The Anarchism of Nestor Makhno, 1918-1921 0295955112

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2 Moreover, the separation of Katerynoslav province from Ukraine and the obstacles posed to the Rada’s work by the Provisional Government and its supporters created adverse conditions. Thus, after the fall of the Provisional

Government,

it was

difficult for the

Rada either to establish strong authority in the province that would prevent harmful elements from influencing the course of the Revolution, or to introduce a healthy policy to gain public confidence and support.

9. Makhno’s Visits with Kropotkin and Lenin

Of the Russian centers that Makhno wanted to visit, Moscow, Petrograd,

and Kronstadt, the first was of special interest because ‘‘he had a vision of meeting many and diverse revolutionaries in the center of the paper revolution”’ to gain ideological inspiration and advice from them that he would subsequently turn into practice.! He wanted to find out the fate and future plans of the anarchists; he also wanted to ascertain what Bolshevik supremacy meant in practice and the attitude of the workers toward the regime. Moreover, Makhno needed to know at first hand what assistance and what opposition he might expect from Moscow in his future struggle in Ukraine. Makhno’s odyssey through Soviet Russia was a long list of depressing features: anarchy, persecution, and disappointment. When the Bolshevik troops moved north into the Don territory and Russia under German pressure, Makhno, like many others, joined them. On his way he observed the military weakness of the Red Guards and their plunder of the local population. In Tikhoretskaia, north of Rostov, Makhno and one of his compan-

ions were arrested and sentenced to death by the local authority for participating in a requisition of food for the troop train. Only Makhno’s violent protest and a document identifying him as chairman of the Huliai-Pole Committee for the Defense of the Revolution saved them from execution.” In Tsaritsyn (Volgograd) most of the pro-Bolshevik armed detachments coming from Ukraine were disarmed and integrated into the Red Guards. Some of them, especially those consisting of Ukrainian elements, were dealt with very roughly. For example, the detachment

90

Visits with Kropotkin and Lenin

91

headed by Petrenko refused to be disarmed. After a few skirmishes the Bolsheviks arrested Petrenko and executed him while his men were put into Bolshevik units. This and other acts of the Bolshevik authorities deeply depressed Makhno; he felt that “the government is persecuting revolutionary goals altogether.” Because of his close association with the Petrenko

men,

Makhno

feared he would

be arrested. He traveled

down the Volga to Saratov, where he encountered new trouble connected with the arrival of a well-armed anarchist detachment of two hundred and fifty men, known as “the Odessa Terrorists,’? who had forced their way to Saratov, but refused to be disarmed. Armed clashes ensued between the unit and the Cheka. The intention of the Odessa Terrorists, like the Petrenko detachment, was to go back into Ukraine

via Voronezh-Kursk to fight the Austro-German troops. Again in close contact with the terrorists, Makhno hastily escaped to Astrakhan where he entered the propaganda department of the local soviet, but the Bolshevik authorities soon became suspicious of his activities among the troops. Makhno gave up his job and went to Moscow via Tsaritsyn, Saratov, and Tambov.?

Arriving in Moscow

at the beginning of June, he visited a number

of Russian anarchists, among them Aleksander A. Borovoi, Lev Cherny, T. Grosman-Roshchin, A. Shapiro, and his old friend Peter Arshinov.

He had, as well, lengthy discussions with people of other political affiliations. He also attended a number of anarchist, socialist, and Bolshevik

lecture meetings and conferences, including the All-Russian Congress of Textile Unions. Although Makhno found some of his contacts and meetings impressive for their cultural and theoretical range, he felt that, though it was a critical time, the majority of anarchists were idling without purpose. In contrast to the revolutionary work of the Ukrainian peasants, in Moscow there was much talk, writing, and advice to the crowds at the meetings but neither the will nor the courage to face the task of reorienting the course of the Revolution. As a result of this disappointment he decided to go back to Ukraine sooner than planned and to instigate an uprising of the peasants against the Austro-German troops and the hetman regime. He felt that his activity in Ukraine would “manifest to all friends of the paper revolution where to seek vital and healthy strength for our anarchist movement.’ While thinking about the discouraging state of affairs of the Russian anarchists,

Makhno

decided

to

visit

their

nominal

leader

Peter

A.

Kropotkin, from whom he expected answers on all vital questions. Makhno visited Kropotkin on the eve of his departure. Kropotkin received him politely and they spoke at length concerning the tangled

Anarchism of Nestor Makhno

92

situation in Ukraine, including the Austro-German occupation, the hetman government, and the anarchist method of struggle against all forms of counterrevolution. Makhno felt that he received satisfactory answers

to all the questions he posed; however, “when

give me advice concerning my intention revolutionary work among the peasants, advise me, saying: ‘This question involves rade, and only you yourself can solve it leaving,

Kropotkin

said:

“(One

must

I asked him to

to go back into Ukraine for he categorically refused to great risk to your life, comcorrectly.’”” As Makhno was

remember,

dear

comrade,

that

our struggle knows no sentimentality. Selflessness and strength of heart and will on the way toward one’s chosen goal will conquer all.’ Years later Makhno wrote: I have always remembered these words of Peter Aleksandrovich. And when our comrades come to know all that I did in the Russian Revolution in Ukraine and then in the independent Ukrainian Revolution, in the vanguard of which the revolution-Makhno movement played so outstanding a role, they will recognize in my activities that selflessness and that strength of heart and will about which Peter

Aleksandrovich spoke to me.§

Makhno’s other significant meetings in Moscow were with IAkov M. Sverdlov, chairman of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee of

the Soviets, and with V. I. Lenin, in mid-June. The problem of living quarters brought Makhno to the Kremlin and to the office of Sverdlov, who became interested in Ukrainian problems. It is hard to believe that it was only housing that brought him to the Kremlin. It is more likely that Makhno tried to meet some of the Bolshevik leaders and to find out for himself what assistance or opposition he might expect from the Bolsheviks in his future struggle at home.’ Sverdlov and Makhno had a brief discussion concerning the recent Bolshevik invasion of Ukraine. According to Sverdlov, the Red Guard’s chaotic withdrawal from Ukraine was owing to the hostility of the peasants. He maintained that the “majority of the peasants in the South are ‘kulaks’ and supporters of the Central Rada.’’ Makhno denied this charge, using the Huliai-Pole anarchists’ activities as proof. Sverdlov, however, was not convinced: “Then why did they not support our Red Army units? We have testimonies that the southern peasants are poisoned by extreme Ukrainian chauvinism and everywhere they were welcoming German expeditionary forces and the units of the Central Rada with a special joy as their liberators.’® Subsequently, Sverdlov offered to arrange a meeting for Makhno with Lenin, who he felt would like to hear about “‘the real feelings of peasants” in Ukraine.

Visits with Kropotkin and Lenin

oe

The received clasping told his sounded

next day at one o’clock Makhno along with Sverdlov was by Lenin with paternal simplicity. Lenin, shaking hands and Makhno’s shoulder with the other, seated his two visitors and secretary they were not,to be disturbed for one hour. Lenin out Makhno on the attitude of the peasantry toward the

Soviets,

the Austro-German

forces,

and

the differences between

the

Bolshevik and anarchist conceptions of revolution. He tried to discuss the problems in great detail. Lenin wanted to know what the Ukrainian peasants in Makhno’s area made of the slogan ‘‘All power to the local Soviets.”’ Makhno replied that they took it literally, assuming they were to have complete control of all affairs affecting them, to which he added that he felt this was the correct interpretation. In response, Lenin said: “In this case, the peasants from your area are infected with anarchism.”” Makhno responded: “Do you think that is bad?” Lenin replied: “I did not say that. On the contrary, it may be to the good, for it would speed up the victory of communism over capital and its authority.”? He went on to observe that mere peasant enthusiasm would burn itself out and could not survive serious blows from the counterrevolution. Makhno pointed out “that a leader should not be a pessimist or a sceptic.”” Subsequently Lenin observed that the anarchists had no serious organization, they were unable to organize either the proletariat or the poor peasants, and thus were unable to defend them. Lenin was particularly interested in the performance of the Red Guards. He asked about the Bolshevik propaganda in the village, to which Makhno replied that there were few propagandists in the villages and that they were helpless. Then Lenin turned to Sverdlov, saying: “IBy] reorganization of the Red Guard into the Red Army, we are following the true path to victory of the proletariat over the bourgeoisie.”!° He asked Makhno about his plans in Moscow, and when Makhno told him that he was going home illegally, Lenin commented to Sverdlov that the anarchists had plenty of fanaticism and selfsacrifice but they were shortsighted; they neglected the present for the far distant future. Then he told Makhno he must not take this too personally: “You comrade, I think, have a realistic attitude toward the burning evils of the day. If only one third of the Anarchist-Communists in Russia were such, we, the Communists, would be prepared to make a certain compromise and cooperate with them for the sake of the free organization of producers.” Makhno protested that the Revolution and its achievements were dear to all anarchists. Lenin retorted: “We know the anarchists as well

94

Anarchism of Nestor Makhno

as you. . . . Most of the anarchists think and write about the future, without understanding the present: that is what divides us, the Communists,

from

them.”!*

Makhno

stated

that as a simple, ill-educated

peasant, he could not properly argue about such complicated questions. However, he added: I would say, comrade Lenin, that your assertion that the anarchists do not understand “‘the present” realistically, have no connection with it, and so forth, is basi-

cally wrong. The Anarchist-Communists

in Ukraine—-or as you Communist-Bolshe-

viks are trying to avoid the word “‘Ukraine”’ and are calling it “South Russia’’—at this point, “South Russia” has already given too many proofs that they are entirely associated with “‘the present.”’ The entire struggle of the revolutionary Ukrainian village against the Ukrainian Central Rada proceeded under the ideological leadership of the Anarchist-Communists and, partly, the Russian Socialist-Revolutionaries

—who, of course, had entirely different aims in their struggle against the Rada, than we Anarchist-Communists. You Bolsheviks did not exist in the villages, or when you did, you had absolutely no influence.!3

Finally Lenin asked if Makhno would like help for his illegal journey to Ukraine, and receiving an affirmative answer, instructed Sverdlov

to call upon Mr. Karpenko or Volodymyr P. Zatons’kyi!* to make arrangements. Then he told Makhno to go, the next day or the day after, to Karpenko, who would help him across the frontier. Makhno asked: ‘What frontier?” Lenin replied: “Don’t you know that a frontier has been established between Ukraine and Russia?” “But you consider Ukraine as ‘South Russia,’”’ noted Makhno. Lenin responded: “To consider is one thing, comrade, and to see in reality is another.’’!> Makhno left Lenin with mixed feelings of reverence and resentment. Although Lenin made a strong impact upon Makhno by his personality, his interest in details, and political devices, Makhno knew that it was Lenin who was most reponsible for the drive against the anarchists in Moscow and other cities. During their discussion, however, Lenin told Makhno that the “Soviet government launched a campaign in the centers of revolution not against anarchism but merely against the banditism that had penetrated its ranks.’’ Makhno felt that “it would

be difficult to find in any other political masters a greater insincerity and hypocrisy than that displayed by Lenin in this case, especially with reference to anarchism.’’!® Makhno’s experience in Russia, especially in Moscow, was also depressing. He was not only disgusted at the Bolshevik mistreatment of the anarchists, but also disappointed at seeing a general eclipse of the movement. In some centers the anarchist groups had either disintegrated or were disorganized and ineffective. He felt that those groups

Visits with Kropotkin and Lenin

95

that remained active were spending their time in theoretical discussions, infatuated with their own words and resolutions, but lacking the will to fight for their ideals. Makhno’s anarchist friends were vague and left him ideologically in the air and even Kropotkin gave him encouragement and sympathy, but no practical guidance. Makhno decided to rely on his own intuition. In contrast to the Russian anarchists, who were divided into a number of groups, Makhno stood for the unity of all anarchists, which he felt was a mark of strength. This feeling only confirmed his conviction that he should return to Ukraine and his followers as soon as possible. He felt that the toiling peasants and workers should depend upon their own strength and devices to liberate themselves from the Austro-German forces. A few days after Makhno visited Lenin, Zatons’kyi provided Makhno with a false passport in the name of Ivan IAkovlevich Shepel, a schoolteacher and a reserve officer from Matviiv-Kurhan county, Taganrog district, Katerynoslav province. On June 29, Arshinov accompanied Makhno to the Kursk station in Moscow and saw him off. Although the train was crowded and hot, Makhno felt better than in Moscow, which was alien to his spirit and temperament.!’ Makhno’s trip was slow and difficult, but he reached Kursk and then Belenkino,

the terminal, and crossed the frontier without incident. The final stage of his train trip was dangerous because the authorities apparently were informed of his return, and at one place he had to jump from the train to avoid arrest. From there he made his way on foot for twenty-five versts!® to the village of Rozhdestvenka, about twenty versts from Huliai-Pole, where he hid at the home of a peasant, Zakhar Kleshnia.!9 There he established his conspiratorial headquarters and made contact with his friends at home. Subsequently Huliai-Pole and its area became the center of the Makhno partisan movement against the AustroGerman troops and the landlords’ punitive detachments.

10. The Origin of Makhno’s Partisan

Movement

Most of Katerynoslav and Kherson provinces had been assigned to the Austro-Hungarian sphere of influence by the Baden agreement concluded between Austria and Germany on March 2, 1918. Hence in addition to the hetman authority, there was an Austro-Hungarian garrison in Huliai-Pole. At the same time, many of Makhno’s supporters (the anarchists and members of the Committee for the Defense of the Revolution and of the local soviet) were either executed, imprisoned, or suppressed.! Under these circumstances, it was risky for Makhno even to reside in his home town, not to mention the danger of resuming revolutionary activity. However, he was impatient and eager to organize an independent peasant revolutionary force in the Zaporizhia—Sea of Azov region. His first action was to issue, on July 4, a secret circular exhorting the peasants to expel the Austro-German troops from Ukraine, overthrow the hetman government, and establish a new order ‘‘on the basis of a free society, a structure that would allow those who did not exploit the work of others to live independent of the state and its agencies, including the Reds.” The message was circulated in several handwritten copies among the more trusted peasants. Three days later, a second circular outlined a program of action: Our primary task . . . should be to achieve a distribution of our people in HuliaiPole such that there will be adequate numbers in each part of the village. They will be responsible for grouping around themselves a large number of energetic, daring

peasants willing to make

sacrifices.

From

96

these groups they should select daring

Origin of Makhno’s Partisan Movement

97

men to conduct an action against the Austro-German

troops in isolated areas and,

if possible, against the landowners at the same time.?

Should this action succeed, the enemy’s garrison was to be attacked. Makhno, tired of inactivity in Rozhdestvenka,

felt he should be in

Huliai-Pole to carry on his work. Consequently, in spite of his friends’ warnings of the danger to himself as well as the possibility of reprisals against his followers, one night he arrived on the outskirts of HuliaiPole, accompanied by two armed men. He remained in hiding in a cottage for several days visiting his old friends at night to discuss the previous spring’s events and organizing three-to-five man “‘initiatory groups”’ in the area. Tnis laid the groundwork for the later development of the movement. Makhno’s activity was abruptly interrupted by an uprising in the neighboring village of Voskresenka. A group of peasants who had received his earlier circulars and taken them to heart, organized a “Makhno detachment” and attacked a German punitive unit, killing the commander and several soldiers. The uprising not only prompted local authorities

revealed

to launch

Makhno’s

Rozhdestvenka,

house-to-house

presence

searches

and

make

arrests, but

in the area. He was hastily smuggled to

then to Ternivka, some

fifty miles away, where he hid

in the house of his uncle, Izydor Peredyrii.* Since he was using the document issued by Zatons’kyi in Moscow, his relatives accordingly spread the word that he was a schoolteacher who had left his town because it

was near a war zone.° The situation in the village, however, was still precarious. Makhno hid in the countryside by day, entering the village only at night. This behavior appeared suspicious to the people, especially to the young revolutionaries, who became convinced that he was a government agent and developed a plan to assassinate him. However, Makhno unwittingly saved his own life when he made a propaganda speech against the actions of the Austro-Germans and the hetman regime that removed the doubts about his role in the village.® Observing a fighting spirit among people in Ternivka, Makhno began to organize a paramilitary unit. At first, because premature action would only bring disaster, he intended to establish contact with HuliaiPole

and other towns.

However,

while he was

en route

to his home

town the people informed him of strict repressive measures undertaken by the punitive expedition. He decided to return to Ternivka to instigate uprisings against the landowners and disperse them from their “‘counterrevolutionary nests.”

98

Anarchism of Nestor Makhno

Conflict between the peasants and landowners was growing steadily more serious. The peasants particularly resented those owners who had abandoned their holdings at the beginning of the Revolution, only to return with the Austro-Hungarian and German troops, demanding that the crops grown by the peasants in their absence be turned over to them. The landlords used their power uncompromisingly, not only taking back their estates, but robbing the peasants of their crops, and all too often beating, imprisoning, or even executing them. The peasants’ bitterness was reflected in one of Makhno’s slogans: “Death to all who, with the help of the German-Austrian-Hetmanite

bayonets, took

from the peasants and workers the fruits of the Revolution.””’ Although the Ternivka detachment’s stock of arms was small, consisting of weapons left by the retreating Bolsheviks, Makhno made a series of successful raids against the estates and punitive detachments. While investigating these actions, the police learned of the presence of a “strange teacher” in the village, so that Makhno had to move again, first to Slavohorod, then to Novo-Hupalivka, where he organized a partisan “initiatory group” but was discovered by the police before he could initiate any action. He then moved to the islands on the Dnieper, where he joined a group of about three hundred men from the First Cossack Volunteer Division (Blue Coats). This unit, originally formed from Ukrainian prisoners of war in Germany, had been demobilized by the Germans after dissolution of the Rada, but some had escaped, with arms, into hiding. Makhno attempted to instigate a rebellion against the “enemies of the Revolution”? but the men remained loyal to their commander, who supported the hetman government, and only a few were persuaded to return with Makhno to Ternivka and Huliai-Pole.® Makhno returned to Huliai-Pole at about the same time as his anarchist friends from Russia. In discussing future courses of action, Makhno advocated an immediate armed uprising, while others believed it more practical to await the anticipated arming of the Russian anarchists by the Bolsheviks. Makhno had substantial objections to the latter alternative. First, from his own experience in Russia he knew that the Russian urban anarchists came mostly from the commercial class, who did not understand the peasantry. Moreover, they, “like the Marxists, had fallen into a stupid mistake in regard to the peasantry, considering it as a reactionary-bourgeoisie class incapable of offering active creative forces to the revolution.” Thus he expected that they would not come into the countryside, but entrench themselves in the cities, as they had in 1917, contacting the peasants only through messengers, propaganda, and pamphlets.

Origin of Makhno’s Partisan Movement

99

Second, while independent anarchist forces might be welcomed, a force dependent on the Bolsheviks would be controlled by the Bolsheviks.? Finally, he feared that to delay the uprising would be to relinquish the initiative to other political groups, especially those who expected to draw support from Moscow, whereas he was convinced that the peasants should rely only on their own strength and devices. Makhno’s view eventually prevailed, and the group began to organize combat

detachments

of peasants

from

Huliai-Pole, Marfopil, and

Stepanivka. They attacked and destroyed a number of estates before the state police and Austro-German troops were able to suppress them. Again Makhno and his associates hid in the neighboring villages, where they continued to propagandize and organize small units with small arms and police uniforms. Toward the end of September they moved toward Huliai-Pole, destroying a detachment of state police en route.!° A few days later, Makhno’s boldness and military skill were manifested in an encounter with a combined Austro-German and state police detachment that, while patrolling, came to Marfopil, where Makhno and his men were staying. The anarchists retreated, leaving their horses but taking the rifles and one machine gun on a cart. When some twentyfive troops took up the pursuit, Makhno turned around, drove directly toward the pursuers, and identified his group as militia. This ruse enabled them to reach almost point-blank range before the deceit was discovered and to inflict several casualties. Among the prisoners were two

Galician

Ukrainians,

who

were

sent back to their Austrian units

with a propaganda letter advising the rank and file to: \

Disobey

their officers; to cease to be the assassins of the Ukrainian revolutionaries,

peasants, and workers, to cease to be the hangmen of their revolutionary liberation work; but instead to shoot the officers who had brought them into Ukraine and made them the assassins of the better sons of the toiling people; and to return to their fatherland to start a revolution there and liberate their oppressed brothers and

sisters.11

As retribution, the owner of the house where Makhno stayed was executed by the Austrian military authorities, many peasants were arrested, and the village had to pay a fine of 60,000 rubles. After the victory the Makhno group held a meeting and decided that the men from distant areas should return to their homes to start uprisings, while Makhno’s group moved to the Huliai-Pole area. Once in Huliai-Pole, Makhno called a meeting of about four hundred men in the fields to plan an attack on the garrison there. Although there were two companies of Austro-German troops and about eighty state police, the

100

Anarchism of Nestor Makhno

attack was successful and only the garrison headquarters’ staff managed to escape to safety. The insurgents seized the post office, the press, and the railroad station. Soon after they issued two propaganda leaflets explaining the aims of the revolution and calling upon the peasants in the area to support it. Makhno, however, realized that there was no prospect of a successful defense of the town against the regular troops; therefore, he prevented mass participation in the action to avoid subsequent reprisal by the authorities. When Makhno received intelligence from the stationmaster about the arrival of two Austro-German troop trains he staged a harassing attack to force their deployment, then retreated through the town destroying a number of landlords’ estates and capturing horses, rifles, and machine guns. The detachment stopped in the village Dibrivka (Velyka Mykhailivka) about thirty-five versts from HuliaiPole.!? Dibrivka proved to be a milestone for Makhno’s partisan movement. From the children in the village, Makhno learned that a partisan detachment was stationed in the famous forests near the town. Its leader, Fedir Shchus’, a former sailor on the mine layer Joann Zlatoust and the

son of a Dibrivka peasant, had taken the place of the original leader, Nykyfor Brova, who was killed in the second half of July 1918, by the hetman police and the Austrian troops at a mechetna (farm).!° Under Shchus’s command the unit grew to about sixty effectives, plus some wounded, by the time of Makhno’s arrival. It was well organized and armed with rifles, machine guns, and hand grenades, but clothed somewhat less well, in Austrian, German, or Ukrainian military uniforms, or

even civilian dress.!* Although Makhno had met Shchus’ during the fighting against the Austro-German troops the previous spring, and again at the Taganrog congress, he hardly remembered him. However, he immediately contacted Shchus’, appealing to him to leave the forests, unite both detachments and fight “against all those who, on behalf of the authorities and the privileged bourgeoisie, were raising their swords against the toilers, against their freedom and rights.”’!® After a brief reflection, Shchus’, with the approval of his men, agreed to join Makhno. This union at the end of September resulted in a combined force of over one hundred men. Subsequently, the partisans moved into the village, where they remained for several days conducting propaganda meetings and sending instructions to other places concerning future actions. In these propaganda speeches Makhno spoke for the first time of a new adversary,

Nestor Makhno

102 “the restorational

Anarchism of Nestor Makhno forces,” that is, the Volunteer Army under General

Denikin. He was at pains to emphasize that the new enemy was more menacing than the present ones. 16 Before the reorganization of the two detachments was accomplished, a combined force of Austrians, police, and landlords attacked them at Dibrivka. Under cover of night and with the use of machine guns, the partisans managed to retreat into the forests. Makhno proposed a counterattack to ascertain the strength of the enemy, but Shchus’, fearing reprisals against his village, refused. When the punitive force entered the village the next day, according to peasant informers and Makhno’s agents, it consisted of one battalion (about five hundred men) of Austrian troops, about one hundred state police, and some eighty landlords and German colonists. Moreover Makhno learned that the enemies were expecting further reinforcement, apparently intending to annihilate the partisans.!’ To thwart these plans, Makhno again proposed an attack before the reinforcements arrived. Shchus’ was opposed to this idea also, so Makhno addressed both groups and rallied the peasants directly, stating: In this complicated situation it is better to die in an unequal, but decisive fight against the hangmen before the eyes of the toiling people they have persecuted . than to sit in the forests and wait until the bourgeois sons come, assisted by hired hangmen, to destroy us.18

Consequently, the partisans, the peasants, and finally the cautious Shchus’, accepted his proposition, a major victory for Makhno and his leadership in both partisan groups. Both the partisans and the peasants in the forests of Dibrivka proclaimed “We are with you, comrade Makhno.” And from now on you are our “Ukrainian Bat’ko, lead us into the village against the enemy.’”!9 Subsequently, an attack was planned that took into consideration the small size and inadequate arms of the partisan group. Makhno sent Shchus’ with a small unit to attack from the opposite side while he, with the main body of the partisans, moved in surreptitiously in small groups toward the main square where the punitive force was encamped. By climbing over the back walls and fences, they occupied the shops and houses overlooking the square without being detected. The troops were resting, with their arms stacked. When Makhno’s men opened fire at eighty to one hundred yards’ range, the panic and confusion among the troops was so great that Makhno succeeded in routing the enemy and capturing most of his arms and horses. The captured Austrian

Origin of Makhno’s Partisan Movement soldiers, including some

103

Galician Ukrainians, were released; the police

were executed. Makhno’s victory was complete and from this time on his partisan group was known as the “‘Bat’ko Makhno detachment.’’”° A few days later, a new punitive expedition, consisting of several Austrian infantry and cavalry battalions with a number of field guns, augmented by several detachments of police, together with landlords and German colonists, arrived. Part of this unit shelled the village and then set a fire that destroyed all but a few of the 608 homes. Those who did not escape had their homes burned or were whipped, arrested, or executed.”! Simultaneously the main force attacked the partisans in the forests under artillery support and wounded both Makhno and Shchus’. To avoid encirclement and annihilation, Makhno had no alter-

native but to retreat from the forests and move into other areas. They withdrew across the river Kaminka unnoticed. For a while in the area of Dibrivka Makhno conducted partisanstyle harassment operations that were very effective because the partisans were disguised in police uniforms. During this period they attacked several small groups of landlords and German colonists returning from the Dibrivka expedition. Their confessions led the partisans to their estates or settlements, which were subsequently disarmed and burned. A similar fate befell some rich peasants.” The partisans also destroyed a number of local police headquarters and Austro-German garrisons as well as stopping in villages and calling peasant meetings at which Makhno would deliver propaganda speeches. The dramatic events of Dibrivka closed the formative period in the development of Makhno’s partisan movement and opened a new permanent stage in the region of Huliai-Pole. The partisans became a unified combat force that steadily grew stronger in numbers and in weapons. It assumed a definite name, “The Revolutionary Partisan Detachments of Bat’ko Makhno,” and a unified leadership. The river Kaminka was Makhno’s Rubicon.

11. Organization and Tactics of Makhno’s

Partisan Army

The Dibrivka incident raised doubts in Makhno’s mind as to the wisdom of his policy of vengeance and destruction. After a thorough discussion with his closest friends Makhno decided that thenceforward the real aim of partisans should be: To expropriate as much arms and money as possible from our enemies, and to raise the peasant masses as soon as possible; to unite them, to arm them to the teeth, and

to lead them on a wide front against the existing system and its supporters. |

This opinion was motivated by his desire to free the region from all authorities and to establish a permanent operative headquarters of the partisan movement at Huliai-Pole. According to Makhno’s wife: “‘His ultimate plan is to take possession of a small territory in Ukraine and there establish a free commune. Meanwhile, he is determined to fight every reactionary force.””” With the approval of the partisans, Makhno and his associates formulated a requisition system for arms, light carts and carriages (later known as tachanky), essential supplies, horses, and money. Subsequently the partisans moved from estate to estate and from one area to another, avoiding villages and propaganda speeches, but continuing to attack and disarm Austro-German and police detachments. In the course of a few weeks Makhno collected a large number of carts, horses, supplies, and a substantial amount of money, and the number of partisans increased day by day. Thus the Makhno detachments not only grew but changed their entire structure, being converted into light, mobile, and rapid combat 104

Organization and Tactics

105

detachments on carts and horses. This action showed to the population their determination in fighting “the enemies of the revolution.”’ The increasing threat of Makhno’s units caused many landlords, especially those who had returned to their estates the previous spring, to abandon their estates and settle in the population centers where they could be protected by the Austro-German troops. This shift facilitated Makhno’s work and served to increase his control in the countryside. The growing strength and increasing activities of the partisans evoked further counteractions by their enemies. On the way through the districts of Berdians’k, Mariupil’, and Pavlohrad, Makhno

encoun-

tered and defeated an Austrian battalion and a police detachment at Staryi Kremenchuk. However, the next day at Temerivka, where the partisans stayed overnight, they were suddenly attacked by a strong Hungarian unit that forced its way into the village. The partisans, confused and disorganized, were pushed out of the village into the fields where they became easy targets. Many were killed or wounded—among the wounded

were Shchus’, Karetnyk, and Makhno. This defeat, how-

ever, did not change Makhno’s resolve to move to Huliai-Pole. The partisans were involved in numerous skirmishes in the area before they could enter the town.? Subsequently, Makhno called a meeting of partisans and some peasants to give them a report on his activities. It was decided to disarm all the “bourgeois” in the area. Makhno also sent a telegram to the authorities at Oleksandrivs’k prison, mainly for propaganda purposes, demanding the release of the HuliaiPole anarchists. Although the authorities did not comply, they responded favorably, assuring him that they would come to no harm. The most important decision Makhno made at the meeting was to transform the initial local underground groups into revolutionary combat formations drafted from the villages of the Huliai-Pole area. These units were to consist of cavalry and infantry on light carts with machine guns mounted on them, able to move with great speed, one hundred versts in twenty-four hours.* The decision was motivated by Makhno’s plan to establish fronts in the areas of Chaplino-Hryshyne and Tsarekostiantynivka-Polohy-Orikhiv against the Austro-German troops, against

the Don Cossacks, the police and landlord detachments, and Mikhail G. Drozdovskii, who in the spring of 1918, with a

unit of about two thousand men, advanced through South Ukraine from the Romanian front to the Don Basin. Some of Makhno’s friends considered his plan impossible, pointing out they had no professional officers to lead large front operations. Makhno, however, felt that commissioned

officers with ‘revolutionary

106

Anarchism of Nestor Makhno

passion” could manage responsible military operations. Eventually certain of his friends were persuaded of their military competence and made front commanders: Petro Petrenko was entrusted with the Chaplino-Hryshyne front and Tykhenko, Jr., and Krasovk’kyi jointly with the Tsarekostiantynivka-Polohy front. The Orikhiv front remained temporarily unoccupied. Although the commanders had local initiative, in over-all operations they were subordinated to the main staff of the partisan detachments of Bat’ko Makhno and to Makhno directly.° As the plan of the partisans’ reorganization was agreed upon, each of the new commanders with his staff moved to the area of his assignment. Meanwhile, Makhno and his partisans of the Huliai-Pole area toured

Oleksandrivs’k

and

Pavlohrad

districts for three weeks, while

Makhno reorganized local partisan groups into larger combat detachments subordinate to his main staff, in order to make possible larger military operations in the region. At this time Makhno’s group fought a number of Austro-German and police units and detachments of landlords and of the German colonists. Although suffering heavy losses, the partisans expelled their adversaries from the region and were then free to carry on their activities thereafter. As the number of partisans and skirmishes grew, Makhno became aware that a tighter military organization was essential if his partisans were to withstand the constant assaults of the enemy. The organization of the Makhno Army was a process of several stages. Its troop strength changed frequently depending upon political and military conditions. and the threat to the region of the Makhno movement. Its main organizer was Makhno, who had neither military training nor previous military experience, but was an able organizer and a born tactician, especially resourceful in the arts of guerrilla warfare. The character of the army was a projection of Makhno’s own character. According to his chief adversary, General Slashchov: There is one thing for which he must be given credit, that is, skill in forming quickly and in controlling his detachments, instilling, in fact, a very strict discipline. Therefore, an engagement with him always had a serious aspect, and his feats of arms, energy, and ability to direct operations gave him a great number of victories over opposing armies.®

Slashchov recognized that Makhno’s military skill in directing operations was not attributable to his previous education. Other military men also credited Makhno with innate military talent. General Mykola Kapustians’kyi sketched him as:

st1aj9RIeY) oy dnois Jo

ouyyepy usu

108

Anarchism of Nestor Makhno

A man of strong will, sound wisdom, determination, personal courage, with desire for power and good judgment of human psychology. Moreover, Makhno had organizational

abilities

and, finally, he had the sense, in time of danger, to ally himself

with one of his adversaries who at the moment showed more power and strength.’

General Mykhailo Omelianovych-Pavlenko confirmed that “Makhno personified the obscure rebellious demands of the masses [but] knew how to organize them into a fighting force, to work out a discipline specific for the Makhno men and even his.own tactical methods. This ome unimpressive man became a dictator and leader of the masses.” Because of Makhno’s brilliant military successes, it was sometimes assumed that the army’s operational tactics must be in the hands of professional officers. Hence a rumor sprang up that Colonel Kleist of the German General Staff was with Makhno and directed his operations, guided perhaps by Makhno’s firm will and familiarity with the local population.? Omelianovych-Pavlenko maintained that “An able military organizer Vasil’ev, assisted by sergeant Dovzhenko, seaman Liashchenko, and others, gave the Makhno bands the appearance of partisan detachments.’’!® General Kapustians’kyi even insisted that in organizing his staff, Makhno: “Under threat of execution, forced military specialists to work in it. [And] as a chief of staff, Makhno, it seems, appointed an officer with a military academy education.”!! A Russian general supposed that Makhno “had a regularly organized staff, with general officers, divisions, and regiments, mainly cavalry and machine gunners, their own supply bases, and regularly functioning hospitals with doctors and nurses and other staff,” taken over from his enemies.!2 There was, however, no evidence that Makhno had any such officers on his staff. One of the Don Cossack officers who fought Makhno reported: “Once there was a feeling that the operative work and the formation of the units of his army had been in the hands of a welltrained officer of the General Staff; in reality such an assumption was simply baseless.”!° Although Makhno had undoubtedly had opportunities to attract professional officers to the partisan army, he had not done so, apparently for fear of competition. For example, at the end of 1918, when Makhno attacked the Ukrainian garrison in Katerynoslav, the artillery brigade commander, Colonel Martynenko, defected and turned over sixteen field guns to Makhno. Although Makhno welcomed him into the partisan ranks, he later shot him for fear of rivalry.!* As the Makhno army gradually grew, it assumed a more regular army organization. Each tactical unit was composed of three subordi-

Organization and Tactics

109

nate units: a division consisted of three brigades; a brigade, of three regiments; a regiment, of three battalions, and so on. Theoretically commanders were elected; in practice, however, the top commanders were usually carefully selected by Makhno from among his close friends. As a rule, they were all equal and if several units fought together the top commanders commanded jointly. The army was nominally headed by a Revolutionary Military Council of about ten to twenty members

chaired at times by Makhno, Volin, and Liashchenko,

among others. Like the commanders, council members were elected, but some were appointed by Makhno. However, the council had no decisive voice in the army’s actions; Makhno and his top commanders made decisions without taking account of the council’s opinion, while other problems were decided by the top commanders themselves. There also was an elected cultural section in the army. Its aim was to conduct political and ideological propaganda among the partisans and peasants.!° The army was made up of infantry, cavalry, artillery, machine-gun units, and special branches, including an intelligence service. Because the success of partisan warfare depends upon mobility, the army, at first composed largely of infantry, gradually was mounted in light carts and armed with machine guns during 1918—19, and during the years 1920--21 became primarily a cavalry formation. The artillery was comparatively small because it was less applicable to partisan warfare. Over half the troops were volunteers, including adventurers, who were the bravest men from villages and towns. The rest were conscripts, men who generally were less privileged. The troops wore whatever they pleased; some had military uniforms of different armies while others were dressed in civilian clothes or simple peasant dress, all of similarly heterodox color.!® The army had no reserves and, because of its great speed and constant movement, there were neither troop trains nor central supply bases. Makhno depended upon the peasants and his enemies. He used to say: “My supplies are the Soviet trains,”!” though he did attempt to organize his supply base in the summer of 1919, when he reorganized his army. Similarly there were no field hospitals, but only a few doctors, physicians’ assistants, and nurses, some of whom had been trained in a military hospital in Katerynoslav. The army depended upon peasant houses and occasionally town hospitals.!® According to an eyewitness: “When the local peasants found that a Makhno detachment had arrived [in the village they] were very glad and immediately allocated the wounded among the houses, fed them and dried their

clothing.’”!?

LO

Anarchism of Nestor Makhno

When on the move, Makhno’s column was several versts long. The supply train moved at the head; the infantry, on carts and other vehicles, moved

behind

it, followed by the cavalry, which

guarded the

rear and provided flank security by using adjacent roads. Makhno rode a cart or a horse either behind or alongside, and sometimes rode up and down the column to maintain order. The marching troops were occupied with singing or playing small instruments, such as mouth organs. Although many of the Makhno partisans had an inclination for drinking, during troop movements and in action the consumption of alcohol was prohibited under threat of execution on the spot; this was strikingly similar to the Zaporozhian Cossacks’ policy. A teacher in whose house Makhno had once stayed later told one of Denikin’s generals that “Makhno made upon him an impression of a modest, reserved, and decidedly not bloodthirsty man; he was always busy with his chief of staff of military operations and did not participate in drinking with his bands.” During the stops the troops made camp in a circle with the staff in its center, forming a defense against attacks from any quarter.” Even Makhno

was uncertain of the number of men he led, for the

conditions of partisan warfare constantly changed the army’s size and no personnel records were kept. The army’s strength fluctuated with the extent of the threats and terror waged in the country by the different enemies. Makhno often counted the potential partisans in the countryside who in case of need would join his army. In his words: “The army consisted of over thirty thousand armed men and over seventy thousand organized in the villages and towns . . . who because

of lack of arms

remained

at home.’’!

Moreover,

there were

a

number of independent partisan groups that called themselves Makhno partisans to increase their prestige. In the spring of 1918 Makhno formed several military units, consisting of about seventeen hundred men, and a medical service unit to fight the Austrian and German troops, supporting the Central Rada against the Bolsheviks. Soon, however, the units joined the Ukrainian troops. Although during the summer of 1918 Makhno organized partisan detachments to fight the Austro-Germans’ and landlords’ punitive expeditions, they were underground militia rather than regular combat detachments, for Makhno lacked a territory under his own control in which to erect a standing army. Toward the end of September 1918, Makhno’s combat unit consisted of about fifty to sixty partisans, united in the Dibrivka forests with Shchus’s well-organized and armed partisan detachment of over sixty men.22 The defeat of the Austro-German punitive expedition at Dibrivka sealed this union of a

Organization and Tactics

LT

combined force of over one hundred partisans that was named “The Bat’ko Makhno Detachment” after its recognized commander. As the activities and popularity of Makhno grew, a number of independent partisan groups joined Makhno.”? The Makhno partisan group steadily grew stronger in number and in weapons and eventually assumed a new name, “The Revolutionary Partisan Detachments of Bat’ko Makhno,” and a unified leadership. Gradually the units changed their

entire

structure,

being

converted

into

light,

mobile,

combat

detachments on carts and horses. The punitive expeditions against the peasants substantially swelled the ranks of Makhno’s group. Although toward

the

end

of 1918,

he had

over

six hundred

men,

including

cavalry, the lack of arms and equipment prevented Makhno from organizing an army.” Makhno recalled that when he left the Dibrivka forest many peasants begged: “‘ ‘Give us arms, we will go now with you. . . .” We had no arms . . . and, almost with tears in our eyes, we were compelled to leave these peasants in the forests.”””° This situation changed when the defeat of the Central Powers in the west demoralized their troops in Ukraine and the partisans were able to disarm the troops or to buy their weapons. Before they retreated from Ukraine, however, two new enemies began to threaten the country: the

Volunteer troops from the south, and the Bolsheviks from the north. In the winter of 1919, when the Denikin troops began to oppress the population and many of the peasants mobilized by Denikin went over with their arms to Makhno, the number of Makhno troops grew to over sixteen thousand. As the Denikin threat increased, Makhno joined the Bolsheviks, who agreed to supply arms to fight the common enemy. By mid-May the Makhno Army had 20,000 infantry and 2,000 cavalry with two heavy artillery pieces, five guns, and a large number of machine guns.”6 The subsequent break with the Bolsheviks temporarily disorganized the army and decreased its size, but the terror used by both Denikin and the Bolsheviks gave Makhno new recruits and new support from the peasants. Moreover, the large partisan groups of the assassinated Hryhor’iv joined Makhno. Thus by the end of July, his army had increased again to 15,000 men. After the defeat of the Bolsheviks in Ukraine and their retreat, Makhno units that had remained in the Red

Army since June rejoined him, bringing arms and a number of other Red units. At the beginning of August the Makhno Army numbered 20,000.27 Toward the end of September when Makhno defeated Slashchov and stalled his advance into Denikin’s rear, more independent partisan groups joined him; thus at the beginning of October the army

dee

Anarchism of Nestor Makhno

had 25,000 men. At the end of the month, the army’s growth, including separate partisan units in the countryside, peaked at about forty thousand.”8 During the winter of 1919—20 Makhno suffered serious setbacks. After Denikin had been defeated and had withdrawn from Ukraine, Makhno was still confronted with the Bolsheviks, who were now free

to turn their attention to the partisans. At that time, 50 percent of the partisan army, including Makhno and some of his staff, contracted typhus and went to villages for cure, while ‘many others hid in villages waiting for further developments.”? However, although the partisan army was badly disorganized and substantially weakened, it remained at over ten thousand. In contrast to 1919, at the beginning of spring 1920 it was divided into small local defense detachments acting independently as an underground force. Only the core of the army—cavalry and cart-mounted machine-gun regiments—continued its previous operations under Makhno’s command. As the political situation changed, the local detachments could be quickly augmented by volunteers.*° At the beginning of fall, the army consisted of 12,000 men. In midOctober, when

Makhno

concluded

an agreement with the Bolsheviks,

he dispatched against Wrangel an army of about ten thousand, including fifteen hundred cavalry, while about three thousand, including one thousand

cavalry,

remained

with

him

in Huliai-Pole.

However,

as

soon as Wrangel was defeated, the Bolsheviks turned against their ally Makhno, as they had after Denikin’s defeat the year before. His Crimean Army almost completely annihilated, Makhno was left with a detachment of about three thousand. During the winter of 1920—21, the army again increased, for a while, to over ten thousand men.*!

As the

Bolsheviks ended their hostilities on all other fronts they overwhelmed Makhno by dispatching a large number of troops and armor against his detachments. Under such conditions he could not organize a large unified army. According to Makhno, in the spring of 1921 his army consisted of 2,000 cavalry and several regiments of infantry. For the rest of the campaign, which ended in August, the size of the partisan army

it was

fluctuated

from

1,000 to 5,000. Moreover, for tactical reasons,

divided into small units of 200 to 500 men each, operating

separately.> Makhno’s successes in the field depended not so much on the strength of his army as on military tactics, which he tailored to the conditions he faced. The secret of Makhno’s triumphs was mainly in the mobility, maneuverability, bravery, and fire power of his troops. His cavalry could cover from eighty to one hundred versts a day, while a

Organization and Tactics

LES

regular cavalry unit moved only forty to sixty versts. This speed was maintained by exchanging horses with peasants. The slogan was: ‘Each village is a horse depot.” As a rule, Makhno avoided major battles with powerful adversaries. According to an eyewitness: ‘We tried to surround the enemy and draw him into a major battle, but Makhno was clearly avoiding a general confrontation even though he was aided by an excellent knowledge of the terrain and a widespread network of informers.”°3 When, however, he encountered superior enemy forces he would draw up a wide front line of infantry supported by heavy machine-gun fire and then the cavalry reserves would attack the enemy’s flanks and rear to break their formation. On other occasions, forced to confrontation, he would strengthen his lines by summoning peasants from the villages, on foot and mounted, carrying sticks and scythes to create panic among the enemy by their number. According to the same eyewitness: Ruses that Makhno used bore witness to his unusual cunning. Once during a battle we observed on the skyline numerous troops of cavalry that, it seemed, aimed at attacking our rear. Panic spread among our ranks, but soon our reconnaissance unit explained

this

matter;

Makhno

mounted

on

villages and simulated an encircling maneuver. without imagination.34

horseback

the peasants

from

the

It must be admitted that he was not

When this tactic failed, Makhno would contain the enemy with machinegun and artillery fire, then skillfully retreat in a loose formation at great speed, disappearing from view and leaving behind an extra detachment to mislead the enemy. Later he would reappear with his main force in the rear to attack enemy staff and headquarters, creating panic and demoralization.”° There

were,

of course,

other

success. He often took the enemy

factors

contributing

to Makhno’s

unaware by conducting operations

at night, in bad weather, in difficult terrain, or in villages and towns.

Moreover, Makhno had a well-organized and efficient intelligence service that was particularly effective because of the active support of the rural population. When cornered by superior forces, the partisans would disband, bury their weapons, and mingle in the villages as peaceful peasants, only to reassemble again when the enemy had passed, uncover their arms, and attack again from the least expected quarter.°© An eyewitness admits: Makhno gave us a bad time by attacking suddenly and forcing us to be in a constant state of readiness, which prevented us from unsaddling our horses and laying our arms aside even for a minute. We pursued Makhno with a cold fury engendered of

114

Anarchism of Nestor Makhno

hatred of the bloody leader who gave us no respite. effective way

to fight Makhno

was, in an encounter,

. . . [Therefore] to strike down

the only

his units, not

allowing them their usual practice of disappearing into the woods or dispersing in the villages, hiding sabres and rifles under the straw, acting as peaceful peasants who would attack us suddenly at the least expected moment.37

A Bolshevik officer describes an incident illustrating cooperation between partisans and peasants. As a Bolshevik unit was pursuing several partisans who vanished in a village ‘“‘as if the earth had swallowed them,”

:

in one of the yards an old man is winnowing rye while a young man is threshing corn, urging on the horses. “‘Oh, old man, did you see which way the carts went?” “Of course, I saw them; they went there, to the steppe, there is the cloud of dust.”

“And who is threshing corn for you?” “That is my son Opanas, so stupid and mad that he doesn’t utter a word.” The Reds rushed in the direction indicated to overtake the carts. Meanwhile the ‘“‘mad boy” pulled out a rifle from the cornstack and unhitched the horses from belt-drive; three other ‘‘mad boys’’ came out to help him harness the horses to the cart hidden under the straw and together they moved out from the village in the opposite direction.38

Makhno usually tried to destroy the enemy from inside, although such activity was very risky and demanded skill and personal bravery. According to an eyewitness: The calmness of Makhno’s men while preparing for the battle was amazing. At that time when the shrapnel was exploding about forty paces away, Makhno’s men were washing, combing. their hair, and waiting for orders. And how much military skill was manifested among the leaders and partisans. . . . Makhno’s first action was to explore the area where he was staying.39

Makhno was a good example for his men, always at the head of his troops in attack and last to retreat, fighting and showing a reckless bravery. Often his men had to stop him from going too far ahead. Makhno

was wounded

about twelve times, twice seriously.”

One eye-

witness reported that when Makhno was forced by General Slashchov from Katerynoslav at the end of November 1919: “Makhno left last, and ten minutes later, on Sadova Street, the same along which Makhno had just quietly ridden, restraining his hot horse with difficulty, appeared riders with officers’ epaulets upon their shoulders.’’*! One of Makhno’s first uses of his unorthodox tactics was in the summer of 1918, when he organized a group of twenty partisans armed with rifles, hand grenades, and a few machine guns that were loaded on

carriages and covered with rugs. This unit, disguised as a wedding party with music, and with the men dressed in festive women’s garb, traveled

Organization and Tactics

Gs}

to a village near Huliai-Pole where a German unit was garrisoned. As the curious Germans watched the ‘wedding party,” the partisans, when they reached point-blank range, pulled out their weapons and began to shoot. At the end of October 1919, after several days of unsuccessful fighting against Slashchov to take Katerynoslav, Makhno sent a group of partisans into the city dressed as peasants on their way to buy provisions. When they reached the marketplace, they produced weapons and, in coordination with the troops outside the city, drove the enemy

out.”

In the summer of 1921, when Makhno was surrounded by Red Army troops, there seemed to be no way out. While waiting for Makhno to break through the line, one of the Red brigades noted the approach of a detachment with red banners, singing the Internationale. Believing it to be a Red unit that had just defeated Makhno, the Red troops were unprepared when Makhno attacked, disarmed them, and slipped out of the circle. Throughout the campaign on many occasions, Makhno displayed similar skill and boldness. From the beginning of his military activities, Makhno’s desire was to free his region from the enemy. In contrast, therefore, to his anar-

chist friends who considered their main goal to be the spread of anarchist propaganda among the population, Makhno believed in organizing military force. The terror and exploitation in the wake of the foreign invasions of the region drove the people to the support of the Makhno movement; this was essential to its success. They provided Makhno with recruits,

informers,

horses,

provisions,

shelter

for the wounded,

and

hiding places for partisans. Although Makhno had neither military training nor previous military experience, he organized partisan units and united them with other partisan groups in his region to form a most effective, mobile partisan army. He introduced the practice of burying arms and dispersing men in small groups in the villages, to reassemble them when the enemy had passed and attack again in the least expected quarter. This operation was possible because Makhno had a well-organized intelligence service and the cooperation of the people, a host of wise and brave collaborators who turned the partisan army into a fighting force to be reckoned with. According to a Soviet eyewitness: From the dable and Makhno’s Makhno’s

military viewpoint, the Makhno movement represented a rather formilarge force. In the pages of civil war history, the amazing tricks that cavalry and machine gun units played should undoubtedly be noted. raid during the advance from Kyiv province to Katerynoslav province,

116

Anarchism of Nestor Makhno

his own region, was really amazing. There were moments outnumbered the Makhno army many times, surrounded it so slightest possibility of escape could be foreseen—and here saved by their bravery, boldness, and resourcefulness, which great military talent that not only Makhno, but also many

[had] .44

when Denikin units strongly that not the Makhno’s men were together composed a other commanders,

12. ‘The Overthrow of the Hetman and the Establishment of the Directory

Over-all popular dissatisfaction with the national, social, and agricultural policies of the hetman government brought about not only peasant uprisings but sharp opposition from the political parties. Although in the early days of the coup the hetman “had a clear intention to give the government a national Ukrainian character,”! by inviting the leaders of parties to enter the government and administration, they chose to form an opposition rather than to accept the hetman’s invitation. In mid-May they organized the Ukrainian National Political Union (Ukrains’kyi Natsional’no Derzhavnyi Soiuz) in Kyiv ‘“‘to save threatened Ukrainian statehood and to consolidate all forces for the purpose of creating an independent Ukrainian state.” It was composed of the Independist-Socialists, the Socialist-Federalists, the Labor party, the Democratic Farmers party, the Council of the Railroad Trade Unions of Ukraine, and the Council of the All-Ukrainian Post and Telegraph Association. The Social Democrats and Socialist Revolutionaries participated only on a consultative basis. On May 24 a delegation of the Union presented a memorandum to the hetman charging that the cabinet was Ukrainian neither in its composition nor in political orientation. Largely Russian Kadets, Octobrists, and other non-Ukrainian groups inimical to Ukrainian statehood, such a cabinet could not possibly enjoy the confidence of the broad masses of population. Further, the memorandum pointed out, under the hetman government many Russians of different views had joined forces in working against Ukrainian statehood and for “one and indivisible Russia.” It also criticized the bans on congresses of 117

DLS

Anarchism of Nestor Makhno

zemstvos, cities, workers, and peasants, which had brought strong protests and denounced the new administration’s policy of restoring the old regime with its national and social injustices, and the ministers of education and justice for failing to Ukrainize the schools and courts. The situation in the other ministries, the church, and the army, was still

worse. It appeared, the memorandum continued, that the government was ignorant of the occurrence of the Revolution. The growth of anarchy and disorder in the villages and the spread of bolshevism have been attributed to the hetman government. The solution of these problems supposedly lay in the establishment of a Ukrainian national government that would enjoy the confidence of the Ukrainian people.” On May 30 the Union issued appeals to the German people, calling upon them to abide by the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk by ceasing to intervene in the internal affairs of Ukraine and ceasing to support the nonUkrainian element against the Ukrainian statehood.? The memoranda remained unanswered. The Congress of the All-Ukrainian Union of Zemstvos, which had developed into a center of opposition to the government, met in midJune and sent a protest to the hetman criticizing the government for such oppression as widespread arrests, punitive expeditions, denial of civil liberties, and suppression of zemstvo and Prosvita societies. When this protest failed to change the hetman’s policy, Symon Petliura, who under the Central Rada was secretary of military affairs, sent, as head of the Kyiv provincial zemstvo and All-Ukrainian Union of Zemstvos, a memorandum to the German Ambassador Mumm, with copies to the ambassadors of Austria-Hungary and Bulgaria, informing them of arrests, which

included

national

leaders, by both the government

and

the Germans. He pointed out that such action would not promote Ukrainian-German friendship. Petliura’s activities and popularity worried both the hetman regime and the Germans. He was, therefore, arrested on July 12. Although there were strong protests against his arrest and petitions for his release, Petliura was kept in jail until the beginning

of November.

In

the

meantime,

a strike

of civil service

employees in the Ministry of Agriculture was precipitated by the dismissal of a number of employees who had stayed on from the period of the Central Rada. The strikers demanded the reinstatement of these employees, dismissal of the “Russifiers” hired in their place, and the use of the Ukrainian language. Employees from some of the other ministries joined the strike, demanding the use of Ukrainian in the offices.* In July the leaders of the opposition, in order to strengthen their

Establishment of the Directory

LL9

position vis-a-vis the government, transformed the National Political Union into the Ukrainian National Union (Ukrains’kyi National’nyi Soiuz), which was composed not only of political parties, including the Social

Democrats

and

Socialist

Revolutionaries,

but also of cultural,

professional, peasant, and labor organizations. Its first president was the editor of the newspaper Nova Rada Andrii V. Nikovs’kyi, a Socialist Federalist, who on September 18 was succeeded by Volodymyr Vynnychenko. The principal aims of the new organization were: establishment of a strong and independent Ukrainian state; a legal government responsible to a parliament; democratic suffrage on a direct, general, equal, secret, and proportional basis; and the defense of the rights of the Ukrainian people and their state in the international sphere.® For some time the hetman had planned to strengthen his cabinet and to bring into the government representatives of the national democratic group. He accepted the new National Union as the embodiment of this group, and on October 5 invited its leaders to negotiate reorganization of the government. After a short period of cabinet crisis, on October 24 a new cabinet, headed by Fedir Lyzohub, was formed. Although Dmytro Doroshenko remained as foreign minister, he was not a candidate of the National Union. On October 29 the hetman proclaimed that he would strengthen the independence of Ukraine, introduce land reform, and call a diet. Although the new cabinet carried through various measures that previously had been delayed, including land reform, it had neither genuine support among the more radical circles nor enough time to complete its planned work. The National Union participated in the formation of the new government, but Vynnychenko soon publicly announced that the National Union could not accept responsibility for the actions of the new cabinet and would stand in opposition to it.© The hetman not only distrusted the National Union but he suspected that it was plotting against his government. The tense and confused situation was brought to an end by the defeat of Germany on the Western front and the signing of the Armistice on November 11. The hetman and Ukraine in general were confronted with a dangerous situation because “the Armistice had prescribed the immediate evacuation by the Germans of the Ukraine,” hence the possibility of a new Soviet Russian invasion.’ To prevent this, it was imperative for the hetman to come to an understanding with the Entente. Although the leaders of the Entente welcomed a union of all anti-Bolshevik forces for a struggle against Soviet

instead

Russia, they did not favor Ukrainian independence, demanding

federation

with

non-Bolshevik

Russia. The hetman

decided

120

Anarchism of Nestor Makhno

upon federation, hoping this policy would convince the Entente of his good faith and loyalty. The new orientation was expressed on November 14 by a declaration of a federative union with a future non-Bolshevik Russia. Simultaneously, almost all Ukrainian ministers left the government, and a new cabinet was formed under Sergei N. Gerbel.® The declaration of a federation only accelerated the long-planned mass insurrection against the hetman government. On November 13 the leaders of the National Union met in seeret in Kyiv and elected the “Directory,” an executive organ of the National Union consisting of five members, to lead the insurrection: Vynnychenko, president; Petliura, commander in chief, both Social Democrats; Fedir Shvets,

Socialist Revolutionary; Panas Andriievs’kyi, Independent Socialist; and Andrii Makarenko, Railroad Trade Union.?

One of the first acts of the Directory was a proclamation to the people issued on the night of November 14 that stated: On behalf of organized Ukrainian democracy, from the whole active national population,

who

elected

us,

we,

the

Directory

of the

Ukrainian

National

Republic,

proclaim: General Pavlo Skoropads’kyi is a coercionist and usurper of the people’s authority. His whole government is proclaimed to be annulled because it is antipeople, antinational.10

The government was accused of oppression and destruction of the people’s rights. The hetman and his ministers were advised to resign immediately to preserve peace and prevent bloodshed. All Russian officers were told to surrender their arms and leave Ukraine or be deported. The hope was expressed that the soldiers of the democratic German Republic would not intervene in the internal struggle. An appeal was made to all honest Ukrainians and non-Ukrainians to stand together with the Directory as a friendly armed force against the enemies; subsequently, all the social and political achievements of the revolutionary democracy were to be restored. “And the Ukrainian Constituent Assembly shall firmly strengthen them in the free Ukrainian land.’?!! Bila Tserkva, where the Sich Riflemen had recently reassembled with the consent of the hetman after being disarmed at the end of the previous April, was chosen as the center of insurrection and the headquarters of the Directory. On November 16, the Riflemen took the city; the next day, they captured Fastiv and began to move toward Kyiv. Although other Ukrainian units and thousands of peasants joined the Sich Riflemen, they encountered a serious obstacle in the German troops. After some armed clashes an agreement was concluded with the Germans in the Bila Tserkva area by which the Directory promised not

Establishment of the Directory

121

to attack the Germans if they did not intervene in the internal Ukrainian struggle. This was, however, only a local success. At that time the hetman sent the Russian volunteer units and some Ukrainian troops, altogether about three thousand men, against the Directory’s advancing forces. On November 18 between Motovylivka and Vasyl’kiv the hetman

forces were routed, the best Ukrainian unit, the Serdiuks, defected

to the Directory, and the remnant retreated to Kyiv. In the meantime the whole of Ukraine was aflame with partisan uprisings and gradually the partisans began to join the regular Ukrainian troops. In the countryside German troops proclaimed neutrality while the Russian volunteers and the punitive units ran away or joined the Directory. Within a few weeks the Right Bank was under the control of the Directory.!” On November 21 the Directory’s troops began the siege of Kyiv and could have taken the city if the Germans had not reversed the Bila Tserkva agreement and decided to hold Kyiv. Subsequently a line of demarcation was established between the Ukrainian and German troops.'? The Germans, however, recognized the futility of their position: their troops in Ukraine were demoralized by the defeat in the West, the revolutions in Ukraine and at home, and the hostility of the Ukrainian population, and now their only desire was to go home. In the German garrison in Kyiv, the German higher command sent its representative to Koziatyn to meet with the representatives of the Directory, Dr. Osyp Nazaruk and General Mykhailo Hrekiv. On December 12 they signed an agreement guaranteeing the Germans safe passage home in return for German neutrality. Simultaneously the Ukrainian troops attacked the hetman’s units, consisting of Russian officers, and in two days of fighting defeated them. About two thousand were interned but most of the units withdrew to the Left Bank or hid in the city. There was sporadic resistance by the hetman’s units in the Chernihiv area and Volyn’ province. On December 14 the Ukrainian troops entered Kyiv.!# The hetman, having cast his lot with the Germans, was now com-

pelled to share their fate. The same day, one month after the declaration of a federative

union

with

a future

non-Bolshevik

Russia, the

hetman abdicated: I, hetman of all Ukraine, have employed all my energies during the past seven and one-half months in an effort to extricate Ukraine from the difficult situation in which she finds herself. God has not given me the strength to deal with this problem and now, in the light of conditions that have arisen and acting solely for the

good of Ukraine, I abdicate all authority.15

iZ2

Anarchism of Nestor Makhno

Simultaneously the government also resigned; a few days later, the hetman, disguised as a wounded German soldier, along with his wife dressed as a nurse, left Kyiv for Germany by way of Holoby, Volyn’, in a German troop train.!® The hetman worked throughout the period of his administration under highly unfavorable conditions inherited from the Central Rada. Moreover, he had not assumed office by the will of the people and thus he lacked popular support. Although the title “hetman”’ was appealing to the population, the very conservatism it reflected was incompatible with the radical period. The hetman’s government and administrative apparatus were weakened by being erected in part on a foundation of non-Ukrainian elements that either had no understanding of the social and national problems or were opposed to Ukrainian statehood. Moreover, Russian organizations and military formations in Ukraine made attempts to discredit the hetman regime in the eyes of the population, tolerating the hetman state only as long as the circumstances of international politics made it necessary. The hetman’s government was also weakened by the refusal of many Ukrainians to join it for political and psychological reasons and by the systematic Austro-German interference in Ukrainian internal affairs. In effect, there were two governments side by side. Government policy was characterized by a number of reactionary decrees and by punitive expeditions that turned the population, especially the peasants, against it. Finally, the international situation was unfavorable to Ukrainian statehood. The hetman’s association with the Germans prevented him from establishing cordial relations with the Entente, which supported the non-Bolshevik

Russian forces, with whom it induced the hetman to

federate. Federation was considered by the people to be foreign rule and a return to the hated old political system, and moreover, it implied that Ukraine would continue to be the main base of the struggle for a non-Bolshevik Russia. These sociopolitical and national factors explain the spontaneity and success of the uprising. On December 19 the Directory entered Kyiv. As the government of the reestablished Ukrainian People’s Republic, the Directory issued a declaration!’ on December 26 proclaiming Ukraine free from punitive expeditions, gendarmes, and other repressive institutions of the ruling classes. It restored individual autonomy, and reinstated the eight-hour workday, collective bargaining agreements, and the right to strike. It declared that the right to govern the country should belong only to those classes that created material and spiritual values; the nonworking classes

Establishment of the Directory

L239

should have no voice in the government. The sociopolitical objectives stated in the declaration satisfied neither those on the Left nor those on the Right, and its appeal to the populace was blunted because news of the declaration did not reach the provinces for some time. Simultaneously the three parties that were represented in the Directory,

the

Social

Democrats,

Socialist

Revolutionaries,

and

the

Independist Socialists, formed a cabinet headed by Volodymyr M. Chekhivs’kyi, a Social Democrat, who also held the portfolio of foreign affairs. No effort was made to reconvene the Central Rada because it had been discredited by its cooperation with the Germans prior to the hetman coup. The new government had to face difficult foreign problems and such domestic problems as the organization of administration and defense. Most of the administrative personnel of the hetman regime either escaped or went into hiding, leaving the new government without enough trained administrators to fill the positions. The inability of the government to establish a firm and effective administration brought about anarchy. Some local partisan leaders were cut off from the center by Russian military operations and thus were unable to work with the government. Others were unwilling to subordinate themselves to the government and even followed independent courses in opposition to it because the objectives of the masses were far more radical than those of the government.!® Defense, however, soon became the main issue of the time. During

the uprisings against the hetman regime the Directory’s call to arms was obeyed by hundreds of thousands of peasants and workers. When the Directory entered the capital, it had some one hundred thousand troops, thirty thousand near Kyiv alone. Moreover, “‘the troops that entered Kyiv were admired by all for their discipline, training, and their lusty and strong bearing.’’ However, the enthusiasm of the volunteers soon began to evaporate and the forces rapidly dwindled. To prevent their disintegration and to reorganize many of the partisan units that were dedicated to the national cause, vigorous measures were needed to organize them into a disciplined force. The creation of a reliable regular army to meet the threat of an imminent Soviet Russian invasion was beyond the Directory’s power because it had an inadequate number of officers,

arms,

and

uniforms.!9

It would

have been impossible, even

under the most favorable conditions, to organize a strong army in two or three weeks. The most positive development during the critical period of the Directory was in the relations between the National Republic and the

124

|

Anarchism of Nestor Makhno

western part of Ukraine. The breakup of the Hapsburg monarchy in October 1918 created the opportunity for former Austro-Hungarian subjects to establish their own independence. In the Ukrainian region of the monarchy the population had organized a National Rada in L’viv, which subsequently proclaimed an independent state, the Western Ukrainian People’s Republic, on November 1, 1918. The National Rada decided to seek unification with the Ukrainian National Republic. As early as December 1, the representatives of the Western Ukrainian Republic, Lonhyn Tsehel’s’kyi and Dmytro Levyts’kyi, signed a preliminary agreement with the Directory at Fastiv in which both sides agreed to unite. They also agreed that West Ukraine because of its cultural, social, and legal particularism was to enjoy autonomy. On January 3, 1919, the National Rada unanimously ratified the Fastiv Agreement, and on January 22 the act of union was finally approved by the Directory.” By this agreement, sovereignty was to reside in the Directory. The National Rada, however, was to exercise authority in West Ukraine until the convocation of the Constituent Assembly. Although the union was a significant historic act, it was more nominal than actual since both parties were soon at war against different enemies: the Western Province (Oblast) of the Ukrainian People’s Republic, as it was named after the act of union, against Poland, and the People’s Republic against the second Bolshevik invasion. The problems of union, consolidation, and defense were to be dealt

with by the Congress of Toilers, a parliamentary assembly consisting of 528 indirectly elected delegates from the Ukrainian People’s Republic and 65 from the West Ukrainian Republic, which was convened in Kyiv on January 22, 1919. However, the Congress was interrupted on January 28 by the Bolshevik frontal advance on Kyiv. The Congress sanctioned the principle of general democratic elections to parliament and organs of local government and adopted a resolution expressing “full confidence in and gratitude to the Directory for its great work in liberating the Ukrainian people from the landlord-hetman government.” The most important achievements of the Congress, however, were the formal proclamation of the union of the two Ukrainian republics and the legal confirmation of the Directory, which it invested with supreme authority, including the right to enact laws and the defense of the state, until the next session of the Congress.”! After the triumph of the Directory, the most serious threats to Ukrainian political independence were the French intervention in the south and the new Soviet Russian invasion. The intervention stemmed

Establishment of the Directory

£25

from the Anglo-French Convention of December 23, 1917, which was rooted in the Entente’s resentment of the Bolshevik negotiations with the Central Powers, the disclosure and rejection of the secret treaties, and the repudiation of tsarist debts. France, in particular, had special interest in Ukraine, where it had large investments before the war.” Consequently, the Entente decided to support the Russian anti-Bolshevik movement to overthrow the Soviet Russian regime. To achieve this goal, France and Great Britain divided Eastern Europe into spheres of influence: Under the agreement of the 23rd December, 1917, between ourselves and France, we assume responsibility for the Cossack territories, Armenia, the Caucasus, Georgia, and Kurdistan, while the French control is extended to Bessarabia, the

Ukraine and Crimea. Northern Russia is recognized by the French Government under our control. Poland falls to France. . . .23

as

Hence both powers not only decided to intervene in the former Russian empire, but to aid the tsarist generals by supplying them with arms, ammunition, equipment, money, and instructors. From November 17 to 23, 1918, representatives of various Russian political groups and the Entente held a conference at Jassy, Romania, requesting help against the Bolsheviks. They also worked out a plan of political action for the Entente in “South Russia.”** Although the groups were sharply divided over the type of government, the conference accelerated the intervention. On December 17, the French 156th Division, consisting of 1,800 men under the command of General Borius reached Odessa from Salonika.” Subsequently Borius went ashore to discuss the military situation with the French consul, Denikin’s representative in Odessa, the commander of the Polish troops, and the commander of the Volunteer Army forces. He proclaimed the purpose of the intervention to the local population: France and the Allies have not forgotten the efforts made by Russia at the beginning of the war and now they are coming into Russia to provide the opportunity for healthy elements and Russian patriots to establish in the country the order that was disturbed during the long period of the terrible civil war.%

Simultaneously he announced his assumption of authority and command of all military units in the Odessa region, including the Volunteers, and appointed General Aleksei Grishin-Almazov, commander of the Volunteers, military governor. By it Borius created a problem for the French because Grishin-Almazov was Denikin’s officer,

126

Anarchism of Nestor Makhno

but Denikin operated in the British Zone and had no authority over Odessa, which

was French Zone. Moreover, the authority in Odessa was

in the hands of the Directory. Thusan open conflict between the French and General Denikin ensued. According to Denikin, to deny the French “the honor of ‘taking’ Odessa and thereby providing a pretext for its occupation,” Grishin-Almazov offered to clear the city of Ukrainian troops, using his unit from the steamer Saratov, which was anchored in the harbor, to secure the French disembarkation.*’

Borius

accepted the offer and the Volunteers, under the cover of the guns of the Allied warships, landed and attacked the Ukrainian troops. The French troops who disembarked on December 18 did not participate in the actual fighting, but two battalions of the 176th Regiment seized control of the public buildings and protected the Volunteers’ rear from a Ukrainian counterattack. The Ukrainian troops, consisting of about four thousand men, hesitated to employ their full fire power lest they precipitate a clash with the French, which the Directory had proscribed, assuming that French troops would be used only against the Bolsheviks. After hours of prolonged fighting the Ukrainian troops withdrew from the city to throw up a defensive perimeter around its outskirts.”° By the evening of December 18, the Ukainians sought a truce; their sole condition was the removal of Grishin-Almazov from the military governorship. Borius rejected their demand and laid down his own conditions:

an immediate

cease-fire, the surrender

of their arms, and

the evacuation of the city, warning that if his demands were not met the Ukrainian troops would be regarded not as belligerents, but as bandits, and shot on sight.2? Consequently the Ukrainian troops capitulated, although many refused to surrender their arms, and by December 22, Odessa was under the control of the Allies.

Although this was a humiliating experience, the Directory was not in a position to enter into a war with France; rather, it was seeking under-

standing and technical aid from her. On January 14, 1919, General Philippe d’Anselme arrived in Odessa to take personal command of operations in Ukraine. The following week the combat strength of the Allies was augmented by the arrival of the first contingent of Greek troops, the remainder of whom reached Odessa in February. In March, French units were moved from Romania into Ukraine. Their arrival brought the total Allied strength in Odessa to 12,000 men: 6,000 French, 4,000 Poles, and 2,000 Greeks.*°

It is evident that the French military had no intention of doing serious fighting, fearing that “their troops were not reliable and combat

Establishment of the Directory

127

orders would not be carried out.”’®! However, the separation of Odessa from its supplies of food, water, petroleum, and other necessities, and

the threat of open rebellion among the poorly fed, unemployed, and Bolshevik-agitated workers, impelled the Allied forces to expand the occupation along the Black Sea coast to include the major cities in Tyraspil, Birzula, Voznesenske, Mykolaiv, and Kherson.°* The state of war between the Ukrainian troops and the Volunteers in South Ukraine thwarted d’Anselme’s mission, which depended upon the concerted action of all anti-Bolshevik forces and neither the Directory nor Denikin could hope to defeat the Bolsheviks while fighting each other. General d’Anselme tried to avoid favoring any one antiBolshevik force to the exclusion of the others, but in his opinion, it was Denikin who was primarily responsible for preventing reconciliation of differences between the various anti-Bolshevik forces, thus undermining the success of the Allied mission in Ukraine. General d’Anselme was interested mainly in the military aspects of the situation in Ukraine, and left political matters to his chief of staff, Colonel Freidenberg. Although the French Command favored the restoration of a united Russia, it preferred to negotiate with the Directory rather than to fight it. This was not a new policy, but a temporary change stipulated by circumstances, according to Freidenberg: France remained faithful to the principle of a United Russia. But now it is not a matter of decision of this or that political question, but exclusively a matter of making use of all anti-Bolshevik forces, including Ukrainian, in the struggle against the Bolsheviks.33

General Henri Berthelot, commander in chief of Allied troops in southern Russia and Romania, spoke in the same vein: “I can assure you most firmly that I am supporting a United Russia and I do not recognize independent Ukraine. But under the circumstances, for a time I must negotiate with the independists.””* As early as January 1919, the Directory dispatched Generals Mykhailo Hrekiv and Matveiev to Odessa with the intention of establishing contact with the French military and obtaining technical aid. Although the mission of General Hrekiv failed to achieve any immediate results, the Directory sent Dr. Osyp Nazaruk, press chief of the government, and Serhii Ostapenko, minister of trade and industry, with

full authority to conclude political, trade, and military agreements with the French.°° Colonel Freidenberg gave them an arrogant reception, presenting a long list of demands and conditions: Vynnychenko and Chekhivs’kyi

128

Anarchism of Nestor Makhno

were to resign because

of their alleged bolshevism, and Petliura, known

for his pro-Entente sympathies, had to be ousted because the French army could not cooperate with a “bandit chieftain”; the Directory’s members should be acceptable to France; the sovereignty of Ukraine would be decided only at the Paris Peace Conference; during the struggle against the Bolsheviks France was to control the railways and finances of Ukraine; the Directory was to organize an army of 300,000 men

in three months,

in which

Russian

officers

from

the Volunteer

Army must be given commissions; and the Directory must request France to accept Ukraine as a protectorate.°© The Directory responded to the French conditions on March 6, 1919, at the Birzula railroad station, insisting, in turn, upon recognition

of the independence of Ukraine and the sovereignty of the Directory; permission for the Directory’s delegation to participate in the Paris Peace Conference; return of the Black Sea Fleet to Ukraine; recognition of the autonomy of the Ukrainian Army with a position for its representative in the supreme Allied command; and prohibition of service in the Ukrainian Army by Russian officers.>” Although the negotiations in Odessa were becoming more and more disappointing, the Directory persevered in its efforts because Ukraine was under attack from all sides: the Bolsheviks were advancing from the north and the east, the Poles were pressing in the west, and the Allied and Volunteer units were threatening to move from the south. In the light of these circumstances the Directory sent another delegation headed by Justice Arnold Margolin to Odessa, on January 26, 1919. This delegation attempted a new approach by presenting on February 5 a joint memorandum of the representatives of Ukraine, Belorussia, the Don, and the Kuban concerning their countries’ political aspirations, the methods of fighting the Bolsheviks, and the aid they expected from the Entente. The delegations expressed their opposition to federalism imposed from above, requesting instead support for their national aspirations and their governments, arguing that bolshevism could be combated most effectively by appealing to national patriotism. Therefore, they asked the Allied Command for technical aid: firearms,

ammunition,

heavy

artillery,

tanks,

armored

cars,

shoes,

boots, clothing, and medical supplies. In return, they agreed on the principle of a general staff that would direct military operations on the basis of mutual agreement, without intervening in the internal political life of the new states.*® After several weeks of conferences between Ukrainian and French representatives, the French military, with d’Anselme representing the

Establishment of the Directory

129

Entente, presented a draft of a French-Ukrainian agreement that recognized the Directory as a sovereign government of the Ukrainian Democratic Republic, and the Ukrainian Army as an internally independent unit of the anti-Bolshevik army in the Ukrainian Zone, with representatives on the supreme command of the Entente. The French further agreed to take steps to admit the Directory’s representatives to the peace conference, promised agrarian reforms, and consented to convoke a parliament based on universal, equal, secret, and proportional suffrage. France assured the Directory that during the war no units of the Volunteer Army should be present, or participate, in military operations on the territory of Ukraine, and that the Odessa, Mykolaiv, and

Kherson districts would be part of the Ukrainian zone under the authority of the Directory. On the other hand, the proposal also stipulated that changes in the Directory’s membership during the war against the Bolsheviks could be made only with the approval of the Entente, and the supreme staff of the Entente would control Ukrainian railroads and the transportation of all armed forces, as well as Ukrainian financial affairs. However,

in late March

the French

in Odessa

received orders

from Paris not to sign the agreement, apparently because of conflicting interests of France, Britain, and Italy in regard to the future economic

possibilities in Ukraine.® The intervention of the Allies in southern Ukraine and the Directory’s negotiations with the French in Odessa greatly complicated the situation in Ukraine by creating two conflicting points of view in the Directory and the parties. One group, represented by Vynnychenko, wished to seek an understanding with the Bolsheviks against the Entente.

The

other, led by Petliura, desired

coalition

with

the Entente

against the Bolsheviks. Petliura’s viewpoint finally prevailed, and although the representatives of the Entente had no understanding of the Ukrainian cause, the Directory continued to try to negotiate an agreement to the very end of the intervention.*° At the end of September 1919, Petliura expressed his feelings concerning the Entente’s attitude toward Ukraine: We might have been the best means in the hands of the Entente for driving the Bolsheviks back into Russia. But, for reasons of their own, the Great Powers back[ed] Denikin against us and so split our joint strength. It almost seems as if the Entente does not want to beat the Bolsheviks.*!

The Bolsheviks exploited these negotiations with the Entente, spreading propaganda that the Directory had made a secret agreement against the interests of the people. The Bolsheviks:

130

Anarchism of Nestor Makhno

. unmasked to the people the Directory’s betrayal. To prove it the Bolshevik committee in Kyiv printed and spread, even among the delegates of the [Labor] Congress, the agreement signed by the Directory with the French command according to which the Directory handed Ukraine over to the disposition of French imperialism. Thus, the “‘toiling’’ mask was ripped off the Directory and it was shown to the masses that it is the enemy of freedom and national independence of the Ukrainian people.42

They suggested that the Directory was.planning for a new form of intervention in Ukraine and intervention was not popular after the experience with the Austro-German troops. The peasants, in particular, distrusted the forces of the Entente because they associated them with the Volunteer Army and believed they would renew the rule of big landowners. Thus the French intervention strengthened pro-Bolshevik sympathies among the population.” Moreover, political developments in Germany and Hungary greatly assisted the Bolsheviks, who convinced some Ukrainian leaders that the

world-wide social revolution was taking place and that Ukrainian national questions would be solved automatically by the revolution. The Bolsheviks were adroit in the use of untruth, knowing from experience all the ways to use propaganda. The Ukrainian government, not able to match the Bolshevik propaganda skills, found that its orientation toward the Entente undermined its prestige and aroused opposition from both the Right and the Left. As well as propagandizing Soviet Russia was preparing tor a new invasion. For this purpose a Ukrainian Revolutionary Council, consisting of Stalin, Piatakov, Zatons’kyi, and Antonov-Ovseenko, was estab-

lished on November 17 and masked by the name “Group of the Kursk Direction.”** There were disagreements among the Bolshevik leaders concerning the intervention in Ukraine. The assumption of the rightist group was that the potential for revolutionary action in Ukraine was too small and they would not gain a following among the workers and peasants. The leftist group, however, thought that in the event of Austro-German withdrawal from Ukraine they could succeed in seizing power before the Ukrainian national leaders could take the initiative. Their opinion was shared by Stalin.*° Subsequently on November 20 a Provisional Workers’ and Peasants’ Government of Ukraine was secretly formed in Kursk, a Russian city near the Ukrainian border. On November 28 the new government formally held its first assembly at Kursk, attended by Antonov-Ovseenko, Sergeev (Artem), Zatons’kyi, Emanuil I. Kviring, and Chairman Piatakov. The aim of Moscow’s appointed government was to shield Soviet

Establishment of the Directory

Lod

Russia’s invasion of Ukraine. On December 6, 1918, the troops of the

“Kursk Direction” launched military operations against Ukraine on two aaeh toward Gomel-Chernihiv-Kyiv and toward Vorozhba-SumyKharkiv.*© According to Antono¢-Ovseenko, the commander in chief of the Bolshevik Army, there were three main objectives: to take Kharkiv,

with its railway junction, as a base for further expansion; to occupy the Donets Basin with its industries and coal mines, breaking military and economic ties between central Ukraine, the Donets Basin, and the Don;

and to advance southward to Crimea to forestall the Entente’s intervention.*’ The Bolsheviks took the Allied intervention as a serious threat. Leon Trotsky identified Bolshevik policy with regard to the intervention as derived from: . the need to forestall the possibility of an advance by the Anglo-French forces from the South. The more swiftly and resolutely we push our possible UkrainianEntente Front to the south, away from Moscow, the more advantageous it will be for us. In the event of a real attack of large forces the greatest advantage for us would be in establishing our line along the left bank of the Dnieper and destroying all lines of communication and bridges on the right bank. For this we need to advance to the Dnieper as soon as possible.48

To accomplish these objectives Antonov-Ovseenko dispatched orders to all who might be useful to the Bolsheviks, including the rebel units and local Bolshevik organizations, to foment insurrections along the lines of their advance, to organize intelligence systems, and to seize ammunition factories and even certain towns. At the same time they were “‘to prevent by every means possible the advance of counterrevolutionary forces from Kyiv toward Kursk and Briansk. 49 The combination of strong conventional attacks with fifth-column activities and rebellions enabled the Bolshevik forces to advance successfully into Ukraine. The advance was also facilitated by the seizure oflarge stores of German and Ukrainian military material, left by the hetman government.°?

Consequently the Ukrainian minister of foreign affairs, Volodymyr Chekhivs’kyi, on December 31, 1918, and on January 3 and 4, 1919, sent a series of notes of protest to the Soviet Russian government concerning its military operations in Ukraine, demanding an explanation and seeking an agreement to avoid war. On January 5, the Soviet

Russian commissar of foreign affairs, Georgii V. Chicherin, denied all Chekhivs’kyi’s allegations, entirely misrepresenting the situation as a Ukrainian civil war: “Military action on Ukrainian territory at this time

132

Anarchism of Nestor Makhno

is proceeding between the troops of the Directory and the troops of the Ukrainian Soviet Government, which is completely independent. ””>! On January 9, 1919, the Ukrainian government’s reply called the denial “either a willful distortion of the truth or a complete lack of information.”°* However, the Directory expressed its willingness to enter into peace negotiations and commercial relations if Soviet Russia would withdraw the troops from Ukraine in forty-eight hours. Chicherin reiterated his previous denial, but nevertheless proposed Moscow as a meeting place for peace negotiations. The Directory, under pressure from Chekhivs’kyi and his supporters, accepted this proposal and sent a small delegation headed by Semen Mazurenko to Moscow. It was instructed to seek a settlement with Soviet Russia even at the price of introducing a soviet form of government in Ukraine. It was also authorized to conclude an economic agreement and a military alliance for defensive purposes only, if Soviet Russia would end the invasion and recognize Ukrainian independence.™? This attempt to find a modus vivendi with Soviet Russia can be understood only in the light of the weakness of the Directory and of the growth of a revolutionary radicalism in the working classes and in both of the main Ukrainian parties—the Social Democratic and the Socialist Revolutionary. Although the Ukrainian delegation was engaged in negotiation in Moscow, the Bolshevik troops continued the invasion. Consequently, on January 16, 1919, the Directory declared that a state of war existed between Soviet Russia and Ukraine.** While the Bolshevik troops were advancing from the north and southeast, the anti-Bolshevik Russian forces were moving into Ukraine from

the Don, the Romanians

occupied Bessarabia and Bukovina, the

Poles were fighting the Ukrainians in Galicia, and the Entente was moving troops north from Odessa and the Crimea. At that time the Ukrainian Army, except for a few regular formations left from the hetman period, was just in the process of organization. The best military units, those on which the Directory relied, were the Sich Riflemen

Corps and the Zaporozhian Corps. The Directory’s forces consisted largely of partisan detachments, some of which were undisciplined and commanded by politically and nationally immature leaders.°° In the course of time, a few of the detachments were swayed by Bolshevik propaganda and chose some critical period to proclaim their neutrality or even to defect to the Bolsheviks. Given this deteriorating military situation, the Directory could offer no effective resistance to the advancing Bolshevik troops. In early January 1919, the Bolshevik troops occupied Kharkiv and Chernihiv. As the enemy approached the Dnieper near Kyiv, the Direc-

Establishment of the Directory

133

tory evacuated on the evening of February 2 to Vinnytsia, which then became its temporary capital. On February 5, after heavy fighting, the Ukrainian forces retreated from Kyiv to the west. The next day Bolshevik troops occupied Kyiv.°® ; Chekhivs’kyi’s and Vynnychenko’s abortive efforts to find an agreement with Soviet Russia brought about a cabinet crisis. The decision to send a peace delegation to Moscow and the prospect of a Soviet form of government was not approved by Petliura and the military commanders.

Moreover, with the success of the Bolshevik invasion, the

leading circles increased their efforts to gain the Entente’s support of their resistance. To facilitate the Directory’s negotiations with the French representatives in Odessa, the Social Democrats and Socialist Revolutionaries on February 9 withdrew their members from the government. Petliura, however, resigned from his party while Vynnychenko, president of the Directory, on February 11 handed over his authority to Petliura and left the country. On February 13, Serhii Ostapenko, the former minister of trade and industry, set up a new cabinet that consisted mainly of Socialist-Federalists. However, because it based its plan on the support of the Entente, ignoring Ukrainian national interests, the Ostapenko cabinet not only failed to achieve support from the Entente against the Bolsheviks, but it antagonized a large segment of the Ukrainian population. Moreover, the absence of such prominent leaders as Hrushevs’kyi and Vynnychenko, and the Socialist parties, which had substantial popular support, gave the Ostapenko cabinet the appearance of a “bourgeois” government, which the Bolsheviks used in their anti-Directory propaganda. At the end of March 1919, Red troops forced the Ukrainian Army to retreat to the former

Austrian border

and isolated its left flank, in the area of

Uman’.°’ Some military leaders, attempting to counteract the influence of the Bolshevik propaganda among the population and the troops, adopted some of their slogans and opened independent negotiations with the Bolsheviks or even joined them. In the light of the deteriorating military situation and the lack of support for the Ostapenko cabinet, the Directory called upon Borys Martos to form still another cabinet on April 9, in Rivne. By including Social Democrats and Socialist Revolutionaries, as well as representatives of western Ukraine, the Directory hoped to gain popular support.*8 The new cabinet issued a declaration on April 12, 1919, direc-

ted “to all Ukrainian Socialists, peasants and workers who, unable to stand the foreign yoke, rose behind the front against the Russian Communists to fight for a free and independent Ukraine.” The Bolshevik occupation authorities had no intention of granting

134

Anarchism of Nestor Makhno

political or cultural concessions. On March 19, 1919, at the Eighth Congress of the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks), Lenin remarked: “Ukraine was separate from Russia by exceptional circumstances, and the national movement has not taken deep roots there. Insofar as it did exist, the Germans stamped it out.’? The policy of Russification and exploitation of Ukraine went on at full speed. The Ukrainian language was completely proscribed in state institutions and printing houses. As early as February 13, 1919, the head of the Provisional Soviet Government of Ukraine, Christian Rakovskii, at a meeting of the Kyiv City Council of Workers’ Deputies, declared that the attempt “‘to institute Ukrainian as a state language is a reactionary measure, and entirely unnecessary to anyone.’®? The administration requisitioned buildings of Ukrainian cultural institutions for state purposes. Former tsarist gendarmes, police, and secret agents who had entered the Cheka persecuted the Ukrainian intelligentsia. The Bolsheviks regarded Ukraine as a colony, primarily as a source of food. Lenin admitted receiving reports that “‘stocks of food are immense, but it is impossible to transport everything at once because of lack of apparatus.”°! Therefore, the Ukrainian villages were invaded by the Russian foodstuff requisitioning units: The Workers’ and Peasants’ Government was tirelessly exporting from Ukraine to Muscovy everything it could lay its hands on: bread, sugar, meat, factory machine tools and equipment, farm implements, furniture from buildings, and even musical instruments—all these were taken and requisitioned without any kind of compensation. . . . With this brutal requisition policy in the villages, a policy that did not differentiate between poorer peasants and the richer or ‘“‘kurkuls,”’ the Committees of the Poor were disregarded and by a simplified system of requisitioning, the Red Army men seized from Ukrainian peasants everything that could be removed— grain, cattle, poultry, plows, even women’s clothes.62

This policy was passed off by Lenin on March 13, 1919, as voluntary assistance from a friendly Soviet Republic: In Ukraine,

we

have

a fraternal

Soviet Republic, with which we have the best of

relations. This republic resolves the question of help, not in terms of petty trading, not in profiteering, but is guided by an exceptionally warm desire to help the hungry ore The first special obligation of each citizen of Ukraine is to help the north.6

However,

as

Alexander

G.

Schlichter,

then

commissar

of food

supplies of Ukraine, wrote in 1928: Every pood was soaked in blood: By July 1 the government had acquired not fifty, but only eight and a half million poods. However, three-quarters of this was in

Establishment of the Directory

Ne(6)

Ukraine and was rationed to proletarian centers (primarily to workers of the Donets Basin) and to the Red Army. Only about two million poods were sent to Moscow

and Peter[sburg] .64 é

This policy of requisition and persecution of everything Ukrainian brought about mass uprisings, even among some Ukrainian Communists who were attempting to establish an independent Soviet Ukraine. From April to June 1919, there were 328 uprisings of the people against the Bolsheviks.© The Directory established contact with the partisans acting in the Bolsheviks’ rear and gained more response among the population for the national struggle. During the first half of March 1919, Ukrainian troops made a coordinated attack from the north and south on the Bolshevik forces in the region of Berdychiv-Koziatyn-Zhytomyr. The Bolsheviks were forced to retreat, and at the end of March the Ukrainian troops approached Kyiv from the north. On March 25, 1919, Jukums J.

Vacietis (Vatsetis), the commander in chief of Bolshevik forces, wired Antonov-Ovseenko: It was necessary to pursue with full intensity the complete destruction of any sort of organization among the troops of Petliura. . . . At the present, when Petliura has again appeared near Kyiv, we must undertake all measure for final destruction of Petliura. I recommend that you . . . stop the development of actions in the direction

of the Romanian

border as well as toward the Black Sea coast; transfer

from there all unneeded troops against the troops of Petliura . . . your westward advance is necessary to lead to the borders of southeastern Galicia and Bukovina.§7

Although Ukrainian troops were victorious in the central sector, their southern flank became seriously exposed after the allied troops left the Black Sea coast and Odessa under the pressure of Hryhor’iv’s thrusts. After strengthening their forces, the Bolsheviks counterattacked in the Ukrainian central sector, also making heavy use of propaganda among the troops and population, and cut off the southern group from the main force. To save the situation, the southern group was ordered to drive back the Bolsheviks by a counterattack from the southeast; but the commander of the Zaporozhian Corps, Omelian Volokh, independently opened negotiations with the Bolsheviks. Subsequently, the Bolsheviks attacked again, forcing a large part of the group to retreat

on April 16, 1919, to Romania, where they were disarmed.

Only two weeks later the Ukrainians succeeded in making their way through East Galicia and Volyn’, to rejoin the main force, but none of

the equipment surrendered was ever returned, in spite of an agreement to do so.

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Anarchism of Nestor Makhno

While the Bolsheviks were concentrating large forces against the northern group of the Ukrainian Army, its commander, Volodymyr Oskilko, attempted a coup against the government. Although his adventure failed, it demoralized and confused the Ukrainian troops and helped the Bolsheviks to defeat them.® The Ukrainian forces did manage to undermine Bolshevik initiative and were, along with Hryhor’iv, responsible for preventing their advance into Romania and Hungary, yet they failed to achieve a decisive victory. Consequently, they retreated to the border of Galicia where they defended a small territory. _ At the time when the Directory was struggling against the Bolshevik and anti-Bolshevik Russian forces, the Western Ukrainian People’s Republic was defending its territory from an invasion by Poland. The government believed that the Entente and the peace conference would, in accordance with the principle of national self-determination, compel the Poles to evacuate eastern Galicia. However,

France was committed

to the idea of a “‘strong Poland”’ as a future counterpoise to Germany in Eastern Europe and looked with disfavor on Ukrainian independence. Great Britain was supporting the Russian anti-Bolshevik leaders, while at the same time seeking an agreement with the Bolsheviks; neither of these policies was favorable to the Ukrainian national aspirations. The United

States,

on

the

other

hand,

was

little

interested

in Eastern

Europe; its attitude was that nothing should be done to prejudice the future claims of the Russia that might emerge after the victory of the anti-Bolshevik generals over the Bolsheviks. Thus Ukraine was isolated from the Western powers. In January 1919 a peace conference commission arrived in Poland for mediation in the Ukrainian-Polish war and demanded suspension of hostilities as a condition for negotiations. The Ukrainian government acceded to this demand and on February 28, the commission presented a plan by which Ukraine was to leave to the Poles half of the ethnically Ukrainian territory, including the Drohobych-Boryslav oil fields. This decision, which was to remain in force until the peace conference settled the Polish-Ukrainian frontier, was unacceptable to the Ukrainians.’° On April 18, as the campaign continued, the Supreme Council created a commission with representatives of the Allied and Associated Powers, headed by General Louis Botha of South Africa, to deal with

the Ukrainian-Polish problem. After several weeks 12 the Botha commission proposed a conditional the Ukrainians the Drohobych-Boryslav oil fields and Ukrainian forces in eastern Galicia to twenty This proposal was, however, rejected by the Poles.

of hearings, on May armistice, leaving to and limiting Polish thousand men each.

Establishment of the Directory

137

While the Botha Commission was attempting to settle the conflict, the Poles were preparing for renewed aggression and on May 15, reinforced by six divisions (100,000 men) formed, trained, and equipped in France, began a general offensive. The poorly equipped Ukrainian troops could not stand for long against a large and fresh Polish army. On May 21, the Ukrainian delegation in Paris sent a note to the president of the peace conference asking for a halt to the Polish offensive, but no action was taken.’! As the Poles advanced eastward, the Romanian command of the Bukovina-Khotyn front demanded that the Ukrainians evacuate the southern part of eastern Galicia.’? This change represented a serious setback to the Galician Army through the loss of its only supplies of ammunition and its isolation from the outside world. On May 26, the Ukrainians abandoned Stanyslaviv (Ivano-Frankivske), the temporary capital of western Ukraine, and retreated to Chortkiv. During this critical period, the Galician Army launched on June 7 the ‘‘Chortkiv offensive,” driving the Polish forces back to the west about eighty miles. After three weeks of successful fighting, the Ukrainian advance halted, having expended the available ammunition and supplies. The Poles had concentrated a large force and launched a new offensive along the entire front. At the end of June the Galician Army began a general withdrawal, conducting only rearguard actions to assure an orderly retreat.’?

On June 25, the Supreme Council decided Galicia by authorizing Poland to occupy it:

the fate of eastern

To protect the persons and property of the peaceful population of eastern Galicia against the danger to which they are exposed by the Bolshevik bands, the Supreme Council of the Allied and Associated Powers has decided to authorize the forces of the Polish Republic to pursue their operations as far as the river Zbruch. This authorization does not in any way affect the decisions to be taken later by the Supreme Council for the settlement of the political status of Galicia. ’4

On July 2, the Ukrainian delegation in Paris protested this act, declaring: “The decision of the Supreme Council does not embody the triumph of right and justice.”’> The protest, however, was ignored. Under these circumstances the Galician Army had no recourse but to abandon its territory and retreat across the river Zbruch, where the Directory troops held a narrow but gradually expanding strip of territory. The West Ukrainian government faced two alternatives: to join the Directory against the Bolsheviks, or to accept the Bolsheviks’ offer of an alliance and supplies of arms and ammunition against Poland. The government decided on the former course, and on July 16, the army of

138

Anarchism of Nestor Makhno

about one hundred thousand men and a majority of the civil administration began to cross the Zbruch.’® The trauma of the move was described by an eyewitness: Grief gripped my heart in my breast as I watched the Ukrainian people of Galicia being forced to abandon their own land. And before whom? Before Polish invaders who for an entire century had been filling Europe and America with their weeping and prayers to God and the people that they were unfortunate, enslaved. And now —they themselves were coming to enslave our land by fire and sword; they were coming not even on their own strength, but by the aid of the French.7?

Almost immediately after the completion of the crossing, the two armies began their offensive because the size of their small territory, only thirty-five kilometers in breadth and fifty-five kilometers in width, did not permit a defense in depth against the repeated Bolshevik attacks. After consideration of other directions for an advance, Petliura

decided to push the operation toward Kyiv, with precautionary thrusts both to the north, on Shepetivka, and to the south, on Odessa. In spite of strong Bolshevik resistance, the Ukrainian troops advanced rapidly, aided in part by the advance of Denikin and by the uprisings of the partisans in the Bolsheviks’ rear./® Although the Ukrainian command secured its rear in the west through the mediation of the Entente and by signing an armistice with the Poles on September 1, it neglected to coordinate its advance with Denikin’s simultaneous offensive in the Left Bank or to issue a timely and precise order governing the actions of its troops in case they encountered the Denikin troops.” Petliura hoped that the preemption of Kyiv might force Denikin to recognize a communality of interest against the Bolsheviks, and to advance north rather than open another front. In spite of the Bolsheviks’ staunch defense in the Kyiv area, after several days of fighting the Ukrainian troops entered the capital on August 30. The next day, Denikin’s superior force made its way into the city and the Ukrainian troops withdrew from Kyiv to avoid opening a third front. Thus Denikin’s attack not only prevented a Ukrainian advance against the Bolsheviks, but saved the latter’s position in Ukraine by enabling three divisions of the Fourteenth Army, which had been cut off by the Ukrainian and Denikin troops, to pass from the region of Odessa-Voznesenske north to Zhytomyr, where they joined the main Bolshevik forces. Although the Directory tried to avert conflict with Denikin, both through negotiations with him and appeals to the Allies, it failed, and on September 24 it declared war and turned its

main forces against Denikin.®°

Establishment of the Directory

139

The retreat from the liberated capital was a great psychological and strategic blow to the Ukrainian Army. Exhausted by constant fighting, lacking ammunition and equipment, it could not withstand for long the attacks

of Denikin’s

well-nourished

and well-armed

forces. Moreover,

the cold and rainy autumn followed by an early heavy winter, coupled with the lack of clothing and medical supplies, brought about a disastrous typhus epidemic that spread among soldiers and civilians. In the area of operations, all residences and public buildings were filled with sick soldiers; hospitals intended for 100 accommodated more than 1,000 patients. Thousands of soldiers were dying from disease while others, nearly barefoot and badly clothed, froze in the open fields. The peasants were decimated by disease while giving aid to the soldiers.*! The blockade by the Entente prevented the Ukrainian government from obtaining medical supplies and ultimately the fighting strength of the Ukrainian Army was reduced by 70 percent by the spread of typhus. This tragic situation was described by an American correspondent: It is not too much to say that about every third person in Kamenets has typhus. In other cities the situation is the same. In the army it is even worse. At VapniarkaI

was with Petliura at a review of a frontier garrison where out of a thousand troops at least two hundred had had typhus. Against this epidemic Petliura’s government is quite powerless to make headway. The Ukrainians are condemned to death by the fact that the Entente is backing Denikin. In an interview I had with Peitliura he begged that,.if only for humanity’s

sake, the Red Cross would send over a mission

to fight typhus. Let me add here that right across the river in Romania are all the medical supplies necessary. . . . We do not ask for any gratuitous help from the Allies. We only want our frontiers opened so that we can trade our products for manufactured articles and equipment. Let them open Odessa. We do not ask them to pour in supplies free of charge to us, as they do to Denikin.82

The Galician Army, however, suffered the most. As General IUrko

Tiutiunyk

observed, its situation

“was

indeed desperate: there were

neither ammunition, medicine, food, clothing, no reinforcement of men

and horses. . . . [Moreover] there was no hope that the situation could soon change in our favor.’®? Gradually the Ukrainian troops retreated northwest, where they found themselves surrounded by hostile forces: the Poles on the west, the Bolsheviks on the northeast, and

Denikin on the south and southeast. Therefore the commander of the Galician Army, General Myron Tarnasv’kyi, who felt the military pressure at the front, decided to negotiate with Denikin. He knew the Volunteer Army was a Conse corpse,” but could still crush the disease-weakened Ukrainian Army.*# Although the president of the Western Ukrainian government, Dr. Evhen

140

Anarchism of Nestor Makhno

Petrushevych, opposed such a venture, the general unilaterally sent a mission to negotiate for the exchange of prisoners of war and to find out on what terms Denikin would conclude an armistice with both Ukrainian armies. On November 1 the delegation contacted General Slashchov who told them Denikin was willing to negotiate with the Galician Army as an extraterritorial army, but not with the Directory’s army, which, in his opinion, belonged to the Russian state and must be demobilized.® On November 6, 1919, the Galician delegation and representatives of the Volunteer Army signed a preliminary treaty at Ziatkivstsi, a railroad junction west of Uman’. The treaty provided for full internal autonomy of the Galician Army under control of the government of the Western Province of the Ukrainian National Republic. The army itself was guaranteed a rest period before being redeployed, during which it would be transferred to a region free of typhus, given medical support, and reinforced with Ukrainian Galician prisoners from foreign countries and Russian territories. The Sich Riflemen were not considered a Galician unit. Liaison officers would be assigned from the Denikin command. Finally, it was agreed that the Galician Army would not be employed against the Directory.*6 General Tarnavs’kyi and his chief of staff, Colonel Shamanek, were removed from their commands by the Western Ukrainian government and, together with others who negotiated with Denikin, were put under court-martial, but the final Galician-Russian treaty was signed in Odessa on November 17, 1919, and ratified within forty-eight hours. Although

the Galician-Russian agreement was only a tactical expediency “‘to save the Army,” the Directory considered it an act of betrayal.®’ Facing a highly unfavorable military situation, Petliura decided to continue the fighting in the form of guerrilla warfare and seek support from the

Entente via alliance with Poland. The Directory had had to face more serious domestic and foreign problems than its predecessor, the hetman government. Although initially it had received overwhelming support from the population, it was ill prepared to guide the state in such a revolutionary period. The Directory itself was not internally united, in action or idea, concerning state problems. Such leading figures as Hrushevs’kyi and Vynnychenko found themselves outside the government and eventually left the country at the time when they were most needed. Moreover, the constant changes of the cabinet from socialist to nonsocialist to please foreign powers undermined the confidence of the radically minded population in its government. The Directory’s social policy satisfied

Establishment of the Directory

141

neither the upper classes, especially not the landlords, nor the revolutionary peasants and workers. It also failed to win the understanding and cooperation of the national minorities in Ukraine. The activities of the hetman and his supporters, the Germans and Austrians, had strengthened the Bolshevik sympathies among the lower classes; the Directory’s hesitant social policy only served to reinforce these sympathies. This was possible because the first Bolshevik invasion of 1918 had given the population little insight into their methods and aims in Ukraine. The Bolsheviks exploited the government’s weakness through the skillful use of propaganda of untruth. In contrast to the anti-Bolshevik Russian forces, the Bolsheviks waged imperialistic war against Ukraine under the slogans of national and social liberation. Compounding these problems of political support were several failures of leadership and administration on the part of the Directory. It failed to establish a viable regime in the country largely because of the chaos created by the Bolshevik and anti-Bolshevik invasions and the Russian Civil War, which was fought largely on Ukrainian soil. Consequently some of the distant regions were controlled by politically and nationally immature partisan leaders who were unwilling to subordinate their actions to the Directory and at times followed an independent course in opposition to the government. Moreover, the existence of a group of left Socialist Revolutionaries known as Borot’bists, who were attempting to establish a Soviet Ukrainian government independent of Russia, weakened the Directory’s position. The administrative apparatus was disorganized; although some personnel left the country or went into hiding, leaving the government with a great shortage of trained personnel, the Directory failed to enlist and train the new constructive elements, including non-Ukrainians, whose participation would have increased the commitment of the various national groups to the government. Militarily, the Directory thought more in terms of a militia than a regular army, and took no steps to remedy the shortage of well-trained, patriotic officers, and to organize a strong army. It also failed to exercise leadership in uniting the partisan groups and coordinating their activities with those of the army. Because of the lack of munitions and armament plants in Ukraine, the Directory badly needed arms and ammunition, but it could not obtain them from abroad. After January 22, 1919, when there was one Ukrainian Republic, the Directory and the West Ukrainian government did not merge and, more importantly, they neglected to unite the military commands of their two separate armies. In its foreign policy, the Directory’s diplomacy did not wield

142

Anarchism of Nestor Makhno

sufficient influence to gain the material aid and diplomatic support it needed from the Entente and the neutral states. The Directory had to fight simultaneously two or even three enemies, which was beyond its power, yet it failed to neutralize at least one front. Instead of doing its utmost to organize the people’s support and confidence, the Directory relied too much on efforts to get aid from the Entente. Its fruitless negotiations not only undermined its own unity and aroused opposition from the parties, but gave the Bolsheviks a basis for accusing the Directory of inviting a new foreign invasion. Thus the Directory struggled against overwhelming odds, without adequate arms, military equipment, or medical supplies. In the midst of all this, a typhus epidemic decimated the army and civilian population. Consequently the superior invasion forces of the Bolsheviks and of Denikin compelled the ill-equipped and exhausted Ukrainian Army to retreat to the western limits of the Right Bank, seeking the support of the Entente through alliance with Poland. The Directory concluded the treaty of Warsaw with the Poles; the political agreement was signed on April 21, 1920, and the military on April 24. In spite of the alliance, the sacrifice to the Poles of Ukrainian territory, and the military campaigns with the Poles against the Bolsheviks, the Directory failed to gain the support of the Entente. Moreover, after the defeat of the Bolsheviks, the Polish government, ignoring the Directory, made its own separate peace settlement.

13. Makhno and the Directory

The rapid political change, the fall of the hetman regime, the establishment of the Directory, and the second Bolshevik invasion had their repercussions in the Makhno movement. Makhno was taken by surprise when the news came that the hetman regime, which he was then fighting, had been overthrown and the Directory was assuming power: All this happened on about the 20th of November, 1918. At one village, Alievo, . I considered it necessary to call a rally of the peasants at the village. I... began to speak to them about their servile conditions under the oppression of the hetman and his friends, the Austro-German Junkers, who were brought here and

put on their necks by the Central Rada.!

However, for these peasants the hetman regime was already a thing of the past, because ‘‘on this day the village had received a telegram . . . relating . . . that a coup had occurred in Kyiv: Hetman Skoropads’kyi was overthrown, the Ukrainian Directory headed by V. Vynnychenko was organized.” After a local teacher had read the telegram to the peasants and given a speech, he asked: “What position will you, Bat’ko Makhno, and your revolutionary-partisan forces, assume toward the Ukrainian Directory[?]”’ This question confused Makhno and made him nervous because ‘“‘in this village I did not expect it, and therefore, it made me somewhat sad—~-all the more because at this rally there was a mass of partisans, and the question about political confidence in Vynnychenko was unusually grave; the answer demanded not only truth but also serious, responsible substantiation.” After a while he overcame his 143

144

Anarchism of Nestor Makhno

nervousness and began to argue that although. Vynnychenko was a “Socialist, and a Socialist who participated and is participating in the life and struggle of the toilers,” now he had joined with Petliura, who brought the Austro-German troops into Ukraine. Therefore, “I do not think that the revolutionary-partisan movement under my leadership can find a common language with this Ukrainian Directory; especially as the program of the Ukrainian Directory and how and by whom it was elected, is still unknown to us.” In conclusion he declared: ‘“‘We will

not recognize the Ukrainian Directory . . . we will not carry on an armed struggle against the Directory, but we will . . . make preparations for this struggle against it.””” After the rally Makhno’s close associates, especially Oleksander Marchenko, judged that he had spoken correctly. Semen Karetnyk, in addition, took the position that the Directory would not be able to maintain its authority over all Ukraine, because the ‘“‘Revolution in the village is assuming an openly antigovernmental character . . . which we should support with all our power.’’ Most of Makhno’s associates agreed with Karetnyk and decided that as soon as they arrived at HuliaiPole they would issue a declaration against the Directory as a government and as antirevolutionary. In and around Huliai-Pole, according to Makhno, the majority of the people shared their point of view concerning the Directory. To assure that the people in the freed areas ‘‘correctly understood the revolutionary position of Huliai-Pole . . . toward the Directory” the partisans launched a campaign with this purpose.? Thus from the very outset Makhno tried to prevent the Directory from establishing its authority in the area where his partisans operated. Before the fall of the hetman regime Ukrainian leaders in Katerynoslav, headed by the brothers Mykola and Havrylo Horobets,* organized a Katerynoslav Republican Regiment (Kish) to prevent a local Bolshevik uprising, because the hetman Russian force was ineffective. When the Directory began a general uprising, the Ukrainian troops disarmed the state police (Varta) and assisted in establishing the local authority of the Directory. However, this action was threatened by the local Bolsheviks and by the Eighth Corps, which was organized during the hetman periods, under the command of General Vasylchenko and General I. G. Konovalov, his chief of staff. It was composed of two infantry regiments, originally about three to four hundred men, largely Russian officers; by mid-November the Corps had over one thousand men.

At the end of November,

when

the Ukrainians left, it became

strictly a Russian formation and began to use Russian as the official language. There also was a Russian volunteer detachment of officers,

Makhno and the Directory

145

about one hundred and fifty men, which served the City Council and then joined the Corps. In the midst of the struggle, the commander of Ukrainian forces established contact with Makhno who subsequently sent two representatives, Oleksander Chubenko and Myrhorods’kyi, both left Socialist Revolutionaries.° The Ukrainian commander proposed to join forces against the common enemies and reestablish a Ukrainian authority; Makhno, however, had instructed his delegates “to sound out the ground among the soldiers of the Katerynoslav garrison and the young staff officers . . and to establish secret contact with them.’ Makhno had no intention of joining forces with the Directory, because he regarded it as a worse phenomenon than the Ukrainian Central Rada, but he felt the partisans were not in a position at that time to launch an open campaign against it.’ Makhno found himself caught between the forces of Denikin and those of the Directory. Also there were still the Austro-German troops. Thus: The slightest decision by the Ukrainian Directory directed against us could force us to withdraw a number of combat units from the front lines against the volunteer units of the Denikin army and in this way, so to speak, ‘to liquidate ourselves’ in the fight against the Denikin forces without a prospect for successful victory in the struggle against the troops of the Directory.8

Makhno felt that to dare such a fight he would need at his disposal “‘at least a 70- to 100,000-strong well-armed partisan army” and so decided to maintain a cautious neutrality, allowing, among other things, the passage of enlisted men mobilized by the Directory through his territory. However, he ordered all the trains carrying them stopped for propaganda meetings directed against the government in general, and the Directory in particular? In the meantime, the Ukrainian forces in Katerynoslav grew stronger. At the beginning of December the Russian Eighth Corps was driven out of the city by Ukrainian troops after one day of fighting. Subsequently the Eighth Corps moved to the Crimea and at the beginning of January 1919, it joined the Russian troops there. Soon afterward Ukrainian troops disarmed the Austro-German troops stationed in Katerynoslav, obtaining large quantities of arms. On December 22, 1918, the Ukrainian troops dispersed the Katerynoslav Soviets and on December 26, they disarmed the Bolshevik military revolutionary headquarters and attacked the Bolshevik detachments located at Nyzpnicd: niprovs’k, a suburb of Katerynoslav, on the left bank of the Dnieper. ° In response, the local Bolsheviks offered Makhno command of their

146

Anarchism of Nestor Makhno

detachments with the aim of seizing the city. The offer was accepted and, on December 27, the united forces’ several thousand men began to

attack. To increase his chance of victory, Makhno used deception, sending an empty train into the city on a foggy morning followed by another armored train loaded with troops, which was then able to occupy the station and its surroundings. Simultaneously, he opened heavy artillery bombardment from the left bank of the Dnieper. During the fighting a Ukrainian artillery officer, Colonel Martynenko, changed sides and joined Makhno with sixteen guns and their teams, greatly facilitating Makhno’s victory. After three days of heavy fighting Makhno occupied a larger area and late on December 30 the Ukrainian troops retreated. The city, particularly the center, was badly damaged by the shelling, which had killed about two hundred people and wounded fifteen hundred. As soon as Makhno seized part of the city, he released the prisoners, who began to plunder, despite Makhno’s orders to the contrary and the shooting of several looters.! Makhno’s triumph, however, was short lived. The next day the Ukrainian troops, reinforced by the Sich Riflemen under Colonel Roman Samokysh, counterattacked. Makhno and his Bolshevik allies were badly beaten and suffered heavy losses. About two thousand Bolsheviks drowned in the Dnieper while attempting to escape across the frozen river. Makhno lost about six hundred men and with the remaining four hundred he retreated to Synel’nikove on the Left Bank. There he and his detachment rejoined the one commanded by Petrenko. Although his partisan group was substantially weakened, a number of independent partisan detachments soon joined him, swelling the force to over six thousand men who were, however, badly armed and clothed. Later, more partisan groups joined, among them a detachment from the area of Starokostiantynivka and others from the areas of Berdians’k, Mariupil’, and Melitopil’.!* Meanwhile Makhno’s detachments had resumed fighting the Ukrainian troops retreating from northeastern Ukraine before AntonovOvseenko’s advancing Red Army. Their aim, however, was not primarily to fight, but to capture certain supplies. On January 6, 1919, Makhno’s units attacked the city of Lozova but were beaten back with some losses. Those taken prisoner confessed that “they wanted to capture spirits, sugar, and manufactured goods.” As the Ukrainian troops were crossing Katerynoslav province a more serious struggle occurred near Hubymikha on January 17, and Makhno was defeated.® The situation changed as the Bolshevik forces advanced deeper into the Left Bank. On January 20, after a sixteen-day battle, Antonov-

Makhno and the Directory

147

Ovseenko captured Poltava while the Second Division of Pavel E. Dybenko occupied Synel’nikove. Meanwhile Dybenko established contact with Makhno and they agreed to attack Katerynoslav. Bitter fighting and heavy bombardment of the city continued for five days and it was only when the sixth Soviet Regiment crossed the Dnieper and attacked the city from another side that the Ukrainian troops were forced to retreat. On January 27, 1919, the Bolshevik forces occupied Katerynoslav. !4 After the withdrawal of the Ukrainian troops to the Right Bank, Makhno found himself caught between the Bolshevik and anti-Bolshevik Russian forces. Makhno’s previous inimical attitude toward the Directory and its troops, marked by both combat and propaganda, now entered a new phase, which might be described as an unwritten agreement of neutrality.

14. Makhno

and the Bolsheviks

After the occupation of Katerynoslav and Kyiv, the Bolshevik armies advanced against the Ukrainian troops of the Directory, intending to cut them off from the ports of the Black Sea and subsequently to destroy them. Then they intended to attack the Allied forces in southern Ukraine and advance to Hungary through Romania to assist the Hungarian Communists.! Besides the Ukrainian and Allied forces, the Bolsheviks were facing the Denikin troops; for this they sought explicit support from leftist partisan leaders, including Makhno. The Red Army representative Dybenko and Makhno’s representative Chubenko met at Nyzhniedniprovs’k on January 26, 1919, where

they agreed to unite their forces against the “‘counterrevolution”’ on the following terms: (a) all the Makhno detachments would be incorporated into the Red Army as the “Third Trans-Dnieper Brigade’’; (b) this unit would receive military supplies, food, and financing from the Red Army and be responsible to it; (c) it would retain its internal organization intact with an elective commanding body and regulate the interrelation of the regiments by the staff; (d) Makhno would remain commander of the Brigade, but it would receive political commissars down to the regimental level appointed by the Bolshevik authorities, whose duties would be political indoctrination for the units and overseeing the execution of orders from the center; (e) detachments would be transformed into regular regiments; (f) it would be subordinate to the commanders of the Division and of the front in operational and administrative matters; (g) it could not be removed from the front against Denikin; and (h) it would retain its name of Revolutionary Partisan Army and its black flags.” 148

Mahkno and the Bolsheviks

149

There was no mention of civil administration of the territory of the Makhno movement. The agreement with Makhno and other partisan leaders marked the beginning of a number of Bolshevik successes in South Ukraine. Makhno partisans operated against the Volunteers in two directions,

south

from

Oleksandrivs’k and southeast toward Mariupil’,

where they encountered formidable Denikin forces. As early as December

19, 1918, Denikin transferred General Vladi-

mir I. Mai-Maevskii’s Third Division, with armored trains, cars, and airplane units, from the Kuban to the region of [Uzivka-Mariupil’Berdians’k-Synel’nikove, aiming to cover the Donets Basin, and secure the left flank of the Don Army. However, according to Denikin: Mai-Maevskii

got into

region where

the partisan groups

a very complicated military and political situation in the of Makhno,

Zubkiv, Ivan’ko, and other Petliura

otamans, Bolshevik troops of Kozhevnikov’s group, and the German soldiers from the troop trains mixed together. The Kuban separatists raised strong protests against “invading Ukrainian territory”; the Don Otaman persistently demanded an advance to Kharkiv, which was occupied by the Bolsheviks on January 3, and deployment along the northern borders of Ukraine. For two months Mai-Maevskii

and his 2,500 men (later 4,500) strenuously and persistently defended themselves against Makhno, Petliura, and two Bolshevik divisions.3

At the end of January 1919, Denikin dispatched reinforcements, two cadres of officers and volunteers from the Ninth Cavalry Division. They formed a Composite Regiment against Makhno, who was opposing Mai-Maevskii’s advance to the Donets Basin. According to reports of February

16 and 18, the partisans took Orikhiv, Novoukrainka, Novo-

selytsia, Velykyi Tokmak, Tsarekostiantynivka, and Polohy, capturing armored

trains, field guns, machine

guns, rifles, and other materials.*

When in mid-March Makhno threatened Mariupil’, General Elchaninov, the commander of the city garrison, dispatched the Composite Regiment,

consisting

of over

four hundred

men,

plus detachments

of the

Second Cavalry of General Drozdovskii’s regiment, the Smolensk Ulan Regiment,

mobilized

officers

living in the city, and a battery of two

guns. Toward the end of March Makhno defeated the Denikin troops at Manhush whence they retreated eighteen versts east to Mariupil’. With most of the troop commanders wounded, all available forces gathered to defend the city. However, after ten days of fighting Makhno occupied it, driving the enemy into the sea. Subsequently Makhno seized a number ofrailway stations along the Sea of Azov, including Berdians’k, and was threatening to take Matviiv-Kurhan, to cut the Denikin forces off from their large military stores at Taganrog to the south. In

mid-April

the

Third

Cavalry

Corps,

under

General

Andrei

150

Anarchism of Nestor Makhno

Grigor’evich Shkuro, jointly with the Composite Regiment drove Makhno from Mariupil’ and the area including Huliai-Pole, with the aim of isolating Makhno from his allies, the Bolsheviks, and destroying him. During the spring and summer bitter fighting between them developed in the south of Left Bank Ukraine. According to Arshinov: “During this period Makhno’s men advanced at least five or six times almost to the walls of Taganrog.” Both sides suffered heavy losses, but the civilian population suffered more, not only from military activities, but from reprisals and robberies by the Denikin troops. Thus from the beginning of 1919, an anti-Denikin front was firmly established, extending along the Sea of Azov west of Taganrog via Mariupil’-Berdians’k to Melitopil’, and north to Oleksandrivs’k-Synel’nikove and Novomoskovs’ke.! As an anti-Denikin front was established and the region was secured from Denikin’s troops, Makhno faced the problem of organizing the region.

The

Makhno

movement,

however,

was

a military

one, not

political in nature. Fighting took up most of its time; that preoccupation and the tumultuous conditions caused by the civil war in the region were most unfavorable for domestic policies. With many enemies and forced to move constantly, Makhno could not control a large populated territory long enough to introduce a sound civil administration. Moreover, he had no adequate administrative apparatus for this purpose, for even anarchists from the Nabat group were ideologically opposed to serving in administrative units.2 From the summer of 1918 to the beginning of 1919, the Makhno movement was essentially a peripatetic one, lacking territorial control. This situation changed when the Ukrainian troops withdrew from the Left Bank in the winter of 1919, and Makhno found himself in the region south and east of Katerynoslav between the Bolshevik and anti-Bolshevik Russian forces. Thus when the Bolsheviks and Makhno had reached an agreement on January 26, 1919, one important question remained unsettled, the political status of the territory under Makhno’s control. The Bolsheviks apparently thought either of recognizing autonomy for the region of the Makhno movement,’ or they considered making agreements with Makhno concerning military matters, while the civil question would be their prerogative after the occupation of the region. As they advanced into the region, the Bolsheviks preceeded cautiously in order not to offend their allies to the point of precipitating an anti-Bolshevik reaction. According to an eyewitness, a commander of a Bolshevik regiment that was dispatched to the southern front warned his soldiers in a speech that “in the territory occupied by Makhno we have to be

Makhno and the Bolsheviks

1ES3II

especially vigilant and flexible; not for a single moment should we forget either the peculiarities of the condition confronting us or the hopes entrusted to us by the command of the Soviet army.””!? Makhno, on the other hand, took it for granted that the political autonomy of his region would not be touched and that the population would

be allowed

to live without Bolshevik interference. Hence,

Makhno and his staff continued the military and sociopolitical organization of the territory that the partisans dominated from the end of January to June of 1919, and then from October to the end of the year. During 1920 and 1921, Makhno’s territorial control was substantially limited in duration and space. When Makhno detachments entered a certain city or town, they immediately announced to the population that the army did not intend to exercise political authority. In the army’s judgment, “‘it is up to the workers and peasants themselves to act, to organize themselves, to reach mutual understanding in all fields of their lives, insofar as they desire it, and in whatever way they may think right.’”’!! Simultaneously, Makhno’s command issued a proclamation to the people dealing with basic questions. All orders of the Denikin and the Bolshevik authorities were abolished. The most important question to the peasants was that of land. Therefore, according to the proclamation, the holdings of the landlords, the monasteries,

and the state, including all livestock and goods, were

to be transferred to the peasants. This transfer, however, was to be implemented in an orderly way and dictated through decisions made in general meetings where the interests of all peasants would be considered. The same situation applied to the workers, since all factories, plants, mines, and other means of production were to become property of all of the workers under the control of their professional unions. The free exchange of manufactured and agrarian commodities was allowed until workers and peasants formed professional organizations to control such exchange. According to the proclamation, workers and peasants were to establish free non-Bolshevik soviets that would carry out the will and orders of their constituents. Only working people, and not representatives of political parties, might join the soviets. The existence of compulsory and authoritative institutions was prohibited; the state guard and police force were also abolished. Instead, the workers and peasants were to organize their own self-defense force against counterrevolution and banditry.!” In contrast to the Bolshevik regime, freedom of speech, press,

152

Anarchism of Nestor Makhno

assembly, and association were proclaimed as an inseparable right of each working man. Several newspapers of various political orientations including Bolshevik, left Socialist Revolutionaries, and right Socialist Revolutionaries, appeared in the territory under Makhno’s control. However, it was prohibited for them to propagate armed uprisings against the Makhno movement. Also, in contrast to the Bolshevik and anti-Bolshevik Russian forces

that annulled each other’s currencies whenever they occupied the same territory, Makhno annulled none. He recognized currencies of all forces occupying the region, including Ukrainian, Denikin, Don, and Bolshevik. Moreover, Makhno allowed money from the tsarist and Provisional Government regimes. Makhno’s financial policy was determined by his knowledge that the working people had accumulated currencies from different sources and feared their discontinuation. The businessmen and bankers accepted Makhno’s program. Makhno, however, never issued currency of his own.'* Although war conditions made the organization of schools difficult, plans were made, especially in Huliai-Pole. A school commission of peasants, workers, and teachers was assigned the task of devising an educational plan, including the establishment of schools and their economic support. The commission’s plan was to employ the educational ideas of the Spanish anarchist, Francisco Ferrer. Schools were to belong to the working people themselves and to be entirely independent of the state and the church.

Religion, however,

was

to be taught in the

schools. Teachers were to receive their livelihood from the communities they served.!® Courses were organized for illiterate and partly literate partisans. Some courses in political matters were offered for partisans, including history, political economy, theory and practice of anarchism and socialism, history of the French Revolution (according to Kropotkin), and history of the revolutionary partisan movement. Special attention was given to the organization of a theater that performed for the partisans and civilian population, and which would serve both as entertainment and propaganda.!® As the sociopolitical organization of his region developed, Makhno and his staff had to devote special attention to the organization of a partisan army to meet the threatening military situation. As early as January 3, 1919, Makhno called a partisan conference of forty delegates at Polohy station, the primary concern of which was the unification of all partisan groups of the region under one command, their reorganization, the obtaining of arms and ammunition, and the organi-

Makhno and the Bolsheviks

OS

zation of a defensive front. The delegates resolved to form an operational staff that would be the highest military organ of the partisan army. Its tasks were the reorganization of the partisan groups into regiments, provision of supply bases, distribution of arms, planning combat operations, organization of new detachments, and disarming of all nonsubordinate units. Although the conference dealt primarily with military organization and defense of the territory, it devoted some attention to the civil problems and resolved to support the local soviets and prevent military control of them. All the estates in the region controlled by Makhno were to be transferred to the disposition of the workers and to be defended by organized local armed detachments until the meeting of a general peasant congress. Those armed detachments should be at the disposition of the local soviets, supporting their authority and assisting them in combating banditry.!’ Subsequently, on January 4, Viktor Bilash, head of the operational staff, presented a reorganizational plan that he had formulated for the front. To make the partisans’ operations more effective, some of the less cooperative commanders of the formerly independent groups were summoned to operational staff headquarters where they were kept occupied with operational matters. The southern front against Denikin, which extended 225 versts, was defended by five regiments. At the beginning of 1919, two congresses were held that dealt with military and sociopolitical organization. Those two congresses formed the beginning of what might be called the political government of the Makhno movement; they were composed of delegates of peasants, workers, and partisans and were considered as the supreme authority of the region. The

first congress, held on January 23, 1919, at Dibrivka,

was limited in size and scope. It was composed of one hundred delegates under the chairmanship of K. Holovko. Its main object was to strengthen defense, especially against the growing threat of the Volunteer Army. To regulate the manpower problem the delegates resolved to mobilize men who were willing and able to carry arms (especially those who served in the army during the war) to defend the Revolution. The second congress, which was held on February 12, 1919, at HuliaiPole, had 245 delegates representing 350 districts. Its chairman was Veretel’nyk and Makhno was chosen to be honorary chairman.!8 The consensus of the congress was strongly anti-Bolshevik and favored a democratic sociopolitical way of life. Most of the delegates were against the Bolsheviks and their commissars. One delegate complained:

154

Anarchism of Nestor Makhno

Who elected the Provisional Ukrainian Bolshevik Government: the people or the Bolshevik party? We see Bolshevik dictatorship over the left Socialist Revolutionaries and anarchists. Why do they send us commissars? We can live without them. If we needed commissars we would elect them ‘from among ourselves.!9

The delegate from Novopavlivka volost, complained: A new government has appeared somewhere in Ukraine that is composed of Bolshevik-Communists; this government is already attempting to introduce its Bolshevik monopoly over the soviets. :

He pointed out that at the time when you peasants, workers,

[and]

partisans were enduring the pressure of all the coun-

terrevolutionary forces the Prov[isional] Govern[ment] of Ukraine was sitting . . . in Moscow,

in Kursk, waiting until the workers and peasants of Ukraine liberated

the territory from the enemies. Now . . . the enemy is defeated . . . a Bolshevik government is coming to us and is imposing upon us its party dictatorship. Is this admissible? . . . We nonparty partisans who rose against all our oppressors will not permit new enslavement no matter from which party it comes.29

The delegate from Kherson province, Cherniak, spoke in the same vein: “No party has a right to usurp governmental power into its hands. . We want life, all problems, to be decided locally, not by order from any authority above; and all peasants and workers should decide their own fate, while those elected should only carry out the toilers’

wish.””2!

Makhno concluded his speech with: If our Bolshevik friends are coming from Great Russia into Ukraine to help us in the hard struggle against the counterrevolution, we will say to them: ‘Thank you, dear brothers.” If, however, they are coming with the aim of monopolizing Ukraine, we will say to them: ‘Hands off.” Without their help we will raise ourselves to the point of liberating the working peasantry; without their help [we] will organize a new life in which there will be neither landlords nor slaves, neither oppressed nor

oppressors.22

Thus the congress warned the peasants and workers that the political commissars are watching each step of the ruthlessly with those friends of peasants and workers who freedom from the agency of the central government. . arrested left Socialist Revolutionaries and anarchists, stifling any manifestation of revolutionary expression.

local soviets and dealing act in defense of peoples’ . . The Bolshevik regime closing their newspapers,

Therefore, the congress ‘‘urges the peasants and workers to watch vigilantly the actions of the Bolshevik regime that cause a real danger to the worker-peasant revolution.” This anti-Bolshevik attitude was also shared by the anarchist Nikiforova who came from her visit in Moscow

Makhno and the Bolsheviks

ADS

to attend the congress. She delivered a speech condemning the Bolsheviks for their use of terror against the anarchists in Russia.”° The congress also devoted its attention to the problem of mobilization. Although the Makhno partisan army at this time numbered some thirty thousand men, the Bolshevik policy of violence to the peoples’ freedom and the Denikin threat demanded greater strength. After a long and passionate debate, the “Congress rejected ‘compulsory’ mobilization, opting for an ‘obligatory’ one; that is, each peasant who is able to carry arms, should recognize his obligation to enlist in the ranks of the partisans and to defend the interests of the entire toiling people of Ukraine.” The main contribution to civil administration was the establishment of a Regional Revolutionary Military Council of Peasants, Workers, and Partisans, a permanent body consisting of representatives of thirty-two volostt of Katerynoslav and Tavriia provinces and partisan units. The council’s task was to ensure the execution of the resolutions of the congresses, which were to be held at regular intervals: however, it had no authority to take any political or military initiative.”© The congress accepted a resolution . against plunder, violence, and anti-Jewish pogroms committed by various obscure individuals disguising themselves under the name of honest partisans. . . . In some places national antagonism assumed the form of Jewish pogroms—a result of the old outlived dictatorial regime. The tsarist government was poisoning the irresponsible masses against the Jews, hoping to hurl down all its own evils and crimes upon the poor Jews and thus turn the attention of all toiling people away from the real reason for their poverty—the tsarist dictatorship’s oppression and its freebooters.27

On the land question the congress resolved that: The land question should be decided on a Ukraine-wide scale at an all-Ukrainian congress of peasants on the following bases: in the interests of socialism and the struggle against the bourgeoisie, all land should be transferred to the hands of the toiling peasants. According to the principle that “the land belongs to nobody” and can be used only by those who care about it, who cultivate it, the land should be transferred to the toiling peasantry of Ukraine for their use without pay according to the norm of equal distribution.28

The resolution of the congress, which was written by the anarchists, left Socialist Revolutionaries, and the chairmanship, was accepted 150 to 29, with 20 abstentions. It was also approved by Makhno.”9 The conflict of the Bolshevik authorities with the population also included the Makhno partisans. Makhno’s aim was to fight the more

156

Anarchism of Nestor Makhno

dangerous enemy, the Volunteer Army, but he misjudged the Bolsheviks’ strength and aims. He assumed that the coming conflict with the Bolsheviks could be confined to the realm of ideas, feeling that the strong revolutionary ideas of the peasants together with their distrust of the foreign invaders were the best guarantees of the territory of the Makhno movement. But, by making an agreement with Makhno, the Bolsheviks hoped not only to use the partisans to their own ends but to absorb them into the ranks of the Red. Army and subsequently to neutralize them. This would free the hands of the Bolshevik authorities to pacify the populace and to reduce it to obedience. The Bolsheviks, however,

soon

found that their hope was in vain.

Although they had success on the front, their attempts to establish control in the newly occupied territories only antagonized the population. In Katerynoslav, five days after the occupation of the city the Extraordinary Commission (Cheka) began to arrest “counterrevolutionaries,’’ who were imprisoned or shot without trial. At the same time the city was surrounded by military guards who mercilessly seized the produce that peasants attempted to bring to the market. The city’s stores of food were monopolized and forwarded as supplies to Moscow, subjecting the people of the city to terror and famine.®° It was the agricultural policy, however, that set the peasants against the Bolsheviks. The Provisional Workers’ and Peasants’ Government of Ukraine decreed that all lands formerly belonging to the landlords should be expropriated and transformed into state farms. Sugar refineries and distilleries, with all properties belonging to them since 1913, would also be expropriated by the state. The Bolshevik expropriation policy was countervailed by the peasants’ resistance based upon their assumption that “the land belongs to nobody . . . it can be used only by those who care about it, who cultivate it.” Thus the peasants maintained that all the property of the former landlords was now by right their own. This attitude was shared not only by the rich and middle peasants but also by the poor and landless, for they all wished to be independent farmers. The poorer the areas, the more dissatisfied were the peasants with the Bolshevik decrees.?! Thus Communist agricultural policy and terrorism brought about a strong reaction against the new Bolshevik regime. By the middle of 1919, all peasants, rich and poor, distrusted the Bolsheviks. On March 27, in the area of Orikhiv, Tavriia province, a former Makhno detachment, consisting of some two thousand men, two guns, and eight ma-

chine guns, arose against the Communists.°*

Three hundred Bolshevik

Makhno

and the Bolsheviks

OW,

cavalrymen were promptly sent from Oleksandrivs’k to fight the partisans, but instead they joined them and began to move toward Oleksandrivs’k. : Because of apprehension that the uprisings might spread to the entire area occupied by Makhno troops, it was decided “‘to take extraordinary measures . . . to suppress the uprisings [however] it was necessary to dispatch only Russian or international units; local troops were unsuitable for this purpose.”’ Accordingly a regiment of internationalists®? was dispatched from the front against the partisans. Subsequently more uprisings took place in other areas. According to a report on April 4, partisan bands had destroyed railway and a reparation train in Ol’shanytsia, Poltava province, while another detachment of 150 men from Lubni district moved against the Communists at Zolotonosha, Poltava province. The anti-Communist attitude of the rural population was shared by some of the troops. Strong propaganda was conducted in the army against the “Moscovites” and the “present authority.”’ Anti-Communist feeling was particularly evident in the First and Second Divisions that were organized in the Neutral Zone in 1918, and consisted partially of Ukrainian refugees. At one regimental meeting, some soldiers called for an uprising against the Communists and at the same time glorified Makhno.”

One

of the

Communists,

[Akovlev,

in a speech in 1920,

complained that at that time (1919): [Makhno] was a real peasant idol, an expression of all peasant spontaneity struggling against . . . Communists in the cities and simultaneously against city capitalists and landowners. In the Makhno movement it is difficult to distinguish where

the poor peasant begins [and] the “kulak” ends.36 It was a spontaneous peasant movement. . . . In the village we had no foothold, there was not one element with which we could join that would be our ally in the struggle against the bandits.37

The more oppressive the Bolshevik policy, the more the peasants supported Makhno. Consequently, the Bolsheviks began to organize more systematically against the Makhno movement, both as an ideology and as a social movement. The campaign was waged in the press, speeches, and orders of the central authorities. Makhno and his movement were described as “kulak . . . counterrevolutionary,” and his activities were condemned as harmful to the revolution. Meanwhile the flow of arms, ammunition, and other supplies for the Makhno partisans was substantially reduced.°8 At this point, the Revolutionary Military Council called a Third

158

Anarchism of Nestor Makhno

Regional Congress of Peasants, Workers, and Partisans at Huliai-Pole on April 10, 1919. It was composed of delegates from seventy-two districts representing over two million people. Its aim was to clarify the situation and to consider the prospects for the future of the region. The congress decided to conduct a voluntary mobilization of men born in the ten years from 1889 to 1898, beginning on April 27, and rejected, with the approval of both rich and poor peasants, the Bolshevik expropriations.*9 The activity of the congress irked the Bolshevik authorities. Dybenko dispatched a telegram to the congress declaring it ““counterrevolutionary” and branding its organizers as “outlaws,” in response to which the delegates voted an indignant protest. Later the council sent Dybenko a lengthy sarcastic reply: ‘“‘ ‘Comrade’ Dybenko, you are still, it seems, rather new in the revolutionary movement of Ukraine, and we shall have to tell you about its very beginnings.” It denounced the Bolsheviks who, it said, came to “establish laws of violence to subjugate a people who have just overthrown all lawmakers and all laws . . . if one day the Bolshevik idea succeeds among the workers, the Revolutionary Military Council . . . will be necessarily replaced by another organization ‘more revolutionary’ and Bolshevik. But meanwhile, do not interfere with us.’4° Although the conflict did not break Makhno’s military cooperation, it embittered the Bolshevik authorities because they lost their hope for easy integration of the region of the Makhno movement with its difficulties created by the partisans. The Bolshevik agents in the area reported that “in the Makhno region there is presently no possibility for the activities of the Communists, who are secretly killed.’ Apart from the Bolsheviks’ objections to the congresses, which Makhno encouraged and protected, direct difficulties between Makhno and the Bolsheviks also developed. When Makhno’s troops occupied the city of Mariupil’ on March 27, large stacks of coal and grain were found

that the Bolshevik

leaders wanted

to send to Russia. Makhno,

however, refused to deliver the commodities save in exchange for manufactured goods. These conflicts convinced the Bolsheviks that they had to overcome the Makhno movement by force. The antiMakhno campaign, especially in the press, was intensified, denouncing the partisans as “anarcho-bandits”’ and “kulaks.”’ Meanwhile Trotsky, who had arrived in Ukraine to lead the forthcoming offensive, advised Lenin:

Makhno and the Bolsheviks

159

To obtain bread and coal from the Mariupil’ area and discipline Makhno’s anarchist bands, we must organize a large detachment, consisting of a reliable Cheka battalion, several hundred

Baltic

Fleet sailors who

have an interest in obtaining coal and

bread, a supply detachment of Moscow or Ivano-Voznesenske workers, and some thirty serious Party workers. Only on these conditions will an advance in the Mariupil’-Taganrog direction become possible.42

Other Bolshevik

leaders, however,

undertook a number of investi-

gative visits to Makhno, attempting to improve the situation by criticism and friendly persuasion. On April 29, Antonov-Ovseenko paid a visit to Makhno at Huliai-Pole to inspect his front and to find out the mood of the partisans. On May 4—5 Lev B. Kamenev (Rozenfeld), deputy chairman of the Politburo, visited Makhno at Huliai-Pole, on the

authorization

of the All-Russian

Council

of Defense,

to assure

Makhno’s cooperation. Although during his visit Kamenev tried to display a friendly attitude toward the partisans and peasants, calling them heroes for fighting bravely against their enemies, when he spoke about the Bolsheviks’ policy of supporting poor peasants, they protested, maintaining that “‘we are all poor.” In his official meeting with Makhno and his staff, Kamenev became less friendly, complaining about transportation difficulties, persecution of the Communists in the area of Makhno’s operations, and about the independent mobilization by the Revolutionary Military Council, which he suggested should be dissolved. Makhno’s answer was that the council was elected by the people and could be dissolved only by them. He also spoke of the population’s resentment of the Communist commissars sent from Russia and of the Cheka’s activities. The visit had no material effect on relations between the Bolsheviks and Makhno, nor did it change the opinions of either party. However, later Kamenev assured Dybenko that “all rumors of separatist or antiSoviet plans on the part of the brigade and its commander, Makhno, are baseless. I saw in Makhno an honest and brave fighter who is fighting the Whites and foreign conquerors under difficult conditions.’*° Soon, however, the whole military situation changed when Otaman Hryhor’iv, the main commander on the southwestern front, staged an uprising against the Bolsheviks that soon spread across three provinces and collapsed the southwestern front. This uprising subsequently affected Makhno’s relationships with the Bolsheviks, who feared a similar occurrence on the southeastern front, and with Hryhor’iv himself.

15. Nykyfor Hryhor’iv

Next to Makhno, Nykyfor Oleksandrovych Hryhor’iv was the most prominent and colorful partisan leader of the Revolution. He succeeded in uniting over twenty partisan groups under his command, organizing them into a strong army in the lower Right Bank. A gifted and remarkable organizer, a brilliant and fearless commander who knew and enjoyed fighting, he was also the personification of the desires and ideas of the peasantry. Physically he was a medium-sized, stocky, strongly built brunet with a nasal voice and a pockmarked face that gave him a rather stern appearance. He acted self-confidently, with the composed bearing of the military profession.! Hryhor’iv was born about 1885,” in Zastavia, a suburb of Dunaivtsi,

in Ushytsia district, Podillia province. He was the eldest of four children; his father, Oleksander

Servetnyk, was

a state alcoholic beverage

manager, and his three uncles were all literate, respectable, rich peasants. Nykyfor changed Servetnyk to Hryhor’iv, probably because he found the two side by side in the local or family records. Hryhor’iv first attended school at Dunaivtsi and later completed a two-class state school in Nova Ushytsia that was known as the best school in the district.° During his school years, in his room shared with seven schoolmates, he would talk at night with great enthusiasm about the Zaporozhian Sich and the Cossacks, assuring them that when he was grown up he would join the Don Cossacks. However, neither he nor his schoolmates

knew what happened to the Sich and the Cossacks, or that the Kuban Cossacks were the descendants of the Zaporozhian Cossacks. In fact, 160

Nyky for Hryhortv

161

several years later he did try to join the Don Cossacks but was rejected. However, when the Russo-Japanese War broke out, Hryhor’iv joined the Cossack cavalry and fought in Manchuria. After a distinguished war service, he joined the police force at Proskuriv (Khmel’nyts’kyi). In 1914 he volunteered for the army and eventually rose to the rank of staff captain, serving in the Fifty-Eighth Infantry Regiment. He was wounded several times and decorated for his distinguished service.* In the Revolution of 1917, Hryhor’iv was commander of a trooptrain station at Berdychiv. He was very active in the Ukrainian military movement and was popular among the soldiers of the Berdychiv garrison. Hryhor’iv and a senior commissioned officer, Servetnyk, very often defended the Ukrainian movement in the meetings of the Executive Committee of the Southwestern Front (Iskomitiuz).° He also played an active role in the soldiers’ revolutionary committee and in the Ukrainian Military Congresses. It was then that he became associated with Symon Petliura. During the Central Rada he was otaman of the Ukrainian troops and supported the Ukrainian government. After the fall of the Central Rada he supported the hetman government, but after several months he became disillusioned and joined the opposition. As early as August 1918 Petliura commissioned him to prepare an uprising against government and Austro-German forces in Kherson province. When the uprising began, Hryhor’iv led a popular revolt in the Oleksandriia district. After establishing the Directory’s authority in the area of operation, Hryhor’iv annulled all the hetman’s decrees and reinstated the “Universals” of the Central Rada, establishing local democratic self-government, and organized self-defense forces in the towns and villages.® Hryhor’iv’s real career began during his struggle against the Germans and Allied intervention. For this purpose he tried to unite all the partisan groups that had come into existence during the uprising under his control. In his “boastful telegrams” to Petliura at the beginning of December, he claimed that he had brought 117 small partisan groups under

his

command,

which,

by

December 10, consisted

of 4,000

cavalrymen, 200 grenadiers, and an undisclosed number of infantry as well as 2 secret units in the city of Mykolaiv. After organizing a strong force Hryhor’iv advanced against the Germans at Mykolaiv. Nine versts from Mykolaiv he defeated a Volunteer unit at Vodopii. Subsequently, Hryhor’iv came to a modus vivendi with the Germans and on December 13 the partisans entered the city. However, the German command, under pressure from the commander of the British fleet near the city, forced Hryhor’iv out.’

162

Anarchism of Nestor Makhno

At the end of December Hryhor’iv sent a terse ultimatum to the Germans at Mykolaiv demanding their withdrawal from Ukraine: I, Otaman Hryhor’iv, in the name of the partisans whom I command, rising against the yoke of the bourgeoisie, with a clear conscience, declare to you that you appeared here in Ukraine as a blind instrument in the hands of our bourgeoisie, that you are not democrats, but traitors to all the European democracies. If in four days you do not abandon Mykolaiv, Dolyns’ka, and Znamenka, by foot, beginning at twelve o’clock on the thirty-first, none of you will ever see his fatherland. You will be destroyed, like flies, at the first wave of my hand. We will not provide transportation for you. You had adequate time to leave without saying goodbye. We consider you as accursed enemies, but for humanity’s sake we are giving you four days for withdrawal.8

As long as the Germans supported the hetman government, they were the enemy of the Directory; however, after the fall of the hetman and the Soviet Russian invasion, the presence of the German troops was not a threat to the Directory. Moreover, although the Germans were Hryhor’iv’s target, the real power behind them was the Allies and Denikin.

At that time the Germans were not at war with the Directory,

but were charged by the agreement with the Entente to maintain peace in Mykolaiv. Thus Hryhor’iv’s military activity was in conflict with Directory policy. Although the Entente’s representatives in Odessa ignored Ukrainian national interests and were tactless in their dealing with the Ukrainian government, the Directory tried to reach an understanding with the Entente at any cost and gain its support in the struggle against the Red Army. Because of its acquiescence to the Entente and its supporters, the Russian Volunteers, the Directory not only lost the support of some parties and of the population, but “aroused opposition from both the right and left.” In early January Hryhor’iv revolted against the Directory because it had forbidden him to move against the forces of the Entente.? In cooperation with the Bolsheviks, Hryhor’iv tried to achieve what he could not with the Directory, to “‘drive the Entente into the sea.”’ At the end of January 1919, Hryhor’iv initiated negotiations with the Red Army command by sending a telegram to the Bolshevik revolutionary committee in Oleksandrivs’k: I, the otaman of the partisans of Kherson and Tavriia provinces, wish to speak with the representatives of the authority in Oleksandrivs’k and to transmit very important information. Will a representative of this authority speak with me? I shall at once inform you of our platform, if the authority in Oleksandrivs’k is democratic, not Cadet. Therefore, listen: with the capitulation [probably-declaration] on January 25 [1919] Soviet rule has been established in Ukraine. The Directory has fallen.

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163

To replace the Directory a new government has been formed of left SRs

[Borot’-

bists] and Ukrainian Bolsheviks. . . .10 All twenty of my partisan detachments are fighting against the independents and the supporters of the world bourgeoisie; we are against the Directory, the Cadets, fhe English, the Germans, and the French, whom the bourgeoisie have brought to Ukraine.!1

The Oleksandrivs’k Committee forwarded reports of their negotiations to the commander of the Kharkiv group of the Soviet Army, Vladimir K. Aussem, and received the following reply: Having heard the report of the representatives of your committee on the negotiations between your delegation and Otaman Hryhor’iv, I have to inform you that the High Command of the Ukrainian Soviet Red Army can enter into negotiations or agreements only upon these conditions: unconditional recognition of Soviet authority in Ukraine as represented by the Provisional Workers’ and Peasants’ Government, which at the present is in Kharkiv, . . . and subordination to the high mili-

tary command of the Soviet Red Army of Ukraine.12

Although the Bolsheviks recognized the importance of Hryhor’iv’s twenty detachments of 23,000 men, with some artillery and a considerable number of machine guns,!® they correctly estimated that the success of their advance on Kyiv would weaken Hryhor’iv’s bargaining power and cause him to submit. In a telephone conversation with a Bolshevik

representative

on

February 1, 1919,

supremacy of the Kharkiv government mand, albeit conditionally:

he

recognized

the

and the Soviet military com-

I wish to regard our agreement, or more precisely my agreement, with you as tactical. I agree to your conditions and recognize your supreme command, provided that in the future the decision of unification of the higher command rests with your center and ours. I think that your command and ours will reach an agreement, since we shall not argue over authority. Power should belong to the people through their elected representatives; our supreme authority and yours are temporary and revolutionary. The permanent government will be formed not by us or by you, but by the people.!4

Khristian Rakovskii, the head of the Kharkiv government, reported to Chicherin that: Hryhor’iv recognized the supremacy of the authority of the Provisional Workers’ and Peasants’ Government of Ukraine and the Command of the Revolutionary Military Council, leaving it to the Ukrainian SR government, established on the

right bank of the Dnieper, to negotiate a political agreement with us.15

Although circumstances brought about the merging of Hryhor’iv’s partisan army with the Red Army, he did not share Bolshevik political goals. His alignment with them reflected the confidence of the peasants

164

Anarchism of Nestor Makhno

in Bolshevik promises. Like Makhno, he retained command of his forces and continued to be as active as before, but completely avoided political issues. His immediate aim was to free South Ukraine of the foreign armies of the Entente, Denikin, and Germany and to prevent them from capturing equipment and supplies, especially several vessels anchored near Mykolaiv. However, he did not clarify the object of his cooperation with the Bolsheviks. Because the Bolshevik “reserves were exhausted . . . the main task of the offensive on Odessa fell upon Hryhor’iv’s detachments.” He advanced

in the direction of Kherson, Mykolaiv, and Odessa along

the railroad lines, taking station after station.‘© On March 9, he attacked Kherson, which was defended by a Greek infantry battalion and a French company, supported by a pair of mountain guns and the artillery of French vessels on the Dnieper. After several days of fierce battle the Allied troops were driven out of the city, losimg more than four hundred

men,

as well as two

armored

trains, and considerable

armament.!” Hryhor’iv claimed that only nine partisans were killed and thirty-seven wounded. This military reversal produced a very painful impression upon the French Command and greatly demoralized the Allied soldiers and sailors in Mykolaiv and Odessa. However, it was the population that suffered most, partly from artillery and small arms fire, but especially from an Allied atrocity that took at least five hundred lives.18 Hryhor’iv’s next target was Mykolaiv, thirty miles northwest, where the Fifteenth Landwehr

Division, consisting of 15,000 German troops,

was garrisoned. Although the Germans wished to avoid confrontation with Hryhor’iv, they were under Allied military control. The Allied command

knew

that with morale in their units at a mutinous level, it

would be impossible to hold Hryhor’iv’s forces. Thus they evacuated by ship to Odessa! leaving the Germans to do their fighting. Subsequently Hryhor’iv sent an ultimatum to the Germans, saying that in a few days he would take the city Mykolaiv by storm: We know you want to go home. Then go! The conditions of your departure have been outlined by the Provisional Workers’ and Peasants’ Government. Do not expect other conditions and, if you do not go home, you will die.

Given the circumstances, Hryhor’iv’s threat was sufficient to bring about the German capitulation on March 12.*° The partisans were engaged only in minor skirmishes. Now the road was open to Odessa, the last Entente stronghold. Hryhor’iv’s victories in Kherson and Mykolaiv had important effects on both sides. The partisans’ spirit was greatly improved by their

Nykyfor Hryhorwv

165

victory over the supposedly invincible Entente forces, and in both cities they captured large amounts of war material that was needed for the rapidly growing army. Hryhor/iv’s fame, and the confidence of the population in him, increased. It seemed that he had absorbed the Bolsheviks rather than being absorbed by them. At the same time, the propaganda of pro-Hryhor’iv and pro-Bolshevik elements found receptive ears among the Allied troops, especially sailors. Demoralized to the point of mutiny, they either refused to fight the partisans or fled from them. They showed no interest in a foreign war that they neither wanted nor understood. Part of the civilian population also contributed to the demoralization in the city. “Refugees from Bolshevik Russia [had] increased the population to nearly 800,000, or 30 per cent above normal,’’#! and they had no other occupation than spreading rumors about a workers’ armed uprising in the city and evacuation of the Entente’s forces. Meanwhile,

Vladimir

Antonov-Ovseenko,

Commander

of the Red

Army in the south, was displeased with the uncontrollable Hryhor’iv and tried to assign the attack against Odessa to other units. However, heavy fighting broke out with the Directory’s Ukrainian troops around Kyiv and some Bolshevik units from the Odessa front had to be sent there. Thus Hryhor’iv advanced against Odessa, taking enemy strongholds either by threats or in battle. On March 19, Hryhor’iv inflicted about five hundred casualties on Entente and Denikin troops at Berezivka, capturing five tanks, four guns, and one hundred machine guns. Although the Allied command announced on March 20 that Allied forces would defend the city and provide supplies,?* they failed to do so, in spite of numerical superiority. According to Denikin’s staff sources on March 22 there were two French and two Greek divisions, a

portion of one Romanian division, and a Volunteer Army Brigade of General Timanovskii in the Odessa area. These thirty-five to forty thousand troops were provided with superior weapons and equipment, including artillery and tanks, by the Entente, had naval support, and were led by experienced professional officers. Opposing were about fifteen thousand partisans.”? The French command tried unsuccessfully to stifle news of Hryhor’iv’s approach. It created panic among the refugees from the bourgeois and the nobility in the city, stirred up the workers, and encouraged the underground Bolshevik organization to surface. There were attempts to negotiate with Hryhor’iv but he refused. The situation changed on April 2 when General Franchet d’Esperey, commander in chief of Allied forces in the Near East, told General D’Anselme, commander in chief of Allied forces in South Russia, that

the cabinet of Georges Clemenceau had fallen as a result of displeasure

166

Anarchism of Nestor Makhno

with his Ukrainian policy. (Actually Clemenceau’s cabinet fell only on January 20, 1920.) D’Anselme issued an order to evacuate Odessa, which was published by the local newspapers with the explanation that “the Allies . . . found themselves unable to supply provisions for Odessa in the near future. Therefore, with the intent of lessening the number of consumers [it had been] decided to begin a partial evacuation of Odessa.” It was, however, Hryhor’iv’s advance, which began on

April 2, and fear that their troops would’ not take orders, that compelled the French to evacuate. As early as April 3, some Greek troops, several thousand Volunteer Army men, and thirty thousand Russian civilians departed overland toward Akerman, Romania.** On April 5, the last French ship left the port of Odessa. After a victorious entry into Odessa Hryhor’iv declared on April 7: After incredible exertions, sacrifices, and tactical maneuvers, the French, Greeks, Romanians, Turks, Volunteers, and our other enemies have been cut to pieces at

Odessa. They have fled in a terrible panic, leaving colossal trophies that have not yet been counted. The flight of the adversary was so swift and panicky that even d’Anselme begged for at least three hours for the withdrawal, but this was refused

him, and departing, he forgot his trunk.25

His first general command was to keep order and peace and to prevent disturbances. He prohibited bearing arms, sale of alcohol, and the purchase, sale, or hoarding of war material. He also proscribed search, arrest, and requisition of property without warrant. He appealed to the officers of the Volunteer Army to leave their units and join the toiling people. Such orders made Hryhor’iv appear to be a revolutionary acting against the reaction of the landlords and the foreign intervention, yet the only political element in his order was a prohibition against opposing Bolshevik authorities.”° After the victory over the Allied and Denikin forces Hryhor’iv accomplished his main goal and became the otaman of the partisans of Kherson and Tavriia provinces. The Bolsheviks, however, reversed their “old” slogan “without annexations and reparations” and decided to carry the proletarian revolution into the heart of Europe. On April 9, 1919, a representative of the Council of People’s Commissars of Ukraine sent a message to Antonov: Before and

the victors of Odessa new perspectives are opening: the rebelling workers

peasants

of Bessarabia,

Bukovina,

and Galicia are calling to us for assistance.

The hands of the Red Army of the Hungarian Socialist Soviet Republic stretch out to them through the Carpathians. The workers and peasants of Ukraine are convinced that their revolutionary advance guard—the Ukrainian Red Army—will carry out its slogan: ‘Forward, forward, always forward.”27

Nykyfor Hryhor’tv

167

As Hryhor’iv was consolidating his victory in South Ukraine, two new problems were developing for Soviet Russia; hostilities with Romania, and provision for assistance to the Hungarian Soviet Republic. After the outbreak of the Revolution Bessarabia had declared itself the Autonomous Republic of Moldavia but remained within the Russian state. In November 1918, supported by the Entente, Bessarabia renounced its autonomy and joined Romania. As the Red Army invaded Ukraine, the Soviet Russian government began organizing a rebellion in Romania and prepared a plan for its invasion. This action was designed not only to recapture Bessarabia, but “‘as a means to untangle the European revolutionary forces, a means to break into Europe.”*8 The invasion was intensified by the Hungarian revolution. As the democratic government of the new Hungary, headed by Michael Karolyi, failed to win the sympathy of the Entente and had to accept the latter’s demands for territorial concessions, including Transylvania, to its neighbors, it decided to form a coalition government with the Communists. Consequently, on March 21, the new government proclaimed Hungary a Republic of Workers,’ Peasants,’ and Soldiers’ Soviets under Bela Kun. The new government opposed the Entente’s further demands and war against Romania became inevitable, but it realized that its future existence depended upon direct contact with Soviet Russia. The Directory’s envoy in Budapest, Mykola Halahan, felt that he could use the Hungarian situation to end the Russo-Ukrainian war. He advised Bela Kun to convince the Soviet Russian government that its assistance could not reach Hungary in time unless a peace agreement with Ukraine was concluded. Welcoming the proposition, Bela Kun on March 31 invited Vynnychenko, the former president of the Directory, to Budapest. The Hungarian government . expressed a desire to mediate between the left Ukrainian Socialist factions and the Soviet Russian government concerning the establishment in Ukraine of a real Ukrainian national Soviet government. This government would set aside the Directory and the Galician State Secretariat, to bring under its aegis all Ukrainian Socialist groups and above all the Galician Army. Thus Hungary, Galicia, Ukraine, and Russia would become a united Soviet front.

Vynnychenko, however, laid down a number of conditions: Recognition of an independent and sovereign Ukrainian Soviet Republic; Ukrainian national Soviet government; a defensive-offensive military alliance of the Soviet republics; a close economic alliance; and advance into Galicia.29

Although these conditions were relayed by the Hungarian government to Moscow, and Bela Kun was “deeply convinced” that success

168 was

Anarchism of Nestor Makhno assured, the negotiations

interested

in its own

came

expansion

Soviet, republics. However,

to naught, for Soviet

Russia was

rather than in independent,

albeit

Soviet Russia welcomed the emergence of a

Soviet Hungarian government as a sign of an imminent world proletarian revolution

that should be used for its own ends. Meantime, at the

Entente’s instigation, Romanian troops were enlarging their occupation of Transylvania, threatening Bela Kun’s regime. The Hungarian government asked Russia to make a diverting attack on Romania: “If you can make even a little conquest, a little demonstration on the Romanian front, if you can cross the Dniester for even three days, and then return, the panic would be tremendous.”*° Soviet Russian strategy in Ukraine was definitely shaped by the desire to establish contact with Soviet Hungary and give military aid but on their own terms. On March 26, I. I. Vacietis, the commander in chief of Bolshevik forces, wired Antonov-Ovseenko to limit his activities on the Romanian front, to

destroy the Ukrainian forces, and move toward East Galicia and Bukovina to establish

a ‘“‘direct, intimate contact with the Soviet armies of

Hungary.’ Antonoy-Ovseenko had already been working on a plan to aid Soviet Hungary through Bessarabia and Moldavia, but at that time his attention was focused on the campaign against the Directory and Hryhor’iv’s race toward Odessa. In connection with this situation Antonov-Ovseenko wrote to Rakovskii: Presently campaigns are being conducted in Kyiv and Odessa on whose results will depend the future fate of Soviet power not only in Right Bank Ukraine and the entire western front, but also on the front of social revolution in Hungary [and] Germany.32

The main force the Bolshevik leaders planned to use against Romania was Hryhor’iv’s partisan army of 15,000, and Antonov-Ovseenko tried to persuade Hryhor’iv to prepare for the invasion. On April 23 he described bright prospects for the coming campaign: Look, all Europe is in ferment. Uprisings of workers in Austria. Soviet governments in Hungary, Bulgaria, Turkey are ready to throw themselves against Romania. The

Bessarabian peasants are waiting for us to arise as one. will advance along the road of Suvorov.33

. . . Look at the map. You

Subsequently he renewed the persuasion with a veiled threat: We know which way you are pushed. But I reply to your accusers that Hryhor’iv cannot break with the affairs of toilers; and Hryhor’iv is too wise; he knows the powers of the Soviet government. It sweeps away all who betray it.34

Nyky for Hryhoriv Antonov-Ovseenko with the Communist

169 was well aware of the partisans’ dissatisfaction regime. At the end of March Antonov-Ovseenko,

Hryhor’iv, and the Communist Shums’kyi visited a large village, Verbliuzhka, Hryhor’iv’s capital, where each of them delivered a speech. Antonov-Ovseenko’s and Hryhor’iv’s speeches dealing with their victories were applauded; however, when Shums’kyi, talking about the land policy of the Soviet Russian government, uttered the word, “‘commune”’ the entire crowd roared wildly. “If Hryhor’iv had not protected Shums’kyi. . . .” Antonov left the statement unfinished. The population was provoked by activities of the Russian foodstuff requisitioning units that invaded the Ukrainian villages and which Lenin admits to sending for the “pumping out” of Ukrainian bread. The Bolshevik Ukrainian policy was also shocking to Hryhor’iv, and in a telegram to Rakovskii he threatened: “If in my footsteps there will grow as shabby a government as I see now, I, Otaman Hryhor’iv, will not fight. Take the boys and send them to school, and give the people a reasonable government that they would respect.’8° Because of the strong resistance of the Ukrainian population and the extreme indignation of Hryhor’iv’s troops Antonov-Ovseenko advised the government: “You must recall the Muscovite food requisitions units. First organize a local authority and only then, with its assistance, pump out the foodstuffs.””3” In the meantime the situation in Soviet Hungary worsened. On May 1, the Bolsheviks dispatched an ultimatum to Romania demanding withdrawal

from Bessarabia, and on May 3, a second, demanding with-

drawal from Bukovina. On May 6 a Provisional Workers’ and Peasants’ Government of Bessarabia formed in Odessa and issued a manifesto proclaiming the establishment of a Bessarabian Soviet Republic as a part of the RSFSR.8 On May 7 a representative of the Hungarian government appeared in Kyiv to inform the Bolsheviks that only the Red Army could save Soviet Hungary. Antonov-Ovseenko at once ordered his new commander on the Odessa front to send troops, including Hryhor’iv, against Romania. Hryhor’iv feigned loyalty to the Bolsheviks as long as possible. However, when he received definite orders to advance on Romania, he staged an open revolt that became generally known only on May 9, when he issued a “Universal”’ (manifesto) to the Ukrainian people, skillfully appealing to their grievances and exhorting them to advance on Kyiv and Kharkiv: The political speculators have cheated you and exploited your confidence by a clever move; instead of land and liberty they violently impose upon you the com-

170 mune,

Anarchism of Nestor Makhno the Cheka

and

Moscow

Commissars.

. .

. You

work

day and night; you

have a torch for l'ght; you go about in bark shoes and sack cloth trousers. Instead of tea you drink hot water without sugar, but those who promise you a bright future exploit you, fight with you, take away your grain at gunpoint, requisition your cattle, and impudently tell you that this is for the good of the people.39

He called for the organization of councils on all levels, from village to province. Each council should consist of representatives of each party and nonparty that supported the Soviet platform. It should include all nationalities in proportion to their number. Hryhor’iv believed it would be a real democratic people’s authority: “Long live freedom of speech, press, assembly, unions, strikes, labor, and professions,

security of person, thought, residence, conviction, and religion.’”*° The manifesto was written in Ukrainian and Russian and widely distributed in the area under Hryhor’iv’s control. It was also sent by wire to other areas. Both the manifesto and the plan for the uprising were developed by Hryhor’iv in conjunction with his chief of staff, [Urii Tiutiunyk. Tiutiunyk had proposed to free the territory between the Boh and Dnieper, then join the Ukrainian Army, simultaneously sending a number of small partisan units and separate organizers to the Left Bank to terrorize the Bolsheviks. Hryhor’iv, however, pursued his own plan to advance toward Kharkiv and free the Left Bank. He wished to be the leader of an independent force between the Ukrainian and Volunteer armies, hoping that all would fight the same enemy, the Bolsheviks. At that time his force consisted of close to twenty thousand men, forty guns, ten armored train platforms with mounted guns, and large amounts of small arms and ammunition.*! Hryhor’iv divided his force into three groups: he himself led the main force toward KaterynoslavKharkiv, Tiutiunyk moved toward Kyiv, and Pavlov was fighting toward Cherkasy. The Bolsheviks mobilized all available forces, including those from the Romanian, Ukrainian, and Crimean fronts. They were organized in three groups under the command of Voroshilov, their aim being to encircle Hryhor’iv’s troops. They also carried on an extensive propaganda campaign against Hryhor’iv among their troops and the population. During the initial phase Hryhor’iv was fighting the Bolsheviks along railroad lines and in urban centers. By dint of hard fighting and successful propaganda the uprising spread through three provinces. Hryhor’iv’s initial success stirred great concern in Moscow, which increased when the Directory’s troops began to pin down the Bolsheviks by attacking from the north and south near Kyiv.” Moscow panicked when in mid-May the anti-Bolshevik Russian

Nykyfor Hryhor’iv

Hog!

army of General Nikolai N. [Udenich advanced across the Estonian border toward Petrograd. On May 19 Lenin sent an urgent telegram to the southern front: “The attack on Petrograd increases tenfold the danger and the supreme necessity of suppressing the [Hryhor’iv] revolt immediately at all costs.’”? On May 26 Lenin again stressed in his telegram to Rakovskii the necessity of fighting Hryhor’iv: Do not miss any opportunity for victory over Hryhor’iv. Do not permit a single soldier who is fighting against Hryhor’iv to leave. Issue and implement an order for the complete disarming of the population. Shoot mercilessly on the spot for every concealed rifle. The whole issue at the moment is a speedy victory in the Donets Basin, the collection of all rifles from the villages, the creation of a firm army. Concentrate all your strength on this effort, mobilize every single worker.43

Although Hryhor’iv successfully fought the Bolshevik forces, he could not match their growing power for a longer period and at the end of May his main forces were defeated. Some partisan groups left Hryhor’iv, including Tiutiunyk, who moved westward with a group of 3,500 men to join the Ukrainian Army. Hryhor’iv was forced to abandon the railroad lines and move his troops to forests and villages where he mobilized new recruits and continued partisan warfare.** On June 28 Hryhor’iv, in a letter to the Ukrainian government, depicted the damage he had done and admitted defeat: Now our situation is critical; our division is facing five Communist divisions. We completely destroyed three Communist, divisions while two others were only

ripped.

. . . Completely

demolished

[Bolshevik]

transport,

telegraph, and tele-

phone connections in Ukraine . . . disorganized communications, mobilization, and supply to the front. However, we had to leave the railroad lines, lost many troops, guns, almost all our supplies, and now have changed to the partisan warfare.45

In mid-May the Volunteer Army, which was struggling against the Makhno and Bolshevik troops in southeastern Ukraine, began its major advance in the direction of Moscow. The main weight of the offensive was transferred to Ukraine, and under pressure from Denikin, Makhno retreated westward to the area of Hryhor’iv’s operations. There was a certain common ground for cooperation between Hryhor’iv and Makhno because both were hostile to the Bolshevik regime and its dictatorial methods and both drew much of their strength from the population’s hostility to the Bolsheviks. In his letter to the Ukrainian government, Hryhor’iv expressed this attitude: “We broke away from the Communists and we fight them because 90 percent of the people do not want communism and do not recognize the dictatorship of a party or the

TiZ

Anarchism of Nestor Makhno

dictatorship as an individual.” Hryhor’iv and Makhno were in contact for some time and carried on negotiations about joining forces against the Bolsheviks.* Hryhor’iv notified Makhno, it seems, after each of his victories over the Entente’s troops, and hoped that after the uprising started, Makhno would join him. On April 10, 1919, the Katerynoslav Communist party committee reported that Makhno’s men are conducting negotiations with Hryhor’iv about a simultaneous action against the Soviets. Today we caught Makhno’s delegate to Hryhor’iv. We command the taking of urgent measures to liquidate Makhno men, as of now in Makhno area there is no chance for the Communists to work because they are secretly killed.47

On

The Bolsheviks feared the possibility of a Makhno-Hryhor’iv union. May 12, after Hryhor’iv issued his universals, Politburo deputy

Lev B. Kamenev,

who had met

with Makhno

the week before, wired

Makhno: The decisive moment has come—either you stand with the workers and peasants of all Russia, or you open the front to the enemy. There is no place for hesitation. Report to me immediately the location of your troops, and issue an appeal against

Hryhor’iv, [and] send me a copy in Kharkiv. I;would consider an unanswered letter as a declaration Veretel’nyk.48

of war.

I rely on

revolutionary

honor—yours,

Arshinov

and

Although Makhno was against the Bolsheviks, he assumed a neutral position. His response to Kamenev was to issue an order to his troops: Use the most energetic measures to save the front; do not allow the revolution and its external front to be betrayed in any way . . . the quarrel between Hryhor’iv and the Bolsheviks for the sake of power cannot force us to weaken the front where the White guards tried to break through and suppress the people. As long as we do not overcome our common enemy, the White Don; as long as we do not surely and securely feel the freedom we conquered with our hand and rifles, we will remain at the front, fighting for people’s freedom, but not for the government, not for the meanness of political charlatans.49

At the same time, Kamenev reported that Makhno said: I and my front will remain unchangeably true to the revolution of the workers and peasants, but not to institutions of violence like your Commissars and Chekas. . . . Now I do not have accurate information about Hryhor’iv and his movement. I do not know

what he is doing and what his intentions are; therefore, I cannot issue an

appeal against him until I receive more evidence.59

In the light of Hryhor’iv’s uprising and Denikin’s advance, Makhno

Nykyfor Hryhor’tv

LTS

was a source of worry to Moscow. On May 7, two days after Kamenev had met Makhno at Huliai-Pole, Lenin had sent a telegram to Kamenev: “Temporarily, as long as Rostov had not been taken, it is necessary to deal diplomatically with Makhno’s troops; send Antonov there and make Antonov responsible for Makhno’s army.” Subsequently Kamenev wired Lenin: “{I] think that Makhno at present will not decide to support Hryhor’iv; however, the ground is ripe for the breaking.’”?! The Bolsheviks were trying not only to prevent Makhno from following Hryhor’iv, but to use his assistance against him. However, the Bolsheviks were not the only factor. Makhno had much personal antagonism against Hryhor’iv, who was his rival for power and fame. Hryhor’iv was a professional officer of lifelong experience, who manifested great personal bravery and military ability. Also he was his own man, one who intended to command and not to be commanded. If his uprising were successful, he would probably try to extend his domination to Makhno’s territory and try to absorb the Makhno movement. Both leaders operated in, and recruited from, the same general region. Makhno realized this, and he did not wish to be guided by Hryhor’iv. Makhno had his own plan, and his devious mind worked toward the destruction of Hryhor’iv’s power and the absorption of his troops.>* On July 27, 1919, Hryhor’iv was assassinated. According to the most widely known version, related by Arshinov and Makhno himself, although it was undoubtedly composed after the fact to serve Makhno’s ends, a congress of partisans from Katerynoslav, Tavriia, and Kherson provinces was called at Sentove, near Oleksandriia in Kherson province. About twenty thousand partisans and peasants attended. Hyrhor’iv, speaking first, identified the Bolsheviks as the main enemy and stated that it was necessary to seek any ally, even Denikin, against them. Makhno then criticized him, saying that an alliance with “generals” would mean ‘‘counterrevolution,” and thus Hryhor’iv was an “enemy of the people.’”’ He also accused him of conducting a pogram in IElesavethrad in May 1919. Sensing something amiss, Hryhor’iv belatedly

drew his side arm, but Makhno’s

associate, Semen

Karetnyk,

had already begun to shoot at him. Then Makhno cried “Death to the otaman!”’ and killed him. Several members of Hryhor’iv’s staff were also shot. Later, Hryhor’iv’s partisans joined Makhno. The assassination was recorded in the minutes: ‘The perpetrator of pogroms Hryhor’iv was assassinated by responsible Makhnovites: Bat’ko Makhno, Semen Karetnyk, and Oleksander Chubenko. The Makhno movement accepts complete responsibility for this act before history.’ There was, however, a very different version related soon after the

174

Anarchism of Nestor Makhno

event by Makhno himself to Fotii M. Meleshko, who was doing educational work among the partisans. Makhno supported his story with documents. He said he had met Hryhor’iv on July 27 at Lozova, Oleksandriia district, to discuss unification of their forces. Hryhor’iv had a much larger group of supporters present, but was not expecting anything, while Makhno had his plan well thought out. At the outset Makhno and Chubenko accused Hryhor’iv of betraying the Revolution by planning to join Denikin. Makhno said he had caught two of Hryhor’iv’s officers, who confessed they had been sent to Denikin to negotiate. By this move he hoped to undermine the partisans’ confidence in Hyrhor’iv. Hryhor’iv then tried to defend himself by reasoning that all the strength should be concentrated against the main enemy, the Bolsheviks, even if this required an alliance with Denikin.°** When Karetnyk began to shoot him, Hyrhor’iv, showing characteristic strength and bravery, broke through the circle and took refuge behind a tree, where he defended himself until he finally fell dead with eight bullets in him. His

chief

of staff, Kaluzhnyi,

was

also

killed.

Makhno’s

men

then

disarmed Hryhor’iv’s partisans. Makhno explained why he had killed Hryhor’iv and offered them a choice of joining him or returning home.°° Because of his bravery, Hryhor’iv was buried with honors, as a military hero. Subsequently, Makhno wired the news to Lenin.”© Although the Hryhor’iv movement lasted less than one year, it greatly affected the course of the Ukrainian Revolution and the development of the international situation. By abandoning the Directory and joining the Red Army, Hryhor’iv accelerated the Bolshevik advance in Ukraine. Although Hryhor’iv reflected the mood and social aspirations of the Ukrainian peasants in his particular region, he failed to lead the people toward a national goal—to join with the Directory in defending the independence of Ukraine. Hryhor’iv not only defeated the Entente’s intervention in South Ukraine, but he thwarted Bolshevik plans for spreading Communist revolution in Europe. Instead of advancing with the Red Army into Romania and Hungary to rescue the Bela Kun Communist regime, the Bolsheviks had to withdraw their troops from the Denikin front to quell Hryhor’iv. Thus his uprising against the Bolsheviks helped to accelerate Denikin’s advance into Ukraine against the Bolsheviks and subsequently against the Ukrainian Army.

16. The Bolsheviks Break with Makhno

Although the Bolsheviks appreciated Makhno’s struggle against Denikin, they also recognized his movement as an organized force opposing Bolshevik dictatorship in Ukraine. Even before Makhno destroyed Hryhor’iv, the Bolsheviks renewed their anti-Makhno propaganda. Trotsky, in particular, led a violent campaign against the Makhno movement. He published a series of defensive articles in his paper V putz [On the road] in which he charged that all the Makhnovites’ talk of ‘down with the party, down with the Communists, long live the nonparty Soviets!’ was only a cunning device to conceal the anarchists’ ambition to establish a government of the “kulaks.”! At the same time, the supplies of arms and other war material to Makhno were stopped, thus weakening the Makhno forces vis-a-vis the Denikin troops. Trotsky, an advocate of extreme centralized discipline, concluded that Makhno’s army was more of a menace than the Denikin army and declared in June of 1919, according to Emma Goldman, that . it were better to permit the Whites to remain in the Ukraina than to suffer Makhno. The presence of the Whites . . . would influence the Ukrainian peasantry in favor of the Soviet Government, whereas Makhno

and his poustantsi would

never make peace with the Bolsheviki; they would attempt to possess themselves of some territory and to practice their ideas, which would be a constant menace to the

Communist Government.?

In his speech delivered at the Tenth Congress of the Russian Communist Party in March 1921, Lenin, though not referring specifically to Makhno, obviously had him in mind when he said: “This petty 15

176

Anarchism of Nestor Makhno

bourgeois counterrevevolution is, no doubt, more dangerous than Denikin, [Udenich, and Kolchak put together because we have to deal with a country where proletarians constitute a minority.” In view of Bolshevik hostility and the Denikin offensive, the partisans’ Revolutionary Military Council decided to call a fourth congress of peasants, workers, and partisans of Katerynoslav and Tavriia provinces and the adjacent districts in Kherson and Kharkiv provinces. The Council sent telegrams to these places informing them.of the calling of an extraordinary congress on June 15, 1919, at Huliai-Pole.* Trotsky’s response was an order issued on June 4: To all Military Commissars and the Executive Committees of the districts of Oleksandrivs’k,

Mariupil’,

Berdians’k,

Bakhmut,

Pavlohrad,

and

Kherson.

. . . This

Congress is directed squarely against the Soviet government in Ukraine and against the organization of the southern front, which includes Makhno’s Brigade. The result of this congress can be only a new disgraceful revolt in the spirit of Hryhor’iv, and

the opening of the front to the Whites, before whom Makhno’s Brigade incessantly retreats because of the incompetence, criminal designs, and treason of its leaders.

1. This Congress is forbidden and in no case shall it be allowed. 2. All the worker-peasant population shall be warned orally and in writing that participation in the Congress shall be considered an act of state treason against the Soviet Republic and the front. 3. All the delegates to this Congress shall be arrested immediately and brought before

the

Revolutionary

Military

Tribunal

of the

Fourteenth,

formerly

Second,

Army.

4. Those who would spread the call of Makhno and the Executive Committee on Huliai-Pole shall be arrested. 5. The present order shall take effect as soon as it is telegraphed and shall be widely distributed locally, displayed in all public places, and sent to the representatives of district and village authorities, in general to all Soviet authorities, and also to the commanders and commissars of the military units.5

The Fourth Regional Congress, called for June 15, could not take place. Neither Makhno nor his staff received any communication about this order, and found out about it only three days after its publication. On June 9 Makhno sent a telegram from the Haichur station to the Fourteenth Army, to Voroshilov, Trotsky, Lenin, and Kamenev: The whole official press, and also the Communist-Bolshevik party press, has spread rumors about me that are unworthy of a revolutionist. They wish to make me seem a bandit, and accomplice of Hryhor’iv, a conspirator against the Soviet Republic for the purpose of reestablishing capitalism. . . . This hostile attitude of the central authorities toward the partisan movement, which is now becoming aggressive, leads unavoidably to the creation of a special internal front. . . . The most effective means of preventing the central authorities from committing this crime is, in my opinion, evident. I must leave the post I occupy.§

Bolsheviks Break with Makhno

MAG

Subsequently Makhno handed over his command and left the front with a few of his close associates and a cavalry detachment. However, he called upon the partisans to remain at the front to hold off Denikin’s forces. At the same time his regimental comlnanders promised to await the proper moment to return under his command.’ Meanwhile, Trotsky, instead of sending a replacement for Makhno, ordered Voroshilov and Commissar

Valerii Mezhlauk to arrest him, but Makhno

was warned in

advance and escaped. However, on June 15—16, members of Makhno’s staff, Mykhalev-Pavlenko,

olutionary Polunyna,

Military and

Burbyha,

Council,

Dobroliubov,

and several members

including were

Oliinyk,

captured

and

of the Rev-

Korobka,

Kostyn,

executed

the next

day.® As soon as Makhno left the front he and his associates began to organize new partisan detachments in the Bolsheviks’ rear, which subsequently attacked strongholds, troops, police, trains, and food collectors. At about the same time, the Makhno movement was seriously threatened by the major offensive of the Volunteer Army. This was the main enemy that Makhno fought, stubbornly and uncompromisingly, from the end of 1918 to the end of 1919. Its social and antiUkrainian policies greatly antagonized all segments of Ukrainian society. The result of this was an increased resistance to the Volunteer Army and its regime and a substantial strengthening of the Makhno movement.

17. The Volunteer Army and Makhno

During the winter of 1917—18, a Volunteer Army had been formed in the Don Basin by General Mikhail V. Alekseev. the former commander in chief of the Russian Army, with the permission of General Aleksei M. Kaledin, ataman

of the Don Cossacks. To aid the recruiting, Alek-

seev organized secret societies in Russia and Ukraine, helping officers to make their way to the Don. These societies were in close contact with public organizations that aided them financially. Initially the organization grew slowly, but the escape of generals Lavr G. Kornilov, Denikin, Ivan P. Romanovskii, Aleksandr S. Lukomsku, Sergei L. Markov, and others from Bykhov on December 2, 1917, had a felicitous

effect on the movement’s growth.! Komilov intended to proceed to Siberia and organize a strong army, but the representatives of the National Center in Moscow who came to Novocherkassk insisted that Kornilov remain in the Don and work with Alekseev and Kaledin. Kornilov finally consented and on January 7, 1918, the supreme authority of the Russian anti-Bolshevik movement was vested in a triumvirate composed of Alekseev, who assumed authority over political and financial affairs; Kornilov, who was entrusted with the organiza-

tion and command of the army; and Kaledin, who was responsible for organization of the Don Army.” Thus Alekseev’s volunteer organization became a Volunteer Army. Officers, military and naval cadets, students, and high school boys

began to arrive and enlist, but there were very few soldiers among the volunteers. An officer of the German command in Kyiv acknowledged that the Volunteer Army was steadily growing, but that it was ‘“‘All 178

The Volunteer Army

179

officers; there were, however, no soldiers in it.”’?> Hence the Volunteer

Army took on a class rather than a national character, was strongly sympathetic to the old order, and had no appeal to the lower classes of society. As launch

the threat of the Bolsheviks increased, Kornilov decided to an expedition against them in Tsaritsyn; however, the Don

Cossacks, especially those regiments returning from the front, were unwilling to fight; they too were imbued with bolshevism. Moreover, Bolshevik pressure on Novocherkassk compelled Kornilov toward the end of January 1918 to transfer the headquarters of the army to Rostov, but by February 22, Bolshevik advances forced him to retreat

toward the Kuban Basin, where the Cossacks were less affected by Bolshevik propaganda than were those of the Don.* Kornilov also hoped to get in touch with the British at Baku. In the meantime, Ataman Kaledin, having failed to gain support from his Cossacks in defending the Don against the Bolshevik invasion, committed suicide on February 24, 1918.° The nucleus of the Volunteer Army retreated into the steppe, surrounded and assailed by Bolsheviks, more numerous and better armed than the Volunteers. In Ekaterinodar, Kornilov had expected to find a large quantity of war materials, reinforcements, and an opportunity

to rest; but

before

he reached

it, it was

surrendered

to the

Bolsheviks, and the government of the Kuban fled into the villages in the foothills of the Caucasus. Kornilov established contact with the forces of the Kuban government and with difficulty persuaded them to agree on unification of both armies.® On April 8, 1918, this army of about seven thousand men attacked the Bolsheviks in Ekaterinodar. Although the army had experienced commanders and military training, it was severely beaten because of the Bolshevik superiority in numbers and artillery. On April 13, in spite of great losses, Kornilov was preparing a second attack when he was mortally wounded. Although the command immediately passed to General Denikin, the death of Kornilov and heavy losses broke the spirit of the troops and the planned attack was given up. Denikin decided, with the Kuban government and the Rada, which gave the Volunteer Army substantial material and moral support and new recruits, to retreat northward together toward the Don. The fighting continued during the movement, and after almost two weeks, on May 4, 1918, Denikin brought the five-thousand-man army to the frontier of the Don and Kuban Basins. Over four hundred of his men were killed and more than fifteen hundred were wounded.’ After receiving information about the uprisings in the Don, Denikin

180

Anarchism of Nestor Makhno

decided to assist the Don Cossacks, hoping to gain new recruits and arms, and also to enhance his own political standing in the Don. The Kuban

government

and the Rada, however,

decided

to return to the

Kuban to fight the enemy at home. The Volunteer Army, despite the high quality of its leaders, its military training, and the courage of its men, failed to free the Kuban Basin from the Bolsheviks, just as it had failed before to defend the Don Basin. The population of those regions had not yet decided which side it would support. As General I. A. Poliakov observed: ‘‘according to a rough estimate about six thousand officers were idle in Novocherkassk.”” Similarly, General Kornilov complained about the attitude of young men in Rostov: “how many young men loaf in crowds at Sadova. If only a fifth of them would enlist in the army, the Bolsheviks would cease to exist.’® On the other hand, the anti-Bolshevik forces had not accepted the new order that was brought to life by the Revolution. After the death of Kornilov, the leaders of the movement

strove to reestablish the old

order. According to General Shkuro: Kornilov’s program was clear and understandable; with the gradual success of the Volunteer Army, its program became more and more unclear and blurred. The idea of democracy was not carried out decisively: in anything. Even we, the senior commanders, now could not answer the question of what exactly is the program of the Volunteer Army at least in its basic features.9

The

founder

of the Volunteer Army, General Alekseev, in a letter

to Vasilii Shulgin on June 5, 1918, wrote: Concerning our slogan—Constituent Assembly—it is necessary to keep in mind that we brought it up only because of necessity. It will not be mentioned at all in our first proclamation, now being prepared. Our sympathies ought to be clear to you, but to reveal them here openly would be a mistake because the population would give it a hostile reception. We disassociate ourselves from the former slogan. To declare a new one we need appropriate conditions, especially territory under our control. This will come about as soon as we switch over to our active program.10

After Ataman Kaledin’s suicide, the Cossacks began to act on the appeals he had made and stand up against the Bolsheviks,!! but lack of good organization kept them from concerted action, and soon they went back to their settlements. The Bolsheviks gradually extended their regime to almost all the main centers of the Don, but the wholesale

requisitions and plundering by the Red troops created a great deal of hostility. According to a former Bolshevik official: In the towns were dozens of different Red detachments. Most of them were disinte-

The Volunteer Army

181

grating and addicted to banditism. They demanded much for their maintenance and refused under various pretexts to go to the front. Looting, theft, assaults,

robberies increased.12

These activities brought about widespread uprisings against the Bolsheviks at the end of March 1918. The Cossacks received support from the troops of Colonel Drozdovskii, who came from the Romanian front, and unsuccessfully attacked the Bolsheviks in Rostov on April 21--22, 1918. On April 25 he advanced to Novocherkassk and, with the

Cossacks, drove the enemy from the capital of the Don. Meanwhile, German troops were advancing to the Don from Ukraine, driving the Bolsheviks from Taganrog on May 1, and from Rostov on May 8. On May 11, after General Anatolii M. Nazarov, the successor of Ataman Kaledin, and six other officers were arrested and executed by the Bolsheviks, the Assembly of Don Cossacks elected General Peter N. Krasnov Ataman of the Don. Krasnov entered into negotiations with the Germans and succeeded in obtaining arms and ammunition for the newly formed Don Army.!? He then proposed that Denikin join him to fight the Bolsheviks at the Tsaritsyn (Volgograd) front: Tsaritsyn would give General Denikin a good, strictly Russian base, gun and munitions factories, and a great amount of different military supplies, not to mention

money. [Thus] the Volunteer Army would cease to depend upon the Cossacks.!4

Denikin, however, replied that under no circumstances would he go to Tsaritsyn, arguing that the Kuban Cossacks would not follow him and without

them the Volunteer Army would be too weak. The real reason,

however, was Denikin’s desire to acquire a large quantity of supplies, especially military ones, in the Don and to enlist the Cossacks in the Volunteer Army because he did not wish to be accompanied by a separate, though associated, army. Moreover, at the end of May 1918, Hetman Skoropads’kyi was negotiating with the Kuban delegation in Kyiv concerning a union of Kuban with Ukraine and the liberation of the Kuban from the Bolsheviks. Plans were made to transport 15,000 Ukrainian troops across the Sea of Azov, in order to prevent Denikin from obtaining control of the Kuban. Denikin wished to forestall this expedition

to the Kuban.

Thus, the roads of Denikin

and Krasnov

parted; the Cossacks advanced northward, driving the Bolsheviks from the Don during May, while Denikin was preparing for the second march southward toward the Kuban. By the end of May, the Volunteer Army consisted of five infantry and eight cavalry regiments and five batteries, in all nine thousand men and twenty-one guns. Soon the Army had been strengthened by

182

Anarchism of Nestor Makhno

Colonel Drozdovskii’s unit consisting of about twenty-five thousand well-armed and equipped men, including artillery, armored cars, and even airplanes.!® On June 10, the army began to advance south along the railroad lines, its ranks being gradually swelled en route by antiBolshevik Cossack partisans and by defecting Red soldiers, especially those who had been conscripted from the local Cossacks. By the middle of July the army consisted of about thirty thousand men. With this strength Denikin attacked an eighty-thousand-man Bolshevik force with one hundred guns and large reserve supplies, which was, however, poorly organized, led, and disciplined. Denikin captured substantial quantities of stores, locomotives, and rolling stock, and gained control

of several vital railroad junctions, undermining Bolshevik military initiative. Although he had lost 25 to 30 percent of his men, Denikin attacked large Bolshevik forces in Ekaterinodar and on August 16, after three days, captured the city.’ Denikin’s immediate aims after capturing Ekaterinodar were to drive the Bolshevik

forces out of the Kuban

and North Caucasus, to

strengthen the Volunteer Army, and to establish relations with the Allies. By capturing Ekaterinodar and Novorossisk, Denikin consolidated his control over the west Kuban. In the fall serious fighting developed around Armavir and Stavropol between Denikin’s forces of more than thirty-five thousand men, and the hundred-and-fifty-thousandman North Caucasian Red Army over control of the rest of Kuban and North Caucasus. Although the Volunteer Army and the Kuban Cossacks were weaker, they successfuly resisted the Red Army’s offensives. Concurrently, a bitter disagreement developed among the Bolshevik leaders concerning the strategy to defeat Denikin that substantially weakened the Bolshevik effort. Moreover, the Bolsheviks’ military situation was unfavorable, as they had lost the main towns, the more fertile crop lands, and many supplies to Denikin and by the beginning of 1919, they finally were routed. Denikin captured more than fifty thousand prisoners and large military stores.'8 On January 24, Sergei Ordzhonokidze, the commissar on the Caucasus front, cabled Lenin: The Eleventh Army has ceased to exist. It has finally gone to pieces. The enemy occupies cities and stanitsas almost without resistance. . . . There are no shells or bullets. . . . We are all perishing in the unequal struggle, but we will not dis-

grace our honor by fleeing.!9

Denikin secured his rear by defeating the North Caucasian Red Army and proceeded north in pursuit of the Bolshevik forces. In spite of a lack of cooperation between

the Volunteer,

Kuban,

and Don armies,

The Volunteer Army

183

they succeeded in driving the Bolsheviks from the Don and Kuban basins and the North Caucasus. While the fighting was still gojng on, General Alekseev, the supreme leader of the Volunteer Army, died on October 8, 1918. After his death the command of the army passed to General Denikin while nonmilitary affairs were referred to a “Special Council”? (Osoboe Sovieshchanie) attached to the commander in chief in Ekaterinodar. Toward the end of the year, with the Bolsheviks in the northern Don threatening Novocherkassk, and under pressure from the British military representatives, the Don government concluded an agreement with Denikin that guaranteed the Don’s autonomous status while Krasnov “‘reluctantly and halfheartedly” recognized Denikin as commander in chief of the “Armed Forces of South Russia,” including the Don Army, in operational matters.°

In the meantime the strength of the Volunteer Army substantially increased following a forced mobilization in the occupied region outside the Kuban, and the use of the Red prisoners. Moreover, in Novem-

ber of 1918, about five thousand Terek Cossacks, who opposed the Bolsheviks, joined Denikin. Subsequently Denikin reorganized all his forces into three armies: the Volunteer Corps, under General Vladimir Z. Mai-Maevskii, including the original Volunteer Army, which then lost its ‘‘volunteer”’ character; the Caucasian Volunteer Army, including the Kuban

and Terek Cossacks,

under General Wrangel; and the Don

Cossack Army, under General Krasnov.”! Next to the liberation of the Kuban and North Caucasus, the most crucial need of Denikin was Allied aid. Prior to February 1919, the main source of war supplies was that captured from the Bolsheviks. The Allies’ assistance materialized only when Denikin established contact with them by capturing Novorossisk on August 26," Bulgaria capitulated in September, and Romania reentered the war on the Allied side in November. At first the British government was reluctant to support the Russian anti-Bolshevik movement

because, as Winston S. Churchill

stated: The Armistice and the collapse of Germany had altered all Russian values and relations. The Allies had only entered Russia with reluctance and as an operation of war. . . . Therefore every argument which had led to intervention had dis-

appeared.23

Lloyd George later echoed this point, noting that with the end of war, “every practical reason for continuing our costly military efforts in Russia disappeared.”* However, the British government sent a military commission to

184

Anarchism of Nestor Makhno

Novorossisk and upon its recommendation the War Cabinet decided on November 11, 1918,

“‘to give General

Denikin at Novorossisk all pos-

sible help in the way of military material.”®° By February of 1919, the aid promised had begun to arrive in substantial quantities. According to General Wrangel: ‘Boats laden with war materials and drugs, things of which the Army was in great need, had arrived at Novorossisk. [Also] they promised us tanks and aeroplanes.” Between February and the winter of 1919, Britain supplied Denikin with 558 guns, 250,000 rifles, 12 tanks, 1,685,522 shells, 160 million rounds of ammunition, 250,000

uniforms, and a substantial amount of medical supplies, plus about 100 airplanes.”6 This aid was accompanied by a team of military advisors and technical experts whose duties were to receive and distribute British munitions to the Russian troops, and to teach them how to operate the tanks, airplanes, and other weapons. There was also a British medical staff that served many Russian officials attached to the mission at Taganrog. The amount of British military aid to Denikin could be judged from Denikin’s confession to a British war correspondent on December 23, 1919: “To announce to the world that British help will cease on a certain date is almost tantamount to telling the common enemy the exact extent of our resources.”””” As a result of the defeat of the Reds in the Kuban and North Caucasus,

Denikin

became

overconfident.

Prior

to his advance

into

Ukraine, he called a war council to outline his campaign. Instead of throwing the main force released from the North Caucasian war against Tsaritsyn, the Bolshevik stronghold on the Lower Volga, to join Admiral Aleksandr V. Kolchak and advance toward Moscow, Denikin de-

cided to concentrate most of the troops in the Left Bank, mainly in the Donets Basin. The troops in the Crimea were to strike toward Kyiv, while the rest of the forces were assigned to the Tsaritsyn front. Wrangel, however, objected to this plan and proposed: The

available

troops

should

not be moved

towards

the Donets

coalfield area, but

into the Manych lake district, there to undertake a joint operation with Admiral Kolchak’s Army, which was coming up from the Volga . . . but it was of no avail. General Denikin stuck to his point of view.28

Undoubtedly Denikin’s principal objective was not only Moscow, but occupation of Ukraine. The united advance of the Ukrainian Galician and the Directory’s armies from the west toward Kyiv worried Denikin, as he wished to prevent the Directory from reestablishing authority in the entire Ukrainian territory. A Soviet author admits:

The Volunteer Army

185

Denikin’s July plan foresaw the achievement of an ultimate goal: the seizure of Moscow [by units] converging on the city from several directions, none of them being definitely emphasized. A second,feature of this plan, however, was the avid desire to occupy as much territory as possible, as . . . virtually no operation had been conducted in either of the mentioned directions for two months because the most attention had been given to the occupation of Ukraine. . . . when the Denikin movement had at its disposal its only chance of furthering its success along the Kharkiv-Moscow path, the most critical direction for the RSFSR. While at the

time

[July 1919]

such

a bold decision,

conditions had appeared more favorable for Denikin to make to say the least, the situation

predisposed toward him, and after September senseless adventure.29

in September

a ‘march

was not at all

on Moscow”

became

a

At the beginning of May 1919, the reorganized and strengthened army of 64,000 men occupied an area northwest of Rostov that gave Denikin control of the Sea of Azov, the estuary of the Don, and the hubs of important railways.°° In mid-May Denikin began a major offensive against the Bolsheviks. As his forces advanced in Ukraine, the Directory’s forces were fighting the Bolsheviks in the west and the partisans were destroying the Bolsheviks’ rear and demoralizing them, thus helping Denikin. To the partisans the main enemy was the Bolsheviks, because Denikin’s attitude toward Ukraine was either unknown or

clouded by his planting of public notices and rumors that there was an agreement between him and the Directory.?! Under these pressures the Bolsheviks were unable to organize an effective defense. The seriousness of the situation is admitted by the Soviet source: The conditions at the Denikin front coincided with a radical deterioration of our front against Petliura. There our army is in a still worse situation, the partisan

movement reigns to the utmost extent, the composition of commanders [and] political commissars are lacking. Moreover, the ultimate effect of the wave of “kulak” uprisings directed [against us] was to support Petliura and Denikin. Thus

a most critical and complicated situation is arising for us.32

Also Denikin Bolsheviks:

admits

the situation

in Ukraine

was

against the

A conflict between the Soviet government and Makhno was growing. . . . Ukraine was swarming with partisan detachments . . . not recognizing any authority, fighting in the rear, spreading propaganda, even occupying Kyiv a few times. Moscow’s Izvestiia ascertained on the entire frontline area many “counterrevolutionary uprisings” in which not only kulaks and Black Hunreds counterrevolutionaries, but also some of the cheated groups, the middle and poor peasants, participated in armed actions. The reasons for this phenomenon the official organ saw in the misbehavior

of the Soviet

troops,

in heavy

recruitments,

requisitions, and in

“the stupid wilfulness of pompadours intoxicated with power.’’33

186

Anarchism of Nestor Makhno

The resistance of the Bolsheviks was decisively broken and they retreated in panic toward Russia, terrorizing the population on their way. Their main concern was the evacuation of Ukraine with as many men and as much rolling stock as possible. Denikin advanced rather rapidly along four axes, all of which ultimately would lead to Moscow: toward Tsaritsyn, hoping to unite with Kolchak; toward Kharkiv, to occupy the Left Bank; toward Crimea, Odessa, and Kryvyi Rih, to occupy the Right Bank; and toward Voronezh. His strategy was to control large areas by holding the main railroad junctions. As Denikin advanced, gradually extending the area of his occupation, he recovered a great amount of loot from the retreating Bolshevik troops. Wrangel meanwhile became increasingly critical of Denikin’s plan and after capturing Tsaritsyn on June 30, “proposed that we should entrench ourselves on the Tsaritsyn-Katerynoslav front for the time being, so that the Volga and Dnieper would be covering our flanks.’’ On the next day, however, Denikin issued an order to advance toward Mos-

cow, according to which Wrangel was to move on Moscow via Saratov and Nizhnii-Novogorod; Sidorin’s Don Cossacks via Voronezh-Riazan; and the Volunteer Army, under General Mai-Maevskii, via the shortest

route to Moscow, from Kharkiv-Kursk-Orel-Tula. Apparently Denikin planned for himself what he had accused Wrangel of on reading his report: “I see! you want to be the first man to set foot in Moscow!” Wrangel condemned Denikin’s order as a ‘‘death-sentence for the armies of South Russia.” He pointed out: All the principles of strategy were ignored; there was no choice of a principal direction, no concentration of the bulk of the troops in this direction, and no maneuvering. It merely prescribed a different route to Moscow for each of the armies.36

Gradually the differences of opinion between Wrangel and Denikin had a demoralizing effect on the troops, as it became known in the spring and summer that Wrangel insisted on an advance to the east to unite with Kolchak; that he sharply criticized the extension of the front in the west

toward

Kyiv, and that he had forewarned

of the dangers of

forcing the march to Moscow.®’ As the Denikin forces occupied more Ukrainian territory, he introduced measures to suppress national and social currents and to deny all accomplishments of the Revolution. On the eve of the occupation of Kyiv, Denikin issued a declaration to the people of “Little Russia”’: Regiments are approaching old Kyiv, “‘mother of Russian cities,’ > in an unabated stream, to recover for the Russian people their lost unity, the unity without which

The Volunteer Army

187

the great Russian people, powerless and divided, losing its young generations in civil war, would be unable to uphold its independence; the unity, without which a complete and proper economic life is unthinkable. . . . Long before 1914, the Germans, wishing to weaken the Rugsian state before declaring war, strove to destroy the unity of the Russian race which was carved in a difficult struggle. With this aim, they'supported and encouraged in South Russia a movement aiming at the separation from Russia of its nine southern provinces in the name of a ‘‘Ukrainian State.”’. . . Former German supporters, Petliura and his companion-in-arms, are set on the division of Russia, they are continuing now to advance their evil effort to establish an independent “Ukrainian State’ and struggle against the rebirth of a United Russia.38

In the same vein at a dinner given by Katerynoslav authorities in his honor, when the representatives of Ukrainian organizations spoke about the right of Ukraine to independence: ‘“Denikin rose from his seat, angrily struck the table and brusquely declared: ‘Your bet on an independent Ukraine is lost. Long Live One and Undivided Russia! Hoorah!’” According to General Shkuro, Denikin also referred to Petliura: ‘““Your bet on Petliura is lost. . . . Petliura will be hanged as a traitor, if he falls into the hands of the Volunteer Army.’’? The regime carried on an anti-Ukrainian campaign, which it called a struggle against Bolshevism,

closing cooperatives,

libraries,

bookstores,

newpapers,

Prosvita

associations, and other cultural institutions. Ukrainian signs were replaced by Russian; the elected city authorities and the Zemstvos personnel were replaced largely by Russians. Even the name Ukraine was prohibited and replaced by the pejorative Little Russia. Ukrainian teachers, workers in cultural and cooperative institutions, and others were often executed, as for example, in the summer of 1919, when De-

nikin men killed eighteen Ukrainian cultural workers at IElysavethrad, Kherson province, including T. Bilenko, the chairman of the Union of

Cooperatives and a member of the Labor Congress.” The

commander

of the Volunteer

Army,

General

Mai-Maevskii,

issued a decree that bound Ukrainian schools to return to teaching in Russian. No funds from the treasury were to be appropriated for the ‘Little Russian” schools. Moreover, the city authorities and the zemstvos were forbidden to open schools that would teach in Ukrainian and Ukrainian studies were abolished. General Shilling, governor-general of Tavriia province, issued an order demanding that all soldiers and officers of the Ukrainian Army return to the ranks of the Volunteer Army not later than October 26; otherwise they would be treated “‘as traitors to their own state.”’ This order, however, did not apply to the higher ranking officers who, no matter when they returned to the Russian troops, would be hanged as traitors to Russia.*!

188

Anarchism of Nestor Makhno

According to a Ukrainian officer of the Galician Army who visited General Slashchov in his headquarters, the general handed him an official leaflet, issued by the staff of General Shilling and directed to the command of the Ukrainian Army as an “order’’: In view

of the victories

of the

Russian

arms,

the army

should assemble

in places

indicated by the command of the Denikin army in order to surrender all weapons and property to the units of the Denikin army! The “soldiers” then should demobilize and wait for a mobilization

order;

the officers would be transferred to the

Denikin army on the basis of the mobilization, except officers of the general staff, against whom an investigation would be conducted by the court for rehabilitation. In case of not obeying this order, the army would be considered rebels and would be punished according to the paragraph on war conditions.*#2

In a discussion with different Russian officers in headquarters, the same officer got the impression that the generals of the Ukrainian Army would be shot outright.8 A prominent Don Cossack statesman, A. Ageev,

in a letter

that received

wide

dissemination,

wrote

about

Denikin’s policy toward Ukraine in a similar vein: In the struggle against the Bolsheviks, we had an ally which drew itself against a por-

tion of the Soviet troops. And horrors! Instead of [gaining] new

an ally, we opened a

front, which we did not need at all to the delight of the Bolsheviks, but to our

misery. Military units were sent to this front beyond the Dnieper at a time when the Don Cossacks were straining all their forces to the utmost in the struggles against the Red hordes. And when we Cossacks said: “Come to an agreement with Georgia and Ukraine, establish a federation to fight with common forces against a common enemy, the Bolsheviks,’”’ we were again accused of “separatism.” . . .44

Wrangel also denounced Denikin’s policy as “narrow and uncompromising,” pointing out that he persecuted all whose ideas differed from his own and everyone who had any kind of connections with organizations hostile to the Volunteer cause. Hence: He had hunted down not only those who had been in touch with the Bolsheviks in some way or another, perhaps against their will, but also anyone who had been connected with Ukraine, the Georgian Republic, and so on. This insane and cruel policy provoked a reaction, alienated those who had been ready to become our allies, and turned into enemies those who had sought our friendship. . . . [Moreover] the same relationship had been established with the civil population in the recently occupied territories.45

The anti-Ukrainian campaign of the higher echelons was practiced as well by the bureaucracy and troops. There was no difference of opinion among different representatives or supporters of the regime concerning Denikin’s policy in the occupied territory. It was, in reality, a restoration of the old regime. Denikin admitted that:

The Volunteer Army

189

The head of internal affairs, [N. N.] Chebyshev, was appointing governors almost exclusively from people who occupied those positions prior to the revolution, wishing to “use their administrative experience.’’. . . Behind them followed lower agents of the previous regime—some were afraid of the revolution, others embit-

tered and revengeful.46

Although these bureaucrats had experience, cally so alien to the accomplished revolution understand it. Thus they tended to live in the to restore in form and in spirit. According to Special Council, N. I. Astrov, the main feature

they were psychologithat they could not past, which they tried a member of Denikin’s of the Denikin regime

was: Violence,

torture, robberies, drunkenness, odious behavior of the representatives of

the regime on the local level, impunity of known criminals and traitors, poor, inept people, cowards, and debauchers on the local level, people who brought with them to the villages their former vices, incapability, idleness, and self-confidence,

[which] discredited the new regime.47

Pavel Miliukov pointed to the causes of the vices and the behavior of the bureaucracy: The possibility of profit and class interest attracted to the administrative positions either

criminal

elements,

former

policemen,

or

former

landlords.

To

these

and

others the meaning of ‘‘strong”’ authority was entirely pre-reform. [However] in view of the complete impossibility of real control, it manifested itself with a chaos and impunity which was unknown even during the old regime.48

Miliukov felt that instead of putting the state authority between the landlords and the peasants: ‘The circumstances of the White movement, to the contrary, dumped the peasantry into the hands of the landlords and [thus] revived the old hatred of the weak who had become strong, for the socially strong [who were] ruined by the revolution [but had] temporarily regained power.’*? The behavior of the Volunteer troops in the occupied territory was even worse than that of the bureaucracy, if only because they had greater power. ”? A Russian war correspondent observed: Robbery was institutionalized. Nobody paid any attention to it up to the very end. The

soldiers robbed,

the officers robbed,

and many

generals robbed;

owing to a

servile press, they acquired reputations as national leaders and heroes.51

The

population

service, which

suffered

especially

from

the counterintelligence

carried its activities to an unlimited

wild arbitrariness.

According to Denikin himself the counterintelligence service that was established in units and organizations at all political and military levels, created

190

Anarchism of Nestor Makhno

a sort of atmosphere, a painful mania, all over the country, spreading through mutual distrust and suspicion. . . . It is necessary to say that these organs, covering the territory of the South with dense nets, were sometimes hotbeds of provocation

and organized robbery. In these respects the counterintelligence services in

Kyiv, Kharkiv, Odessa, and Rostov on the Don were especially notorious.°2

The behavior of the Volunteer Army in the occupied territory was unequivocally justified by its commander, General Mai-Maevskii, in a conversation with General Wrangel: “You see, in wartime you must leave no stone unturned and neglect no means by which you may achieve your ends. If you insist on the officers and men living like ascetics, they will not fight much longer.’ I was highly indignant. “Well, then, General,

"he said, ‘‘what is the whole

difference between

the Bolsheviks

and our-

selves?”’ He answered his own question without pausing, and he thought his answer irrefutable. “Is not the whole difference simply that the Bolsheviks have not scrupled about their means, and therefore have gained the upper hand?’’53

Although the Kolchak government recommended a more flexible policy in Ukraine and the use of Ukrainian troops in fighting the Bolsheviks, Denikin refused, because this was contrary to his idea of “One and Indivisible Russia.” Denikin’s diplomatic expert, A. A. Neratov, confirmed Denikin’s attitude toward Ukraine: “To recognize Petliura and work together with him would be to recognize the dismemberment of Russia.’”°* The oppressive policy of the Denikin regime in Ukraine convinced the population that it was as bad as the Bolshevik regime, and brought a strong reaction that led able young men, especially after the announcement of the Denikin mobilization, to leave their homes and join Makhno or other partisan groups. Nevertheless, Denikin believed that the Ukrainian peasants and partisans were fighting the Bolsheviks as their class enemy. According to a Soviet author: ‘“Denikin has not considered that the revolt of the peasant elements against the proletarian dictatorship still does not indicate readiness to go with the Whites.’°> In the light of this development, Nestor Makhno decided to take stronger action against both the Bolsheviks and Denikin. In his words: “When the Red Army in south Ukraine began to retreat . . . as if to straighten the front line, but in reality to evacuate Ukraine . . . only then did my staff and I decide to act without losing a single day.’ For a while Makhno fought Denikin’s troops near Oleksandrivs’k, but Denikin’s superior power forced him to retreat toward IElysavethrad, on the Right Bank.®’ There he encountered the Bolshevik Fourteenth Army. Although it was isolated in the region of Odessa-KhersonMykolaiv-Kryvyi Rih, it tried to force its way northward.°® Makhno recalled that he

The Volunteer Army ordered

Kalashnykiv,

191

Budaniv,

Holyk,

and

Dermenzhi,

the partisan

commanders

who remained with the partisans in the Red Army at the anti-Denikin revolutionary front, to seize the front, line staff and its commander, Kochergin; [and to] “arrest all political commissars and unfeliable commanders for disposition by the

deputy commander of the front line, Kalashnykiv.’’59

Moreover, he sent agents among the Red troops, who with the Makhno men carried on a “devilish” propaganda along the theme: “The Bolsheviks sold Ukraine to the generals. Those who want to fight for the blood of their brothers and the country join Makhno.” With such propaganda as this combined with sabotage, they demoralized the Red troops. The slogan: “Troop trains are yours!” was effective. Troop trains, garages, and military magazines were looted; railroad depots were set on fire and blown up. Moreover, there were mutinies in some Bolshevik units. An uprising instigated by Makhno men broke out in one brigade of the Fifty-Eighth Division. Mutineers destroyed the headquarters and arrested the whole staff, including the commander, G. A. Kochergin, his wife, and the commissars. When Division staff called Kochergin’s headquarters the reply was: ‘There is no Kochergin Brigade—it was transferred to the disposition of the commander in chief of the Revolution, comrade

Father Makhno.

Soon we will reach

you.” Although later the wounded Kochergin and some members of his staff escaped, others were shot and the brigade was lost. In addition, a few armored trains joined Makhno. The uprisings spread to other units and Makhno men seized the commander of the Fifty-Eighth Division, Ivan Fedorovich Fed’ko (originally Fedotov), and the commissar, Mikhelovich. Fed’ko was accused of having: “sold all of us to Denikin. . Bat’ko Makhno,

the commander

of all armed forces of southern

Russia, accepts us in his army.” They labeled Fed’ko and the commissar as traitors who should be executed, although later they escaped, but another brigade stationed at Bobrynets’ went over to Makhno. According to an intercepted Bolshevik radio telegram of August 17: “The units of the Third Brigade joined Makhno. Kochergin and the Political Commissar were executed. The entire area north of Mykolaiv is in the hands of partisans and Makhno’s bands.””®” Meanwhile,

Makhno’s

detachments

from the Red Army, including

Red units, began to arrive, carrying with them all the arms and ammunition they could acquire. The Bolshevik command, fearing mutiny among its troops, was unable to oppose them. Also, a number of independent partisan groups joined Makhno.™ At that time Makhno’s troops reached the size of a normal army, estimated at about twenty thousand. At the town of Dobrovelychkivka, Kherson province, where he stayed from the beginning of August to

Loz

Anarchism of Nestor Makhno

September 10, Makhno decided to reorganize the army into three infantry brigades, one cavalry brigade, an artillery detachment, and a machine-gun regiment. An elite squadron of fewer than two hundred of the most highly experienced and dedicated cavalrymen, led by Petro Havriushenko, called Havriusha, was formed as Makhno’s bodyguard. Simultaneously, the army’s staff was reorganized and substantially enlarged, including skilled personnel.™ The army also included an intelligence service.© ; The reorganized army was renamed “‘Revolutionary Partisan Army of Ukraine”’ (Makhnovites). This army was now mobile, either on horseback or “wheels,” light carriages with springs called tachanky that were drawn by two or three horses, with another in reserve behind the cart,

and with the driver and usually two soldiers behind him. A machine gun was installed on the back seat between the two soldiers. This infantry on carts moved at a speed of eighty kilometers a day, and even, if necessary, over one hundred. A black flag was flown on the first carriage with the slogans: “Liberty or Death” and “‘The Land to Peasants, the Factories to the Workers” embroidered in silver on both sides. As Makhno regrouped his army, he had to face not only the Bolshevik Fourteenth Army in retreat from the Crimea and Odessa forcing its way north to Russia, but also a strong Denikin force. Hoping to destroy one of the forces that opposed his occupation of Ukraine, Denikin threw his best regiments under General Slashchov into the battle against Makhno. The Fifth Division operated in the IElysavethrad area; there was a Don Cossack cavalry brigade in the Voznesenske area; to their south was the Fourth Division, while the Fourteenth Infantry Division and the Crimean Cavalry Regiment operated around Odessa. After the retreat from the railroad lines IElysavethrad and Voznesenske, Makhno operated from Novoukrainka in the area of [Elysavethrad and Voznesenske. Other Makhno detachments swarmed throughout the IElysavethrad, Katerynoslav, Mykolaiv, and Uman’ districts. Toward the end of August the Fifth Division and the Don Cossack cavalry brigade were ordered to drive Makhno’s partisan army out of Novoukrainka.

Makhno,

however,

launched

a vigorous

counteroffensive,

taking a number of towns and putting Denikin troops in a critical situation, though his main concern had been to capture ammunition, which his troops badly needed. To forestall Makhno’s offensive, an additional military unit was formed from the Fourth Division, consisting of its escort staff, brigades of the Thirteenth and Thirty-Fourth Infantry Divisions, the First Symferopil’ Officers’ Regiment, and a separate cavalry brigade consisting of the Forty-Second Don, the Labinsk, and the Tamansk regiments. Thus Makhno was confronted with an addi-

The Volunteer Army

TREE:

tional formation consisting of 4,700 cavalry and infantry and fifty guns. According to Makhno, Denikin concentrated a strong force against him, some twelve to fifteen regiments, including the First

Symferopil’ Officers’ Regiment. ’ Although Denikin’s troops made great effort to take the initiative from Makhno, he conducted quick and demoralizing raids against them, especially on their rear. The situation, however, grew worse for Makhno

when on September 10 at Pomichna, Denikin launched a major attack, capturing 400 of Makhno’s men and three guns. Abandoning the railroad line, Makhno blew up two armored decreased and he ran short of ammunition,

trains, and as his forces he retreated toward the

Mykolaivka-Khmilove line to the Myrhorod-Uman’ area, where a new phase of the fighting developed. During this fighting Makhno stubbornly resisted the enemy when he was surrounded at Novoukrainka and later at Uman’. He was retreating, fighting back stubbornly, and counterattacking, often with considerable tactical success. While his main force fought major battles, numerous separate detachments assisted him by attacking the enemy’s rear. Makhno retreated until his whole army was cut off on the south and east by Denikin, and on the west and north by the Ukrainian forces.® Although the immensity of his goal was out of keeping with his military strength, Denikin continued to fight both Makhno and the Ukrainian Army. Following Makhno’s footsteps, General Slashchov felt the time was ripe to surround Makhno in the Uman’ area and liquidate him before he joined “His half-ally, half-enemy Petliura.”’ At Uman’ Makhno made contact with a brigade of Ukrainian Sich Riflemen who were also at war against Denikin. Realizing that an understanding between them was the only sensible solution, Makhno proposed “military neutrality.”” The Ukrainian troops needed to secure their eastern front, and Makhno agreed to help fight Denikin. Subsequently Makhno paid a visit to Ukrainian headquarters in the city and obtained an agreement

with the Ukrainian

command

to take care of his 4,000

wounded and ill partisans in the city hospitals.© Makhno, however, had no intention of keeping his agreement because his retreat was a forced strategy that brought only a temporary solution. Makhno considered that the more Denikin’s troops advanced to the north and northwest, the more vulnerable they became in their rear because of the great extension of the front. Through good intelligence and close contact with the peasants he was well informed about the movement and strength of the Denikin troops and the difficult situation in the region Denikin had occupied. Throughout the summer and early fall of 1919, Denikin enjoyed

194

Anarchism of Nestor Makhno

substantial success, occupying a large part of Ukraine and southern Russia. On June 24 he occupied Kharkiv; six days later, Wrangel was in Tsaritsyn; and on July 31, Poltava fell into Denikin’s hands. A month later Kyiv was liberated from the Bolsheviks by the united Galician and Directory armies but soon abandoned to Denikin. In the south, Denikin occupied Kherson and Mykolaiv on August 18, and Odessa five days later. He was also successfully advancing into Russia, taking Kursk on September 21 and Orel on October 13. The path to Tula, the capital of the province and the center of the armament industry, was open. The Bolsheviks became alarmed. According to Trotsky ‘‘Denikin set himself the goal of penetrating deep into the rear of our army to appear suddenly in Tula and wreck its factories, thus destroying the great arsenal of the Red Army.””° By mid-October Denikin had reached the line of Voronezh-OrelChemihiv-Kyiv-Odessa and was very optimistic: In his opinion everything was going splendidly. The possibility of a sudden change in our luck seemed to him to be out of the question. He thought the taking of Moscow was only a question of time, and that the demoralized and weakened enemy could not make a stand against us.7!

Denikin expected to reach Moscow by winter and overthrow the Bolshevik regime. To his friend N. I. Astrov, he said: “Do not worry, everything will be all right, and I will drink tea in your house in Moscow.” The “Osvag” had already prepared proclamations and posters with portraits of the Volunteer Army’s leaders to post in the streets of liberated Moscow.’* However, in Denikin’s success lay his weakness. The line of his positions showed a considerable bulge with the concomitant danger of an open flank and rear. Wrangel warned: We were building on sand; we had bitten off far more than we could chew. Our front was too long in comparison with the number of our forces; we had no organized bases and strongholds in our rear. . . . I drew his attention to the movements of the brigand Makhno and his rebels, for they were threatening our rear. “Oh, that is not serious! We will finish him off in the twinkling of the eye.” As I listened to him talking, my mind filled with doubt and apprehension.73

Makhno’s main adversary, General Slashchov, confirms Denikin’s disregard of Makhno’s partisans in his rear: The

“Whites,”’ in spite of the advice of the commanders

combating Makhno, looked

on his liquidation as a question of secondary importance and all their attention at first was directed against Petliura. This blindness of the “‘Stavka”’ and the staff of the forces of New Russia was frequently and severely punished./4

The Volunteer Army

195

While caught between the armies of the Directory and of Denikin, Makhno rapidly and in complete secrecy prepared an offensive against Denikin in which he displayed the greatest skill and bravery of his entire military career. He left all the wounded, sick, and unreliable men in the care of the Ukrainian troops, and cut his support to a minimum. This flexible, completely mounted army could attack without preparation by artillery fire. There was no question of failure or retreat; the decision was to attack the Denikin forces, destroy them, and penetrate

behind their lines.”

On the evening of September 25, Makhno’s First Brigade launched an attack against Denikin’s forward troops near the village of Kruten’ke. The enemy soon retreated to take up better positions and to draw Makhno’s unit into a trap. Makhno, however, purposely did not pursue, and misled them into thinking he had moved back westward. Several hours later, after 3 A.M., Makhno made an unexpected frontal attack on the main force near Perehonivka. In the course of the ensuing intense fighting, which continued for several hours, Makhno and his cavalry escort moved in the darkness to outflank the enemy. Just as the outnumbered and exhausted major troops of Makhno began to lose ground, Makhno attacked the enemy’s flank. This maneuver decided the battle. First Makhno destroyed a battalion of the Lithuanian Regiment,

and a battery

of the Fourth

Artillery Division,’©

and then he

attacked the First Symferopil’ Officers’ Regiment, forcing it into an orderly defensive retreat that ended in a rout. The men retreated in panic, abandoning their arms in an attempt to reach the river Syniukha, some

fifteen kilometers

distant. Makhno,

however,

sent his troops at

full speed in pursuit, while he moved with his cavalry escort to overtake them on the other side of the river. Makhno’s main force caught the enemy near the river and decimated it. Most of those who managed to cross the river were taken prisoner or killed by Makhno. Only a small number escaped. Although Makhno exaggerated when he spoke of “‘complete annihilation,” the regiment did suffer heavy losses; according to Denikin’s sources, 637 men were killed or wounded, including 270 officers. After

its defeat at the Syniukha the regiment ceased its operations against Makhno. While Makhno was fighting Denikin southeast of Uman’, General Skliarov attacked Uman’ from the southwest, forcing the Ukrainian troops to retreat.’7 Makhno’s sick and wounded, who were unable to retreat with the Ukrainian troops or to hide, were killed when the enemy entered the city. Although Denikin used a large force against Makhno, he failed to

196

Anarchism of Nestor Makhno

destroy him in the Novoukrainka and Uman’ operations because he divided his attention between Makhno and the Ukrainian Army. Moreover, there was

no coordination

of Denikin’s various units, and com-

munication with the armed forces command of New Russia in Odessa was poor. Makhno, energetic and well informed, took advantage of Denikin’s mistakes and inflicted heavy losses on the enemy. The developments resulting from his defeat decided Denikin’s fate. According to a Denikin officer fighting against Makhno: » People interested in the history of the civil war,

1917—-1920, came to the conclu-

sion a long time ago that the breakthrough of “‘Father Makhno” in the fall of 1919 disorganized the rear of the Armed Forces of South Russia and thus tipped the scale in favor of the Reds.78

After the victory at Perehonivka the road to Denikin’s important centers was open. Three parallel columns of Makhno’s troops advanced eastward at the great speed of one hundred versts per day, avoiding battles with large enemy forces and joined by many independent partisan groups en route. Denikin’s garrisons and the civil authorities, ignorant of the defeat at Perehonivka or Makhno’s whereabouts, took no defensive measures and Makhno very often took Denikin’s posts by complete surprise. In several days Makhno took Dolyns’ka, Kryvyi Rih, and Nikopil’, where he destroyed three regiments.’? Subsequently he captured the Kichkas bridge on the Dnieper and on October 5, the city of Oleksandrivs’k, where he established his base.

Apart from the military problems, Makhno was confronted with the organization of the local authorities. First he called a meeting of workers from different branches of industry, informing them about the previous victorious fighting and the war situation in the region, and then asked the workers to organize the management of factories, plants, railroads, and other branches of industry by their own means and under their own control. On the question of salaries, Makhno advised the workers to set their own wages, organize their own pay office, and carry on commercial exchange directly with consumers. The railroad workers consented to go along with Makhno’s policy, organizing the train system and setting fees for transportation.8° At the meeting in Oleksandrivs’k, in his main speech, Makhno appealed to the populace to organize a civil self-government so as to secure the territory and guarantee its people’s freedom. His organizational plans did not develop sufficiently, mainly because of the proximity of this territory to the front and a lack of initiative and experience of its people. Meanwhile, the Revolutionary Military Council convoked the Fifth Congress in Oleksandrivs’k

from October 20 to 26, 1919, with about

The Volunteer Army

497.

270 delegates, including 180 peasants in attendance, It was chaired by Volin. The congress resolved to strengthen, organize, and prepare supplies for the army. It formed, committees, consisting of peasants, workers,

and partisans, to convene

future

congresses

that would deal

with the organization of social and economic life in the region. However, the main concerns of the congress were the current problems, the primary one being the organization of the army. In principle the congress rejected a regular army based upon compulsory mobilization, but the critical situation at the front and the need to defend the territory made it necessary to resort to voluntary mobilization of men between nineteen and forty-eight. Each new regiment was to include a staff and an economic-judicial organ, for the congress intended to make the partisan army a people’s army.®! One of Makhno’s proclamations illustrated what voluntary mobilization entailed: Why do you sit at home, friend? Why are you not in our ranks? Are you waiting for a Commissar to come with a punitive detachment to take you by compulsory mobilization? Do not deceive yourself that he will not find you, that you could hide, escape. The Bolshevik regime already proved it would stop at nothing: it would

arrest your family and relatives, it would

take hostages and, if necessary, it

would shell the entire village by artillery fire, and . . . youand your friends . . . would sooner or later be taken by the regime into the army. And then, it would send you with arms in hand to kill your brother peasants and workers—revolutionary partisan—Makhno men.82

To assure the growth of the army, the congress resolved to organize local free social-economic organizations and commissions composed of working people, to obtain “contributions” from the bourgeoisie, and to gather uniforms for the partisans. These organizations were to cooperate closely with Makhno’s army supply commission. They were responsible for providing support for the partisans’ families and for the poorer population. Finally, the congress had chosen a commission to convene the next congress to deal with the social and economic organization of the region controlled by the Makhno army. Appealing to the population to support the recruitment of volunteers for the army, the congress also established a committee to provide food distribution at stations and hospitals and to take care of the wounded and the sick. The primary source of the food would be free gifts from the peasants, the spoils of victory, and requisitions from privileged groups. The congress recommended that the Revolutionary Military Council take strong measures against drinking, including the execution of offenders, to prevent a demoralization of the army.* The basis of justice was also laid down by the congress:

198

Anarchism of Nestor Makhno

On the question of the need to organize a judicial administrative apparatus, we suggest as a basic principle that any rigid court, police machinery and any fixed “codification of laws” constitute a gross violation of the population’s rights of self-defense. True justice should not be administratively organized, but must come as a living, free, creative act of the community.

. .

held by the living force of the local community, specialists.84

. Law

and order must be up-

and must not be left to police

As the Revolutionary Military Council.organized sociopolitical life in the region, Makhno and his staff continued to fight Denikin, occupying a number of cities and towns, including Polohy, Melitopil’, HuliaiPole, Synel’nikove, and Lozova. At that time Makhno’s army increased

to about twenty-five thousand men. In late October, the height of the army’s growth, it consisted of about forty thousand men, including the separate partisan detachments operating in the countryside.® When the commander of one such detachment bearing Makhno’s name contacted Makhno, he replied: “All the detachments bearing my name may act independently. You are not alone; many units bearing my name are scattered throughout Ukraine. The time will come when we will all unite into one great anarchist army and will defeat the enemy.’”*® Makhno, however, was primarily interested in the Azov Sea ports and on October 6 he decided to take Berdians’k where, according to the

British war correspondent, a huge quantity of our small-arms ammunition and 60,000 shells were stacked for months. . . . The British Mission, who considered the town to be vulnerable,

warned the Russian staff repeatedly. Just as the battles were opening which should have given Denikin permanent possession of Kyiv and Orel, Makhno the brigand sprang into activity near Katerynoslav, and within ten days he had blown the Berdians’k dump sky-high.”’87

Attacking from the coast to prevent the enemy’s escape by sea, Makhno captured large stores of war material, including sixteen British and Russian guns, thirty trucks, five cars, one airplane, and a large amount of ammunition. On October 23 Makhno captured the other main port, Mariupil’, cutting Denikin off from the Sea of Azov and consequently threatening his main supply base, Volnovakha. Makhno decided to attack the city, in spite of the concentration of Denikin forces there, and although after five days of fighting he failed to capture Volnovakha, he effectively eliminated it as a supply base because all railroad junctions were in Makhno’s hands.®° In the meantime, when Makhno appeared without warning in the area of Taganrog, Denikin’s headquarters:

The Volunteer Army

199

Panic reigned everywhere—panicked foreign missions, panicked staff ladies; some even succeeded in evacuating. Officers were called hastily. [People were] saying that the Makhno detachments were seizing Mariupil’, and that Makhno partisans were eighty versts from Taganrog. There was almost no force that could oppose them. The Kuban Cossacks recalled from the front could not arrive in time because of the damage to transportation and “‘bandits’”’ who were destroying trucks. A regiment of officers coming from the Caucasian coast was stopped at sea by the

storm.89 In discussion

with K. N. Sokolov,

Denikin admitted the situation

was very serious with Makhno within two days’ ride of Taganrog. Some advised the chief commander to leave.9° According to another eyewitness the situation was “‘absolutely critical’’: All Denikin could muster up were the two hundred-odd officers of headquarters, a company of war-wounded veterans and a few tanks. . . . I was having tea at the British Military Mission when the news of the coming of Makhno spread. A list for volunteers to go out to fight him was passed around the tea table. I signed this list and thus for three days found myself in a force of British cavalry. We were drilled by General Thompson, commanding the British Mission. Several British naval officers also signed the list, and the sight of a long-legged naval commander on a horse was something never to be forgotten. Just as suddenly and just as mysteriously as he had appeared, Makhno

vanished. Evidently he overestimated the forces

defending Taganrog. If he had only dared to attack the city he would have had us, General Denikin and all.9!

Hodgson confirms this situation in Taganrog: The British Military Mission at Taganrog, although only a staff nucleus engaged in getting supplies up and teaching Denikin’s soldiers, at once put itself in a state of defence.

A mounted mobile column of thirty-two officers was formed, and although

it has been claimed that the effort had a calming effect on the local population,I am inclined to think that it only accentuated the panic. . . . The whole incident was nerve wracking, and should have given Denikin both a foretaste and warning of what was to come.92

Makhno continued to drive Denikin’s of Denikin’s important strongholds was tried to capture. After twelve days of earlier military ruse, sending his partisans

forces out of his region. One Katerynoslav, which Makhno fighting Makhno applied his dressed in peasant clothes

. into the town, ostensibly to buy provisions; having arrived at the marketplace, they pulled out their weapons and joined with their fellows who had surrounded the town. A panic seized the inhabitants; the Governor [Shchetinin] hurried away in a special train; and, after the militiamen had put up the best fight they could against superior numbers, darkness came on, and the bandits were masters of the town.93

200

Anarchism of Nestor Makhno

Toward the end of October, Makhno took the city, which he controlled for six weeks. He issued a manifesto as soon as the partisans entered the city, appealing to the populace to preserve peace, to surrender their weapons, and to turn over to him Denikin’s officers hiding in the city. He demanded contributions from the richer segment of the population and expropriated whatever money had been left in the banks by Denikin, subsequently turning to the poor with a large amount of money and material support. Also he opened the gates of the prisons and burned them.%* Despite a prohibition by Makhno, the partisans, especially the released prisoners, were guilty of some looting. However, according to an eyewitness: “Under Makhno there was not such widespread looting as under the Volunteers. A great impression was made on the population by Makhno’s personal on-the-spot execution of several looters who were caught in the market place.” An episode occurring there sheds some light on the behavior of the partisans. An elderly gentleman taking a walk was stopped at a corner by a partisan who ordered the gentleman to remove his pants and give them to him. The gentleman protested, but promised to take the partisan to his nearby apartment and surrender his trousers. When the gentleman complied, the partisan exclaimed: Well, that is the way it should have been a long time ago! I requested trousers from six passersby, “‘please give me some trousers because mine are completely worn out.” All responded that they had no spares. And now I have found some. Father Makhno prohibited us from robbing. “If you do need something,” he said, “‘take it, but nothing more.’”’ Now, I need nothing more!96

According to another eyewitness, as Slashchov drove Makhno out of the city, his troops repeated earlier practices of General Shkuro’s troops: I blushed from pain and shame when shoulders entered apartments and looted as did wild Ingushes and Chechens. . . pull out the partisans who were left in

people with officers’ epaulettes on their them as suddenly, openly, and shamelessly . In addition, Slashchov’s men began to the hospitals with typhus, and hang them

from the bare trees.97

In the late fall of 1919 Makhno’s military success peaked. At that time he controlled the larger part of the Left Bank from Katerynoslav to the Crimea and was threatening even Taganrog, Denikin’s headquarters.°® Makhno’s success against Denikin was facilitated by the population, especially the peasants, who were antagonized not only by the repressive policy of the troops, the police, and bureaucrats, but especially by the returning landlords. According to an eyewitness,

The Volunteer Army the wide peasant masses lords

201 of Ukraine

to their estates, the restoration

were

indignant at the returning of the land-

of large latifundia, and the arbitrariness and

violence that had been a characteristic peculiarity of the local agents’ policy. Exhausted by constant conscriptions, requisitions, and robberies by the military units, and disappointed in the land measures of the ‘“‘Stavka,’’ they readily joined Makhno-like bands and began to carry on a most relentless struggle against the Volunteer Army. . . . We hate the commune whole heartedly, the peasants were saying, but still more, we hate the landlords who are tearing our skin off us. We do not need Communists, either red or black.99

General Wrangel confirms this situation and the reaction of the population against the Denikin regime:

spontaneous

Risings were breaking out in the interior; rebels under the command of the Makhno were sacking the towns and looting the trains and commissariat Disorder was at its height in the country. The local authorities had no idea make themselves respected; abuse of authority was the order of the day; rarian question was more bitter than ever.100

brigand depots. how to the ag-

When General Mai-Maevskii encountered strong resistance from the peasants in Ukraine, he asked Denikin to speed up land reform because the peasants ‘‘are interested in and waiting for land reform. Promises have lost their meaning; fodder is commandeered under threat of execution.” Denikin replied: “I do not attach great importance to this matter. It is unnecessary to pay attention to the peasants. Take warning measures against lawlessness [and] do not show weakness of authority. . . With regard to the peasants—this question will be settled in Moscow.”?!°! A foreign eyewitness observed: Conditions behind the lines were more chaotic than ever. Makhno was looting trains and depots with impunity, and White officialdom was losing what little control over the civilian population it had. . . . The peasants were crying for land and getting a

stone in answer. 102

Although the strength of the Volunteer Army on the fronts against the Bolsheviks and the Ukrainian Army was hardly adequate, at the end of September Denikin found that the situation was becoming dangerous and demanded radical measures. In spite of the seriousness

of the situation

on

the front, it was necessary

to withdraw

some

units from it and to use all the reserves to suppress the uprising.193

Two

combat groups were formed to fight Makhno. A corps under

General Slashchov, with Colonel Dubiago as his chief of staff, was dis-

patched to the Right Bank, mainly in the region of Kherson, Mykolaiv, and Katerynoslav. It consisted of the Thirteenth and Thirty-Fourth

202

Anarchism

of Nestor Makhno

Infantry divisions and was later joined by the Don Cossack Brigade. The other group, under General Revishin, was formed on the Left Bank with its headquarters at Volnovakha railroad station. It consisted of the Chechen Cavalry Division, the Terek Cossack Cavalry Division, a separate Don Cossack Cavalry Brigade, the Composite Regiment of the Ninth Cavalry Division, and the Composite Infantry Regiment.!°+ In mid-October Denikin began operations against Makhno, aiming to bottle him up between the Sea of Azov and the Dnieper. Since Denikin’s supply base and immense stores of munitions were located in the towns between Volnovakha and Mariupil’, Denikin threw a large force supported by armored trains and cars against Makhno. Fierce fighting developed in the area of Mariupil’, Berdians’k, and Velykyi Tokmak and both sides suffered heavy losses.!°° Gradually Makhno was forced to retreat north to Huliai-Pole where his army of about ten thousand men fought large Denikin forces, including the Terek Cossack Cavalry Division and the Don Cossack Cavalry Brigade. Makhno, fearing encirclement, retreated west to Oleksandrivs’k. After heavy fighting in the city he crossed the Dnieper to the Right Bank and advanced to Katerynoslav. The Chechen Cavalry Division also had crossed the Dnieper and occupied the city, trying to establish contact with General Slashchov,

but Makhno

attacked

and drove

them

out. While General

Slashchov was struggling against Makhno on the Right Bank, General Revishin established a defensive line along the left bank of the Dnieper to prevent Makhno from crossing the river. After several months of hard fighting the Denikin troops came to regard Makhno’s army as their most formidable enemy. According to Mai-Maevskii’s aide, Pavel Vasil’evich Makarov:

‘“The commander feared

Makhno more than the Reds [because] Makhno was always appearing unexpectedly, and therefore, was impeding Mai-Maevskii’s deployment for an attack.’”’ Nevertheless,

Mai-Maevskii

also admired Makhno, and

told Makarov: “I am watching his activities and [I am] having such an experienced commander on my side.’’!°® Also other commanders of Denikin troops expressed

not against

. highest admiration and respect for Makhno. His military achievements are being called heroic. In their opinion Makhno also commands a good and brave soldiery. They are talking about his activities on the Left Bank, about the capture of Katerynoslav in the rear of the Denikin Army and about his attack on Taganrog

(the Denikin headquarters)

. . . with visible fear.107

The conditions in Denikin’s rear echoed on the Bolshevik front, and

the Bolsheviks fully exploited this situation. A Soviet author admits:

The Volunteer Army

203

A rapid growth of peasant uprisings in Denikin’s rear threatened even his headquarters, Taganrog, forcing him not only to bring up all his reserves to fight them, but also to recall a number of units from the front for this purpose. . . . This, of course, greatly influenced the outcome of the battle: the Eighth Army was saved from defeat because the enemy’s Voronezh group was weakened and subsequently was not only unable to develop an active operation on its own, but could not even offer a more or less firm resistance to Budenny’s cavalry, soon to advance in the area of Voronezh. Already during this period of general fighting Denikin showed signs of a complete lack of strategic reserves at the front and in the rear. 108

The author’s conclusion is that as a result of the partisan uprisings: “the rear of the counterrevolution [Denikin] disintegrated, and the disintegration of the rear brought with it also disintegration of the front.’! While Denikin was preparing for a final drive on Moscow via OrelTula, the Bolsheviks concentrated newly organized cavalry units, rein-

forced by infantry and machine-gun companies, for a bidirectional counterattack against the Orel-Kursk railroad line and against Voronezh. Moreover, the Bolshevik success on the Kolchak front and Wrangel’s retreat to Tsaritsyn enabled them to bring additional forces to the Denikin front. When the Red Army began its successful advance on the central front, Wrangel proposed that Denikin recall from the Tsaritsyn front two cavalry corps, and unite them with Mai-Maevskii’s cavalry units and a few Don Cossack cavalry divisions for a major attack in the direction

of Moscow.

Denikin

tumed

it down.

Later, he was

forced

gradually to recall the cavalry corps from the Tsaritsyn front to support the retreating Volunteer troops, but they had no decisive effect upon the situation.!1° Hard fighting continued for several weeks, with the advantage inclining to the Bolshevik side. In this fighting the Bolsheviks defeated the Volunteer troops at Kursk and Kastornaia, an important junction on the Kursk-Voronezh railroad. The capture of these cities and the railroad enabled the Bolsheviks to drive a deep wedge between the Volunteer and the Don armies, forcing them to retreat.!!! According to Wrangel, The enemy’s cavalry had penetrated our front line at the junction of the Army of the Don and Volunteer Army, and was now threatening the rear of the latter. Orel and Kursk had been abandoned, and the front was rapidly drawing in on Kharkiv. Further back, the province of Katerynoslav was a prey to risings. The people’s discontent grew with our reverses.!12

The victory commenced a new stage in the campaign and the initiative definitely passed to the Bolsheviks. Their forces advanced rapidly southward, encountering only minor resistance. Kharkiv was

204

Anarchism of Nestor Makhno

surrendered to the Bolsheviks on December 12 in utter confusion. Institutions were evacuated without direction or destination. A British

merchant coming from Kharkiv witnessed: Towns and stores had fallen into the Bolshevists’ hands like a ripe fruit. The Volunteer General, Mai-Maevskii, had published a flamboyant circular denying the possibility of the town’s falling, and ordering every one to remain quietly at his work; but, meanwhile, his staff and everybody else . . . disappeared in their trains down

the line to safety, and the bibulous old man himself went away.!13

Another eyewitness confirms these circumstances: “Still on December 7, 1919, the Kharkiv City Council was assured of the complete safety and strength of the city of Kharkiv, but on December 11 there were no authorities of the Denikin organizations.’’!!4

Although Denikin replaced General Mai-Maevskii with General Wrangel on December 9, he could not save the Denikin army.!!® According to Churchill: “During November Denikin’s armies melted away, and his whole front disappeared with the swiftness of pantomime.” !!6 The Donets Basin was surrendered almost without a struggle. Kyiv was abandoned on December 16 and the Volunteer troops under General Bredov retreated west to Poland where they were interned. General Slashchov’s Corps, which was engaged, according to Denikin, in an “exhaustive battle against Makhno in Katerynoslav province until mid-December” retreated to the Isthmus of Perekop where

it made-a

stand.!!”

In addition, the Caucasian and Don armies

were forced to retreat south. Denikin’s entire military organization was collapsing; his defeat and rapid retreat were largely determined by conditions in the rear. He admitted that his reserves and part of the line troops recalled to the rear were engaged in putting down uprisings instigated by Makhno and other “‘otamans”’ which spread over most of the territory of Ukraine and New Russia. . . . Part of the forces of Kyiv province waged a struggle against the Petliura men and the partisans.118

Two courses of retreat were open to Denikin: to the Crimea or to Rostov. The Crimea afforded good protection and the probability of saving most of the equipment, whereas Rostov meant exposure to Bolshevik flank attacks. However, the Don, Kuban, and Terek Cossacks,

who formed a majority of the army, preferred to retreat homeward, that

is, to Rostov.!!9

Therefore,

Denikin,

against Wrangel’s

advice,

decided to move to Rostov, hoping to rest his troops and to introduce some reforms. Only a small number of troops sought refuge in the Crimea. In the interim, however, the Bolsheviks captured Novocherkassk

The Volunteer Army

205

and on January 8, 1920, the Volunteer forces, after three days fighting, abandoned Rostov, fearing encirclement. In the opinion of a British war correspondent: “After the fall of Rostov, the Volunteer administration practically ceased to exist.” Denikin’s regime in Rostov was characterized by ever increasing speculation, disorder, and general economic chaos. In a dispatch to Denikin dated December 9, 1919, Wrangel describes the conditions of the army: “A considerable number of troops have retreated to the interior, and many officers are away on prolonged missions, busy selling and exchanging loot, etc. The army is absolutely demoralized and is fast becoming a collection of tradesmen and profiteers.??120 Although Denikin, with his front protected by the Don and Manych rivers and the rich Kuban Basin with its railway network to the rear, could have continued fighting the advancing Bolsheviks, the spirit of the Kuban Cossacks and the people had completely changed since the previous year because they had lost confidence in the Volunteer Army. Moreover, Denikin’s prestige as a leader was destroyed by the overwhelming defeats he suffered. Therefore, Denikin tried to gain favor by making political concessions and introducing a number of civil reforms to liberalize his regime; the moment, however, had long since passed when any change could forestall the inevitable consequences of his previous policy. After Denikin lost the battle near Rostov, his forces retreated, fighting delaying actions to cover their retreat to the port of Novorossisk, the last foothold in the Kuban, which became “‘a hellhole of disease, insurrection, chaos, and confusion.”” Amid these conditions,

on March 27, 1920, the Volunteer Army and a portion of the Don Army were evacuated into the Crimea. The Kuban Cossacks, numbering, with refugees, the Rada, and the government, over forty thousand men, plus about twenty thousand Don Cossacks, moved along the Black Sea coast toward Georgia, constantly harassed by Red troops on the way. As the Bolsheviks advanced, they greatly improved their military situation by capturing large stores of military supplies from depots and supply trains. Tens of thousands of horses, hundreds of trucks, countless tons of munitions, and invaluable modern equipment such as tanks, airplanes, locomotives, and guns supplied by the Allies, fell into Bolshevik hands. !#! Denikin’s radical reverse came to a great extent as a result of his defeat in Ukraine. As General Tiutiunyk rightly remarked: “Without realizing the strength of the partisan movement, it is difficult to comprehend what happened to cause the Red Army, which had retreated toward Moscow in panic, suddenly to appear in the role of a victor.’?122

206

Anarchism of Nestor Makhno

A Soviet author admitted the weakness of the Bolsheviks: This shock group [Kutepov’s corps] from Kursk rapidly advanced toward Orel pursuing small units of the Thirteenth Army, tired by long retreat. . . . The officers’

shock units encountered the [Red] shock group and the result of the battle decided the fate not only of Orel, but of Tula, because deep behind the [Red] shock group there were no reserves; [although they were] called reserves, the Siberian troops and regiments freed from the fighting against the English at the Arkhangelsk front

still had not arrived.123 Denikin admits: The activities of the partisan groups brought very serious complications into the strategy of all the contending sides, decisively weakening in turn one or the other, bringing chaos to the rear and forcing the recall of troops from the front. Objectively, the partisans were a decisive factor for us in the territory occupied by the enemy, but, at the same time, a glaringly negative one when the territory fell into our hands. 124

Trotsky, like Denikin, came to the same conclusion: “Makhno’s volunteers, of course, present danger to Denikin so long as Denikin rules Ukraine, but, on the other hand, they betrayed Ukraine [i.e., the Bolsheviks] to Denikin. And tomorrow, after the liberation of Ukraine, Makhno men will become a mortal danger to the workers’-peasants’ state, ’?!2° Also, General Turbin, governor of the Podillia province during Denikin’s*occupation, admitted to a Ukrainian: “You see, it was your peasants, no one else, who drove us out of Poltava province.” Therefore, the Denikin troops retreated from the Left Bank in a great hurry, leaving a large area between themselves and the Bolsheviks. The Ukrainian partisans not only speeded up Denikin’s retreat, but simultaneously fought the Bolsheviks, slowing their advance. However, the Denikin statf publicly reported it was the Denikin troops who fought the Bolsheviks there. Thus the Bolsheviks crossed the entire Left Bank almost without serious opposition from the Denikin forces, because the partisans had destroyed the latter’s rear, forcing them to retreat.!”6 As an eyewitness observed: At the end of 1919 the defeat and disintegration of the Volunteer Army was clearly marked.

Without

stopping,

it rolled

south

toward

the Black Sea, almost without

any pressure from its adversary. The high command was constantly losing the strings of control of the armies. The ties between the higher staffs and separate military units were getting weaker with each day until they completely disappeared. Each unit began to act on its own risk and fear, retreating where and when convenient, disregarding the general situation and ignoring combat orders. 1/27

The Volunteer Army

207

The war correspondent with the Denikin troops vividly described the kaleidoscopic changes of Denikin’s military fortune: At the time when

in the summer of 1914, the army, headed by Denikin, was victo-

riously advancing northward; when each day was bringing us always new and newer reports of victories; when the echo of the bells of Moscow, it seems, became distinctly heard in the Don, and in the Kuban,

and in the Terek, and in the Crimea,

and in the south of Ukraine—already at this time were heard warning voices that were indicating that the faster we advanced toward Moscow, the faster we would

come to theBlack Sea.128

There were a number of causes for the defeat of the Volunteer Army, but the main one was the overextension of the front line to a length of two thousand kilometers, from Tsaritsin on the Volga, through Orel to Odessa. As General Vinogradov remarked: “‘At the end of 1919, it was not the troops of the armed forces of South Russia that controlled the huge space, but the space swallowed up the troops.” No reserves were available at critical points and times. Denikin appeared to be, after the death of Kornilov

and Alekseev, the ablest of all the anti-

Bolshevik Russian leaders, and his forces contained the best of the elements that had fled from Soviet Russia, as well as the Don and Kuban

Cossacks who, in contrast to the Russian population, were violently anti-Bolshevik; yet he disregarded the very essentials of permanent conquest, failing to consolidate his position in the conquered territory by establishing sound local governments and land reform. Denikin was lulled by his rapid success into looking upon the occupation of the large territory as a pleasant, accomplished fact. Denikin’s weakness was that he was a soldier and not a statesman. To one of his political advisors, he admitted: “I am a soldier and have never taken any interest in your politics.”’ Denikin’s nationality policy was

epitomized

by his motto:

“A United

and Indivisible

Russia,”

a

slogan that denied the newly established states formerly belonging to the Russian Empire the right to independence. Such a policy satisfied neither his allies, the Don and the Kuban

Cossacks, nor his Ukrainian

enemies who fought him to the very end. His socioeconomic policy, manifested by the return of the estates to the landlords, likewise antagonized the peasants and brought about uprisings. The anti-Bolshevik movement consisted mainly of two groups: the representatives of the old, reactionary Russia, to whom the achievements of the Revolution were unacceptable; and the representatives of the democratic

and liberal Russia, to whom

the Revolution

was

the

foundation on which a new Russia should be constructed. Those two

208

Anarchism of Nestor Makhno

hostile groups were brought together only by their fear of bolshevism. The leading role in the movement fell to the first group, which brought military dictatorship and a reactionary system, whereas the other group was politically unorganized and became aware of its political power only during the Civil War. This alliance of ideological opposites paralyzed the anti-Bolshevik movement on all levels. To strengthen his weary armies, Denikin was compelled to conscript the non-Russian population and the Red Army prisoners, neither of whom was either loyal or willing to fight for Denikin’s Russia. Exhaustion, disease, and corruption on all levels of the anti-Bolshevik move-

ment had destroyed the discipline and morale of Denikin’s forces. The final and most comprehensive contribution to the deterioration of Denikin’s position were the Ukrainian partisans, especially Makhno’s army, which inflicted heavy losses, disorganized communications, and destroyed supply bases, thus breaking the backbone of the offensive on Moscow. Denikin admitted: “This uprising, which took on such broad dimensions, destroyed our rear and the front at the most critical period.”!29 As Pierre Berland, the correspondent of Le Temps in Moscow, observed: There is no doubt that Denikin’s defeat is explained more by the uprisings of the peasants who brandished Makhno’s black flag, than by the success of Trotskii’s regular army. The partisan bands of “Bat’ko” tipped the scales in favor of the Reds and if Moscow wants to forget it today, impartial history will not.130

18. Makhno’s Army Outlawed by the Bolsheviks

The rapidly changing military situation soon caused a change in the Bolsheviks’ attitude toward Makhno. The advance of the Red Army southward in pursuit of Denikin, like the Denikin offensive earlier, was

facilitated by Makhno’s harassment of the retreating Denikin troops and by peasant uprisings. On December 8 the retreat of the Denikin army forced Makhno out of Katerynoslav, whence he retreated to the region of Melitopil’, Nikopil’, and Oleksandrivs’k to regroup. On December 24 Makhno’s troops met the Bolshevik Fourteenth Army in Oleksandrivs’k

and

its

commander,

Ieronim

Petrovich

Uborevich,

admitted Makhno’s service in defeating Denikin. Although the Bolsheviks fraternized with the Makhno troops and the commander even offered cooperation, they distrusted Makhno, fearing the popularity he had gained as a result of his successful fighting against Denikin. A member of the Revolutionary Military Council of the Fourteenth Army,

Sergei

Russian

Ordzhonokidze,

Communist

wired

the Central

Committee

of the

party, and the editorial staff of the newspapers

Pravda, Bednota, and Izvestia: In the central publications, especially in Bednota, they emphasized Makhno’s role in the uprisings of the masses in Ukraine against Denikin. I consider it necessary to point out that such a popularization of Makhno’s name, whose attitude toward the Soviet

government

is inimical

as before,

brings about

in the rank and file of the

army undesired sympathy toward Makhno. Such a popularization is particularly dangerous at [the time of] our advance into the region of partisans. In reality, Makhno was not leading the uprisings. The mass of people in general are rising against Denikin for the Soviet government.!

209

210

Anarchism of Nestor Makhno

The Bolsheviks had no intention of tolerating Makhno’s independent policy, but hoped at first to destroy his army by removing it from its own base. With this idea in mind, on January 8, 1920, the Revolu-

tionary Military Council of the Fourteenth Army ordered Makhno to move to the Polish front via Oleksandria-Cherkasy-Boryspil’-ChernihivKovel’.? The author of the order realized there was no real war between the Poles and the Bolsheviks at that time and he also knew that Makhno would

not abandon

his region. In a conversation

with Iona E. JAkir,

the commander of the Forty-Fifth Division of the Fourteenth Army, Uborevich explained that “an appropriate reaction by Makhno to this order would give us the chance to have accurate grounds for our next steps.”’ [Akir answered that he knew Makhno personally, and was sure that he would certainly not comply. Uborevich agreed but concluded: “The order is a certain political maneuver and, at the very least, we expect positive results from Makhno’s realization of this.’ As expected, Makhno and the Revolutionary Military Committee flatly refused to leave the territory. In their opinion the commander of the Fourteenth Army had no authority over the Makhno army; a large number of the partisans, including Makhno, who was in a near coma most of the time, were sick with typhus; the fighting qualities and effectiveness of the troops were greater on their own territory; and Makhno realized that an expedition against Poland would mean losing his base of power and exposing his territory to a Bolshevik invasion. Consequently the Bolsheviks declared Makhno’s army outlawed. On January 14, 1920, Makhno gave up his camp and set out for HuliaiPole without serious opposition. Some detachments that remained in the rear were seized by the Bolsheviks.* After the defeat of the Denikin forces and their retreat to the Black Sea, Makhno had to face the Red troops. The winter of 1920 was a very critical period. His partisan army was disorganized and under strength. About 50 percent of the troops contracted typhus and went to the villages for cure, while others simply hid in the villages, or went home.? Thus the strength of Makhno’s forces was substantially lower than in late 1919. The Bolsheviks, however, were in a far stronger position than the previous year; they had more, better equipped, and better supplied troops at their disposal. When the Bolsheviks’ attempts to transfer Makhno to the Polish front failed, they made a great effort to destroy him. In mid-January this task was assigned to the Forty-Second Division of the Thirteenth Army, stationed between Mariupil’ and Taganrog. The division was ordered to advance toward Perekop across the Makhno region. It was

Outlawed by Bolsheviks transferred

Pt

to the area of Volnovakha-Kurakhivka,

whence

the Third

Brigade was dispatched to the area of Andriivka—Oleeksiivka—Velyka Mykhailivka—Huliai-Pole; while the Second Brigade was concentrated in the area of Staryi Kermenchyk— Turkenivka—Huliai-Pole. The strength of these two brigades was 4,000, plus a number of support units. The First Brigade was held as reserves between the others in the area of Maiorske—Sanzhanivka—Huliai-Pole. The task of the Red troops was to surround Huliai-Pole and destroy Makhno. However, before they could effect this plan, Makhno retreated from Huliai-Pole, leaving a large amount of supplies and eight guns to the Bolsheviks. Toward the end of February the Red Army command transferred the Forty-Second Division as reserve to the Taganrog area because the situation in the North Caucasus became critical. Its place was taken by the Estonian Division, which was concentrated in the area of Huliai-Pole—Polohy—Kinski Rozdory—Tsarekonstiantynivka. In the meantime, Makhno harried the Red troops, destroying their staff and agents, supply base, smaller separate units, blowing up railroad lines, bridges, and means of communication, and conducting intensive propaganda among the troops. Late in February, Makhno in five days slipped his detachment secretly into Huliai-Pole and disarmed one brigade, destroying its headquarters. Some men joined Makhno while others were dispersed. Although the Red Army command dispatched a cavalry regiment that seized large supplies and killed some partisans, including Makhno’s oldest brother, Sava, who was living with his family, Makhno managed to retreat safely.® After these setbacks, the Bolsheviks decided early in March to organize a special task force of rear-area commanders to fight Makhno. This force, under

the direction

of the commander

of the Thirteenth

Army rear area, consisted of a cavalry division under Blinov, the 126th Brigade of the Forty-Second Infantry Division, several battalions of the Internal Security Troops of the Republic, one Cheka battalion from Kharkiv and garrisons of Hryshyne, Pavlohrad, Synel’nikove, Lozova, and Oleksandrivs’k. The plan was to surround the region of Makhno’s activities and divide it into three areas (Chaplino, Hryshyne, and Volnovakha) in order to prevent Makhno’s escape. The 126th Brigade and an armored train remained in reserve while the cavalry division was to hunt and liquidate Makhno.’ Although Makhno knew about this plan, he paid little attention to the surrounding forces except for the cavalry division and during the spring and summer avoided major frontal battles against superior Bolshevik forces. Although Makhno’s struggle was a war of small engagements, it was

aie

Anarchism of Nestor Makhno

marked by extremely violent fighting.? On encountering larger enemy forces, including armored trains, Makhno would skillfully retreat in a loose formation at great speed. With the same speed, he would reappear in the rear of the enemy, attacking military staffs and base areas. An eyewitness recalled: As our units were advancing on the left flank, suddenly machine guns began firing at our base. Shouts: ‘‘band!”’ caused a panic. Even though our artillery men opened fire against Makhno’s men, the Makhno cutthroats spread out, slashing and shooting everyone who came within their grasp. This attack cost very dearly.9

Such operations were usually successful because Makhno used cavalry units and troops on carts with machine guns. His campaign was largely confined to surprise attacks on isolated Red Army units, small garrisons, requisition agents, Bolshevik militiamen, political commissars, bridges, railroads, and Bolshevik supply bases.!° In the course of the campaign, especially during the raids, which sometimes covered distances up to 1,200 to 1,500 versts, the partisans carried on intensive

anti-Bolshevik propaganda among the population. Although Makhno was merciless with the captured Red Army officers, ordinary soldiers were either incorporated into his army or released as soon as they were taken.!! During one encounter when Makhno captured eighty Bolshevik prisoners, an eyewitness said Makhno “showed a human heart toward those prisoners.” He delivered a speech to them saying: ‘I am freeing you, and your duty must be to tell everywhere who Makhno is, for what he is fighting and how he is fighting.”’ After those joyful prisoners had been freed, Makhno went on: Those eighty souls will be the best agitators in my behalf. To some they will tell what I am fighting for, to others, how I am fighting. There will be more benefit for

me from that than if I had them shot.12

The objectives of the Bolsheviks were to capture Makhno, to destroy his partisans and his influence in the countryside. To prevent fraternization between the Red Army troops and Makhno’s partisans, the Bolsheviks extensively employed against the latter divisions of Latvian and Estonian sharpshooters and Chinese detachments.}° Employing other new tactics, the Bolsheviks attacked not only Makhno’s partisans, but also villages and towns in which the population was sympathetic toward Makhno. They shot ordinary soldiers as well as their commanders, destroying their houses, confiscating their properties, and persecuting their families. Moreover the Bolsheviks conducted mass arrests of innocent peasants who were suspected of collaborating in

Outlawed by Bolsheviks

IS

some way with the partisans. It is impossible to determine the casualties involved:

according

to moderate

estimates,

more

than two

hundred

thousand people were executed or injured by the Bolsheviks in Ukraine during that period. Nearly as many were imprisoned or deported to Russia and Siberia.'* In spite of their merciless methods and intense propaganda, the Bolsheviks were not able to destroy Makhno in this period. Contrary to their expectations, his army was growing stronger and was reactivating and the Bolsheviks began to realize that military means alone were not enough to destroy the Makhno movement. To obtain a firm foothold in the villages in Ukraine, the Bolsheviks conceived the idea of neutralizing or placating the peasants. The Bolshevik authorities admitted having made a mistake in 1919 by introducing the Soviet farm system to occupied Ukraine, for “the peasants looked upon the attempts to socialize farming as a new form of Communist state enslavement.” Although they modified their agricultural policy by introducing on February 5, 1920, a new

land law, distributing the former landlords’,

state, and church lands among the peasants, they did not succeed in placating them because the requisitions, which the peasants considered outright robbery, continued. During the first nine months of 1920, about one thousand Bolshevik grain requisition agents were killed.!® Subsequently the Bolsheviks decided to introduce class warfare into the villages. A decree was issued on May 19, 1920, establishing “‘Committees of the Poor.” This practice was transplanted from Soviet Russia where the Bolsheviks had introduced similar committees (Rombedy) as early as spring 1918.!© The aim was to create an auxiliary force in the villages to assist the Bolsheviks in requisitioning food and let the collectors have a share in the grain seized from the other peasants. Authority in the villages was delegated to the committees, which assisted the Bolsheviks in seizing the surplus grain and watched the well-to-do peasants to prevent their hiding food. Soviet policy was to liberate “Ukrainian poor and middle [peasants] from the ideological and material yoke of the ‘kulaks’ and thus to split the united front of the Ukrainian village and, subsequently, the Makhno movement as well.”?!” The establishment of Committees of the Poor was painful to Makhno because they became not only part of the Bolsehvik administrative apparatus the peasants opposed, but also informers helping the Bolshevik secret police in its persecution of the partisans, their families and supporters, even to the extent of hunting down and executing wounded partisans. Makhno and the Revolutionary Military Council viewed these committees as a typical Bolshevik organization, to be dealt

214

Anarchism of Nestor Makhno

with the same way as any other punitive organ. Consequently, Makhno’s “heart became hardened and he sometimes ordered executions where some generosity would have bestowed more credit upon him and his movement. That the Bolsheviks preceded him with the bad example was no excuse. For he claimed to be fighting for a better cause.’’!® Although the committees in time gave the Bolsheviks a hold on every village, their abuse of power disorganized and slowed down agricultural life. ; Peasants’ economic conditions in the region of the Makhno movement were greatly improved at the expense of the estates of the landlords, the church, monasteries,

and the richest peasants, but Makhno

had not put an end to the agricultural inequalities. His aim was to avoid conflicts within the villages and to maintian a sort of unified front of the entire peasantry in his region. These agricultural conditions and the actions of the Makhno partisans against the Bolsheviks’ attempt to entrench themselves in the villages were reflected in the relative paucity of committees in the Makhno region. On September 10, 1920, there were only 200 committees in Katerynoslav province but 1,000 in Kher-

son, 442 in Odessa, 945 in Kharkiv, 1280 in Poltava, and 687 in Kyiv.”

This policy of terror and exploitation turned almost all segments of Ukrainian society against the Bolsheviks, substantially strengthened the Makhno movement, and consequently facilitated the advance of the reorganized anti-Bolshevik force of General Wrangel from the Crimea into South Ukraine, the Makhno region. According to a report of Colonel Noga, the representative of Denikin’s staff at the Crimean group, dated

March 25, 1920, the Red Army

units retreated from the

Perekop Isthmus so fast that the Volunteers lost contact with them. This rapid retreat was explained thus: In Ukraine in the rear of the Reds peasant uprising under Makhno and many other partisan detachments were staged, giving the Reds no rest. This is clear to me from the Red newspapers, letters of the prisoners, etc. And Generals Shilling [and] Slashchov view this phenomenon very favorably, but not knowing the view of the “Stavka”’

on

this, certainly no measures

had been taken to establish contact

with

Makhno and others. I consider this question of paramount importance because I see in it an escape from the general strategic situation. This needs full elucidation, and the sooner the better. In my opinion now the time is so critical that our motto should be: “Anyone against the Reds is with us.’’29

A

Soviet

author

confirms

this situation:

“Makhno

men,

successfully

maneuvered between the units of the Forty-Second Division, continued to roam

in ‘their’ region. Meanwhile,

continued.

Red

Army

units

were

the advance

retreating.

critical moment on the southern front.’’?!

of Wrangel’s

. . . This was

units

a very

19. Makhno between Wrangel and the Bolsheviks

After evacuation of the remnants of the Volunteer Army into the Crimea, General Slashchov’s Crimean Corps held the Thirteenth Red Army in check from January to March at the Perekop and Syvash isthmuses.! Denikin, physically and morally defeated, resigned his position as commander in chief and on April 4 at the Conference of Superior Officers, originally the Military Council (Army corps commanders or their equivalents) elected General Baron Peter Nikolaevich Wrangel commander in chief. Wrangel accepted the election by signing a statement: I have shared the honour of its victories with the Army, and cannot refuse to drink

the cup of humiliation

with it now.

comrades-in-arms Chief.2

in me,

place

Drawing strength from

I consent

to accept

the

the trust which

my

post of Commander-in-

Whereupon Denikin issued an edict stating: Lieutenant-General Baron Wrangel is hereby appointed Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces of South Russia. Sincere greetings to all those who have followed me loyally in the terrible struggle. God save Russia and grant victory to the Army.3

Wrangel realized that his army of 70,000, reorganized in the course of April and May, could not hope to defeat the Red forces alone. Although

Wrangel

was

a thorough

conservative,

he tried to correct

the

mistakes made by his predecessor by introducing a new agrarian law on June 7, 1920, vesting ownership of the land in the peasants, represented by the soviets

of counties and districts, whose

240

members

were elected,

216

Anarchism of Nestor Makhno

mainly from among the peasant owners.* This reform was to be carried out by Aleksandr Vasil’evich Krivoshein, the former minister of agriculture, who had carried out Stolypin’s agrarian reforms. Wrangel believed his agrarian policy would secure for him the support of the peasants and would at the same time undermine the discipline of the Red troops. However, the peasants were not satisfied with the new law. Moreover, in many places news of Wrangel’s agricultural reforms never reached them. In contrast to Denikin, Wrangel was willing to seek allies where Denikin had seen enemies. He tried to enlist officers and soldiers from belligerent armies. On April 29, 1920, he freed . all the officers and soldiers who had given themselves up and come over to our side before or during the struggle, from every kind of proceeding and service restriction, as well as all those who had served previously in the Soviet Army, and who had, therefore, already undergone punishment and service restrictions after the territory had been occupied by the armed forces of South Russia of their own free will; they were all reinstated in the ranks and privileges they had held on December

1, 1917. At the same

time, all the officers and soldiers who had served

the new States, Ukraine and Georgia, and who had undergone punishment and restrictions on that account, were exempted from all further punishment or service restrictions.°

These concessions were extended to the staff of institutions and civil administration by virtue of an edict issued on June 8, 1920.° Wrangel also wished to improve relations with the non-Russian people, especially with the Don and Kuban Cossacks. He considered . the policy of the former government conducted under the slogan “indivisible Russia,”’ an irreconcilable struggle against all’ people who inhabited Russia, . . . wrong, and would try to unite all the anti-Bolshevik forces.’

In widening his search for allies against the Bolsheviks, however, Wrangel lost the support of the British government. On April 29, 1920, General Percy, chief of the British Military Mission, announced: “Should General Wrangel prolong the struggle, it can have only one result, and we cannot encourage it by subsidies in money or kind.”® According to Wrangel the British government insisted that he should enter into direct negotiations with the Bolsheviks: They warned me that a continuation of the struggle might have fatal results, and that in any case I could not count on any assistance from them. It was clear that the British Government, which sought closer relations with the Bolshevik Government, wished above all to see hostilities come to an end.9

Wrangel rejected British advice and continued his preparation for an offensive; consequently, the British government recalled its representa-

Between Wrangel and the Bolsheviks

ZL,

tives and military mission from the Crimea.!° However, the ensuing war between Soviet Russia and Poland favored Wrangel’s cause. On the advice of the head of the French Military Mission, General Mangin, that Wrangel coordinate his activities with the Polish and Ukrainian armies, Prince Trubetskoi, Wrangel’s representative in Paris, wrote on May 17, 1920, to Mangin: The Commander-in-Chief is ready to accept all the collaboration which offers itself, and will be more than willing to cooperate with the Polish and Ukrainian forces. [However] . . . he does not want to broach the political side of the question, nor to take his stand on the recent news of the political agreement between Poland and Ukraine. The aim of the Armed Forces of South Russia is the essentially practical

and military one of fighting the Bolshevists.!1

Although Wrangel’s desire to coordinate his own activities with those of the Polish and Ukrainian forces was thwarted by the latter’s rapid retreat into Poland, each army derived some benefit from the other; Wrangel had aided Poland by diverting large Bolshevik forces to South Ukraine and the Kuban, while the Poles later permitted about ten thousand of General Bredov’s troops to transfer to the Crimea and join Wrangel.!? On August 10, 1920, Alexander Millerand, the prime minister of France, in a letter to the Russian Embassy in Paris, declared: I have the honour to inform you that the Government of the Republic has decided to accord de facto recognition to the Government of South Russia, and will send a diplomatic agent to Sevastopol . . . at the same time notifying the Allied and Associated Governments of its decisions. 13

This recognition of Wrangel’s government and the subsequent support given to him was largely motivated by the French desire to establish an allied Polish state against Germany and to save it from the Bolshevik invasion. According to Wrangel: At the time when hostilities began between Poland and the Government of the Soviets, France thought it necessary to support the White Armies, which might attract to their front a portion of the Red forces. Later Millerand . . . made a public acknowledgment that the help which had been lent to the White Armies had

no other aim beyond the saving of Poland.!4

At the end of 1919 the Ukrainian Army was forced by the superior Bolshevik and anti-Bolshevik Russian forces to retreat westward where it encountered the Polish Army. Petliura decided it was impossible under these circumstances to continue orthodox warfare without external aid. He felt, however, that the struggle against the invading

218

Anarchism of Nestor Makhno

Russian forces should continue in the form of guerrilla warfare. Part of the

army,

about

fourteen

thousand

men,

was

reorganized

and, on

December 7, 1919, under General Mykhailo Omelianovych-Pavlenko, moved far to the rear of the Bolshevik and Denikin forces to fight them and to support the Ukrainian partisans. This “Winter Campaign”’ continued through the winter of 1919—20.° Petliura realized that Ukraine could not survive in her struggle against the Russian Reds and Whites without assistance from the Entente. Therefore, he tried to come to terms with the Polish government, which, in his judgment, was the bridge to the Entente. At first reluctant, Poland came

awake when

the erosion of the Ukrainian posi-

tion threatened to remove the barrier that had protected Poland from the Bolshevik threat since Germany’s defeat. Thus, once the Polish Army attained the desired frontiers, the Zbruch River and western Volyn up to the Styr River, at the expense of Ukraine, the Poles agreed to negotiate. The Directory was obliged to issue a declaration on December 2, 1919, without

the consent

of its Galician members,

ac-

cepting this line as the Polish-Ukrainian frontier. After prolonged negotiations the two governments concluded a treaty, consisting of a political agreement and a military convention. Both governments expressed their profound conviction “that each people possesses the natural right to self-determination and to define its relations with neighboring peoples, and is equally desirous of establishing a basis for concordant and friendly coexistence for the welfare and development of both peoples.’!® Although the treaty had many weaknesses and was sharply criticized by many on both sides, and in addition it did not achieve the Directory’s hope of winning French or British support, both the Polish and Ukrainian armies, including the participants in the winter campaign, joined in fighting the Red Army. On May 8, 1920, they liberated Kyiv. The Bolshevik counteroffensive, however, forced them to retreat deep into Poland where the Bolsheviks were finally defeated. The Soviet Russian government proposed an armistice and a preliminary peace that the Polish government accepted without consulting the Ukrainian government. When Ukraine asked to participate in the peace negotiations, the Polish minister of foreign affairs, Prince Eustachy Sapieha, referred this question to the Soviet Russian government: In our negotiations with the Bolsheviks the problem of Petliura will not be taken into consideration

at all; nevertheless,

today I sent a message

to Chicherin inform-

ing him that Petliura’s government wishes to negotiate with the Russian delegation at Riga. This proposal, however, should in no way create difficulties for the depar-

Between Wrangel and the Bolsheviks

219

ture of our delegation, even if Chicherin rejects negotiation with Petliura, which I

think is certain.17

Although in the Treaty of -Warsaw the Polish government had agreed “not to conclude any international agreements directed against Ukraine,” the preliminary peace treaty and armistice between Soviet Russia

and

Poland

were

signed

on

October 12, 1920,

and the final

peace treaty was signed on March 18, 1921. In the meantime, however, because the Crimea was too small, either

to supply food for such a large army for long and ensure foreign trade or to serve as a base for major operations against the Bolshevik forces, Wrangel’s primary task was to capture northern Tavriia, in his words “‘a matter of life and death for us.’!8 The outbreak of the Polish-Bolshevik war at the end of April benefited Wrangel because it diverted the Bolsheviks’ attention and relieved the pressure, enabling him to launch an offensive against the Bolsheviks in Tavriia on June 6.!% In a series of battles Wrangel penetrated north, forcing a general Bolshevik retreat and capturing more than eleven thousand prisoners, sixty big guns, three hundred machine guns, two armored cars, and a huge collection of small arms and bayonets.2? As Wrangel advanced deeper into the Left Bank, Makhno retreated north to the Kharkiv region, leaving behind small partisan units in the villages and towns to carry on covert destruction of the Bolshevik administrative apparatus and supply bases.*! According to a Soviet author: Fighting against the Red units was more and more violent and the Makhno movement, under various guises and pretexts, moved into the deep rear, causing colossal destruction. Railroad lines, the supplies of products, materials, ammunition—everything that was necessary for the struggle against the White guards. What was burned and destroyed, of course, echoed upon the results of the fighting against Wrangel.22

Wrangel attempted to reach an agreement with Makhno after receiving this encouraging note that he believed was from him: “The Bolsheviks killed my brother. I am going to avenge him. After my vengeance I will come to assist you.’”?° It is not known whether Makhno wanted to mislead Wrangel or whether somebody else sent the letter, but Wrangel took it seriously. According to the war correspondent with the Wrangel troops: On the whole, at headquarters, special attention is paid to the partisan movement. Especially . . . the Makhno movement. Now Makhno is considered not a bandit, but a representative of peasant aspirations, a kind of uncrowned tsar of peasants.24

To

gain support

from

Makhno,

Wrangel

decided

to enter into

220

Anarchism of Nestor Makhno

contact with him, disregarding warnings from his intelligence staff that Makhno was an agrarian-anarchist and a bandit who could hardly be expected to enter into an agreement with a tsarist general.” On July 1, 1920, an envoy, Ivan Mikhailov, left Wrangel’s headquarters at Melitopil’ with a letter signed by Wrangel’s chief of staff, General Pavel N. Shatilov, and General Konovalov: To the ataman of the partisan forces, Makhno. The Russian army is fighting exclusively against the Communists in order to help the people save themselves from the commune and commissars and to secure for the working peasants the lands of the state, the landlords, and other private properties. The latter we are already putting into effect. Russian soldiers and officers are fighting for the people and for their well-being. Everybody who is fighting for the people should proceed hand in hand with us. Therefore, now intensify fighting against the Communists by attacking their rear, destroying their transport, and helping in every possible way in the final destruction of Trotsky’s troops. The Supreme Command will do what it can to help you by supplying arms and ammunition, and also by sending specialists. Send your representative to headquarters with reports on what you particularly need and for an agreement about operational matters.26

On July 22, after considering this proposal, Makhno and his staff gave an emphatic reply to Wrangel by executing the envoy. In spite of this rejection both sides spread rumors about Makhno’s cooperation with Wrangel:

the Bolsheviks, to discredit him; the anti-Bolsheviks, to

win the confidence of the peasants. Speaking about military conditions on the southern front, Trotsky said: “this Crimean partisan [Wrangel] who united with the Ukrainian partisan Makhno, is advancing northward,’?27 Later, on October 14, 1920, Trotsky retracted this statement: Wrangel really tried to come into direct contact with Makhno’s men and dispatched to Makhno’s headquarters two representatives for negotiations. . . . [However] Makhno’s men not only did not enter into negotiation with the representatives of Wrangel, but publicly hanged them as soon as they arrived at the headquarters.28

Nevertheless, rumors were widely circulated and accepted by both the leaders and the people that a close alliance had been concluded; that Makhno and his staff were subordinate to Wrangel, that Makhno had been given a command in Wrangel’s army, and that Makhno had lavishly received Wrangel’s delegates and toasted to the honor of the chief commander. Later, the newspapers published reports that ‘“‘Wrangel’s ally Makhno had taken Kharkiv and Katerynoslav and the Makhno detachments would join the left flank of Wrangel’s army in advancing along the railroads toward Oleksandrivs’k-Katerynoslav.”™ As the campaign developed, Wrangel realized that his CrimeanTavriian base of operation was inadequate and precarious. The Crimea

Between Wrangel and the Bolsheviks

221

was short of everything and could not feed its own population or the large influx of refugees, let alone the Wrangel forces. Tavriia, however, was threatened by growing Bolshevik presence, partisan activities, and peasant uprisings. Moreover, Wrangel’s army was too small to secure any more extensive territory in hostile Ukraine. Wrangel had taken to heart the lessons of Denikin’s disastrous drive on Moscow without consolidating his rear. He felt that for larger operations he needed to procure a less hazardous base, to enlarge his army and supplies. The Kuban and the Don basins were the only places where Wrangel could find what he needed. During Denikin’s retreat thousands of Cossacks had returned to their homes in those areas, taking with them horses, arms, and ammunition.

Moreover, these regions were rich

in natural resources. If they could be reconquered, Wrangel planned to retreat to the Crimea and defend it at the Isthmus of Perekop, while making the Kuban his base of operation. Because of these circumstances and the Cossacks’ hostility toward the Bolshevik regime, Wrangel was encouraged to direct his offensive against the Don and the Kuban. On July 22, a detachment headed by Colonel Nazarov, consisting of 1,000 infantry, cavalry, field artillery, armored

cars, and two trucks,

landed in the area of Novomykolaivka west of Taganrog. Nazarov’s aim was to bring about uprisings of the Don Cossacks and prepare for Wrangel’s advance into the Don Basin by widening Wrangel’s front against the Bolsheviks and obtaining new recruits. Moreover, Nazarov intended to establish contact with General Ulagai, who was to be landed in the Kuban, to secure his position on the lower Don and Manych rivers from the north. Although Nazarov’s unit advanced rapidly through the Don, instigating a revolt against the Bolsheviks on the way, and he increased his detachment of 2,500 through mobilization, it failed to accomplish its goal because of its distance from the base and its lack of popular support. It was practically destroyed in a battle at Konstantinovka on July 24—28, though Nazarov himself made his way alone back to the Crimea.?! On August 13 a detachment headed by General Ulagai, consisting of 4,500 infantry and cavalry with 130 machine guns, 26 big guns, some armored cars, and 8 airplanes, landed successfully near PrimorskoAkhtiarsk, on the Kuban coast of the Sea of Azov. Ulagai’s aim was to advance rapidly on Ekaterinodar, striking at the Bolshevik forces separately and encouraging Cossack uprisings. A separate unit of 500 infantry and 2 guns landed near Anapa, on the Taman Peninsula, as a demonstration. At the outset Ulagai’s forces won a few victories and

ae

Anarchism of Nestor Makhno

occupied a number of settlements on the road to Ekaterinodar, creating panic in the city and forcing Bolshevik military and civilian institutions to evacuate.°*

However,

he vacillated

for several days, fearing for his

base, thus losing his momentum and allowing the Bolsheviks to concentrate their forces. According to Wrangel: Ulagai unfortunately encumbered himself with enormous rearguard impediments. Great reserves of arms, ammunition and provisions had been left at the landingstage. . . . Thus, even whilst they advanced, our units were compelled to look

back all the time. [Meantime]

the enemy had begun to collect their forces to attack

our advanced detachment. There was no time to be lost; every day we wasted gave the enemy another day in which to bring up fresh troops. Yet General Ulagai did not stir . . . the enemy now enjoyed an overwhelming numerical superiority.33

Ulagai’s troops were forced to retreat to Achuev on the Sea of Azov coast and on September 7 they sailed to the Crimea. The unit that landed at Anapa was largely wiped out.** Wrangel’s Kuban invasion failed because of General Ulagai’s indecisiveness; the unwillingness of Cossacks to support the invasion, which seemed to them only an adventure; and Bolshevik military superiority. However, in spite of heavy losses, Ulagai brought back more troops than he had taken with him because of Bolshevik deserters and new recruits. Wrangel’s failure to extend his territorial base into the Kuban and the Don was a turning point of his campaign: The failure of the Kuban operation had robbed us of our last hope of finding a way of continuing the struggle on neighboring Russian territory. Abandoned to our fate as we now were, we would inevitably perish sooner or later.35

Wrangel, nevertheless, decided to make

another effort to strike the

Bolsheviks from a different direction, primarily to gloss over his failure in the Kuban. He informed the French government that because of Bolshevik defeat on the Polish front, “the centre of our operations will have to be shifted to Ukraine.’® Subsequently he decided to strike in two

directions:

across

the Dnieper, and north and east from his lines.

He wished to secure both banks of the Dnieper preparatory to a deeper northern penetration, and to advance into the central Ukraine to establish contact with the Poles. Prior to the trans-Dnieper operation, Wrangel began to advance into the Left Bank, threatening the partisans’ position. Consequently Makhno was compelled to seek an understanding with the Bolsheviks. The Revolutionary Military Council and Makhno’s staff agreed to propose a cessation of hostilities against the Bolsheviks and to join forces with them against Wrangel, but no reply was received.2’ Thus Makhno

Between Wrangel and the Bolsheviks

222

found himself caught between two forces and had to fight both simultaneously. However, in mid-September Wrangel penetrated north to the vicinity of Katerynoslav, and east toward Taganrog, capturing a number of towns including Melitopil’, Oleksandrivs’k, the railroad junction at Synel’nikove, Berdians’k, and Mariupil’. Now Wrangel launched his trans-Dnieper operation near Oleksandrivs’k, forcing the Red troops to retreat all along the front. In several days of fighting he captured over three thousand prisoners, eight guns, six armored

cars, and an armored

train. Mikhail V. Frunze, the newly appointed commander of the southern front of the Bolsheviks, admitted that “by capturing the railroad station in Synel’nikove an undisturbed northward road was open to Wrangel where we had no troops at all.’”38 Wrangel’s success caused the Bolshevik leaders to reconsider Makhno’s earlier proposal. Their motives were “‘to liberate the Red Army’s rear from Makhno’s detachment [and to achieve] an immediate victory over Wrangel.”°9 Lenin explained: According to Trotsky, the question of Makhno was very seriously discussed in military circles, and it was concluded that nothing could be expected but gains. . elements grouped around Makhno have already experienced Wrangel’s regime

and what they can expect from him would not satisfy them. [Thus] our agreement with Makhno is secured by guaranty that he would not act against us. This is the same situation as with Denikin and Kolchak: as soon as they touched the interests of “kulaks” and peasants in general, the latter were coming to our side.40

Thus the Bolshevik authorities decided to contact Makhno. Rakovskii wired Makhno at his headquarters at Bilovodsk in Starobil’s’k district, Kharkiv province, to negotiate directly about a joint campaign against Wrangel. At that time, however, Makhno, being seriously wounded,

authorized

three

members

of his staff, Semen

Karetnyk,

Viktor Bilash, and Viktor Popov, to carry on preliminary negotiations on

September 28, with

Rakovskii’s representatives, Bela Kun, Frunze,

and Sergei J. Gusev (I[Akov Davidovich Drabkin).*! The preliminary military and political agreement was sent to Kharkiv for ratification. For this purpose and for maintaining subsequent contact with the staff of the south front in Kharkiv, Makhno’s military and political representatives, headed by Vasyl Kurylenko and Popov, were dispatched. On October 15 the agreement, which was both military and political, was accepted by both parties.* The military agreement contained four clauses: 1. The Revolutionary Partisan Army of Ukraine (Makhnovites) would join the armed forces of the Republic, as a partisan army, subordinate operationally to the

224

Anarchism of Nestor Makhno

supreme command of the Red Army: it would retain its own internal organization, and the bases of the Red Army would not be introduced. 2. While moving through Soviet territory, or across the fronts, the Revolutionary Partisan Army of Ukraine (Makhnovites) would accept into its ranks neither detachments nor deserters from the Red Army.43 Remarks: a. The Red Army units and isolated Red soldiers, who have met and joined the Revolutionary Partisan Army behind the Wrangel front, should reenter the ranks of the Red Army when they again make contact with it. b. Makhno partisans behind the Wrangel front and local people, again joining the ranks of the Partisan Army, would remain in the latter, even if they were previously mobilized by the Red Army. 3. For the purpose of destroying the common enemy, the White Guards, the

Revolutionary

Partisan Army

of Ukraine

(Makhnovites)

would inform the work-

ing masses who supported it of the agreement that has been concluded, it would call upon the people to cease hostile action against the Soviet authorities; for its part, the Soviet authorities should immediately publish the clauses of the agreement. 4. The families of the Revolutionary Partisan Army (Makhnovites) living in Soviet-held territory were to enjoy the same rights as the families of the Red Army and would receive from the Soviet authorities of Ukraine necessary documents.

The political agreement contained three clauses: 1. Immediate

release,

and

an

end to the persecution

of all Makhno

men

and

anarchists in the territories of the Soviet Republics, except those who carry on armed resistance against the Soviet authorities. 2. Makhno men and anarchists were to have complete freedom of expression for their ideas and principles, by speech and the press, provided that nothing was expressed that tended to a violent overthrow of Soviet government, and on condition that the military censorship be respected. The Soviet authorities would provide Makhno men and anarchists, as revolutionary organizations recognized by the Soviet government, with technical facilities for publications, subject to the technical rules for publications. 3. Makhno men and anarchists were to enjoy full rights of participation in elections to the soviets, including the right to be elected, and free participation in the organization of the forthcoming Fifth All-Ukrainian Congress of Soviets, which should take place next December.

There was a fourth clause in the political agreement that the Bolshevik representatives refused to sign, arguing that it needed a separate discussion and contact with Moscow: One of the basic principles of the Makhno movement being the struggle for selfadministration of the toilers, the Partisan Army brings up a fourth point: in the region of the Makhno movement, the worker and peasant population is to organize and maintain its own free institutions for economic and political self-administration; this region is subsequently to be federated with Soviet republics by means of agreements to be freely negotiated with the appropriate Soviet governmental organ.44

Between Wrangel and the Bolsheviks

220

Although Makhno demanded that the agreement should be published immediately if he were to act on it, the Bolshevik authorities, under various pretexts, delayed its publication. Finally they published only the military agreement, delafing the political agreement for several days, thus blurring its real meaning. As for the fourth political clause, it never was ratified because it was “absolutely unacceptable to the dictatorship of the proletariat.”” The agreement, according to a Bolshevik military historian, was justified only by its ‘‘strategic importance.” However, Trotsky rejoiced “that Makhno men from now on wished to fight not against us, but with us against Wrangel.’* To assure Makhno’s full cooperation, the Bolsheviks released a number of Makhno men and anarchists from prison and the Bolshevik newpaper, the Proletarian, and other Kharkiv newspapers published Trotsky’s declaration, which he issued on October 14, 1920, under the title Makhno 1 Vrangel: Undoubtedly szlachta,

Makhno

actually cooperated with Wrangel, and also with the Polish

as he fought with

them

against the Red

Army.

However,

there was no

formal alliance between them. All the documents mentioning a formal alliance were fabricated by Wrangel. . . . All this fabrication was made to deceive the protectors of Makhno, the French, and other imperialists.46

After the agreement, Makhno moved to the area of the FortySecond Division, arriving at the end of October and setting up his headquarters at Petropavlivka. His army of over ten thousand men consisted mainly of cavalry and machine-gun regiments.*’ Subsequently sensational reports began to appear in the foreign press about Makhno’s joining the Red Army. These reports had a depressing effect upon Wrangel’s troops because, according to the Russian war correspondent, Great hopes were building [Now] the front and the Wrangel-Makhno alliance, how false had been the

around Wrangel’s imaginary alliance with Makhno. . . . rear, which were based on belief in the existence of a received a serious blow to morale. Now it was revealed reports about certain of Makhno’s grand successes and

about his friendly attitude toward Wrangel.48

Wrangel complained, “The bands of the famous ‘Father’ Makhno who up till now had been ‘working’ behind the Red lines, suddenly realized the possibility of profits to be made from plundering the Crimea, and joined the Soviet troops.’*? After liberating Huliai-Pole, Makhno pursued Wrangel southward and in a fierce battle in the area of Orikhiv defeated the strong Drozdovskii group, taking four thousand prisoners.” He then returned to Huliai-Pole to prepare for further campaigns. In mid-October he turned against Wrangel with a strong partisan army of about ten thousand men headed by Karetnyk. It included

226

Anarchism of Nestor Makhno

cavalry units under Oleksander Marchenko and machine-gun detachments under Khoma Kozhyn. Because of his wound, Makhno did not accompany his troops but stayed in Huliai-Pole with his staff and about three thousand men.?! This act initiated the last phase of Wrangel’s efforts. His temporary success in the trans-Dnieper operation ended when he was defeated at the armed fortress of Kakhivka and driven back across the Dnieper with heavy losses. Moreover, the Bolsheviks established an important strategic foothold on the left bank of the Dnieper at Kakhivka, from which they could easily strike at the approach to the Crimea, endangering Wrangel’s position in northern Tavriia.°? The collapse of this operation greatly undermined the spirit of the troops. At about the same time, Wrangel received the news that the Poles had signed an armistice and a preliminary peace treaty with Soviet Russia. Gradually the Red Army command began to transfer troops from the Polish front to the south under a slogan “all against Wrangel.”°> Realizing the seriousness of the situation, Wrangel called a conference of his closest advisors to decide whether to confront the enemy in northern Tavriia or to retreat behind the Isthmus of Perekop. Finally they chose the former alternative because A retreat beyond the isthmus into the Crimea peninsula would not only condemn us to hunger and every kind of privation, but would be the confession of our powerlessness to continue an active struggle; this would deprive us of all future help from France. Once we were shut up in the Crimea, we would cease to be a menace to the Soviet government, and therefore to be of any interest to the Western Powers.54

The final battles took place toward the end of October. The Red Army command planned to destroy Wrangel in northern Tavriia by cutting him off from the Crimea, but the Wrangel troops fought their way to the Isthmus of Perekop, where fierce fighting developed.> To break Wrangel’s resistance there, the Red Army commander,

Makhno army to move in behind Lagoon. Karetnyk and his chief of ever, very hesitant to advance into cious of the Bolsheviks’ intentions.

Frunze, asked the

Wrangel’s troops across the Syvash staff, Petro Havrylenko, were, howthe Crimea because they were suspiFrunze confessed:

It seems that Makhno’s men did not quite trust me and were terribly hesitant to take the field fearing, probably, a kind of trap. Several times Karetnyk and his chief of staff would leave and come to me under the pretext of getting this or that information. Only early in the morning about 5 o’clock did I succeed in sending them to

the front.56

Early on the morning of November 7 the Makhno troops made a

Between Wrangel and the Bolsheviks

Za

surprise attack across the ice of the Syvash Lagoon, beating and driving back the Kuban Cossacks commanded by General Fostikov, who were guarding the Lithuanian peninsula southeast of Perekop. They broke through the heavy fire, advancirfg into the rear of the Perekop forces located at the first fortified position, Armiansk Bazar, and attacking Wrangel’s rear from the left flank. Wrangel’s effort to regain the peninsula by counterattack failed. General Kutepov then retreated from the Perekop position to a second fortified line between Perekop and IUshun. With incredible difficulty, his detachments retreated with heavy losses, leaving their artillery in place. On November 8, the Red troops began a strong frontal attack on the Perekop Isthmus that broke Wrangel’s resistance; his troops, fearing to be cut off, retreated to the southern part of the isthmus, where the struggle went on for a few days. The Red troops continued to force their way deeper into the Crimea, threatening Wrangel’s headquarters at Dzhankoi; Makhno’s troops advanced toward Symferopil’, occupying a number of towns, and on November 13—14 they took the city by storm.®” According to Berkman, who arrived in Moscow at about this time: I was surprised to find the city in festive attire and the people jubilant. The walls were covered with posters announcing the complete rout of Wrangel. Still greater was my astonishment when I glanced at the Bolshevik newspapers. They were full of praise for Nestor Makhno. They called him the Nemesis of the Whites and recited how his cavalry was at that very moment pursuing the remnants of Wrangel’s army across the Crimean Peninsula.58

Wrangel ordered his troops to retreat to various ports of the Crimea for evacuation. Since the termination of the Polish-Soviet Russian war,

Wrangel had foreseen the possibility of a Bolshevik invasion of the Crimea, and he now ordered General Shatilov and Admiral M. A. Kedrov

to put into effect the plan of evacuation that had been prepared jointly by the General Staff and the Admiral of the Fleet at the beginning of May when the British asked Wrangel to come to terms with the Bolsheviks. Moreover, Wrangel had written to King Alexander of Serbia begging him to give the Russian troops shelter in case of need.°? As the troops reached the ports the evacuation began. From November 13 to November

Sevastopil’, them

16,

and

126

ships

left the ports

Evpatoriia

carrying

of Kerch,

150,000

Feodosiia,

persons,

Yalta,

two-thirds

of

officers and soldiers, the other third civilians. Some of the refu-

gees were taken to Turkey and temporarily put in camps. Gradually they were settled in European countries, including Serbia, Bulgaria, Romania, and Greece.

The Wrangel movement was the last Russian attempt to overthrow the Bolshevik regime in Russia. Wrangel had inherited a most unfavor-

228

Anarchism of Nestor Makhno

able situation from Denikin, and had less support than he from prominent Russian statesmen wishing to serve in his government. Like Denikin, he attempted to arouse the population against the Bolshevik regime not in Russia but in Ukraine, in the Don, and the Kuban, with

Allied support. But Wrangel’s army, except for the Don and Kuban armies, consisted primarily of the Russian upper classes, and Wrangel himself was a tsarist officer of aristocratic background. Thus the Wrangel movement respected neither the national aspirations of Ukrainians and other non-Russians, nor the civil liberties of its own people. These circumstances gave the movement the character of a force fighting against the achievements of the Revolution. Wrangel could not bridge the wide gulf of suspicion and hostility between the movement and the population, which was the basic cause of the defeat of the anti-Bolshevik movement. His army was only a vestige of the former Volunteer Army, both in quantity and quality. It had been so decimated and demoralized that its reorganization in the Crimea had been a futile attempt to resuscitate a dead cause. The defeat of the Kuban landing, the destruction of the trans-Dnieper operation, the Polish-Bolshevik armistice, the dread prospect of spending a winter in the Crimea, the growing indications that the White regime did not have the support of the population—all these factors undermined the morale of the army. Moreover, Wrangel’s army contained, besides nonRussians, a large number of Red prisoners, who were inadequately screened and hence unreliable. Wrangel could not establish secure bases in Ukraine, the Don, or

the Kuban, for in the former it was considered a foreign occupation and in the other areas the people had already lost confidence in the leadership of the movement and in the movement itself, prior to the Novorossisk catastrophe. The majority of the Russian people either supported the Bolsheviks or were neutral. Even France supported Wrangel primarily for Poland’s sake and after the end of the PolishBolshevik war, France abandoned him. Although Makhno fought both the Bolsheviks and Wrangel, his contribution to the final defeat of the latter was essential, as is proved by the efforts of both sides to have him as an ally. Without adequate operational bases and a large army, Wrangel could not have coped with the constantly growing Red forces and the Ukrainian partisans for long, and his defeat was almost a foregone conclusion.

Nestor I. Makhno

Makhno’s staff. Front row from left: Oleksander Marchenko, Semen Karetnyk, Vasyliv; back row: Vasyl’ Kurylenko, Viktor Bilash, Petro Petrenko, Roma, Fedir Shchus’, Mel’nyk (Makhno’s driver)

Nestor Makhno, Paris, 1930—31

20. The Last Phase of the Makhno Struggle

Wrangel had been the last major enemy the Bolsheviks had to deal with. Once that threat had passed, they had sufficiently established their power in South Ukraine to dispense with Makhno’s aid. Makhno, for his part, seems to have hoped the Bolsheviks would allow a degree of autonomy for the region of the Makhno movement. According to Victor Serge: “Trotskii was much later (1938, I think) to recount that Lenin and he had thought of recognizing an autonomous region for the anarchist peasants of Ukraine, whose military leader Makhno was.”! Makhno assumed the coming conflict with the Bolsehviks could be limited to the realm of ideas, feeling that the strong revolutionary ideas and feelings of the peasants, together with their distrust of the foreign invaders, were the best guarantees for the movement’s territory. Moreover, Makhno believed that the Bolsheviks would not attack his move-

ment immediately. A respite of some three him to consolidate his power and to win rank and file. It seems Makhno was not the the idea of Red troops deserting to the British war correspondent:

months would have allowed over much of the Bolshevik only one who contemplated partisans. According to the

General Keyes, the chief British political officer in South Russia, went down to Sochi from Novorossisk in a British man-of-war to get into touch with the Greek commanders. He found that the prevailing impression among them was that, once Denikin’s forces were disposed of, the Bolshevik armies would crumble, from desertion and mutinies.2

According to a Bolshevik officer who fought against Makhno, it was

254

232

Anarchism of Nestor Makhno

under the impact of repeated Makhno attacks and the hardships of the march that desertions began in the cavalry. Daily the percentage of those who lagged behind or were lost increased. Desertions occurred even among the mounted reconnaissance patrol, usually under the guise of changing a horse in the village. Thus the Makhno partisan movement adversely affected and promoted the demoralization of the cavalry. The gravity of the problem of desertion from the Red Army to Makhno can be judged from the wording of the military agreement between

Makhno

Wrangel. According followed it: While

moving

through

and

the Bolsheviks

to the second

Soviet

territory,

on

clause

or across

October 15, 1920,

and

the

against

“remarks”

that

the fronts, the Revolutionary

Partisan Army of Ukraine (Makhnovites) would accept into its ranks neither detachments nor deserters from the Red Army. Red Army units and isolated Red soldiers, who have met and joined the Revolutionary Partisan Army behind the Wrangel front, should reenter the ranks of the Red Army when they again make

contact with it.4 However,

events moved

too fast for Makhno.

On November 23, an

order was issued by Frunze at Melitopil’: With the termination of military action against Wrangel because of his defeat, the Revolutionary Military Soviet of the southern front considers that the task of the Partisan Army is completed and asks the Revolutionary Military Council of the Partisan Army to begin immediately the work of integration of the partisan insurrectionary detachments into regular military units of the Red Army. The existence of the Partisan Army as a separate organization is no longer required by the military circumstances. On the contrary, its existence alongside the Red Army detachments, but with separate organization and purpose, would give rise to a completely inadmissable situation.5

Frunze concluded that he would wait till November 26 for the response to his order. This order, however, was not made public till mid-Decem-

ber in the Kharkiv newspaper, The Communist.® As soon as Karetnyk took Symferopil’ he was ordered to occupy the coast from Saky to Zamruk, south from Evpatoriia, where the Red

Army command intended to surround him. On November 26, the plan was ready: one cavalry corps and a division on the north and northeast; one division and three brigades on the west; four brigades on Karetnyk’s south; three in the northwestern part of the Crimea—all were to attack and destroy on November 27.’ However, on the evening of November 26, Karetnyk learned about the plot and promptly advanced to the Symferopil’-Perekop highway, where he soon encountered and defeated the

Last Phase of the Struggle

233

Seventh Cavalry Division and proceeded toward Dzhuma-Ablam. Although the other divisions pursued him they failed to halt his advance. On the night of November $7 Karetnyk arrived at Armians’kyi Bazar, where he divided his troops into two groups, sending one across the Syvash Lagoon, and the other to Perekop, which was held by the First Red Sharpshooters Division. The second group learned the enemy password and passed through their lines at night. On the morning of November 28 both groups united at Strohanivka, north of Perekop. In two days Karetnyk had advanced 130 kilometers. On November 30 a cavalry regiment barred his advance, but he passed it by and attacked and captured a regiment at Tymoshivka. However, the other regiments and two brigades of the Fourth Cavalry Division rescued the prisoners and forced Karetnyk to retreat. Meanwhile, large forces had been concentrated in the area of Karetnyk’s advance and on December 1 the Red troops attacked Karetnyk near Fedorivka, north of Melitopil’, where half of his troops were destroyed. Karetnyk and his staff were captured and executed there. The troop train and all machine guns and rifles were lost. The other half, in loose formations, penetrated the Red

lines. Not all, however, managed to get away: some were killed, about 200 were captured, and Marchenko’s cavalry detachment escaped with only 250 of 1,500 men.? Simultaneously the Red Army command had decided to destroy Makhno in Huliai-Pole and its environs. This task was assigned to the Melitopil’ group that on November 25 completed a double encirclement of Makhno’s forces.!° On November 26, prior to attacking Huliai-Pole, the 126th Brigade, a cavalry regiment, and an armored car unit surrounded Makhno’s Third Regiment at Mala Tokmachka, while the Boguchar Brigade seized the Second Regiment at Voskresenka. However, on the evening of November 26—27, a few hours before the Red

troops were to attack Huliai-Pole, Makhno learned about the plot and with his bodyguard of about two hundred cavalrymen, attacked the enemy and routed them. From there he moved to Novo-Uspenivka. On his way he encountered a cavalry regiment, which hastily retreated, and an International Cavalry Brigade. He avoided heavy engagement and slipped away at night. Instead of pursuing Makhno, the brigade proceeded to Huliai-Pole as ordered, but after reaching the town, the commander failed to notify the other units in the vicinity. Consequently on the morning of November 27 a Red unit attacked Huliai-Pole and fighting ensued for the entire day. Meantime the Second Cavalry Corps took up pursuit of

234

Anarchism of Nestor Makhno

Makhno, forcing him to retreat to Rozivka and the Starodubivka area. During this week of campaigns Makhno not only managed to escape from

the enemy’s

encirclement,

but destroyed

some

Bolshevik

units,

including a cavalry regiment, and captured two Bolshevik batteries. Moreover, he organized a number of new detachments from independent partisan groups and Red troops who left their units, all of which increased his army to 2,500 including 1,000 cavalry.'! After this failure, the Red command

decided to surround Makhno

with more troops in a larger area between the Dnieper and the Sea of Azov. Moreover, to prevent possible cooperation between the Red troops and the Makhno partisans, they used international units, Russian troops from the trans-Volga region, and Kirghizians.!? In addition, on December 6, they decided to replace the Melitopil’ group with the augmented Fourth Army. This force formed a Melitopil’—Berdians’k— Huliai-Pole western front line. Simultaneously a northern group was established that formed a Pokrovs’ke—Velyka Mykhaihvka—Bahatyr front line. The Second Cavalry Corps operated against Makhno from the east.!8 As the Red command concentrated its forces against Makhno, his units were in the vicinity of a Greek town, Staryi Kermenchyk, in Mariupil’ district. On December 7 Marchenko’s cavalry detachment arrived at Kermenchyk. Marchenko reported to Makhno: “I have the honour of announcing the return of the Crimean Army... . Yes, brothers

. . . now,

at last, we

know

what the Communists

are.’’!*

Some time later Makhno declared in the same vein: In this difficult and responsible revolutionary position the Makhno movement made one great mistake: alliance with the Bolsheviks against a common enemy, Wrangel and the Entente. In the period of this alliance that was morally right and of practical value for the revolution, the Makhno

tionism

movement

mistook

the Bolshevik revolu-

and failed to secure itself in advance against betrayal. The Bolsheviks and

their experts

treacherously

circumvented

it and, although with difficulty, for the

time being defeated [us] .15

Later, Volin, who in the Cheka prison in Moscow told the chief of the operations section of the Cheka that the Bolshevik action against Makhno was treacherous, received this answer: Ah, you call it treacherous? That only demonstrates your ineradicable naivete. As for us Bolsheviks, we see it as a proof that we learned much since the beginning of the Revolution and have now become really skilful statesmen. This time we did not let ourselves

be victimized. When

we needed Makhno,

we took advantage of him,

and when we had no further need of his services, and he began to be something of a nuisance, we got rid of him completely.16

Last Phase of the Struggle

235

As the Bolsheviks were closing the circle, Makhno, instead of break-

ing through the line as the Bolsheviks expected, by a skillful maneuver advanced toward the Sea of Azove On December 12 Makhno attacked Berdians’k, destroyed its garrison, a cavalry brigade of the Second Don Division, the Cheka,

and Communists.

Also he captured war material,

including three guns.!”? Again the Red Troops surrounded Makhno and scheduled an attack on December 15. However, on the evening of December 14 Makhno advanced north and made a surprise attack on the 126th Brigade in the early morning; after four hours, he defeated it at Andriivka. Simultaneously other Makhno units fought the Kharkiv Brigade of the Elite Troops, units of the 124th Brigade, and the Ninth Cavalry Division. According to Makhno, in the battle at Andriivka he imprisoned the entire Forty-Second Division and half of the Fortieth Division thus capturing over eight thousand prisoners, of whom a large number volunteered to join him. The same night Makhno released his prisoners,!® divided his troops into small groups, and slipped through the enemy lines. Early the next morning he routed a cavalry regiment and two brigades at Popivka, and several miles away, at Kinski-Rozdory, Makhno captured their supply base.!9 A Bolshevik author asks: How did it happen, how could it happen, when, in order to catch Makhno, an entire army was brought into action? Very simple. At this time our command failed to

take into account the speed of Makhno’s advance, lost track [of him] for one day, and was very skeptical about the likelihood of Makhno’s cause

it was indeed

attack on Berdians’k be-

already enclosed, as if in a sack. However, by his audacity and

speed Makhno not only defeated Berdians’k and slipped out of the sack, but also escaped from the circle of our troops before they took up their positions for putting their plan into action.20

That night when Makhno left Andriivka, units of the Forty-Second Division and a composite division occupied the town. Later the Second Cavalry Corps attacked the town, creating panic and confusion in both groups. Meanwhile Makhno advanced northwest toward Nikopil’, crossing the frozen Dnieper to the Right Bank and bypassing the First Cavalry Army sent from Katerynoslav against him. From there he moved north; having passed Katerynoslav he again crossed the Dnieper and advanced

through the Poltava province to Biriuch, Voronezh prov-

ince. Then he turned west and by way of Kupianka, Lyman, and Bakhmut was by the end of January 1921 back at Huliai-Pole. This long raid was made at such speed that the Red troops pursuing Makhno frequently lost touch with him. Moreover, the presence of other partisan groups on the Left Bank further confused the Bolshevik command

236

Anarchism of Nestor Makhno

and made the pursuit of Makhno yet more difficult. Thus the Bolsheviks failed to surround and destroy Makhno both at Huliai-Pole and at Staryi Kermenchyk. Later a Bolshevik author regretfully declared that the plan “to finish Makhno at one stroke failed.”7! After the attack on Huliai-Pole the partisans found undated leaflets on the captured Bolshevik prisoners, issued by the political section of the Fourth Army, entitled Forward agaist Makhno! and Death to Makhno! They admitted they had received them on November 15—16. These leaflets accused Makhno of violating the agreement, of having refused to go to the Caucasian front, and of having planned an uprising against the Bolshevik regime. At the same time that Karetnyk was attacked in the Crimea and Makhno at Huliai-Pole, the Bolsheviks, in a concerted series of moves, arrested all the known anarchists in

Ukraine under their control. The entire Makhno delegation in Kharkiv was seized and sent to Moscow, where they were executed in 1921. All anarchist organizations and presses were destroyed.”* During the 1920—21 winter campaign, to assure a victory over Makhno, the Red Army command employed the device of mass encirclement.

This

tactic, however,

proved ineffective,

for they moved

aimlessly without close coordination or adequate information, among a hostile population. According to Robert P. Eideman, the commander of the Red troops pursuing Makhno: “The struggle against Makhno at this period was of an extremely unsystematic, almost chaotic, character. Units were advancing, marching as if blind.’”?3 According to a Bolshevik officer: “After the end of the Crimean campaign our command selected very large forces to destroy Makhno, but the result turned out to be insignificant. Makhno slipped away, kept his army almost intact, made deep raids throughout Ukraine.”** In contrast to the Red Army, the Makhno troops maneuvered skillfully and swiftly, violently attacking the enemy when and where he was least expected. Eideman admitted: After careful study of Makhno’s routes of advance, it appeared that his advance was not dominated by such chaotic freedom of action as it seemed to us during the first period of the struggle. The basic advantages of a partisan are his speed of movement

combined with a constant change of horses (slogan: each village has a horse depot); familiarity with the countryside and hence advantage in battle; an intelligence system and perfect reconnaisance that was based on the sympathy of the population. [However], all that taken together limits the partisans’ freedom of action and binds them to certain areas. [Moreover] , Makhno never burdened himself with unnecessary supply trains; the wounded were left to the care of the sympathetic population, and superfluous arms and cartridges were hidden in certain spots and areas.

The

support

of the population

was

a significant

advantage

to

Last Phase of the Struggle

297

Makhno, for they supplied the partisans with needed material, including horses and food, while the Red troops operated among a foreign and hostile people. Moreover, they not only “met Red Army detachments maliciously, refusing to give anything, [but they also] gave no answers to questions; when there were answers, then [they were] extremely vague and confusing.”*6 In contrast to the Bolsheviks, Makhno partisans received detailed, accurate information from the population at all times. A Bolshevik officer complained that Makhno’s informers were everywhere and knew about the movement of the Red troops: All

the

region

of

Katerynoslav,

Synel’nikove,

Hryshyne,

Dolia,

Volnovakha,

Mariupil’, Berdians’k, Melitopil’ was full of bandit groups of different sizes and different kinds. Spies and informers of the Makhno partisans were in each village, in each grange, roamed all the time and everywhere, appearing as beggars, Red Army men seeking their units, workers from mines exchanging coal for bread, seemingly repentant

orphans Makhno

deserters,

or

even

former

Communists,

injured

women,

widows,

and

looking for “shelter and justice, and others.’ This is why the staff of men was always provided with accurate, verified, and timely informa-

tion.27

With great determination Makhno continued to fight the pursuing Red troops. His numerous victories gave him a large supply of arms and ammunition, and his army more than doubled. At the turn of 1920, it consisted of ten to fifteen thousand men.*8 Eideman admitted that: The problem of this prolonged campaign lies not only in general conditions (political, weakness of the Soviet apparatus in Ukraine, especially the village, and others), but in the army itself, and above all, in its lack of knowledge in fighting an adversary who was using partisan tactics. . . . brought to perfection by Makhno. All of these were new to most of the commanders; it required experience on the battlefield itself, and sometimes there was a high cost for the lesson.29

The growing strength of the Makhno army and its successes caused serious concern in the Bolshevik regime, so it was decided to increase the number of troops opposing Makhno. Before long he was being opposed by several divisions of infantry and cavalry, but by skillful maneuvers he succeeded in breaking through the enemy lines and attacking their rear. Still, the situation was growing worse as the number of Red troops was increasing. Makhno learned from captured Red officers that the command was planning to surround his army with four army corps, two cavalry, and two mixed, and that several divisions were

coming soon. Similar information was supplied by peasants, and it also agreed with Makhno’s own observations and conclusions.*° In view of the enormous mass of Red troops assembled in the

238

Anarchism of Nestor Makhno

region, it became apparent that the defeat of two or three Red divisions was of no importance. Makhno’s previous illusions that by winning some victories he would force the Red troops to retreat from his region soon evaporated. The question was no longer one of achieving victory over the Red troops, but of escaping complete annihilation. In addition, the Bolshevik command began to study the areas where people were sympathetic to Makhno, his supply centers, and his moves. Gradually it began to understand that their tactics of fighting Makhno were wrong because, as one Bolshevik officer pointed out, this ‘“‘small war”’ requires different organization, different training of troops, from the war against Wrangel or, let us say, against the White Poles. Our units maintained a cumbersome,

burdensome

on the other hand, [used] environment

rear; hence, we acted slowly, heavily, while Makhno,

speed and bold maneuver.

We have not considered the

that nourishes the criminal bands. They have their bases, that is, cer-

tain segments of the population, a flexible structure, stand behind them.31

Consequently the Red command worked out new plans to fight Makhno by stationing whole regiments, primarily cavalry, in the occupied villages to terrorize the peasants and prevent them from supporting Makhno. The movement of multitudes of Red Army troops through the countryside created difficulties and did great damage to the population. Also the Cheka punitive units were ‘constantly trailing the partisans, executing Makhno’s sympathizers and the partisans’ families.°* According to Eideman: Our punitive policy directed against the bandits among the “‘kulaks’’ and the “‘atamans’” themselves, assisted by a general amnesty for common criminals,

brought about a decay in Makhno’s band [and] undermined the confidence of his own subjects.33

To pursue Makhno more effectively, the Red Command improved the communication system and established an intelligence service to watch and inform Red units and local authorities about his movements. In view of the Bolsheviks’ enormous numerical superiority the Revolutionary Military Council agreed there was no prospect of holding the southern region. Consequently Makhno began to expand his territory of movement, covering all Ukraine, and even beyond its borders to the Don, Volga, Kuban, and Kursk-Saratov regions. As a result, the Bol-

sheviks began to apply new tactics in fighting Makhno, and Frunze was placed in charge of Eideman’s operations. The strategy was a continuous pursuit of Makhno without respite. Formation of flexible, specially designed mobile units, and armored car detachments. Denial of partisan access to the areas sympathetic to them. Broad propaganda work among the population to

Last Phase of the Struggle

239

explain the measures taken by the Bolshevik authorities in the village to win all the layers of poor and middle peasants to their side.34

Makhno was contantly surroupded by a network of Red troops and pursued by small detachments, especially by cavalry and armored car units.2° All his movements either along or across railroad lines were watched and harassed by armored trains. Moreover, the partisans were barred from the main roads and they had to move across the fields and roadless steppes. During the winter and most of the spring such routes were covered with snow, ice, and mud. Although Makhno was thus able to avoid encounters with large Red units, the conditions necessitated abandoning all his artillery and certain supplies.2© Makhno had to divide his army into small detachments to facilitate crossing enemy lines, after which they would reassemble in an agreed place. During these movements the partisans destroyed railroad lines, blew up trains and bridges, and seized military supply stores. In spite of the difficult conditions Makhno was able to attract some Red Army soldiers and even whole units to his side. When the partisans were fighting Budenny’s Fourth Cavalry Division, their First Brigade, commanded by Maslak,

joined Makhno.?’ In early spring the partisans were chased back and forth across southern Ukraine. In mid-March a Makhno detachment of 1,500 cavalry and two regiments of infantry was attacked by large Red units, but Makhno counterattacked, capturing many prisoners and war material. Two days later, however, he was attacked again by fresh Bolshevik troops. During a counterattack Makhno was badly wounded and the partisans, assuming he was killed, lost spirit and retreated. He lost much blood and was unconscious for one day, subsequently retiring with a small unit to safety, but on March 16, the Ninth Cavalry Division came upon the unit and pursued it for thirteen hours over 180 versts. Although the next day Makhno eluded his pursuers, changing horses at Slobidka,

on the shore

of the Azov

Sea, soon he was attacked again.

Near Starodubky, in the Mariupil’ district, the unit undertook delaying action against the Red troops with heavy machine-gun fire.°8 According to Makhno: Five

of my

machine-gun

men

surrounded

me,

bidding me

farewell and saying:

“Bat’ko, you are needed by our peasant organization. This cause is dear to us. We will die now, but by our death we will save you and all who are faithful to you and guard you; do not forget to convey this to our parents.” Someone kissed me, and

then I saw none of them around me. . . . I heard only the rattle of machine guns and the detonation of grenades; these were the machine-gun men blocking the way of the Bolsheviks.39

240

Anarchism of Nestor Makhno

Although the entire force died, Makhno escaped in a peasant cart. After his recovery Makhno assembled about two thousand men, mostly cavalrymen, in Kobeliaky district, Poltava province, and advanced against the Bolshevik headquarters at Kharkiv. His troops, however, encountered several divisions of cavalry and infantry and over sixty armored cars. During the ensuing weeks of combat in the area, Makhno’s troops suffered many losses, including a few commanders.*” Makhno retreated to the south and ran into Budenny, whose Nineteenth Cavalry Division was advancing from Katerynoslav province toward the Don on May 18 to put down a peasant uprising. Budenny had ordered his sixteen armored cars to advance along the main road toward Novohryhoriivka while he and part of the division moved across the fields. Budenny

arrived before

the cars, was

overtaken

by Makhno, and the

following battle became a nightmare. Budenny’s unit consisted of Russians, including Siberians, who came to Ukraine unfamiliar with the situation and the Makhno movement. They had been assured the Makhno partisans were common bandits and it was a point of honor not to retreat before bandits. Subsequently many of Budenny’s soldiers deserted and victorious Makhno formed a combat unit from the Siberians, under the command

of Glazunov, that was sent to Siberia to

fight the Bolsheviks.*! On another occasion Budénny’s unit ran into a small detachment of Makhno men. An eyewitness described the reaction of the Makhno

men: They had evidently not seen us and were taken by surprise. . . . We prepared to pursue them-—we were sure they’d turn and flee—we outnumbered them five to one. Well, before we knew it, they had galloped straight into us, slashing right and left with their sabres and shouting “Liberty or death.”’ Their attack was so unex-

pected, so incredibly reckless, that our men became panicky. We fled.42

The unequal fighting continued during the summer. The Bolsheviks began to use smaller, more flexible Red units and armored cars in fighting Makhno.*?

Meanwhile,

through

combat

losses, hardship, and sick-

ness, the number of Makhno partisans was diminishing and they were cut off from their main sources of recruits and supplies. The Ukrainian peasants were tired of the endless terror caused by the successive occupation of village after village by the Red troops and the Cheka. The continuous fighting and requisitions were leaving the peasants with little food and horses for the partisans. They could not live in a state of permanent revolution. Moreover, there was extreme drought and consequently a bad harvest in Ukraine, especially in the region of the

Last Phase of the Struggle Makhno

movement.

Some

241 moved

to the region of Kuban,

Tsaritsyn,

and Saratov; others toward Kyiv and Chernihiv; while Makhno moved to the Volga and back across the Don.* Finally, the impact of economic and other conditions in Russia and the occupied lands, and the Kronstadt uprising at the beginning of March, forced Lenin to find a way out of the chaotic situation that War Communism brought about. Consequently, on March 8, a compromise economic system, the New Economic Policy (NEP) was inaugurated that annulled the hated requisitions. This measure reconciled or pacified some of the revolution-weary peasants. In the light of these conditions and of the severity of Makhno’s wounds, it was decided that Makhno would go abroad for medical treatment. On August 13, Makhno, accompanied by a cavalry unit consisting of one hundred men and several commanders including Kozhyn, Petrenko, and Zabud’ko, who also were wounded, set out west toward

the Dnieper. Three days later they crossed the Dnieper between Kremenchuk and Orlyk.*2 When Makhno turned westward, Vasilii K. Bliukher, who arrived in the Makhno region in the summer of 1921 to study his campaign movements,*© learned about the direction of Makhno’s movement from the peasants. He concluded that Makhno was moving toward Bessarabia and wired Frunze in Kharkiv about his assumption concerning Makhno’s plan. Bliukher’s aide expressed his optimism: “Now Makhno will not escape from Ukraine; he will not be allowed to slip through into Bessarabia.””*’ On August 19, Makhno came upon the Seventh Cavalry Division camping along the Inhulets River, about 12 versts from Bobrynets. Since he was seen by Red troops, Makhno felt there was no retreat; he attacked the division’s machine-gun unit stationed in a nearby village, overwhelming it and capturing sixteen machine guns. Later Makhno attacked the other troops, including the Thirty-Eighth Regiment, cut a passage through and rode 110 versts, pursued by the enemy without respite. In the course of the struggle Makhno lost seventeen brave friends and on August 22 was again severely wounded. Four days later the unit was again attacked and two commanders, Petrenko and Ivaniuk, were killed. Subsequently Makhno changed the course of the advance and on August 28 he and his remaining eighty-three followers crossed the Dniester, near I[Ampil into Romania.*

21. Epilogue

The Romanian authorities put Makhno, his wife, and his followers into an internment camp in a medieval citadel in Bragov, Transylvania, which had been converted into a military prison.! The Bolshevik government sent a series of sharp diplomatic notes demanding Makhno’s extradition, which were rejected by the Romanian government,” who,

nevertheless,

encouraged months

Makhno

to

avoid

a possible

conflict

to leave the country.

in Romania, Makhno

with

Soviet

Russia,

After seven and one-half

and his followers crossed the Polish bor-

der on April 11, 1922, and gave themselves up to the Polish police.? They were interned in a camp at Strzatkow, with the troops of the Ukrainian People’s Republic.* Polish authorities also considered Makhno’s presence in Poland undesirable.

Moreover,

Moscow

demanded

his

extradition

on

the

ground that he was a criminal and not entitled to political asylum.® Although the Polish government rejected this demand, it accused Makhno of organizing an insurrection in East Galicia with the intention of incorporating it into the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic. This alleged organization of an uprising was a provocation of the Polish political police, who were in contact with the Bolshevik mission in Warsaw. Consequently at the end of October 1922, Makhno was arrested and put in the Mokotow prison in Warsaw.® He was suffering from tuberculosis and in prison his health deteriorated. When a visitor to the prison offered him a cigarette, . . Makhno inhaled smoke into his lungs again and a strong cough overwhelmed him. Uttering the words with difficulty and coughing, he went on: “‘I acquired lung

242

Epilogue

243

illness at the time of my imprisonment at the Butyrki prison. It seemed that with years, it had passed; however, it is not so. Now the illness is appearing again.’

With a certain pride Makhno told the visitor that his wife was with him and that she had given birth to a daughter called Liusia. Although Makhno was brought to trial, he was subsequently acquitted and, on November 27, 1923, after thirteen months in prison, was released. He

remained when

in Poland under police surveillance until late fall of 1924,

he left for Danzig, where

he was arrested again.® However, be-

cause he was suffering from tuberculosis, he was brought to the Danzig city hospital by police who regularly checked transients for communicable diseases. The anarchists in Danzig eventually helped him to escape from the hospital, and for forty days he hid in the city. The anarchists tried to smuggle him to Stettin by ship, but when they failed, Makhno and two others crossed the Polish Corridor to Germany in March 1925. From

there he went to Paris, where he had decided to settle. Later he

wrote: “[Now] I am in Paris, among foreigners, and among political enemies whom [I had] so much to fight.’ For many

reasons Makhno’s

life in Paris was most difficult, and he

was unable to improve his material conditions or rise above his psychological misery. He was suffering from consumption and wounds that failed to heal.!? He never succeeded in learning sufficient French and was not able to adapt himself to the environment that was so different from what he was accustomed to in Ukraine. According to Berkman: I was shocked at his appearance. The storm and stress of his year-long struggle, physical and mental suffering, had reduced the strong, stockily built povstantsy leader to a mere shadow. His face and body were scarred by wounds, his shattered foot made him permanently lame. Yet his spirit remained unbroken and he still dreamed

of returning to his native land and taking up again the struggle for liberty

and social justice. Life in exile was insupportable to him; he felt torn out by the

very roots and he yearned for his beloved Ukraina.!1

Although occasionally he got work at a plant or in a factory, his illness and inadequate knowledge of French prevented him from holding work for long. French, Spanish, and American anarchists collected money to provide Makhno with a modest income for his life. Makhno’s wife and daughter opened a small grocery store in Vincennes, Seine, 18, rue de la Jarry; Makhno, however, lived a largely separate life.!* Makhno devoted some of his time to writing and publishing a number of articles in different anarchist periodicals and newspapers and, although he apparently intended to write the history of his struggle, he failed to do so.! He managed, however, to write incomplete memoirs

244 dealing with the Ukrainian

Anarchism of Nestor Makhno Revolution. Three volumes appeared, the

first in Russian and French, while the author was still alive; the second

and third in Russian only, posthumously. Makhno, physically and psychologically tormented, was further distressed by bitter feuds among the anarchist leaders in Paris. Disagreements developed and divided Arshinov from Alexander Berkman, Emma Goldman, and Volin. Initially Makhno aligned himself with Arshinov; however, when Arshinov advocated an anarchist policy of recognizing the Stalin regime in 1931, he withdrew his support and generally remained aloof from the anarchist leaders’ feud.!* During his last years Makhno grew weary of life and nostalgia for Ukraine filled his thoughts. His health declined steadily and he spent the last months of his life in Tenon Hospital in Paris. On July 27, 1934, Makhno died, and the next day he was cremated. About four hundred French, Russian, Spanish, Italian, and Jewish anarchists, including only two Ukrainians, his widow and his daughter, paid last tribute to

Makhno.!® Many speakers, including the French anarchist Bonar, and Volin, glorified Makhno as a fighter for liberty. The urn containing Makhno’s ashes was placed in Pére-Lachaise cemetery.!© Later it was moved several times and vault 6706 was finally purchased at PéreLachaise by anarchists from New York as a permanent resting place.!”

Conclusion

The developments in Ukraine during the Revolution were to a great extent the result of the Ukrainian political, cultural, and socioeconomic

heritage. Through the destruction of the Zaporozhian Sich and the autonomous hetman state, Ukraine was deprived of its defensive force and of its political and cultural institutions. Large estates were carved out of the lands of the Zaporozhian Cossacks, mainly as grants to court favorites and later for the foreign elements that were settled there. The Cossack officers in the former hetman state were tied to the interests of the Russian Empire as a result of receiving the privileges of the Russian nobility, whereas the peasantry was reduced to serfdom, widening social differences between the classes and weakening the unity of the Ukrainian people. The submission of the metropolitan of Kyiv to the jurisdiction of the patriarch of Moscow dealt a severe blow to the Ukrainian Orthodox church.

In

addition,

the

Ukrainian

schools,

because

their

curricula

were subjected to hostile Russian censorship, were forced to become instruments for denationalization. The institutions of higher learning and secondary schools, which were founded by the church and were open to all classes, gradually decayed when the Russians seized church properties. The combination of resentment at the oppressive measures against Ukrainian national life, the influx of new ideas from the French Revolution, the Napoleonic wars, and the Polish uprising in 1830—31,

stimulated the national revival. The Crimean War and Russia’s defeat brought about far-reaching reforms. Ukrainian scholars and littérateurs 245

246

Anarchism of Nestor Makhno

strove for a cultural revival by collecting various documents and studying national history, folklore, and language. Educational and cultural activities were launched among the emancipated peasants to improve their difficult economic condition and to increase their national consciousness. Similarly, in the cities, societies were organized to foster national consciousness among the population. The Russian government, seeing a threat to the unity of the empire in these activities, initiated a period of systematic persecution of the national movement that lasted, except for brief interludes, until 1917. At the turn of the century, awareness of national identity increased, stimulated by the revolutionary activities in Russia, the growth of industrialization, and the construction of railroads. However, industrial

expansion also altered the composition and distribution of the population. The Russian and other non-Ukrainian population increased substantially, the new socioeconomic structure strengthened ties with Russian interests and, to some extent, handicapped the national movement. Its full impact, however, was not evident until the Revolution in 1917. Although the Revolution of 1905 and the October Manifesto awakened great expectations among national leaders, their hopes soon vanished when the brief respite of the Revolution regressed to an even more oppressive policy. The outbreak of the First World War only intensified coercive measures against Ukrainian national life. At the time that the Russian

Revolution

broke

out in 1917, the

establishment and maintenance of the Ukrainian state was proving difficult. The struggle for national revival prior to the Revolution was confined primarily to the cultural sphere and offered its devotees little practical administrative and political experience. Although initially the national-political aspirations of the Ukrainian people were unequivocally manifested in the creation of the Central Rada, which ultimately directed its efforts toward attaining the complete independence of Ukraine, the Rada was unable to translate them into a concrete program of administrative, social, and military reform. The interference of

the Russian Provisional Government in Ukrainian affairs, the presence of Russian armies in Ukraine fighting on the Austro-German fronts, and the Rada’s inability to train and establish a strong administrative apparatus prevented it from firmly establishing its power. Because of its broad interpretation of democracy, the Rada did little to stop the activities of hostile elements against Ukrainian statehood. Nor did it build a military force that could lend muscle to the national struggle, thinking in terms of a militia rather than a standing army. Moreover, the Ukrainian educated class was divided over the conflicting currents

Conclusion

247

of national independence and socialist internationalism. Thus the national leaders failed to unite the nation under one leadership or to organize one front to defend the state. Although the patriotic slogans employed by the Rada were appealing to the middle class and to educated peasants and workers, many of the peasants were captivated by the Bolshevik promise of land. The outlook of the Rada was constantly lagging behind the rapid advance of the Revolution, particularly with regard to the agrarian question, for the leaders of the Rada were not yet prepared to face the peasant problem. The cumulative weight of the internal obstacles to national unity was very serious, and the newly established state was immediately challenged by the Bolshevik invasion. The Austro-German troops invited to help repel the invaders overthrew the Rada, which was supplanted by the hetman government. From

the outset

the hetman

worked

under

difficult conditions,

being hemmed in between conflicting foreign and national interests. The presence of Austro-German troops limited his sovereignty and at the same time the reactionary members of his cabinet and administration, consisting to a great extent of Russians or Russified elements, tolerated the hetman state only so long as international politics made it necessary. Furthermore, they made efforts to discredit the hetman government and Ukrainian statehood in the eyes of the populace. In contradistinction to German and Russian goals, the Ukrainians hoped the hetman would maintain order, preserve their freedom, and provide security from Austro-German interference and the Bolshevik threat. Although the hetman intended to give his government a national character and to pursue an independent national policy, he had only partial success. The reactionary nature of the regime’s new policies turned the progressive majority, and hence the whole population, against the hetman. Moreover, favoritism toward the upper class, especially the landlords, who collaborated with the Austrian and German troops to organize punitive expeditions against the peasants, made the situation worse. There was passive resistance at first, and subsequently a self-defense force, the partisan movement. After the defeat of the Germans by the Western powers in 1918, the hetman regime was overthrown by the troops of the Directory. The Directory had to face even more serious domestic and foreign problems than its predecessor. The consolidation of power started by the Rada had been interrupted by the Austro-German and Russian interference. Some of the administrative personnel of the hetman

248

Anarchism of Nestor Makhno

period left the country or went into hiding, leaving the Directory with still fewer trained personnel. Moreover, leaders in distant provinces seeking to establish contact with the Directory were cut off from the center by the lack of communications and by enemy invasions, and the Directory was unable to establish its power in the country. Some of the distant provinces were controlled by various partisan leaders, who worked with the Directory; other partisan leaders were unwilling to subordinate themselves to the Directory, and some even followed independent courses of opposition. The constant change of authority and the interminable warring created apathy among the population. The peasants, in particular, had considered the Austro-German troops and the landlord-police punitive detachments their enemies, and they fought them desperately. When those enemies were gone and the Russian Communists were not yet a threat, most of the partisans who fought under the banner of the Directory left the army, feeling that their war was over. The country was threatened from all sides. The most serious threat came from the new Soviet Russian invasion and the French intervention assisted by the Denikin troops. One view expressed in the Directory favored an understanding with the Bolsheviks against the French; the opposite, common action with the French against the Bolsheviks. When the latter view prevailed, the Social Democrats and Socialist Revolutionaries withdrew from the Directory, which then sought the active support of the Entente against the Bolshevik invasion. The Entente, however, adhered to the policy of a “united and indivisible Russia.” As a result of negotiations with representatives of the Entente, the Directory undermined its own unity and aroused opposition from Ukrainian parties of both the Right and the Left. It also gave the Bolsheviks material for propaganda, for they accused the Directory of inviting a new foreign invasion, and rekindled the fear that Denikin, now

associated

with

the Entente,

would

restore

the rule of the land-

lords. The Directory was further weakened when the two main partisan leaders, Hryhor’iv and Makhno, whose objectives appeared to have greater appeal than those of the Directory, joined the Red Army instead of the Directory in its fight against the invaders. Thus the Directory struggled against overwhelming odds, without adequate arms, military equipment, or medical supplies, and with, in the midst of all this, a devastating typhus epidemic. Consequently the superior invasion forces of the Bolsheviks and Denikin compelled the exhausted Ukrainian Army to retreat to the western limits of Right Bank Ukraine and seek the support of the Entente through alliance with Poland.

Conclusion

249

Meanwhile, the Directory reorganized its forces for guerrilla warfare. Although allied with the Poles, at the sacrifice of Ukrainian territory, and together with them fighting ,the Bolsheviks, the Directory failed to gain the support of the Entente, and the Polish government, ignoring the Directory, made its own separate peace settlement with the Bolsheviks in the autumn of 1920. The Ukrainian governments were not able to establish firm authority in the country and to defend it, not only because they and the people were ill-prepared for statehood, but also because Ukraine was an object of foreign invasions, a battleground of the Russian Civil War, and a highway for invading forces. The Russian anti-Bolshevik movement, which was organized outside Russia proper, seriously affected the Ukrainian Revolution, for although Denikin’s primary aim was to overthrow the Bolshevik regime in Russia, he first fought to destroy Ukrainian statehood. As a result of the terror and exploitation of the invasions and the residue of military experience and arms brought from the war, a partisan movement came into existence, particularly in Left Bank Ukraine. These partisans were isolated from one another and were never organized into a single nationwide force. Moreover, some of the partisan troops failed to coordinate their actions with the Ukrainian regular army. The strongest partisan force that led its warfare independently from other partisan groups and the Ukrainian army was that of Nestor Makhno. Makhno was a product of an environment that had nearly lost its national identity. The absence of Ukrainian schools and cultural and political organizations, as a result of Russian policy, left people, especially the younger generation, without strong national leadership. Political terror perpetrated by the regime, especially during the Revolution

of

1905,

led Makhno,

like other

young

men,

to radical,

non-

nationalist organizations and to terrorist actions, resulting in imprisonment. Although during his years of imprisonment in Russia Makhno matured intellectually by reading, conversation, and introspection, the environment distracted him from Ukrainian national life and problems. Moreover, the experience in prison increased Makhno’s bitterness against prisons and governmental authority. In prison Makhno solidified his anarchist ideology and developed a sense of sociopolitical mission that he manifested later in his activities. Makhno was freed after the February Revolution and he arrived in his native town as a political hero, subsequently playing a leading role in shaping the sociopolicial life of his town and gradually of the region. He initiated the peasants’ movement, confiscating and distributing

250

Anarchism of Nestor Makhno

landlords’ land and goods, and encouraging the workers to take over factories and workshops, at first “legally” and later by force. Undoubtedly the terrorist actions were, the continuation of Makhno’s prearrest period but on a larger scale. To carry on his actions more effectively, Makhno organized armed detachments, making raids upon landlords’ estates, depots, freight and passenger trains, expropriating goods and terrorizing the owners. Attempts of the local authorities and patriotic Ukrainians to prevent Makhno from destructive involvement failed, while he was hardly aware that he spread destruction; he believed he was building a new and better world. The vicissitudes of the Revolution, the Bolshevik invasion, and the

arrival of the Austro-German troops halted Makhno’s terrorist activities. The overthrow of the Central Rada and the establishment of the hetman regime, however, created conditions that brought Makhno back into

action,

in what

became

known

as the Makhno

movement.

The

hetman’s policies created adverse conditions that were particularly manifested in the Austro-German and landlords’ punitive expeditions against the countryside. Such policies brought about spontaneous peasant uprisings that played into Makhno’s hands, giving him a cause and new strength. During this period of his activities, Makhno was no longer a terrorist, but rather a popular leader fighting the enemies of the people, defending their properties and freedom. With the development of the Revolution, Makhno became more conscious of his movement’s role and task. New obstacles spurred him to greater efforts in which he displayed unusual cunning, initiative, bravery, will power, and great resourcefulness. Makhno learned to make quick decisions in critical situations. In time, the confidence the partisans had in him bound the movement together and his terrorism and dictatorial inclination were substantially checked by the increasingly constructive and patriotic attitudes of the army, the population upon which Makhno heavily depended, and the cause for which he was fighting. Makhno was keenly aware of the importance of an effective military force to defend the achievements of the Revolution. In contrast to other partisan leaders

and some

national

leaders, Makhno

devoted

his ability, energy, and time to this goal and managed not only to unify all the partisan groups in southeastern Ukraine, but to organize and discipline them into a most effective partisan army. Moreover, together with his associates, Makhno

invented new tactics for the conditions he

faced: swift and maneuverable light carts armed with machine guns, clever ruses in military operations, disguises, and infiltration in enemy

Conclusion

Ow

ranks—all of which brought terror to the hearts of his adversaries. The population not only supported the partisans, giving them lodging, food, and horses, but also put pursuing enemy troops on a false trail, while the partisans remained in the village, or went in the opposite direction. As an anarchist Makhno strongly opposed not only the landlords and factory owners, but all governments, native or foreign, because he felt that all forms of government represented the violence of a minority over the majority. Makhno was the veritable incarnation of the peasants’ social revolutionary spirit. He fought in the name of what he, and the peasants supporting him, believed was freedom. The peasants should look after the land, the workers after the factories, and if there

were any problems they should get together and decide what should be done. Such ideas were appealing to the peasants and made Makhno popular. In contrast to his unique military ability and success in the field, Makhno lacked the broader worldly orientation he needed to understand political problems and to make correct decisions. In that respect he was not equal to the task brought on him by revolutionary conditions, and his actions were unequal to the gravity of the situation. If two enemies threatened his movement, Makhno would join forces with the less dangerous against the more dangerous in order to prevent strengthening both of them. Although Makhno collaborated with the Bolsheviks, he was critical and suspicious of them from the beginning. His distrust, however, was based not upon knowledge of the Bolsheviks’ character, but upon his experience with them; therefore, each time he failed to take the necessary steps to secure the movement against Bolshevik betrayal. Had Makhno possessed more political sophistication, he would have placed less trust in Bolshevik promises and used his numerous victories to secure his movement against the enemy. During the earlier stage of the Revolution, Makhno assumed that the conflict with the Bolsheviks could be limited to the realm of ideas; he thought that the radical revolutionary attitude of the peasants and their resentment of the foreign invaders were the best guarantees for the territory of his movement. Moreover, Makhno naively believed that the outstanding contributions ofthe partisans in defeating both Denikin and Wrangel would protect his movement against Bolshevik provocations, assuming that in case of conflict the Red troops would make common cause with the partisans over the heads of their leaders when they met face to face. The movement over-all lacked educated partisans to give it political leadership. They depended heavily upon Makhno’s judgment. When

292

Anarchism of Nestor Makhno

they were asked: “Why do you fight?” their usual reply was: “Ask Makhno; it is his problem.” Paradoxically, although Makhno’s struggle against the Bolsheviks may well have prolonged the Russian Civil War, by his vital role in the defeat of the forces of Denikin and Wrangel he contributed to the triumph of bolshevism. Although Makhno was strongly aware of the social nature of the Revolution

whose

instrument

he was,

he

failed

to comprehend

its

national aspect because of his inadequate national consciousness. Makhno, like his movement, was the outgrowth of the deplorable state of national conditions that denied him the opportunity to develop according to his ability. Nevertheless, he did retain a strong sense of nationality as a Ukrainian and not as a Russian. As for his own movement,

it reflected

the state of the ideas at that time of national self-

determination that he himself described as “not adequately developed. Among the Ukrainian people there appeared a number of different political groups, each of which interpreted the idea of self-determination in its own way, according to their own party’s interests.” This state of affairs, in both its positive and negative aspects, was

strongly reflected in Makhno’s activities. In most cases Makhno did not fight the Ukrainian Army because he and they had a self-imposed unwritten agreement of neutrality. But he stubbornly fought the enemies

of Ukraine,

the Austro-German

punitive expeditions, and the

Bolshevik and anti-Bolshevik Russian forces, either simultaneously or by joining one against the other. Although Makhno was not a Ukrainian nationalist, he was also not a traitor to his country because he never joined the enemy with the aim of assisting them to occupy Ukraine. Thus, while fighting the enemies of Ukraine, Makhno was indirectly an ally of the Ukrainian armed forces and it was not his fault that the Directory failed to take advantage of Denikin’s defeat in Ukraine and Makhno’s effective struggle against the Red troops. Makhno’s primary failure was his unwillingness to coordinate his activities with other partisan groups and the Ukrainian armed forces in fighting common enemies during a critical period of Ukrainian history. Moreover, Makhno had no positive goal either as a Ukrainian or as an anarchist. Although he led the strongest partisan movement, he was isolated from the national forces that strove to maintain the independence

of Ukraine.

In addition, Makhno

had not worked

out a

plan for—and under the circumstances it would not have been possible to establish—a stateless society in the region of the movement. AlIthough the Makhno partisan army fought very bravely, shed a great deal of blood, including Ukrainian, and destroyed material goods, it ended

Conclusion

253

in ruin. Makhno was never defeated during three years of uninterrupted campaigns. His army was overwhelmed by the superior power of the Bolshevik armies and overcome by the exhaustion and war weariness of the population. To change the course of events of the Revolution would have required a much greater effort by the people and its leaders. Only the united effort of all national forces under unified leadership and with a single goal could have established and maintained an independent Ukrainian state. Thus the Makhno movement was not a constructive factor in the Ukrainian National Revolution; important as its role was in the final outcome, it reflected all too well the lack of unity,

the disparate aims within Ukrainian national development.

Appendix LEADERS

Most

OF

THE

MAKHNO

ARMY

of Makhno’s associates were selected carefully from among his

friends at Huliai-Pole; however, as the movement widened, a number of

able partisans from other places joined the leadership. Almost to a man, they were of poor peasant origin, with little formal education. Most of them, however, had good military training. According to a Bolshevik author, Makhno’s commanders “‘completed the school of the [First World] War, acquiring combat experiences. Some of them served in the tsarist army and were promoted to the rank of noncommmissioned officers, sergeant majors and ensigns.’’! Ideologically, they were largely either

Anarchists

or

Socialist-Revolutionaries.

Besides

Makhno,

the

most prominent leader of the partisan army was Fedir Shchus’, a former sailor on the tsarist mine layer Joann Zlatoust and the son of a respectable peasant of Divrivka (Velyka Mykhailivka). He started his partisan career as an associate of the partisan leader Nykyfor Brova, a former sailor who was killed in the second half of July 1918. Shchus’ took his place as a commander of Brova’s partisan group. In September, he joined Makhno and became his close associate. Although he occupied various positions in the army, including chief of staff, he was famous as commander of the Makhno cavalry that was composed of peasant Cossacks who spent their lives on horseback.” This was the best cavalry in the field during the Revolution, unmatched by either the Bolsheviks or Denikin. For example, at the end of July 1919, at the town of Hlodosy, Kherson province, a cavalry force of 100 men under Shchus’ routed an elite Bolshevik cavalry four times its size.? In June 1921, Shchus’ was killed in a battle against the Bolsheviks in Poltava province.*

254

Appendix

299

Another of Makhno’s closest and ablest associates was Semen Karetnyk, a peasant from Huliai-Pole who had attended school for only one year before joining the Anarchists in 1907. In 1918 he was cofounder of the partisan army and from that time on he remained in the movement in various capacities including membership on the Revolutionary Military Council and, occasionally, commander of the army. His main job, however, was to command an infantry brigade. Karetnyk was wounded several times during his campaigns. After Makhno made an agreement with the Bolsheviks against Wrangel, Karetnyk was appointed commander and was instrumental in attacking Wrangel across the frozen Syvash Lagoon and in storming Symferopil’. However, on November 26, immediately after Wrangel was defeated, Frunze ordered the Red troops to attack Karetnyk forces. While he was struggling back to his region, Karetnyk and his staff were killed by the Bolsheviks.° Only the cavalry unit commanded by Marchenko, who had learned the Red troops’ password, escaped. Marchenko himself, a peasant from Huliai-Pole, was a prominent associate of Makhno. He received elementary education in his home town and in 1907 joined the Anarchist group. He helped to found the partisan army, in which he served at different times, as

a member

of the Revo-

lutionary Military Council and commander of a cavalry regiment. He was wounded in battle several times and was once a prisoner of Denikin. Marchenko managed to escape from the trap in which Karetnyk was killed, though only 250 of his 1,500 men survived. In January 1921, in a battle against the Bolsheviks in Poltava province, he too was killed.® Borys Veretelnyk, like most of the partisan leaders, was a poor peasant from Huliai-Pole. He worked in a local factory and later went to Petrograd to the Putilov factory. Following the outbreak of the Revolution he became actively involved in it, revealing organizational and oratorical abilities. In mid-February 1918 he returned to HuliaiPole via Odessa, where he became preoccupied with revolutionary propaganda. In contrast to other leaders, he was a Socialist Revolutionary and joined the Anarchist group, as well as the partisan army, only after he returned to Huliai-Pole. In the army he rose to the position of chief of staff. In early June 1919, while leading a hastily organized detachment in a battle to defend Huliai-Pole against superior Denikin forces, Veretelnyk was surrounded and perished with his detachment near the village of Sviatodukhivka.’ Petro Havrylenko, a peasant from Huliai-Pole, and an Anarchist since

the

commander

1905

Revolution,

was

a member

of the Makhno

staff and

of the Third Brigade. He played a major role in defeating

Anarchism of Nestor Makhno

256

Denikin at Perehonivka in September 1919. During most of 1920 he was in the Bolshevik prison in Kharkiv. After Makhno agreed with the Bolsheviks in mid-October to fight Wrangel, Havrylenko was released and appointed chief of staff of the Crimean Army. Following Wrangel’s defeat, Havrylenko and his entire staff were executed by the Bolsheviks.8 Among the other cofounders of the army were Hryhorii Vasylivs’kyi, Vasyl Danyliv, and Izydor Liutyi. Vasylivs’kyi, a peasant from Huliai-Pole, was a family man who had received an elementary education and joined the Anarchist group before 1917. He was a member of Makhno’s staff and occasionally substituted for him as commander of the army. In December 1920 he was killed fighting the Bolsheviks in Kyiv province. Danyliv, a poor peasant blacksmith from Huliai-Pole, served in the artillery during the war and commanded a partisan artillery detachment.? Liutyi, a peasant and house painter from Huliai-Pole, who was also a close friend of Makhno, had obtained an elementary education and was an Anarchist. In September 1919, he was killed in the battle against Denikin at Perehonivka.!° Also among Makhno’s associates were two brothers, Oleksander and Ivan Lepetchenko, peasant Anarchists from Huliai-Pole. They commanded their own partisan detachment against the Austro-German troops and later joined Makhno. In the spring of 1920 Oleksander was seized by the Bolsheviks at Huliai-Pole and, after he refused to join them, he was shot. His brother Ivan, according to a Soviet source, gave

himself up to the Bolsheviks in the fall of 1921.11 In the ranks of the partisan army were Makhno’s two older brothers, Sava and Hryhorii. The former, the oldest, was active in the movement against the Austro-German troops and Denikin, but did not fight the Bolsheviks, preferring to stay home with his large family. Nevertheless, at the end of February 1920, the Bolsheviks captured and executed him. Hryhorii was a large, strongly built, and good-hearted man. He was active in the movement from the very beginning and he served as an associate of the chief of staff. He was killed in September 1919 in the battle against Denikin at Perehonivka.!? Viktor Bilash was a railroad engineer from Novospasivka and joined Makhno at the beginning of 1919, serving as commander of the Second Brigade,

a member

of the staff, and chief of staff. He was Makhno’s

best strategist. Because of his partisan activities, Austrian troops destroyed his homestead and executed his grandfather, father, and cousin. In 1921 Bilash was seized by the Bolsheviks and put in prison where he wrote his memoirs about the Makhno movement.!8

Appendix

207

Similarly educated,

and also from

Novospasivka, was the peasant,

Vasyl Kurylenko. Kurylenko had been an Anarchist since 1910 and a popular militant propagandist, as well as an able commander of a cavalry regiment, a member of the Revolutionary Military Council, and occasionally Makhno’s diplomatic representative. Kurylenko was wounded five times and, on July 8, 1921, he was killed by the Bolsheviks near the village Mariivka.!* One of the most dynamic and popular partisan leaders was Vdovychenko, a Novospasivka peasant with an elementary school education. After joining Makhno, he became an infantry brigade commander and played an important role in the defeat of Denikin at Perehonivka. In March 1921 he was wounded and captured by the Bolsheviks, who tried to recruit him to their ranks. He refused and later, when he failed in an

attempt to take his own life, he was executed.!® One

of Makhno’s

earliest

associates

was

Oleksander

Chubenko,

a railroad engineer and Socialist Revolutionary. He joined Makhno’s movement from the outset, occupying different positions, including that of Makhno’s aide and diplomatic representative. At the beginning of 1920 he was seized and imprisoned by the Bolsheviks. He was among those released after Makhno’s agreement with the Bolsheviks to fight against Wrangel, and was appointed commander of a special commando demolition unit.!® Still another prominent partisan leader, Khoma Kozhyn, a peasant, was a nonparty man who began his career in the partisan group led by Shchus’. After joining Makhno, Kozhyn became a commander of a machine-gun regiment and participated in the defeat of Denikin at Perehonivka. Kozhyn was mortally wounded in August 192v In contrast to other partisan leaders, Oleksander Kalashnykiv was a worker who had been a second lieutenant during the war. In 1917 he became secretary of the Anarchist group at Huliai-Pole and was a cofounder of the partisan army in which he was commander of an infantry brigade. In the summer of 1919, he organized the uprising of Makhno troops in the Red Army and headed their subsequent arrival at the Makhno camp with some Red units. In the Sun of 1920, Kalashnykiv was killed in a battle against the Bolsheviks. ! One of the few educated men in the Makhno movement was Chornoknyzhnyi, a teacher from Novopavlivka, in the Pavlohrad district. He served as chairman of the Second Congress, which was held on February 12, 1919, at Huliai-Pole. He also participated in the campaign against the Bolshevik and anti-Bolshevik Russian forces.}9 Sereda, a peasant, was commander of a partisan detachment. In the

258

Anarchism of Nestor Makhno

fall of 1920 he was seriously wounded during the fighting against Wrangel and was taken to Kharkiv for an operation. One week later, after Wrangel’s defeat, he was transferred to jail and in March 1921 he was shot by the Bolsheviks.”° Dermenzhi was a telegrapher from Izmail and a sailor who participated in the uprising on the Russian warship Potemkin in the summer of 1905. He commanded an independent partisan group and in the fall of 1918 joined Makhno who appointed him head of the field communication service.) Petro Petrenko, from Huliai-Pole, was a junior officer of the tsarist army. He headed an independent partisan group and in the fall of 1918 joined Makhno and was appointed commander of the ChaplinoHryshyne front, and later commanded a brigade. He was killed in the fighting.*? Although most of the leaders of the Makhno movement were Ukrainians, especially from Huliai-Pole,

a number

of them, in the later

period, were either Russian or Jewish Anarchists who came mainly from Russia in the spring and summer of 1919 after the Bolshevik regime destroyed the Anarchist groups in Soviet Russia. The most prominent of them was Peter Arshinov (Marin), a smith from Katerynoslav, who started his revolutionary career in 1905 as a Bolshevik. For several months he edited the illicit Bolshevik newspaper Molot (Hammer) at Kizyl-Arvat in Turkmenistan. In the summer of 1906 he returned to Amur, outside Katerynoslav, where he worked in

the Shoduara factory and soon joined the Anarchist group. At the beginning of March 1907, he was sentenced to death for the assassination of Vasylenko, a chief of a railroad workshop in Oleksandrivs’k, but at the end of April he escaped to Paris via St. Petersburg and Helsinki. At the beginning of 1909 he returned to Russia and in Briansk he was arrested, but escaped and settled in Moscow. In August 1910 he was arrested in Austria for transporting arms to Russia and jailed for nine months in Ternopil, Galicia. In May 1911 he was handed over to the Russian authorities and a Moscow court sentenced him to twenty years imprisonment in Butyrki where he met Makhno.* On March 1, 1917, Arshinov was released and remained in Moscow as an editor of Anarchist publications. After the destruction of Anarchist groups in Russia, Arshinov moved to Ukraine and at the end of April 1919 he became Makhno’s secretary. Subsequently Makhno put him in charge of educational and propaganda activities, including the publication of newspapers. In the summer of 1920 Arshinov left the partisan army to write the history of

Appendix

259

the Makhno movement.

In 1922 he went abroad, first to Berlin and in

1925 to France, where he was editor of the Anarchist periodical Delo truda. In 1935 he rejoined the Bolsheviks and returned to Soviet Russia where he soon disappeared. . Next to Arshinov, the most prominent Russian in the Makhno movement was Volin (Boris M. Eichenbaum), an educated man who had been a Socialist Revolutionary since 1905. In 1907 he was imprisoned for revolutionary activities, but he escaped to France where he joined the Anarchists in 1911. In August 1916 he was arrested for his antiwar propaganda, but managed to escape to America where he worked in the Anarchist movement. In July 1917, he returned to Russia as coeditor of the Anarchist newspaper Golos truda, published in St. Petersburg. After the destruction of the Anarchist groups in Russia, he came to Ukraine as a Nabat editor. At the end of August 1919, he joined the Makhno army, where he became Arshinov’s assistant in the education and propaganda section and chairman of the Revolutionary Military Council. In November while doing propaganda among the population in the Kryvyi Rih area, Volin apparently deliberately fell into Bolshevik hands and was taken to Moscow, but released on October 1, 1920, after the Makhno agreement with the Bolsheviks against Wrangel. At the end of November, he was again arrested in Kharkiv and put into Butyrki prison in Moscow. Soon after, he was released and authorized to leave Russia. For a while he lived in Berlin where, with Arshinov, he published a monthly, Anarchichesku vestnik. In 1925 he went to France where he died in 1945 at the age of 63.7 Another leading member of Nabat was Aaron Baron. The tsarist regime exiled him to Siberia for his revolutionary activities, but he managed to escape to America, where he settled in Chicago as coeditor of the Anarchist paper Alarm. In June 1917, he returned to Russia and became active in the Anarchist movement.

In the fall of 1918, he was

one of the organizers of Nabat. In 1919 Baron joined Makhno’s army, occupying prominent political and military positions. He even dreamed of taking over its leadership. In November 1920, while attending the Anarchist conference in Kharkiv, the Bolsheviks arrested him and jailed him at Orel for two years, whence he was transferred to the Solovetsky Islands until January 5, 1925. After returning to Moscow, he was soon arrested

again and exiled to Altai, Siberia.

His wife, Fania Avrutska,

also was arrested.76 IAkov Sukhovolskii, known as IAsha Alyi, was exiled by the tsarist regime for his activities during the 1905 Revolution, but he escaped at first to Britain and then to America. In 1917 he returned to Russia

260

Anarchism of Nestor Makhno

where he became active in the Anarchist movement. He, too, actively participated in the organization of Nabat and in 1919 joined the partisan army where he became a close collaborator of Makhno. In September 1920, the Bolsheviks seized and shot him.?’ Josif Gutman, known as Emigrant, a printer, emigrated to America in his youth and joined an Anarchist group. After the outbreak of the Revolution,

Anarchist

he returned

movement.

He

to Ukraine

was

one

where

he became

active in the

of the organizers of Nabat

and

became one of its secretaries. In 1919 he joined the Makhno movement,

working in the propaganda section. In September 1920, when Gutman was on his way from Kharkiv to Makhno’s headquarters at Starobil’sk’, he was

seized

the Bolsheviks

and

shot.

Gutman’s

wife, Lila, also a

member of Nabat, was arrested in November 1920 and imprisoned in Butyrki.° Ivan Kartashev was an active Anarchist and a member of Nabat. In 1919 he joined the Makhno propaganda section. In November 1920, on the way to Kharkiv, he and his wife were seized by the Bolsheviks and shot.”9 Aronchik was a worker and from 1917 an active Anarchist in Russia and in Ukraine. He was one of the leading members of the Nabat organization. In 1919 he joined the Makhno movement working as political propagandist at Huliai-Pole and its vicinity. He was seized by the Bolsheviks but after their agreement with Makhno he was released. In November 1920, he was again arrested by the Bolsheviks.*° Abram Budanov was a worker from the Donets Basin and an active Anarchist. He was the cofounder of Nabat and one of its leaders. In 1919 he joined the Makhno movement, occupying various positions including commander of a partisan detachment, political propagandist, and a diplomatic agent. In October 1920, he was a member of a delegation that arranged the agreement with the Bolsheviks against General Wrangel. A few months later, he was arrested by the Bolsheviks and sent first to the prison in Moscow and then to Riazan. He escaped from prison twice, the second time in summer Looe! Besides the members of Nabat, a number of Anarchists from Russia

joined the Makhno movement either in groups or individually. In May 1919, a group of thirty-six Anarchists from Ivanovo-Voznesenske, near Moscow, arrived at Huliai-Pole. Some of them joined the combat units, propaganda

section, or the village communes.

A few of them became

prominent partisan leaders.°? One was Makeev, a worker from Ivanovo-Voznesenske, and a mem-

ber of its Anarchist group. He was active during all the phases of the

Appendix Revolution

261 in Russia; later, however, he became

disillusioned with the

Bolshevik regime. After coming to Huliai-Pole in April 1919, he worked as a political propagandist in the area, and later joined the army. Subsequently he became a member 6f the Makhno staff. At the end of November 1919, during the fighting against General Slashchov near Oleksandrivs’k, Makeev was killed.°?

Aleksandr Cherniakov, a bookkeeper, spent three years in exile for his revolutionary activity. During the Revolution, he worked as political activist in Petrograd and later in Ivanovo-Voznesenske. In 1918 he was arrested several times by the Bolsheviks and in 1919 along with thirtysix others joined the Makhno army, working in the propaganda section. After the defeat of General Wrangel, Cherniakov was arrested by the Bolsheviks and sent to prison in Russia. Peter Rybin, called Zonov, was a worker from Orel province. He emigrated to America where he participated in the Anarchist movement, but following the outbreak of the Revolution he returned to Russia. Later he settled in Katerynoslav and joined the local Bolshevik group as a specialist, to organize industry and transport. In the summer of 1920 he became disillusioned with the Bolsheviks and left their ranks. In the fall he joined the Makhno movement in the propaganda section, and later served as secretary of the Revolutionary Military Council. In January 1921, he went to Kharkiv to deliver a protest to Rakovskii against breaking the agreement with Makhno and the arrest of Anarchists.

However, he too was arrested and one month later was

shot by the Bolsheviks.*° Viktor Popov, a former sailor, was a Russian Socialist Revolutionary. In 1919 he organized a partisan detachment to fight Denikin. Subsequently, as he moved into Ukraine, Popov joined Makhno’s army and the Anarchists. Besides his combat duties as a commander of a partisan detachment, he worked as diplomatic agent. At the end of September, he became a member of the delegation to negotiate an agreement with the Bolsheviks against General Wrangel. Later, he was appointed Makhno’s military and political representative, with Kurylenko and Budanov, to Kharkiv. In November,

after the defeat of

Wrangel, Popov was arrested in Kharkiv and sent to a prison in Moscow where after one year he was shot.°6 Mikhalev-Pavlenko was a former engineer officer and a member of the Petrograd Anarchist group. At the beginning of 1919 he joined the Makhno army. He organized and commanded an engineering detachment that operated on the railroad lines. On June 15—16, 1919, while fighting Denikin, he was seized along with Burbyha by the Bolsheviks at

262 the

Anarchism of Nestor Makhno Haichur

railroad

station,

and, on

the next

day, he was

shot

in

Kharkiv.?? One of the most devoted Anarchists in the Makhno army was IAkovlev (Kahan), called [Asha. He joined the partisan army in 1919, soon became a member of Makhno’s staff, and at one point was a chairman of the Huliai-Pole council. In September 1919, in the battle at Perehonivka, he was seriously wounded and taken to the hospital at Uman’. When the Denikin troops occupied: Uman’, IAkovlev was seized and, in spite of protests by the hospital personnel, he was shot.°® There were a number of other prominent partisan leaders who played important roles in the Makhno movement whose lives and activities were scarcely known. Among them was Petro Havriushenko, called Havriusha, chief of Makhno’s bodyguard; he was killed in 1920 fighting against the Bolsheviks. Koliada was a commander of an independent partisan unit and in the fall of 1918 he joined Makhno who appointed him a member of his staff. Havrylo Troian was one of the cofounders of the Makhno army and the gentlest among Makhno’s associates. In 1921 he was killed fighting the Bolsheviks. Tykhonenko was the head of the supply service. Seregin, a peasant and an Anarchist since 1917, was among the first who joined Makhno and for some time was commander of the supply service.*? Moisei Kalynychenko was a worker from HuliaiPole and an Anarchist from 1907, who joined the Makhno movement in 1918 and was a member of the Revolutionary Military Council. Lev Holyk was the head of counterintelligence in the Makhno army.”

Abbreviations

The following abbreviations are used in the notes and in the bibliography. AV Anarkhichesku vestntk [Anarchist news] . Berlin. ARR Arkhw russkoi revoliutsi [Archives of the Russian Revolution]. Berlin. AR Armua 1'revoliutsua [Army and revolution]. Kharkov. Belyt arkhwv [White archive] . Paris. BA BY Byloe [The past] . Leningrad. DL Delo truda [Labor cause]. Paris, Chicago, New York. Delo truda—Probuzhdeme |Labor cause—awakening] . DT-P New York. FA IM

IKCK (+year)

JG (+year) KD (+year)

KCK (+year) KA LNV

Fashist. Putnam, Conn.

Istortk marksist [Marxist historian] . Moscow. Istorychnyt kaliendar-al’manakh Chervonoit Kalyny [Historical yearbook of the red guelder rose] . Lvov. Jahrbiicher fiir Geschichte [History yearbook]. Munich. Kaliendar-al’manakh Dnipro [Yearbook of the Dnieper]. Lvov Kaliendar Chervonoi Kalyny [Yearbook of the red guelder rose]. Lvov. Krasnyi arkhwv [Red archives] . Moscow. Literaturno-naukovyt vistnyk [Literary and scholastic newsletter]. Lvov. 263

264 LHKD

LCK LR NRS PER PRO PR PS RN SV LR: UE UI VK VIZ VR VO VI

Abbreviations

Literaturnyit 1 hromads’ko-politychnyt kaliendaral’manakh Dnipro [Literary and sociopolitical almanac of the Dnieper]. Lvov. Litopys Chervonoit Kalyny [Chronicle of the red guelder rose]. Lvov. Litopys revoliutsu [Chronicle of the Revolution]. Kharkov. Novoe russkoe slovo [New Russian word]. New York. Pereklichka {Roll call] . New York. Probuzhdente [Awakening] . Berlin, Detroit. Proletarskaia_ revoliutsiia [Proletarian revolution]. Moscow. Put’ k svobode [Path to freedom] . Huliai-Pole. Rozbudova natsi |Building of the nation] . Prague. Svoboda [Freedom] . Jersey City, N.J. Tryzub [Trident]. New York. Ukraine: A Concise Encyclopaedia. Toronto. Ukrains’kyi istoryk [Ukrainian historian]. New York. Vistt kombatanta [Newsletters of the combatants]. Toronto. Voenno-tstorichesku zhurnal [Historical-military journal] . Moscow. Voina 1 revoliutsia [War and revolution] . Moscow. Volna [Wave]. New York. Voprosy istoru [Problems of history] . Moscow.

Notes

Prelude to Revolution 1. N.

D.

Polons’ka-Vasylenko,

The

Settlement

of the

Southern

Ukraine,

1750-1775 (New York: The Ukrainian Academy of Arts and Sciences in the WS2A-, 1955) ipa LsIe 2. Zaporozhian Sich was a military-political organization of the Ukrainian Cossacks (free armed men). They appeared on the south Ukrainian steppes at the end

of the

fifteenth

century

as hunters,

fishermen,

and honey

collectors,

who

gradually grouped into bands and became a permanent fighting force. Their free life on the steppes and their campaigns against the Tatars attracted daring peasants, burghers, and some nobles. In the 1540s a number of scattered groups were united and organized as an independent military focre by Prince Dmytro Vyshnevyts’kyi. He founded a Cossack center, the Sich, on the island Khortytsia beyond the Dnieper rapids. This center became known as the Zaporozhian Sich, or an armed camp beyond the rapids. The head of the Cossacks was the hetman, an elected leader. The Cossacks lived in stern simplicity, under military conditions, without wives or families. At the beginning of the seventeenth century the Polish government, which at the time controlled most of the Ukrainian territory, legalized the Cossacks as a knightly class because it needed their help against its enemies: Muscovy, the Ottoman Empire, and Sweden. However, Polish gentry’s misrule brought about an uprising under the leadership of the Cossacks against Poland in 1648, and subsequently an independent Ukraine was proclaimed. A prolonged war against Poland forced Hetman Bohdan Khmel’nyts’kyi into a close alliance with the Muscovite tsar in 1654. After the establishment of the independent hetman state, the Zaporozhians remained an independent republic. Moreover, after the death of Khmel’nyts’kyi in 1657, the Cossacks of the Sich began to follow their own policy and even interfered in the affairs of the hetman state in the name of the popular masses. The fate of the Zaporozhians radically changed when Hetman Ivan Mazepa

265

266

Notes, Prelude

made an alliance with King Charles XII of Sweden and the Zaporozhian republic under its head Kost Hordiienko joined Mazepa against Tsar Peter I. After the defeat at Poltava in 1709, the tsar destroyed the Sich, and the Zaporozhians settled on the Tatar’s territory. In 1734 the Cossacks acknowledged Russian suzerainty and were allowed to return home because the Russians needed them for war against the Turks.

After

the

war,

however,

the

Russian

government

began

to

colonize

Zaporozhian land with foreigners and limit the freedom of the Cossacks, who stubbornly resisted until the destruction of the Sich republic in 1775. See N. Polons’kaVasylenko, ‘The Kozaks,” in UE, 1:629 ff.; B. Krupnytsky, “The Rebirth of the State,’ in UE, 1:634 ff. 3. Michael Hrushevsky,

A History of Ukraine, ed. O. J. Frederiksen (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1949), pp. 455—56. 4. Dmytro Doroshenko, Narys istorit Ukrainy (Munich: Dniprova khvylia,

1966),

2: 243; Krupnytsky, ‘‘Rebirth of the State,” p. 663.

5. Istoriia

ukrains’koho

vits’ka, p. 234; E. Borschak,

Empire in the Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Centuries 1:668. 6. Borschak, ‘Ukraine in the Russian Empire,” 1:668. 7. Hrushevsky, History of Ukraine, p. 412. 8. Vasyl’

Bidnov,

‘“Ukrains’ka

lektsii, ed. Dmytra Antonovycha

tserkva,”’

in

“Ukraine

in the Russian

(1800—1917),” in UE,

Ukrains’ka

kul’tura:

Zbirnyk

(Podebrady, 1940), pp. 137—38.

9. K. V. Kharlampovich, Malorosstiskoe vluanie na Velikorusskuiu

tserkovnuiu

zhizn’ (Kazan’: M. A. Golubov, 1914), pp. 665—66; Dmytro Doroshenko, Pravoslavna tserkva v mynulomu i suchasnomu zhytti ukrains’koho narodu (Berlin, 1941), p. 41. 10. Hrushevsky, History of Ukraine, p. 460. 11. Vasyl’ Bidnov, ‘‘Shkola i osvita na Ukraini,” in Ukrains’ka kul’tura, p. 31.

12. V.

Kubijovyc,

“The

Size

and

Structure

of the Population,”

in UE,

1:

176—77. 13.

Oleksandr Lotots’kyi, ‘“‘Ukrains’ke drukovane slovo,” in Ukrains’ka kul’tura,

p- 61. 14. Ibid., pp. 62, 65.

15. Ivan

Krypiakevych

[Ivan Kholms’kyi] , Istoriia

Ukrainy

(Munich:

Nakl.

Naukovoho t-va im. Shevchenka, 1949), p. 309; Hrushevsky, History of Ukraine, p. 475; Borschak, ‘Ukraine in the Russian Empire,” 1:670. 16. Hrushevsky, History of Ukraine, p. 476; D. Doroshenko, Narys istorii

Ukrainy, 2:276. 17. D. Doroshenko, Narys istorii Ukrainy, 2:285—87. 18. Dmytro Doroshenko, A Survey of Ukrainian Historiography; Olexander Ohloblyn, Ukrainian Historiography, 1917-1956 (New York: The Ukrainian Academy of Arts and Sciences in the U.S., 1957), pp. 79—80, 99. 19. There were several earlier attempts to establish universities. As early as 1760 Hetman Rozumovskyi had planned to create a university in Baturyn and to convert the Kiev Academy into a university. His deposition prevented him from carrying out his plans. Five years later Piotr Rumiantsev, at the behest of the

Ukrainian nobility, attempted to organize universities in Kyiv (Kiev) and Chernihiv (Chernigov), but the Russian government rejected his proposal. In 1786, Grigorii A. Potemkin, the favorite of Catherine II, applied for, and eventually received, permis-

Notes, Prelude

267

sion to establish a university in Katerynoslav (Dnepropetrovsk), but after his death in 1791 the project was abandoned. In addition, a university had existed at L’viv (Lemberg in German, Lwow in Polish, Lvov in Russian) in the Austrian-controlled part of Ukraine, since 1784. 20. D. Doroshenko, Narys istorii Ukrainy, 2:274. 21. Eduard Winter, Byzanz und Rome im Kampf um die Ukraine, 955—1939 (Leipzig: O. Harrassowitz, 1949), p. 154; Borschak, ‘Ukraine in the Russian Empikes:

673:

22. D. Doroshenko, Survey of Ukrainian Historiography, p. 163.

23. Pavlo Zaitsev, Zhyttia Tarasa Shevchenka (New York: 1955), pp. 51—53. 24. A. Zaionchkovskii, Kirillo-Mefodievskoe obshchestvo, 1846—1959 (Moscow: Izd-vo Moskovskogo universiteta, 1959), p. 61. 25. It is of interest to note that Kyiv was favored as a Slavic M. Czajkowski, a Pole, providing it became part of Poland, and Slavophile A. Khomiakov, who believed that its position on the two worlds would be advantageous (John P. Sydoruk, Ideology of

capital even by by the Russian border between Cyrillo-Method-

tans and Its Origin [Winnipeg: Ukrainian Free Academy of Sciences, 1954], p. 51). 26.

D. Doroshenko, Narys istorii Ukrainy,

2:281; Michael T. Florinsky, Russia:

A History and Interpretation, 2 vols. (New York: Macmillan Co., 1959), 2:811; C. A. Manning, The Story of the Ukraine (New York: Philosophical Library, 1947), pp. 169—70. 27. Manning, Story of the Ukraine, p. 171. 28. Krypiakevych [Kholms’kyi] , Istoriia Ukrainy, p. 319.

29. D. D[oroshen] ko, “Telisaveta Ivanovna z Skoropads’kykh Myloradovych,”’ Khliborobs’ka Ukraina 5 (Vienna, 1924—25): 286. 30. D. Doroshenko, Survey of Ukrainian Historiography, pp. 177 ff. 31. Hrushevsky, History of Ukraine, p. 496; Lotots’kyi, ‘““Ukrains’ke drukovane slovo,” p. 62.

32. Winter, Byzanz und Rome, p. 168. 33. Lotots’kyi, “Ukrains’ke drukovane Russian Empire,” 1: 684. 34.

Lotots’kyi,

“Ukrains’ke

drukovane

slovo,” p. 63; Borschak, “Ukraine in the slovo,” p. 63; Herbert

“The Ukraine and the Balance of Power,” The Century Magazine

1921): 467; Ievhen Chykalenko, Spohady, 1861—1907 Academy of Arts and Sciences in the U.S., 1955), p. 380. 35.

John S. Reshetar, Jr., The Ukrainian Revolution,

Adams

Gibbons,

102, no. 3 (July

(New York:

Ukrainian

1917-1920, p. 33.

36. Krypiakevych [Kholms’kyi], Istoriia Ukrainy, p. 330; D. Doroshenko, Survey of Ukrainian Historiography, p. 196. 37. Volodymyr Doroshenko, “The Life of Mykhailo Drahomanov,” in Mykhailo Drahomanov: A Symposium and Selected Writings, ed. Ivan L. Rudnytsky (New York: The Ukrainian Academy of Arts and Sciences in the U. S., 1952), p. 14. 38. Oleksander Hrushevskyi, ‘‘Drahomanov i halyts’ka molod’ 1870-kh rr.,”

Ukraina, no. 6 (20) (Kiev, 1926), p. 49; Matvii Stakhiv, ‘““Drahomanov’s Impact on Ukrainian Politics,” in Mykhailo Drahomanov, p. 53.

39. 40. svitovoi 41.

D. Doroshenko, Survey of Ukrainian Historiography, p. 264. Dmytro Doroshenko, Z istorit ukrains’koi politychnot dumky za chasiv vinny, p. 19. Samosttina Ukraina: R.U.P. (Wetzlar: Vyd. Soiuza Vyzvolennia Ukrainy,

268

Notes, Prelude, Chapter 1

1917), p. 22; Serhii Shemet, ““Mykola Mikhnovs’kyi,” Khliborobs’ka Ukraina, 5:7. 42.

Borschak, ‘‘Ukraine in the Russian Empire,” 2: 687.

43. Nicholas L. Chirovsky, Old Ukraine:

Its Socio-Economic History Prior to 1781 (Madison, N.J.: The Florham Park Press, 1963), p. 365; Margaret Miller, The Economic Development of Russia, 1905-1914, 2nd ed. (New York: A. M. Kelly, 1967), p. 59. 44.

Borschak, “‘Ukraine in the Russian Empire,” 2:680.

45. Harry Schwartz, Russia’s Soviet Economy p- 63; Miller, Economic

(New York: Prentice-Hall, 1950),

Development of Russia,p. 259.

46. L. Ivanov, ‘‘Revoliutsiia 1905 goda na Ukraine,” VI, nos. 5—6 (1945), p. 23; H. R. Weinstein,

“‘Land Hunger and Nationalism in the Ukraine, 1905—1917,”

The

Journal of Economic History 2 (1942) :32. 47.

Otto Hoetzsch, ‘“The Ukrainian Movement in Russia,”’ in Ukraine’s Claim to

Freedom: An Appeal for Justice on the Behalf of Thirty-Five Millions (New York: Ukrainian

National

Association

and the Ruthenian

National Union,

1915), p. 95;

Krypiakevych [Kholms’kyi] , Istoriia Ukrainy, p. 334. 48. After the dissolution of the First Duma on July 8, 1906, some two hundred of its members journeyed to nearby Viborg, in Finland, where they issued an appeal to the population urging them to offer “passive resistance”’ by refusing to pay taxes or comply with army drafts. The appeal, however, brought no popular response, while the signatories were sentenced to three months in prison and were disfranchised, thus terminating their parliamentary careers (Florinsky, Russia, 2:1192; Alexander Kerensky, Russia and History’s Turning Point (New York: Duell, Sloan and Pearce, 1965), p. 73). 49.

Vladimir

Korostovetz,

Seed and Harvest (London:

Faber and Faber, 1931),

p- 285. 50. D. Doroshenko, Narys istorit Ukrainy, 2:321. 51. Mykhailo JEremiiv, “Za lashtunkamy Tsentral’noi Rady,’ UI, nos. 1—4 (17—20) (1968), p. 98; Nicholas Czubatyj, “The Modern Ukrainian Nationalist

Movement,” Journal of Central European Affairs 4, no. 3 (October 1944): 288; E. N. Burdzalov,

Vtoraia russkaia revoliutsiia: Moskva, front, periferiia (Moscow:

“Nauka,” 1969), p. 219. 52. Dmytro Doroshenko, Moi spomyny pro nedavnie mynule, 1914-1920, p. 23; ‘The Czar’s Rule in Galicia, 1914,” in Ukraine’s Claim to Freedom, p. 114; D. Doroshenko, Moi spomyny, pp. 33—35.

Chapter 1, The Ukrainian Revolution 1. Dates are new style except in cases where it was impossible to determine from available sources which dating system was used. 2. Pavlo Khrystiuk, Zamitkyi i materiialy do istorii Ukrains’koi revoliutsii, LOTT = 1920 rr, VG; 3. Victor Chernov, The Great Russian Revolution, p. 267; Khrystiuk, Zamitky i materiialy, 1:38. 4. V. Kedrovs’kyi, “Ukrainizovani chastyny i reguliarna armiia,’”’ VK, no. 2

(33) (1968), p. 37; N. N. Sukhanov, Record

The Russian Revolution

1917: A Personal

(London: Oxford University Press, 1955), pp. 113 ff.; George Vernadsky,

A History of Russia (New York: New Home Library, 1944), pp. 236—37. 5. Stepan Lazurenko, “Bohdanivtsi na fronti 1917 roku,” TR, no. 33 (1965), jonas

Notes, Chapter 1

269

6. Aleksander Shul’hyn, “The Period of the Central Rada (Council),’”’ in UE, 1:731. According to Kedrovs’kyi the regiment was organized on April 18, 1917 (V. Kedrovs’kyi, “Pochatok ukrainizatsii v rossis’kii armii i Pershyi Ukrains’kyi viis’kovyi z’izd,”’ VK, no. 1 (27) (1968), p. 25. 7. lakiv Zozulia, Velyka Ukrains’ka revoliutsiia, p. 16. 8. Khrystiuk, Zamitky i materiialy, 1:102, 65—66; Chernov,

Great Russian

Revolution, p. 276. 9. visional 10. York:

Robert Paul Browder and Alexander F. Kerensky, eds., The Russian ProGovernment, 1917, 1:383. Frank Alfred Golder, ed., Documents of Russian History, 1914-1917 (New The Century Co., 1927), no. 440; Chernov, Great Russian Revolution,

pp. 280—81. 11. Browder and Kerensky, Russian Provisional Government, 1:376, 389. 401; Dmytro Doroshenko, “Voina i revoliutsiia na Ukraine,”’ in Revoliutsiia na Ukraine po memauram belykh, ed. S. A. Alekseev, p. 67; Korostovetz, Seed and Harvest,

pe 2o0: 12. V. Vynnychenko,

Vidrodzennia natsii, 2:40. 13. Khrystiuk, Zamitky i materialy, 2:12. 14. Ibid., 2:41. 15. James Bunyan and H. H. Fisher, comps., The Bolshevik Revolution, 1917—

1918, p. 435. 16. Ibid. 17. Ibid. 18.

David

Plotkin

[D. Kin],

Dentkinshchina,

p. 9; I. A.

Poliakov,

Donskie

kozaki v bor’be s bol’shevikami: Vospominaniia (Munich, 1962), p. 26; Chernov, Great Russian Revolution, p. 416. 19. Mykola Kovalevs’kyi, Pry dzherelakh borot’by, pp. 312—13. 20. V. I. Lenin, Collected Works (Moscow: Progress Publisher, 1964), p. 22.

21. Kiev. Instytut istorii partii, Istoriia KP(b)U (Kiev, 1933), 2: 126, as quoted in Richard Pipes, The Formation of the Soviet Union: Communisim and Nationalism, 1917—1923 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1954), p. 68. 22. Dmytro Doroshenko, Istoriia Ukrainy (New York: Bulava, 1954), 1:200— 201. 23. Bunyan and Fisher, Bolshevik Revolution, p. 440. 24. Khrystiuk, Zamitkyi materiialy, 2:69; Bunyan and Fisher, Bolshevik Revolution, p. 441. 25. To make Antonov more appealing to the Ukrainian masses Lenin reminded him of the name of his Ukrainian mother “Ovsienko” and asked him to add it to his name. Thus, Antonov became Antonoy-Ovseenko. See Kovalevs’kyi, Pry dzherelakh borot’by, p. 326. 26.

Zozulia,

Velyka

Ukrains’ka

revoliutstia,

Kievskikh vospominanii, 1917—1921 Ukrains’ka revoliutsiia, pp. 52—53. 27.

Vynnychenko,

28.

Arnold

p. 44; A.

A. Gol’denveizer,

“Iz

6 (1922):204; Zozulia, Velyka

Vidrodzennia nats, 2 :246—47.

D. Margolin, From

Vidrodzennia nats,

gg.,” ARR

a Political Diary, pp.

182—83;

Vynnychenko,

2:232—43.

29. U.S., Department of State, Papers Relating to the Foreign Relations of the United States, 1918—1919.

30. 31.

Russia,

2: 660.

Louis Fischer, The Soviets in World Affairs, 1:53. Fritz Fischer, Germany’s Aims in the First World War (London: Chatto and

270

Notes, Chapter 1

Windus,

1967),

p. 220;

Gustav

pp.

497-98;

Gratz

and

John

W. Wheeler-Bennett,

Richard

Schulder,

The

The

Forgotten

Economic

Policy

Peace,

of Austria-

Hungary

during the War in Its External Relations (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1928), p. 255. 32. Khrystiuk, Zamitky i materiialy, 2:138—39; D. Doroshenko, “Voina i

revoliutsiia na Ukraine,” p. 97. 33. Erich von Ludendorff, Ludendorff’s Own Story, August 1914—November 1918 (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1919), 2:258—59; F. Fischer, Germany’s Aims, p. 544. 34.

Reshetar,

Ukrainian

2:675. 35. Vynnychenko, 36. James

Revolution, p. 119; U.S., Department of State, Papers,

Vidrodzennia nats, 2:321.

Bunyan,

ed., Intervention,

Civil

War,

and

Communism

in Russia,

April—December 1918, p. 5. 37. 38.

Ludendorff, Own Story, 2:260. D. Doroshenko, Istoriia Ukrainy, 2:18.

39.

Ibid., 2:19; Vynnychenko,

Vidrodzennia natsti, 2:323.

40. Khrystiuk, Zamitky i materitaly, 2:135. 41.

IAroslav

Okunevs’kyi,

‘““Rozmova

serpnia 1918 roku,” Dilo, no. p. 39; George

Stewart,

The

z

arkhykniazem

Vil’hel’mom

dnia

4.

100 (May 8, 1931), p. 2; I. Osipov, Na prolomie,

White

Armies of Russia, pp. 51—52; D. Doroshenko,

Istoriia Ukrainy, 2:24—26. 42.

40,000 dessiatines, or over 200,000 acres (1 dessiatine equals 2.7 acres).

43. Pavlo

(1924):3;

Skoropadskyi,

N.

M.

Kovalevs’kyi,

Pry

“‘Uryvok

Mogilianskii, dzherelakh

zi ‘Spomyniv,’”

“Tragediia’

borot’by,

Ukrainy,”

p.

318;

Khliborobs’ka

ARR

11

Korostovetz,

Ukraina

4

(1923):91—92;

Seed

and Harvest,

p. 290. 44.

D. Doroshenko, Istoriia Ukrainy,

45. Max 1929),

Hoffman,

1:194;

A.

Vospominanita,

Die

2:49—50.

Aufzeichnungen

I. Denikin,

1914-1919

Ocherki

gg.

(Berlin:

russkoi smuty,

(Berlin:

Verlag

fur Kulturpolitik,

4:184;

V. B. Stankevich,

I. P. Ladyzhnikov,

1920), p. 322; V.

Miakotin, “Iz nedalekogo proshlogo,” in Revoliutsita na Ukraine, ed. S. A. Alekseev,

De 223. 46.

G. N. Leikhtenbergskii,

Vospominaniia

ob “Ukraine,” 1917-1918,

p. 27;

see also Stankevich, Vospominaniia, p. 326. 47.

Kovalevs’kyi,

Pry

dzherelakh

borot’by,

pp.

487—89;

Panas

Fedenko,

Ukrains’kyi rukh u 20 stolitti, p. 149; Khrystiuk, Zamitky 1 materiialy, 3:14 ff.; D. Doroshenko, Istoriia Ukrainy, 2:43.

48. Dmytro Dontsov, Rik 1918, Kyiv, p. 32; Vasyl’ Ivanys, Symon Petliura— Prezydent Ukrainy, 1879-1926, p. 75; G. N. Leikhtenbergskii, ‘““Kak nachalas’ ‘TUzhnaia Armiia,’’’ ARR 8 (1923) :166—67. 49.

Dmytro

Solovei,

Vasylenko,

Miliukov

i samostiinist’

Ukrainy

v 1918

r.

(Winnipeg, 1965), p. 37; Mykhailo Hrushevs’kyi, Vybrani pratsi, p. 78. 50. 51.

D. Doroshenko, Istoriia Ukrainy, 2:116—17. Denikin, Ocherki, 4:187.

52.

Alexander

Shul’hyn,

“The

Period

of

the

Maksym Slavins’kyi, Istoriia Ukrainy (Podebrady, Forgotten Peace, p. 322. 53.

D. Doroshenko,

Istoriia

Ukrainy,

2:215

Hetmanate,”

in

UE,

1:750;

1934), p. 171; Wheeler-Bennett, ff.; Théophil

Hornykiewicz,

ed.,

Notes, Chapter 1

PAS

Ereignisse in der Ukraine, 1914-1922, 3:482 ff.; Viktor Andriievs’kyi, Z mynuloho, 2:68; U.S., Department of State, Papers, 2:696; Dontsov, Rik 1918, pp. 22—23; Bunyan, Intervention, pp. 57—58; D. Doroshenko, Istoriia Ukrainy, 2: 214. 54.

D.

teritaly, 55.

Doroshenko,

Istoriia

Ukraing,

2:191—99;

Khrystiuk,

Zamitky

i ma-

3: 108—110 P. N. Krasnov,

“‘Vsevelikoe

Voisko

Donskoe,”

ARR

5:237—40;

see also

Vasyl’ Ivanys, Stezhkamy zhyttia, 2:300; A. I. Denikin, ‘““Getmanstvo i Direktoriia na Ukraine,” in Revoliutstia na Ukraine, ed. Alekseev, p. 147. 56. Reshetar, Ukrainian Revolution, pp. 189—92; Wheeler-Bennett, Forgotten Peace, p. 324; Shul’hyn, “Period of the Hetmanate,”’ 1: 749; Vynnychenko, Vidrodzennia natsii, 3:158—59.

57. Shul’hyn, ‘Period of the Hetmanate,” 1:751; Ivan Tsapko, “Partyzany na Skhidnii Ukraini: Starobil’s partyzans’kyi zahin,” Visti, no. 109 (1963), p. 7; Krasnov, ‘“‘Vsevelikoe Voisko Donskoe,” 5: 236; IEvhen Konovalets’, Prychynky do istoru ukrains’koi revoliutsii, p. 16; Denikin, ‘‘“Getmanstvo i Directoriia na Ukraine,” p. 146; Germany, Auswartiges Amt. Germany and the Revolution in Russia, 1915— 1918, p. 134; D. Doroshenko, Istoriia Ukrainy, 2:381 ff.

58. The Sich Riflemen (Sichovi Stril’tsi) was a military formation organized in November 1917 in Kyiv from West Ukrainian prisoners of war in Russia formerly in the Austrian army. Hence some writers call the formation the Kyivan Sich Riflemen. The leading organizers of the unit were colonels IEvhen Konovalets’ and Andrii Mel’nyk. As the formation developed from a battalion to a corps many Ukrainians from East Ukraine joined the formation. The Sich Riflemen were the best and most reliable Ukrainian military formation during the Revolution. See

Dmytro Herechanivs’kyi, ‘‘Pochatky Sichovykh Stril’tsiv,”” VK, no. 3 (27) (1967), pp. 29 ff.; Dmytro Herechanivs’kyi, “Prykmetni rysy Sichovykh Stril’tsiv (S.S.),” VK, no. 3 (34) (1966), pp. 16 ff.; Hryts’ Hladkyi, ‘‘Sichovi Stril’tsi (S.S.),’’ LCK, no. 6 (1935), pp. 4 ff.; Istoriia ukrains’koho viis’ka, pp. 428—49; Oleksander Udovychenko, Ukraina u viini za derzhavnist’ (Winnipeg: D. Mykytiuk, 1954), p. 42; Samovydets [pseud.] , Nedavna het’manshchyna (Chicago, 1933), p. 55; Ant. Kushchyns’kyi,

‘‘Korotka

heneza

istorii Serdiuts’kykh

formatsii,”

Visti, no.

106

(1962), pp. 69—70. 59. A. Lukomskii, “Iz vospominanii,” ARR 5 (1922):183; Zenon Stefaniv, Ukrains’ki zbroint syly, 1917-1921 rr., 2nd rev. ed. (n.p., SUV, 1947), 1:109; V. I. Gurko, “Politicheskoe polozhenie na Ukraine pri Getmane,” in Revoliutsita na Ukraine, ed. Alekseev, pp. 215—16. 60. D. Doroshenko, Istoriia Ukrainy, 2: 260; Khrystiuk, Zamitky 1 materiialy, 1:54—55;

Iwan

Majstrenko, Borot’bism: A Chapter in the History of Ukrainian Communism

3:39;

I. Mazepa,

Ukraina

v ohni i buri revoliutsii,

1917-1921,

(New

York: Research Program on the U.S.S.R., 1954), p. 72. 61. Mogilianskii, ‘“Tragediia Ukrainy,” 11:97—98; Velykii

Ukraini,

Kyiv-Odesu

koiu,”’ LCK,

p.

77; Mykola

v 1919 rotsi,

no.

Kapustians’kyi,

Pokhid

Osyp Nazaruk, Rik na ukrains’kykh armit na

1:13; Antin Krezub, ‘‘Mizh Biloiu Tserkvoiu i Motovyliv-

1 (1930), p. 7; Denikin, “‘Getmanstvo

i Direktoriia na Ukraine,”

p. 139. 62. Kovalevs’kyi, Pry dzherelakh borot’by, p. 514; Die deutsche Okkupation der Ukraine, pp. 24, 48 ff., as quoted in Pipes, Formation of the Soviet Union, p. 134. 63. Istoriia ukrains’koho vits’ka, p. 424; Khrystiuk, Zamitky i materitaly, 3:55;

272

D.

Notes, Chapters 1, 2

Doroshenko,

Istoriia

Ukrainy,

2:269;

Vynnychenko,

Vidrodzennia

natsit,

3:71; V. Zadoianyi, ‘‘Povstans’ka stykhiia,”’ TR, no. 46 (1968), p. 14;I.Kapulovskii, “‘Organizatsiia vostaniia protiv getmana,’ LR, no. 4 (1923), pp. 98—99; S. Paladiichuk, “‘Spohady pro ‘Hrebenkivshchynu,’”’ VK, no. 1 (27) (1967), p. 35. 64. Die deutsche Okkupation der Ukraine, p. 201, as quoted in Xenia Joukoff Eudin,

“The

German

Occupation

of the Ukraine

1 (1941): 100. 65. IA. Shelygin,

‘‘Partizanskaia bor’ba okkupatsiei,”’ LR, no. 6 (33) (1928), p. 64. 66.

Zadoianyi,

povstanchestva

“‘Povstans’ka

stykhiia,”

in 1918,”

s getmanshchinoi no.

49, p. 5; V.

The

Russian Review

i avstrogermanskoi Aussem,

“‘K istorii

na Ukraine,” LR, no. 5 (20) (1926), p. 8; Istoriia Ukrains’koho

viis’ka, p. 424; Zadoianyi, “‘Povstans’ka stykhiia,” no. 47, p. 14. 67. “Russia’s Reign of Terror,’ The New York Times Current History, 9:76; D. Doroshenko, Istoriia Ukrainy, 2:119—21; Dontsov, Rik 1918, p. 17. Doro-

shenko gives the figures of 200 killed and 1000 wounded. 68.

D. Doroshenko,

I/storiia

Ukrainy,

The Russian Revolution, 1917—1918 69. I. K. Kakhovskaia, Hornykiewicz, Ereignisee

2:122—23;

William Henry Chamberlin,

(New York: Macmillan, 1947), 2:126.

‘“‘Delo Eikhgorna i Denikina,” in Puti revoliutsii, p. 218; in der Ukraine, 3:181—84; D. Doroshenko, Istoriia

Ukrainy , 2:124—25. 70.

Kakhovskaia,

“Delo Eikhgorna i Denikina,” p. 219.

Chapter 2, The Partisan Movement 1. Field Marshall Ludendorff reported: ‘‘Hetman Skoropadsky told me that he

never noticed how his corps, which he commanded in the war, dissolved. It simply vanished all at once. This simple story made a tremendous impression on me”’

(Ludendorff, Own Story, 2:125). 2. Chamberlin,

Russtan

Revolution,

2:226;

Kapulovskii,

“Organizatsiia

vostaniia protiv getmana,” p. 98; Pavlo Shandruk, Arms of Valor, p. 75; Kovalevs’kyi, Pry dzherelakh borot’by, p. 500; Vynnychenko, Vidrodzennia natsii

3:71; N. Kryvoruchko, “Likvidatsiia ob’edinenoi bandy Gryzlo, Tsvetkovskogo i Guliai-Gulenko,” in Vospominaniia o G. I. Kotovskom, ed. M. P. Belyi, p. 104; N. I. Shtif, Pogromy na Ukraine, p. 3; M. A. Rubach, ed., “‘K istorii grazhdanskoi voiny na Ukraine,” LR, no. 3 (8) (1924), p. 177; Vladimir A. Maevskii, Pouvstantsy Ukrainy, 1918—1919 gg. (Novi Sad: S. F. Filonov, 1938), p. 39. 3. Voyageur, “A Bird’s Eye View of the Ukraine,’ The New Europe 15 (June 3, 1920): 182; see also A. Valiis’kyi, “Povstanchyi rukh v Ukraini v rokakh 1917-1922,” VK, no. 4 (1961), p. 13. 4. Kapustians’kyi, Pokhid wukrains’kykh armit, 1:13—-14; Udovychenko, Ukraina u viini za derzhavnist’, p. 44; Tsapko, “‘Partyzany na Skhidnii Ukraini,”’ p. 7; Mykhailo Omelianovych-Pavlenko, Na Ukraini 1917-1918, pp. 86—87. 5. Omelianovych-Pavlenko, Zymovyit pokhid, 2:22—23; Zadoianyi, ‘‘Povstans’ka stykhiia,” no. 46, p. 15; Roman Gul’, “‘Kievskaia epopeia, noiabr’—dekabr’, 1918 g.,” ARR 2 (1925): 59; Shelygin, “Partizanskaia bor’ba s getmanshchinoi,” p. 65; H. Karpenko, “‘Selians’kyi rukh na Kyivshchyni za chasiv avstro-hermans’koi

okkupatsii ta hat’manshchyny,” LR, nos. 1—2 (46—47) (1931), p. 74; M. Vinogradov, “‘Chermu ia by] svidietelem,” p. 12. 6. Valiis’kyi, “‘Povstanchyi rukh v Ukraini v rokakh,” p. 14; Mazepa, Ukraina

Notes, Chapters 2, 3

v ohnt, 2:45;

Vynnychenko,

7. Dmytro 1953),

DRIES}

p. 22;

Vidrodzennia natsti,

Solovei, Holhota Arthur

Ukrainy

E. Adams,

3:432—33.

(Winnipeg:

Bolsheviks

in the

Nakl. Ukrains’koho holosu, Ukraine,

p.

233;

Fedenko,

Ukrains’kyi rukh, p. 185. 8. L. Poltava, “Povstantsi na pivdni Ukrainy v 1920—21 rokakh,’ VK, no. 3 (28) (1967), pp. 32, 35. 9. Kryvoruchko, “Likvidatsiia ob’edinennoi bandy Gryzlo,” p. 104; see also

N. P-a, “Protybol’-shevytski povstannia v Ukraini v 1921 r.,’’ VK, no. 6 (43) (1969), pp. 57—58; P. Liutarevych, “Istoriia odnoho povstannia na Poltavshchyni ta ukrains’ke pidpillia v rokakh, 1920—1926,” Ukrains’kyi zbirnyk, no. 4 (1955), p. 136. 10. Fedenko, Ukrains’kyi rukh, p. 214. 11. Isaak Mazepa, “Zymovyi pokhid i partyzans’kyi rukh na Ukraini v 1919 r.,” KD 1936, p. 92; Oleksander Dotsenko, Zymovyi pokhid, pp. CXXVII-CXXVIII; IUrko Tiutiunyk, Zymovyi pokhid 1919-20 rr., 1:72; Zadoianyi, “Povstans’ka stykhiia,”’ no. 46, pp. 14—15.

12. Tiutiunyk,

Zymovyi pokhid, 1:72.

13. Mazepa, Ukraina v ohni, 2:46—47; Tiutiunyk, Zymovyi pokhid, 1:73; Dotsenko, Zymovyi pokhid, pp. CXXVIII, CXL; Panas Fedenko, “Mynulo pivstolittia,’ SV, no. 220, November 30, 1971; A. Valiis’kyi, “‘Povstanchyi rukh v Ukraini i otamaniia,” SV, no. 54, March 21, 1957.

14. Dotsenko, Zymovyi pokhid, p. CXXXVII. 15. Tiutiunyk, Zymovyi pokhid, 1:72. 16.

M. Maiorov, Jz istorii revoliutsiinot borot’by na Ukraini, 1914-1919, p. 86.

17. Denikin, “Getmanstvo i Direktoriia na Ukraine,” pp. 149—50. 18. The “Neutral Zone” was established by agreements between the German and Soviet Russian local commanders along the northern boundary of Ukraine. The area varied in width from six to twenty-five miles. In theory it was a no-man’s land; in reality, however, both sides constantly

designed to prevent clashes between German

trespassed it. This buffer strip was

and Russian troops. See Aussem, ‘‘K

istorii povstanchestva na Ukraine,” p. 8; Adams, Bolsheviks in the Ukraine, pp. 19—20; Denikin, ‘‘Getmanstvo i Direktoriia na Ukraine,” pp. 149—50; Vasyl’

Prokhoda, Zapysky nepokirlyvoho: Istoriia nastional’noho usvidomlennia, zhyttia i diial’nosty zvychainoho ukraintsia (Toronto: “Porboiem,” 1967), 1:269; A. I. Egorov, Razgrom Dentka 1919, p. 8. 19.

Aussem,

“‘K istorii povstanchestva na Ukraine,” p. 8; Istoriia ukrains’koho

vits’*ka, pp. 431—32; Paladiichuk, “Spohady Prokhoda, Zapysky nepokirlyvoho, 1:269—72.

pro

‘Hrebenkivshchynu,’”’

p. 36;

Chapter 3, The Socioeconomic Background

of Peasant Unrest in Makhno’s Region 1. M. Kubanin, Makhno,” KD 1930, skaia entsyklopedia,”’ a arkheolohii, Narys p. 176; V. V. Rudnev,

Makhnovshchina, pp. 3—4; IUrii Mahalevs’kyi, “‘Bat’ko p. 60; Bolshaia Sovetskaia entsyklopedtia (Moscow: “‘Sovet1938), 38:500; Akademiia nauk URSR, Kiev. Instytut istorii istorii Ukrainy (Ufa: vyd-vo Akademiia nauk URSR, 1942), Makhnovshchina, p. 3; D. Doroshenko, Narys istorii Ukrainy,

Zio 2. N.

1750—1775

D.

Polons’ka-Vasylenko,

(New York:

Ukrainian

The

Settlement

Academy

of the

Southern

Ukraine,

of Arts and Sciences in the U.S.A.,

Notes, Chapters 3, 4

274 1955), pp. 326—27; E. I. Druzhinina,

Severnee Prichernomore’e

v 1775-1800

gg.

(Moscow, 1959), p. 260. 3. D. Doroshenko, Narys istorii Ukrainy, 2:238—40; Dnipropetrovs’ka oblast’ (Kiev, 1969), p. 13; Kharytia Kononenko, “Dvi manifestatsii,’”” LHKD 1937, p. 12; Krypiakevych [Kholms’kyi] , Istoriia Ukrainy, p. 307; Krest’ianskoe dvizhenie v Rossii v 1796—1825 gg., p. 855; Dnipropetrovs’ka oblast’, p. 15. 4. Krest’tanskoe dvizhenie v Rossii v 1796—1825 gg., pp. 449, 452. 5. A.

A.

Romanov,

‘‘V Tavriiu

za volei:

Vospominaniia

ochevidtsa,”

Istori-

cheskii vestnik 84 (1901): 264—65, 273. 6. Borschak, ‘Ukraine in the Russian Empire,” 1:669; Polonska-Vasylenko, Settlement of the Southern Ukraine, pp. 201, 241—43; S. D. Bodnar, Sekta Men-

nonitov v Rossi (Petrograd: V. D. Smirnov, 1916), pp. 1—2. 7. A. Bondar,

“‘Kto

takoi Grigor’ev?”

PS; no.

3, pp. 6—7,

12; C. H. Smith,

The Story of the Mennonites, pp. 377—78.

p.

8. D. Doroshenko, Narys istorii Ukrainy, 2:239. 9. Smith, Story of Mennonites, p. 23; Druzhinina, Severnee Prichernomor’e, 166; W. Ohnesseit, ‘Die deutschen Bauernkolonien in Siidrussland von ihrer

Grundung bis zur Gegenwart,” Preusussische Jahrbiucher, no. 206 (1926), p. 169. 10. Harry

1950), 11. 12. 13.

Schwartz,

Russia’s

Soviet

Economy

(New

York:

Prentice-Hall,

p. 63. Kononenko, “Dvi manifestatsii’ p. 136. D. Doroshenko, Narys istorii Ukrainy, 2:292. N.N. Lashchenko, Krest’ianskoe dvizhenie na Ukraine v sviazi provedeniem

reformy 1861 goda. 60-e gody XIX st. (Kiev, 1959), p. 520. 14. V. P. Teplysts’kyi,

Reforma

1861

roku

i agrarni vidnosyny

na

Ukraini

(Kiev, 1959), p. 292, as quoted in Dnipropetroys’ka oblast’, p. 17; Krest’ianskoe dvizhenie v Rossi v 1881—1889 gg., pp. 780 ff.; Krestianskoe

dvizhenie v Rossi v

1890 1900 gg., pp. 601 ff. 15. Krest’ianskoe dvizhenie v Rossii v 1881—1889 gg., p. 741. 16. Geroid Tanquary Robinson, Rural Russia under the Old Regime: A History of the Landlord-Peasant World and a Prologue to the Peasant Revolution in 1917 (London: Longmans, Green, 1932), pp. 138—40; Ivanov, “ Revoliutsiia 1905,” pp. 28--29. 17. Herbert J. Ellison, History of Russia (New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1966), pp. 264--66; Kononenko, “Dvi manifestatsii,” pp. 97—100; Vasyl’ Prokhoda, Zapysky nepokirlyvoho: Istoriia nastional’noho usvidomlennia,

zhyttia i diial’nosty zvychainho ukraintsia (Toronto: ‘‘Proboiem,” 1967), p. 122; S. M. Dubrovskii, Stolypinskaia zemel’naia reforma: Iz istorwt sel’skago khoziaistva i krest’tanstva Rossii v nachaie XX veka (Moscow: 1963), pp. 572, 580.

Chapter 4, The Peasants and the Ukrainian Government 1. Illia Vytanovych,

“‘Agrarna polityka ukrains’kykh

uriadiv rokiv revoliutsii

i vyzvol’nykh zmahan’, 1917—20,” UI, nos. 3—4 (15—16) (1967), pp. 19—27. 2. Khrystiuk, Zamitky i materiialy, 1:37. 3. Bunyan and Fisher, Bolshevik Revolution, pp. 435—36. 4. Shul’hyn, “The Period of the Central Rada (Council),” 1: 743. 5. Bunyan and Fisher, Bolshevik Revolution, p. 446. 6. Bunyan, Intervention, pp. 16—17.

Notes, Chapters 4, 5 7. ShuVhyn,

“The

279) Period

of the Hetmanate,”

1:747; Vytanovych,

“‘Agrarna

polityka ukrains’kykh uriadiv,”’ p. 50. 8. Ibid.; Bunyan, Intervention, pp. 30—32; Panas Fedenko, “‘The Period of the

Directory,” in UE, 1: 756—57. ‘ 9. M. Irchan [M. Babiuk], ““Makhno i makhnovtsi,” IKCK 1936, p. 116. The British war correspondent with the Denikin troops, John E. Hodgson, reports that Makhno “in an endeavour to bind the poorer people to his cause, distributed spurious charters which claimed to grant free tracts of land to all and sundry. I have seen one of the documents. It was elegantly worded and bore Makhno’s signature”’

(John Ernest Hodgson, With Denikin’s Armies, p. 119); Mazepa, Ukraina v ohni, 1:62; Mazepa, “Zymovyi pokhid i partyzans’kyi rukh,” p. 92. 10.

Nestor Makhno, Russkaia revoliutsiia na Ukraine, 1:14.

11. Makhno himself was a replica of a well-known Zaporozhian Cossack leader Ivan Sirko (d. 1680) who was born in Merefa in present Kharkiv province. A very active and brave military leader, Sirko’s main aim had been preserving the Orthodox religion and attaining personal fame in the struggle against the Turks and Tatars. He organized over twenty large expeditions and many smaller campaigns against the Turks and Tatars by way of the Dnieper and the steppes, gaining great respect among

the Cossacks

and fear among his enemies. Sirko, however, like Makhno, was

a primitive statesman who contributed greatly to the destruction of Ukrainian political independence. Sirko saw no problems other than his campaigns. He damaged the plan of Hetman Ivan Vyhovs’kyi in his war against Muscovy in 1659, by attacking his allies, the Tatars. He did similar harm to Hetman Petro Doroshenko in

his joint struggle with the Turks and Tatars against Poland in 1668 (Krypiakevych

[Kholms’kyi] , Istoriia

Ukrainy

[Munich:

Nakl. Naukovoho-t-va im. Shevchenka,

1949], pp. 265—66; IEvhen Onats’kyi, ‘“‘Nestor Makhno,” Ukrains’ka mala entsyklopediia [Buenos Aires: Nakl. Administratury UAPTs v Argentini, 1965], p. 1748). 12. Makhno, Russkaia revoliutsia, 1:14. 13. Nestor Makhno, Ukrainskaia revoliutsiia, 3: 149. 14. Pavlo Dubas, “‘Z raionu Makhna,’’ LCK, no. 3 (1932), p. 8.

15. Although the Russian peasants had been living under a national government for several centuries, their national and political attitude toward their country was not much different from the attitude of the Ukrainian peasants in the region of the Makhno movement: “‘The War and the Revolution revealed, indeed, an astonishing absence of civil spirit in even the educated classes of Russia; but the simple peasant soldiers had not even the most elementary notions ofpatriotism. Denikin quotes a story, often told in Russia during the war, about a group of peasant soldiers who had been listening to talk about the danger of the Germans overrunning Russia. ‘We are from Tambov,’

they said, ‘the Germans

will never advance

as far as Tambov’”’

(Michael S. Farbman, Bolshevism in Retreat [London: W. Collins, 1923], p. 30).

Chapter 5, The Anarchism of the Peasants and Makhno Margolin, From a Political Diary, p. 24. Emma Goldman, Living My Life, p. 109. Emma Goldman, My Disillusionment in Russia, pp. 96, 104. . D. Erde, “Politychna prohrama anarkho-makhnovshchyny,” LR, no. 1 (40) OF mh Ne

(1930), p. 53. 5. Goldman, Living My Life, p. 109.

276

Notes, Chapter 5

. Goldman, My Disillusionment in Russia, pp. 103, 104.

. Ibid., p. 105. “Nestor Makhno,” DT, no. 82 (1934), p. 6.

. Volin, onD

9. Voline, The Unknown

Revolution, p. 158.

10. P. Str[uve], ed., “Istoricheskie materialy i dokumenty: Ideologiia makhnov-

shchiny,” Russkaia mysl’, nos. 1—2 (1921), p. 231. 11. Makhno, Ukrainskaia revoliutstia, 12. Nestor Makhno, Makhnovshchina

p. 16. 13. V. Holubnychyi,

“Makhno

3:7—8. i ee vchorashnie

soituzniki-bol’shevikt,

i makhnivshchyna,” in Entsyklopedita ukrainoz-

navstva, 4:1494. 14. P. Arshinov, Istoriia makhnovskogo dvizhenta, 1918—1921 gg., p. 49; David Footman, ‘‘Nestor Makhno,” in St. Antony’s Papers, no. 6, p. 79; Struve,

“Istoricheskie materialy

i dokumenty,” p. 228; Edward Hallett Carr, The Bolshevik

Revolution, 1917—1923

(New York: Macmillan Co., 1951), 1:320.

15. G. Novopolin,

“Makhno i guliai-pol’skaia gruppa

anarkhistov,”’ Katorga i

ssylka, no. 34, p. 71. Valdemar Antoni was a Czech who in his youth lived with his uncle, a saloon owner, in Huliai-Pole where he attended school. After graduation

Antoni left the town for Katerynoslav.

Upon his return some years later he carried

out political activities among his friends, bringing anarchist pamphlets and brochures from Katerynoslav, where he was a member of an anarchist group. Having gained the confidence of his friends, he suggested that they form an anarchist group under

the direction of the Katerynoslav group headquarters, and Antoni acted as liaison between the two groups. The irony is that while many of the original members of the group paid with their lives for their activities, Antoni, the organizer of the first anarchist group at Huliai-Pole, emigrated to the United States in 1911 or 1912 (Anatol’ Hak, ‘Pravda pro Huliai-Pole,”’ Suchasnist’ 12, no. 9 [1972]: 68, 72;

Victor Peters, Nestor Makhno, pp. 19—24). 16.

Makhno, Russkaia revoliutsiia,

1:58—59.

17. I. Teper [Gordeev] , Makhno, pp. 22—23. 18.

Makhno, Russkaia revoliutsiia,

1:107.

19. G. D. H. Cole, A History of Socialist Thought (London: Macmillan & Co., 1958), 4:1, 211; Chamberlin, The Russian Revolution, 1917—23, 2:232.

20. Muromets, ‘Nestor Makhno,” Probuzhdenie, nos. 52—53 (1934), p. 16. 21. Teper, Makhno, p. 27. 22. Paul Avrich, The Russian Anarchists, p. 56; George Woodcock, Anarchism,

p. 20; Iwan Majstrenko, Borot’bism, p. 2. 23. D. Novak, “The Place of Anarchism in the History of Political Thought,” The Review of Politics 20 (1958): 321; Paul Avrich, ‘‘The Anarchists in the Russian Revolution,” The Russian Review 26, no. 4 (1967): 341—42. 24.

Novak,

“Place

of Anarchism,”

pp.

321—22;

Avrich, Russian

Anarchists,

pp. 72—73; Woodcock, Anarchism, p. 21; M. Ravich-Cherkas’kyi, Anarkhisty, pp. 37 ff.; Erde, “Politychna prohrama anarkho-makhnovshchyny,” p. 44. 25.

Novak,

“Place

of Anarchism,”

pp.

322—23;

Avrich, Russian

Anarchists,

p. 56; Woodcock, Anarchism, p. 324. 26. V. V. Komin, Anarkhizm

v Rossii, p. 203.

27. Ibid., pp. 203—4. 28. Izvestita, no. 83 (347), April 26, 1918, as quoted in Komin, Anarkhizm v Rosstt, p. 204.

Notes, Chapters 5, 6

BUG

29. Izvestiia, no. 91 (355), May 10, 1918, as quoted in Komin, Anarkhizm

v

Rossti, p. 205; see also B. I. Gorev, “ ‘Anarkhizm podpol’ia’ i makhnovshchina,” in

Anarkhizm v Rossii, pp. 126—27. 30. Arshinov, Istoriia makhnovskogo

dvizheniia, pp. 236—37; Romuald Wojna, “Nestor Machno,” Z pola walki 13, no. 2 (50) (1970) :66; P. Rudenko, Na Ukraine, p. 21; Teper, Makhno, p. 38. 31. Pervata konferentstia anarkhistskikh organizatsti Ukrainy “‘Nabat,”’ pp. 5—7. 32. Rezoliutsti pervogo s’ezda Konfederatsii anarkhistskikh organizatsii Ukrainy “Nabat,”’ pp. 7-19. 33. Teper, Makhno, pp. 16—18; Volin, ‘“‘Primechaniia” in Makhno, Pod udarami kontr-revoliutstt, 2:158; Anatolii Gorelik, Anarkhisty v rossiiskoi revoliutsii, pp. 19-20; IA. IAkovlev, Russkit anarkhizm v velikoi russkoi revoliutsti, p. 16;

Wojna, 34. 35. 36.

“Nestor Machno,” p. 66. Teper, Makhno, pp. 38, 111. Goldman, Living My Life, p. 813. During its existence over forty issues were published, but only a few num-

bers are to be found in the libraries of Western countries; some of the thousands of

leaflets issued by the Makhno

army

Rossum,

of

ed.,

‘Proclamations

can likewise be found in the West (I. J. van

the

Makhno

Movement,

1920,”

International

Review of Social History 13, pt. 2:249). 37. Voline, Unknown Revolution, p. 157; Ravich-Cherkas’kyi, Anarkhisty, pp. 58—59; Footman, ‘‘Nestor Makhno,” pp. 110—11; Anatolii Gorelik, Goneniia na anarkhizm v Sovetskoi Rossii, p. 20; G. P. Maximoff, The Guillotine at Work,

p. 358; Kubanin, Makhnovshchina, p. 206. 38. Woodcock, Anarchism, p. 424; Volin, “Delo ‘Nabata,’’”’ DT, nos. 7—8 (1925-26), p. 4; Rudenko, Na Ukraine, pp. 22—24; Kubanin, Makhnovshchina,

Piszbs: 39. Goldman, Living My Life, p. 765.

Chapter 6, Nestor Makhno 1. N. Klassen, ‘‘“Makhno und Lenin,” Der Bote, March 1, 1966, p. 12; Pietro Quaroni, ‘““Makhno,” in Diplomatic Bags, p. 11; F. Meleshko, ‘Nestor Makhno

ta ioho anarkhiia,’’ LCK, no. 1 (1935), p. 12; V. Kalyna, ‘“V Umani,”’ SV, January 19, 1953; V. Belash, “Makhnovshchina,” LR, no. 3 (1928), p. 212; M. Gutman, “Pod vlast’iu anarkhistov,” Russkoe proshloe, no. 5 (1923), p. 67; Mahalevs’kyi,

“‘Bat’ko Makhno,” p. 61; Mikhail Kiselev, Agitpoezd, p. 29.

2. Makhno, menko,

‘“‘Zapiski Nestor

‘“‘Vidpovid’

na stattiu

Makhno,”

AV,

‘Pomer Makhno’

no.

1 (1923), p. 16; G. Kuz’-

v ‘Novii pori,’’’ PRO, nos. 50—51

(1934), p. 17; ‘“‘N. I. Makhno,” Seiatel’, no. 6 (1934), p. 20; Mahalevs’kyi, “Bat’ko Makhno,” p. 61. There is a discrepancy concerning Makhno’s birth. Some authors give 1884, but Makhno and those who knew him personally give the date 1889. Judging from the commutation of the death penalty to life imprisonment in 1910 because

he was

underage in 1906 when

he committed

the crime, the second date

must be correct.

3. Interview on July 21,

Auerbakh,

1970,

with Vasyl’ Luzhnyi Idaho

Springs,

“Revoliutsionnoe

(born 1906, near Huliai-Pole) by author,

Colo.;

obshchestvo

16 (1925), p. 98. Huliai-Pole was

Woodcock,

po

Anarchism,

lichnym

established in 1785

p. 416;

vospominaniiam,’”

V.

A.

ARR

and subsequently became

278

Notes, Chapter 6

an administrative,

gogue,

industrial, and commercial

center, with two churches, one syna-

three schools, a hospital, a post office, two steam

windmills,

mills and a few dozen

two factories of agricultural machinery, many artisan workshops, stores,

grain market, and distilleries, as well as great fairs. was a railroad station on the Chapline-Berdians’k

A few kilometers from the town line (Hak, “Pravda pro Huliai-

Pole,” p. 66; Peters, Nestor Makhno, pp. 16—17). 4. Voline (V. M. Eichenbaum), ‘Nestor Makhno,”

DT, no. 82 (1934), p. 4.

In Paris Makhno lived under the name Mikhnenko. 5. Kerner owned an agricultural machinery factory, a mill, a large store, and 500 dessiatines of land near Huliai-Pole that he rented to German colonists. One of his sons, Hryhorii, known as Kernenko, who received higher education in Kharkiv and Munchen, Germany, was a Ukrainian poet and translator (Hak, “Pravda pro Huliai-Pole,” p. 67). 6. Makhno,

“Zapiski,”

no.

1, pp.

16—17,

and

Russkaia

revoliutsiia,

1:9;

Hak, “Pravda pro Huliai-Pole,” p. 70; Arshinov, Istortta makhnovskogo dvizhenua, p. 49; Komin,

Anarkhizm

v Rossii, p. 219; Max

Nomad, Apostles of Revolution,

p. 303; Peters, Nestor Makhno, p. 15. 7. The Mennonite Encyclopedia, 3:431. 8. Hak, “Pravda pro Huliai-Pole,” pp. 66—67, 70; Dotsenko,

p- 205; Novopolin, Teper, Makhno,

‘“Makhno i guliai-pol’skaia gruppa

p. 22; Rudnev,

Makhnovshchina,

Zymovyi

anarkhistov,”

p. 16; Kuz’menko,

pokhid,

pp. 70—71; “Vidpovid’

na stattiu ‘Pomer Makhno’ v ‘Novii pori,’”’ p. 17; Anatol’ Hak, Vid Huliai-Polia do Niu Iorku, p. 23. 9. Novopolin, ‘“Makhno i guliai-pol’skaia gruppa anarkhistov,” pp. 71, 75;

Str[uve] , “Istoricheskie materialy i dokumenty,” p. 228. 10. Novopolin, ‘“Makhno i guliai-pol’skaia gruppa anarkhistov,” p. 75. 11. Ibid., pp. 72—74; Hak, “Pravda pro Huliai-Pole,” pp. 70—71; Novopolin, “Makhno i guliai-pol’skaia gruppa anarkhistov,” p. 74. In the fall of 1909 Semeniuta avenged his brother by killing Karachentsev. In 1911 when he went home, the police surrounded the house and before they could get him, he shot himself

(Hak, “Pravda pro Huliai-Pole,” pp. 71—72). 12. Makhno, “Zapiski,” no. 1, p. 18. 13. Novopolin, “Makhno i guliai-pol’skaia gruppa anarkhistov,” p. 75. Makhno was locked in cell no. 8, where he was allowed to have visitors once

a month

and

change of linens and bath every two weeks (Makhno, Russkaia revoliutsiia, p. 127). 14, Ihor and Antin Bondarenko, Klym Kyrychenko, IUkhym Orlov, Fylyp Cherniavs’kyi, Ivan Shevchenko, Fylyp and Petro Onyshchenko, Serhii Zablods’kyi, Mariia Martynova, Naum Althauzen, Lev Gorelik, and Kazymyr Lisovs’kyi. According to Makhno’s account the group consisted of sixteen. Not all, however, were brought to trial because Antoni escaped abroad. Khshyva was executed on June 17, 1909, and Levadnyi escaped from prison in Oleksandrivs’k in the winter, but on his way to Huliai-Pole he died from cold (Novopolin, ‘‘Makhno i guliai-pol’skaia gruppa anarkhistov,” pp. 71, 77; Hak, ‘‘Pravda pro Huliai-Pole,” p. 71; Makhno, “Zapiski,” no. 1, p. 18). Hak and Peters maintained that Makhno was not directly associated with the conspirators; however, they do not elaborate on the reason for Makhno’s death sentence (Hak, ‘‘Pravda pro Huliai-Pole,” p. 71; Peters, Nestor

Makhno, p. 22). 15. Makhno,

“‘Zapiski,” no.

1, p. 18; Alexander Berkman, The Bolshevik Myth,

Notes, Chapter 6

279

pp. 190—91; Rudnev, Makhnovshchina, p. 17; “‘N. I. Makhno,” p. 20. According to Arbatov, Makhno was not exiled to hard labor in Siberia because of his illness at the time of his arrival at Butyrki. However, in the same article, the author makes no

comment while quoting Makhno, whom he visited in the Warsaw prison in 1922: “The illness in my lungs I acquired at the time of my imprisonment in the Butyrki prison” (Z. Arbatov, “‘Bat’ko Makhno,” Vozrozhdenie, 29 [1953] : 104, 114). 16. Voline, Unknown Revolution, p. 86; Arshinov, Istoriia makhnovskogo dvizhentia, p. 50; Makhno, “‘Zapiski,” no. 1, p. 18; Max Nomad, “The Epic of Nestor Makhno,” The Modern Monthly 9, no. 6:335; Berkman, Bolshevik Myth,

p. 191; L. Lipotkin, “Nestor Makhno,” Probuzhdenie, nos. 50—51 17. Makhno, Russkaia revoliutsiia, revoliutsiia, 3, pt. 6:37.

(1934), p. 15.

1:8; Nikolai N. Golovin, Rossitiskaia kontr’-

18. Itis interesting to note that “‘there were no Bolsheviks at all in the villages at that time’ (Makhno, Russkaia revoliutsiia, 1:42; Emelian IAroslavskii, History of Anarchism in Russia, p. 61). Makhno, Russkaia revoliutsiia, 1:13—14, 18—20. At

that time the Eighth Regiment of the Serbian Army was stationed in Huliai-Pole; it was joined by a company of the Russian Army. A few officers from these units headed the local administration. 19. Makhno,

“Zapiski,” no.

1, p. 22; Makhno, Russkaia revoliutstia, 1:27—29;

Nomad, Apostles of Revolution, p. 304; Mahalevs’kyi, ‘““Bat’ko Makhno,”’ p. 62. 20.

Makhno, Russkaia revoliutstia, 1:32, 33,57.

21. At the end of July, Kornilov was appointed commander in chief of the Russian Army, succeeding General Brussilov, who had failed to restore the army’s discipline and capacity to fight. Kerensky hoped that Kornilov, who had a reputation for great energy and iron will, might be more effective. He was also known for his more liberal outlook upon social and political problems than most high officials. Before

taking the office, Kornilov

demanded:

full power

for the commander;

no

governmental interference in his military orders; and the restoration of military discipline. Although these terms were accepted, soon it became obvious that conflict between Kornilov and Kerensky was inevitable because Kornilov was backed by Monarchists, right wing groups, and, above all, officers representing the old order. When Kornilov attempted to restore discipline by reinstating death penalty for military offenses, it brought him into an open opposition to Kerensky. Consequently, Kerensky dismissed Kornilov; however, the latter not only refused to resign, but issued a proclamation to the people asking for support against the government. Moreover, he instructed the cavalry to advance to the capital. After abortive efforts at compromise, Kerensky, with the help of the Mensheviks, Socialist-Revolutionaries, and Bolsheviks, succeeded in neutralizing the conspirators without

bloodshed

and

arrested

them,

including

Kornilov,

Lukomskii,

and

Romanovskii. They were brought to the Bikhov monastery near Mogilev where they were soon joined by Denikin, Markov, and others. After the October counterrevolution, the generals easily escaped from Bikhov to the Don Territory where they subsequently played a prominent role in the organization of the Volunteer Army (Stewart, White Armies of Russia, pp. 12—15; Chamberlin, Russian Revolution, 1212 tf): 22. Makhno, Russkaia revoliutsita, 1:40; Makhno, “‘Zapiski,” no. 1, pp. 22—23; Arshinov, Istoriia makhnovskogo dvizheniia, p. 51; Nomad, Apostles of Revolution, p. 304; Mahalevs’kyi, ““Bat’ko Makhno,” p. 65.

280

Notes, Chapters 6, 7

23.

Makhno,

Russkaia

revoliutstia,

1:64;

see

also

Nestor

Makhno,

‘‘Velikii

Oktiabr’ na Ukraine,” DT, no. 29 (October 1927), p. 10. 24. 25.

Footman, ‘‘Nestor Makhno,” p. 81; Makhno, Russkaia revoliutsiia, 1: 203. Makhno, Russkaia revoliutsiia, 1:68—69.

26. Mahalevs’kyi, ‘““Bat’ko Makhno,” p. 66. 27.

Alexander Berkman, ‘‘Nestor Makhno:

The Man Who Saved the Bolsheviki,”’

personal recollection, p. 12. 28. Mahalevs’kyi, ‘“Bat’ko Makhno,” pp. 63—66; Osyp Dumin, Istoriia Liegionu Ukrains’kykh Sichovykh Stril’tsiv, p. 254; Dotsenko, Zymovyi pokhid, p. 209; Belash,

1919

‘“Makhnovshchina,”

Nikiforova

(Mahalevs’kyi,

p. 194; Kiselev, Agitpoezd, pp. 31—32.

was captured and hanged by General

‘“‘Bat’ko Makhno,”

Slashchov

In the fall of

in Symferopil’

p. 66). According to Makhno, it was his and

Nikiforova’s detachments that disarmed a battalion stationed at Orikhiv; it was part of the Forty-Eighth Regiment stationed in Berdians’k (Makhno, Russkaia revoliutstta,

1:152).

Chapter 7, Makhno’s National Consciousness 1. Makhno, Ukrainskata revoliutsiia, 3:154. 2. Makhno, Pod udarami kontr-revoliutsii, 2:153.

3. Omelianovych-Pavlenko,

Zymovyi

pokhid,

2:29;

see

also

M.

Irchan,

““Makhno i makhnivtsi,” IKCK 1936, p. 120. 4. Makhno, Russkaia revoliutsia, 1:6. 5. Makhno, Pod udarami kontr-revoliutsu, 2: 124, 212.

Gy ibidiy pa L32. 7. Makhno, Russkaia revoliutsiia, 1:93.

8. Makhno,

‘‘Neskol’ko slov o natsional’nom voprose na Ukraine,’’ DT, no. 19

(December 1926), pp. 4—5. 9. Makhno, Pod udarami kontr-revoliutsti, 2:39.

10. According to Emma Goldman who met Makhno’s wife in 1920, in Kyiv: “‘She was a woman of twenty-five’ (Goldman, Living My Life, p. 148). 11.

Meleshko,

Nestor

Makhno

ta toho

anarkhiwa,

no.

1, pp.

10—11;

Irchan,

Makhno i makhnivtsi, p. 19. 12. Natal’ia Sukhogorskaia,

‘““Vospominanie o makhnovshchine,” Kandal’nyi zvon, no. 6 (1927), pp. 54—55. 13. Goldman, Living My Life, pp. 147—48. Berkman, Bolshevik Myth, pp. 235—36. 14. Meleshko, ‘‘Nestor Makhno

ta ioho anarkhiia,”’ no. 1, p. 11.

15. Goldman, Living My Life, pp. 150—51. 16.

Berkman, Bolshevik Myth, p. 236.

17. Omelianovych-Pavienko,

Zymovyi pokhid, 2:29.

18. Z. Arbatov, “Ekaterinoslav 1917—22 gg.,” ARR

12 (1923):95.

19. Tsapko, “Partyzany na Skhidnii Ukraini,”’ p. 8. 20. Gutman, “Pod vlast’iu anarkhistov,” p. 64.

21. Omelianovych-Pavlenko, Zymovyi pokhid, 2:27; Dotsenko, pokhid, p. CXXXIV; Arshinov, Istoriia makhnovskogo dvizheniia, p. 95. 22. Omelianovych-Pavlenko, Zymovyi pokhid, 2:27.

Zymovyi

Notes, Chapters 7, 8

281

23. Kubanin, Makhnovshchina, p. 165; Holubnychyi, ‘“Makhno i makhnivshchyna,” p. 1494; N. P-pa, ed., “Protybol’shevyts’ki povstannia na Ukraini v 1921

r.,” LCK,

no.

6 (1932),

p. 22; “Povstancheskoe

dvizhenie

na

Ukraine,”

Revoliutsionnaia Rossiia, no. 11 (19%—), p. 23; “1919 god v Ekaterinoslave i Aleksandrovske,” LR, no. 4 (13) (1925), p. 9; V. I. Miroshevskii, “Vol’nyi

Ekaterinoslav,” PR, no. 9 (1922), p. 199. 24. Teper, Makhno, pp. 20, 87; Erde, ‘“‘Politychna prohrama anarkho-makhnovshchyny,”’ no. 2, p. 39.

25. Holos makhnovtsia, no. 1 (November

1, 1920), as quoted in Erde, ‘‘Poli-

tychna prohrama anarkho-makhnovshchyny,” no. 2, p. 39. 26. Kubanin, Makhnovshchina, pp. 165—66. 27. Teper, Makhno, p. 114. 28.

Fedenko, “‘Mynulo pivstolittia,” SV, no. 221 (December 1, 1971), p. 2.

29. Makhno, Makhnovshchina, pp. 9-10. 30.

Voline,

Unknown

Revolution,

p.

124;

see

also

N. Makhno,

‘‘Otkrytoe

pis’mo t-shchu Maksymovu,” DT, no. 15 (1926), p. 11.

Chapter 8, Makhno, the Bolsheviks, and the Central Rada 1. Makhno, “‘Velikii Oktiabr’ na Ukraine,” p. 10; see also his Russkaia revoliutstia, 1:99—100. 2. Makhno, Ukrainskaia revoliutsiia, 3:7—8; see also his ‘‘Put’ bor’by protiv

gosudarstva,” DT, no. 17 (October 1926), pp. 5—6. 3. Makhno, Russkaia revoliutsiia, 1:96. 4. Makhno, ‘“‘Neskol’ko slov o natsional’nom voprose na Ukraine,”’ p. 6. 5. Makhno, Russkaia revoliutstia, 1:14.

6. Ibid., p. 47. Te Abids pea: 8. Mahalevs’kyi, “Bat’ko Makhno,” p. 67. 9. Makhno, Russkaia revoliutsiia,

1:110.

10. Ibid., pp. 114—15. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15.

Mahalevs’kyi, ‘‘Bat’ko Makhno,” p. 67. V. A. Antonov-Ovseenko, Zapiski o grazhdanskoi voine, 1:23. Makhno, Russkaia revoliutstia, 1:136. Mahalevs’kyi, ‘““Bat’ko Makhno,”’ p. 67; Belash, ‘“Makhnovshchina,” p. 196. Makhno, Russkaia revoliutsiia, 1:141.

16. 17. 18. 19.

Ibid., Ibid., Ibid:, Ibid.,

p. 164. pp. 152, 160—63. pp. 189, 192° pp. 193—94.

20. Istoriia ukrains’koho viis’ka, p. 417. 21. Makhno, Russkaia revoliutsita, 1: 181; Mazepa, Ukraina v ohni, 1:48. 22. Makhno, “‘Zapiski,” no. 1, p. 24; Rudnev, Makhnovshchina, p. 18.

23. To undermine Makhno’s effective assistance of the Bolshevik troops, the agriculturist Dmytrenko, a Socialist Revolutionary, who was the chairman of the Huliai-Pole Prosvita association, together with two young men, P. Kovalenko and M. Konoplia, in behalf of the Ukrainian troops cut all the wires leading to Huliai-

282

Notes, Chapters 8, 9, 10

Pole. When

Makhno

after four or five months later discovered this action, his men

assassinated Dmytrenko (Makhno, Russkaia revoliutstia, 1:210—11). 24. Ibid., pp. 206—8. 25.

Makhno,

Pod

udarami

kontr-revoliutsti,

2:11; Arshinov, Istoriia makhnov-

skogo dvizhentia, p. 52; Footman, Civil War in Russia, p. 82.

26. Nestor Makhno, ‘“‘Pechalnye ary 29—February 18, 1932, p. 6. 27. Ibid., pp. 6—7. 28.

stranitsy

russkoi

revoliutsii,’”’ Rassvet, Janu-

Makhno, Pod udarami kontr-revoliutsti, 2.: 14.

29. Nestor Makhno, “‘K 10-i godovshchine revoliuts. povstanchestva na Ukrainemakhnovshchiny,”’ DT, nos. 44—45 (1929), p. 4; Makhno, Pod udarami kontrrevoliutsii,

2:18—24;

Makhno,

‘“‘Zapiski,”

Russia, pp. 82—83. 30. Mazepa, Ukraina v ohni, Ukraini 1917-18, pp. 12—14.

1:24;

no.

1, p. 24;

Mykhailo

Footman,

Civil

War in

Omelianovych-Pavlenko,

Na

Chapter 9, Makhno’s Visits with Kropotkin and Lenin Makhno, Pod udarami kontr-revoliutsi1, 2:89.

Ibid., Ibid., Ibid., oO ®ON Ibid.,

pp. 32—35. pp. 61 ff. p. 102. p. 107.

6. Ibid. Makhno remembered not only Kropotkin’s words but also Kropotkin himself. Makhno supplied him with necessary food in time of need. Kropotkin admitted that “‘the anarchists of the Ukraine have been trying to make his life easier by supplying him with flour and other products. Makhno, also, when still friendly

with the Bolsheviki, had sent him provisions” (Berkman, Bolshevik Myth, p. 75). 7. Footman, Civil War in Russia, p. 83. 8. Makhno, Pod udarami kontr-revoliutsi,

9. 10. Ui 12. iS

Ibid., pp. 127—28. Ibid., p. 130. elbideiprel sie Ibid. elbidsipals2.

14.

Zatonskyi

was

a prominent

Ukrainian

2:122.

Communist

who

later occupied

important positions in the Soviet Ukrainian government, including the post of minister of education. In 1937 he and his wife were liquidated by Stalin (Entsyklopedia ukrainoznovstve: Slounykova chastyna, 2:759—60). 15.

Makhno, Pod udarami kontr-revoliutsii, 2:134—35.

16. Makhno, “K 10-i godovshchine revoliuts.,” p. 3. 17.

Makhno, Pod udarami kontr-revoliutsii, 2:140, 149.

18. One verst equals 3,500 feet. 19. Makhno, Pod udarami kontr-revolutsti,

2:154—55.

Chapter 10, The Origin of Makhno’s Partisan Movement 1. Makhno “K 10-i godovshchine revoliuts.,” p. 3. 2. Makhno, Ukrainskaia revoliutsiia, 3:8.

Notes, Chapters 10, 11

283

S-elbid= p. 12: 4. Ibid., pp. 25—27. 5. This was one of the reasons that most of the sources dealing with Makhno portrayed him as a schoolteacher. : 6. Makhno,

Ukrainskaia revoliutsiia, 3:27—30.

ie libidpe33:. 8. Ibid., pp. 35—36. 9. Ibid., pp. 37-38. 10. 11.

Ibid., pp. 50 ff.; Makhno, ‘‘Zapiski,” no. 2, pp. 29—30. Makhno, Ukrains’kaia revoliutsiia, 3:62; see also Makhno,

‘‘Zapiski,’’

no. 2, pp. 30—31. 12. Makhno,

“‘Zapiski,”

3:89—90. 13. Andrii Moskalenko 14.

Makhno,

Zymovyt

2,

p.

32;

Makhno,

Ukrainskaia

revoliutsiia,

to L. Bykovskyi, New York, July 18, 1971.

Ukrainskaia_

Makhno,

2:25;

Ivan

revoliutsiia,

Hnoiovyi,

3:70—71;

Ukrainskaia revoliutstia,

“Chy

Omelianovych-Pavlenko,

Nestor Makhno—Ukr. natsional’nyi heroi?,’”’ TR, no. 38 (1966), p. 12; S. Chernomordik (Larionov), Makhno i makhnovshchina, p. 13. 15.

pokhid,

no.

‘Bat’ko’

3:73; see also Makhno, “‘Zapiski,”’ no. 2,

p33. 16.

Makhno,

Ukrainskaia

revoliutsiia,

3:74—75;

Makhno,

“Zapiski,’

no.

2,

Makhno,

“‘Zapiski,’”

no.

2,

“Epic

Nestor

pp. 34—35; Footman, Civil War in Russia, p. 91. 17.

Makhno,

Ukrainskaia

revoliutsua,

3:82—84;

pp. 36—37. 18. Makhno, Ukrainskatia revoliutsita, 3: 84. 19.

Ibid.;

Makhno,”

Belash,

‘“Makhnovshchina,”

no. 6, p. 337.

p.

208;

“‘Bat’ko” is an affectionate

Nomad, Ukrainian

with the additional meaning of supreme military leader. Makhno seriously and retained it as his title. 20.

Makhno,

Ukrainskaia revoliutstia, 3:88—91; Makhno,

of

term for “Father”’

took this honor

“‘Zapiski,”’ nos. 3—4,

pp. 23—24; Komin, Anarkhizm v Rossii, p. 224; Arshinov, Istoriia makhnovskogo dvizheniia, pp. 57—58; Rudnev, Makhnovshchina, pp. 23—24. 21.

Makhno,

‘‘Zapiski,” nos. 3—4, pp. 24—28; Makhno,

Ukrainskaia revoliutsua,

3:118—19; Arshinov, Istoriia makhnovskogo dvizhentia, pp. 58—59. 22.

Makhno, “‘Zapiski,”’ nos. 3—4, pp. 27—38; Makhno, Ukrainskaia revoliutstia,

3:96—98,

104—5.

Chapter 11, Organization and Tactics of Makhno’s Partisan Army 1. Makhno,

Ukrainskaia revoliutstia,

3:123.

2. Goldman, Living My Life, p. 149. 3. Makhno,

Ukrainskaia

revoliutstia,

3:128

ff.;

Arshinov,

Istoriia

makh-

novskogo dvizhenia, p. 59.

4. Dm. Varetskii, “Marshal V. K. Bliukher,” Novyt zhurnal 27 (1951):259; Oleksander Udovychenko, Tretia Zalizna dyviziua, p. 49. 5. Makhno,

Ukrainskaia revoliutstia, 3: 142.

6. IA. Slashchov, ‘Iz opyta voiny: Materialy dlia istorii grazhdanskoi voiny v Rossii: Operatsii belykh, Petliury i Makhno v iuzhnoi Ukraine v poslenei chetverty

1919 goda,” Voennyi vestnik, nos. 9-10 (1922), pp. 38—39.

284

Notes, Chapter 11

7. M. Kapustians’kyi, “Makhno i makhnovshchyna,” 17, 1934), p. 2. 8. Omelianovych-Pavlenko, Zymovyi pokhid, 2:25. 9. Slashchov, “Iz opyta voiny,” pp. 38—39. 10. Omelianovych-Pavlenko,

SV, no. 243 (November

Zymovyi pokhid, 2:26.

11. Kapustians’kyi, ‘““Makhno i makhnovshchyna,”’ p. 2. 12.

ARR

I. Danilov,

“Vospominaniia

0 moei podnevol’noi

sluzhbie u bol’shevikov,”’

16 (1925): 162.

13. V. M., “‘Dontsy na makhnovskom

frontie,” Kazach’i dumy, no. 13 (1923),

pp. 9—10. 14.

Mahalevs’kyi, “‘Bat’ko Makhno,” p. 69; Belash, ‘““Makhnovshchina,”’ p. 213.

15. Kubanin, Makhnovshchina, pp. 167—68; V. M., ““Dontsy na makhnovskom

frontie,” no. Makhno,

13, p. 10; “Makhnovskaia

pp. 76—77; Vl. Miroshevskii,

armiia’’ (manuscript), pp. 9-10; Teper,

““Vol’nyi Ekaterinoslav,” p. 202; L. Nikulin,

“Gibel’ makhnovshchiny,” Znamia, no. 3 (1941), p. 179; Volin, “V dopolnenie k ‘otkrytomu pis’mu t-shchu Maksymovu’ t-shcha N. Makhno,” DT, no. 16 (1926), p. 16; Rudnev, Makhnovshchina, p. 73. 16. Antonov-Ovseenko, “V borot’bi za Radians’ku Ukrainu,” LR, no. 5 (1932), p. 117; Teper, Makhno, p. 76; V. M., ““Dontsy na makhnovskom frontie,”’ no. 13,

p. 10; Victor

Serge, Memoirs

of a Revolutionary,

“Ekaterinoslavskiia vospominaniia,”

Dubrovs’kyi, IAkymiv,

Bat’ko

Nestor

‘“Hostyna Makhna

1901—1941,

p. 238; Mazepa,

Makhno—Ukrains’kyi v Umani,”’ IKCK

Ukraina

p. 121; Igrenev,

v ohni, 1:62; Vasyl’

natsional’nyi heroi, p. 8; E.

1929, p. 79; Miroshevskii,

“‘Vol’nyi

Ekaterinoslav,” p. 199; Hodgson, With Denikin’s Armies, p. 117. 17. “Makhnovskaia armiia,” p. 3; N. Makhno, “K voprosu o zashchite revoliutsii,”” DT, no. 25 (1925), p. 14; Kubanin, Makhnovshchina, p. 172; Miroshevskii,

“Vol’nyi Ekaterinoslav,” p. 201. 18.

Kubanin, Makhnovshchina, pp. 189—90; R. Eideman, ‘‘Piataia godovshchina

odnogo uroka,” VR, no. 12 (1926), p. 37; N. A. Efimov, ‘‘Deistviia protiv Makhno s ianvaria, 1920 g. po ianvar 1921 g.,” Sbornik trudov Voenno-nauchnogo obshchestva 1 (1921): 200; Miroshevskii, “‘Vol’nyi Ekaterinoslav,”’ p. 200. 19. Osyp Tsebrii, ‘“Vospominaniia partizana,” DT-P, no. 32 (1950), p. 14. 20. “Makhnovskaia armiia,” p. 1; Vinogradov, ‘‘Chemu ia byl svidietelem,” pp. 10—11; I[Akymiv, ““Hostyna Makhna v Umani,” p. 79. 21. 22.

Makhno, Makhnovshchina, p. 18. Makhno, Russkaia revoliutsiia,

3:70—71; Omelianovych-Pavlenko,

1:198;

idem,

Ukrainskaia

revoliutsiia,

Zymovyi pokhid, 2:25.

23. Belash, ‘‘Makhnovshchina,” p. 214; Arshinov, Istoriia makhnovskogo dvizheniia, p. 56; Rudnev, Makhnovshchina, p. 23. 24. Makhno, Ukrainskaia revoliutsiia, 3:147—48; Kubanin, Makhnovshchina,

pp. 40—41; S. G. Semanov, “Makhnovshchina i ee krakh,” VI, no. 9 (1966), p.39. 25.

Makhno, Ukrainskaia revoliutstia, 3:95.

26. Belash, ‘““Makhnovshchina,” p. 221; Mykh. Mykhailyk, ‘“‘Ukrains’ke selo v chasy natsion. revoliutsii,’LCK, no. 2 (1934), p. 7; Bulavenko, “Kuban’ na perelomi,”’ Rozbudova natsti, nos. 3—4 (74—75) (1934), pp. 90—91; AntonovOvseenko, Zapiski, 4: 304; idem, “V borot’bi za Radians’ku Ukrainu,” no. 5, p. 115. 27. Dubrovs’kyi, Bat’ko Nestor Makhno, p. 11; Meleshko, “‘Nestor Makhno ta ioho anarkhiia,”’ no. 1 (1935), p. 12; ‘““Makhnovskaia armiia,” p. 3; Voline, Uknown

Notes, Chapter 11

285

Revolution, p. 142. LR,

28. D. Kin, “Povstancheskoe dvizhenie protiv denikinshchiny na Ukraine,” nos. 3—4 (1926), p. 79; Kubanin, Makhnovshchina, p. 174; Miroshevskii,

“Vol’nyi Ekaterinovslav,” pp. 201, 208; Gutman, “Pod vlast’iu anarkhistov,”’ p. 62; Denikin, Ocherki russkoi smuty, 5:234. 29. Arshinov, Istoriia makhnovskogo dvizhentia, pp. 157—59; Gutman, “Pod vlast’iu anarkhistov,” p. 68; Semanov, ‘“Makhnovshchina i ee krakh,” p. 52; Teper, Makhno, p. 65; Peters, Nestor Makhno, pp. 62—63; Miroshevskii, ‘‘Vol’nyi Ekaterinoslav,” p. 206.

30. Efimov, “Deistviia protiv Makhno,” pp. 203—4. 31. IAkovlev, Russkii anarkhizm, p. 34; idem, “Makhnovshchina i anarkhizm,” Krasnaia nov, no. 2, p. 253; Margushin, ‘“‘Bat’ko Makhno,”’ NRS, October 13, 1964, p. 2; Arshinov, /stortia makhnovskogo dvizhentia, p. 188; Volodymyr Dubiv,

“Ulamok

z moho

Kubanin,

Makhnovshchina,

makhnovshchiny,

zhyttia,”

Vyzvol’nyi p.

159;

p. 40; Premysler,

D.

shliakh, Lebed’,

‘““Razgrom

no. Itogi

6 (219) i uroki

(1966), trekh

p. 191;

let anarkho-

banditizma na Ukraine, 1921 g., ”

Voenno-istoricheskii zhurnal, no. 9 (1940), p. 44. 32.

Arshinov, Istoriia makhnovskogo dvizhenniia, p. 197.

33. Danilov, ““Vospominaniia,” 16:175; E. Esbakh, ‘‘Poslednie dni makhnovshchiny na Ukraine,” Voina i revoliutsiia, no. 12, pp. 41—42; Kubanin, Makhnov-

shchina, p. 170; Stefan Szpinger, Z Pierwsza Konna, p. 178. 34. Szpinger, Z Pierwsza Konna, p. 178. 35. Kubanin, Makhnovshchina, p. 169; Kapustians’kyi, ‘“Makhno i makhnivshchyna,” p. 2; Vl. Vygran, ‘‘Vospominaniia o bor’bie s makhnovtsami” (manuscript), p. 6; Eideman,

“Poltavskaia

“Piataia

godovshchina

operatsiia protiv Makhno,’”’

VR,

odnogo

uroka,”

p. 37; P. Sergeev,

no. 9 (1927), pp. 122—23; Serge,

Memorrs of a Revolution, p. 121. According to a Bolshevik officer, “If we succeed in destroying a detachment, this still does

not

mean

an

end

to the matter.

Indeed,

there

have

been

cases

in

which a commander reports the destruction of a band, and the next day is hit by the same band, often is disarmed, and even lands in prison” (Komandarm Uborevich: Vospominaniia druzei i soratnikou, p. 82).

36. Kubanin, Makhnovshchina, pp. 169—70; V1. Maevskii, Povstantsy Ukrainy, 1918—1919 gg., p. 77; Kapustians’kyi, ““Makhno i makhnivshchyna,” p. 2; Eideman, ‘‘Piataia godovshchina odnogo uroka,”’ p. 37. 37. Szpinger, Z Pierwsza Konna, pp. 178—79. 38. Danilov, ‘“Vospominaniia,” 16:175—76. 39. Mykhailyk, ‘“Ukrains’ke selo v chasy natsion revoliutsii,” p. 6. 40.

p.

‘Makhnovskaia armiia,” p. 4; Meleshko, ‘“‘Nestor Makhno ta ioho anarkhiia,”’ 17; Teper, Makhno, p. 28; M. Irchan, “Makhno i makhnivtsi,” IKCK 1936,

p. 120; Volin, ‘‘Nestor Makhno,” p. 7; Esbakh, “‘Poslednie dni makhnovshchiny na Ukraine,” p. 48. 41. Arbatov, “Ekaterinoslav 1917—22 gg.,” 12:98; see also idem, “Bat’ko Makhno,” 29:111. 42. Meleshko, “Nestor Makhno ta ioho anarkhiia,” no. 4, pp. 16—17; P. A. Pavlov, ‘““Voennye khitrosti,” Voennyi vestnik, no. 4 (1921), p. 13; C. E. Bechhofer, In Denikin’s

Russia and Caucasus,

novshchiny,” p. 179.

1919 and 1920, p. 176; Nikulin, ‘‘Gibel’ Makh-

286

Notes, Chapters 11, 12

43. Pavlov, “Voennye khitrosti,” shchiny na Ukraine,” p. 41. 44. Teper, Makhno, pp. 164—65.

p.

13; Esbakh,

‘‘Poslednie

dni Makhnov-

Chapter 12, The Overthrow of the Hetman and the Establishment of the Directory 1. Vynnychenko,

Vidrodzennia

natsiti,

3:29;

see

also

Doroshenko,

Istoriia

Ukrainy, 2:379.

2. Doroshenko,

Istoriia

Ukrainy,

2:103

ff.; Khrystiuk, Zamitky

i materizaly,

SeO2eth. 3. Doroshenko, Istoriia Ukrainy, 2:107 ff.

4. Ibid., pp. 111—14; Ivanys, Symon Petliura, pp. 71, 74, 77; St. Siropolko, ‘“Dva areshtuvannia S. Petliury za het’mana P. Skoropads’koho,”’ KD 1938, pp. 75--77; Reshetar, Ukrainian Revolution, pp. 152—53. 5. Doroshenko, Istoriia Ukrainy, 2:386 ff.; Khrystiuk, Zamitky 1 materiialy, 3:87

ff.; Fedenko,

Ukrains’kyi rukh, p. 160; Vynnychenko,

Vidrodzennia natsii,

BS 71) ike 6. Doroshenko, Istoriia Ukrainy, 2:389, 397—98; materttaly ,3:114; Fedenko, Ukrains’kyi rukh, p. 161.

7. Winston

S. Churchill,

The

Aftermath

(New

Khrystiuk,

York:

Zamitky

C. Scribner,

7

1929),

p. 168. 8. Serhii Shemet, “Do istorii Ukrains’koi Demokratychno-khliborobs’koi Partii,” Khliborobs’ka Ukraina 1 (1920): 75; Viktor Andriievs’kyi, Z mynuloho, 2, pt. 1:210—11; Doroshenko, /stortia Ukrainy, 2:408; Leikhtenbergskii, ‘“Kak

nachalas ‘IUzhnaia Armiia,’” 8:38; Volia 4, no. 5 (1920): 271; Khrystiuk, Zamitky 1 materitaly, 3: 120; Doroshenko, Istoriia Ukrainy, 2: 114—15. 9. Zenon

Stefaniv,

Ukrains’ki

Ukrains’kyi rukh, p. 163; Stewart,

zbroini

syly

White Armies

1917—21

rr.,

1:112;

Fedenko,

of Russia, pp. 75—76; Mazepa,

Ukraina v ohnt, 1:59.

10. Khrystiuk, Zamitky 1 matertialy, 3:131—32. HAL, doyyol, 12. Nazaruk, Rik na Velykit Ukraini, p. 35; Stefaniv, Ukrains’ki zbroini syly, 1:113—15; Istoriia ukrains’koho

viss’ka, pp. 452—54; Vynnychenko,

Vidrodzennia

natsu, 3:130—31; Stefaniv, Ukrains’kyi zbroini syly, 1:116—17; V. Stankevich, Sud’by narodov Rossii (Berlin: I. P. Ladyzhnikov, 1921), p. 90. 13. Nazaruk, Rik na Velykii Ukraini, p. 35; Leikhtenbergskii, “Kak ‘TUzhnaia Armiia,’” p. 42; Vynnychenko, Vidrodzennia natsii, 3:157.

nachalas

14. Nazaruk, Rik na Velykit Ukraini, pp. 75—78; Stefaniv, Ukrains’ki zbroini syly, 1:118; Udovychenko, Tretia Zalizna dyviziia, pp. 46—47; Leikhtenbergskii, “Kak nachalas ‘{Uzhnaia Armiia,’”’ p. 45. 15.

Sviatoslav

Dolenga,

Skoropadshchyna,

p. 140; M. Ivanov,

ed., “‘ ‘Ot vlasti

otkazyvaius,” LR, no. 7 (1924), p. 224. 16. Later, Vynnychenko accused Petliura of knowing the hetman’s hiding place in Kyiv but of not denouncing him (Vynnychenko, Vidrodzennia natsii, 3:163, 165); Nazaruk, Rik na Velykit Ukraini, pp. 77—78; Stewart, White Armies of Russia, p. 76: Reshetar, Ukrainian Revolution, p. 204; Sergey Markow, Armee ohne Heimat, p. 95.

Notes, Chapter 12

17.

For

the

text

287

of the

declaration,

see Vynnychenko,

Vidrodzennia

natsii,

3:168 ff.; Khrystiuk, Zamitky ¢ matertialy, 4:15 ff. 18. Arnold Margolin, Ukraina i politika Antanty, p. 98; Ivanys, Symon Petliura, p. 85; Mazepa, Ukraina v ohni, 1:75;/Vynnychenko, Vidrodzennia natsii, 2: 184; Fedenko, Ukrains’kyi rukh, p. 176; Vynnychenko, Vidrodzennia natsii, 3:244—45. 19. Vynnychenko, Vidrodzennia natsii, 3:151; Andriievs’kyi, Z mynuloho,

2, pt. 2:20—21. 20. Lonlyn Tsehel’s’kyi, Vid Legend do pravdy, pp. 143—45; 258—60; Kovalevs’kyi, Pry dzherelakh borot’by, p. 536; Vynnychenko, Vidrodzennia natsii, 3:242—43. 21.

Mazepa,

Ukraina v ohni, 1:88; Khrystiuk, Zamitky

i materiialy, 4:57—68;

Tsehel’s’kyi, Vid legend do pravdy, pp. 273—83; Mazepa, Ukraina v ohni, 1:87—95; Fedenko, Ukrains’kyi rukh, pp. 180—81; Moissey G. Rafes, Dua goda revoliutsti na Ukraine, pp. 143—52; Reshetar, Ukrainian Revolution, pp. 231—32. 22.

Mazepa, Ukraina v ohni, 1:66—67.

23. Great Britain, Foreign Office, Documents

on British Foreign Policy, 1919—

1939, ed. E. L. Woodward and Rohan Butler (London, first series), 3: 361—62. 24. 16:16;725.

Stewart,

White

Armies

Denikin,

Ocherki,

of Russia, pp.

154—55;

Mazepa,

Ukraina

v ohni,

5:10; Jean Xydias, L’intervention francaise en Russie,

1918—1919, p. 165; Reshetar, Ukrainian Revolution, p. 239.

26. Vladimir Margulies, Ognennye gody, pp. 6—7. 27. relate 28. 29.

Ibid.; Xydias,

L intervention francaise en Russie, p. 170; Denikin, Ocherki,

Denikin, Ocherki, 5:11; Udovychenko, Tretia zalizna dyviztia, p. 55. F. Anulov, ‘‘Soiuznyi desant na Ukraine,” in A. G. Shlichter, ed., Chernaia

kniga, p.

111; Xydias, L’intervention francaise en Russie, pp. 160, 170—72.

30. Terry L. Smart, “The French Intervention in the Ukraine, 1918—i919,” (Ph.D. diss., University of Kansas, 1968), p. 102; Manuil S. Margulies, God interventsit, 1:225; A. Gukovskii, “Inostrannaia intervetsiia na Ukraine, 1917—1919

goda,” IM 1, no. 71 (1939):93; Chamberlin, Russian Revolution, 2:165; Mazepa, Ukraina v ohni, 1:68—69; Khrystiuk, Zamitky i materialy, 4:28—29.

31. “Ocherk vzaimootnoshenii vooruzhennykh frantsuzskago komandovaniia,” ARR 16:249—50. 32. Mazepa, Ukraina v ohni, biezhentsa,” ARR 18:194—95;

sil IUga Rossii i predstavitelei

1:69; E. N. Trubetskoi, “Iz putevykh zamietok Margulies, God interventsii, 1:163 ff.; Kapu-

stians’kyi, Pokhid ukrains’kykh armi, 1:31. 33. Denikin, Ocherki, 5:34.

34. Allied 35. 36.

Trubetskoi, “Iz putevykh zamietok biezhentsa,” 18:174; John Bradley, Intervention in Russia, p. 148. Nazaruk, Rik na Velyku Ukraini, pp. 119—20. Ibid., pp. 126—31; Mazepa, Ukraina v ohni, 1:97—98; Vynnychenko,

Vidrodzennia

natsii,

3:259;

Khrystiuk,

Zamitky

i materialy,

Ukrainian Revolution, p. 241. 37.

Mazepa, Ukraina v ohni,

1:99—100.

38. Margolin, Ukraina i politika Antanty, pp. 113—19. 39. Margolin, From a Political Diary, pp. 37—38. 40.

Ibid., p. 70; Nazaruk, Rik na Velykii Ukraini, pp. 124—33.

4:42;

Reshetar,

288

Notes, Chapter 12

41. Henry (1919): 570.

G.

Alsberg,

“The

Situation

in the

Ukraine,”

The

Nation

109

42. Narys istorii Ukrainy, ed. K. Huslystoho, L. Slavina, and F. lastrebova (Ufa: Vyd-vo Akavemii nauk URSR, 1942), pp. 172—73. 43. Fedenko, Ukrains’kyi rukh, pp. 177—78; Grazhdanskaia voina na Ekaterinoslavshchine, fevral’ 1918—1920 gg., pp. 72—73. 44. On November 11 the Council of People’s Commissars ‘‘decided to direct the

Revolutionary Military Council of the [Russian Soviet Federated Socialist] Republic to launch an attack within ten days in support of the workers and peasants of Ukraine who rose against the Hetman’”’ (Antonov-Oseenko, Zapiski, 3:11, 14).

45. The fears of the rightist Communist group were expressed by a Communist from Katerynoslav: “Although the workers and many peasants, especially in the Chernihiv province, are on our side, there is no basis to think that a [pro-Bolshevik] revolutionary movement can arise, let alone succeed, in Ukraine without the support of considerable forces of the Red Army’ (Antonov-Ovseenko, Zapiski, 3:12). See also V. Zatonskii, ‘““K voprosu ob organizatsii Vremennogo Raboche

Krest’ianskogo

Pravitel’stva Ukrainy

joj ASS) ane, 46. Zatonskyi,

grazhdanskoi v ohni,

47.

‘““K voprosu

ob

noiabr’

1919

organizatsii,”

g.,” LR, no. p. 149; M.

1 (10) (1925),

Rubach,

‘“‘K istorii

bor’by na Ukraine,” LR, no. 4 (9) (1924), p. 164; Mazepa, Ukraina

1:72; Vynnychenko, Vidrodzennia natsti, Antonov-Ovseenko, Zapiski, 3:13—14.

3:209—10.

48.

Lev Trotskii, The Trotsky Papers 1919—1922,

49.

Antonov-Ovseenko,

50.

Nazaruk, Rik na

1:242.

Zapiski, 3:17.

Velykit Ukraini, pp.

135—36;

Adams,

Bolsheviks

in the

Ukraine, p. 113.

51. Vynnychenko,

Vidrodzennia

natsit,

3:205—8;

Khrystiuk,

Zamitky

7

materialy, 4:35—36.

52. Khrystiuk, Zamitky i materiialy, 4:37. 53. Ibid., p. 39; Vynnychenko, Ukraina v ohni, 1:72—73.

Vidrodzennia

natsii,

3:221—23;

Mazepa,

54. Khrystiuk, Zamitky i materiialy, 4:40; Mazepa, Ukrainav ohni, 1:73. 55. Zynaida Shepel’, “Bat’ko povstantsia,’”? LCK, no. 2 (1932), p. 5; Antin Krezub, “IAk zhynuv otaman Zelenyi,’ Literaturno-naukovyi visnyk, no. 10 (1927), pp. 110—13; Mykhailo Sereda, ‘“Otamanshchyna,” LCK, no. 2 (1930), pp. 6—8, no. 9, pp. 14—16; Iv. Kozub, ‘‘Povstannia proty het’manshchyny ta

petliurovshchyny,” LR, no. 5 (44) (1930), p. 284. 56. Mazepa,

Het’mana p.

Ukraina

i druha

8; I. Drabatyi,

v ohni,

1:72,

96; Stepan

viina z bol’shevykamu, “Epizod

z evakuatsii

Lazurenko,

1918—1919 Kyieva

v 1919

‘‘Povstannia proty

rr.,” TR, no. 41 (1966), r.,” TR,

no.

30 (1964),

pp. 3—5; Khrystiuk, Zamitky i materiialy, 4:91; Tsehel’s’kyi, Vid Legend do pravdy, p. 294; Udovychenko, Tretia Zalizna dyviztia, pp. 52—53; AntonovOvseenko, Zapiski, 3:162; Goldenveizer, “Iz kievskikh vospominami, 1919—1921 Cos ARO 2236; 57. Khrystiuk, Zamitky i materiialy, 4:94—98; Vynnychenko, Vidrodzennia natsit, 3:276--77; Udovychenko,

58. Vynnychenko, materitaly, 4:119- 20.

Tretia Zalizna dyviztia, p. 56.

Vidrodzennia

natsii,

3:289—90;

Khrystiuk,

Zamitky

i

Notes, Chapter 12 59.

289

V.I. Lenin, Sochineniia, 24:154.

60. Khrystiuk, Zamitky i materiialy, 4:172—73. 61.

Lenin, Sochineniia, 24:75.

62.

Khrystiuk, Zamitky i materiial¥ ,4:130—31.

63.

Lenin, Sochinentia, 24:47—48.

64.

A. Shlikhter,

“Bor’ba

za khleb na Ukraine v 1919 godu,”’ LR, no. 2 (29)

(March—-April 1928), p. 135. 65. Fedenko, Ukrains’kyi rukh, p. 185. 66.

Kapustians’kyi, Pokhid ukrains’kykh armii, 1:33—34.

67. 68.

Antonov-Ovseenko, Zapiski, 3:324. Kapustains’kyi, Pokhid ukrains’kykh

materiialy,

4:116;

Bulavenko,

armii,

1:37;

“Kuban u pershii polovyni

Khrystiuk,

Zamitky

i

1919 r.,”” Rozbudova

natsii, nos. 5—6 (1934), pp. 135—36. 69. Kapustians’kyi, Pokhid ukrains’kykh armii, 1:35—36; Shandruk, Arms of Valor, p. 83. 70. Mykhailo Lozyns’kyi, Halychyna v rr. 1918—1920, pp. 747 ff.; Reshetar, Ukrainian Revolution, pp. 79—80. 71. Matthew Stachiw and Jaroslaw Sztendera, Western Ukraine at the Turning Point of Europe’s History, 1918-1923, 2:54; Lozyns’kyi, Halychyna, pp. 134 ff.; Marian Kukiel, Zarys historii wojskowoscit w Polsce, p. 231; Roman Dashkevych, Artylertia Sichovykh Stril’tsiv u borot’bi za zoloti kyivs’ki vorota, p. 181; Liubomyr Savoika, “IAk povstala armiia Halliera,” Visti, no. 122 (1966), p. 66; Marion Romeyko, Przed i po Maju (Warsaw, Wydawn. Ministerstwa Obromy

Narodowej, 1967), 1:76. 72. Stachiw and Sztendera, Western Ukraine at the Turning Point, 2:247—49; Reshetar, Ukrainian Revolution, p. 272. 73. Istoriia ukrains’koho oviis’ka, pp. 506—14; Fedenko, Ukrains’kyi rukh, pp. 188—89; Shandruk, Arms of Valor, pp. 86—87; Stachiw and Sztendera,

Western Ukraine at the Turning Point, 2: 245 ft.; Volodymyr Galan, Bateriia smerty

(New York: “‘Chervona Kalyna,’’ 1968), pp. 82—84; Zepon Stefaniv, “Dva roky v Ukrains’kii armii,’”” LCK, no. 11, p. 14.

74. Lozyns’kyi, Halychyna, p. 143. 75. Ibid. 76. Kapustians’kyi, Pokhid wukrains’kykh armiu, 2:52—59; Stachiw and Sztendera, Western Ukraine at the Turning Point, 2:259; Nazaruk, Rik na Velykit

Ukraini, pp. 183, 187; Lozyns’kyi, Halychyna, p. 168; Osyp Levyits’kyi, Halyts’ka armita na Velykii Ukraini, pp. 9-11; Luka Myshuha, Pokhid ukrains’kykh viis’k na Kyiv, serpen’ 1919, pp. 6—8; Istoriia ukrains’koho viis’ka, p. 515. 77.

Nazaruk, Rik na Velykii Ukraini, p. 184.

78. IAromir Diakiv, ‘“‘Strategichne polozhennia UHA po perekhodi cherez Zbruch litom 1919 r.,” Ukrains’kyi skytalets’, no. 6 (28) (1923); Myshuha, Pokhid ukrains’kykh, pp. 6—8; Levytsky, Halyts’ka armiia, pp. 10—11; Mazepa, Ukraina v ohni,

2:17—23;

Reshetar,

Ukrainian

Revolution,

pp.

284—86;

Oleksander

Dotsenko, Litopys ukrains’kot revoliutsii, 2, pt. 4: 14; Pro ukrains’ki povstannia, pp. 8--9; Andrii Holub, ‘“‘Zbroina vyzvol’na borot’ba na Khersonshchyni v zapilliu voroha, 1917—1919

roku,” Za derzhavnist’, 11:183.

79. When the Ukrainian troops approached Kyiv, the command order:

“It is absolutely

issued a vague

essential not to enter into hostile action; ask the Denikin

290

Notes, Chapters 12, 13

troops not to occupy those localities which are already in our hands, or which we will soon

take; ask them

to withdraw

from

the region of our advance in order not

to delay us; apply all efforts to find out details of the organization, condition of the troops,

strength, intent, morale,

Denikin Army. Furthermore, troops toward the Ukrainian

armament,

uniform,

and ammunition

of the

[you] must find out the attitude of the Denikin state and toward our troops’’ (Dotsenko, Litopys

ukrains’koi revoliutsi, 2, pt. 4: 9-10). 80. Dotsenko, Litopys ukrains’koi revoliutsit, 2, pt. 4: 15—16; Shandruk, Arms

of Valor, p. 104; Levyts’kyi, Halyts’ka armiia, pp. 51—53; Istoriia ukrains’koho viis’ka, p. 560; Udovychenko, Myshuha, Pokhid ukrains’kykh,

Tretia zalizna dyviziia, pp. 112—13, 115—16; pp. 12—18; Denikin, Ocherki, 5:123; Istoriia

ukrains’koho viis’ka, p. 562. 81.

Shandruk, Arms

of Valor, p. 112; Istoriia ukrains’koho viis’ka, pp. 563—64;

Omelianovych-Pavlenko, Zymovyi pokhid, 1:41—43. 82. Alsberg, “Situation in the Ukraine,” pp. 569—70. 83. Tiutiunyk, Zymovyi pokhid, 1:9. 84. Myshuha, Pokhid ukrains’kykh, p. 23.

85. Levyts’kyi, Halyts’ka armita, pp. 103—9, 122—24. 86. Lozyns’kyi, Halychyna, pp. 193—94; Levyts’kyi, Halyts’ka armiia, pp. 139—41. 87. For the text of the treaty see Lozyns’kyi, Halychyna, pp. 198—99; Tiutiunyk, Zymovyt pokhid, 1:12—13; Dmytro Paliiv, ““Zymovyi pokhid,” LCK, nos. 7—8 (1935), p. 8.

Chapter 13, Makhno and the Directory 1. Makhno,

Ukrains’kaia revoliutstia, 3: 283.

2. Ibid., pp. 154—55, 283. 3. Ibid.,

pp.

156—57,

164;

M.

S., ‘““Makhno

ta ioho

viis’ko,’’

LCK,

no.

6

(193.5) Mpa. 4. The two brothers were Ukrainized Russians. Their original name was Vorob’ev. Mykola was a Tsarist artillery officer. As early as summer 1917 they organized the Ukrainian Free Cossacks, consisting of Katerynoslav workers (Panas Fedenko, Isaak Mazepa, p. 22). 5. V. I. Gureev, “Ekaterinoslavskii pokhod,” (manuscript), pp. 5—7; Mahalevs’kyi, ““Bat’ko Makhno,” KD 1930, p. 68; Mazepa, Ukraina v ohni, 1:60—63. 6. Mazepa, Ukraina v ohni, 1:63; Makhno, Ukrainskaia revoliutsiia, 3:168—69. 7. Makhno, Ukrainskaia revoliutsti, 3:172—73; Voline, Uknown Revolution,

p.

103. According to Mahalevs’kyi, Otaman Horobets and Makhno’s delegates concluded an agreement: (1) The troops of the Directory and Makhno should act

together against the Don; (2) Makhno received arms and uniforms from the troops of the Directory. (3) the troops of the Directory would be permitted to carry out mobilization in the area occupied by Makhno (Mahalevs’kyi, ‘‘Bat’ko Makhno,”’ p. 69; see also Dubrovs’kyi, Bat’ko Nestor Makhno, pp. 7—8; Liubomyr Vynar, “Zw iazky Nestora Makhno

z armiieiu U. N. R., 1918—1920,” Rozbudova

derzhavy,

no. 3 (11) (1953), p. 16. 8. Makhno, Ukrains’kaia revoliutsita, 3:173.

9. Ibid., pp. 174—75. 10. Gureev, “Ekaterinoslavskii pokhod,” p. 102; G. Al’mendinger, “K pis’mu

Notes, Chapters 13, 14

291

v redaktsiiu rotmistra Labinskogo,” Pereklichka, no.

106 (1960), p. 13; Mazepa,

Ukraina v ohni, 1:63; Igrenev, ‘‘Ekaterinoslavskiia vospominaniia,” ARR 3:235— 36; Mahalevs’kyi, “Bat’ko Makhno,” p. 68; Lebed’, Itogi i uroki trekh, p. 13; Kubanin, Makhnovshchina, p. 40. ?

11. Omelianovych-Pavlenko, Zymovyi pokhid, 2:26; Borys Monkevych, “Oborona Katerynoslava,” LCK, no. 9 (1935), p. 6; P. Arshinov, Dva pobega, p. 83; Mazepa, Ukraina v ohni, 1:64; Belash, ‘““Makhnovshchina,” LR, no. 3 (1928), p. 213; Footman, Civil War in Russia, p. 94; Igrenev, ‘‘Ekaterinoslavskiia vospominaniia,” p. 237; Lebed’, Jtogi i uroki, pp. 13—14; Kubanin, Makhnovshchina,

pp. 42—43,; Mahalevs’kyi, ““Bat’ko Makhno,” p. 69. 12. IA. TAkovlev, Russkii anarkhizm, p. 15; Kubanin, Makhnovshchina, p. 44; Gutman, “Pod vlast’iu anarkhistov,” p. 68; Chernomordik, Makhno i makh-

novshchina,

p.

15; Arshinov,

Dva

pobega,

p. 83; Belash,

pp. 214—18; Dubrovs’kyi, Bat’ko Nestor Makhno,

“Makhnovshchina,”’

p. 8; Rudnev, Makhnovshchina,

Deco: 13. Lazurenko, “‘Povstannia proty Het’mana,” no. 41, pp. 8—9; no. 42, p. 14. 14. Antonov-Ovseenko, Zapiski, 3:193; Stepan Samiilenko, Dni slavy, pp. 78— 79; Istoriia ukrains’koho

no.

42, pp.

“Bat’ko

14—15;

Makhno,”

viss’ka, p. 458; Lazurenko, ‘“‘Povstannia proty Het’mana,”’

Monkevych, p.

“‘Oborona

70; Arthur

Katerynoslava,”

E. Adams,

“Bolshevik

p. 8; Mahalevs’kyi,

Administration

in the

Ukraine, 1918,” The Review ofPolitics 20 (1958): 93-94.

Chapter 14, Makhno and the Bolsheviks 1. Kapustians’kyi, Pokhid ukrains’kykh armit, 1:30. 2. Belash, ‘“Makhnovshchina,” p. 225; Arshinov, Istoriia dvizhentia, p. 94; Voline, Unknown Revolution, pp. 114—15;

makhnovskogo Footman, Civil

War in Russia, p. 98. 3. Denikin, Ocherki, 4:73. According to Denikin: ‘On January 23 (O. S.) the Ninth Boy Scout Battalion (the Taman) came from Kerch to Perekop to fight against the Bolshevik and Makhno bands who were concentrated in the north Tavriia.

It refused

to carry

out

the order, left the front, and moved

back to the

Kuban. The spokesmen of the battalion declared that this campaign was against Ukraine and until they received orders from the State Rada the boy scouts would not fight against the ‘Petliura men’” (Ocherki, 4:57; see also Bulavenko, “Kuban’

na perelomi,” p. 93). 4. Vl. Vygran, “‘Vospominaniia o bor’be s makhnovtsami,” p. 1; A. G. Shkuro, Zapiski belogo partizana, p. 204; Ovseenko, Zapiski, 3:199.

5. Vygran, dvizhentia, Ovseenko,

‘“Vospominaniia,”

Kornilovskit

pp.

p. 92; Vinogradov, ‘‘Chemu “V borot’bi za Radians’ku

2—4;

udarnyi polk,

Arshinov,

p.

Istoriia

116; Antonov-

makhnovskogo

ia byl svidietelem,” pp. 9-10; AntonovUkrainu,”’ no. 3, pp. 115—16; Shkuro,

Zapiski, p. 205. 6. Shkuro, Zapiski, p. 213; Vinogradov, “‘Chemu ia byl svidietelem,”’ p. 11; Denikin, Ocherki, 5:76—77; Bulavenko, ‘Kuban’ u pershii polovyni,” p. 135; Arshinov, Istoriia makhnovskogo dvizheniia, p. 92. 7. Shkuro, Zapiski, p. 214; Arshinov, Istoriia

makhnovskogo

dvizhenia,

p. 91; Vygran, “Vospominaniia,” p. 14; Vinogradov, ‘“Chemu ia byl svidietelem,” pp. 11—12, 17.

292

Notes, Chapter 14

8. Erde, “Politychna prohrama anarkho-makhnovshchymy,” pp. 45—46. 9. Serge, Memoirs of aRevolutionary, p. 119. 10.

Kiselev, Agitpoezd, p. 24.

11.

Voline, Unknown

12. Rossum,

Revolution, p. 158.

“Proclamations

of the Makhno

Movement,

1920,” pp. 253—54;

Kubanin, Makhnovshchina, p. 103. 13. Voline, Unknown Revolution, pp. 160—61; Gutman, “Pod vlastiu anarkhistov,” p. 66; Rossum, “Proclamations of the Makhno movement, 1920,” p. 254;

V1. Miroshevskii, “‘Vol’nyi Ekaterinoslav,” pp. 199, 204. 14. Kubanin, Makhnovshchina, pp. 99—100; Gutman, “Pod vlastiu anarkhistov,” p. 66; Rossum, “Proclamations of the Makhno Movement, 1920,” p. 254; p. 75. 15. Arshinov, Istoriia makhnovskogo dvizheniia, pp. 176—77; Footman, Civil War in Russia, p. 111; James Joll, The Anarchists, p. 186; Teper, Makhno, pp. 38,

TOS 16. Arshinov, Istoriia makhnovskogo dvizhentia, pp. 177—79; Wojna, “‘Nestor Machno,”’ p. 70. 17. Belash, ‘‘Makhnovshchina,” pp. 218—19; Dubrovs’kyi, Bat’ko Nestor Makhno, p. 8. 18. Dubrovs’kyi, Bat’ko Nestor Makhno, p. 8; Arshinov, /storita makhnovskogo dvizheniia, pp. 86—87; Footman, ‘Nestor Makhno,” p. 96; Voline, Unknown

Revolution, pp. 107—8; Struve, “‘Istoricheskie materialy i dokumenty,” Rudnev, Makhnovshchina, p. 31. 19. Rudnev, Makhnovshchina, pp. 31—32. 20. Struve, ‘‘Istoricheskie materialy i dokumenty,”’ p. 227. 21. Ibid., pp. 228—29.

p. 226;

22. Rudnev, Makhnovshchina, p. 32; see also Struve, “‘Istoricheskie materialyi dokumenty,” p. 228. 23. Kubanin, Makhnovshchina, pp. 46, 53; see also Struve, “Istoricheskie

materialy i documenty,” p. 230. 24. Arshinov, Istoriia makhnovskogo dvizheniia, p. 87. 25.

Struve,

“‘Istoricheskie materialy

i dokumenty,”

p. 231; Rudnev, Makhnov-

shchina, pp. 34—35. 26. Arshinov, Istoriia makhnovskogo dvizhenitia, pp. 88—89; Rudnev, Makhnovshchina, p. 35; Footman, “Nestor Makhno,” p. 96.

27. Struve, “Istoricheskie materialy i dokumenty,” p. 231. 28.

Kubanin,

Makhnovshchina,

p. 55; see also Struve, ‘‘Istoricheskie materialy

i dokumenty,” p. 231.

29. Struve, ‘‘Istoricheskie materialy i dokumenty,” pp. 229—30. 30. Igrenev, ‘“Ekaterinoslavskii vospominaniia,” p. 240. 31.

Kubanin, Makhnovshchina, pp. 54—56.

32. Antonov-Ovseenko, “‘V borot’bi za Radians’ku Ukrainu,”’ no. 5, p. 113. 33. Arkhiv Krasnoi armit, delo no. 30701, shtab Ukrfronta, oper. otdelen.,

“Banditsk vosst.

v Aleksandrovskom

U.,”’ as quoted in Kubanin, Makhnovshchina,

p. 47. Within the Red Army invading Ukraine were a number of units consisting of Chinese,

Latvians,

Germans,

Hungarians,

Poles,

“Povstannia proty Het’mana,” no. 41, p. 8). 34. Kubanin, Makhnovshchina, pp. 47—48.

Jews,

and

others

(Lazurenko,

Notes, Chapters 14, 15

293

35. Ibid., pp. 50—51. 36. According to a Soviet author present at the congresses of peasants, workers, and partisans on January 23 and February 12: ‘‘In 1919 when I asked the chairman of the two Congresses (a Jewish farmer) whether the ‘kulaks’ were allowed to participate in the Congress, he angrily responded: ‘When will you finally stop talking about kulaks? Now we have no kulaks among us; everybody is tilling as much land as he wishes and as much as he can’”’ (Teper, Makhno, p. 63). 37.

Kubanin, Makhnovshchina, p. 61.

38. Arshinov, Istoriia makhnovskogo dvizhenita, pp. 96—97. 39.

Dubrovs’kyi,

Bat’ko

Nestor

Makhno,

p.

10; Arshinov, Istoriia

makhnov-

skogo dvizhentia, p. 97; Antonov-Ovseenko, “‘V borot’bi za Radians’ku Ukrainu,”’ no. 5, p. 118; “‘O dobrovol’noi mobilizatsii,”’ Put k svobode, no. 2 (May 24, 1919), p- 1; Kubanin, Makhnovshchina, p. 59. 40. Voline, Unknown Revolution, pp. 120—22. 41. 42. 43.

Antonov-Ovseenko, “V borot’bi za Radians’ku Ukrainu,” no. 5, p. 114. Trotskii, Trotsky Papers, 1:458. Arshinov, Istoriia makhnovskogo dvizheniia, p. 104.

44, v 1919 Istoriia 45.

V.S., “Ekspeditsiia L. B.Kameneva dlia prodvizheniia prodgruzov k Moskve

godu,” Proletarskaia revoliutstia, no. 6 (41) (1925), pp. 137—38; Arshinov, makhnovskogo dvizheniia, pp. 104—5. V.S., “Ekspeditsiia L. B. Kameneva,” pp. 137—38.

Chapter 15, Nykyfor Hryhor’w 1. I. Maistrenko,

(1953),

p.

11;

‘‘Ukrains’ka

Antonov-Ovseenko,

p. 64; Irchan, ““Makhno

Volodymyr Dilo,

armiia,”

Zapiski,

i makhnivtsi,” p. 119;

Kedrovs’kyi,

August

chervona

1917

4, 1934; Makhno,

Visti 4, nos.

4:335;

Kubanin,

Fedenko,

rik, p. 279; Mykhailo “‘Zapiski,’’ nos.

1-2

(27—28)

Makhnovshchina,

Mynulo pivstolittia, p. 35;

Sereda,

“Kholodnyi

Iar,”

5—6, p. 24; Kiselev, Agitpoezd,

pros. 2. S. Ryndyk,

‘‘Otaman

Hryhor’iv,”

Prometei,

March

24, 1960. The date of

Hryhor’iv’s birth is not certain. Some sources give 1888, or even 1884 (Entsyklopediia ukrainoznavstva: Slovnykova chastyna, 2:435; Lev Shankovs’kyi, “Hryhorievshchyna:

Problemsa i literatura,” Al’manakh:

Kaliendar Providinnia,

1966,

p. 83). 3. Ryndyk, “Otaman Hryhor’iv’”’; author on June 28, 1972, Chicago.

interview

with

Stepan

Ryndyk

by

the

4. Ryndyk, “Otaman Hryhor’iv”; Andrii Holub, “Zbroina vyzvol’na borot’ba,” 11:180; Kedrovs’kyi, 1917 rik, 1:279. 5. Kedrovs’kyi, 1917 rik, 1:279. 6. Bol’shaia sovetskaia entstklopediia, 19:360; Kubanin, Makhnovshchina,

p. 65. 7. Antonov-Ovseenko,

svitli nimets’koho “Revoliutsionnaia pp. 7—8.

8. Antonoy-Ovseenko,

germanskimi

Zapiski, 3:89; Vasyl Zadoianyi, ‘““Otaman Hryhor’iv u

admirala Hopmana,” TR, no. 33 (1965), p. 12; IA. Riappo, bor’ba v Nikolaeve: Vospominaniia,” LR, no. 4 (9) (1924),

voiskami

Zapiski,

Ukrainy,”

3:89—90;

Istorik

see

also

G.

i sovremennik,

Frants,

‘‘Evakuatsiia

2 (1922):

262-63;

294

Notes, Chapter 15

Kubanin, Makhnovshchina, pp. 65—66. 9. Mazepa, Ukraina v ohni, 1:75—76; Khrystiuk, Zamitky i materualy, 4: 78.

10. As early as the end of 1917, there emerged within the Socialist Revolutionary party a distinct faction of the Left, the so-called Internationalists. They were critical of the Central Rada for overemphasizing the national struggle at the expense

of socioeconomic Fourth

Congress

problems

(Khrystiuk,

of the Socialist

Zamitky

Revolutionaries

i materiialy, convened

2:65).

At

the

illegally near Kyiv on

May13—16, 1918, the party split into a left and right wing. One of the delegates of the left complained: Those who summoned the Germans were little interested in the revolution. They stifled our revolution and have delayed its outbreak in Germany. They wanted to save the state at any price. Social issues were of secondary importance. Now they are ready immediately to abandon the socialization of the land. We are now divided into two groups—the Internationalists and the

Statists (I. Majstrenko, Borot’bism, p. 66).

The Internationalists controlled the party’s organ, an illegal weekly, Borot’ba (The Struggle), and adopted the name Borot’bists. While the moderate Socialist parties endeavored to democratize and nationalize the Hetman regime (A. Khvylia, “Borot’bisty,” Bol’shaia sovetskaia entsiklopediia, vol. 7, col. 193), the Borot’bists

attempted to establish contact with revolutionary socialist groups in Europe, especially Germany, believing that the world revolution was at hand. After the fall of the Hetman the Borot’bists refused to recognize the Directory and drifted toward the Bolshevik position. They were disappointed by both the Central Rada and the Directory for their reliance upon the Central Powers and the Entente, which they felt undermined the Ukrainian state. The Borot’bists’ ideological move toward the left was reflected in the new party name adopted in March 1919: “Ukrainian Party of Socialist Revolutionaries Communists-Borot’bists” (Khrystiuk,

Zamitky i matertialy 3:23—24). However, the Borot’bists stood for an independent

in mid-January

1919, they formed

their own

visional Workers’ and Peasants’ Government

Soviet Ukraine. Therefore,

government,

parallel with

of Ukraine, under the name

the Pro‘‘Council

of Revolutionary Emissaries” (Rafes, Dva goda revoliutsii na Ukraine, p. 154). Also, they tried to organize a Ukrainian Red Army as a counterpart to the Russian Red Army to defend the independence of Ukraine (Majstrenko, “‘Ukrains’ka chervona armiia,” p. 191). According to Rafes, “This was not simply a gesture, for the Borot’bists conducted a great operation, collected large partisan detachments

(p. 154). The first such military formation was the partisan army of Hryhor’iv, who agreed to Bolsheviks Ukrainian 11. M.

go along with Borot’bist plans. The Borot’bists wanted to present the with an accomplished fact and thus prevent them from interfering in affairs and “helping to liberate” the Ukrainian proletariat. Rubach, “K istorii grazhdanskoi voiny na Ukraine,” p. 178.

12. 13. 14. 15.

Ibid., Ibid., Ibid., Ibid.,

p. p. p. p.

180. 184. 181. 185.

16.

Antonoy-Ovseenko, Zapiski,

ARR, 16 (1925): 126. 17. Alexander Lukomskii,

3:247; Vladimir Maiborodov, “‘S frantsuzami,”’

Memoirs

of the Russian Revolution, pp.

135—41;

Notes, Chapter 15 Antonoy-Ovseenko,

ARR

16 (1925):

1917—1919

299 Zapiski,

246-47;

3:228;

goda,” IM, no.

167—68; Chamberlin, skykh armii, 1:35.

‘‘Ocherk

A. Gukovskii,

vzaimootnoshenii

vooruzhennykh,”’

‘‘Inostrannaia interventsiia na Ukraine,

1 (71), p. 95; Adams, Bolsheviks in the Ukraine, pp.

Russian

Revolution,

2: 166; Kapustians’kyi, Pokhid ukrain-

18. Adams, Bolsheviks in the Ukraine, p. 177. Before leaving Kherson, the Greek troops rounded up hostages—men, women, and children—and drove them into a warehouse close to the docks. On the morning of March 9, while the transports were leaving the wharves, naval guns shelled the city and set fire to the warehouse holding the hostages. Then Allied machine guns cut down the frantic people as they tried to claw their way out of the flames. Of approximately two thousand people imprisoned in the warehouse, at least five hundred died. 19. 20.

“Ocherk vzaimootnoshenii vooruzhennykh,”’ p. 247. Antonov-Ovseenko, Zapiski, 3:225; Gukovskii, ‘“Inostrannaia interventsiia

na Ukraine,” p. 95; Margulies, ukrains’kykh armu, 1:35.

Ognennye

gody,

p. 11; Kapustians’kyi,

Pokhid

21. U.S., Department of State, Papers, p. 753. 22. Antonov-Ovseenko, Zapiski, 3:240, 242; Gukovskii, ‘“Inostrannaia interventsiia na Ukraine,” p. 96; Maiborodov, “‘S frantsuzami,’”’ pp. 127—35; Ukraine, Arkhivne upravlinnia, Grazhdanskaia voina na Ukraine, 1918-1920, 1, pt. 2:231;

Margulies, Ognennye gody, p. 15; U.S., Department of State, Papers, p. 754. 23.

“Ocherk

Ovseenko,

vzaimootnoshenii

Zapiski, 3:246—47;

skii, Memoirs,

vooruzhennykh,”

p.

249;

see

also

Antonov-

Fischer, Soviets in World Affairs, 1:228; Lukom-

p. 221; R. Eideman and N. Kakurin, Hromadians’ka viina na Ukraini,

p. 33, ““Ocherk vzaimootnoshenii vooruzhennykh,” p. 250; U.S., Department of State, Papers, p. 752. Judging from Hryhor’iv’s statement to the representative of the Odessa underground Bolshevik organizations: “I don’t need your blood... . Only give me 15,000 pairs of boots,” probably he had an army of 15,000 partisans

(Adams, Bolsheviks

in the Ukraine, p. 197). Antonov

also states that Hryhor’iv

had about 15,000 combat troops at the beginning of May (Antonov-Ovseenko, Zapiski, 4:45). 24. Margulies, Ognennye gody, pp. 33, 34, 36; Reshetar, Ukrainian Revolution, p: 249. 25.

Antonov- Ovseenko, Zapiski, 3: 249.

26. Kubanin, pp. 47—49. 27.

Makhnovshchina,

pp.

67—68;

Ognennye

gody,

Antonov-Ovseenko, Zapiski, 3: 249.

28. Ibid., 4:27. 29. Vynnychenko, Vidrodzennia natsii, Halychyna, pp. 102—3. 30. Antonov-Ovseenko, Zapiski, 4:275. 31.

Fischer, Soviets in World Affairs, 1:194.

32.

Antonov-Ovseenko, Zapiski, 3:16.

33. Ibid., Catherine

4:84.

Count

Aleksandr

Suvorov

3:322—23;

was

see

also

Lozyns’kyi,

a military commander

II and Paul I. In 1799, he led the allied armies of anti-French

into Italy and Switzerland. 34. Ibid. 35.

Margulies,

Lenin, Sochineniia,

24:27.

under

coalition

296

Notes, Chapters 15, 16

36. B. V. Kozel’s’kyi, “Hryhor’ievshchyna: Z nahody shostykh likvidatsii Hryhor’ievshchyny,” Chervonyi shliakh, no. 5 (1925), p. 68. 37.

Antonov-Ovseenko,

rokovyn

Zapiski, 4:83.

38. Ibid., p. 47; Margulies, Ognennye gody, pp. 118—21. 39. Mazepa,

Ukraina

v ohni, 3:182; see also V. T. Krut’, “Do

istorii borot’by

proty hryhor’ivshchyny na Ukraini,”” LR, nos. 5—6 (54—55) (1932), pp. 146—47. 40. 41.

Mazepa, Ukraina, 3:183. Kozel’s’kyi, ‘““Hryhor’ievshchyna,”’

p. 69; Antonov-Ovseenko,

“V borot’bi

za Radians’ku Ukrainu,’’ no. 5, p. 119; S. Dubrovskii, “Likvidatsiia grigor’evshchiny, 1919 g.,” VIZ, no. 2 (1941), p. 32. 42.

S. Dubrovskii,

“‘Grigor’evshchina,”

VR,

no.

4 (1928), pp. 22—23;

‘“Gri-

gor’evskaia avantiura, mai 1919 goda,’’ LR, no. 3 (1923), pp. 156—59; Fedenko, “Period of the Directory,” p. 758. 43.

Lenin, Sochineniia, 35:327, 329.

44. Kapustians’kyi, Pokhid ukrains’kykh armti, 2:61; Istoriia ukrains’koho vits’ka, p. 535; Dubrovskii, ‘“‘Likvidatsiia grigor’evshchiny, 1919 g.,” pp. 40—41; Antonov-Ovseenko, Zapiski, 4: 309. 45. Mazepa, Ukraina v ohni, 2:29. 46. Ibid., p. 112; Antonov-Ovseenko, Zapiski, 4:72, 100, 308; Teper, Makhno, p. 39; Meleshko, “‘Nestor Makhno ta ioho anarkhiia,”’ no. 3, p. 14. 47. Antonov-Ovseenko, Zapiski, 4: 100. 48. Arshinov, Istoriia makhnovskogo dvizhenta, p. 107; see also Rudnev, Makhnovshchina, p. 38.

49. 50. 51. p. 20.

Arshinov, Istoriia makhnovskogo dvizhenua, p. 109. Ibid., p. 110; see also Rudnev, Makhnovshchina, pp. 38—39. Lenin, Sochinennia,

29:500; S. Chernomordik, Makhno

52. Arshinov, Istoriia makhnovskogo v

ohni,

2:112;

Mahalevs’kyi,

‘‘Bat’ko

i Makhnovshchina,

dvizheniia, pp. 132—33; Mazepa, Ukraina Makhno,”

p.

70;

Denikin,

Ocherki,

5:

13132. 53. Arshinov, Grigor’eva,” LR,

Istoriia makhnovskogo dvizhenia, pp. 133-34; ‘Ubiistvo no. 2, pp. 232-34; Peters, Nestor Makhno, p. 70; Makhno,

“Makhnovshchina i antisemitizm,”’ DT, nos. 30—31 (1927), p. 18. 54. Meleshko, “Nestor Makhno “Kholodnyi JAr,” August 4, 1934.

ta

ioho

anarkhiia,”

55. According to one source about 2,000 partisans Mykhailyk, “‘Ukrains’ke selo v chasy natsion,”’ no. 2, p. 16). 56.

Meleshko,

“Nestor

Makhno

ta ioho

anarkhiia,””

no.

3, p.

joined

p. 14; Louis

14; Sereda,

Makhno

(M.

Fischer, The

Life of Lenin (New York: Harper & Row, 1964), p. 365.

Chapter 16, The Bolsheviks Break with Makhno 1. ‘“Makhnovshchina,”

V puti, no. 51, June 2, 1919; in L. Trotskii, Materialy

t dokumenty po istorii Krasnot armit, 2, pt. 1:190. 2. Goldman, My Disillusionment in Russia, pp. 99—100; Bolshevik

Myth, p. 189; Voline,

Unknown

see also Berkman,

Revolution, p. 124;Makhno, Makhnov-

shchina, p. 59; N. Makhno, “Otkrytoe pis’mo t-shchu Maksymovu,” p. 11. 3. Lenin,

Sochinentia,

26:214;

sovetskata entstklopediia, cols. 500—501.

see

also

‘“Makhnovshchina,”

in Bol’shaia

Notes, Chapters 16, 17

297

4. Arshinov, Istoriia makhnovskogo dvizheniia, pp. 117—18; see also Kubanin, Makhnovshchina, p. 77; Akademiia nauk URSR, Kiev, Instytut istorii, Radians’ke

budwnytstvo

1919, p. 142.

na

Ukraini

v roky

hromadians’koi

viiny, Iystopad,

‘

1918-Serpen,

5. Arshinov, Istoriia makhnovskogo dvizheniia, pp. 119—20; see also Mazepa, Ukraina v ohni, 2:111; Averin, “Do borot’by proty hryhor’ievshchyny ta denikin-

shchyny za Dnipropetrovs’ke,” LR, no. 3 (48) (1931), p. 122; Berkman, “Nestor Makhno,” p. 17. 6. Arshinov, Istoriia makhnovskogo dvizheniia, pp. 126—27. 7. Kubanin,

136—37. 8. Arshinoy, Makhnovshchina,

Makhnovshchina,

Istoriia

p.

78;

makhnovskogo

p. 55; Gorelik,

Goneniia

Voline,

Unknown

dvizheniia, na

pp.

anarkhizm,

Revolution,

127—28; pp.

pp.

Makhno,

28, 31; Trotskii,

Matertaly i dokumenty po istorii Krasnoi Armit, 2, pt. 1: 210.

Chapter 17, The Volunteer Army and Makhno 1. Lukomskii,

Vera

Vladimirova,

Memoirs,

God

pp.

sluzhby

129

ff., 135,

sotsialistov

141; Denikin,

kapitalistam,

p.

Ocherki,

2:156;

12; L. G. Orlov,

“Osnovatel’ Dobrovol’cheskoi Armii,’”’ Chasovoi, no. 329 (1953). 2. Denikin, Ocherki, 2:189; Lukomskii, Memoirs, p. 140; Orlov, ‘‘Osnovatel’ Dobrovol’cheskoi Armii,”’ no. 329. 3. Lukomskii, Memoirs, p. 141; Denikin, Ocherki, 2:157, 189; Markow,

Armee

ohne

Rosstiu

v osvoboditel’noi

Heimat,

p. 15; V. E. Pavlov, Markovtsy voine

1917-1920

godov,

v boiakh

i pokhodakh

za

1:73; Stewart, White Armies

of Russia, p. 32; P. N. Miliukov, “Dnevnik,”’ Novyi zhurnal, no. 66 (1961), pp. 173. 179;

Karol

Wedziagolski,

Pamietniki:

Wojna

1 revolucja,

kontrrewolucja,

Bol-

szewicki przewrot, Warszawski epilog, p. 291. 4. P. M. Volkonsky, The Volunteer Armies of Alexiev and Denikin, pp. 7—8; Roman Gul’, Ledianoi pokhod, pp. 17—18; Bechhofer, In Denikin’s Russia and the Caucasus, 1919-1920, p. 94. 5. Lukomskii, Memoirs, p. 147; Volkonsky, Ocherki,

2:166; Markow, Armee

Volunteer Armies, p. 7; Denikin,

ohne Heimat, p. 21; Pavlov, Markovtsy v boiakh,

1:93; 1. A. Poliakov, Donskie kazakiv bor’be s bol’shevikami, pp. 111—12; Bunyan and Fisher, Bolshevik Revolution, pp. 420—21. 6. Gul’, Ledianot pokhod, pp. 108—9; Bunyan and Fisher, Bolshevik Revolution, p. 428. 7. Gul’, Ledianoit pokhod, pp. 119—23; Vasyl’ Ivanys, Borot’ba Kubani za nezalezhnist’, p. 37; Bunyan and Fisher, Bolshevik “Osnovatel’ Dobrovol’cheskoi Armii.” 8. Poliakov, Donskie kazaki v bor’be, p. 98. 9. Shkuro, Zapiski, p. 209. 10. Denikin, Ocherki, 3:86.

Revolution,

p. 428;

Orlov,

11. Poliakov, Donskie kazaki v bor’be, pp. 115—17. 12. I. Borisenko, Sovetskie respubliki na Severnom Kavkaze v 1918 godu, 1:81. 13. A. V. Turkul, Drozdovtsy v ogne, pp. 19—22; Drozdovskii, Dnevnik, pp. 133—37; Poliakov, Donskie kazaki v bor’be, pp. 196—200; Bunyan, Intervention, pp. 33, 35, 131-32; Bunyan and Fisher, Bolshevik Revolution, p. 422; Ivanys,

Stezhkamy zhyttia, 2:106; Volkonsky, Volunteer Armies, p. 23.

Notes, Chapter 17

298

14. Krasnov, ‘“‘Vsevelikoe Voisko Donskoe,” ARR 5:201; see also Denikin, Ocherki, 3:155. 15. At that time there were out of nine thousand men only over two thousand

Russians

(Ivanys,

Stezhkamy

zhyttia,

2:130;

Krasnov,

“Vsevelikoe

Voisko

Donskoe,” 5:192, 201; Dmytro Doroshenko, ‘‘Deshcho pro zakordonnu polityku Ukrains’koi Derzhavy v 1918 rotsi,” Khliborobs’ka Ukraina, 2:56—57; Reshetar,

Ukrainian Revolution, p. 187. 16. A. lk Denikin, The White Army (London: J. Cape, 1930), p. 158; Drozdovskii, Dnevnik, pp. 139, 150. 17. Volkonsky, Volunteer Armies, p. 27; Peter P. Wrangel, Always with Honour, p. 52; kovtsy 18. 2:142;

Denikin, White Army, p. 184; Denikin, Ocherki, 3:197—98; Pavlov, Marv botakh, 1:304—5; Chamberlin, Russian Revolution, 2:139. Denikin, Ocherki, 4:107, 111, 113; Chamberlin, Russian Revolution, Bor’ba trudiashchikhsia mass za ustanovlenie 1 uprochenie Sovetskoi vlasti

na Stavropol’e, 1917—apr. 1921 gg., pp. 102—3; Borisenko, Sovetskie respubliki, 2:175—78; Wrangel, Always with Honour, p. 68; Lukomskii, Memorrs, pp. 208 ff.; Pavlov, Markovtsy v boiakh, 1:338 ff.

19. M. Svechinikov, Bor’ba Krasnoi Armii na Severnom Katze (Moscow: Gos. voen. izd-vo, 1926), p. 221, as quoted in Chamberlin, Russian Revolution. 2:146. 20. K. N. Sokolov, Pravlenie generala Denikina, pp. 43, 91; Lukomskii, Memoirs, p. 205; Pavlov, Markovtsky v botakh, 1:317; 2:5; Denikin, Ocherkz, 3:271—72; Chamberlin, Russian Revolution, 2: 209; Wrangel, Always with Honour,

p. 68. 21. Stewart, White Armies of Russia, p. 75. At the beginning of May 1919 in Kharkiv the Volunteer Corps was reorganized and renamed the Volunteer Army, consisting

of the

Alekseev,

Markov,

Kornilov,

Drozdovskii

divisions,

and

some

regiments and groups. The Caucasian Volunteer Army was renamed the Caucasian Army (Sokolov, Pravlenie generala Denikina, p. 119; Vygran, ‘‘Vospominaniia o bor’be s makhnovtsami,”’ p. 4; Kapustians’kyi, Pokhid ukrains’kykh armit, 2:154. 22.

Chamberlin, Russian Revolution, 2:141.

23. Churchill, Aftermath, p.165. 24. D. Lloyd George, The Truth about the Peace Treaties (London: Gollancz, 1938) eps live 25. Churchill, Aftermath, p. 165; see also Denikin, Ocherki, 4:36; Lukomskii,

Memoirs, p. 209. 26.

Wrangel, Always with Honour, p. 75; Denikin, Ocherki, 4:86; George von

Rauch, A History of Soviet Russia (New York: F. A. Praeger, 27. Hodgson, With Denikin’s Armies, pp. 280, 174. 28. 29.

1967), p. 108.

Peter P. Wrangel, The Memoirs of General Wrangel, p. 70. B. Simonov, Razgrom denikinshchiny, p. 24; see also Bulavenko,

‘Kuban’

i ‘moskovs’kyi shliak,’’”’ RN, nos. 7—8 (78—79), p. 193. 30. George A. Brinkley, The Volunteer Army and Allied Intervention in South Russia, 1917-1921, p. 187. By midsummer the Denikin army had increased to about 150,000 combat troops: the Volunteer Army of Mai-Maevskii, 40,000; the Don Army, 45,000; the Crimean Volunteer Corps, 15,000; the Caucasian Army,

20,000; and Wrangel’s Army, 30,000 (Brinkley, pp. 187, 363). 31. Dotsenko, Zymovyi pokhid, p. CXXVIII. 32. Akademiia na ukraint, p. 167.

nauk

URSR,

Kiev,

Instytut

istorii, Radians’ke

budivnytstvo

Notes, Chapter 17

33. 34.

299

Denikin, Ocherki, 5:84. Lukomskii, Memoirs, pp.

p. 1; idem, Povstanty

Ukrainy,

226—29;

Vladimir

Maevskii, Gvardeiskie sapery,

p. 2; Fischer, Soviets in World Affairs, p. 209;

Averin, “Do borot’by,” p. 126; Chamberlin, Russian Revolution, 2:244—45.

35. Wrangel, Memoirs, pp. 88—89; Bulavenko, ‘Kuban i ‘moskovs’kyi shliakh,’ ” p. 187. According to the aide of Mai-Maevskii, Makarov: While speaking to MaiMaevskii in Katerynoslav, Denikin remarked: “Do not advance your valiant units too fast. Kolchak is approaching Viatka; [he] will cross the Volga, occupy Nizhnii Novogorod and then Moscow. We might be left out; let him be checked a little. And we always will have time to take Moscow” (P. V. Makarov, Ad’itutant generala Mai-Maevskogo, p. 32). 36.

Wrangel, Memoirs, p. 89.

37. Sokolov, Pravlenie generala Denikina, pp. 195—96. 38.

Denikin, Ocherki, 5:142.

39.

Arbatov, “Ekaterinoslav 1917—22 gg.,” p. 94; Shkuro, Zapiski, p. 216.

40.

Mazepa,

Ukraina

v

ohni,

2:33;

Kin,

Denikinshchina,

p.

241; Dubiv,

“Ulamok z moho zhyttia,” no. 6 (219), p. 738; M. Bohun, “‘Fragmentu zi spomyniv pro ‘Narodniu Oboronu Khersons’koi gubernii,’” Ukrains’kyi skytalets’ 4,no.2: 36. 41. Kin, Denikinshchina, pp. 241—42. 42. Levyts’kyi, Halyts’ka armiia na Velykii Ukraini, pp. 126—27. 43. Ibid. 44, Kin, Denikinshchina, pp. 243—44. 45. Wrangel, Always with Honour, p. 185. 46. 47. 48. 49.

Denikin, Ocherki, 4:218. P. Miliukov, Rossiia na perelomie, 2: 205. Ibid., 2: 162; see also Lukomskii, “Iz vospominanii,”’ 6:132—33. Miliukov, Rosstia na perelomie, 2:205.

50. “‘Realdop [realization of booty] became a part of our troops at a time when [it] was still the main . . . source of means for the Volunteer Army. . . . ‘gratuitous requisition’ also became an ‘everyday habit’ in the Army. . . . robbery of the population was an unhindered and systematic [phenomenon]” (Sokolov, Pravlenie generala Denikina, p. 162; see also Kornilovskti udarnii polk, p. 148). 51. G. N. Rakovskii, Vstanie bielykh, p. 11; see also Arbatov, “‘Ekaterinoslav 1917—22 gg.,” pp. 93-94; L. L., “V chotyrokutnyku smery,” LCK, 2, no. 2

(1930): 14. 52.

Denikin, Ocherki, 4:95.

53. 54. 55.

Wrangel, Memoirs, p. 127. Fischer, Soviets in World Affairs, 1:232. Kin, Dentkinshchina, p. 50.

56. 57.

Makhno, Makhnovshchina, p. 59. S. N. Semanovy, “Makhnovshchina

i ee krakh,” p. 46; Bulavenko,

u pershii polovyni,”

p. 137; G. Gordienko,

iunoshi,’”” NRS, March

16, 1970, p. 7.

“Svidetel’stva

o Makhno:

“Kuban’

Glazami

58. Kapustians’kyi, Pokhid ukrains’kykh armii, 2:155; Udovychenko, Tretia Zalizna dyviztia, p. 106; Kommandarm IAkir, pp. 62, 78—79; I. E. 1Akir, Vospomtinantia o grazhdanskoi voine, p. 36. 59. Makhno, Makhnouvshchina, p. 59. 60. S. Uritskii, ““Mezhdu Odessoi i Nikolaevom: Boi 1919 goda,” in Grazhdanskaia voina, 1918—1921, ed. A. S. Bubnova, S. S. Kameneva, and R. P. Eideman

300

Notes, Chapter 17

(Moscow: “Voennyi vestnik,” 1928), 1:99, 101; Semanov, “Makhnovshchina i ee krakh,” pp. 45—46; Nikulin, “Gibel’ makhnovshchiny,” pp. 176—77; Dubrovs’kyi,

Bat’ko Nestor Makhno, p. 11; Kapustians’kyi, Pokhid ukrains’kykh armit, 2:155—

56. 61.

Uritskii,

mandarm

““Mezhdu

IAkir,

pp.

Odessoi

86—87;

V.

i Nikolaevom,”’

Nikolskii,

“‘Novye

1:98,

100;

see

also

Kom-

rukovoditeli

Kr.

Armii,”

v usloviiakh

okruzhenua,

Chasovoi, no. 206 (February 15, 1938), p. 5. 62.

E.

A.

Men’chukov,

p. 159; Kommandarm 2:156. 63.

Voline,

Istoricheskii

Unknown

Revolution,

slav,” p. 207; Ol. Dotsenko,

p. 5. 64.

ocherk

boev

IAkir, p. 87; Kapustians’kyi, Pokhid ukrains’kykh

‘Makhnovskaia

p.

141; Miroshevskii,

““Vol’nyi

armit,

Ekaterino-

‘‘Reid otamana Sahaidachnoho,” LCK, no. 11 (1932),

armiia,” p. 3; “‘Zamietki k knigi Arshinova,”’ p. 6; Voline,

Unknown Revolution, pp. 142, 260—63; Arshinov, Istoriia makhnovskogo dvizhentia, p. 135; Makhno, Makhnovshchina, p. 49; Footman, “‘Nestor Makhno,”’ p. 103; Dubrovs’kyi, Bat’ko Nestor Makhno, p. 11; Rudnev, Makhnovshchina,

p. 46; Nikulin, ‘‘Gibel’ Makhnovshchiny,”’ p. 176; Fischer, Life of Lenin, pp. 365— 66; Teper, Makhno, pp. 76—77; Kapustians’kyi, “Makhno i makhnovshchyna,” no. 243. 65. Originally it had a punitive function, but because of improper treatment of prisoners of war, it was deprived of its punitive function, and commanders and partisans were categorically prohibited from shooting prisoners upon their own initiative. A commission was organized in the Revolutionary Military Council to deal with prisoners. The representatives of the anarchists had the right to participate

in

its decisions

(Teper,

Makhno,

pp.

81—82;

Rudnev,

Makhnovshchina,

pp. 74—75). 66.

Arshinoy,

Jstoriia

makhnovskogo

dvizhentia,

p.

95;

Voline,

Unknown

Revolution, pp. 110, 140; Udovychenko, Ukraina u viini, p. 106; R. L. Suslyk, Kryvavi storinky z nepysanykh litopystv, p. 80; Esbakh, ‘‘Poslednie dni makhnovshchiny na Ukraine,” pp. 41—42; Semanov, ‘‘Makhnovshchina i ee krakh,”’ p. 42; Efimov, “Deistviia protiv Makhno,” p. 204; [Akymiv, “‘Hostyna Makhna v Umani,”’ Dao. 67. IA. Slashchov, “‘Materialy dlia istorii grazhdanskoi voiny v Rossii,’’ Voennyi vestnik,

nos.

9-10,

pp.

38, 39; Men’chukov,

Istoricheskit

ocherk

boev, p. 176;

Arshinov, Istoriia makhnovskogo dvizhentia, p. 135; V. Al’mendinger, Simferopol’skui ofitserskit polk 1918—1920, p. 18; N. Makhno, ‘‘Razgrom Denikintsev,”’ Put’ k svobode, no. 4 (October 30, 1919), as quoted in Al’mendinger, Simferopol’skit, p. 23. 68. Slashchov, “‘Materialy do istorii,” p. 40; Al’mendinger, Simferopol’skit, pp. 18—20; “Makhnovskaia armiia,” p. 4; “Zamietki k knigi Arshinova,” p. 7; Arshinov, Istoriia makhnovskogo dvizhentia, pp. 135—36; Nikulin, ‘‘Gibel’ makhnovshchiny”’’; Denikin, Ocherki, 5: 234. 69. Slachshov, “Materialy do istorii,” p. 41; Voline, Unknown Revolution,

pp. 143—44; Al’mendinger, Simferopol’skii, p. 20; Arshinov, Istoriia makhnovskogo dvizhenita, p. 137; [Akymiv, ““Hostyna Makhna v Umani,” pp. 79—80; V. Kalyna, “V Umani”; M. Irchan, “Makhno i makhnivtsi,” p. 116; Denikin, Ocherki, 5: 234; Dubrovs’kyi, Bat’ko Nestor Makhno, p. 12; Rudnev, Makhnoushchina, p. 48;

Omelianovych-Pavlenko, CXXXIV.

Zymovi

pokhid,

2:26;

Dotsenko,

Zymovi

pokhid,

p.

Notes, Chapter 17

301

70. Trotskii, Materialy i dokumenty po istorii Krasnoi Armii, 2, pt. 1:304. 71. Wrangel, Always with Honour, p. 101. 72.

Sokolov, Pravlenie

generala

Denikina,

p. 119; Vinogradov,

‘“Chemu

ia byl

svidietelem,” p. 15. r 73. Wrangel, Always with Honour, pp. 98, 101. 74. Slashchov, “Materialy do istorii,” p. 39. 75.

Meleshko,

“Nestor

Makhno

ta ioho

anarkhiia,”

no.

4, p.

15; Semanov,

““Makhnovshchina i ee krakh,”’ p. 48. 76. Mustafin, “Proryy Makhno,” Pereklichka, “Proryv Makhno,” Pereklichka, no. 116, p. 14.

77. Arshinov,

Istoriia

makhnovskogo

Simferopol’skit,

pp.

Nikulin,

makhnovshchiny,”

‘“Gibel’

21—23;

no.

dvizhentia,

Semanov,

21,

pp.

13; G.

139—41;

“Makhnovshchina

p. 177; “‘Prilozhenie:

p.

i ee

Sakovich,

Al’mendinger, krakh,”

p.

48;

Svodka 0 reide Makhno

po denikinskim tylam oseniu 1919 g.,”” PR, no. 9, p. 208; M. Makhnovskii, ‘‘Pravda o Makhno,” NRS 59, no. 20 (March 2, 1969):8; Kubanin, Makhnovshchina, p. 86; Denikin, Ocherki, 5:234; Alain Sergent, Les anarchistes, pp. 135—37;

Mustafin, “‘Proryvy Makhno,” pp. 11—13; Sakovich, ‘‘Proryv Makhno,” pp. 12—13, 14; Makhno, ‘“‘Razgrom denikintsev,”’ in Al’mendinger, Simferopol’skii, p. 23. 78. Sakovich, ‘‘Proryv Makhno,” p. 11. 79. Nomad, “Epic of Nestor Makhno,” no. 7, p. 410; ‘“‘Prilozhenie,”’ p. 208; Dubrovs’kyi, Bat’ko Nestor Makhno, p. 13; Denikin, Ocherki, 5:234; Fedenko, Mynulo pivstolittta, p. 14; Rudnev, Makhnovshchina, p. 49; Sakovich, ‘‘Proryv

Makhno,” p. 14. 80. Arshinov, Ekaterinoslave

Istoriia

makhnovskogo

i Aleksandrovske,”

pp.

dvizhenita,

81—82;

slav,” p. 203; Erde, “Politychna prohrama pp. 36-37; Kubanin, Makhovshchina, p. 103. 81.

Voline,

Ekaterinoslav,”

Unknown

pp.

201—2;

Revolution,

Arshinov,

pp.

145—46;

Miroshevskii,

“1919

anarkho-makhnivshchyny,”

pp.

163—73;

Istoriia

god v

‘““Vol’nyi Ekaterino-

Miroshevskii,

makhnovskogo

no.

2,

‘“‘Vol’nyi

dvizheniia,

pp.

146—47; “1919 god v Ekaterinoslave i Aleksandrovske,” pp. 81—82, 91—92. The Fourth Congress, called for June 15, 1919, did not take place because the Bolshe-

viks prevented it. According to Kubanin, the congress took place on October 26 and was composed of about 300 delegates (Kubanin, Makhnovshchina, pp. 91—92). 82.

Rossum, ‘‘Proclamations of the Makhno Movement,

83.

“1919

god v Ekaterinoslave

i Aleksandrovske,”

1920,” p. 263.

p. 92; Voline,

Unknown

Revolution, pp. 171—73. 84. Kubanin, Makhnovshchina, p. 115. 85. Kin, “Povstancheskoe,” p. 79; “‘Prilozhenie,” no. 9, p. 208; Kubanin, Makhnovshchina, p. 174; Panas Fedenko, Isaak Mazepa, p. 80; Gutman, “Pod

vlast’iu anarkhistov,” p. 62; Denikin, Ocherki, 5: 234.

86. 87. 88.

Tsebrii, ‘“Vospominaniia partizana,” no. 32, p. 14. Hodgson, With Denikin’s Armies, pp. 184. Kubanin, Makhnovshchina, pp. 86—87; Margushin,

p. 2; Denikin, Ocherki, 5:234; Arshinov, pp. 142—43; “Prilozhenie,” no. 9, p. 208.

Istortia

89. Sokolov, Pravlenie generala Denikina, p. 190. 90. Ibid. 91. A. Lobanov-Rostovsky, The Grinding Mill, p. 359.

92. Hodgson, With Denikin’s Armies, pp. 119—20.

“Bat’ko

makhnovskogo

Makhno,” dvizheniia,

302

Notes, Chapter 17

93. 94.

1917—22

Bechhofer, In Denikin’s Russia, p. 176. Ibid., p. 178; Rudnev, Makhnovshchina,

p. 53; Arbatov,

“Ekaterinoslav

gg.,” pp. 96—97; Denikin, Ocherki, 5: 235; Gutman, “Pod vlast’iu anar-

khistov,” p. 65; P. Teslenko, “K vospominaniiam V. Belasha,” LR, no. 3 (1928), p. 230. 95.

Gutman, ‘Pod vlast’iu anarkhistov,”’ p. 63.

96. Ibid., pp. 63—64. 97. Arbatov, “Ekaterinoslav 1917—22 gg.,” p. 98. 98.

V. Primakov,

‘“Srazhenie pod Orlom, oktiabr’—noiablr’

1919 goda,” Bor’ba

klassov, no. 2 (1931), p. 52; Nikulin, “Gibel’ makhnovshchiny,”

p. 179; “Prilo-

zhenie,” no. 9, p. 208; Kin, “‘Povstancheskoe,” nos. 3—4, pp. 78—79; Dubrovs’kyi, Bat’ko Nestor Makhno, p. 13; Kubanin, Makhnovshchina, p. 90; Teper, Makhno,

p. 48. 99. Rakovskii, V stanie bielykh, pp. 11-12. 100. Wrangel, Memoirs, pp. 98—99. 101. Makarov, Ad %tutant generala Mai-Maevskogo, p. 62.

na

102. 103.

Marion Aten and Arthur Orrmont, Last Train over Rostov Bridge, p. 161. Denikin, Ocherki, 5: 234.

104.

Vygran, ‘““Vospominaniia 0 bor’be s makhnovtsami,”’ p. 6; V. M., ““Dontsy

makhnovskom

frontie,”

Kazach

dumy,

no.

13, p.

16; Denikin,

Ocherki,

5: 258; Simonov, Razgrom dentkinshchiny, p. 27. 105. V.M., “Dontsy na makhnovskom frontie,” no. 10, pp. 11—13. 106. Makarov, Ad tutant generala Mai-Maevskogo, p. 29. 107. Levyts’kyi, Halyts’ka armita, pp. 121—22. 108. Simonov, Razgrom denikinshchiny, pp. 27—28.

109.

Ibid., p. 60.

110.

P. N.

Shatilov,

“Petr

Nikolaevich

Vrangel,’”’

Obshchestvo

Gallipolittsev,

October 1953, p. 3. 111.

Denikin, Ocherki, 5:232—33; Lukomsku, Memoirs, pp. 230—31.

112.

Wrangel, Memoirs, p. 106.

113.

Bechhofer, In Denikin’s Russia, p. 117.

114.

P. Zaliesskii,

‘“Glavnyia

prichiny

neudach

bielago

dvizheniia

na IUgie

Rossii,’” BA 2—3: 160. 115. 116.

Lukomskii, Memoirs, p. 231. Churchill, Aftermath, p. 266.

117.

Denikin, Ocherki, 5: 235.

LS

elbide pes 2.

119. 120.

Miliukov, Rossiia na perelomie, 2:212. Bechhofer, In Denikin’s Russia, p. 149; Wrangel, Always

with

Honour,

pal: 121. Brinkley, Volunteer Army, p. 224; Rakovskii, V stanie bielykh, pp. 223, 236--37, 257-58; Zaliesskii, ‘“Glavnyia prichiny neudach bielago dvizheniia na IUgie Rossii,” pp. 161—62; V. Dobrynin, Bor’ba s bol’shevizmom na iugie Rossii, p. 109; Stewart, White Armies of Russia, pp. 346—47; Lukomskii, Memoirs, p. 246; Vinogradov,

““Chemu

ia by] svidietelem,” p. 22; G. N. Rakovskii, Konets

bielykh:

Ot Dniepra do Bosfora, p. 6. 122. Tiutiunyk, Zymovyi pokhid 1919—20 rr., 1:74. 123. Primakoy, ‘‘Srazhenie pod Orlom,” pp. 53, 54. 124. 125.

Denikin, Ocherki, 5:134. Trotskii, Materialy 1 dokumenty po istorii Krasnoi

Armii, 2, pt. 2:28.

Notes, Chapters 17, 18 126.

Bohun,

303

“Fragmenty

zi spomyniv

pro

‘Narodniu

Oboronu

khersons’koi

gubernii,’” pp. 35, 36; Dotsenko, Zymovyi pokhid, p. CXLI. 127. F. Shteinman, “Otstuplenie ot Odessy,” ARR 2:87.

128.

Rakovskii, V stanie bielykh, p.1.,

129.

Denikin, Ocherki, 5:235.

130. Pierre 1934.

Berland

[Georges

Luciani],

“Makhno,”

Le

Temps,

August 28,

Chapter 18, Makhno’s Army Outlawed by the Bolsheviks 1. Nikulin, “Gibel’ makhnovshchiny,” p. 181. 2. Ibid.; N. Makhno, Po povodu “raz’iasnentia”’ Volina, p. 9: [Akovlev, Russkii anarkhizm, p. 25; Margushin, “‘Bat’ko Makhno,” p. 2; Arshinov, Istoriia makhnovskogo dvizheniia, p. 157; Rudnev, Makhnovshchina, p. 64. 3. Semanov, “Makhnovshchina i ee krakh,” p. 52.

4. Makhno, Grazhdanskatia

Po povodu

“roz’iasneniia”’

Volina, p. 9; Teper, Makhno,

p. 66;

voina na Ekaterinoslavshchine, pp. 210, 218; 1Akir, Vospominaniia,

je ies 5. Arshinov, Istoriia makhnovskogo dvizhentia, pp. 157—58; Gutman, viast’iu anarkhistov,” p. 68; Semanov, “Makhnovshchina i ee krakh,” p. 52.

“Pod

6. N. A. Efimoy, “Deistviia protiv Makhno,” pp. 199—204; Rudnev, Makhnov-

shchina, p. 67. 7. Men’chukoy, Istoricheskii protiv Makhno,”’ p. 205.

ocherk

boev,

pp.

179—81;

Efimov,

“Deistviia

8. Arshinov, Istoriia makhnovskogo dvizhenua, p. 158. 9. IU. Romanchenke, “Epizody z borot’by proty makhnovshchyny,” no. 4 (49) (1930), p. 128.

LR,

10. Sergeev, ‘‘Poltavskaia operatsiia protiv Makhno,” pp. 122—23; Nikulin, “‘Gibel’ makhnovshchiny,” p. 182; Dubrovs’kyi, Bat’ko Nestor Makhno, p. 15; Semanov, ‘‘Makhnovshchina i ee krakh,”’ pp. 52—53; “‘Ukraina,”’ Volia 4, no. 5

(1920): 263. 11.

Arshinov,

Istoriia

makhnovskogo

dvizheniia, p. 165; Semanov,

“Makhnov-

shchina i ee krakh,” p. 54; Efimov, “‘Deistviia protiv Makhno,” p. 201. 12. Meleshko, ‘‘Nestor Makhno ta ioho anarkhiia,” no. 4, p. 14. 13. Voline, Unkown Revolution, p. 182; Margushin, ‘‘Bat’ko Makhno,”’ Peters, Nestor Makhno, p. 85.

p. 2;

14. Arshinov, Istoriia makhnovskogo dvizhentia, p. 160. 15. A. Manuilsky, ‘““The Agrarian Policy in Ukraine,” Soviet Russia 3, no. 16 (1920): 369; Kubanin, Makhnovshchina, pp. 130—31.

16. M. I. Remnev, ‘‘Deiatel’nost’ Komitetov nezamozhnykh selian na Ukraine v 1920 godu,” VI, no. 4 (1954), p. 96; M. V. Tymoshenko, “Komnesamy Ukrainy ta ikh rol’ u zmitsneni orhaniv Radians’koi vlady na seli v 1920 rotsi,” Pytannia istorii narodiv

SRSR,

B. M. Myhal’,

‘“Konfiskatsiia zemel’nykh

no.

7 (1968),

p. 33; Kubanin,

Makhnovshchina,

p. 136;

lyshkiv u kurkul’s’kykh hospodarstvakh

na Ukraini v 1920—1923 ir.,” Pytannia istorii narodiv SRSR, no. 6 (1969), p. 111; V. Bronshtein, “Komitety bednoty v RSFSR,” IM, no. 5 (60) (1938), pp. 77—78; A.

I. Lepeshkin,

ohni, 3:26. 17. M. V.

Sovety-vlast’ trudiashchykhsia,

Frunze,

Makhno,” p. 414.

Sobraniie

sochinenii,

1917-1936;

1:181;

Nomad,

Mazepa, “Epic

Ukraina of

v

Nestor

304

Notes, Chapters 18, 19

18.

Teper,

Makhno,

p.

19;

Kubanin,

Makhnovshchina,

pp.

136—44;

Max

Nomad, Apostles of Revolution, p. 332. 19. “The Ukrainian Peasants,” Soviet Russia 3, no. 22 (New York, November 27, 1920): 529; P. S. Zahors’kyi and P. K. Stoian, Narysy istorii komitetiv nezamozhnykh

selian, p. 36.

20. IA. A. Slashchev-Krymskii, Trebuiu suda obshchestva i glasnosti: Oborona 1

sdacha Kryma: Memuary i documenty (Constantinople, 1921), p. 6. 21.

Efimov, ‘‘Deistviia protiv Makhno,” p. 208.

Chapter 19, Makhno between Wrangel and the Bolsheviks 1. Peter P. Wrangel, “The White Armies,” The English Review 47:379; Stewart, White Armies of Russia, p. 361; Frunze, Sobrante sochinenti, 1:268;

Kornilovskii udarnyi polk, p. 162. According to Gukovskii the strength of Slashchov’s Crimean Corps was from 7,000 to 8,000 men, while Slashchov gives only about 3,000 men [Al. Gukovskii, ed., ““Nachalo vrangelevshchiny,’” KA 2 [21] [1922]: 174; Slashchev-Krymskii, Trebuiu suda obshchestva iglasnosti, p. 13). 2. Wrangel, Always with Honour, p. 146. 3. Ibid.; see also A. A. Valentinov, ““Krymskaia epopeia,” ARR

4. A. L. Gukovskii, ed., “Agrarnaia politika Vrangelia,” KA

5:5.

1 (26) (1928):

61. 5. Wrangel, Memoirs, p. 186. 6. Ibid. 7. Gukovskii, ‘‘“Nachalo vrangelevshchiny,” p. 178.

8. 9. 10. 11.

Stewart, White Armies of Russia, p. 364. Wrangel, “White Armies,” pp. 379—94. Ibid. Wrangel, Always with Honour, pp. 208—9.

12.

Grazhdanskaia

voina, 3:503—4;N.

P. Lipatov, 1920 god na Chernom

more,

p. 251; R., ““Bredovskii pokhod,” Chasovoi, no. 49 (1931), p. 22. 13. Wrangel, Always with Honour, p. 254. 14. Wrangel, ‘““White Armies,” p. 380.

15. Dotsenko, Zymovyt pokhid, pp. VIII ff.; Shandruk, Arms of Valor, p. 116;

Dmytro Paliiv, ‘““Zymovyi pokhid,” LCK, no. 6 (1935), pp. 8—10. 16. Polska Akademia

Dokumenty

Nauk, Pracownia Historii Stosunkoéw Polsko-Radzieckich,

i materialy do istorii stosunkow Polsko-Radzieckich

(Warsaw: Ksiazka

i Wiedza, 1964), 3:745-47. 17.

Ibid.,

3:409—10;

see

also

Polska

Akademia

Materialy archiwalne do historit stosunkow i Wiedza, 1957), 1:288. 18. Wrangel, Memoirs, p. 236. 19. Frunze, Sobranie sochinentt,

Nauk,

Instytut

Polsko-Radzieckich

1:269—70;

Semanov,

Historii,

(Warsaw: Ksiazka

“Makhnovshchina

ee krakh,” p. 55; Konstantin Anan’ev, V boiakh za Perekop, p. 7. 20. Wrangel, Always with Honour, p. 231. 21. Trotskii, Materialy 1 dokumenty Grazhdanskaia voina, 3:511; Rudnev,

po istorii Krasnoi Armit, 2, Ptaw2s20% Makhnovshchina, pp. 80—81; Efimov,

“Deistviia protiv Makhno,” p. 208. 22. Teper, Makhno, p. 93. 23. V. Obolenskii, “Krym pri Vrangele,’

,

in Dentkin-IUdenich-Vrangel’,

comp.

i

Notes, Chapter 19

305

S. A. Alekseev, p. 395. It is true that at the end of February 1920, the Bolsheviks

seized Makhno’s oldest brother Sava at his home and, although he did not participate

in the campaign

against the Bolsheviks,

anarkhism, p. 31). 24.

he was

shot (Gorelik, Goneniia

na

P

Rakovskii, Konets bielykh, p. 33.

25. Ibid. 26. Denikin, Ocherki, 5:135; see also Arshinov, Istoriia makhnovskogo dvizhenita, pp. 168—69; Rudnev, Makhnovshchina, p. 83; Rakovskii, Konets bielykh,

pp. 33—34. 27. Arshinoy,

Istoriia

makhnovskogo

dvizheniia,

p. 169; Kubanin, Makhnov-

shchina, p. 151; Semanov, “Makhnovshchina i ee krakh,” p. 55; Nikulin, “‘Gibel’ makhnovshchiny,” p. 187; Rudnev, Makhnovshchina, p. 83; Rakovskii, Konets bielykh, p. 81; Trotskii, Materialy i dokumenty po istorit Krasnoi Armii, 2,

pt.2218,7: 28. Trotskii, Materialy i dokumenty po istorii Krasnot Armii, 2, pt. 2:214. 29. Rakovskii, Konets beilykh, pp. 81—82, 134. 30. Wrangel, Always with Honour, pp. 235—36; Rakovskii, Konets bielykh, pp. 115 ff.; Grazhdanskaia voina, 3:497. 31. Lipatov, 1920 god na Chernom more, pp. 173—78, 212; Chamberlin, Russian

Revolution,

2:325—27;

Lukomskii,

Memoirs,

p. 251; Rakovskii,

Konets

bielykh, pp. 78—79, 129. 32.

Wrangel,

ekspeditstia 122—28.

Always

Kovtiukha,

According

to

with

pp.

Honour,

11—12,

a Soviet

p.

249;

15—16;

source,

I. M.

Podshivalov,

Rakovskii,

Konets

Ulagai’s

detachment,

Desantnaia

biebykh,

before

the end

pp. of

the offensive, consisted of 4,500 infantry, 4,500 cavalry, 243 machine guns, and 17 guns. The other unit consisted of 4,400 men mostly infantry, 40 machine

guns, and 8 guns (Grazhdanskaia voina, 3:498). 33. Wrangel, Always with Honour, pp. 258, 260. 34. Ibid., p. 262; Stewart, White Armies of Russia, p. 373; Podshivalov, Desantnaia ekspeditsiia Kovtiukha, pp. 48—49; Grazhdanskaia voina, 3:499—500.

35. Wrangel, Always with Honour, p. 261. 36. Ibid., p. 262. 37.

Voline,

Unknown

Revolution,

p. 187; Chernomordik, Makhno

i makhnov-

shchina, p. 24. 38. Kubanin, Makhnovshchina, p. 134; Chamberlin, Russian Revolution, 2:328; Wrangel, Always with Honour, p. 290; Frunze, Sobranie sochinenit, 1:271; M. V.

Frunze, ‘‘Vrangel,”’ in Perekop 1 Chongar, p. 20. 39. lAkovlev, Russkii anarkhizm, p. 34; see Makhno,” p. 208; Rudnev, Makhnovshchina, p. 90. 40. Leninskit sbornik, 36:151.

also

Efimov,

‘“Deistviia

protiv

41. Nestor Makhno, ‘“Otkrytoe pis’mo partii VKP i ee TS. K.,”’ DT, nos. 37—38 (1928), p. 10; Romanchenko,

132; Grazhdanskaia

‘“‘Epizody

voina, 3:512;

z borot’by

Serge, Memoirs

proty makhnovshchyny,”

of a Revolutionary,

p.

p. 122;

IAkovlev, Russkit anarkhizm, p. 34. When Bela Kun visited Makhno, on October 20, 1920, at Ulianivka he asked Makhno what he would do if he had been com-

mander of the Bolshevik troops that had been defeated on the Polish front, crossed into East Prussia, and been disarmed. Makhno replied: “I would not remain in Prussian territory a single hour. [I would] divide my troops into separate effective units and move deep into the rear of the Polish armies, destroying all roads and

306

Notes, Chapter 19

means of supplies and arms” (Makhno, “Otkrytoe pis’mo partii VKP i ee TS. K.,” lel) “

Berkman,

pp. 188—89;

“Nestor

Makhno,”

p. 26; Nikulin,

Lipatov, 1920 god na Chernom

‘‘Gibel’

makhnovshchiny,”

more, p. 306; Semanov, “Makhnov-

shchina i ee krakh,” p. 56; [Akovlev, Russkit anarkhizm, p. 34; Margushin, “Bat’ko

Makhno,” p. 2; Arshinov, Istoriia makhnovskogo dvizhenita, p. 171. 43. This point was demanded by the Bolshevik authorities (Arshinov, Istoriia makhnovskogo dvizheniia, p. 172). 44. Arshinov, Istoriia makhnovskogo dvizhentia, pp. 171—73; see also Lebed’, Itogi i uroki trekh, pp. 38—39; Kubanin, Makhnovshchina, pp. 157—58; Grazhdranskaia

voina,

3:512;

Footman,

Nestor

Makhno,

pp.

121—22;

IAroslavskii,

History of Anarchism in Russia, p. 75; IAkovlev, Russkii anarkhizm, pp. 33—34. 45. Kubanin, Makhnovshchina, pp. 158—59; Grazhdanskaia voina, 3:512; Trotskii, Materialy i dokumenty po istorii Krasnoit Armii, 2, pt. 2:212; see also

Voline, Unknown Revolution, p. 190.

46. Trotskii, Materialy i dokumenty po istorit Krasnoi Armit, 2, pt. 2: 214; see also Voline, Unknown

Revolution, p. 90.

47. Efimov, “Deistviia proty Makhno,” p. 209; A. Buiskii, Krasnaia Armia na vunutrennem fronte, p. 76. 48. Rakovskii, Konets bielykh, p. 168.

49. Wrangel, Always with Honour, p. 300. 50.

Dubiv, ““Ulamok z moho zhyttia,”’ no. 7 (220), p. 919;

shchina,

pp.

51—52;

Voline,

Unknown

Revolution,

p.

191;

Makhno, MakhnovRudnev,

Makhnov-

shchina, p. 90. 51. Dubiv, “Ulamok z moho zhyttia,” no. 7, p. 919; Margushin, ‘“Bat’ko Makhno,” p. 2; Gorelik, Goneniia na anarkhizm, p. 30; Semanov, “Makhnovshchina i ee krakh,” p. 57; Teper, Makhno, p. 109; Kubanin, Makhnovshchina, p. 159; Lebed’, Itogi i uroki trekh, p. 40. 52. Grazhdanskaia voina, 3:506—8.

53. P.N. Shatilov, “Petr Nikolaevich Vrangel’,”’ p. 3. 54. Wrangel, Always with Honour, p. 294; see also P. N. Shatilov, “‘Pamiatnaia zapiska o Krymskoi evakuatsii,” Bieloe dielo 4:93. 55. Frunze, Sobranie sochinenti, 1:272; Grazhdanskaia voina, 3:513—15, 533—36; Anan’ev, V boiakh za Perekop, pp. 36—37; Wrangel, Always with Honour,

pp. 308—9. 56.

M. V. Frunze, Izbrannye proizvedeniia, p. 109; see also M. Frunze, “‘Pamiati

Perekopa i Chongara,”’ Voennyi vestnik, no. 6 (1928), p. 47. 57.

Frunze, Sobranie sochinenti,

1:272; Grazhdanskaia

voina, 3:538; Shatilov,

“Pamiatnaia zapiska o Krymskoi evakuatsii,” pp. 94—95; Anan’ev, V boiakh za Perekop, p. 51; Vygran, “‘Vospominaniia o bor’bie s makhnovtsami,” p. 12; N. Rebikov, “Latyshskie strelki v Rossii,’ Chasovoi, no. 500 (1968), p. 18; V. Grebenshchikov,

“K dvenadtsatiletiiu

osvobozhdeniia

Kryma,”

VR,

nos.

11—12

(1932),

pp. 114—16; Arshinov, Istoriia makhnovskogo dvizhentia, pp. 174—75; Dubiv, “Ulamok z moho zhyttia,” p. 919; Margushin, “Bat’ko Makhno,” p. 171; Gorelik, Gonenita na anarkhizm, p. 30; Peters, Nestor Makhno, p. 87.

58.

Berkman, “Nestor Makhno,” p. 25.

59. Wrangel, Memoirs, p. 310; Shatilov, “Pamiatnaia zapiska o Krymskoi evakuatsii,” pp. 95, 98; P. Shatilov, ““Ostavlenie Kryma,” Chasovoi, no. 44 (1930),

pp. 14—15; Wrangel, ‘White Armies,” p. 379.

Notes, Chapters 19, 20 60.

Wrangel,

‘“‘White

307 Armies,”

pp.

381

ff.; Shatilov,

Krymskoi evakuatsii,” p. 107; Lukomskii, naniia o bor’bie s makhnovtsami,”’ p. 12.

Memoirs,

“Pamiatnaia

zapiska

o

p. 253; Vygran, ‘““Vospomi-

@

Chapter 20, The Last Phase of the Makhno Struggle 1. Serge, Memoirs of aRevolutionary, p. 119. 2. Bechhofer, In Denikin’s Russia, p. 180.

3. M. Rybakov, “Deistviia letuchego korpusa tov. Nestorovicha,” in Sbornik trudov Voenno-nauchnogo obshchestva pri Voennoi akademii, 4 (1923): 110. 4. Arshinov,

Istoriia

makhnovskogo

dvizheniia,

p.

172;

see

also

Danilov,

“Vospominaniia,” 16:163. 5. Frunze, Sobranie sochinenti, 1:176. 6. Voline, Unknown Revolution, p. 202.

7. Efimov, “Deistviia protiv Makhno,” pp. 212—13; Men’chukov, ocherk boev, pp. 182—83. 8. P. A. Pavlov, ‘““Voennye khitrosti,” p. 13.

Istoricheskii

9. Men’chukov, Istoricheskit ocherk boev, pp. 182—84; Nikulin, ‘‘Gibel’ Makhnovshchiny,” p. 192; Kubanin, Makhnovshchina, p. 159; Lebed’, Itogi 7 urokt trekh, p. 40; Arshinov, Istoriia makhnovskogo dvizheniia, pp. 221—22,

188—89; Efimov, “Deistviia protiv Makhno,” pp. 216—17; Berkman, ‘Nestor Makhno,” p. 26; Semanov, “Makhnovshchina i ee krakh,” p. 58; OmelianovychPavlenko, Zymovyi pokhid, 2:28. 10.

The

first circle consisted of the Forty-Second Division’s

125th Brigade, the

126th Brigade, the 124th Brigade, the Boguchar Separate Sharpshooter’s Brigade, the International Separaie Cavalry Brigade, and the Third Reserve Cavalry Brigade. The reserve circle included the Trans-Volga Cavalry Brigade, two sharpshooter regiments of the internal security troops, the Second Cavalry Corps, the First Cavalry Army, the Fourth Cavalry Division, and the Composite Division of Elite troops

(Efimoy,

‘“‘Deistviia

protiv

Makhno,”

p. 213;

Men’chukov,

Istoricheskii

ocherk boev, p. 184). 11. Men’chukov, Istoricheskii ocherk boev, pp. 184—86; Efimov, ‘“‘Deistviia protiv Makhno,” pp. 215, 217; Arshinov, Istoriia makhnovskogo dvizhentia, p. 189; Voline, Unknown Revolution, p. 206.

12. Dubrovs’kyi, Bat’ko Nestor Makhno, p. 18. 13. Men’chukov,

Istoricheskti

ocherk

boev, p. 186; Efimov,

‘“Deistviia

protiv

Makhno,” p. 217. 14. Arshinov, Istoriia makhnovskogo dvizhentia, Unknown Revolution, p. 204; Omelianovych-Pavlenko,

p. 189; see also Voline, Zymovy: pokhid, 2:28.

15. Makhno, ‘‘K 10-0i godovshchine,” p. 7. Some twenty years later one of the best of European diplomats and statesmen, Eduard BeneS, president of the Czechoslovak Republic, echoed Makhno’s disappointment. In 1947, while writing his memoirs, Bene’ asked himself about his treaty with the Bolsheviks of December 1943: Was I right or wrong?” At the end of August 1948, a few days before he died, he answered the question himself: ‘““My greatest mistake was that I refused to believe to the very last that even Stalin lied to me cynically, both in 1935 and later, and that his assurances to me and to Masaryk were an intentional deceit”’

(E. Taborsky, “‘BeneS and Stalin, Moscow, European Affairs 13, no. 2 [1953]: 162n).

1943 and 1945,” Journal of Central

308

Notes, Chapter 20

16. Voline, Unknown Revolution, pp. 204—5. 17. Esaulov, ‘““Nalet Makhno na Berdians’k,” LR, Men’chukov, Istoricheskii ocherk boev, pp. 186—87; Makhno,” p. 218; Danilov, ‘“Wospominaniia,”

18. Efimov, naniia,’”’

16:176;

novshchina, Voline,

p.

Unknown

‘Deistviia

protiv

Men’chukov,

37;

16:176.

Makhno,”

Istoricheskti

Arshinov,

Istoriia

Revolution,

p. 206.

no. 3 (1921), pp. 84 ff.; Efimoy, ‘“‘Deistviia protiv

pp.

218—19;

ocherk

boev,

makhnovskogo According

Danilov,

‘““Vospomi-

p. 187; Makhno, Makh-

dvizheniia,

to a Bolshevik

pp. source

189—90; Makhno

released 1,200 prisoners (Men’chukov, Istoricheskti ocherk boev, p. 187). 19. Makhno,

Makhnovshchina,

p.

37;

Efimov,

‘‘Deistviia

protiv

Makhno,”’

p. 219; Men’chukoy, Istoricheskiu ocherk boev, p. 187. 20. 21.

Esaulov, ““Nalet Makhno na Berdians’k,”’ p. 83. Danilov, ‘““Vospominaniia,” 16: 176; Men’chukov, Istoricheskiu ocherk boev,

p. 187; Efimov, ‘“Deistviia protiv Makhno,” pp. 219—20; Nikulin, ‘“‘Gibel’ makhnovshchiny,” p. 192.

22. Voline, Unknown Revolution, p. 199; Nomad, “Epic of Nestor Makhno,” no. 7, p. 416; Kubanin, Makhnovshchina, p. 213; Semanov, ‘‘Makhnovshchina i ee krakh,” p. 58; Voline, Nineteen-seventeen, pp. 157—58; Gorelik, Gonentia na anarkhizm, p. 32; IAkovlev, ‘“Makhnovshchina i anarkhizm,’} Krasnia nov, no. 2

(1921), p. 255; G. Maksimov, ‘‘Vsevolod Mikhailovich Eikhenbaum

(Volin),’’ DT-P,

no. 16 (1946), p. 17; Emma Goldman, My Further Disillusionment in Russia, p. 80. 23. Eideman, ‘‘Piataia godovshchina odnogo uroka,” p. 36; see also Esbakh, “‘Poslednie dni makhnovshchiny na Ukraine,” no. 12, p. 41. 24. Komandarm Uborevich, p. 82.

25. Eideman, “‘Piataia godovshchina odnogo uroka,”’ p. 37. 26. Rybakov, “‘Deistviia letuchego korpusa tov,” p. 111. 27. M. Rybakov,

‘‘Makhnoskie operatsii v 1920 g.,’’ KA, no. 12 (March 1922),

pp. 12—13, as quoted in Dubrovs’kyi, Bat’ko Nestor Makhno, p. 18; Kapustians’kyi, “Makhno i makhnovshchyna,” p. 2; see also Esbakh, ‘‘Poslednie dni makhnovshchiny na Ukraine,” pp. 41—42. 28. Premysler, ““Razgrom banditizma na Ukraine, 1921 g.,”” pp. 44; N. P-pa, “Protybol’shevyts’ki povstannia na Ukraini v 1921 r.,” no. 6, p. 22. According to Esbakh,

at the beginning

of 1921

the Makhno

army

consisted of 5,000 to 6,000

men (Esbakh, “‘Poslednie dni makhnoyshchiny na Ukraine,” p. 40). 29. Eideman, “‘Piataia godovshchina odnogo uroka,” pp. 36—37. 30. Arshinov, Istoriia makhnovskogo dvizheniia, pp. 190—91; “Makhnovshchina i ee krakh,”’ p. 58. 31. Komandarm Uborevich, p. 82.

Semanov,

32. Esbakh, “Poslednie dni makhnovshchiny na Ukraine,” p. 42; Men’chukov, Istorichesku ocherk boev, p. 189; Varetskii, “Marshal V. K. Bliukher,” p. 258;

Makhno, Makhnouvshchina, pp. 37—39. 33.

Eideman, ‘‘Piataia godovshchina odnogo uroka,”’ p. 38.

34. Esbakh, “‘Poslednie dni makhnovshchiny na Ukraine,’ p. 42; see also Sergeev, “Poltavaskaia operatsiia protiv Makhno,” pp. 124—25; Szpinger, Z pierwsza konna, p. 178.

35. Eideman, “‘Piataia godovshchina odnogo uroka,”’ p. 35. 36. Footman, “Nestor Makhno,” p. 125; M. P. Belyi, R. A. Kuznetsova, K. F. Chumak, comps., Vospominaniia o G. I. Kotovskom, p. 32.

and

Notes, Chapters 20, 21

309

37. Premysler, “‘Razgrom banditizma na Ukraine, 1921 g.,’ p. 44; Danilov, “Vospominaniia,”’ 16: 175; Arshinov, Istoriia makhnovskogo dvizheniia, p. 194.

38. Arshinov, Istoriia makhnovskogo dvizhentia, pp. 196—97. This and subsequent information referring to Arshindv’s book Istoriia makhnovskogo dvizheniia is taken from a letter that Makhno wrote to Arshinov from abroad and that was later incorporated into the latter’s book. SO Relbides ps 9i7e 40.

Premysler,

‘““Razgrom

banditizma

na

Ukraine,

1921

g.,” p. 44; Arshinov,

Istoriia makhnovskogo dvizheniia, pp. 197—98. 41. Arshinov, Istoriia makhnovskogo dvizhentia, pp. 198—99. 42. 43.

Berkman, “Nestor Makhno,” pp. 5—6. Eideman, “‘Piataia godovshchina odnogo uroka,”’ p. 35; Esbakh, “‘Poslednie

dni makhnovshchiny na Ukraine,” pp. 44—45. 44, Omelianovych-Pavlenko, Zymovyt pokhid, 2:27; Arshinov, Istoriia makhnovskogo dvizhenia, p. 199; Semanov, ‘““Makhnovshchina i ee krakh,” p. 196.

45. Arshinov, Istoriia makhnovskogo dvizheniia, pp. 199—200; Nikulin, “‘Gibel’ makhnoshchiny,” p. 196. 46. Varetskii, “Marshall V. K. Bliukher,” p. 254. 47. Ibid., p. 259. 48. Arshinov, Istortta makhnovskogo dvizhentua, p. 200; Semanov, ‘“‘Makhnovshchina i ee krakh,” p. 60; Nikulin, “‘Gibel’ makhnovshchiny,”’ p. 197; Rudnev, Makhnovshchina, p. 95; Premysler, ““Razgrom banditizma na Ukraine, 1921 g.,” p. 44; Woodcock, Anarkhism, p. 424; Footman, ‘Nestor Makhno,” p. 126; Esbakh,

“Poslednie dni makhnovshchiny n Ukraine,’ p. 48; R. S., ‘““‘Platone Makhno, il liberatore dell’ukraina, assassinato?,”’ L’Avvenire Anarchico (Pisa), September 23, 1921.

Chapter 21, Epilogue 1. Interviews

by the author with Dr. Cyrille Radeff on September 15, 1973,

Paris, and with Dr. Serhii S. Yermolenko on August 18, 1975, Minneapolis, Minn. 2. Berkman, ‘Nestor Makhno,” pp. 28—29; Frunze, Sobranie sochinenit,

13.35) 3. Gorelik,

Goneniia

na

anarkhizm,

p. 56; Peters,

Nestor

Makhno,

p. 89;

Nomad, Apostles of Revolution, p. 338. 4. Omelianovych-Pavlenko, Zymovyi pokhid, 2:28—29. 5. Arbatov, ‘‘Bat’ko Makhno,” p. 112.

6. Peter Arshinov, ‘““Opravdanie Nestora Makhno,’’ AV, nos. 5—6 (1923), p. 25; Nomad, Apostles of Revolution, p. 338; Edward Ligocki, Dialog z przeszloscia, pp. 259-61; “Protiv gotoviashchegosia prestupleniia russkogo i pol’skogo pravitel’stv,’’ VO, no. 2 (1922), p. 9. 7. Arbatov, ‘“Bat’ko Makhno,” p. 114.

8. Ibid.; Makhno,”

p.

Volin, 25;

“Nestor Voline,

Makhno,” Unknown

p.

27; Arshinov,

Revolution,

p.

216;

“Oprovdanie Footman,

Nestora ‘Nestor

Makhno,” p. 126; Denikin, Ocherki, 5: 134.

9. N. Makhno, Po povodu ‘raz’iasneniia,” pp. 12—14; Aleksei Nikolaev, Zhizn’ Nestora Makhno, p. 156. 10. Makhno was wounded about twelve times, including twice seriously (Volin,

“Nestor Makhno,” p. 7).

310

Notes, Chapter 21, Appendix

11.

Berkman, ‘“‘Nestor Makhno,”’ p. 29.

12. Makhno to [Lev] Russian Anarchists, p. 24.

Chykalenko;

Peters,

Nestor

Makhno,

p. 91; Avrich,

13. Makhno, Makhnovshchina, p. 34. 14. Peters, Nestor Makhno, p. 96.

15. At present the fate of Makhno’s wife and daughter is unkown. According to Ida Mett, who

knew them and Makhno from their arrival in Paris, the Germans sent

Makhno’s wife and daughter to Berlin during the German occupation, where his wife was presumably killed during an air raid. What happened to Makhno’s daughter is unknown. In September 1973, the author visited Paris and talked with people who knew them to find a trace of their whereabouts, but in vain. However, the prevailing opinion reinforced that described by Mett (Ida Mett, “Souvenirs sur

Nestor Makhno,” p. 4). 16. Berland, ‘‘Makhno”’; Volin, ‘‘Nestor Makhno,” p. 7; Arbatov, “Bat’ko Makhno,” p. 115; Meleshko, “Nestor Makhno ta ioho anarkhiia,” no. 1, p. 10; Muromets, “‘Nestor Makhno,” p. 16; “‘Smert’ N. I. Makhno,”’ PRO, nos. 47—49

(1934), p. 1; “N. I. Makhno,” p. 20; Peters, Nestor Makhno, pp. 96—97; Berkman, “Nestor Makhno,”’ p. 30. 17. Interview with Cyrille Radeff.

Appendix 1. Nikulin,

“Gibel’

Makhnovshchiny,”

p.

173;

see

also

Efimov,

“Deistviia

protiv Makhno,” pp. 206—7. 2. Andrii Moskalenko to L. Bykovskyi; Makhno, Ukrainskaia revoliutsua, 3:70—73; Vasyl’ Dubrovs’kyi to author; Omelianovych-Pavlenko, Zymovyi pokhid, 2:25; Chernomordik, Machno 1 makhnovshchina, pp. 225—26. 3. “Makhnovskaia armiia,”’ pp. 2—3; Dubrovs’kyi to author. 4, “Makhnovskaia armiia,” p. 2; “‘Zamietki k knigi Arshinova,”’ p. 7.

5. Arshinov,

Istoriia

makhnovskogo

known Revolution, p. 260; “Nestor Makhno,” p. 124; Kubanin, Makhnovshchina, p. moho zhyttia,” no. 7, p. 919;

dvizheniia,

pp.

180, 221; Voline,

Un-

Gorelik, Gonentia na anarkhizm, p. 30; Footman, Omelianovych-Pavlenko, Zymovyi pokhid, 2:28; 159; ‘““Makhnovyskaia armiia,”’ p. 6; Dubiv, ‘‘Ulamok z ‘“‘Zamietki k knigi Arshinova,”’ p. 6; Serge, Memoirs

of a Revolutionary, p. 122. 6. Arshinov, Istoriia makhnovskogo dvizhenitia, p. 221; Voline, Unknown Revolution, p. 260; Footman, “Nestor Makhno,” p. 124; Omelianovych-Pavlenko, Zymovyt pokhid, 2:28; Kubanin, Makhnovshchina, p. 159; Semanov, ‘“‘Makhnov-

shchina i ee krakh,” p. 58. 7. Voline,

Unknown

Revolution,

pp.

260—61;

Arshinov,

Istoriia

skogo dvizhenuia, pp. 125, 221—22; Makhno, Russkaia revolutsiia,

makhnov-

1:170—71.

8. Voline, Unknown Revolution, p. 261; Arshinov, Istoriia makhnovskogo dvizhentia, p. 222; Gorelik, Gonenita na anarkhizm, p. 29; ‘‘Zamietki k knigi

Arshinova,” p. 6; Serge, Memoirs of a Revolutionary, p. 122. 9. Voline,

Unknown

Revolution,

p.

260;

Arshinov,

Istoriia

makhnovskogo

dvizheniia, pp. 221, 225; ““Zamietki k knigi Arshinova,”’ p. 6. 10.

Arshinov,

Istoriia

makhnovskogo

dvizhentia,

Revolution, p. 263; ““Zamietki k knigi Arshinova,”’ p. 6.

p.

226;

Voline,

Unknown

Notes, Appendix 11.

old

Semanov, ‘“Makhnovshchina p. 31; Voline, Unknown

anarkhizm,

i ee krakh,” p. 60; Gorelik, Goneniia na Revolution, p. 263; Arshinov, Istoriia makh-

novskogo dvizheniia, p. 226. 12.

Meleshko,

‘‘Nestor

Makhno

ta “ioho

anarkhiia,”

no.

2, p.

10; Gorelik,

Gonenua na anarkhizm, p. 31; Arshinoy, Istoriia makhnovskogo dvizheniia, p. 227; Voline, Unknown Revolution, p. 263; ‘“‘Zamietki k knigi Arshinova,’’ p. 6; Sakovich, ““Proryv Makhno,” p. 12; Peters, Nestor Makhno, p. 15. 13. Makhno, Makhnovshchina, p. 49; Arshinov, Istoriia

makhnovskogo

zhenua, p. 223; Belash, ““Makhnovshchina,” pp. 199—200. 14. Esbakh, “‘Poslednie dni makhnovshchiny na Ukraine,” Istoria

makhnovskogo

dvizheniia,

p. 222; Voline,

Unknown

duvi-

p. 44; Arshinov,

Revolution,

p. 261;

“Zamietki k knigi Arshinova,” p. 6; Semanov, ‘‘Makhnovshchina i ee krakh,”’ p. 60; Antonoy-Ovseenko, “‘V borot’bi za Radians’ku Ukrainu,”’ no. 5, p. 117. 15. Arshinov, Istoriia makhnovskogo dvizhentia, pp. 194, 223; Voline,

Un-

known Revolution, pp. 210—11, 261; ‘‘Zamietki k knigi Arshinova,” p. 6; Nikulin, “Gibel’ makhnovshchiny,” p. 196. 16.

Makhno, Makhnovshchina,

p. 49; Mazepa,

Ukraina

v ohni,

1:63; Kubanin,

Makhnovshchina, pp. 26, 176; Arshinov, Istoriia makhnovskogo dvizhentia, p. 227; Semanoy, ““Makhnovshchina i ee krakh,” p. 49. 17. “Makhnovskaia armiia,” p. 6; ‘‘Zamietki k knigi Arshinova,” p. 6; Arshinov, Istorua makhnovskogo dvizhenta, p. 226; Voline, Unknown Revolution, p. 263; Semanoy, “‘Makhnovshchina i ee krakh,”’ p. 60. 18. Arshinoy, Istoriia makhnovskogo dvizheniia, pp. 224—25; Voline, Unknown

Revolution, p. 262. 19.

Arshinov,

Istoriia

Revolution, p. 263. 20. Gorelik, Gonentia

makhnovskogo

dvizhenua,

na

p.

anarkhizm,

33;

p.

225;

Voline,

Voline,

Unknown

Unknown Revolution,

p. 263. 21. Belash, “Makhnovshchina,” p. 217; Makhno, Ukrainskata revoliutsita, 3: 142.

22. Voline,

Unknown

Revolution,

Makhno,

Makhnovshchina,

p. 263; Arshinov,

Istoriia

p.

24;

makhnovskogo

dvizheniia, p. 227; Kubanin, Makhnovshchina, p. 175.

23. P. Arshinov, Dva probega, pp. 21—26, 58—59, 71—73. 24.

Gorelik,

Goneniia

na anarkhizm,

p. 48; Makhno,

Makhnovshchina,

p. 48;

Semanov, ‘“‘Makhnovshchina i ee krakh,” pp. 40, 43; E. Z. Dolin (Moravskii), V vikhri revoliutsii, p. 442; Nomad, Apostles of Revolution, p. 340; L. Lipotkin, “Vsevolod

Mikhailovich

Eikhenbaum

(Volin),”’ DT-P, no. 17, pp. 16—19; Arshinov,

Istortia makhnovskogo dvizhentia, pp. 12—16; “‘K voprosu ob anarkho-bol’shevizme

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p. 11; Makhno, Po povodu “‘raz’iasnentia”’

Volina, pp. 5—10; Goldman, Living My Life, pp. 786—87; Woodcock, Anarchism,

p. 416; Serge, Memoirs of a Revolutionary, pp. 110, 153; Arshinov, Istoriia makhnovskogo dvizheniia, p. 237; Teper, Makhno, p. 54. 26.

Gorelik, Goneniia na anarkhizm, pp. 36—37; Maximoff, Guillotine at Work,

pp. 510—12,

540, 542—43; Teper, Makhno,

p. 32; Serge, Memoirs

of a Revolu-

Og

Notes, Appendix

tionary,

p.

153;

Semanov,

“‘Makhnovshchina

i ee

krakh,”

p. 55; “Goneniia

na

anarkhizm,” AV, no. 1 (July 1923), pp. 74—75; Avrich, Russian Anarchists, p. 215. 27. 28.

Gorelik, Gonentia na anarkhizm, p. 34; Teper, Makhno, p. 85. Gorelik, Gonentia na anarkhizm, pp. 29, 38; Belash, ““Makhnovshchina,”

29.

Gorelik, Gonenita na anarkhizm, p. 30.

30. Ibid., pp. 27—28. 31. 32.

Ibid., p. 49; Voline, Unknown Revolution, p. 263. Arshinov, Istoriia makhnovskogo dvizhenta, pp. 236—37; Wojna, “‘Nestor

Makhno ‘Anarchism czynu,’”’ p. 66. 33. Arshinov, Istoriia makhnovskogo dvizhenta, p. 225; Voline, Unknown Revolution, p. 262; Gorelik, Gonentia na anarkhizm, p. 57; ‘“‘Zamietki k knigi

Arshinova,”’ p. 6. 34.

Gorelik, Gonenita na anarkhizm, p. 61; Makhno, Makhnovshchina,

35.

Gorelik,

Goneniia

na anarkhizm,

skogo dvizhenia, pp. 223—24; Voline,

pp. 32—33;

Unknown

moff, Guillotine at Work, p. 348. 36. Gorelik, Goneniia na anarkhizm,

Arshinov,

p. 48.

Istoriia makhnov-

Revolution, pp. 261—62; Maxi-

p. 32; Maximoff,

Guillotine

at

Work,

pas. 37. Voline, Unknown Revolution, p. 262; Arshinov, Istoriia makhnovskogo dvizheniia, p. 225; Gorelik, Gonenita na anarkhizm, p. 31. 38. “Makhnovskaia armiia,’”” p. 6; Semanov, ‘‘Makhnovshchina i ee krakh,”

p- 40. 39.

skogo

Voline,

Unknown

dvizheniia,

pp.

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226—27;

knigi Arshinova,” p. 6. 40. Makhno, Russkaia Dros

pp.

Kubanin,

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263—64;

Arshinov,

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party VKP and its TsK]. DT, nos. 37-38 (1928), pp. 10—12. Makhno’s agreement with the Bolsheviks against Wrangel in September—October 1920 and Makhno’s meeting with Bela Kun. . “Pechal’nye stranitsy russkoi revoliutsii: Vospominaniia”’ [Sad pages of the Russian Revolution: memoirs]. Rassvet (Chicago), January 29—February 18, 1932 (according to Hoover Institution). Largely first half of the author’s second volume: Pod udarami kontr-revoliutsit. . Pod udarami kontr-revoliutsu: Aprel’—uun’ 1918 g. [Under the blows of counterrevolution: April—June 1918]. Vol. 2. Edited by Volin. Paris: Izd-vo Komiteta N. Makhno, 1936. . La révolution russe en Ukraine: Mars 1917—avril 1918. Paris: La

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V., ed. Jz tstortt Oktiabr’skot revoliutsu v Kieve:

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nanua uchastnilkov [From the history of the October Revolution in Kiev: memoirs of participants]. Kiev: Gos. izd-vo Ukrainy, 1927. . ed. Pid hnitom nimets’koho tmperializmu, 1918 r. na Kyivshchynt: Stattt, spohady, dokumenty, krontka |Under the oppression

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Arnold

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and his observations

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[The otaman and the

otamans’ movement]. SV, no. 6 (1951), pp. 113-17. A valuable account by a high-ranking officer about the role of the Ukrainian partisans during the Revolution. ———-.. Povstans’kyt rukh ¢« otamanua: Zbirnyk [The partisan movement and the otaman movement: collection]. Detroit: Kapitula vidznaky khresta zaliznoho stril’tsia, 1973. . “Rozhrom Vseukrains’koho povstans’koho komitetu i samohubchyi reid” [The destruction of the All-Ukrainian Partisan Committee and the suicidal raid]. Visti (New York), no. 106 (1961), pp. 51-52. Vyslots’kyi, Ivan, ed. Het’man Skoropads’kyi v osvitlennt ochevydtsiv [Hetman Skoropads’kyi as interpreted by contemporaries]. Toronto: Vyd-vo “Ukrains’koho robitnyka,” 1940. Vytanovych, Illia. Agrarna polityka ukrains’kykh uniadiw, 1917—1920 [The agrarian policy of the Ukrainian governments] . Munich, 1968. ———. “Agrarna polityka ukrains’kykh umnadiv rokiv revoliutsii i vyzvol’nykh zmahan’, Ukrainian governments

1917—20” [The agrarian policy of the during the Revolution and the struggle for liberation, 1917—20]. UI, nos. 3—4 (15—16) (1967), pp. 5—60. Weinstein, H. R. “Land Hunger and Nationalism in the Ukraine, 1905—

1917.” Journal of Economic Mistory 2 (1942): 24—35. Wheeler-Bennett, John W. The Forgotten Peace: Brest-Litovsk. New York: W. Morrow & Co., 1939.

Wojna, Romuald. ‘Nestor Makhno: ‘Anarchizm czynu’” [Nestor Makhno: “anarchism of action” |]. Z pola walki (Warsaw) 13, no. 2

(50) (1970): 45—76. A well-documented general survey of the Makhno movement, its relations with the peasants and with the Anarchist organization “‘Nabat.”’ . “Z trzeciego okresu wojny domowej w Rosji: Problemy polityczne i spoleczne (Grudziefi 1918 r.—Grudzieni 1920 r.)” [From the third period of the civil war in Russia: political and social problems (December 1918—December 1920)]. Studia z dziejéw ZSRR i Europy Srodkowe] (Wroclaw), vol. 3 (1967); vol. 6 (1971); vol. 9 GRE Wolfdieter, Bihl. “Beitrage zur Ukraine-Politik Osterreich-Ungarns 1918.” Jahrbicher ftir Geschichte Osteuropas (Munich), n.s., 14, no. 1 (1966): 51—62. “Einige Aspekte der osterreichisch-ungarischen Ruthenenpolitik, 1914-1918.” Jahrbucher fiir Geschichte Osteuropas (Munich), n.s., 14, no. 3 (1966): 539—50.

Bibliography

415

———. “Die Tatigkeit des Ukrainishchen Revolutionars Mykola Zaliznjak in ‘Osterreich-Ungarn.’” Jahrbiicher fiir Geschichte Osteuropas (Munich), n.s., 13, no. 2 (1965): 226—30. Woodcock, George. Anarchism: A History of Libertarian Ideas and Movements. Cleveland: The World Publishing Co., 1962. A valuable general history of anarchism, including the Makhno movement. “Z armiieiu generala Pavlenka” [With the army of General Pavlenkal]. In Kaliendar kanadus’koho ukraintsia na zvychainyi rik 1921, pp. 86—98. Winnipeg, 1921. Zadoianyi, Vasyl’. Natsiwa v borot’bi za Ukrainu [The nation in a struggle for Ukraine]. 2 vols. New York, 1968. “Stanovyshche v Ukraini do 1 pislia prykhodu AustroNimets’kykh viis’k, berezen’—kviten’ 1918 r.’’ [Conditions in Ukraine before and after the arrival of the Austro-German troops, March—April 1918]. TR, no. 69 (1972), pp. 14—21. An objective account of sociopolitical and military conditions in Ukraine in spring 1918. Zahora,

Feliks.

“Pomoc

niemiecka

Ukrainie

w

1918

r.: Na tle zrédel

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416

Bibliography

Zastavenko, G. Krakh nimetskot interventsu na Ukraini v 1918 r. [The

defeat of the German intervention in Ukraine in 1918]. Kiev: Derzh. Vyd-vo polit. lit-ry, URSR, 1959. A one-sided account of the Austro-German policy in Ukraine in 1918. Zavads’kyi, V. ‘“‘Znadibky do istorii 1-ho Ukrains’koho polku im. het’mana Bohdana Khmel’nyts’koho” [Materials concerning the history of the Ist Ukrainian regiment in the name of Hetman Bohdan Khmel’nyts’kyi]. KD 1927, pp. 113—16. An account of the formation of a regiment out of Ukrainian soldiers serving in the Russian Army, set against a background of political conditions in Ukraine. Zhyvotko, Arkadii. [Ak sovits’ka Moskva zvotuvala Ukrainu [How Soviet Muscovy conquered Ukraine]. Lvov: Nak. Soimovohu Kitubu UiSaR oP, 1993: Zolotarev, A. Iz istorit Tsentral’not Ukrains’kot Rady |¥rom the history of the Ukrainian Central Rada]. Kharkov: Gos. izd-vo Ukrainy, 1922) Zozulia, [Akiv. “Vseukrains’ki viis’kovi z’izdy v 1917 r.” [The AllUkrainian Military Congress in 1917]. VK, no. 4 (28) (1967), pp. 29—34. , comp. Velyka Ukrains’ka revoliutsua: Materialy do istorii vidnovlennia ukrains’kot derzhavnesty; kalendar istorychnykh podu za lit. 1917 r.—ber. 1918 r. [The Great Ukrainian Revolution: materials on the history of the restoration of Ukrainian statehood; calendar of historical events for February 1917—March 1918]. 2nd ed.

New

York,

1967.

An

authoritative,

well-documented

chro-

nology of the Ukrainian Revolution from February 1917 to March 1918, listing correct dates, both New and Old Styles, its participants, and documentary material.

Index

Academy

of Sciences (Imperial Russian), recognizes Ukrainian language, 16

Ageev, A., 188

Aleksandrovsk. See Oleksandrivs’k Alekseev, General Mikhail, 37, 178,

190, 207 Alexander of Serbia, King, 227

Alexander I, Emperor, 5 Alexander II, Emperor, 13, 14, 15, 49 Al’thauzen, Naum, 69, 278n

Alyi. See Sukhovolskii, [Akov

Amur 69

(suburb

of Katerynoslav),

Anarchist-Communists,

61,

60, 61, 62, 64,

68, 71, 76, 83, 94

130, 131, 135, 146—47, 165, 168, 169, 173, 269n

159, 164,

Antonovych, Volodymyr, 14, 16 Apostolove, 83 Archangel, 29 Archives of South-West Russia, 12

Aronchik (anarchist), 260 Arshinov, Peter Andreevich [Marin], ils Ns Mls Dar, EO, Gea, Bee Paez 259, 309n; and Makhno, 63, 65, 69 Artem. See Sergeev, Fedor A. Astrachan Army, 38 Astrov, N. I., 189, 194

Aussem, Vladimir K., 163 Austria-Hungary, 5, 15, 16, 29, 32, 34, 39, 44; occupies Ukraine, 36, 58, 86,

Anarchist-Individualists, 61, 62, 64

895,96; 997 102 aLLOT LO l6ds 247;

Anarchists,

248,

250;

130.

See

245,

57, 75, 88, 89, 90, 243,

253—79

passim,

280n;

con-

ference in Kursk, 64; congress in IElysavethrad, 64; congress in Huliai-

withdraws

also

from

Ukraine,

Brest-Litovsk,

Treaty

of, Central Powers

Baden agreement, 31, 96

Pole, 71, 86. See also AnarchistCommunists, Anarchist-Individualists,

Bakunin, Mikhail A., 58, 62, 75

Anarcho-Syndicalists

Baron, Aaron, 63, 65, 257

Anarcho-Syndicalists, 61, 62, 64 Andriievs’kyi, Panas, 120

Bednota (Moscow), 209

Anhel (partisan leader), 43

Belaia Tserkov. See Bila Tserkva

Antoni,

Berdians’k, 146, 149, 176, 198, 202, 223 2332390525715 27000 Berdichev. See Berdychiv

Valdemar,

60, 61, 68, 276n,

278n Antonov-Ovseenko,

Vladimir,

28, 88,

Baturyn, 266n

418

Index

Borius, General, 125, 126

Berdychiv [Berdichev] , 135, 161 Berkman, Alexander, 57, 244; audience with Lenin, 66; meets Makhno’s wife, 77; on Makhno, 227, 242 Berthelot, General Henri Mathias, 127

Bessarabia, 169, 241

36,

48,

132,

167,

168,

Borot’bisty (UPSR), 141, 163, 294n Borovoi Aleksandr A., 91

Boryspil’ [Borispol’] , 210 Bosh, Evgeniia B., 27 Botha, General Louis,

Allied Commission,

Bezborod’ko, Prince Oleksander, 5, 10,

head

of Inter-

136

Brasov, 240

Bibikov, Governor-General D. G., 10

Bredov, General Nikolai, 204, 217 Brest-Litovsk, Treaty of, 29, 36, 75,

Bila Tserkva [Belaia Tserkov] , 38, 120 Bilash, Viktor, 79, 153, 223, 256

Briansk, 131

12

86

Bilenko, T., 187

British Bible Society, 15

Bilozers’kyi, Vasyl’, 13

Briullov, Karl Pavlovich, 12

Birzula, 127 Black Sea, 4, 46, 148, 210 Bliukher, General Vasilii K., 241 Bobrinskii, Governor-General Georgii,

Brotherhood

of

Saints

Cyril

and

Methodius, 13, 17

Brova, Nykyfor, 100, 254

27, 36, 37, 41, 44, 57, 81, 84, 90, 12551 26;29 138, 140, 168, 172,

General Aleksei Alekseevich, 279n Budanov, Abram, 191, 260 Budenny, Semen Mikhailovich, 239— 40 Bukovina, 5, 20, 29, 36, 132, 135,

182, 184, 203, 206, 208; and Central Rada, 26—28, 53, 87; and self-deter-

137, 166, 168, 169 Burbyha (partisan leader), 177, 261

20 Boh River, 4, 170 Bolshevik government

mination

of Russia,

policy, 26—29

26,

passim, 31;

captures Kyiv, 28, 133, 218; BrestLitovsk Peace Conference, 29; retreat from Ukraine, 31, 87, 186, 192; and hetmanate, 36—37; and partisans, 42—44; and peasants, 43, 44, 53, 56, 86, 237, 247; propaganda of, 53, 54,

89"

93

1295

1305

1355

141.

179;

invades Ukraine, 53—54, 81—83, 92, 130—33, 148, 174, 248; and Directory, 54, 129, 130—34 passim, 136, 167, 218, 248; persecution of anarchists, 63, 91; and Makhno, 79, 80,

87, 146, 150, 154, 158, 172, 173, WB, UIE, CAUD,, Pari, Ber, O2Iy 20Koy. ES, a, PAG, PASS LEW, PIB) He 40 passim, 242, 254, 255; concludes peace treaty with Ukraine, 87; persecution of Ukrainians, 133—35, 156— 57, 169, 214; and Hryhor’iv, 163, 166, 171, 172; and Poland, 217, 218, 2225221 elo. and) Wrangell, 2107. 221, 222, 227, 228; concludes Treaty

of Riga, 219 Borispol’. See Boryspil’

Brusilov,

Carpatho-Ukraine, 5, 20

Catherine II, Empress, 3—6 passim Caucasus, 179; North, 182, 184, 211

Central Executive Committee (Kharkiv). See Kharkiv Soviet Government Central Powers, 29, 31, 32, 89, 111, 125, 247; conclude peace treaty with Ukraine, 28—30, 86; divide Ukraine into zones, 31; relations with Ukraine, 32, 36, 74, 294n; retreat from Ukraine, 111. See also Austria-

Hungary, Germany Gentral Radaye 21923, 28,.5 1, oo 335 416 782.903.9201 LOD 2ae 161,

246,

247; General

Secretariat,

23, 24, 27, 28, 53; and Provisional Government of Russia, 23, 24, 26, 27, 89; Universals of, 23, 25, 28, 29, 31, 35, 53; and Bolshevik Govern-

ment sol Russias) Oe nec on concludes peace treaty with Central Powers, 28—29, 31, 32, 86; and Don Basin, 28; leaves Kyiv, 28; and France, 29; and Great Britain, 29;

Index

419

returns to Kyiv, 31; overthrow of, 32—34; causes of downfall, 33; agricultural policy, 53, 54, 74; and peas-, ants, 53; Charles XII, King, 266n

Cheka,

156, 159, 211, 234, 235, 238,

240; arrests anarchists, 63, 91

Chekhivs’kyi, Volodymyr WAT 5 Ub Ae 2, AS Cherkasy,

M.,

123,

170, 210

266n;

Black

Sea,

4; Free,

26, 27,

34 Council of People’s Commissars (Moscow). See Bolshevik Government of Russia Council of State Unification, 35

Crimea, 31, 36, 47, 132, 184, 186, 192, 200, 204, 207, 214, 216, 217, PNG) PI I PAG). IAG), IRAN ORE: Urimean War, 10, 13, 47, 245

Cherniak (partisan leader), 154 Cherniakov, Aleksandr, 63, 261

D’Anselme,

Chernigov. See Chernihiv Chernihiv [Chernigov] , 194, 210, 241, 266n;

province

of, 48,

121,

288n;

taken by Bolsheviks, 132 Nikolai

Philippe,

126,

Danyliv, Vasyl’, 256 Danzig, 243 Decembrists, 9 Denikin, General Anton Ivanovich, 37,

Cherny, Lev, 91

Chernyshevskii, 14

General

127, 128, 165, 166

Gavrilovich,

132, 219 Chinese, 212 Chornoknyzhnyi (partisan leader), 257

ASL Wes, Tha, Pl), WO, tiles ula ee 129, 172, 174-76, 178, 179, 181, 182, 184, 185, 187, 189, 190, 191, 194, 195, 201—8, 216, 218, 221, 223, 227, 231, 248, 249, 256, 257, 262, 275n, 279n, 289n, 290n, 298n,

Chortkiv, 137 Chubenko, Oleksander,

299n; persecution of Ukrainians, 78, 111, 150, 188; and Makhno, 112,

Chicherin,

Georgii

Vasil’evich,

131,

145, 148, 173,

174, 257

145, 149, 153, 164, 171, 173, 192—

Clemenceau,

Georges

Benjamin,

165,

166 Committee for the Defense of the Revolution, 71, 90, 96 Committee of the Poor, 213—14

The Communist (newspaper), 232 First Ukrainian Military,

Congresses: 22,

161;

First

Ukrainian

Peasants’,

22; First Ukrainian Workers’, 22; Second Ukrainian Military, 22; of Nationalities, 24; Third Ukrainian Military, 24; All-Ukrainian of Workers’, Soldiers’, and Peasants’ Soviets,

28; Soviets of the Donets and Kryvyi Rih basins, 28; Second All-Ukrainian Peasants’, 34; Second AlJ-Ukrainian Workers’, 34; of Toilers, 54, 124;

Ukrainian Union of Zemstvos, 118

Constituent Assembly of Russia, 23 Constituent

Qed

Assembly

of Ukraine,

24,

2, 3420

Cossacks:

Zaporozhian, 4, 8, 9, 11, 46,

47, 55, 56,

110,

160,

245, 265n—

95 passim, 198, 199, 200, 202, 206, 209, 214; takes Kyiv, 138, 139; and Hryhor’iv, 162, 165, 166; resignation

of, 215

Dermenzhi (partisan leader), 191, 258 D’Esperey, General Franchet, 165

Diakivs’kyi (partisan leader), 79 Dibrivka [Velyka Mykhailivka] , 100, LOZ OS si Olmiel elosaeOns a. 254 Directory Government, 123, 127, 148, 161, 162, 167, 184, 195, 248, 294n;

political

characteristics

of, 43—44,

141; and partisans, 43—44, 135; agricultural policy, 54; and Makhno, 79, 80, 144—45, 147, 290n; establishment of, 120, 143; insurrection against Skoropads’kyi, 120, 121, 144; issues declaration, 122, 133; and West Ukraine, 124, 137, 140, 218; and France, 126, 129, 133; diplomatic mission of, 127; and Paris Peace Conference, 129; Entente

420

Index

orientation of, 129—30, 133, 142, 218, 248; and Soviet Russia, 129, 132, 145, 165, 168, 185; retreats from Kyiv, 132, 133, 138; retakes Kyiv, 138; Polish orientation of, 142,

218, 249 Dnieper River, 48, 83, 84, 87, 98, 132,

146, 170, 186, 188, 196, 202, 222, DBAS, Pa, PAYS Sea, NIE aif Dniester River, 4, 168 Dobroliubov, Nikolai Aleksandrovich,

14 Dobrovelychkivka, 191 Don

Basin,

28, 37, 46, 47,

84, 90,

132, 178, 179, 180, 181, 184, 190, PAV, GRAN PRB, WM, Pela PASIoin,PHU). 279n Don

Cossacks, 83, 84, 105, 149, 160,

161, 178, 179, 180, 181, 182, 186, 188, 192, 201—5 passim, 207, 216, 221 Don River, 185, 205, 241 Donets Basin, 18, 28, 131, 149, 260 Doroshenko, Dmytro, 35, 119 Doroshenko, Hetman Petro, 275n Drabkin, I[Akov Davidovich. See Gusev,

SergeiJ.

Drohobych-Boryslav oil fields, 136 General Mikhail G., 105,

149, 181, 182 Dumas:

First,

19, 268n; Second,

Third, 51 Dybenko, Pavel Efimovich, 158, 159

19;

147, 148,

Dzhankoi, 227

Dzierzynski, Feliks Edmundowicz, 63 Egorov, Aleksandr T., 87 Egorov, Colonel A., 44 Eichenbaum, Boris M. See Volin Eichhorn, Field Marshal von,

Entente, 35536, 125) 1271285 loos 294n; policy toward Ukraine, 129, 136, 138, 139, 140, 162, 167, 174, 218, 248 Evpatoriia, 227, 232 Fedenko, Panas, 80

Fed’ko,

Ivan

Fedorovich

[Fedotov],

191 Fedotov. See Fed’ko, Ivan Fedorovich Feodosiia, 227 Ferrer, Francisco, 152

First Ukrainian Army Corps, 33 First Ukrainian Regiment, 22

B.

Khmel’nyts’kyi

Foreign Bible Society, 15

Fostikov, General, 227 France, 29; intervenes in Ukraine,

125, 126, 131, 164,

124,

165, 166, 248,

295n; policy toward Ukraine, 125, 128, 136, 137, 248; negotiates with Directory, 127, 129; relations with

Wrangel, 217, 222, 228

Freydenberg, Colonel, 127 Frunze, Mikhail Vasil’evich, 223, 225, 226, 232, 238, 241

Drahomancy, Mykhailo, 16—17 Dressler, Captain von, 40 Drozdovskii,

US 22206221 Ems decree, 15—16

General Secretariat. See Central Rada Gerbel, Sergei N., 120 Goldman, Emma, 57, 58, 175; visits Lenin, 66; meets Makhno’s wife, 77 Golovnin, A. V., 14

Gordeev. See Teper, I. Great Britain, 29; policy toward Ukraine, 125, 126; 129-3131," 136; relations with Denikin, 183, 184; relations with Wrangel, 216, 227 Grishin-Almazov,

General

Aleksei

N.,

125 31;

orders sowing of fields, 32; related to Skoropads’kyi, 33; assassination of, 40 Eideman, General Robert Petrovich, 2367237 250 Ekaterinodar [Krasnodar], 37, 179,

Groener, General Wilhelm, 31 Grosman-Roshchin T., 91

Guil’aipol. See Huliai-Pole.

Gusev,

Sergei

J.

[Drabkin,

Davidovich] , 223 Gutman, Josif, 260

Halahan, Mykola, 167

IAkov

Index

421

Havrishenko, Petro, 192, 262. Havrylenko, Petro, 226, 255—56

IUdenich, General Nikolai Nikolaevich, L716

Hetman

Ivano-Frankivs’ke. See Stanyslaviv

state (1648—1764). See Sko- r

ropads’kyi,

Hetman

Ivan;

Mazepa,

Hetman Ivan

Hetman

Ivanovo-Voznesenske,

63,

159,

260,

261

state

(1918). See Skoropad-

Tzvestiia, 209

s’kyi, Hetman Pavlo Petrovych Herzen, Alexander, 14

Kakhivka [Kakhovka] , 226

Hladchenko (partisan), 70

Kakhovka. See Kakhivka

Holovko, K., 153

Kalashnykiv, Oleksander, 86, 191, 257 Kaledin, General Aleksei Maksimovich,

Holubovych, Vsevolod, 31 Holyk, Lev, 262

28, 83, 178, 179, 180 Kaluzhnyi (partisan leader), 174

Horobets, Havrylo, 144

Kalynychenko, Moisei, 262 Kamenets-Podolskii. See Kamianets’Podils’kyi

Horobets, Mykola, 144 Hramota, 34 Hramada, 16 Hromady, 14, 17

Kamenev, Lev Borisovich [Rosenfeld] ,

Hrushevs’kyi, Mykhailo, 17, 20, 21, 31, 43, 56, 75 Hryhor’iv, Nykyfor, 43, 56, 111, 135,

center,

[Gul’aipole]: 45,

55—56,

as partisan 95,

97—103,

104—5, 112, 150, 152, 153, 5 O76. 202562 10,0225.5226, 281—82n;

anarchists

in, 60—61,

158, 236, 63,

65, 67—68, 70—73, 82, 83, 84-89, 90, 92, 254-62, 276n, 277—78nn; occupation by Denikin, 198; taken by

Bolsheviks,

211,

233—35;

men-

tioned, 47, 55, 77, 81, 96, 115, 144, 279n. See also Anarchists; Makhno, Nestor Hungarian Soviet Republic, 167, 168, 169, 174. See also Kun, Bela Hutterites, 48

IAkir, General Iona Emanuilovich, 210 IAlta, 227

1Ampil’ [I[Ampol] , 241 IAmpol. See [Ampil’ IElysavethrad [Kirovohrad],

77, 87;

anarchists in, 64, 74, 173, 187, 190, 192; Congress in, 64 Independist-Socialists, 117, 123

“Inventory Regulations,” 9, 10 Istortia Rusov, 7,10, 13

Italy, 129

172

Kaniv: district of, 38

136, 159, 160—74, 175, 176, 248 Hulak, Artemovs’kyi, 11 Hulak, Mykola, 13

Huliai-Pole

159, 173; visits Makhno,

Kamianets’-Podils’kyi [KamenetsPodolskii] , 36, 43, 139 Kapnist, Vasyl’, 8, 9 Kapustians’kyi, General Mykola, 108

Karachentsev

106,

(police officer), 68, 69,

278n Karetnyk,

LER,

CS,

Semen,

105, 144, 173, 174,

GOAT. UR,

PR, PAG, PAs)

Kartashev, Ivan, 260

Katerynoslav [Dnipropetrovs’ke], 28, 31, 61, 67, 68, 69, 71, 109,112, 144, 145, 148, 156, 186, 187, 198, 199, 200522 01582025 204 520952205222. 235, 236, 258, 261, 267n 299n; province

80,

of, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 55,

82, 83, 89, 95, 96, 146,

173,

176, 192, 214, 240; anarchists in, 60, 64, 276n; Communists in, 192, 288n Katkov, Mikhail Nikiforovich, 14 Kedrov, Admiral M. A., 227 Kerch, 227

Kerensky, Aleksandr Fiodorovich, 22, 23, 24, 89, 279n Kernenko, Hryhorii, 278n Kharkiv [Kharkov], 18, 28, 46, 131, 170, 186, 190, 211, 220, 236; University of, 11; province of, 50, 214, 219, 223, 240, 275n, anarchists in, 64, 258, 262, 278n; taken by Bolshe-

Index

422 viks,

132,

204;

taken

by Denikin,

Kharkiv Demokrit,

11

Kharkiv Soviet Government. See Provisional Ukrainian Soviet Government Kherson, 31, 127, 129, 164, 194, 295n; province of, 46, 48, 55, 96,

154, 161, 166, 173, 176, 187, 190, 191, 201, 214 Khlopomany, 14 Khmel’nyts’kyi. See Proskuriv Khmel’nyts’kyi, Hetman Bohdan, 265n Kholm:

Kremenchuk [Kremenchug] , 241 Krivoi Rog. See Kryvyi Rih

194

district of, 29, 36

Krivoshein, Aleksandr Vasil’evich, 216 Kropotkin, Peter Alekseevich, 62, 75, 153; and Makhno, 91, 92, 95, 282n

Kryvyi Rih [Krivoi Rog], 18, 83, 186, 190, 196, 259 Kuban Basin, 4, 36, 37, 47, 149, 179, PSI 82, 18451205207, 217, 2246 Peale, Gagshe PAA epeKoyy PAE| Kuban

Cossacks,

4, 181,

205, 207, 240522 Kuban River, 4 Kulish, Panteleimon,

Khortytsia (island), 265n Khortytsia River, 48

199,

204,

1227),-29 in 12, 13

Khrystovyi (partisan leader), 79 Khshyva (anarchist), 69, 278n

Kun, Bela, 167, 168, 174, 223, 305n Kursk, 96, 130, 131, 186, 194, 203; anarchist conference in, 64; province of, 238

Kiev. See Kyiv

Kurylenko, Vasyl’, 223, 257

Khorvat, General, 47

Kiev Information,

12

Kutepov, General Aleksandr P., 227

Kiev Telegraph, 15

Kievskaia Starina (Kyivan antiquity), 16 Kirovohrad. See IElysavethrad

Kobzar (The Minstrel), 12 Kochergin, G. A., 191 Kochubei, Prince Viktor P., 5

Kodak (suburb of Katerynoslav), 61 Kolchak,

Admiral

Aleksandr

Vasile-

vich, 176, 184, 186, 190, 223, 299n Kombedy, 213

Kuz’menko, Halyna (Makhno), 77, 78, 80, 243, 244, 310n; and Berkman, 77; and Goldman, 77, 280n Kviring, Emanuel I., 130 Kvitka-Osnovianenko, Hryhorii, 11

Kyiv [Kiev], 5, 8, 21, 31, 37, 44, 57, yu lads, CUO eee TSS, ISR. NG). 138, 143, 148, 164, 165, 181, 184, 185, 186, 190, 194, 198, 204, 218, 241, 245, 267n, 271n, 289n, 294n; Academy of, 6, 11, 266n; province o of, 10, 12, 39, 214; Archeological Co

Konovalets’, Colonel IEvhen, 271n Konovalov, General, 220

Congress

Kornilov,

ences,

General

Lavr

Georgievich,

TAS Sl 19 L8ON 20727 9n Kostomarov, Mykola Ivanovych, 13, 16; author

of Books

of, 132

7, 8,

Kovel’, 210

Kozhevnikov (Bolshevik), 149 Kozhyn, Khoma, 226, 241, 257

Koziatyn, 135 Krasnodar. See Ekaterinodar Krasnov, General Peter Nikolaevich,

37, 181

of Sci-

in, 64; defense

11,

of Genesis

of the Ukrainian People, 13 Kotliarevs’kyi, Ivan Petrovych, 11

in, 15; Academy

36; anarchists

League for the Liberation of Ukraine, 20 Leikhtenbergskii, Duke G. N., 34

Lemberg. See L’viv Lenin, Vladimir Ilich, 27, 28, 37, 75, 80, 134, 158, 171, 173—76 passim, 223, 231, 241, 269n; on arrest of anarchists, 66; and Emma Goldman, 66; and Makhno, 92—93, 95

Leningrad. See Petrograd

Krasovs’kyi (partisan leader), 106

Lepetchenko, Ivan, 256 Lepetchenko, Oleksander, 256

Kremenchug. See Kremenchuk

Lepetchenko (police officer), 68

Index

423

Levadnyi, Ivan, 68, 69, 278n

—policies of: agrarian, 55, 214; social and economic, 59, 80, 82 —retreat and exile: leaves Ukraine, 241; in Warsaw prison, 242, 243, 279n; in Danzig, 243; in Paris, 243— 44; death of, 244

Levyts’kyi, Dmytro, 124

Liashchenko (partisan leader), 109 Little Russia College, 4 Liutyi, Izydor, 256 Lloyd George, David, 183 Lozova, 146, 174, 198, 211 Ludendorff, Field Marshall Erich von,

38, 40, 272n

—as

young

peasants,

man

and

anarchist:

and

55, 56, 73; and anarchists,

Lukashevych, Vasyl’, 8

57—59; 60, 61, 64, 71, 72, 75, 83, 84, 153—55, 158, 176, 243, 259,

Lukomskii,

General Aleksandr S., 178,

278n; and Arshinov, 61, 69, 95, 244,

L’viv [Lvov, Lwow, Lemberg], 15, 20;

Council, 65; character and education

University of, 17, 267n Lvov. See L’viv Lwow. See L’viv Lyzohub, Fedir A., 35, 119

of, 67, 75; early life of, 67—68, 75,

279n

Mahalevs’kyi, [Urii, 83, 290n Mai-Maevskii, General Vladimir

258;

277n;

forms

Military-Revolutionary

arrest

and

imprisonment

of,

69—70, 75, 243, 249, 278n, 279n; nationalism of, 75—76; and Kropotkin, 75, 91, 92, 95, 282n; marriage to Halyna Kuzmenko, 77; and Lenin, I.,

149, 186, 187, 190, 201, 202, 203, 204, 298n, 299n Makarenko, Andrii, 120

Makarenko, Oleksander, 22 Makarenko, Pavlo, 22 Makarov, Pavel Vasil’evich, 202, 299n

Makeevy (partisan leader), 63, 261 Makhno, Hryhorii, 67, 256 Makhno, Nestor Ivanovych —as partisan: and landowners,

92—93, 95; and Sverdlov, 92, 93 —mentioned:

3, 45, 71, 73, 79, 81, 83,

84, 96, 97—100, 102, 104, 173, 249, 256, 275n, 278n, 281n, 283n, 290n, 291n, 307n, 308n, 309n Makhno, Omelian, 67

Makhno,

Sava, 67, 83, 87, 256; assassi-

nated, 211, 305n Maksymovych, Mykhailo, 11

Malolitko, I. (partisan leader), 43

71, 249, 250; and Nikiforova, 73—74, 86, 280n; and Bolsheviks, 79, 80, 82, 83,

Marin. See Arshinov, Peter Andreevich

111, 112, 148, 149, 150, 159, 174, 185, 190, 191, 210-13, 222—25, 227, 231—36, 238—40, 251, 255,

Mariupil’ [Zhdanov], 149, 150, 158, ES) IAS, LUA PHD) 2h NT) 239

256; and Directory, 79, 143, 144, 146, 248, 252; and Khrystovyi, 79; and Central Rada, 82, 86, 87, 294n;

Markov, General Sergei L., 178, 279n Markovych, IAkiv A., 10 Martos, Borys, 133 Martos, Oleksii I., 10 Martynenko, Colonel, 108, 146 Marxism, 57

forms army, 84, 87, 99, 104—16, 152, 153, 192, 250; and peasants, SYSiq teh), Gy TEMG, UTMss5 Titele eileos ele 251, 275n; and Hryhor’iy, 111, 172,

Marchenko,

Oleksander,

144,

226,

233, 234, 255

Masonic lodges, 8, 9

192—93, 195, 199, 200, 201, 206, 208, 209, 251; and Kamenev, 172,

Matviev, General, 127 Matviiv-Kurhan, 95, 149 Mazepa, Hetman Ivan, 265n, 266n Mazurenko, Semen, 132 Meleshko, Dr. Fotii M., 174

173; resigns posts, 177; and Wrangel, 219—20, 222, 225, 226; and Bela Kun, 305n

Melitopil’ [Melitopol] , 146, 150, 198, PAO}8 PAY) PPR) ean Mahe), PARTE DT Melitopol. See Melitopil’

173; tactics of, 112—15, 241, 251; and Antonov-Ovseenko, 146, 147, 159, 173; and Denikin, 149—50,

424

Index

Nyzhn’odniprovs’k (suburb rynoslav), 61, 145, 148

Mel’nyk, Colonel Andrii, 271n Mennonites, 4, 48—49, 68 Mezhlauk, Commissar Valerii, 177

Mikhalev-Pavlenko

(partisan

leader),

63—64, 177, 261 Mikhnovs’kyi, Mykola, 17, 22 Miliukov, Pavel Nikolaevich, 189 Millerand, Alexandre, 217 Mirbach-Marff, Count Wilhelm von, 40

7, 19, 28, 40, 55, 63, 84, 90,

91), 92; 95,132, 133, 167; 170, 178, 184, 186, 194, 203, 205, 207, 208, 227, 234, 236, 242, 245, 259, 299n Mumm, Baron Adolf, 39, 118 Murmansk, 29

Mykolaiv 161, 162, 201

[Nikolaev],

28,

October Manifesto, 19

Odessay728,5 40-8465 [25751265298 E32 01335) 1355 1645 1651665 165; 169; 1865, 190) 192, 194, 196.9207, 214, 255, 295n; lodge of, 8; Richelieu Lycée in, 12; anarchists in, 64,

69, 138

Mirgorod. See Myrhorod Moldavia, 47, 48, 167, 168 Moscow,

of Kate-

127,

129,

164, 190, 191, 193, 194,

Odessa Herald, 12 “Odessa Terrorists,” 91 Old Believers, 48 Oleksandria, 161, 173, 210

Oleksandrivs’k

[Zaporizhia,

Aleksan-

drosk], 55, 67, 69, 74, 83, 84, 86, S7ep SOS Sipe LO2s Ole LOO LOGE 201 20982 2208223200 Omelianovych-Pavlenko,

General

My-

khailo, 108, 218

Myrhorod [Mirgorod] , 46, 193 Myrhorods’kyi (partisan leader), 145 Nabat Confederation of Anarchist Organizations of Ukraine, 58; conference in Kursk, 64; congress in IElysavethrad, 64; relations with Makhno, 64—67, 150 Napoleon I, Emperor, 8 Natiiv, General, 37 National Center, 35 Native Cause, 19 Nazarov, Colonel, 221 Nazarov, General Anatolii M., 181 Nazaruk, Dr. Osyp, 121, 127 Neratov, A. A., 190 “Neutral Zone,” 45, 157, 273n Nicholas I, Emperor, 9, 13

Nikiforova, Maria, 73—74, 83, 154, 155; and Makhno, 86, 87, 88, 280n

Nikolaev. See Mykolaiv

Ordzhonokidze,

Grigory Konstantino-

vich [Sergo] , 182, 209 Orel VPs6, 2194551985) 203592065 20K. 261 Orikhiv, 74, 86, 149, 156, 225, 280n

Orthodox Church (Ukrainian), 36 Oskilko, Volodymyr, 136

Osnova (Foundation), 13 Ostapenko, Serhii, 127, 133 Ottoman Empire, 5

Partisans, 45, 46, 173, 218, 237; uprisings of, 39, 41; tactics of, 39, 42; origin of, 41—43, 249; relations with

peasants,

42;

ideology

of, 42—43;

and Bolsheviks, 42—43, 44, 185; leaders of, 43; and Directory, 43—44,

218, 249; and Denikin, 149, 190 Paul I, Emperor, 5, 295n

Peasants, 4, 6, 10, 46, 47, 49, 50, 52,

Nizhnii-Novogorod, 186

Ole 92959 Sealul/al2On 174, 232, 288n; uprisings 47, 50, 54, 78, 203, 209, emancipation of, 11, 14, 46, 48, 49—50; serfdom of, 16, 46,

Novocherkassk,

47, 49, 57; and Bolsheviks,

Nikopil [Nikopol] , 196, 209, 235 Nikopol. See Nikopil Nikovs’kyi, Andrii V., 119

Novomoskovs’ke,

178, 180, 181, 204

150

Novorossisk 31, 182, 184, 205, 230

Novoselytsia, 149 Novoukrainka, 149, 192, 196

HOw ols 2 133, 166, of, 10, 19, 214, 250;

43, 53,

169, 208, 213, 238; and Directory, 53; and anarchism, 57—58; ideology of, 57, 58; and Skoropads’kyi, 75;

and Makhno, 80, 88, 89 236, 237;

Index

425

and Wrangel, 215 Pecherska Lavra monastery,

7

Peredyrii, Izydor, 97 Perehonivka: battle of, 195, 196, 256, 2262 Perekop, 227; Isthmus of, 204, 210, 214, 2215226, 227, 291n Peter I, Emperor, 6, 7, 266n Petliura;

Symon,

75,

78,

118,

120,

129, 133, 135, 138, 140, 144, 161, LSTipel OOM AOSee 1945 2047) 27218, 219, 286n Petrenko, Petro, 79, 106, 146, 241, 258 Petrograd [Leningrad], 7, 13, 15, 19, 28,055 1475290. sn 25961 Petrushevych, Dr. IEvhen, 139, 140 Piatakov, Georgii L., 27, 130

Pidliashshia, 36 Podillia, 24, 26, 31, 160, 206

Podol (Kyiv), 40 Bolessos/ Sl 525 doOs 3 ial 3 8159, V4Oe NORD ee oor 2 19 222 6223. 226—28 passim, 242, 249, 265n Poletyka, Vasyl’ H., 10 Poliakov, General I. A., 180

Polohy, 149, 152, 198, 211 Poltava,

Historical

By)

28.)

and

147,

194,.

Philological

266n;

College

in, 36; province of, 46, 47, 50, 206, 214, 235, 240, 254, 255 Popov, Viktor, 63, 223, 261 Potemkin, Gregory, Prince of Taurida, 4, 266n

Pravda (Moscow), 209 Proletarian, 225

Proskuriv [Khmel’nyts’kyi] , 161 Prosvita Societies, 19, 22, 38, 118 Proudhon, Pierre-Joseph, 61

Provisional Commission for the Study of Ancient Documents, 12 Provisional Government

of Russia, 23,

26, 27, 34, 70, 71, 74, 82, 84; and Central Rada, 23—24, 89, 246 Provisional Ukrainian Soviet Govemment, 28, 130, 132, 156 Provisional Workers’ and Peasants’ Government of Ukraine. See Provisional Ukrainian Soviet Government

a

Punitive expeditions, 39, 111; Austrian, 55—56, 103, 110; German, 97, 110

Put’ k Svobode

[Road to Freedom],

65 Rada. See Central Rada Rakovskii, Khristian Georgievich, 44, 134, 163, 168, 169, 223, 261 Red Army, 90, 92—93, 115, 135, 148, 156, 162, 166, 169, 174, 180, 182, 184, 190, 191, 196, 205, 208, 209, ZNO 22 21459216, 2185822327 passim, 232—41 passim, 248, 257,

288n, 292n; requisition policy, 43, 134 Red Guards. See Red Army Repnin, Prince Nikolai G., 9 Revishin, General, 202 Revolutionary Military Council, 109, 7G e252 92 305020 ee2 29 seOils 262, 300n

Revolutionary Military Council of Ukraine: “Group of the Kursk Direction,” 130, 131 Revolutionary Ukrainian Party (RUP), a Riabko. See Semeniuta, Pavlo Riazan, 186 Rigel’man, Oleksander I., 10 Road to Freedom. See Put’ k Svobode Romania, 36, 76, 126, 127, 132, 135, 136, 148, 166, 167, 168, 169, 174, 181, 227, 241, 242 Romanovskii, General Ivan P., 178, 279n Rosenfeld. See Kamenev, Lev Borisovich Rostov on the Don, 173, 179, 181,

185, 190, 204, 205 Rozhdestvenka, 95, 97 Rozumovs’kyi, Count Oleksander, 5

Rozumovys’kyi, Hetman Kyrylo, 266n Ruban, Vasyl’ H., 10 Rumiantsev, Count Peter, 4, 266n

Russian Geographcial Society, 15 Russian Socialist Revolutionary party, 40, 50, 52, 261, 279n Russo-Japanese War, 15, 18, 33, 50

Index

426 Russo-Turkish War (1768-74), 4 Rybin, Peter [Zonov] , 63, 261

rising, 120; and Makhno

Sadov. See Zinkovskii

Sirko, Ivan, 275n Skliarov, General, 195

Sakhno-Ustymovych, Mykola, 35

Skoropads’kyi, Hetman Ivan, 33 Skoropads’kyi, Hetman Pavlo Petro-

Samokysh, Colonel Roman, 146

Sapieha, Eustachy, 218 Saratov,

91,

126,

186;

province

of,

L8H ZOD 22 port of, 198

vych, 27, 35, 40, 272n, 287n, 288n;

commander

238, 241 Saratov Corps, 38 Schlichter, Alexander G., 134 Sea of Azov, 4, 46, 149, 150,

222

193

Simferopol. See Symferopil’ Sinel’nikovo. See Synelnikove

181,

254 e252 OO5

of First Ukrainian Army

Corps, 27; elected hetman, 32; overthrows Central Rada, 32; early life, 33—34; issued ‘‘Hramota,” 34; cul-

tural policy,

35—36;

organizes

gov-

ernment, 35, 117—18, 119, 120; church policy, 36; foreign policy,

Semeniuta, Oleksander. 68, 278n

Semeniuta, Pavlo [Riabko] , 86

36—38; relations with Kuban, 36, 37, 181; visits Germany, 38; adopts

Semeniuta, Prokip, 68 Sentove, 173

policy

Sereda (partisan leader), 257—58

of

federation,

tempts to overthrow

Serge, Victor, 231

Sergeev, Fedor A. [Artem], 130 Sergo. See Ordzhonokidze, Grigory Konstantinovich

at-

P22 Skovoroda, Hryhorii, 7 Slashchov,

Sevastopil’ [Sevastopol] , 217, 227 Sevastopol. See Sevastopil’

119—20;

Ukrainize cabinet, 119; of, 120—22; abdicates,

140,

General

IA. A., 106,

114,

188, 192, 193, 194, 200—204

passim, 214, 215, 261, 280n, 304n

Society

Shamanek, Colonel, 140

Shapiro, A., 91

of

Ukrainian

Progressives

(TUP), 19, 21

Shatilov, General Pavel N., 220, 227

Sokolov, K. N., 199

Shchepkin, Mykhailo S., 12 Shchetinin, Governor of Katerynoslav,

Sokolovs’kyi, Dmytro (partisan leader),

199 Shchus’, Fedir, 100, 102, 105, 110, 254 Shepetivka, 138 Sheptyts’kyi, Count Andrii, metropolitan, 20

Shevchenko, Taras Hryhorovych, Ie PAI

12—

Shevchenko Scientific Society, 15, 17 Shilling, General N. N., 187, 214

Shkuro, General Andrei Grigor’evich, 149—50, 180, 187, 200 Shneider, Lev, 87

Shpota (partisan leader), 80 Shulgin, Vasilii Vital’evich, 35, 180 Shums’kyi, Oleksander, 169 Shynkar, Mykola, 39 Sich Riflemen, 132, 140, 146, 271n; reinstated, 38; role in Directory up-

43 South Army, 38 Soviet’s Order No. 1, 22

Spilka.

See

Ukrainian

Social

Demo-

cratic Union (Spilka) Sreznevs’kyi, Izmail, 11 Stalin, Joseph Vissarionovich, 307n

130,

Stalingrad. See Tsaritsyn

Stanyslaviv [Ivano-Frankivs’ke] , 137 Starobilsk, 46, 223 Starokostiantynivka,

Statute

of

Higher

146, 211

Government

of

Ukraine, 23

Stolypin, Peter Arkad’evich, 54, 216 Strzatkow, 76, 242

50, 51,

Sukhovolskii, [Akov [Alyi] , 63, 259 Suvorov, General vich, 168, 295n

Aleksandr

Vasil’e-

Index

427

Symferopil’

[Simferopol],

227, 232,

Synel’nikove

Ukrainian Herald, 1, 19

Ukrainian Journal, 11

255, 280n

[Sinel’nikovo],

55, 146,

149 STS O98 2238237, Syniukha River, 195

Syvash Lagoon, 226, 227, 232, 255 Taganrog, 31, 87, 100, 150, 159, 181,

184, 198, 199, 200, 210, 211, 220,

Ukrainian

National

1S

O20

Political

Union,

Ukrainian Peasant Union, 34 Ukrainian People’s Republic, 27—28, 32, 34, 53, 242; establishment of, 29, 122, 123, 129. See also Central

Rada; Directory

222; anarchist conference in, 88 Tarashcha: district of, 39, 40, 45 Tarashcha Division, 45 Tarnavs’kyi, General Myron, 139, 140 Tavriia: province of, 46, 48, 156, 166,

Ukrainian People’s Council (Galician),

173, 176, 184, 219, 221, 226, 291n

Ukrainian Social Democratic party, 1s5 25 dares SS WUE, IMI ey aes 133

Teper, I. [Gordeev] , 61, 79

124 Ukrainian Revolutionary Council. See Revolutionary Military Council of Ukraine

Tereshchenko, Mikhail Ivanovich, 23 Ternivka, 97, 98

Ukrainian

Ternopil’ [Ternopol] , 258 Ternopol. See Ternopil’

(Spilka), 17 Ukrainian Socialist-Federalist

Social

Democratic

Union

Troshchyns’kyi, Dmytro, 5

party, 22 lala dD Ukrainian Socialist Revolutionary PaLrtysel2s 2s) LOM Ol OS ilfeel LO. 123, 132, 133, 155, 294n

Trotsky, Leon, 29, 80, 131, 158, 194, 208; on Makhno, 175, 176, 206,

Ukrains’ka Hromada, 14 Ulagai, General, 221, 222, 305n

22052255, 235i Tsarekostiantynivka, 149

Uman’, 133, 193, 262; district of, 39, 45, 192, 195

Tsaritsyn [Volgograd, Stalingrad], 90, 91, 179, 181, 184, 186, 194, 203, 207, 241 Tsehel’s’kyi, Dr. Lonhyn, 24

Union for Resurrection of Russia, 35 Union of Landowners in Ukraine, 32 United States of America, 136, 276n Universals: First, 23; Second, 23; Third, 25, 31, 35, 53; Fourth, 28—

Tiutiunyk, General [Urii, 43, 139, 170 Tolstoi, D. I., 50 Troian, Havrylo, 262

Tsereteli, Irakly Georgievich, 23

293135,

Tula, 186, 194, 203, 206

Tykhenko (partisan leader), 106 Tyraspil’ [Tyraspol] , 127 Tyraspol. See Tyraspil’

Vacietis, 168 Valuev,

Ukrainian Army, 78, 79, 80, 129, 132,

(331359 Om 217, 218, 289n Ukrainian

tel

autonomy;

4

188 94s

abolished,

3, 4,

7,47, 49 Ukrainian Democratic party, 17 Ukrainian Democratic Radical party, iy Ukrainian Galician Army, 137, 139, 140, 167, 184, 188, 194; and Makhno,

79

93

Jukums Count

J. (Vatsetis),

Peter

135,

Aleksandrovich,

14, 16 Vasylchenko, General, 144

Vasylenko, Mykola, 35 Vasylivs’kyi, Hryhorii, 256

Vdovychenko (partisan leader), 257 Velychko, 7 Velyka Mykhailivka. See Dibrivka Velykyi Tokmak, 149, 202 Venetsianov, Aleksei Gavrilovich, 12 Veretel’nyk, Borys, 88, 153, 255 Viborg Manifesto, 19, 268n

428

Index

Vinogradov, General M., 207 Volga River, 186, 207, 232, 238, 241,

299n

Volgograd. See Tsaritsyn Volin [Boris M. Eichenbaum], 59, 80, 109, 197, 234, 244, 259; and Makhno, 63, 65

Zaporizhia. See Oleksandrivs’k Zaporozhian

Sich, 4, 11, 46, 47, 48,

55, 160, 245, 265—66n Zatons’kyi, Volodymyr Petrovych, 94, 95,97, 130, 282n Zavadovs’kyi, Count Petro V., 5 Zbruch River, 137, 138, 218

Vol’noe Slovo (Free Voice), 16

Zelenyi (partisan leader), 43

Volnovakha, 198, 202, 211, 237 Volokh, Omelian, 43, 135 Volunteer Army, 3573.55.37, 38, 155 102, 125—30 passim, 140, 148, 149,

Zemstvos, 118, 187

S33, WAG, GE, NG, TAO, Uzils WO 181, 182, 186, 194, 201, 203, 206— (ae

2A

Ukraine,

2b

e227 eco ons

132,

139,

177,

iInVvaGes

184—86,

189, 201; formation of, 178, 279n; program of, 180

179,

Zhdanov, See Mariupil’ Zhitomir. See Zhytomyr Zhukovskii, Vasilii Andreevich,

Zhytomyr

[Zhitomir],

135,

12

138; re-

treat of the Central Rada to, 28 Ziatkivtsi, Treaty of, 140

Zinkovskii [Zadov] , 80 Zono. See Rybin, Peter Zuichenko, Nazar, 69

Volyn, 24, 26531) 121 12271355 218

Zvenyhorodka, district of, 39, 45

Voronezh, 186, 194, 203, 235 Voroshilov, Marshal Kliment Efremo-

Zvirynets’ (suburb of Kyiv), 40

vich, 176, 177 Voskresenka, 97, 231 Voznesenske, 127, 192 Vyhovs’kyi, Hetman Ivan, 275n

Vynnychenko, Volodymyr, 23, 75, 119, 120, 127, 129, 133, 140, 143, 144, 167, 286n Vyshnevyts’kyi, Prince Dmytro, 265n Warsaw,

242;

Treaty

of,

218,

219;

Mokotow prison in, 242 West Ukrainian Government: establishment of, 124; relations with Direc-

tory,

124;

124;

crosses

gation

at

unites

with

Zbruch,

Paris

Peace

Directory,

137—38;

dele-

Conference,

137; army concludes treaty with Denikin, 140; breaks with Petliura,

218 Western Ukraine (East Galicia), 5, 15, 16, 20, 29, 36, 135, 136, 137, 138, 166, 168, 242 Wrangel,

General

Peter

Nikolaevich,

33, 112, 184, 186, 190, 194, 203—5, 214-17, 219-31 passim, 255—59 passim, 261, 298n

Zabud’ko (partisan leader), 241

INSTITUTE

FOR

COMPARATIVE

AND

FOREIGN

AREA STUDIES PUBLICATIONS ON RUSSIA AND EASTERN EUROPE

1.

Sugar, Peter F., and Ivo J. Lederer, eds. Nationalism Europe. 1969. 487 pp., index.

in Eastern

2. Jackson, W. A. Douglas, ed. Agrarian Policies and Problems in Communist and Non-Communist Countries. 1971. 485 pp., maps, figures, tables, index.

3.

Muller, Alexander V., trans. and ed. The Spiritual Regulation of Peter the Great. 1972. 150 pp., index.

4.

Pinchuck,

Ben-Cion.

The

Octobrists

in the

Third

Duma,

1907—

1912. 1974. 232 pp., bibliog., index. 5.

Stokes, Gale. Legitimacy through Liberalism: Vladimir Jovanowié and the Transformation of Serbian Politics. 1975. 280 pp., maps, bibliog., index.

6.

Smith, Canfield F. Vladiwostok under Red and White Rule: Revolution and Counterrevolution in the Russian Far East, 1920—1922.

1975. 304 pp., maps, illus., bibliog., index. 7.

Palij, Michael. The Anarchism of Nestor Makhno, 1918-1921: An Aspect of the Ukrainian Revolution. 1976. 428 pp., map, illus., bibliog., index.

Institute for Comparative and Foreign Area Studies Publications on Russia and Eastern Europe was formerly Far Eastern and Russian Institute Publications on Russia and Eastern Europe.

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