 1 989 :262 ) . T hu s i ti si mpo r tan tt or e co rd mu l t ip le a t t r ibu te s o fc e ram ic s s o t h a t i tb ecome s p o s s ib le t o e xam ine c r o s scu t t ing a spec t s o f i n t e r e s t . C la s s if ica t ion t h a t o n ly p l a ce si nd iv idua l si n to m u tua l ly e xc lu s ive g r oup s i s u l t ima te ly l im i t ing b ecau se i t i s a f te rwa rd s i mpo s s ib le t o s e pa ra te s ub ca t ego r ie s o fa t t r ibu t e s t o e xam in e c ha ra c t e r is t ic s w h ich c r o s scu t d if e r en t c l a s s e s . When c e ram ic c a tego r ie s a r e n o t f o rma l ly d ef in ed ,a si so f t en t h e c a se i nS ou th A s ia ,t h ea b i l i ty t oc r o s s tabu la t ed if e ren ta t t r ibu t e st or e pea ted ly f o rm n ew g r oup sf o ra na ly s i si sp ar t icu la r ly u s ef u l . T h ei n te rp r e ta t ion o fc l a s s if ica t ion e f o r t ss hou ld a l so i n co rpo ra t ei n f o rma t ion a bou th ow t h ed a ta w e re 5 9

( s uch a sf r om ad ome s t ic c on tex t t o ab ur ia l c on tex t ) c hange t h e m ean ing a nd u sage o fi n d iv idua l i t em s . Wh i le t h es p e c if ic m ean ing so fo b je c t sm ay b ee l u s ive t oo u t s ide r s ,t h eu se o fa t t r ibu te sa s ab a s i sf o ra na ly s i s c a l l s a t ten t ion t o d i s s im i la r i t em s w h ich m ay h av e b een v i ew ed a s ac ohe r en t g roup b a s ed o n s ha r ed a t t r ibu te s . T he a t t r ibu te s o f o b jec t s ( i n c lud ing

n ume r ica lt a xonomy , n ece s sa r i ly m ak e ab e t te rs e to f f unc t iona lo ra na ly t ic t y pe s : " Nume r ica lt a xonomy h a s f a i led b ecau se i td oe s n o t t e l l u s a ny th ing u s ef u l o r n ew . E xpe r ience h a ss hown t h a ta r cha eo log i s t sn eed l i t t le h e lp i nd e f in ing s t anda rd m o rpho log ica l t y pe s . T rad i t iona l a na ly t ica l m e thod s r e a l ly s e em t ow o rk " ( Thoma s 1 978 :236 ) . T he p r inc ipa l d i sadvan tage i n u t i l iz ing c a tego r ie s d ef ined " b y e y e " b y t h e i n i t ia l c l a s s if i e r i st he q ue s t ion o fr e p l ica t ion . W i l l iam Y . A dam s( Adam sa nd A dam s 1 991 )p o in ted o u tt h a ti n h i s s t udy o ft h e c e ram ic s o ft h e S udan , n o o ne w a s a f t erwa rd s a b le t o e xac t ly d up l ica t e h i s m anne r o f s e pa ra t ing s he rd s . T hu s , t h es o lu t ion h e r em ay b e t o r e co rd a t t r ibu t e s i n am anne r i nw h ich t h ey c an b e d up l ica t ed ,s u ch a sw i th p hy s ica lm ea su r emen t so fs i ze o rt h rough u t i l iz ing s t anda rd ized q ua l i ta t ive m ea su r e s s u ch a st h e Mun se l l c o lo rc har t . H oweve r , s i n ce t h e

d eco ra t ion , p hy s ica l c ompo s i t ion , s i z e , c o lo r , s hap e ) e nab le s t h em t ob e g rouped i n d if e r en t w ay s ; f o r e xamp le , a n e xam ina t ion o f t h e s t o rage c apac i ty o f v e s se l s m ay g r oup a l l l a rge f o rm s t o ge th e r e v en t h ough t h ey a r em ade o fd if e r en tm a t e r ia l s , w h i le a n e xam ina t ion o f t h e v e s se l s ' o r ig in s m ay g roup t h e s am ev e s se l sd if e r en t ly ( b yi n c lu s ion s ,d eco ra t ion ,o r s u r f ace f i n i sh ) . T he c a ta log ing o fa t t r ibu te sp rov id e s t h eo n ly w ay t oa cknow ledge t ha ti nd iv idua l s ,w h e the r p eop le o r a r t i f ac t s , a r e m embe r s o f c r o s s c u t t ing g r oup s . T he u s e o f mu l t ip le c l a s s if i ca t ion t hu s m o r e c l o se ly a pp rox ima te s t h e w ay i n w h ich a r t if ac t s c onveyed m u l t ip le s ymbo l ic a nd f un c t iona lr o le s . T he

v ar iab le st ob e m ea su r ed mu s t s t i l l b e c ho sen b y t h e i n ve s t iga to r ,e ve ry c l a s s if ica t ion e f o r tw i l lc on t inue t o c on ta in a s ub jec t iv e e l emen t ( Adam s a nd A dam s 1 991 :291 ) . T h e s ub jec t ive e l emen t c an a f ec t c l a s s if i ca t ion e f f or t si ns e ve ra lw ay s :i nt h es e lec t ion o ft h ea t t r ibu te s t ob e c a ta logued , t h e s e lec t ion o ft h e s amp le u n i t s

c ompa r i son o fd ome s t ic a nd m or tua ry c on tex t s i sa n e xamp le o ft h e w ay i n w h ich mu l t ip le r o le s c an b e a s se s sed f o ra r chaeo log ica l ly k nown c u l tu re s . I t em so f d ome s t ic u s e ,s u ch a sv e s se l sa nd u t en s i l s ,c l ea r ly h ave n o f u r the r f un c t iona l r o le f o r t h e d ecea sed , b u t a s s ymbo l ic i n d ica to r sa ff i rm t h er o le sh e ld b y( o rw h ich w ou ld h ave b een a n t ic ipa ted f o r )t h ep e r son i n t e r red . I n e xam in ing m or tua ry v a r iab i l i ty i n t h e K lunk G ib son m ound g roup i n t h e l owe r I l ino i s v a l ley , D av id B raun ( 1 979 )p ropo sed t h a tv a r iab i l i ty r e f lec ted s o c ia ld imen s ion so fv a r ia t ion . T h i ss o c ia lv a r iab i l i ty w a sn o tl im i t ed t o as imp le e l i t e /non -e l i t ed i s t inc t ion ; i n s t ead , h i s w o rk s howed t h a t a" d imen s ion o f d i f f e ren t ia t ion a mong b u r ia l s may c on s i s t o fe i th e ra s i ng le a t t r ibu t eo r as e to fa t t r ibu te s ,w h ich c ova ry a nd t hu s c oope r a t e i np a r t i t ion ing t h e b u r ia l p opu la t ion i n to s ub se t sb a s ed o n d if e r ence s i nb u r ia lt r ea tmen t " ( B raun 1 979 :67 ) . I ti si mpo r tan tt on o t et h a tb ecau s e o b jec t s h ave m any a t t r ibu te s , i ti ss ome t ime s t h e s im i la r i t ie s o f a t t r ibu te s a mong d if e r en t k i nd s o f o b jec t s t h a t c on s t i tu te a na lyzab le g r oup s . T ho se a t t r ibu te s , r a th e r t han i nd iv idua l i t em s , w e r e t h e g roup su sef u li ne va lua t ing h ow b u r ia l si nt h eK lunk G ib son mound g r oup r e f lec t ed s o c ia ls t a tu s . A no the r p r ac t ica l a pp l ica t ion o f ac omp i led c l a s s if ica t ion w a s u nde r taken i nt h e a na ly s i s o ft h e p o t t e ry f r om t h e Med i ter ran ean s i te o fC a e sa r ea . T h e r e sea r che r sb egan w i th t h ep r em i se t h a t" t he p rob lem o f c l a s s if i ca t ion l i e s a t t h e r o o t o f o u r i n ab i l i ty t o e x t ra c t t h e k i nd s o f i n f o rma t ion w e b e l ieve t o b e c on ta ined i nt h ec e ram ic p o r t ion so ft h ea r chaeo log ica l r e co rd " ( Benn e t ta nd B lake ly 1 989 :7 ) . V iew ing p a s t a t temp t sa tc l a s s if i ca t ion a sb e ing t o oh eav i ly f o cu s ed o nc h rono log y ,t h e i rr e co rd ing s t ra tegy b egan w i th t h e t h r ee t y pe so fi n f o rma t ion t h a tc an b ed i r ec t ly o b s erv ed f r om c e ram ic s : t h e f o rm ( mo rpho logy ) , f a b r ic ( c ompo s i t ion )a nd t h ef i nd spo t( s t ra t ig raphy ) . F ab r ic s

w h ich c on ta in t h e i n d iv idua l s t ob e s o r ted , a nd t h e n umbe r o fg roup s w h ich a r e t ob e i d en t if ied f r om a g i ven c o l lec t ion o fi nd iv idua l s . B yc hoo s ing d if e ren t c omb ina t ion so fa t t r ibu t e sa st h eb a s i sf o rg roup s ,t h e n umbe ro fg roup sc an i n c rea se o rd e c r ea se ,j u s ta st h e n umbe ro fi n d iv idua l sw i th in g roup sc an a l so i n c r ea se o r d ec r ea se d epend ing o n t h e a t t r ibu te s o r a t t r ibu te c omb ina t ion st h a tc ompr ise t h eg r oup . T he r e jec t ion o fc l a s s e sw i th f ew i n d iv idua l s s hou ld b eu nder taken w i th c on s ide rab le c au t ion s i nce l ow f r equency i t em s m ay b er e ana lyzed t oj o in l a rge rg roup sw h en d if e ren t a t t r ibu te sa r ec on s id e r ed . C ha r le sR edman ( 1 977 ) , i n ad i scu s s ion o f s t y l i s t ic s t ud ie s u nd e r tak en o n t h e C ibo la P ro jec t , d i scu s se s h ow h e l o oked a t d e s ign e l em en t so nr a r eo ccu r rence so fw ho le p o t st oh e lp i n t h ea na ly s i so fs t y le o ns he rd s . Wh i le t h eo ccu r r ence o f who le p o t s w a s r a r e , b y c on s id e r ing t h em a s a c omp le t ed e s ign f i e ld t h ey c ou ld b ei n co rpo ra t ed i n to ab roade rs t udy ,t h eg oa lo f wh ich w a st h ea na ly s i so f l a rge q uan t i t ie s o fs he rd s . R ec la s s if i ca t ion m oved t he se i t em s f r om r a r i ty ( who le p o t s ) t o a bundance ( d e s ign e l emen t s ) , wh ich r e f lec t s t h e i r v a lu e i nt h e a s semb lage f o rs ome t y pe so fa na ly s i s . A no the rm ean s b y wh ich d if e r en t a t t r ibu te s c an b e g r ouped i n to s ucce s s iv e c a tego r ie s i s Q -ana ly s i s , w he r e e a ch i nd iv idua lt y pe o ri t em may b ec l a s s if i ed a s as ub se to f mu l t ip le g roup s , ap roce s s w h ich a l low s mu l t ip le s imu l tan eou s h i e ra r ch ica l c l a s s if i ca t ion s ( s ee R oge r s 1 990 ; A ld ende r f e r 1 987 ) . T h e f o rma t ion o f s imu l taneou s a na ly t ic g roup s b a sed o n a t t r ibu te s r a the r t h an w ho le o b jec t s m o r e c l ea r ly p a ra l le l st h ew ay i n wh ich o b je c t sa r ep e r ce ived b yt h ep eop le w ho u se t h em . T h e u s eo fo b jec t s m ay e n compa s s mu l t ip le m ean ing s ,s i n c es h if t si nc on tex t s 6 0

w e r eg r ouped u s ing t h er e su l t so fx r ay a na ly s i s , w i th g r oup c ohe s ion t e s ted b y h eavy m ine ra l a na ly s i sa nd t h in s e c t ion s o f s ome s he rd s . A l l e n t r ie s w e r e r e co rd ed i n to ac ompu te r d a taba se w h ich i n c luded a g r aph ic s c ompon en t t o i n corpo ra te d r aw ing s , p ho tog raph s a nd x r ay i mage s , p rov id ing am ean st o i n qu i r ea bou t d if e r en ta spe c t so ft h ec e ram ic c o rpu s ( Benne t ta nd B lake ly 1 989 ) . T he e xamp le s f r om t h e I l ino i s v a l ley a nd C ae sa r ea i nd ica te t h a t t h e p r ac t ica l g roup ing o f a r t if ac t s i n to t y pe s w h ich p e rm i t f u r the r a na ly s i s i s m o s ts u cce s sf u lw hen a t tr ibu te s ,r a the rt h an i n d iv idua l i t em s ,a r et h eb a s ic e l emen to ft h ec l a s s if ica t ion . T he i d en t if i ca t ion o f a t t r ibu t e s i n t h e r e co rd ing p roce s s a l so m ean st ha tp r ev iou s ly a cknow ledged c a tego r ie so f i n f o rma t ion e ncompa s sed b yt r ad i t iona lt y po log ie sa r e n o t e c l ip sed b y ac on t inua l s e r ie s o f " n ew " t y pe s . T rad i t iona l n ame s a nd t h e c h rono log ica l a spec t s o f p r ev iou s ly i d en t i f ied a r t if ac tc l a s se sc an ,h ow eve r ,b e s upp lem en ted w i th n ew i n f o rma t ion t h a t e nab le s i n d iv idua l s t o b e g rouped t o a n sw e r an umbe r o f d if e r en tq ue s t ion s .

c on c lud ed t h a tt h ef i r s ta ppea ran ce o f NBP s hou ld b e d a t ed t ot h es e cond h a lf o ft h es i x th c en tu r yB .C . T he e nd d a t e s f o r t h e a pp ea rance o ft h i s w a r e a r e mo re v a r iab le : G au r ( 1 983 ) , f o r e xamp le , d a te s t h e NBP h o r izon t o 50 -50 B .C . a tt h e n o r th e rn G ange t ic s i te o fA t ran j ikhe ra . T he w a r ei sp r inc ipa l ly k nown f r om t h eG ang e s V a l ley , b u t s h e rd sd e s c r ib ed a sN or the rn B la ck P o l i shed ( NBP )h ave b een f o und a sf a rn or thea s t a s Maha s thanga rh a nd P a tha r agha ta i nB ang lade sh ( Chak rabar t i 1 992 :53 ; S a l le s 1 995 :551 ) a nd o n t h e w e s ter n c oa s t a t s i te s s u ch a s N aga ra a nd B roach ( M eh ta 1 968 ) . T he a ppea ranc e o f NBP i n t h e s ou the rn s ubcon t inen t i s r e la t ive ly l im i ted : R ama chand ran ( 1 980 ) m en t ion s ar e por t o f af ew s h e rd sa tt h ef a rs ou the rn s i t eo fK o rka i( f o r ac r i t ique , s e eN a rayanan 1 987 ; S ha rma 1 987 ) . S ha rma ( 1990 9 1 )p ropo se st h a t NBP r e ach ed S r iL anka b yt h et h i rd c en tu ry B .C . I nt h e G ang e s V a l ley t h e p ropo r t ion o f NBP i n c e ram ic a s semb lage s i sv a r iab le , p r obab ly d ue t ot h e f a c t t h a t d if e ren t t y pe s o f a c t iv i ty a r ea s h ave b een e x cava t ed . A t s ome s i te s t h e p ropo r t ion o f NBP i s q u i t e h i gh ( f o r e xamp le , n ea r ly f i f t y p e r cen t o f t h e p o t t e ry f r om s ub -pe r iod sI Ba nd I Ca tR a jgha t d a t ing f r om t h e s i x th second c en tu r ie s B .C . ; R oy 1 978 7 9 :107 ; s e ea l so N a ra in a nd R oy 1 976 ) . T he c en t ra l I nd ian s u bcon t inen t( a long w i th a ny e a s te rn ma r i t ime r o u t e s )w ou ld t h e r ef o r eh av eb een t h ec ondu i tt h rough w h ich G ange t ic -p roduced NBP w ou ld h ave t r ave led , a nd s om e s i te s , s u ch a s Ama rava t i a nd n ea rby V addamanu , h av e c on s id e r ab le e v id ence o f NBP i n t h e i r e a r l ie r l e ve l s ( Sha rma 1 987 ) . H oweve r , t h e V ida rbha r e g ion a ppea r s t o h ave a r e la t ive ly l ow p ropor t ion o f NBP :o n ef r agm en tf r om t h e "Mau ryan " l e ve l sa tA dam ( Na th 1 992 :74 ) ; o n e " doub t f u l s he rd " a t P aun i ( J AR 1 969 -70 :21 ) ; a nd a n u n spec if ied q uan t i ty f r om t h es i te o fA rn ii nY eo tma ld i s t r ic t( J AR 1 978 -79 ) . R ed P o l i sh ed Wa r ei saf i newa r ep r inc ipa l ly f r om w e s t e rn I nd ia ( e spec ia l ly G u ja ra t ) . T he f i r s te x ten s ive d e sc r ip t ion a nd d i scu s s ion o fR ed P o l i shed Wa re w a s u nd e r tak en b yB .S ubba rao ,w ho d e s c r ibed t h is w a re a s h av ing af i ne l e v iga ted c l ay , f i r ed t o au n if orm b r ick r e d c o lo r a nd h av ing a n o u te r s u r f ace wh ich i s p o l i shed w i th c o lo r sr ang ing f r om l a cque rr e dt o ad u l l b rown ( Subba rao 1 953 :56 ) . F ound a t many s i te s i n G u ja r a t , e s pec ia l ly i n S au r a sh t ra , t h is w ar e h a s g en e ra l ly b een f o und i ns t ra ta r ang ing f r om t h ef i r s tt o f i f th c en tu r ie s A .D . , a s soc ia t ed w i th b o th t h e K sha t rapa si nG u ja ra ta nd t h eS a tavahana si nw e s tern Maha ra sh t ra ( Nanava t i , Meh ta ,a nd C howdha ry 1 971 ; S ubba rao 1 953 ) . S ubba rao ' s c ha rac t e r iza t ion o ft h is w a r e i n d ica te st h a t i to c cu r r ed i n an umbe r o ff a ir ly d i s t in c t f o rm s : at h ick s pou tw i th an a r row a pe r tu r e c ommon ly k nown a s a" s p r in Ide r " ; t a l l , t h in n eck s w i th e v e r ted f l a tr im s ;f a ncy e v e r ted r im sw i th e x te r na l g roove s , a nd s ha l low s au ce r s( f igu r e 6 . 1 ; S ubba rao 1 953 :58 ) . S ub sequen t i n v e s t iga t ion o ft h i sw a re t y pe

T ype so fE ar ly H i s tor ic c eram ic s T h e c l a s s if i ca t ion o f c e ram ic s f o und i n I nd ian a r chaeo log ica l s i t e sg ene ra l ly f o cu se so nc h rono logy . F o re xamp le , t h ec e ram ic w a r e sw h ich h ave r e ce ived t h e m o s t a t ten t ion a r e t ho se t h a t a r e i n d ica t ive o f l a rge sca le c u l tu ra l c on tac t , o r w h ich a r e h o r izon m a rke r s a s soc ia t ed w i th c u l tu ra l c hang e s u ch a st h e s h if t t o f o od p roduc t ion . T h e r e a r e an umbe r o f d i s t inc tc e ram ic t y p e sk nown f r om t h eE a r ly H is to r ic p e r iod , w i th b road r e g iona l d i s t r ibu t ion s ; h oweve r , t h e r ei s ag rea td ea l m o r ea t t en t ion l a v i shed u pon t h e f i n ewa r e so ft he d if e r en tr eg ion st h an u pon t h ec oa r se w a re s . N o r the rn B lack P o l i shed ( NBP )w a r ei s ah i gh ly d i s t in c t ive ,h igh -po l i shed w a r et h a th a sb e en f o und i n an umb e ro fv e s se l f o rm s ( Roy 1 978 -79 ) . T he d a te s f o r NBP h ave b een t i ed t or a d io ca rbon d a te sf o rs i te s i nt h eG ange t ic v a l ley ;i n ad e ta i led e xam ina t ion o ft h e i n i t ia l d a te s o f NBP , E rdo sy ( 1 995 :100 -5 ) h a s

' The a u tho r s 'a t temp t st oc r ea te a" v a lu e -f ree " t y po logy f o rt h e i rm a te r ia l sc ou ld o n ly b es u cce s sf u l t o ac e r ta in e x ten t , a st h e i rc ho ice o ft h et h re e e l emen t so ff o rm , f a br ic , a nd f i nd spo tw e r eg u ided b yu nde r ly ing c onv ic t ion sa bou tt h eu t i l i ty o f c e ram ic a na ly s i s . A so ne c omm en ta to ro nt h i sw o rk n o ted , B enne t ta nd B lake ly a r ep r ima r i ly c once rned w i th a sp ec t sr e la t ed t ot r ade a c t iv i t ie s( s uch a s f a b r ic , w h ich i su s ef u lf o rd i scu s s ing c e ram ic o r ig in s )a nd d on o ta l low f o rt h er e co rd ing o fo t he r a s pec t so fc e ram ic u s e , s u ch a st h o se wh ich c ou ld b e u s ed t oc on s t ruc ts ymbo l ic i n t e rp r e ta t ion s( S t range 1 989 ) . 6 1

a lmo s t i n va r iab ly g ray , a nd u n l ike t h ev a r iou s f o rm s a t te s ted i n t h e R ed P o l i shed Wa r e o f t h e w e s te rn s ubcon t in en t , a ppea r s e xc lu s ive ly i n t h i s f l a t -ba sed d i sh f o rm ( Beg ley 1 991) . A t t h e t ime o f Whee le r ' s r e por t , t h e r o u le t ted d e s ign w a s r e ga rded a s a Med i te r r an ean f e a tu r e , t hough t h e w a r e i t se lf m ay h ave b een l o ca l ly made ( Whee le r 1 946 ) . R ecen t i n ve s t iga t ion s h ave a rgued f o r as t r ic t ly i n d igenou s I n d ian o r ig in f o rt h i s w a r e , b o th b ecau se t h e r e i sn o Med i te r ranean p ro to typ ef o rt h e r ou le t ted d e s ign a nd b ecau se i t a ppea r s t o p r eda te t h e i mpor ta t ion o f Med i ter ranean ampho rae a tA r ikamedu ( Beg ley 1 994 ) . A sw i th R ed P o l i shed Wa r e , t h e re i s r a re ly a ne xp lana t ion o ft h ef a c to r sw h ich p romp tt h e i n ve s t iga to r t o i d en t if y c e r ta in s i te s a s h av ing " im i ta t ion " o r " l oca l -copy " v e r s ion s o f R ou le t ted Wa r e . N o r d o a u tho r s c l a r if y w hy i nd iv idua l s p ec imen s s h ou ld b e c ha rac ter ized a s " o f R oman o r ig in , "a sS i in iva san ( 1987 :23 ) s a y so ft h eR ou le t ted Wa re s a t S engamedu . R ou le t t ed Wa r e h a s b een r e cogn iz ed a tT am luk a nd o the rs i te sn ea rC a lcu t ta o n t h en o r th e rn c oa s to ft h eB ay o fB enga l( Gup ta 1 960 ) , t h roughou tT am i lN adu ( f o re xamp le ,R amachand ran 1 980 ) , i nS r i L anka a tA nu radhapu r a a nd e l sewhe r e ( Beg ley 1 99 1 ) ,a nd a sf a ra sS emb i ran o nt h ei s land o f B a l i( A rd ika e ta l . 1 993 ;f o ra na dd i t iona ls umma ry o f R ou le t ted Wa r eo ccu r rence s , s e e Wa lke ra nd S an to so 1 977 -78 ) . R ou le t t ed Wa re a nd R ed P o l ished Wa re a r e a mong t h e m o s t w e l l -known o f t h e E a r ly H is to r ic c e ram ic t y p e si nt h es ubcon t inen t ,b u tt h e s ew a re sa r e i n f requen t ly r e cove red i n t he V ida rbha r e g ion . A t A dam , 9 0k i lome te r s s ou thea s to fN agpu r , o ne s he rd o f r ou le t ted w a r e f r om l a ye r 3a nd a n u n spec if ied q uan t i ty o fR ed P o l i shed Wa r ew a sr e po r ted f r om t h e e xcava t ion sc a r r ied o u tb yt h eA r cha eo log ica l S u rvey o fI nd ia ( Na th n . d . ) . Wh i le c i t ing t h e Med i te r ranean l i nk s o f r o u le t t ed w a re , t he e xcava to r d e c l ined t o i n t e rp r e tt h es h e rd a s ad i rec t Med i t e r ranean i mpo r t , s e e ing t h e R ed P o l ished w a r e s a st h e r e su l t o fl o ca l m anu f ac tu r e( Na th n .d . ) . R epor t s o f e xp lo ra t ion s c a r r ied o u t a t t h e V aka taka p e r iod s i te a t Mandha l ,7 5k i lome t e r se a s to f N agpu r , h av e s t a ted t h a t R ed P o l i shed Wa r e w a s a s soc ia ted w i th e a r ly b r ick t emp le so ft h ef o ur th -f if th c en tu r ie sA .D .( Sha rma 1 992 ) . R ed p o l i shed w a re w a s a l so r e por ted f r om P auna rb yt h ee x cava to rS .B . D eo i nt h eV aka taka l e ve l s( J AR 1 966 -67 :27 ) . T ot h ew e s t o fN agpu r ,i nB u ldana d i s t r ic t ,s he rd sa nd s p r inke r so f r e dp o l i sh ed w a r eo ft h e" e a r ly h i s to r ica lp e r iod "w e r e r e po r ted f r om T a rapu r( J AR 1 981-82 :96 ) . E x cava t ion s a tA rn i , 1 00 k i lome te r ss ou th o fK aund inyapu ra ,n o ted t h e a ppea r ance o f r ed -po l i shed w a r e i n t h e " po s t Mau ryan t oS a tavahana " l e ve l s ( J AR 1 978 -79 :71-2 ) . O ccu r rence so fr o u le t ted w a re a r ee v en m o re r a re i n V ida rbha : i na dd i t ion t ot h e s he rd f r om A dam n o ted a bove , af ew s h e rd sa r er e po r ted f r om Ar n i( J AR 1 978 7 9 :72 ) . H ow ev e r , t h e r a r i ty o fs p ec ia l iz ed f i newa r e s

11 7

F igure 6 . 1 . R ed P o l i sh ed Wa r ef o rm s( f rom L iu 1 988 : f i g .2 ) . h a s i n c r ea sed t h e n umbe r o fr e cogn ized f o rm s , w i th O r ton c l a im ing t o d i s t ing u i sh u p t o 1 60 s t y l i s t ic v a r ia t ion si nj a rr im sa l one ( O r ton 1 991 :46 ) . Wh i le t h e f o rm s o f R ed P o l i shed Wa r e h ave r e ce ived s om ea t ten t ion ,t h e r er ema in sl i t t le t e chn ica l d e sc r ip t ion o ft h ep o t te ry b eyond ac ha rac te r iza t ion o f t h e c o lo r s o f i nd iv idua l p i ece s a cco rd ing t o t h e Mun se l l c o lo r c ha r t ( O r ton 1 991) . A s ar e su l t , d e sc r ip t ion sf a l l i n to ar ange o fi d io sync ra t ic u sage s , d epend ing o n t h e i n ve s t iga to r , w i th a n umbe r o f d e r iva t iv e s o fR ed P o l i sh ed Wa r e s u ch a s ' p o l ished r e d w a r e ' , ' r ed s l ipped w a r e ' , a nd s o o n . O n o t he r o cca s ion s , f o rm s s im i la r t oR ed P o l i shed Wa re s o f G u ja ra ta r ed e sc r ibed s imp ly a s" r ed p o l i shed w a r e s " ( w i thou ti n i t ia lc ap i ta ll e t t e r s )a nd l a ck a ny a dd i t iona l o rs p ec if i cr e f e r en t s ,s u ch a st h es p r ink le r sa nd s pou t s f o und a tK ee sa ra , A ndh ra P rade sh ( Sa s t ry 1 979 ) . R ou le t ted Wa r ei sav e s se lf o rm i nf i newa r ew h ich a ppea r s p r ima r i ly o n t h e e a s t e rn c oa s t o f t h e s ubcon t in en t . R ou le t ted Wa r e h a s b een m o r e c on s i s t en t ly d e sc r ibed t h an t h eo t he rf i newa r e so ft h e E a r ly H i s to r ic p er iod , p e rhap s b e cau se i ta pp ea r s i n o n ly o n e f o rm ( a f l a t -bo t tom ed b ow l ) a nd h a s a d i s t inc t iv ep a t t ern o fd eco ra t ion . T h i sf o rm w a sf i r s t d e sc r ibed i nd e ta i lb yK r i sna D eva f r om t h ea bundan t f i nd sa tA r ikamedu :f l a t -ba sed d i she sw i th a ni n cu rved r im , 1 2 i n che s ( 3 0 c en t ime t e r s ) o r mo r e i nd i ame te r , w i th a v e ry w e l l -po l i shed s u r f ace a nd w i th a d i s t inc t iv e s e t o fc onc en t r ic c i r cu la r b and s o f at i ny r ou le t ted i n d en ta t ion s o n t h e i n ter io r ( Whe e le r , G ho sh , a nd K r i sna D eva 1 946 :45 ) . T he w a r e i s 6 2

f r om o t h e r p a r t s o ft h e s ubcon t in en t s hou ld n o t b e s u rp r i s ing , g i ven t h el o ca la b i l i ty t op roduce f i newa r e f r om a va i lab le c l ay s , a nd t h e c on s ide rab le d i s tance f r om V ida rbha t ot h e c oa s ta l a r ea s w he r e R ou le t ted Wa r e a nd R ed P o l i shed Wa re s a r e a bundan t . C e ram ic c omp lexe sw h ich a r em o re n ume rou si n V ida rbha a r e , h ow eve r , d e s c r ib ed i n as im i la r ly a mb iguou s m anne r . " B lack -and r ed " w a r e , wh ich d e sc r ib e sc e ram ic st h a ta r eg en e ra l ly b l ack o no ne s i de a nd r e d o n t h e o the r , i sm an if e s ted i n av a r ie ty o f q ua l i t i e s a nd s i ze s t h roughou t t h e s ou the rn s ub con t inen t , i n c lud ing c en t r a l I nd ia . Wh i le t h e f o rm s w h ich a r e u sua l ly d e sc r ib ed a sb l ack -and red w a r ea r eu sua l ly b ow l s ,t h e r ei sar a ng eo fq ua l i ty f r om w e l l -po l i shed e xemp la r s m ade o ff i ne , w e l l lev iga ted c l ay t oc r ude b ow l so fc oa r se f a b r ic . T he d e sc r ip t ion o f c o lo r a l so v a r ie s f r om t h e i d en t if i ca t ion o f i n d iv idua ls pec imen sw h ich a r ei n ten t iona l ly p l aced i n t h e k i ln t o p rodu ce a n o x id ized r e d e x t e r io r a nd r e du c ed b l ack i n te r io r . A l t e rna t e ly , s ome w a r e s d e sc r ibed a sb l ack -and r ed a r e i d en t if i ed a ss u ch b y t h ep r e sence o ff i r ec loud so ro t he rs i gn so fi n d if f e r en t m anuf a c tu r e . C e ram ic s d e sc r ibed a sb l ack -and red a r e s ome t ime s d i v id ed i n to o t he r c a tego r ie s b y i n d iv idua l r e sea rche r s , s u ch a s " mega l i th ic " b l ack a nd r ed , o r" c oa r se "b l a ck -and r ed . T hu s ,e v en w a re t y p e s t h a t a r e r e cogn ized a mong r e s ea r ch e r s a s a pp ea r ing w id e ly t h roughou t ar e g ion a r e r a r e ly d e s c r ibed i n am ann e rt h a ta l low sc ompa r i son b e tw een s i t e st h rough p ub l i shed e xcava t ion r e po r t s . ' T h e r e so lu t ion o ft h e se d i lemma s o fd e sc r ip t ion w i l l a s s i s t n o to n ly i nc ompa r ing w a r e sb e tw een o ne s i t e a nd a no the r , b u t w i l l a l so e nab le c h rono log ica l a s s e s smen t s t ob e m ad e f r om c e r am ic a s semb lage s . O n ly w h en d e sc r ip t ion so fw a r e sa r ec on s i s t en tw i l li t b ep o s s ib le t oi s o la te v a r ian t sw i th in w a r ec a tego r ie s b a sed o n s hape , t h ickne s s , i n c lu s ion s , a nd s u r f ace t r ea tm en t . I fi ti sf o und t h a t t h e s ame w a re s d o c on t inue t h roughou t al o ng t im e s p an , o ne w ay t o e x t ra c tc h rono log ica li n f o rma t ion m ay b et oe xam ine t h ef r equenc ie so ft h es am ew a r e so v e rt ime ,w h e r et h e a bundan ce o rs c a r c i ty o fw a r e sr a the rt h an a l te ra t ion s i nf o rm a r et h es i gna lo fc h rono log ica lc hange . S uch d a ta m ay b ef o r thcom ing f r om n ew e xcava t ion sw i th a n e mpha s i s o n t h e q uan t if i ca t ion o fa l l w a r e t y pe s , t h ough t h ed a ta a r en o ta tp r e s en ta va i lab le . A no the r m ean s o f e l ic i t ing c h rono log i ca l i n f o rma t ion f r om s im i la r look ing w a r e s o r f o rm s m ay b e i n t h e e xam ina t ion o fi n c lu s ion so rm anuf a c tu r ing t e chn ique . S om eo ft h es imp le f o rm s t h a ta pp ea ri nm any l e ve l s

o f d eep ly s t ra t if i ed s i te s d o a ppea r t o b e m ade o f d i s t inc t ly d if e r en tm a te r ia l s . O ne e xamp le i sf r om t h e s i t eo fP auna r , w he r e as imp le b u lbou s r im f o rm ( s ee a ppend ix D , f o rm 6 01 ) o ccu r s i np e r iod Ii nb l ack b u rn i shed w a r ea nd i np e r iod I Ba s ar e d s l ipped w a r e ( Deo a nd D hava l ika r 1 968 ) . T he i d en t if i ca t ion o f o t he r w a r e s o cca s iona l ly i n c lude s ac ommen t o n t h e r e la t ive a bundance o f p a r t icu la r f o rm s o r a n i nd ica t ion o f t h e p r inc ipa l i n c lu s ion si nt h ep a s t e( e .g . s t raw ,g r i t ) . H oweve r ,t h e p ub l ica t ion s o f e xcava ted m a t e r ia l s a r e g ene ra l ly a imed a tg i v ing ar e p r e sen ta t ion o ft h ec e ram ic c o rpu s , i nw h ich t h e r ei s ad r awn e xemp la ro fe a ch d if e r en t t y p e o ff o rm e ncoun te r ed w i th in w a r e t y pe s b road ly d ef ined a s " c oa r s e " w a r e , r e d s l ipped w a r e s , " c hoco la te " w a r e s , a nd t h el i ke . T he v e s se l m o rpho logy o fe xcava ted c eram ic s i s s omewha te a s ie rt or e cove rf r om p ub l i sh ed e xcava t ion r e por t st h an ad i scu s s ion o fw a r e s . E x cava t ion r e por t s d ep ic t wha t c an b e i n te rp r e ted a s ac omp r ehen s iv e c a ta log o fa l l o ft h e d if e ren t r im f o rm s w h ich w e r e e ncoun te r ed . D rawn e xemp la r s a r eo f t en d a ted w i th r e f e r ence t oo t he r m a te r ia ls i nt h e e x cava ted s t ra ta , s u ch a s c o in s o r a r ch i t ec tu ra l e l emen t s ; s ome t ime s c r o s s r ef e r en ce sa r em ade t ok nown f o rm sf r om n ea rby s i t e s ( f o re xamp le t h eN agda r e po r t , B ane r jee 1 986 ) . T h e mo re c a r ef u l a t t en t ion t o r im f o rm s a nd t h e i r g ene ra l s t ra t ig raph ic a s soc ia t ion s f r om e xcava t ion r e po r t s e nab le t h e u s e o fs u r f ace c e ram ic s f o rd a t ing p u rpo se s , w h e r e r im f o rm s c an b e l i nk ed w i th t ho se f r om e xcava t ed s i t e s . H owev e r , t h e t ime s pan o f i n t e r e s t u sua l ly s t op s w i th t h e E a r ly H i s to r ic p e r iod , m ean ing t h a tc e ram ic s o ft h e s ub sequ en t " med ieva l " p e r iod a r e c on s ide rab ly mo r e d if i cu l t t od a te , e v en a pp rox ima t e ly . T he a na ly s i so ft h em a ter ia l sc o l lec t ed d u r ing t h e K aund inyapu ra p ro jec t m ade u se o f t h e g r ea te r a t ten t ion p a id t or im f o rm sf o rc h rono log ica l c on t ro l , w h i le e s tab l i sh ing a m o r e r e f ined t y po logy f o r t h e w a r e s t hem se lve s t oe nab le f u r the r s t a t emen t s a bou t s i t e c ha ra c t e r i s t ic s w i th in c h rono log ica l p e r iod s . N once ram ic a r t if a c t s , w h ich o ccu r r ed i n as ma l le r q uan t i ty t h an c e ram ic s ,w e r ed e sc r ib ed ,w e ighed ,a nd u sua l ly d rawn ;d eb i tage a nd p roduc t ion d eb r i ss uch a s s l ag w a sw e ighed a nd c oun ted p e rc o l lec t ion u n i t . A na ly s i so fc eram ic w are sa t Kaund inyapura : T he t ype c o l lec t ion T he m ea su r emen to ft h ec e ram ic sf r om t h es u rf ace s u rvey a tK aund inyapu ra w a s p r e sen ted w i th s e ve r e l im i ta t ion s d u e t ot h e s i ze o ft h e s h e rd s r e cove red . C e r ta in i n f o rma t ion , s u ch a s v e s se l s i ze , c ou ld n o t a lway sb ed e te rm ined f r om t h es ur f a ce m a te r ia l sa l one . H oweve r ,e ven t h em o s tf r agmen ta ry p o t te ry p r e sen t s ac on s ide rab le r ang e o f a spec t s f o r m ea su r emen t : v e s s e lw a l lt h ickne s s ,t emp e ra nd i n c lu s ion s ,d eg r ee o f f i n ene s s ,m anu f a c tu r ing t e chn ique ,d eg ree o ff i n i sh ing

20 n em ea su r eo ft h ev agu en e s so ft h el a be l " b la ck -and red w a r e " i si nd ica t ed b yt h eu se o ft h e t e rm t od e scr ibe p o t te ry f r om N ub ian g r av e sw h ich w e r ee xcava ted b yI nd ian t e am sd u r ing t h e UNESCO A swan d am s a lvage p r o jec to ft h ee a r ly 1 960 s( J AR 1 961-62 :69 ) .

6 3

i n c lud ing b u rn i sh ing a nd s l ip , a nd d eco ra t ion . T he m o s t i mpor tan t c r i te r ia i n d e term in ing w h ich a t t r ibu t e ss hou ld b er e co rd ed d epend sl a rg e ly u pon t h e a t t r ibu te s wh ich a r e r equ i r ed t oa dd r e s s t h e s pec if ic r e sea r ch q ue s t ion so f ap a r t icu la rp ro jec t . I na dd i t ion , s t anda rd a t t r ibu te s r e co rded b y o t he r p ro jec t s i nt h e r e g ion s hou ld a l so b er e co rd ed , t oa s s i s t i np rov id ing r e g iona ld a taba se ss u i tab le f o rc ompa ra t iv ep u rpo se s . A s i n d ica t ed a bove , t h e u sua l r e co rd ing o f E a r ly H i s to r ic I nd ian c e ram ic t y pe s i s r a the r v ague ly d ef ined , a nd t h e r e co rd ing o fv e s se l f o rm s u sua l ly a p a r t icu la r i s t ic c a ta logue w h ich a pp l ie s t ot h e s i te i n q ue s t ion o n ly . F o r t h is s t udy , t h e c e ram ic s w e re d ef ined a nd r e co rd ed t or e t r ieve i n f o rma t ion r e levan tt ot h ec en t ra l r e s ea r ch q ue s t ion o fh ow at r ad ing s i te p a r t ic ipa ted i n e xchange n e two rk s i n t h e a b sence o f p o l i t ica l c ohe s ion . I s sue s o fc h rono logy , f o r w h ich c e ram ic s a r eo f t en t h e m o s t a bundan tt e s t imony , w e r eb a s ic t o t h ea s se s smen to ft h eg row th o ft h es i t et h rough t ime . E qua l ly i mpo r tan t w a s t h e a s se s smen t o ft h e w ea l th a nd t h ed i s t r ibu t ion o fw ea l th f o rt h es i te ' si n hab i tan t s u t i l iz ing t h ed i ve r s i ty a nd q ua l i ty o fc e ram ic w a r e sa s ap roxy w ea l th i nd ica to r . T h ed i s t r ibu t ion o fw ea l th i nd ica to r sc ou ld t h en b ec ompa r ed t ot h ed i s t r ibu t ion o ft r ad ei t em s , t od i sce rn w h e the ra cces s t on on loca l g ood sw a sl im i ted t oc er ta in s e c to r so ft h es i t e . A tt h e s am et ime ,c e ram ic st h em se lv e sc ou ld b ei n d ica t ive o f c on ta c t b e tween K aund inyapu r a a nd o t he r s i te s , i f s im i la rc e ram ic s t y le sw e re f o und i nn ea rby s i te so ri f i tc ou ld b e d emon s t ra ted t h a t t he a c tua l v e s se l s t r ave led f r om o n er eg ion t oa no the r . A sn o ted e a r l ie r ,p r ev iou sd e sc r ip t ion so fc e ram ic s f r om t h i s a r ea w e re t o o g en e ra l t op rov id e s p ec if i c i n f o rma t ion a bou tc e ram ic w a r e ss ot h a tt h ey c ou ld b e u se f u l t o t h i s s t udy . T hu s , t h e e n t i r e c e ram ic c o l lec t ion w a s a pp roached a s i f i t w e re u nd if f e r en t ia ted ( f o l low ing A dam sa nd A dam s 1 991 ) . I n p rov id ing t h e m ean s t o a dd re s s t h e s pec if ic q ue s t ion s o f t h i s p ro jec t , s u ch a n a pp roach a l so c on s t i tu ted a n e xpe r imen t i nt h e c l a s s if ica t ion o fa p r ev iou s ly u n sor ted d a ta s e t . A l though t h e r e w a s a l a rg e n umbe r o fa t t r ibu te s t h a t c ou ld b e r e co rded , i t w a s d e c ided t h a t t h e a t t r ibu t e sw h ich w ou ld a dd r e s s t h e l a rg e s t n umbe r o f q ue s t ion s f o r t h i s p ro jec t c on cer n ed v e s se l f o rm a nd v e s se l q ua l i ty . T he e s tab l i shmen to fw a re c a tegor i e s ,w h ich d e s c r ibed t h e c o lo r a nd s u r f ace t r ea tmen t o f i nd iv idua l s he rd s , s e rv ed a st h eb a s ic m ean so fd i s t ingu i sh ing c e ram ic s f r om o n ea no the r . A l ls he rd sw e r et y ped a c co rd ing t o w a r e s , t h ough d i agno s t ic s h e rd s ( r im s , b a se s ) w e r e s ub jec t ed t oa dd i t iona l m ea su r em en t st or e co rd m o r e s p ec if i c i n f orma t ion s uch a sv e s se l f o rm a nd t h es i ze o ft h ev e s se lo pen ing . T h et y pe c o l lec t ion w a se s tab l i shed u t i l iz ing b ody s he rd s . T ype sw e r eo r ig ina l ly i d en t if ied f r om t h ef i r s t c o l le c t ion si nl o ca t ion 2 01 ,w i th 8 1 mu tua l ly e xc lu s ive t y p e s i n i t ia l ly e s tab l i shed . I n t h i s i n i t ia l s o r t ing

s t ra tegy ,t h ep u rpo se w a ss imp ly t op i ck o u tt h ee n t i r e r ange o fs h e rd s , s o t h e l o ca t ion 2 01 c o l lec t ion b ag s w e r eo pened a nd e xam in ed o n ly w i th t h i si n ten t . T he 8 1d if f e r en t s h e rd s w h ich w e r e p i ck ed o u t f r om t h i s i n i t ia ls t ep w e r ef i r s ts e pa ra ted b yt h em o s td i s t inc t ive a t t r ibu te o fa ppea rance ( u sua l ly s u r f ac et r ea tmen t )a nd t h en b y s u r f ace f i n i sh a nd t h ickne s s , t o p rov id e n ondup l ica t ing c a tego r ie sb a sed o na ppea rance . E ach w a re w a si d en t if ied f o rc od ing p u rpo se sb y an umbe r , a nd n umbe r ing s equ enc e s w e re g rouped s o t h a t a q u ick a s se s smen t o f t h e w a r e t y pe s f o und i n a ny p a r t icu la ru n i tc ou ld b e m ade w i thou t r e f e r ence t oa c od ing s h ee t . T he s o r t ing s t ra t egy u sed h e r e a l low s f o r i n d iv idua ls h e rd st op o s s e s s mu l t ip le a t t r ibu te s ,y e tb e a s s igned t o m u tua l ly e x c lu s ive c a tego r ie s i n w h ich e a ch t y pe r e p r e sen t s au n ique c omb ina t ion o fc o lo r , s u r f ace t r ea tmen t , a nd t h ickne s s ( f igu r e 6 . 2 ) . T h i s t y pe o fs o r t ing , r ega rd le s so f whe the r i tm a tche s t h e v e s se l m ak e r s ' p e r cep t ion s o f v e s s e l c a tego r ie s , i s u s e f u l b ecau se i te nab le st h e c r ea t ion o ft y p e sw h ich c an s e rve a st h e b a s i s f o r f u r the r a na ly s i s . A s w a r e t y pe sw e r ei d en t if ied , an umbe ro fa dd i t iona la t t r ibu te s w h ich w e r en o tu sed a ss o r t ing c r i te r ia w e re r e co rded f o r t h e s h e rd s w h ich c on s t i tu ted t h e t y p e c o l lec t ion : t h ep r e sence o fb u rn i sh ing ;t h ec o lo ro ft h ep a s t e ; t h e i d en t if ica t ion o fi n c lu s ion s ,a nd t h ep e r cen tage o fe ach i n c lu s ion ;t h ep r e sence o ra b sence o f af i r ing c o re ;t h e e s t ima ted d i ame te ro ft h ev e s se l ;a nd t h ew e igh to ft h e s h e rd i n t h e t y pe c o l lec t ion . A s umma ry o f t h e i n f o rma t ion r e co rded f o r e ach t y pe i s f ound i n a ppend ix C . T h e p e r cen tage a nd t y pe o f i n c lus ion s w a s a s se s sed t o i d en t if y p o t en t ia l s h if t s i n t h e s ou r ce l o ca t ion o ft emper ing a g en t s , a nd w i th t h e i n ten t o f i d en t if y ing v e s se l u se . O the r a t t r ibu t e s , s u ch a s t h ickne s s a nd s u rf ace f i n i sh , p rov id ed a m ean s o f s o r t ing w a r e si n am anne rw h ich r e f le c t ed v e s se l s i z e a nd q ua l i ty . Wh i le t h e se n umb e r s i n d ica t e s om e p hy s ica l a b so lu te s , t h e r e co rd ing o fe a ch a t t r ibu te i s a s soc ia ted w i th p a r t icu la r c avea t s . F o r e xamp le , v e s se l t h ickne s s may a l so v a ry o ve r t h e c ou r se o fa s i ng le v e s se l , s ow hen b ody s he rd s a r e t o o s ma l l f o r t h ep or t ion o ft h ev e s se l t ob e i d en t if i ed , s h e rd sf r om t h e t h ick ( n e ck o rb a se ) a nd t h in ( b ody ) o f as i ng le v e s se l w ou ld m i s taken ly b e c a tego r ized a s t wo d if e ren t w a r e s . L ik ew i s e , t h e d i v i s ion s o f w a r e c a tego r ie si n to t ho se w h ich a r eu n s l ipped , s l ipped o n o ne s i d e , a nd s l ipped o n t wo s i d e s m ay a r t if i c ia l ly d i v ide s he rd s f r om t h e s ame v e s se l i n to d if e r en t w a re s . I tw a s n o ted t h a t t h e ma jo r i ty o fr im s w e re s l ipped o n b o th s i de s , w h i le t h e m a jo r i ty o f b ody s h e rd s w e r e s l ipped o n o n ly o ne s i d e , l e ad ing t ot h e c onc lu s ion t h a t many v e s se l s w e r e o n ly p a r t ia l ly s l ipped . T he s o r t ing c r i te r ia w e re b a sed o n f a c to r s o f r e cogn i t ion t h a tw ou ld r e su l ti n ac on s i s ten tr e lega t ion o fi nd iv idua l st ot y pe s . O n ly s he rd sw h ich h ad b o th 6 4

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