The Abyss in Revelation: A View from Below 9781646021475

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The Abyss in Revelation

Bulletin for Biblical Research Supplements Editors

Richard S. Hess, Denver Seminary Cynthia Westfall, McMaster University

Advisory Board Leslie C. Allen Fuller Donald A. Hagner Fuller Theological Seminary Theological Seminary Donald A. Carson Trinity Evangelical Divinity School

Bruce K. Waltke Knox Theological Seminary

The Abyss in Revelation A View from Below

Edward Gudeman

Eisenbrauns   |  University Park, Pennsylvania

Library of Congress Cataloging-​in-​Publication Data Names: Gudeman, Edward, 1965– author. Title: The abyss in Revelation : a view from below / Edward Gudeman. Other titles: Bulletin for biblical research supplements. Description: University Park, Pennsylvania : Eisenbrauns, [2021] | Series: Bulletin for Biblical research supplements | Includes bibliographical references and indexes. Summary: “Examines how the gospel of John draws on a number of Jewish and Greco-​Roman traditions for the conception of the abyss and sea in Revelation, and how this background plays a key role in how the abyss functions in scripture”— Provided by publisher. Identifiers: LCCN 2021016481 | ISBN 9781646021338 (hardback) Subjects: LCSH: Bible. Revelation—Criticism, interpretation, etc. | Abyss. Classification: LCC bs2825.52 .g83 2021 | DDC 228​/.​06—dc23 LC record available at https://​lccn​.loc​.gov​/2021016481 Copyright © 2021 The Pennsylvania State University All rights reserved Printed in the United States of America Published by The Pennsylvania State University Press, University Park, PA 16802-1003 Eisenbrauns is an imprint of The Pennsylvania State University Press. The Pennsylvania State University Press is a member of the Association of University Presses. It is the policy of The Pennsylvania State University Press to use acid-​free paper. Publications on uncoated stock satisfy the minimum requirements of American National Standard for Information Sciences—Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Material, ansi z39.48–1992.

To Sheryl

Contents Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix List of Abbreviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi

Chapter 1.  Introduction and Reading Strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Chapter 2.  The Background of the Abyss in the Old Testament . . . . . 13 Chapter 3.  The Abyss in Greco-​Roman, Second Temple Jewish, and New Testament Literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 Chapter 4.  The Abyss and Its Interpretive Significance in Revelation . . 58 Chapter 5.  Traditions That Have Shaped the Description and Function of the Abyss in Revelation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 Chapter 6.  Similar Concepts to the Abyss in Revelation . . . . . . . . 102 Chapter 7.  The End of the Abyss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 Chapter 8.  Revelation’s Contribution to the Understanding of Evil and God’s Response to It . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 Index of Authors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167 Index of Scripture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171

Preface How am I to explain my fascination with the abyss without sounding morbid? During the years in which I have studied the abyss, answering this question has proven to be a challenge, but not an insurmountable one. I have found that my enthusiasm can be explained in three points. First, in order to study the abyss and its rich background, one must delve deeply into the realm of figurative language. This has proven fascinating, spiritually uplifting, and practical because of the significant portions of Scripture which are written in this way. Second, I have found that the abyss is used by John to speak about evil and to speak of what God is doing and will do in response to evil. This has been a truly hope-​ producing exercise as our generation, along with the generation of John’s first audience, continually confronts the reality and ubiquity of evil in the world. Third, the study of the abyss has helped to provide a lens with which to view the book of Revelation. While it is true that the abyss is portrayed as a dark and horrible place, its darkness only serves to emphasize the brilliance of God and His works. I would like to thank Stephen Finamore for his invaluable help during the writing of this book. He not only pushed me to think deeply about the subject and the structure of the book, but he also intrigued and motivated me during many conversations as he skillfully exposed me to new areas of exploration. I would also like to thank David Mathewson, Terrance Burns, and Craig Blomberg for their interest, encouragement, and willingness to serve as conversation partners at key moments during the process of research and writing. My children, Mark, Angel and Nicole, are to be thanked for their patience with me as my attention was too often divided and as I was away from home for weeks at a time in order to gain access to books that libraries in our home city of Madrid did not offer. They have been a great source of joy to their parents as they have filled our home with humor, love, and penetrating questions. My prayer and hope is that the effort which has gone into the writing of this book will serve them as a positive model of dedication to God and His word. Finally, I would like to thank my wife Sheryl who, true to her wedding vow, has always been my biggest fan, and who has faithfully taken on a myriad of extra tasks in order to cover for me during the years of writing this book. During ix

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these years she has suffered with me through painful times, encouraged me to finish the book, and has even listened with interest as I have shared with her the allegedly uninspiring topic of the abyss. She continues to remind me in practical and helpful ways to keep embracing the living hope I’ve found in the figurative and symbolic world of John’s Apocalypse. This has truly been a joint venture between us and it is to her that I lovingly dedicate this work.

ABBREVIATIONS

1 En. 2 En. AB ABD AUSS BECNT CBQ COS EvQ JBL JSNTSup JSP Jub LAE LNTS LXX NIGTC NovT NTS OTP PGM RSV Sib. Or. SPCK SVTP

1 Enoch 2 Enoch Anchor Bible Freedman, David Noel, ed. Anchor Bible Dictionary. 6 vols. New York: Doubleday, 1992 Andrews University Seminary Studies Baker Exegetical Commentary on the New Testament Catholic Biblical Quarterly Geerard, Maurice, ed. The Context of Scripture. 3 vols. Leiden: Brill, 1997–2002 Evangelical Quarterly Journal of Biblical Literature Journal for the Study of the New Testament Supplement Series Journal for the Study of the Pseudepigrapha Jubilees Life of Ancient Israel Library of New Testament Studies Septuagint New International Greek Testament Commentary Novum Testamentum New Testament Studies Charlesworth, James H., ed. Old Testament Pseudepigrapha. 2 vols. New York: Doubleday, 1983–85 Preisendanz, Karl, ed. Papyri Graecae Magicae: Die griechischen Zauberpapyri. 2nd ed. Stuttgart: Teubner, 1973–74 Revised Standard Version Sibylline Oracles Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge Studia in Veteris Testamenti Pseudepigrapha xi

xii

TNTC WBC WTJ

Abbreviations

Tyndale New Testament Commentaries Word Biblical Commentary Westminster Theological Journal

Chapter 1

Introduction and Reading Strategy

The abyss plays a role in the book of Revelation that is both fascinating and insufficiently researched. Although the word ἄβυσσος is used in the New Testament only two times outside of Revelation, within the book it appears seven times in four passages and is always found in close relationship with evil characters. The concept forms an important part of the universe that is presented in Revelation and it is significant that whenever evil creatures rise up from the abyss, they are described as attacking humans. For this reason, it is likely that John’s audience would have found this concept to be of great interest and even concern. While some commentators do a notable job of describing the abyss as it appears in Revelation,1 I know of no monograph or major scholarly article that has been written before now devoted to investigating the role that the abyss plays in the book of Revelation and how it might have been understood by John’s audience. That is what I set out to do in this book. John2 writes at times from the perspective of the heavens and at times from the perspective of the earth. Although nowhere in John’s Apocalypse3 is it apparent that he is writing from the perspective of the abyss, it is evident that the underworld plays an important role in the visions that he communicates to his audience. By focusing on the abyss, this work will, as it were, view Revelation 1.  For instance, Charles, Critical and Exegetical Commentary; Aune, Revelation 6–16; Beale, Book of Revelation. 2.  The author is identified in the first verse as John and I will use that name in referring to him throughout this work. John does not identify himself as an apostle nor as an elder, but two common theories for his identity are that he is the apostle of Jesus described in the Gospels, or he is an elder mentioned by Papias (according to Eusebius) and of whom very little is known. John does describe himself as a prophet in this book, which could fit with either of the theories just mentioned or could mean that he was a prophet who was neither the apostle nor the elder. Although there are assumptions about him that I explain and defend in other parts of this introduction, I don’t believe it is necessary, for the purposes of this book, to enter into the debate over the identity of this particular person. 3.  I use both “Revelation” as well as “John’s Apocalypse” to refer to this book. The terms are used interchangeably.

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The Abyss in Revelation

from below in an attempt to see what new insights this perspective might lend to the reader. It will be demonstrated that John carefully crafts his description of the abyss and its inhabitants in such a way that they play a key role in the development of his message. This message has a great deal to say about evil creatures, that is, those that oppose God as He is revealed in this book, and it has a great deal to say about how God does and will respond to evil in the future.

Reading Strategy In the study that follows, various strategies will be employed and assumptions will be made. It will be useful at this point to state what these are and to give a rationale for them. Prophecy, Epistle, and Apocalypse I agree with the majority of commentators who find that the book of Revelation has characteristics of a prophecy, a circular letter, and an apocalypse. All three of these are taken into account as this study develops. The prophetic aspects demonstrate that John expected his message to be heard, believed, and obeyed because it came ultimately from God (Rev 1:1–3; 22:7, 10, 18, 19).4 This apocalypse has much in common with the writings of the Old Testament prophets. Not only does John allude to their prophecies constantly, but he also writes as if he were one of them or as if his apocalypse were the conclusion of their work.5 Bauckham, in his aptly named book, Climax of Prophecy, states convincingly that John conceived of his writings as being “equivalent to and surpassing the written works of the Old Testament prophets.”6 The epistolary aspects of Revelation give important information concerning the original audience and the social setting. For instance, Rev 2–3 contains personalized messages for the churches that shed light on the difficulties and temptations that John’s audience was facing. These seven personalized messages also give insight into the purposes of the book. They reveal what is important to Jesus and what issues must be addressed. By means of Jesus’s affirmations, admonitions, and threats, John introduces many of the book’s themes, gives clues as to 4.  Grant Osborne writes that “the value of recognizing the prophetic nature of the book underscores that John is not merely producing his own epistle . . . but is the prophetic channel of a message directly from God and Christ” (Revelation, 13). Jonathan Knight, in his discussion of the prophetic character of John’s writing, says that John’s claim to be writing prophecy and his process of interpretation imply “that John discloses the authentic meaning of what the prophets said” (Revelation, 153). 5.  Cf. Rev 22:7, 10, 18–19. 6.  Bauckham, Climax of Prophecy, 89. See also pp. 29–30 in the same book.

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his purpose in writing, and aids the reader in the interpretation of symbols and imagery in other parts of the work.7 The epistolary aspects also help the reader or listener to understand the pastoral purposes that John had in writing the book. Finally, the apocalyptic aspects raise expectations that the author is attempting to reveal a transcendent, otherworldly reality8 and that symbolism will play an important role in the communication of the message. Apocalypses normally arise from a context of crisis or perceived crisis. In the case of perceived crises, the readers actually discover that the crisis exists by means of reading the apocalypse itself in which the author attempts to portray reality from a certain perspective.9 The apocalypse discloses a transcendent reality in which the problem can be emphasized by the author and clearly seen by the reader.10 Regardless of whether John’s audience was suffering under overt persecution from Rome or not, John tries to impress on them the critical nature of their situation that is caused by the pressure and the temptation to conform to the idolatrous practices of their neighbors. The apocalyptic aspects of the book allow the audience to sense the seriousness of the crisis that John felt was very real. The Assumed Audience As stated above, the purpose of this book is to understand how the abyss and related concepts function in John’s Apocalypse. More specifically, this work demonstrates how John’s audience would have likely understood and received what was communicated by means of these concepts. Because of this, the focus will normally be on how John’s readers would have understood the text rather than on what John meant. Garrow has helpfully outlined three aspects of context that he considers as he attempts to arrive at the assumed reader’s understanding of the text of Revelation.11 These aspects will be considered and examined in this work as well. Co-​text The first aspect is the co-​text that refers to the literary context in which the specific passage is found. In this work I consider the co-​text in a variety of ways. For instance, the different abyss passages are compared and contrasted throughout the book and the immediate literary context of each of these passages is 7.  See Beale, Book of Revelation, 227, 223–24. Beale asserts that the seven messages are “the literary microcosm of the entire book’s macrocosmic structure.” 8.  Collins, “Towards the Morphology of a Genre,” 9. 9.  Thompson, Book of Revelation, 28. 10.  See Collins, Crisis and Catharsis, 32. 11.  Garrow, Revelation, 1–4.

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mined for insights. Also, the co-​text will be studied intently, for example, in Chapter 6 which identifies and evaluates other concepts in Revelation that are used in similar ways to the abyss. Theater of Reception The second aspect of context is the theater of reception, which refers to the situation in which the audience was most likely to have heard the text. In the case of Revelation, it is very likely that the audience listened to the text as it was read to them (Rev 1:3) in the setting of a gathered congregation (Rev 1:11; 2:1–3:22).12 Although not as certain as the point just mentioned, it is likely that John was part of a prophetic community to which he entrusted this text. The Christian prophets are mentioned in many passages including Rev 11:18; 16:6; 18:20, 24; 22:6, 9.13 The idea that John probably entrusted the book to them is seen most clearly in Rev 22:16.14 In attempting to understand the significance of this dynamic, Hill, Aune, and Bauckham have argued that it is likely that the prophets would have been a great help to the congregation in understanding the many allusions and symbols in the text. Hill writes that “it is probably safe to assume that having become sharers in the knowledge of the divine revelation through John, they would mediate this to others: they would teach and relate that which they had learned.”15 Bauckham writes, “If the prophets were intended to mediate John’s prophecy to the churches, then we might expect that they would do more than read it aloud. They would also have explained and expounded it.”16 Not only would they have been well versed in the Old Testament to which the majority of allusions refer, but they probably would also have benefitted from previous meetings with John as he explained his understanding of visions that he had received.17 For these reasons, as I attempt to discern what the audience would have understood from what John says about the abyss, I will assume that the audience would have been aided by the prophets in their understanding of John’s symbols and allusions to the Old Testament and other literature. 12.  See ibid., 4, and the authors he cites. 13.  Bauckham, Climax of Prophecy, 84. 14.  David Hill writes, “In xxii. 16 the ‘you’ to whom the contents of the book are attested form a group to mediate the message to the churches, and are therefore best understood as Christian prophets in the communities” (“Prophecy and Prophets in the Revelation,” 413). D. E. Aune attempts to strengthen Hill’s position regarding 22:16 and gives a list of scholars who agree that this verse is referring to Christian prophets (“Prophetic Circle of John,” 104). It is also possible that the word “servants” in Rev 1:1 and 22:6 refers to Christian prophets as well, although this is not as certain. See Bauckham, Climax of Prophecy, 85–86. 15.  Hill, “Prophecy and Prophets in the Revelation,” 417. 16.  Bauckham, Climax of Prophecy, 86. 17.  Ibid., 89–90.

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Historical Context Garrow’s third aspect is the historical context in which the audience found itself. The assumed date for the writing of Revelation adopted in this book is that of the majority of scholars; that is, it probably was written during the reign of Domitian,18 although most of the affirmations and conclusions of my book would not be altered greatly if the date were earlier (any time after the death of Nero) or some decades later. This is because during the last half of the first century, the fundamental character of Roman imperial cosmology and eschatology was relatively stable.19 The social situation presented in John’s Apocalypse is that of a group of churches in Asia Minor that lived in a political context dominated by Rome and experienced pressure to relax their loyalty to God.20 It should be noted that most of this pressure and oppression appears to be local in origin rather than coming from Rome in a systematized persecution. Bauckham demonstrates this well in personal correspondence with Ben Witherington: On Domitian and persecution, I would say the evidence for emphasis on the emperor cult is more important than evidence of persecution. But one should remember that the impetus for the emperor cult largely did not come from the centre but spontaneously from the local elites in the cities of the east, and Revelation in fact accurately reflects that in the figure of the second beast/false prophet. Nor was persecution an initiative from the centre, but depended much on local dynamics, as is clear from Pliny (Pliny’s actions are very dependent on locals actually denouncing Christians—hence in Rev. the fury against the Jews who are in effect betraying Christians to the authorities). In other words, I would dissociate myself from the many older scholars who thought there was a widespread, centrally organized persecution under Domitian. That the historical situation doesn’t support that seems to me to concur with Revelation.21

18.  For a good review of the options and views, see Koester, Revelation, 71–79. He defends the view that the book was probably written during the final decades of the first century. Steven Friesen agrees (Imperial Cults, 150). 19.  Ibid., 151. 20.  This is expressed well in Thomas B. Slater’s article on the social setting of Revelation: “I propose a socio-​religious setting for the Revelation of John in which Asian Christians experienced local harassment, ridicule, discrimination and oppression in the early 90s for their religious beliefs and customs” (“On the Social Setting,” 254). Several years later, Slater changed his views regarding the dating of Revelation and opted instead for a date of composition in the year 69 (“Dating the Apocalypse,” 258); however, this did not change his view of what the socioreligious setting was during the writing of the book (254). 21.  Cited in Witherington, Revelation, 8.

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The Abyss in Revelation

Bauckham explores this topic in one of his books and suggests that although the universal enforcement of the mark of the beast (Rev 13:15–17) probably did not represent contemporary reality, John was probably anticipating how this pressure to conform might develop.22 It wasn’t a pressure exerted directly from imperial Rome, but rather from the second beast, the first beast’s “local propagandists.”23 Price describes local festivals in which residents were expected to perform sacrifices in front of their houses as the religious procession passed by24 and he presents evidence demonstrating that religious observance of various deities was expected to be observed by a number of members of society, not just the priests and priestesses.25 “While Domitian may not have demanded worship, or even expected it, Asian pagans themselves promoted the imperial cult and would have been adamant concerning its observance.”26 By the time of the writing of Revelation, the imperial cult had already been well established in Asia Minor for several generations and not only was serving in the imperial priesthood a source of honor, but the festivals associated with the cult were very popular.27 The pressure that John’s churches were facing was probably closely related to these civic expectations and the Christians’ lack of participation in these festivals would have been conspicuous.28 Although the greatest pressure that Christians faced was most likely placed on them by local authorities and even neighbors, Rome would still have been viewed as the indirect cause and motivator of this pressure. The desire to be recognized by Rome as neokoros29 and so to lord it over other competing cities was strong in the cities of Asia Minor.30 After briefly identifying the material that deals with the imperial cult in Revelation, Friesen concludes that “the worship of the emperors is not the only important theme in these chapters, but it is the defining activity that separates those who are condemned from those who belong to God. Imperial worship is contrasted to the worship of the creator. Imperial cults are portrayed as a deception, a blasphemous lie, one crucial aspect 22.  Bauckham, Climax of Prophecy, 447. 23.  Ibid. 24.  Price, Rituals and Power, 112. 25.  Ibid., 111–12. 26.  Slater, “On the Social Setting,” 238. See also Slater, “Dating the Apocalypse,” 254. Bruce Winter emphasizes that in promoting the imperial cult, officials in Asia Minor rather obviously were trying to curry favor with the emperor in order to gain benefits for their city or region (Divine Honors for the Caesars, 55–60). 27.  Koester, Revelation, 94. 28.  Winter, Divine Honors for the Caesars, 25–26; Bauckham, Climax of Prophecy, 447. 29.  The imperial neokoros needed to be granted by Rome and consisted in the privilege of being permitted to construct a provincial temple of the imperial cult. See Biguzzi, “Ephesus,” 55. 30.  Biguzzi describes the necessity that Ephesus felt to continually pressure the governor of the province and even the senate and emperor so that they could gain ascendancy over Pergamum and Smyrna (ibid., 282).

Introduction and Reading Strategy

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in the Roman practice of dominating and exploiting the world. As such, imperial cults are presented as a crucial aspect of demonic Roman hegemony.”31 Koester classifies the issues affecting John’s audience into three areas: conflict with outsiders, assimilation and Greco-​Roman religious practices, and complacency and wealth.32 As seen from the passages addressing the seven churches, John’s audience consisted of those who had remained faithful as well as those who had not. Whereas those who were faithful and felt threatened might have been encouraged by the promise of divine victory over the beast, those who were complacent would have felt challenged to question their perspectives and renew their commitment to God.33 It will be assumed in this work that John’s purpose was not only to encourage the faithful but to convict the complacent among the churches. Narrative Structure In keeping with a standard definition of apocalyptic,34 the assumption in this work is that the book of Revelation is a narrative that, despite its frequent recapitulations and cyclical visions, moves forward in communicating its message. Koester helpfully describes the structure of the book in the following way: “The combination of elements can best be pictured as a forward-​moving spiral, which repeatedly leads readers through scenes of threat and back to the presence of God, even as the broad storyline moves forward to the new creation. Vision cycles both overlap and progress, with individual sections tracing the movement from conflict to victory that shapes the book as a whole.”35 In this book, I investigate the roles that the abyss and related concepts play in this narrative. In addition, there is a focus on the roles of those characters that are intimately associated with the abyss and the attempt is made to describe how John’s audience would have understood the message that he communicates by means of these characters and concepts.

31.  Friesen, Imperial Cults, 147. 32.  Koester, Revelation, 96–103. 33.  Ibid., 103. Ian Paul speaks of the message of Revelation being relevant to the first readers in different ways, “depending on whether they needed comfort in the face of persecution or challenge in the light of their own complacency” (“Book of Revelation,” 146). 34.  Collins mentions the narrative framework of apocalypses in his famous definition: “An apocalypse is a genre of revelatory literature with a narrative framework, in which a revelation is mediated by an otherworldly being to a human recipient, disclosing a transcendent reality which is both temporal, insofar as it envisages eschatological salvation, and spatial insofar as it involves another, supernatural world” (“Towards the Morphology of a Genre,” 9). 35.  Koester, Revelation, 115. See also Schüssler Fiorenza, “Composition and Structure.” See especially pp. 360 and 366, where she describes the forward movement of the book.

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Contemporary Historical Criticism The reading strategy employed in this work can be described as contemporary historical in the sense that the interpretations will be informed and guided by what is known of the historical context of Christians in Asia Minor in the latter part of the first century.36 It also assumes that the author was writing for his contemporary audience37 and that he wished to aid them in gaining perspective on their current situation. D. A. deSilva writes that “One of the primary vehicles of an apocalypse’s persuasive power is its ability to set everyday realities within a broader context that provides an interpretive lens for those experiences.”38 An excellent example of this is seen in Chapter 4 as John’s audience is allowed a glimpse of God’s throne room that exudes a sense of His sovereignty and control; a needed corrective to the seeming invincibility of the Roman Empire and its hold over its subjects. The interpretive lens also functions well in chs. 19–22 as the rider defeats the beasts, the dragon is incarcerated, and the new Jerusalem descends to earth. The message that God will be victorious in the end is evident in the book but runs counter to the pessimism that John’s audience might have developed as a result of the apparent victory of Satan and evil in their everyday experience.39 But what part does the abyss play in providing a lens for everyday experiences? How would John’s audience have understood and been helped by his writing concerning the abyss and the evil creatures who emerge from it? As these questions are answered, the assumption that John was attempting to instruct, encourage, and admonish the seven churches will provide a control for the interpretive process.40 The Role of the Old Testament and Other Literature As evidenced throughout Revelation, the author knew the Old Testament well and alluded to it and other Jewish literature a great deal.41 Because of the importance of this background material and the value of understanding the antecedents 36.  See deSilva, Seeing Things John’s Way, 6–14; Wainwright, Mysterious Apocalypse, 125–36; Charles, Studies in the Apocalypse, 4–6. 37.  That is, to seven named churches in Asia Minor in the second half of the first century. Although a few authors date the book to the second century, the vast majority locate it in the first. 38.  DeSilva, “Fourth Ezra,” 124. 39.  See Rev 2:6, 9–10, 13–15, 20, 24; 3:9, 17–18. 40.  This point will be explored later in this chapter. 41.  For an excellent summary of a debate regarding the way that John uses the Old Testament, see Paulien, “Dreading the Whirlwind.” See also the works by Moyise and Beale that he cites, especially Beale, John’s Use; Moyise, Old Testament. See also Moyise, “Authorial Intention”; Beale, “Response to Jon Paulien,” 27–34. Moyise wrote a longer article regarding this subject the following year (“Does the Author of Revelation Misappropriate?”).

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of the abyss, two chapters will be devoted to a survey of the use of the abyss and related concepts in the Old Testament, Greco-​Roman literature, Second Temple Jewish literature, and the New Testament. As information is compiled regarding the way that authors before, and contemporary with, John wrote about these concepts, it will become easier to understand how John and his audience understood what the abyss normally meant and how it was used. It must be kept in view however, that John demonstrates repeatedly in this work that he felt free to use traditions creatively in the service of the message that he wanted to communicate. Conformity to Early Christian Teaching Though some source-critical theories imagine that there were various stages of development in the text of Revelation that now appears in the New Testament,42 in this study I focus on the final form of the text. This final form is Christian in that it exhibits a high Christology (Rev 5:8–13),43 appears to speak of Christ’s death and resurrection (5:5–6, 9, 12; 7:9, 14, 17; 13:8; 17:14; 22:3), and assumes his ascension (12:5; 19:11) and his parousia (3:11; 19:11–16; 22:7, 12, 20). In these ways it demonstrates consistency with early apostolic proclamation as seen in passages such as Rom 1:1–4, 1 Cor 15:1–4, and Phil 2:5–11. On this evidence is based the assumption that John’s message was consistent with early Christian teaching regarding Jesus’s identity, ministry, death, resurrection, and ascension. This then will serve as a control for the interpretations in this work; that is, that the interpretation of symbols in John’s Apocalypse will not fall outside of what is commonly understood about early apostolic teaching regarding God and Christ. The Interpretation of Figurative Texts The genre that an author chooses serves in some respects as instructions of how he or she wishes the audience to read the text. Legal texts, whether modern or ancient, have the characteristic of using language that is exact and precise. The author of a legal text normally wants to reduce the possible interpretations of that which is written. Poetry, on the other hand, is characterized by a type of writing that is figurative and symbolic and therefore lends itself to a variety of interpretations. In this respect, most if not all of the texts examined in this book are closer to poetry than to legal texts because they are characterized by 42.  For an overview of the subject, see Aune, Revelation 1–5, cv–cxxxiv. See pp. cxx–cxxxiv for an explanation of his theory regarding the proposed “first edition” and “second edition.” 43.  See Bauckham, Climax of Prophecy, 118–49, esp. 118–20, 136–40, 148–49.

10

The Abyss in Revelation

figurative language. In examining these passages, care will be taken to interpret them in ways that are consistent with widely recognized characteristics of their genre. For instance, parallelism in Hebrew poetry is often helpful in ascertaining the sense of words because a reader can compare one word that is not understood clearly with a more easily understood word used in a parallel line. This will prove to be important in understanding the sense of the abyss, sea, and the dragon in poetical and prophetic Old Testament texts. The understanding that one has of the literary genre of Revelation greatly affects one’s interpretation of this work. Especially significant are issues of narrative framework, symbolic language, and the genre elements of prophecy, epistle, and apocalyptic that are discussed in this introduction. In describing the interpretation of the specific genre of John’s Apocalypse, Beale argues convincingly from an exegesis of Rev 1:1 that the most natural way to interpret this book is with a nonliteral interpretive method.44 Although some readers feel compelled to interpret in a literal fashion unless there are strong indications that it should be interpreted figuratively, Beale rightly says that for the book of Revelation, this rule should be turned on its head.45 Numbers too should normally be understood to be symbolic and to carry connotations that extend beyond the simple numerical value.46 The Symbolic and Polyvalent Nature of John’s Language In considering the process of interpreting John’s many symbols, it is helpful to consider the clues that he gave in the book itself. For instance, he says through the mouth of Jesus that the seven stars are the angels of the seven churches and the seven lampstands are the seven churches (Rev 1:20). This provides solid evidence that the readers are expected to decode the visions and symbols contained in this apocalypse. If this were the only clue, the reader could feel justified in assuming that there is always a simple one-​to-​one correspondence between the visionary elements and the literal things that they symbolize. However, the polyvalent nature of John’s Apocalypse is evident in that there exist many examples of symbols that refer to several different things even in the same context. Chapter 17 says that the seven heads of the beast are seven mountains (17:9) and are also seven kings (17:10). Adding to the complexity of the interpretation is that the seven mountains appear to most commentators to be an obvious allusion to Rome, which was said to sit on seven hills. Even more complexity is

44.  Beale, Book of Revelation, 53. 45.  Ibid. 46.  See Resseguie, Revelation Unsealed, 10–12; Bauckham, Climax of Prophecy, 29–37.

Introduction and Reading Strategy

11

added by means of the number seven, which is generally understood to represent completeness. A closely related characteristic of John’s writing is that symbols often allude to two or more passages of the Old Testament or other earlier works. For instance, the four creatures around the throne (Rev 4:6–8) are described in ways that allude to both the seraphim of Isa 647 as well as the four cherubim supporting the chariot of God in Ezek 1 and 10.48 The fact that John’s symbols are not only polyvalent but also allude to multiple Old Testament passages gives them potential to powerfully create in the reader or hearer of Revelation new understandings of God, evil, and the reality of military and religious power. As I attempt to comprehend what John’s audience would have understood, especially with regard to the abyss and related concepts, I will assume that John intended that his audience would understand that he was using figurative language and symbols and that they would have attempted to interpret this language and these symbols. Their interpretations would be based on the clues provided by the author, the shared understanding of the social and political context,49 the knowledge that some of them possessed of the Old Testament and other relevant literature,50 and the help of the prophets as explained above. The Visions of John The content of the book of Revelation is presented as the recording of a vision that he received on the island of Patmos. While it is reasonable to accept that a vision or multiple visions are the basis for this book, the symbolism presented throughout is so intricate, the allusions to the Old Testament are so carefully described, and the structure is so complex that one is led naturally to the conclusion that a great deal of thought went into the presentation of this apocalypse.51 Bauckham’s reconstruction of the creation of this work is plausible and appears 47.  They have six wings and sing “Holy, holy, holy is the Lord God Almighty.” 48.  They resemble a lion, ox, man, and flying eagle. They are filled with eyes. 49.  Beale commented in 1999 that “Though the OT, Judaism, NT, and immediate context of the Apocalypse provide the primary background for its imagery, much work remains to be done on surveying the various sources of the Greco-​Roman world to broaden the multiple ideas associated with many of the images in the Apocalypse” (Book of Revelation, 58). Scholars continue to accomplish this work and many of their insights will be reflected in this study. 50.  Examples of relevant literature will be discussed in Chapters 2 and 3. Part of the relevant literature consisted of texts that are defined today as apocalyptic. If these works, such as Daniel and some of the Enochic texts were known to John’s audience, they would have provided examples and precedents that would have helped to guide John’s audience in the interpretation of John’s Apocalypse. See Collins, “Towards the Morphology of a Genre,” 5–10. 51.  Bauckham argues that John’s statement that he was ἐν πνεύματι “must certainly be taken as indicating that real visionary experience underlies the Apocalypse but should not be taken to mean that the book is a simple transcript of that experience, as someone might recount their dreams

12

The Abyss in Revelation

likely. He suggests that John composed the book of Revelation on the island of Patmos where he could produce a work much more elaborate and definitive than a simple verbal recounting of a vision. Bauckham adds that John incorporated revelations that he had received over a long prophetic ministry and combined them to create a unified whole.52

Conclusion Although the abyss might appear to some people to be an obscure topic with little importance, this book will show that its use in Revelation has profound implications for John’s message regarding evil and God’s response to it. In order to understand the many facets of John’s presentation, however, it is vital to understand the situation of John’s audience, the characteristics of John’s writing, and the background to the concept. Having examined the first two of these issues, I will now explore the background to the abyss as seen in the Old Testament and other literature.

on a psychiatrist’s couch” (Climax of Prophecy, 158–59). Ian Paul speaks of “a text that has been composed with extreme care over some time” (Revelation, 24). 52.  Bauckham, Climax of Prophecy, 89.

Chapter 2

The Background of the Abyss in the Old Testament

It is widely recognized that the book of Revelation is filled with allusions to the Old Testament. 1 Well over half of the verses in John’s Apocalypse contain some allusion or echo of Old Testament phrases. As explained in the introduction, I take the theater of reception of John’s Apocalypse into account as I discuss how the original readers might have understood this book. John expected that his work would be read in the context of Christian gatherings. In this setting, there would have been people present who were familiar with the Jewish Scriptures and its images and who would have been in a position to see connections between the text of John’s Apocalypse and Old Testament passages to which it alluded.2 It is also possible that John instructed the messenger who read the apocalypse to John’s audience as to the relevance of the allusions.3 Seeing as there would be people present who would have been able to identify these allusions and considering that John knew this to be the case, it is justified to assume that the presence of so many allusions to the Jewish Scriptures signals that John meant for his readers to make connections between what he wrote and the Old Testament passages to which he alluded. The study of Old Testament material about the abyss and related concepts is important, then, for two reasons. First, the Old Testament was an important source for the author’s and the audience’s general, background understanding of the abyss. There were other texts and traditions that spoke of the abyss and related themes, but for Christian churches that had previously had or still had a close relationship to the synagogue,4 the Jewish 1.  Vogelgesang, Interpretation of Ezekiel; Paulien, Decoding Revelation’s Trumpets; Bauckham, Climax of Prophecy; Fekkes, Isaiah and Prophetic Traditions; Moyise, Old Testament; Beale, John’s Use; Beale, Book of Revelation; Mathewson, New Heaven; Beale and McDonough, “Revelation,” 1081–88. 2.  See Bauckham, Climax of Prophecy, 30, 83–89; Beale, Book of Revelation, 82–83; Aune, “Prophetic Circle,” 107–8, 111. 3.  See the section “The Assumed Audience” in Chapter 1, which explains the possible role of the Christian prophets. 4.  Cf. Rev 2:9; 3:7–9.

13

14

The Abyss in Revelation

Scriptures certainly would have been an important source of information. The study of this theme in the Old Testament, then, provides insight into what John’s audience would have already understood about the abyss as they listened to the reading of John’s text. Second, assuming that the audience thought the allusions to the Old Testament were significant, they, or those who helped them interpret the apocalypse, would have looked to the appropriate Old Testament texts for insight as they attempted to interpret those passages in Revelation that spoke of the abyss and related themes. The work of identifying and comprehending these Old Testament passages provides important insights into the understanding of how John’s audience would have made sense of what John wrote.

A Hebrew Conception of the Universe One conception of the universe that appears frequently in the Old Testament can be described as a three-​tiered universe consisting of the heavens (‫)שָ ׁמַ יִ ם‬, the earth (‫)אֶ ֶרץ‬, and the underworld. According to Ryan, “a triple-​decker universe template (single heaven, disc-​earth, subterranean waters) constituted the “default setting” of ANE [ancient Near Eastern] and Greek cosmological thought from the second millennium bce until at least the 4th/3rd centuries bce, with diverse local variations of this cognitive map evidenced in Hebrew writings of the Persian/Hellenistic eras.”5 Although the first two tiers have a specific Hebrew word that regularly denotes the concept, the idea of the underworld is more elusive because it is described in multiple ways. In some passages the sea or waters are envisioned as the third tier of the universe6 and refer to waters underneath the earth (Exod 20:4; Deut 5:8; Prov 8:27–29).7 In other passages, Sheol (Job 11:8; Amos 9:2)8 or the pit (‫( )ּבֹור‬Isa 14:15; 38:18) forms the lowest part of the universe and is sometimes contrasted with heaven, which is the highest. This three-​tiered conception is similar in form to cosmologies of other ancient Near Eastern peoples and they, like Israel, were not always consistent in their descriptions of the universe.9

5.  Ryan, Hearing, 40–41. See Wright, Early History of Heaven, 117. 6.  In other passages the sea is listed as the third term even though, in these passages, it should probably be understood as part of the earth (Neh 9:6; Ps 146:6; Jonah 1:9) and thus belonging to the second tier. See Stadelmann, Hebrew Conception of the World, 3, 154. 7.  Ibid., 9; Aune, Revelation 1–5, 565. 8.  Johnston, Shades of Sheol, 73. 9.  Tsumura, Earth and the Waters, 72–77.

The Background of the Abyss in the Old Testament

15

In the creation of the heavens as recorded in Gen 1, God separated the waters above from the waters below by means of placing a ‫ ָרקִ י ַע‬in between them (Gen 1:6). This Hebrew word is understood by some to be firm, as the English word “firmament” implies, and is the structure upon which heaven rested.10 This interpretation is supported by uses of the word in other Old Testament passages (Ezek 1:22–23, 25–26; 10:1) as well as the fact that the verb form refers to the beating out of something, such as metal (Exod 39:3; Isa 40:19).11 A contrasting interpretation is that the word refers to the space in between the heavens and the earth that provides the place where humans can live. This interpretation is reflected in many English versions by the use of the word “expanse.” Walton argues that ‫ ָרקִ י ַע‬refers to this expanse and that the firm ceiling of the earth on which the celestial sea rests is expressed by the ‫( ְשׁחָ קִ ים‬2 Sam 22:12; Job 37:21; Prov 8:28).12 What seems clear is that whether by means of the word ‫ ָרקִ י ַע‬or the word ‫שׁחָ קִ ים‬, ְ Israel shared the common ancient understanding that there was a solid sky.13 The celestial sea was understood to rest upon this solid sky (Gen 7:11; 8:2; Ps 148:4) and the pillars of God’s mansion were established on these waters (Ps 104:3). It is probable that many believed that the heavens were held up by the mountains near the ends of the earth.14 The second tier of the universe, described as the earth, was the place where humans and animals lived. On the third day of creation God gathered the waters below the firmament into one place so that dry land would appear. The waters had previously covered all the surface of the earth (Gen 1:2; Ps 104:6–9) but in this act of creation, God brought the land out of the water and He established the boundaries of the sea (Job 38:8–11; Ps 104:6–9; Prov 8:29). The conception that is visualized in these passages is that of water surrounding the earth. This corresponds to the Babylonian conception of a cosmic ocean encircling the continental portion of the earth.15 There are two major ways to express the third tier. On the one hand, it is the realm of the dead and it is located below the surface of the earth.16 On the 10.  Lucas, “Cosmology,” 138. See also Seely, “Firmament and the Water Above Part 1”; Seely, “Firmament and the Water Above Part 2.” 11.  Stadelmann, Hebrew Conception of the World, 180. See also Reyburn and Fry, Handbook on Genesis, 36. 12.  Walton, Genesis 1 as Ancient Cosmology, 155–61. 13.  “From these structural observations, I propose that šĕḥāqîm pertains to the solid sky, a common component of ancient Near Eastern cosmology. It is commonly accepted that the Israelites also believed in a solid sky, but usually scholars identify this solid sky with the rāqīʿa” (ibid., 157). See Wright, Early History of Heaven, 56–57; Reyburn and Fry, Handbook on Genesis, 36. 14.  Clines, Job 21–37, 638. 15.  Horowitz, Mesopotamian Cosmic Geography, 325. 16.  See Theodore Lewis for information on the abode of the dead (“Abode of the Dead”).

16

The Abyss in Revelation

other hand, it consists of water into which the pillars supporting the earth go down and on which the earth rests (1 Sam 2:8; Job 9:6; 38:4–6; Pss 24:2; 75:3; 104:5–9; 136:6).17 In describing this watery third tier, Dahood writes that “the pillars upon which the earth rests have been sunk into the subterranean ocean,”18 and Tromp states that “the oriental world has a cellar with a pronounced oceanic character.”19 It would appear, then, that a common ancient Hebrew conception was that the earth was established on a cosmic sea and that this sea was the source of the water on the earth that was found in springs, lakes, and rivers.20 Some of the verses that suggest this understanding are Exod 20:4; Deut 5:8; and especially Gen 49:25 which refers to the rain and the springs of water by speaking of God blessing with “blessings of heaven above” and the “blessings of the deep that couches beneath.”21 These topics will receive more attention in the following sections.

Use of the Abyss in the Old Testament The word ἄβυσσος appears with some frequency in the LXX that provides the opportunity to observe how it was used in the translation of the Old Testament. Of the more than 34 times that it was employed, the vast majority are for the purpose of translating the Hebrew word ‫ּתהֹום‬. ְ 22 The close correspondence between the Hebrew word and the Greek word is evidenced throughout the Old Testament and because of this the analysis in this section focuses on the use of ‫ ְּתהֹום‬in the Hebrew Bible. In the next section the uses of the word “abyss” are listed and grouped according to their probable meanings judging by the context.

17.  Mealy, After the Thousand Years, 210. See Stadelmann, who writes that “the underworld . . . is constituted by the abode of the dead (or netherworld) and the subterranean ocean, in which the earth’s pillars are sunk” (Hebrew Conception of the Word, 166). See also Ryan, who writes, “the close spatial connection between the subterranean deep and an underworld abode of the shades in Hades creates cosmological associations . . . between these two realms, such that Sheol is frequently described as a watery abyss, beneath the terrestrial realm” (Hearing, 86–87). 18.  Dahood, Psalms 1–50, 151. 19.  Tromp, Primitive Conceptions of Death, 131. 20.  Alster, “Tiamat,” 1634. Ryan acknowledges that while the second tier has a component that is the sea that surrounds the land, this “terrestrial surface water has various shades of meaning, such that it is often indistinguishable from the chaos waters under the earth otherwise referred to as ἡ ἄβυσσος” (Hearing, 61). 21.  All scripture references are taken from the RSV unless otherwise noted. 22. Exceptions are noted in the footnotes. These exceptions, though rare, include the appearance of ‫ ְּתהֹום‬in the Hebrew Bible when ἄβυσσος is not used to translate it, and the use of ἄβυσσος in the LXX to translate a Hebrew word other than ‫ּתהֹום‬. ְ

The Background of the Abyss in the Old Testament

17

Categorization of the Use of the Abyss in the Old Testament 1. The Primordial Ocean  Genesis 1:223   Psalm 33:7 (LXX 32:7)   Psalm 104:6 (LXX 103:6)   Proverbs 3:20  Proverbs 8:24, 2724 2. The Depths of the Sea25  Job 28:14  Job 38:16  Job 38:30  Job 41:3126 (LXX 41:23, 24)  Psalm 36:627 (LXX 35:7)   Psalm 42:7 (LXX 41:8)   Psalm 107:26 (LXX 106:26)   Psalm 135:6 (LXX 134:6)   Psalm 148:7   Ezekiel 26:19   Jonah 2:5 (LXX 2:6)   Habakkuk 3:10

23. Many have conceived of ‫ ְּתהֹום‬in Gen 1:2 as having been derived from the name Tiamat in the Enuma Elish. Wakeman, God’s Battle, 86; Anderson, Creation Versus Chaos, 39–40; Gunkel, Creation and Chaos, 78–84. Tsumura, however, has argued convincingly that this is not the case, but rather, both words were most likely reflections of the Semitic term tihām (Earth and the Waters, 52). See also Hasel, “Significance of the Cosmology,” 4–7; Vail, Creation and Chaos Talk, 132. What emerges from Gen 1:2 is that during the creation process there is no conflict described between God and the waters as there is in the Enuma Elish. There is no mention of a rival as God divides the ‫ ְּתהֹום‬into the waters above and the waters below on day two of creation, nor on day three as He gathers the waters below into one place so that the dry land can appear. 24. Proverbs 8:27 employs ‫ ְּתהֹום‬in the Hebrew but the Septuagint translation does not carry the meaning of the abyss or even the sea. 25.  In this category are listed those uses that appear to be describing the physical sea itself or the deepest parts of the sea. This is similar to the next category, but the difference lies in the fact that in this category the emphasis is on the visible seas while the next category alludes to the water that is beneath the earth. 26. The Hebrew word is ‫מצּולָה‬. ְ 27. The meanings of Pss 36:6 (LXX 35:7) and 135:6 (LXX 134:6) are unclear. Although ‫ְּתהֹום‬ probably refers to the depths of the sea in these two verses, it could possibly refer to deep places in the earth. However, Tsumura writes that the word “deep,” used in 135:6 (LXX 134:6) in a four-​ part description of the universe, is “either synonymous or hyponymous to the seas” (Earth and the Waters, 74). Bratcher and Reyburn agree by writing that “all deeps” may be rendered “to the bottom of the seas” or “to the deepest parts of the seas” (Translator’s Handbook, 1103).

18

The Abyss in Revelation

3. The Great Body of Water under the Earth   Genesis 7:11   Genesis 8:2   Genesis 49:2528   Deuteronomy 8:7   Deuteronomy 33:13   Psalm 78:15 (LXX 77:15)  Proverbs 8:2829  Isaiah 44:2730   Ezekiel 31:4   Ezekiel 31:15   Amos 7:431 4. The Reed Sea32  Exodus 15:5, 833   Psalm 77:16 (LXX 76:17)   Psalm 106:9 (LXX 105:9)   Isaiah 51:10   Isaiah 63:13 5. The Depths of the Earth   Psalm 71:20 (LXX 70:20)34

28.  The reason Gen 49:25, Deut 8:7, and Ezek 31:4 have been placed in this category is because these verses speak of water that comes up through the earth by means of springs and rivers. See Ouro, “Earth of Genesis 1:2,” 154. A common conception of the abyss was that it consisted of waters that lay beneath the land and that this water came up through the earth to supply the lakes, rivers, and springs. See Ryan, Hearing, 86; May, “Some Cosmic Connotations,” 19. 29. In Hebrew, the phrase is ‫( עִ ינֹות ְּתהֹום‬springs of the abyss) while the Septuagint only includes the word for springs (πηγὰς). 30. The Hebrew word is ‫צּולָה‬. 31.  Even though Amos 7:4 could refer to the depths of the ocean, it has been placed in this category of the water under the earth for several reasons. Some, such as Smith and Page, see fire as a symbol for a severe drought that, before it destroys the farmland, dries up the underground springs that supply water to the earth (Amos, Obadiah, Jonah, 131). In this case, the abyss would be functioning in the same way that it does in Gen 49:25, Deut 8:7, and Ezek 31:4. Another possibility, set forth by commentators such as Stuart, is that there is a parallel being made to Deut 32:22 (Hosea–​Jonah, 372). Since the foundations of the mountains are understood to be anchored in the water under the earth (Jonah 2:6), the insinuation of this verse could very well be the burning up of the abyss waters. This is a likely interpretation for Amos 7:4 as well. 32. In this book “Reed Sea” is used to translate ‫יָם־סּוף‬. 33. These two verses contain the word ‫ ְּתהֹום‬in Hebrew, but this word is not translated ἄβυσσος in Greek. Exod 15:5 uses the word βυθὸν and 15:8 simply uses μέσῳ τῆς θαλάσσης. 34.  Job 36:16 and 41:24 have not been included because the text is uncertain in both verses.

The Background of the Abyss in the Old Testament

19

Synthesis of the Five Categories This process of analyzing the different uses of the abyss in the Old Testament demonstrates that all of the uses have much in common with each other. For instance, the primordial ocean and the depths of the sea are similar in that the primordial ocean was understood to be the body of water that had converted into the seas after God separated the water from the land on day three of creation. The only difference was that these waters no longer covered the earth because they were now held in check by Yahweh (Ps 104:7–9; Job 26:10–12; 38:11). As for the great body of water under the earth, it was probably understood by some to be contained in the earth itself in a great ocean that was trapped in a type of vault beneath the surface of the land. Most of the verses in this section can be understood in this way. However, another way to envision the waters under the earth is that they were beneath the entire earth as opposed to being enclosed in a vault beneath the surface of the earth. Psalms 24:1–2 and 136:6, although not mentioning ‫ּתהֹום‬, ְ describe the earth as floating35 or being established above the great waters of the sea. In this way, the primordial sea, the oceans, and the water that is below the earth all refer to the same basic concept. Walton affirms this by writing that “the cosmic sea (which encircled the land), the waters beneath the earth, and waters above were not considered separate and distinct bodies of water.”36 Added to this are the waters that fill the rivers and springs such as is described in Deut 8:7 and Ezek 31:4. Since the abyss under the earth was understood to supply this water, this system can be characterized as forming part of the abyss as well. Finally, the six uses of ‫ ְּתהֹום‬in reference to the dividing of the Reed Sea also fit well into this common conception of the abyss. This is because, even when the Reed Sea is presented with mythical connotations,37 it still retains its sense of being water that forms part of the sea. Connotations of Death Although in a few occasions the abyss was presented in a positive or neutral light,38 in general it came to be viewed quite negatively because of the connotations that were associated with it. For instance, some of the uses of abyss in the Old Testament show similarities with the place of the dead. Although most of the examples in the Old Testament do not carry this connotation, a significant 35.  Clines writes, “The general Near Eastern conception was of the earth as a disk floating on an ocean” (Job 21–37, 637). See also DeClaissé-​Walford, Jacobson, and Tanner, Book of Psalms, 249. 36.  Walton, Ancient Near Eastern Thought, 176. 37.  See the following section. 38.  See Gen 49:25, Deut 8:7, and Ezek 31:4.

20

The Abyss in Revelation

minority do. Psalm 71:20 (LXX 70:20), which uses the expression “abyss of the earth,”39 refers to God’s act of saving a person who has sunk down or is sinking down to the netherworld because he/she is almost dead or is in a calamitous situation.40 Martin-​Achard states that “la terre est en effet entouré d’eaux malfaisantes qui essaient de la submerger et, à certains égards, le monde des ombres ne fait qu’un avec l’abîme sur lequel elle repose.”41 In this statement he is describing both the location of the abyss (down below the world of the shades) as well as its connotations (it is one with the world of the shades). Tromp points out that in the Egyptian Book of Gates, the dead are called drowned ones,42 and he says that Sheol is partially identical with the primeval ocean43 which is ‫ּתהֹום‬. ְ He understands the relationship to be that the ocean, like the desert, is part of death’s province,44 but that Sheol is the complete reign of death from which no one returns and is located deep in the earth.45 Jonah 2:5 uses language that is common in descriptions of the netherworld.46 The passage describes not just Jonah’s rescue from serious risk but also his deliverance from death and the grave itself. In this context of describing the place of death to which Jonah had arrived, the writer says that the abyss surrounded him. This demonstrates the close relationship that many ancients felt to exist between the abyss and the place of the dead.47 Psalm 107:26 is found in the context of a passage in which God is described as merciful to those who call upon him in extreme, life-​threatening situations. Here a great storm at sea is described and those on board a ship despair of their lives and cry out to God who then delivers them. In v. 26 it says that they 39. This is the only example in the Old Testament in which the ‫ ְּתהֹום‬might refer to dry land. The point is debated and some commentators believe that even in this example, the abyss maintains its watery character. 40. Tate, Psalms 51–100, 216. According to H. J. Kraus, ‫ּומ ְּתהֹ מֹות הָ אָ ֶרץ‬ ִ in Ps 71:20 refers to the “subterranean waters of chaos through which the deceased enters Sheol” (Psalms 60–150, 73). Stadelmann seems to agree when he says that “in some instances the dead have to pass this ocean in order to reach the nether world” (Hebrew Conception of the World, 166). A. J. Wensinck writes that in Ps 71:20, ‫ ְּתהֹום‬is used to refer to death and the grave (Ocean, 44). 41.  Martin-​Achard, De la mort, 41. 42.  Tromp, Primitive Conceptions of Death, 60. 43.  Ibid., 133. 44.  Keel points out that Ps 107 calls on people who have been distressed to worship Yahweh. The psalm speaks of four regions from where they cried out: the desert, prison, sickness, and the storm-​tossed sea (Symbolism, 62). 45.  Tromp, Primitive Conceptions of Death, 133. 46.  See also Job 38:7; Pss 9:13; 69:1–2; Isa 38:10–11. 47.  Job 38:16, while not referring to the place of the dead, does lead into the topics of the gates of death and the deep darkness that appear in the next verse. Tromp describes this progression as moving “from the netherworld in the cosmological sense to its anthropological dimension (Sheol is in the depth indeed)” (Primitive Conceptions of Death, 143). Job 26:5 speaks of the dead as being those beneath the waters. Walton argues that these refer to the cosmic waters and that “one can also enter the netherworld through these waters, not just through the grave” (Job, 250).

The Background of the Abyss in the Old Testament

21

mounted up to heaven and went down to the depths (‫)ּתהֹום‬. ְ It is a graphic way of saying that the waves took them exceedingly high into the air and exceedingly deep into the sea; all the way down to the abyss. So while this term can be understood to be describing the depths to which they sank as the waves carried them up and down, it carries a similar meaning to those psalms that speak of being rescued by the Lord from Sheol or from the pit (Pss 18:5–6; 30:3; 40:2; 103:4). In other words, the mention of the abyss evokes thoughts of death. Finally, the use of ‫ ְּתהֹום‬in Exod 15:5 and 8 serves to depict the Reed Sea with connotations that are more fearsome and deadly than the mere description of a body of water would normally warrant. In 15:5, the waters cover the Egyptians and in 15:8, the waters are congealed in the middle of the sea. According to the writer, the Egyptians did not just sink to the bottom of a small sea but rather went down to the abyss, a word that not only reflected by what means they died but also captured the completeness of their devastation. The use of this term suggests that the Egyptians did not just suffer a defeat but rather faced the ultimate catastrophe.48 Lohfink affirms something similar when describing Exod 15:10. He writes, “Water no longer signifies here merely the real sea, but becomes the mythical symbol of the underworld, of death, of chaos, and of nothingness.”49 To summarize, in the Old Testament the abyss is normally conceived as the body of water that once submerged the land in primordial times but now surrounds and lies beneath the earth. It is also understood to supply the water contained in the seas, lakes, and rivers. It often carries a mythical connotation and it is often used in extreme contexts. For instance, it can refer to the lowest parts of the sea and can serve as the opposite of the heavens in the sense that whereas the heavens are the highest place, the abyss is the lowest. This extreme nature is also seen in several verses in which the abyss is used to denote the place of the dead.

The Sea and the Abyss The watery character of the abyss seen in the last sections leads naturally to the question of the relationship between the abyss and the sea. Moo50 writes that “the ‘sea’ and the ‘abyss’ were somewhat interchangeable concepts in the Old 48.  Philippe Reymond writes, regarding this passage, “Une bataille perdue est certes chose grave, mais une défaite dans les abîmes, c’était une annihilation, une mort plus totale que celle que donne l’épée” (Eau, 184). 49.  Lohfink, Christian Meaning, 77. For more on the mythical aspects of the sea, see also Kaiser, Die Mythische Bedeutung. 50.  Moo, Epistle to the Romans, 655.

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The Abyss in Revelation

Testament and in Judaism,” but this statement needs to be qualified. As seen above, in certain instances the abyss refers to the deepest parts of the sea and so forms one part of the sea. In other passages it is used in parallel to the sea and thus has a similar usage. Looking at the abyss in all of its facets, though, one can also argue that at times the sea forms one part of the abyss. This is seen in the fact that the abyss can be understood as the entire body of water that encompasses the visible seas, the water under the earth, and the water that bubbles up from below the earth to supply the rivers and springs. Therefore, it is best to refer to the abyss and the sea in the Old Testament as sharing a great deal of semantic range and that in some instances, they are used almost interchangeably, as Moo points out above. The following study of the sea and its relationship to the abyss is organized around two traditions that, as I will argue in Chapter 5, John used in his description of the abyss in Revelation. The first is the dragon that lives in the sea. The subject of the dragon and his conflict with God will be explored because it is extremely significant for this study that a dragon appears as an enemy of God in both the Old Testament and Revelation. The abode of this dragon will also be examined as this has an important correlation with the abyss in Revelation. The second tradition to be examined is God’s restraint of the waters that threaten to overwhelm the earth.51 In both sections, representative texts are examined and additional texts are identified in the footnotes. The Dragon That Lives in the Sea Scholars have long recognized the use that biblical writers make of mythological elements from other religions and cultures. Of all these, the dragon that lives in the sea is one of the most pervasive.52 Elements of this combat myth are used in the Old Testament to extol God’s power, especially with regard to the control that Yahweh exercises over the sea and over His enemies. Of importance is not only the nature of the dragon and his relationship to God but also the place where he lives. In this section I examine the dragon as to his relationship to ancient Near Eastern traditions, the conflict between him and God, the personification of enemy nations as monsters, and the dragon’s abode in the sea.

51.  A third tradition will be examined in the next chapter. 52.  Day, God’s Conflict, 188. For descriptions of this combat myth as it appears in literature from various cultures, see Wakeman, God’s Battle; Walton, Ancient Near Eastern Thought; Fontenrose, Python; Cohn, Cosmos.

The Background of the Abyss in the Old Testament

23

Relationship to Ancient Near Eastern Works Two ancient Near Eastern myths that show similarity to the Bible’s description of God’s conflict with the dragon are the Enuma Elish and the Baal cycle of myths. The Enuma Elish, a Babylonian retelling of even more ancient myths,53 explains how Marduk came to be the head of the Babylonian pantheon. Of particular interest to this study is that Marduk defeats Tiamat who is a monster that symbolizes the primordial sea. Marduk slices her open and with one half of the body he creates the heavens and with the other half he creates the earth.54 He split her in two, like a fish for drying, Half of her he set up and made as a cover, heaven. He stretched out the hide and assigned watchmen, (140) And ordered them not to let her waters escape. He crossed heaven and inspected (its) firmament, He made a counterpart to Apsu, the dwelling of Nudimmud. The Lord measured the construction of Apsu, He founded the Great Sanctuary, the likeness of Esharra. (In) the Great Sanctuary, (in) Esharra, which he built, (and in) heaven, He made Ea, Enlil, and Anu dwell in their holy places.55 As for the Ugaritic myths that concern Baal, he also has the sea as a great adversary. The opponent’s name is Yam,56 the Ugaritic word for sea,57 and in these myths the sea is personified as a monster. Baal finally defeats Yam and is celebrated for doing so.58 Two passages related to this defeat mention the destruction of a serpent.59

53.  See Ballentine, Conflict Myth, 34–35. 54.  Walton notes that the most significant similarity between this myth and the Old Testament is the separation of the waters below the earth from those above the earth (Ancient Israelite Literature, 26). 55.  “Epic of Creation,” trans. Benjamin R. Foster (COS 1.11:398–99). See also Jacobsen, “Battle Between Marduk and Tiamat.” 56.  Dennis Pardee translates the name “Yammu”; see “The Baʿlu Myth,” trans. Dennis Pardee (COS 1.86:243–74). 57.  See Tsumura, Earth and the Waters, 57. 58.  “The Baʿlu Myth,” COS 1.86:249. 59.  There is some confusion introduced into the story by the first passage. Even though the extant myths clearly show Baal as the one who killed Yam, this passage portrays Anat as taking credit for destroying Yam and the dragon. In the second passage, Baal is referred to as the one who killed the dragon Lotan. See Pope, Job, 329–30.

24

The Abyss in Revelation

I have smitten ʾIlu’s beloved, Yammu, have finished off the great god Naharu. I have bound the dragon’s jaws, have destroyed it, have smitten the twisting serpent, the close-​coiled one with seven heads.60 When you smite Lôtan, the fleeing serpent, finish off the twisting serpent, the close-​coiling one with seven heads.61 In both of these passages, a creature is mentioned that is described as a twisting serpent and a close-​coiling serpent with seven heads. In the first passage it is called a dragon and in the second it is named Lôtan.62 Because the dragon is a serpent-​like creature,63 many scholars believe that the dragon and Lôtan are the same. The name Lôtan is closely related to the biblical name Leviathan and the two creatures are described in very similar ways:64 “In that day the LORD with his hard and great and strong sword will punish Leviathan the fleeing serpent, Leviathan the twisting serpent, and he will slay the dragon that is in the sea” (Isa 27:1), and “Thou didst crush the heads of Leviathan, thou didst give him as food for the creatures of the wilderness” (Ps 74:14). Similarities between the Ugaritic and biblical accounts include the following concepts: Both Leviathan and Lôtan appear to be a dragon/serpent. They are both described as a twisting serpent. They are both described as a fleeing serpent. One has seven heads and the other has multiple heads. The dragon/serpent is destroyed in both cases. They are both described as being very closely related to the sea.65 Therefore, it is reasonable to identify both Lôtan and Leviathan as a dragon that was related to or lived in the sea. Leviathan, however, is not the only monster found in the Old Testament. Rahab and the tannin are also frequently 60.  “The Baʿlu Myth,” COS 1.86:252. 61.  Ibid., 265. 62.  Or Lītān. See Day, God’s Conflict, 5. 63.  As seen from many different sources as well as passages such as Isa 27:1 and the first Ugaritic passage mentioned above. 64.  Longman and Reid, God Is a Warrior, 77–78. 65.  See Day, Yahweh, 105–6.

The Background of the Abyss in the Old Testament

25

portrayed as monstrous creatures related closely to the sea66 and are often described as enemies of God. “Tannin” is probably used as a general term for dragon. Its infrequent appearance with the article, its use in the plural, and the fact that there is no instance in which “tannin” must be read as a proper noun are all factors that make it unlikely that it is anything other than a generic term.67 Rahab and Leviathan, on the other hand, were most likely understood to be two proper names for the same monstrous dragon. This is because they are never found in the same passage, but they are both identified with the tannin. Also, the things that God does to them in some cases are quite similar. For these and other reasons, Leviathan and Rahab can be understood as the same creature in the Old Testament. Conflict Between God and the Dragon The opposition that is seen between the hero god and the dragon in the ancient Near Eastern myths is also seen in the conflict between God and the sea dragon in the Old Testament.68 Leviathan,69 Rahab,70 and the tannin71 are all used in descriptions of God in conflict with the dragon. The nature of this battle is debated. Some see many of the examples to be referring back to the conflict between God and the dragon at creation.72 In other words, it is sometimes assumed that if a biblical passage portrays God as fighting a dragon, it most likely refers to God fighting chaos in order to bring about creation. The justification that is often given for this interpretation is that there are many ancient Near Eastern myths in which the creator god fights and defeats the chaos monster as part of the process of creation. More recent studies, however, have argued that the only clear, extant ancient Near Eastern example of a hero god creating the cosmos by means of defeating chaos is Enuma Elish, which is described above.73 66.  In the Old Testament, the sea monster is not only described as living in the sea but also at times identified with it (Job 26:12; Pss 74:13; 89:9–10). F. J. Mabie asserts that “It should be noted that the contextual proximity and interplay of these sea creatures with the oceanic deep makes it clear that they are either closely related to the image of the chaotic waters or perhaps even function as metaphorical synonyms” (“Chaos and Death,” 45). 67.  Hasel, “Polemical Nature.” Because of it being a generic term, “tannin” is not capitalized in this book. 68.  Contra Rebecca Watson, who feels there is very little in the way of conflict between God and the dragon in the Old Testament (Chaos Uncreated). 69.  Job 3:8; 41:1–34; Pss 74:13–14; 104:26; Isa 27:1 70.  Job 9:13; 26:12–13; Pss 87:4; 89:10; Isa 30:7; 51:9–10 71.  Job 7:12; Ps 74:13–14; Isa 27:1; 51:9–10; Jer 51:34; Ezek 29:3–6a; 32:2–7 72.  For example, Wakeman, God’s Battle; Anderson, Creation Versus Chaos; Gunkel, Creation and Chaos. 73.  Forsyth, Old Enemy, 90–93; Tsumura, Creation and Destruction, 190; Watson, Chaos Uncreated, 19–21; Vail, Creation and Chaos Talk, 97–99. John H. Walton can only find one other

26

The Abyss in Revelation

The Baal cycle of myths is often cited as containing this creation/conflict theme as well. However, while those conflict stories that feature Baal and Anat fighting and defeating the personified sea (Yam) and death (Mot) share important similarities with the Old Testament, Baal is not the creator god in Ugaritic mythology.74 So, while there are many myths that demonstrate conflict between a god and a chaos creature, these rarely speak specifically of the creation of the cosmos.75 As for the biblical accounts of God’s interaction with the sea and the dragon, it is incorrect to assume that most of the conflict passages refer back to creation, as mentioned above. However, it is also unlikely that Watson is correct when she asserts that nowhere is God described as being in conflict with a personified sea.76 It is more likely that several of the Old Testament conflict passages do allude to creation, while many others do not.77 In the following pages I dedicate space to demonstrating the connection between conflict and creation in the Old Testament. This is justified because of the similarity between the Old Testament’s description of this conflict and John’s vision of the new creation and the conflict between God and the dragon that precedes it in Revelation.78 The use of the dragon to illustrate God’s power and past victories is masterfully used in Ps 74:13–14. These verses appear in a context in which the enemies of the psalmist have defeated God’s people. The writer begs God to respond and to act as He did in the past. Mention is made of the awesome act of defeating the dragon79 and crushing Leviathan. There are three major possibilities as to what this past victory refers. Some argue that it refers to creation.80 Others think that it refers to the dividing of the waters during the Reed Sea crossing.81 Still others possible reference (not an actual story) to creation in the context of a battle with the sea, but he admits that even this is debatable because of disagreements regarding the translation (“Creation in Genesis 1:1–2:3,” 50–51). 74.  However, see Whitney, Two Strange Beasts, 13–15. 75.  Ballentine asserts that the reason why biblical authors speak of the conflict between Yahweh and the sea or the dragon is in order to bolster claims of His authority (Conflict Myth, 188). 76.  Watson, Chaos Uncreated, 4, 369–76. 77.  Ballentine affirms that there are some Old Testament passages that do associate Yahweh’s victories with acts of creation (Conflict Myth, 187). Kloos is helpful in this discussion (Yhwh’s Combat with the Sea, 70–86). Although she finds that the Old Testament does not show Yahweh as creating heaven and earth “as a result of his combat with the waters” (86), she does find that in some passages “the fight with the monsters too seems to have taken place at the time of creation” (84). Hess writes, “His victory over the sea, like that of Baal, is associated with his kingship and with creation” (Israelite Religions, 100). See also Whitney, Two Strange Beasts, 13–14; Walton, “Creation in Genesis 1:1–2:3,” 53–54; McCarthy, “ ‘Creation,’ ” 74–75. 78.  See the section “Captivity Versus Destruction” in Chapter 5. 79.  There is difference of opinion as to whether this noun should be rendered singular or plural. See Dahood, Psalms 51–100, 206. 80.  See ibid.; Day, God’s Conflict; Emerton, “Leviathan and Ltn”; Smith, Origins of Biblical Monotheism, 36. 81.  Smick, “Another Look,” 227.

The Background of the Abyss in the Old Testament

27

feel that it refers to both of these events,82 an interpretation that is similar to the majority interpretation of Isa 51:9–10.83 Although strong support can be found for these three options, the first option is to be preferred for three reasons. First, the context supports the idea of creation (74:15–16) while containing very little that might suggest the Reed Sea crossing. It is true that 74:13a could easily fit into an exodus context (“Thou didst divide the sea by thy might”), but there is little else to suggest that. The second reason for preferring a creation context is because the verb used in 13a that refers to what happened to the sea (‫ ) ָפ ַּרר‬is a verb that is normally rendered “crushed” or “broke.”84 It is mainly used to refer to the breaking of a covenant but sometimes used for the breaking up of the ground or the crushing of a person (Job 16:12). Tate argues that its translation as “split” (“divide” in the RSV) has been strongly influenced by the assumption that this verse refers to the Reed Sea crossing.85 If Ps 74:13 is not saying that the sea was divided, then this greatly weakens the connection to the Reed Sea. The third reason for understanding this passage to be associated with creation instead of the Reed Sea is because the psalmist uses Leviathan instead of the term Rahab.86 Rahab would have been a more obvious choice to represent the Reed Sea in this context because it is the name that clearly refers to Egypt in other contexts. The point that the psalmist makes is that Yahweh has shown His strength in the past and so He is called on to show it again. The psalmist is referring to a mythical battle in which Yahweh defeated the dragon and utterly destroyed him. Because other verses in this passage refer to creation (vv. 15–17), it is likely that the psalmist is drawing on the mythical association that existed between creation and the destruction of the chaos monster. The image of this monster is brought forward in order to emphasize the mighty acts that Yahweh has completed in the past and is perfectly capable of continuing to do in the present. This use of the dragon to reference God’s victory at creation is seen in references not only to Leviathan but to Rahab as well. In Job 26:12–13 Rahab is referenced in the midst of a list of God’s mighty acts and Clines asserts that what is presented in this passage are acts associated with creation.87 This passage is significant not only because it connects the conflict between God and the dragon to the time of creation, but also because it places Rahab in parallel to the fleeing 82.  Mays, Psalms; Goldingay, Psalms 42–89. 83.  See below for this interpretation of Isa 51:9–10. See also Isa 50:2–3 and the comments of Michael Fishbane regarding its interpretation (Text and Texture, 136–38). 84.  Oswalt, “Myth of the Dragon,” 170, 172; Tate, Psalm 51–100, 251. 85.  Tate, Psalm 51–100, 243. 86.  Rahab was said to be crushed by God in Ps 89:10. 87.  Clines, Job 21–37, 637–39. Psalm 89:9–10 is another probable reference to the destruction of the sea dragon at the time of creation.

28

The Abyss in Revelation

serpent or dragon. Since Isa 27:1 uses the same phrase to describe Leviathan, this provides evidence that Rahab and Leviathan should be equated.88 The use of Rahab is not limited to the role of the opponent of God at creation but is also used as a symbol for Egypt. In passages such as Isa 51:9–10; Ezek 29:3–6a; and 32:2–7, Rahab is understood to be both a mythical sea dragon and the nation of Egypt, or at least the ruler of Egypt. This dual reference to a mythical sea dragon and a historical enemy of Israel gives the passages a richness of expression that a simpler and more straightforward description would lack. This dual reference was used effectively to speak of the dividing of the Reed Sea in terms of the defeat of the dragon at creation. For example, Isa 51:9–10 appears at first to be speaking of the mythological dragon defeated by God in primordial times; however, when the reader arrives at 10b, which speaks of the pathway in the sea, a rather obvious allusion to the Reed Sea crossing is seen. This forces the interpreter to reread 9 and 10 and to consider the parallels that exist between the creation myths and the Reed Sea crossing.89 In both occurrences there is a drying up of the waters and in both of them Rahab is defeated. This literary reference to a parallel defeat depends on the fact that Rahab was both the name of the sea dragon as well as a symbol for Egypt (cf. Isa 30:7). Achtemeier explains the creative, salvific emphasis of this passage by speaking of the “Israelites understanding their redemption in terms of a creative act which was paralleled only by God’s original act of creation, when he overcame the primeval chaos.”90 Finally, in Job 41:1–34 there is a long description of Leviathan that is part of God’s declaration of His superiority over humans. Even if He is referring in part to the crocodile, as many commentators believe,91 there are parts of the description that go far beyond what a crocodile is or could be.92 Although this passage does not refer to creation, an important element is that God is presented as the only one who can subdue this creature. This is one of several passages in which the dragon is presented as subdued by God rather than killed by Him. The dragon is used effectively in the Old Testament as an antagonist to God. 88.  See Longman, Job, 317. 89.  Goldingay, Isaiah, 294–95. 90.  Achtemeier, “Person and Deed,” 174. Anderson shows agreement when he writes that “in a most revolutionary manner, the prophet identifies the mythical time of the conflict with the watery chaos with the historical time of the Exodus, when Yahweh prepared a way for his people through the Sea of Reeds” (“Exodus Typology,” 194). R. R. Lessing disagrees, claiming that this passage only refers to Egypt (Isaiah 40–55, 239–40). 91.  Dhorme, Commentary on the Book of Job; Gordis, Book of Job; Clines, Job 38–42. See Brian Doak’s list of resources regarding Leviathan and Behemoth in Job (Consider Leviathan, 218). 92.  Some authors who prefer a mythological interpretation of Leviathan are the following: Gunkel, Creation and Chaos; Pope, Job; Day, God’s Conflict; Tur-​Sinai, Book of Job; Caquot, “Léviathan”; Wilson, Job.

The Background of the Abyss in the Old Testament

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Whether through subduing him or destroying him, God is seen as powerful and victorious over this monster.93 Enemy Nations Personified as Monsters As demonstrated above, the defeat of Rahab was used to refer to the crossing of the Reed Sea. This practice of using the dragon as a symbol for enemy nations is seen most clearly in the use of Rahab as a symbol for Egypt but was applied to other nations as well. The use of the dragon to portray enemy nations was an effective tool because it not only painted the enemy nations with a hideous and frightening brush, but it also served to remind the readers that God was able to conquer His enemies just as He had vanquished the dragon. In Ezek 29:3–6a, the symbolic description of Pharaoh at first appears to refer to a crocodile, which is a metaphor that works nicely. The crocodile is an apt symbol for Egypt because the home of this creature is the Nile (29:3), and the creature is pulled out of the water by means of hooks placed in its jaw (29:4). However, as the metaphor continues to be developed in v. 5, it becomes apparent that, in a manner similar to Job 41, the metaphor of a crocodile will not be able to carry the weight that is placed upon it.94 In Ezek 32:2–7, a similar prophecy is given, but now the creature is found in the midst of the sea as well as in the rivers (32:2). The sea is a home that is much more appropriate for a sea monster than a crocodile. The prophecy continues by saying that the tannin will be gathered up in a net (32:3), which is a weapon95 that Marduk used in his struggle with his arch enemy Tiamat.96 The tannin will be thrown up onto land where, as a sea creature, it will be completely helpless. There it will be killed and its body will be used to feed the birds and creatures of the land. The size of the monster is 93. Another passage worth mentioning is Job 7:12, where the generic term ‫ תַ ּנִ ּין‬is used to refer to the dragon. Job complains, “Am I the sea, or a sea monster, that thou settest a guard over me?” Although there is not a clear Ugaritic description of the sea being guarded, Yam is taken captive by Baal but then most likely destroyed and scattered. “The Baʿlu Myth,” COS 1.86:249. The Enuma Elish speaks of Marduk taking captive those creatures that were loyal to Tiamat (“Epic of Creation,” COS 1.11:398). The sense of Job 7:12 seems to be that Job is complaining that God is treating him similarly to the way he treats the sea. Seow describes this by saying that “God has treated him as if he were cosmic chaos—sea monsters on whom God must keep watch” (Job 1–21, 497). 94.  The dragon here “alludes to the crocodile, but more importantly to the myth of the chaos monster” (Joyce, Ezekiel, 181). 95.  Jenson, Ezekiel, 246. 96.  With raging fire he covered his body. Then he made a net to enclose Tiamat within, He deployed the four winds that none of her might escape. Tiamat and Marduk, sage of the gods, drew close for battle, They locked in single combat, joining for the fray. The Lord spread out his net, encircled her (COS 1.11:397–98).

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The Abyss in Revelation

described in graphic terms: “I will strew your flesh upon the mountains, and fill the valleys with your carcass. I will drench the land even to the mountains with your flowing blood; and the watercourses will be full of you” (Ezek 32:5–6). It becomes clear, then, as the reading of these two prophecies progresses, that the writer is emphasizing the conflict between God and Egypt and communicating that just as the dragon myth ends in the successful vanquishing of the dragon, so the future conflict between God and Egypt will end in the successful vanquishing of this nation. Jeremiah 51 uses the symbol of a monster, if not specifically the dragon, to refer to Babylon. Verse 34 refers to the king of Babylon as a monster that had swallowed up her enemies.97 In a similar way, Bel, one of the gods of Babylon, is pictured in v. 44 as having swallowed but not yet digested Jerusalem.98 God will rescue Jerusalem from the monster’s mouth. Between these two verses the language moves easily to the sea, possibly because biblical usage of monsters, with the exception of Behemoth, normally refers to sea monsters. In 51:36 God says that He will dry up her sea and her fountains, a threat that works well for both the city of Babylon and a sea monster. Jeremiah 51:42 then communicates that God will do almost the opposite; that is, He will bring the sea over Babylon and completely engulf her. This concept brings to mind the chaos waters of the primeval ocean.99 Another example in the Old Testament of a beastly, sea-​dwelling enemy of God is found in Dan 7. In Dan 7:2, the sea is described as being stirred up by the four winds of heaven and then from it rise up four beasts. The language that is used calls to mind mythic material from Canaanite and Babylonian sources.100 The sea is in a tumult, being blown by winds from all directions. The chaos of the primeval ocean may be in view, which would allude to the forces of nature that God controls and subdues. These beasts represent enemy nations (Dan 7:12, 17, 25) and come forth from the sea to battle against God and His people. God is portrayed, however, especially in relation to the fourth beast, to be strong enough to vanquish the sea monster. The Dragon’s Abode in the Sea As mentioned above, a significant point regarding the dragon is that he is at times identified with the sea.101 The way that this identification is communicated 97.  Brueggemann, Commentary on Jeremiah, 478. 98.  Ibid., 480. See also Holladay, Jeremiah 2, 428, 430. 99.  Bright, Jeremiah, 358; Holladay, Jeremiah 2, 429. See also McKane, Critical and Exegetical Commentary on Jeremiah, 1327–31. 100.  Goldingay, Daniel, 160. See also Collins, Daniel, 283–94. 101.  In commenting on passages from Ezek 29, 30, and 32, Gunkel writes, “Thus the Ezekiel texts prove that the dragon is a mythical monster, the personification of the ‘sea’ or the ‘streams’ ”

The Background of the Abyss in the Old Testament

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is generally by means of placing the dragon and the sea in parallel with each other.102 This identification, however, does not negate the fact that the dragon is also often described as an independent figure and his dwelling is repeatedly described as the sea (Gen 1:21; Job 41:31; Pss 104:25–26; 148:7; Isa 27:1). Also, in at least one passage, the dragon is described as living in the abyss:103 “He (Leviathan) makes the deep (‫)מצּולָה‬ ְ boil like a pot; he makes the sea like a pot of ointment. Behind him he leaves a shining wake; one would think the deep (‫)ּתהֹום‬ ְ to be hoary” (Job 41:31–32). In this passage, the sea and ‫ ְּתהֹום‬appear as parallel concepts with both of them describing where the dragon is located. This is not surprising since a number of examples have already been discussed in which these two terms appear in parallel. Care must be taken at this point to remember that sea and abyss are not identical terms. The fact that the translators of the Septuagint never used the word ἄβυσσος to translate the Hebrew word ‫ יָם‬should encourage caution. However, because of the significant semantic range that is shared by the sea and the abyss, and because of specific verses that locate the dragon in the abyss, it is reasonable to say that one facet of the nature of the abyss is that it is the abode of the dragon.104 Later chapters demonstrate that in John’s Apocalypse, one of the ways that John describes the abyss is as an abode from which the enemies of God come in order to fight against God and his people (Rev 11:7; 13:1 [sea]; 17:8). God’s Restraint of the Waters That Threaten to Overwhelm the Earth Moving from the tradition of the dragon that lives in the sea, I will now explore a second tradition that will prove to be important in John’s description of the abyss. At creation, the watery abyss was present (Gen 1:2) and on day two God is described as separating the water of this abyss into the waters above and the waters below. On day three He gathered the waters below into one place so that dry land was seen in the midst of the waters. The term ἄβυσσος continued to be used in various places in the Septuagint, mainly to describe the waters that were below and that surrounded the earth.105 In the biblical account of the Great (Creation and Chaos, 47). Frank Moore Cross says that there is a “full identification between Yamm and the dragon” (Canaanite Myth, 120). 102.  “It is not clear how far a distinction can be maintained between the sea and its monsters, since they repeatedly recur in parallelism to each other” (Collins, Apocalyptic Vision, 97). 103.  Psalm 148:7 could also be taken as showing that the monster lives in the abyss. 104.  Mark Smith, in commenting on ancient Near Eastern religions, states that “deities inhabit ‘near’ places whereas ‘monsters’ or ‘demonic forces’ do not.” The abyss in its sense of being extremely distant fits well this category of being a “faraway” home of the monster Leviathan (Origins of Biblical Monotheism, 28). 105.  Gen 7:11; 8:2; Deut 8:7; 33:13; Ps 78:15 (LXX 77:15); Prov 3:20; 8:24, 28; Isa 44:27; Ezek 31:4, 15; Amos 7:4

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Flood, it is said that the springs of the abyss and the floodgates of heaven were opened (Gen 7:11; 8:2) and the water once again completely submerged the earth. After the flood, when the waters had receded and the separation between land and water was restored, God told Noah and his family that He would never again destroy the earth in this way. The significance that this promise held for Israel is evident in the many Old Testament passages that ascribe greatness and power to God because of His control over and restraint of the waters.106 Israel’s praise of God for this action manifests her belief that inundation was an ever-​present threat; a belief likely shared by most ancient people.107 As stated earlier in this chapter, a common ancient belief was that the land was completely surrounded by water.108 This means that not only was the earth surrounded on a horizontal plane, but it was also surrounded by water that was both above109 and below110 the land. The land where humans lived was often conceived of as an island that was kept out of the water by pillars111 which supported it. In this conception, there were also pillars or mountains that supported the firmament that was the structure that kept the waters above from falling and completely inundating the land.112 When one tries to imagine living with this concept of the world, it becomes clear why control of the water was of utmost importance. God is portrayed in many Old Testament passages as the one who controls the sea and does not let it overwhelm the earth.113 In a closely related concept, God is also presented as the one who has the power to bring the abyss over a certain land and destroy it. Tyre is threatened in this way in Ezek 26:19: “For thus says the Lord GOD, ‘When I shall make you a desolate city, like the cities which are not inhabited, when I shall bring up the deep over you, and the great waters will cover you.’”114 Often the control that God exercises over the waters is related to creation, such as that described by Ps 104:7–9. Whereas the writer of Gen 1 is careful to 106.  Jon Levenson writes that this “vigilance is simply a variant of God’s covenantal pledge in Genesis 9 never to flood the world again” (Creation, 17). 107.  Richard Hanson, in describing the way that ancient people (Hanson uses “man”) thought of the world, writes, “His was an enclosed world—a space in the midst of chaotic waters. As the picture portrayed in Genesis 1:6–8 and its cognates shows, the notion of waters above and beneath the earth formed the very framework of ancient cosmology” (Serpent Was Wiser, 70–71). 108.  See Walton, Ancient Near Eastern Thought, 176; Seely, “Firmament and the Water Above Part 2,” 32–34. 109.  Gen 7:11; 8:2; Pss 104:3; 148:4. 110.  Exod 20:4; Deut 5:8; Pss 24:2; 136:6. 111.  See Stadelmann, Hebrew Conception of the World, 166; Dahood, Psalms 1–50, 151. 112.  In 1 En. 83:4, 7, a dream captures the terror of the thought of the earth sinking down into the abyss. 113.  Job 9:8; 38:8–11; Pss 33:7; 93:3–4; 104:6–9; Prov 8:27–29; Jer 5:22. 114.  See Block, Book of Ezekiel, 47.

The Background of the Abyss in the Old Testament

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show no signs of conflict nor struggle between God and the sea, the psalmist does not appear to have the same concern. At thy rebuke they fled; at the sound of thy thunder they took to flight. The mountains rose, the valleys sank down to the place which thou didst appoint for them. Thou didst set a bound which they should not pass, so that they might not again cover the earth. (Ps 104:7–9) In reading v. 9, one might quickly think of the Great Flood because it mentions the water not covering the earth again. However, the context points quite clearly to the creation and the control that God showed at the beginning and that He continues to demonstrate. The waters covered the land until God made a separation. From that time on, except for the flood, Old Testament writers declare that God has maintained that separation and has not allowed the waters to return to where they were before.115 Although the fascinating poem of Hab 3:8–15 does not actually speak of God restraining the waters, it does speak to the power that He has over them. The context describes God breaking forth in a terrifying way against His enemies. Although the sea, rivers, and mountains might be personifications of evil people, it is more likely that they are personified simply to demonstrate how fear-​inspiring it was to see God in His anger. While normally the conflict between God and the sea is presented in negative terms,116 in Job 38:8–11 the sea is represented as a newborn child who is cared for and controlled by God. Vail, Balentine, and Beal all comment on how the image of a newborn in diapers speaks powerfully, not only to God’s authority over the sea but also to God’s care for His creation.117 Vail writes that “this passage sounds grace-​full and is a touching image of God’s parenting of a child—though be it a large, mighty child.”118 What this passage has in common with the preceding ones is that the sea is unruly and dangerous but God holds it in check by His great power. Because of the fear that ancient people felt toward the waters that constantly threatened to overwhelm them, these waters served as an appropriate symbol of enemy armies. Just as the waters could inundate them from every side, 115.  See Prov 8:27–29. 116.  See Jer 5:22 in which the sea is graphically described as tossing and roaring in vain as it presumably tries to cross over the boundary set by God. 117.  Vail, Creation and Chaos Talk, 103; Beal, Religion and Its Monsters, 49; Balentine, Job, 647. 118.  Vail, Creation and Chaos Talk, 103. Dan Mathewson comments that chaos can be seen as a symbol not only for death but for life as well (Death and Survival, 149).

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an attacking army could do the same.119 Isaiah 8:6–8 speaks of the threat of Assyria as if it were the Euphrates River. Language is used of overflowing its banks, sweeping into the land of Judah, overflowing, and rising up to the neck. Psalm 18:15–17 portrays God as coming to rescue the psalmist from his strong enemy. After describing the retreat of the waters in response to God’s rebuke and anger,120 God is said to have reached down and to have drawn him out of many waters. The next verse (17) clearly identifies the waters as a symbol for the enemies of the psalmist. In a similar way, Ps 144:7 describes the rescue of the psalmist from the waters and makes clear in the context (1–2, 10–11) that the waters represent human enemies.121

Conclusion The significance of these Old Testament themes for John’s use of the abyss is impressive and will become even more evident in later chapters. In listing, categorizing, and synthesizing the uses of the abyss in the Old Testament, it is clear that the abyss can be associated with the place of the dead and it normally has the characteristic of being very low, even to the point of serving as the opposite of the heavens. The most obvious characteristic, though, is that the abyss is watery, and this watery aspect is one of the major factors that ties the abyss so closely to the sea. The sea shares a great deal of semantic range with the abyss and is often used as a parallel concept in Hebrew poetry. This study of the sea as a closely related term has been organized around two important traditions. The first is the dragon that lives in the sea. The symbol of the dragon is used effectively in the Old Testament to describe God’s overcoming the forces of chaos at creation, to emphasize His great act of salvation at the Reed Sea, and to magnify His victory over His enemies. These factors, and the fact that the abode of the dragon is in the sea, all have important parallels in John’s Apocalypse. The second tradition is God’s restraint of the waters that threaten to overwhelm the earth. God is portrayed as having set barriers that the sea cannot cross and He is exalted for the constant protection that He offers to humanity by preventing the waters of the sea from inundating and destroying the world. This is especially pertinent because of the common conception of the abyss waters surrounding the earth on all sides and from below and above. 119.  Mark Smith, writing about the Israelites in the sixth century bce, describes how “the waters would have evoked the terrible, traumatic, and violent events of that century for Israel” (Priestly Vision, 60). 120.  “The foundations of the world were laid bare, at thy rebuke.” 121.  See also Ps 65:6–7 and Isa 17:12–14.

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This chapter demonstrates three different ways in which the sea was associated with evil. First, the sea is in conflict with God; second, it is the home of God’s enemy, the dragon; and third, it symbolizes enemy armies. John utilizes these same associations in his apocalypse to describe evil and God’s power over it.

Chapter 3

The Abyss in Greco-​Roman, Second Temple Jewish, and New Testament Literature

Having examined the backgroundof the abyss and related topics in the Old Testament, I will now examine those writings that are outside of the Old Testament but would have either contributed to the understanding of these topics in John’s day or might have served as sources for John. I will also look at texts that emerged from a common background tradition in order to observe how other authors understood and used the concept of the abyss. Looking at these texts serves to identify concepts and contextual elements that impacted the way that John’s readers heard and interpreted his work. The material in the last chapter on the sea and its relationship to the abyss was organized around two important traditions that John used in his description of the abyss. A third tradition that is found in Greco-​Roman, Second Temple Jewish, and New Testament writings is examined in this chapter because it too greatly influenced John’s Apocalypse. The origins of this tradition, the prison for the Watchers, can be traced back at least to Old Testament passages and Greek mythology but it was in the Second Temple Jewish writings where it was developed and expanded and took the shape that John utilized in his apocalypse. Before entering into this topic, I will briefly describe conceptions of the universe that are found in this body of literature and then examine the word ἄβυσσος in this same grouping of texts.

Conceptions of the Universe A common Greco-​Roman and ancient Near Eastern understanding of the structure of the universe was described in the last chapter. A single heaven, the earth in the shape of a disc surrounded by water, and the subterranean waters below provided a general framework with which to conceive of the universe. While the earth disc was understood to be above the subterranean waters, those waters were not always distinguishable from the terrestrial waters that

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surrounded the earth.1 Wright explains that in the Greco-​Roman world the idea that the earth was a flat disc surrounded by water continued to be held by many people even though the idea of a spherical earth had begun to evolve with Pythagoras and Plato.2 This was especially true of the Jewish and Christian writers who relied on ancient Near Eastern conceptions more than on the recent developments in the Greco-​Roman intellectual world.3 An example of this is seen in the cosmic travels of 1 En. 20–36, where the cosmological framework assumed was that of the Hebrew Bible as opposed to newer Hellenistic models.4 Bautch, in describing the geography implicit in the journey of 1 En. 17–19, says that the map she developed based on what is said in the text is that of a flat disk.5 This way of perceiving the cosmos is similar to what is found in John’s Apocalypse, with its implied three-​tiered universe in such passages as Rev 5:3; 9:1; and 20:1–3.6 Regarding the underworld, Greek mythology refers a great deal to Hades and Tartarus. Both of these are imagined at times to be prisons and Tartarus is often perceived as being below Hades.7 A famous use of Tartarus is that found in Hesiod’s Theogony, in which the author describes the battle between the Titans and the Olympians. Zeus and his followers are victorious and he imprisons the Titans with chains deep within Tartarus. This example serves to illustrate how Hades and Tartarus were at times used differently one from the other. Whereas Hades was the place of the dead, Tartarus initially was used to describe the place where unruly divinities, such as the Titans, were kept in punishment.8 The location of this prison was described by Hesiod when writing of the imprisonment of the Titans: “and hurled them beneath the wide-​pathed earth . . . as far beneath the earth as heaven is above earth; for so far is it from earth to Tartarus.”9 Oceanus (or Okeanos) is the name of a river found in Greco-​Roman writings that was understood to completely encircle the earth. Bautch lists the following texts as examples of writings that observe that the earth is surrounded by Okeanos: Homer’s Iliad 18.607–8; 21.194–96 and Odyssey 10.510–12; 11.13; 1.  Ryan, Hearing, 40. 2.  See Wright, Early History of Heaven, 98–104; Scott, Geography, 9. 3.  Wright, Early History of Heaven, 123. 4.  Ibid. 5.  Bautch, Study of the Geography, 184. See her discussion and the works that she cites. 6.  Aune, Revelation 1–5, 525–26; Ryan, Hearing, 71. 7.  Homer, Iliad 8.13–16. 8.  Bautch, Study of the Geography, 134. 9.  Hesiod, Theogony 719–21 (trans. Evelyn-​White). See Martin Delcor for possible connections between the Greek myths and the Watchers as portrayed in the Book of the Watchers (“Mythe de la chute des Anges,” 29–31).

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24.11–1, Hesiod’s Theogony 789–91 and Opera et Dies 170–73, and Strabo’s Geography 1.1.8.10 This highlights an important similarity between Oceanus and the Old Testament watery abyss; that is, in both cases the earth is completely surrounded by water.

Use of the Word in Greek The noun ἄβυσσος is not found in Greek literature until the Septuagint. The word is found as an adjective in earlier works and carries the meaning of something that is bottomless or unfathomable.11 In Second Temple Jewish literature and in the New Testament outside of Revelation, it normally carries a meaning similar to that which is seen in the LXX and the Hebrew word ‫ּתהֹום‬. ְ That is, it 12 refers to the water that surrounds and lays beneath the earth or to the place of the dead.13 At times the meaning appears to carry a more mythical connotation than the visible seas, as seen in the Greek fragments of 1 En. 17:8 and 21:7.14 Ryan understands the language of 17:815 to be describing the far side of the world-​encircling river Oceanus as the location of the mouth of the abyss that is the source of Oceanus and all the rivers of the earth.16 The sense of the abyss in 21:7 is not completely obvious.17 Its mention occurs in a context of great fire, 10.  Bautch, Study of the Geography, 184. 11.  See the entry on “ἄβυσσος” in New International Dictionary of New Testament Theology and Exegesis, 92. 12.  Sirach 1:3; 16:18; 24:29; 43:23. In Sirach 42:18, God is described as searching out the abyss and the hearts of men. 13.  Cf. Rom 10:7. Paul cites Deut 30:13 and substitutes “abyss” for “sea.” Craig Keener writes concerning this verse that “Shifting terms might allow Paul to play on the image’s associations with death” (Romans, 126). As Moo explains, Paul does this not only because they were “somewhat interchangeable concepts,” but also because changing the horizontal imagery of crossing the sea into descending into the abyss aided his Christological application” (Epistle to the Romans, 655–56). Richard Longenecker points out that the abyss could be used to describe the grave as well as the depths of the sea and the underworld (Epistle to the Romans, 854). 14.  See Denis and Nickelsburg for information on the Greek fragments: Denis, Introduction, 15–30; Nickelsburg, 1 Enoch 1, 12–14. All translations of 1 Enoch are from the Hermeneia translation unless otherwise specified. Nickelsburg and VanderKam, 1 Enoch. 15. And I departed (for) where no flesh walks. I saw the wintry winds of darkness and the gushing of all the waters of the abyss. I saw the mouth of all the rivers of the earth and the mouth of the abyss (1 En. 17:6–8). 16.  Ryan, Hearing, 89. 17.  “From there I traveled to another place, more terrible than this one. And I saw terrible things—a great fire burning and flaming there. And the place had a narrow cleft (extending) to the abyss, full of great pillars of fire, borne downward. Neither the measure nor the size was I able to see or to estimate” (1 En. 21:7). The Greek text is as follows: Κἀκεῖθεν ἐφώδευσα εἰς ἄλλον τόπον τούτου φοβερώτερον, καὶ τεθέαμαι ἔργα φοβερώτερα, πῦρ μέγα ἐκεῖ καιόμενον καὶ φλεγόμενον,

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but what is not clear is if the fire extends all the way down into a fiery abyss, or if the fire extends all the way down to the watery abyss beneath the earth. Isaac appears to favor the second option, as seen by his decision to translate this word “last sea.”18 The use of ἄβυσσος in the Prayer of Manasseh 3 is significant. Because it is used in parallel to God shackling the sea, it might mean nothing more than that God exercised control over the sea, which is a common Old Testament concept. However, because of the use of the verb “seal” and the noun “key,” another possibility is that the writer refers to God having imprisoned the abyss waters below and within the earth.19 This phrase is significant because, similar to this verse, John’s abyss is sealed shut in the midst of the earth as well, by means of a key (Rev 9:1). In two Greek fragments of Jubilees (10:7, 9)20 the word ἄβυσσος is used in a way that does not appear in the Old Testament. In both of these verses the word refers to the place where the Watchers had been imprisoned.21 This use of ἄβυσσος is in marked contrast to the more common usage seen above in which the abyss is watery and similar to the sea. It is very similar to the way John describes the abyss and will be discussed below.

The Prison for the Watchers The tradition of the Watchers and their imprisonment was well known in late Second Temple Judaism, as seen by the number of writings in which it appears.22 Important elements in the story include the fact that heavenly angels that were called Watchers descended to earth and were attracted to human women. They married these women and fathered children by them who were giants. God considered this a great sin and incarcerated them in places under the ground or in deep valleys until the time of their judgment and punishment. Several aspects of this tradition relate closely to the abyss in John’s Apocalypse.23 καὶ διακοπὴν εἶχεν ὁ τόπος ἕως τῆς ἀβύσσου, πλήρης στύλων πυρὸς μεγάλου καταφερομένων· οὔτε μέτρον οὔτε πλάτος ἠδυνήθην ἰδεῖν οὐδὲ εἰκάσαι. Scott and Penner, “1 Enoch.” 18.  “1 (Ethiopic Apocalypse of) Enoch,” trans. E. Isaac (OTP 1:24). 19.  See Job 24:16 LXX, where the same verb is used to describe a man who seals (shuts) himself inside his own house. 20.  See Denis, Fragmenta Pseudepigraphorum, 86–87; Scott and Penner, “Jubilees.” 21.  Jubilees 10:7 reads ὁ κύριος ἐκέλευσε τῷ ἀρχαγγέλῳ Μιχαὴλ βαλεῖν αὐτοὺς εἰς τὴν ἄβυσσον ἄχρι ἡμέρας τῆς κρίσεως. Jub 10:9 reads τὰ δὲ λοιπὰ ἐννέα μέρη ἐβλήθη εἰς τὴν ἄβυσσον. 22.  See Nickelsburg, 1 Enoch 1, 85–86; Jobes, 1 Peter, 24–27. 23.  See Collins, Cosmology and Eschatology, 84.

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The Sin and the Prison The Book of the Watchers (1 En. 1–36) is the most important source for the tradition of the Watchers and their prison.24 The text is quite early25 and it likely served as the source for many of the other texts that mention the Watchers.26 Two different traditions of the Watchers are included in this section of 1 Enoch.27 Asael is described as having taught humans forbidden secrets that caused a great deal of trouble and oppression on the earth (1 En. 8; 9:6). He is punished by being bound and assigned to the darkness (1 En. 10:4–6). The fact that an opening is made for him suggests that he is in the ground. Other details that support this conclusion are that he is in darkness, his face is covered, and the original text might say that he is covered with sharp rocks. The story of Shemihazah and those angels who followed him is seen throughout 1 En. 6–21. They descended to earth and mated with women. The result of these unions produced giants and a great deal of bloodshed and iniquity (9:7–9). The Watchers were bound and incarcerated in low areas, possibly beneath the ground (10:11–13). Their incarceration is said to last a long time but is not permanent, as seen by the fact that they will eventually be led away to a fiery abyss. There are more descriptions of the prison in 1 En. 18–21, including the mention of the word ἄβυσσος in 1 En. 21:7. The visit that Enoch makes to this abyss in ch. 21 is almost certainly a doublet with the visit he makes in chs. 18–19. Amending the order of the text as suggested by Nickelsburg,28 one finds that there are two journeys and in both of them Enoch sees two different prisons. During the first trip, his initial vision is the prison for the Watchers at the end of the earth (18:10–11; 19:1). This is then seen last in the second visit that is described in 21:7–10. Striking characteristics of this place are that it seemed immeasurable (18:11; 21:7), it was full of pillars of fire (18:11; 21:7), and it was a chasm that went down deep in the earth (18:7; 21:7). The other place that is described in these two journeys of Enoch is a chaotic place that had neither the firmament of heaven above nor firmly founded earth beneath it, nor did it have water (18:12–16; 21:1–6). It is difficult to imagine a 24.  See the bibliography of recent scholarship on this subject in Loren Stuckenbruck (Myth of Rebellious Angels, 1–2). See also Baynes, “Watchers Traditions”; Hanneken, “Watchers.” 25.  Nickelsburg and VanderKam date it to mid- to late third century bce (1 Enoch 2, 3). See Stuckenbruck and his sources for more information. Myth of Rebellious Angels, 12. For discussion of the date of 1 En. 6–11 and 12–16 and their place in the formation of the Book of the Watchers, see Reed, Fallen Angels, 24–29. 26.  For example, Karina Martin Hogan asserts that 1 En. 1–36 is the main source for the Animal Apocalypse apart from the Bible (“Watchers Traditions,” 114). 27.  For discussion of the two different traditions described here, see Nickelsburg, 1 Enoch 1, 190–93; Stuckenbruck, Myth of Rebellious Angels, 12–16. 28.  Nickelsburg, 1 Enoch 1, 287.

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place that lacks these basic elements, but it is instructive to notice that this place is not described as being deep or within the ground. Perhaps this is not referring to a place within the ground at all, especially since it is described as a prison for stars.29 The prison for the Watchers described in 18:10–11; 19:1 and 21:7–10 appears only to be describing the imprisonment of Shemihazah and his followers. This conclusion follows from the fact that nothing is said about Asael and his particular sin, only the fact that the angels here are those who mated with women (19:1).30 Important texts that influenced the description of the prison were Gen 6:1–4, Isa 24:21–22,31 and the Greek traditions of Prometheus and the Titans who were imprisoned in Tartarus.32 Bautch comments that judging from the great similarity between the prison of the Watchers in 1 En. 18:11 and Hesiod’s prison for the Titans, “the site described in 1 En. 18:11 and later explained in 1 En. 19:1–2 appears an excellent candidate for a type of Tartarus.”33 As for the Prometheus myth, Nickelsburg explains that the two best sources are Hesiod (Theogony 507–616 and Works and Days 42–105) and Aeschylus (Prometheus Bound).34 29.  See Bautch for similarities between this prison for the stars and myths regarding the Pleiades (Study of the Geography, 144–49). 30.  In commenting on 1 En. 88:1–3, Patrick Tiller makes the point, with regard to the abyss, that this passage agrees with 1 En. 10 in that there are two different abysses described: one for Asael (88:1) and one for Shemihazah and his followers (88:3) (Commentary on the Animal Apocalypse, 252–54). See also Nickelsburg, 1 Enoch 1, 374. 31.  Isaiah 24:21–22 is enormously important for the development of the Watchers myth. Nickelsburg writes that this passage is the closest Old Testament parallel to the incarceration of the Watchers (1 Enoch 1, 221) and Gray writes concerning this passage that some of the details in 1 Enoch “may have been developed by reflection on Scripture, pre-​eminently on this Scripture” (Critical and Exegetical Commentary, 421). The Book of Parables demonstrates an interest in the Watchers (54:1–6; 55:3–56:4) and alludes to their judgment in burning valleys. Although it is broadly accepted that the Book of Parables has as one of its sources the Book of the Watchers, another probable source is Isa 24:17–23, which is an idea that David Suter develops at length (Tradition and Composition, 39–72). Baynes argues that the influence of Isa 24:21–22 is very important in that the writer of the Book of Parables follows Isa 24:21 in locating both kings and angels in the abyss. She develops the significance of this in her work (“Watchers Traditions,” 151–58). In a similar way, the abyss in Revelation contains not only locusts and the dragon but the beast as well, which is widely believed to symbolize Nero or Roman imperial authority. 32.  Nickelsburg, 1 Enoch 1, 221; Glasson, Greek Influence, 62–65. The author of 2 Pet 2:4 explains that God sent the angels to Tartarus (ταρταρώσας) and committed them to chains of nether darkness until the judgment. As Richard Bauckham explains, it was in keeping with Jewish Greek literature to use the term “Tartarus” in order to refer to the place of divine judgment, and in several works, the Titans are compared to either the Watchers or the Giants, their offspring (Jude, 2 Peter, 249). B. A. Pearson argues that it appears that the author “framed his description of the fate of the fallen angels under direct influence from the Greek theogonic myths” (“Reminiscence of Classical Myth”). 33.  Bautch, Study of the Geography, 134. Bautch cites the following sources for Tartarus: Hesiod, Theogony 729, 742, 806; Homer, Iliad 8, 13, 451, 481; Pherecydes fragment 5; Virgil, Aeneid 6.548. 34.  Nickelsburg, “Apocalyptic and Myth,” 399.

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Whereas both share similarities with the Book of the Watchers because of the common factor of the celestial being who instructs humans in forbidden arts, it is Aeschylus who provides the critical detail of Prometheus being bound and imprisoned in the rock until a later time when he would be punished (1015–1030).35 Additional Greek influence is found in the description of the Watchers and the prison in the Animal Apocalypse.36 In the capture of Shemihazah and his angels, Nickelsburg mentions that the details of the earth quaking in 1 En. 88:2 and the rocks being hurled from heaven in 88:3 are both found in Hesiod’s Titanomachia37 which might have served as a source for the author at this point. Similarly, Stuckenbruck, in his discussion of the Animal Apocalypse, maintains that even though the throwing down and the binding of evil angels share similarities with the Book of the Watchers, ultimately it derives from the Greek myths of the Titans being thrown down to Tartarus as is told in Hesiod’s Theogony (713–21).38 The Location of the Prison Several of the texts examined in the last section locate the prison under the ground or in low places. However, there also exist texts that place the prison in some level of heaven. In order to better understand the relationship between John’s subterranean abyss and the prison of the Watchers, it will be helpful to ask whether the location was generally understood to be under the ground, or whether there existed no consensus between the varied texts. I will address this question in the context of an examination of the location of the prison in 1 Pet 3:18–22. Although the interpretation of 1 Pet 3:18–22 is complicated by various factors, many modern scholars believe that the conceptual background for this passage 35. The Dead Sea Scrolls do not add much information about the prison but some brief comments deserve mention. Angela Harkins finds Watcher traditions in the Qumran Hodayot in such passages as 1 QHa 11.6–19, 20–37; and 16.5–17.38 (“Elements,” 24). In 11.14–19 she notes that the abyss has much in common with the sea (“As the abysses boil, above the fountains of the water”) (ibid., 17). However, it is also instructive to note that abyss (‫)ּתהֹום‬ ְ is associated closely with Hell, Abaddon, and the pit in v. 17. In another work, she asserts that the mention in this passage of the gates that open to receive the sinners and the bars that slam shut behind them is reminiscent of the descriptions of the prison for angels in 1 En. 10:12–13 and other places in 1 Enoch as well (Harkins, Reading, 142). Other texts in the Dead Sea Scrolls that mention the Watchers are listed by J. A. Fitzmyer, but with little to no information on the prison (Genesis Apocryphon, 125). For the topic of fallen angels in the Dead Sea Scrolls, see Stuckenbruck, “Demonic Beings,” esp. 122–25. 36.  See Gore-​Jones, “Animals.” It was most likely written in the second century bce. See Gore-​Jones, “Animals,” 268–69; Olson, New Reading, 1. Nickelsburg locates the date close to 165 bce (1 Enoch 1, 8). 37.  Nickelsburg, 1 Enoch 1, 374. 38.  Stuckenbruck, Myth of Rebellious Angels, 22.

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includes the Sons of God of Gen 6 and the Watchers of 1 Enoch.39 The recognition of this background provides helpful insight into the interpretation of the activity of Christ in this passage, who, it seems, finds a forerunner or type in the person of Enoch. For example, in 1 Enoch it is reported that after the Watchers had sinned, Enoch travels to where they are and makes a proclamation to them. The striking parallel between this story and 1 Pet 3:18–22 can be seen in that both accounts have “1. a journey (πορευθείς), 2. to give a proclamation (ἐχήρυξεν), 3. to the spirits (τοῖς πνεύμασιν), 4. in prison (ἐν φυλακῆ), 5. who rebelled, or disobeyed (ἀπειθήσασιν), 6. in the setting of the flood (ἐν ἡμέραις Νῶε).”40 Though many have argued that these spirits in prison (1 Pet 3:19) are the souls of those humans who sinned in the days of Noah,41 more convincing are those authors who find a reference to the Watchers as described by 1 Enoch.42 Some authors have argued that the prison in 1 Pet 3:19 is located in the heavens. This interpretation comes partly from the commonality between 1 Pet 3:22 and 2 En. 7 and 18. Whereas 1 Peter mentions Christ’s ascension to heaven and the subjection to him of angels, authorities, and powers, 2 Enoch describes Enoch ascending to the throne room of God and passing through various heavens in order to do so. In the second heaven, Enoch finds angels who are incarcerated and it appears that they are either the Watchers or at least somehow related to the story of the Watchers (2 En. 7:1–3; cf. 2 En. 18). What Kelly, Dalton, Elliott, and others argue, then, is that Christ’s ascension took him through the heavens and in so doing he passed the prison of the Watchers (as described in 2 Enoch) and proclaimed to them that he had proven victorious over them.43 As far as the possible parallel to 2 Enoch is concerned, it is certainly true that one of the understood locations of the angels’ prison was in the lower heavens. However, it is well established that several of the texts that make up 1 Enoch 39.  As has been convincingly argued by many since first proposed by F. Spitta in 1890 in Christi Predigt, the Jewish writings of the Second Temple period and their amplification of the flood narrative are the closest conceptual background for understanding 1 Pet 3:19–20. See also the following: Kelly, Commentary, 154–55; Goodspeed, “Some Greek Notes”; Dalton, Christ’s Proclamation, 165–69; Jobes, 1 Peter, 243–44; Reicke, Disobedient Spirits, 100–103; Elliott, 1 Peter, 650. Chad Pierce, in Spirits, dedicates major portions of his book to investigating background information that Gen 6 and the Watchers tradition provide for 1 Pet 3:18–22. 40.  Dalton, Christ’s Proclamation, 165. 41.  Contra ibid., 145–50; Elliott, 1 Peter, 655–57. These two authors provide evidence that πνεῦμα is not used in an absolute sense in the New Testament nor in the extrabiblical flood tradition to refer to the spirits of people but is quite commonly used in an absolute sense to refer to both good and evil supernatural beings. See Jobes for a refutation of Grudem who argues that πνεῦμα does refer to people in 1 Pet 3:19 (1 Peter, 259). See also Grudem, 1 Peter, 208–9. 42.  In my opinion, this has been convincingly argued by many authors. For instance, see Reicke, Disobedient Spirits; Dalton, Christ’s Proclamation; Kelly, Commentary; Elliott, 1 Peter; Davids, Letters of 2 Peter and Jude. 43.  Kelly, Commentary, 155–56; Dalton, Christ’s Proclamation, 179–84; Elliott, 1 Peter, 654, 658, 706–10. See also Bandstra, “ ‘Making Proclamation’ ”; Mason, “Watchers Traditions,” 77–78.

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were very influential for various authors of the New Testament44 and were a major influence on this passage in 1 Peter.45 Since this is the case, to use 2 Enoch as strong evidence that the author of 1 Peter located the prison in a lower heaven is questionable. 1 Enoch does not locate the abyss in heaven and the Book of the Watchers emphasizes that the Watchers no longer belonged in heaven.46 Kelly gives the impression that 1 Enoch contains no common conception throughout the book of where the prison was located.47 He appears to affirm this in order to weaken the link between 1 Enoch and a subterranean location for the prison. His point, though, is overstated48 and I wish to demonstrate this in order to show that John’s placing of the abyss under the earth in Revelation was in line with the broad contours of the Watchers tradition. Kelly mentions, for example, that two passages locate the prison in the west (22:1–3; 67:4),49 but in reality, 22:1–3 does not describe the prison of the angels at all and in 67:4, although the prison is in the west, it is described as a valley that then is described as being under the ground in v. 6. Concerning 1 En. 13:9 and 14:5, Kelly says that these verses state that the prison is on the earth, as opposed to below the surface of the earth. As for 13:9, this could easily be understood in the context of the book of the Watchers to be their location before they were sent to the prison. As for 14:5, to speak of bonds of the earth more easily fits as a reference to being trapped within the earth than to somehow be bound on the surface of the earth. See Black, who wonders if the writer thought of the valleys as being part of the underworld.50 The great chains of 1 En. 54:3–6 were being prepared for Asael and fits well with the description of his fate in ch. 10, which speaks of a prison under ground. 1 Enoch 88:1 speaks of the evil angels represented as stars and being cast into an abyss in the earth. The description of the prison of the stars in 18:12–14 does 44.  “1 Enoch has had more influence on the New Testament than has any other apocryphal or pseudepigraphic work” (Charles, Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha, 180). 45.  Dalton, Christ’s Proclamation, 164–65, 175–76; Elliott, 1 Peter, 654. 46.  They no longer belonged in heaven because they had abandoned it (1 En. 15–16). 1 Enoch never locates the Watchers in heaven after their fall, and 14:5 says: “that from now on you will not ascend into heaven for all the ages; and it has been decreed to bind you in bonds in the earth for all the days of eternity.” Elliott gives the impression that Enoch went to heaven in order to deliver his proclamation to the Watchers (1 Peter, 654). This is not the case. The text says that he went to speak to them at Lesya’el, which is located between Lebanon and Senir (1 En. 13:9). 47.  Kelly writes, “Admittedly differing, and sometimes conflicting, accounts of the place where the victims were confined are found in the apocryphal books” (Commentary, 155). He finds that Jub 5:6 describes them as bound “in the depths of the earth” but thinks that 1 En. 13:9 and 14:5 describe their place of punishment as being “on the earth” as opposed to under it. He points out that in 1 En. 22:1–3 and 67:4 the place of the prison is described as being “in the west.” Finally, he references 1 En. 18:12–14 which describes the place as having no heaven above it and no earth beneath it. 48.  Davids, “Use of the Pseudepigrapha,” 236. 49.  Kelly, Commentary, 155. 50.  Black, Book of Enoch.

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not seem to be under the ground, but neither does this appear to describe the prison for the Watchers. The two parallel descriptions of the angels who sinned (18:10–11; 19:1–2; 21:7–10), however, are easier to understand as being located in or under the earth.51 Therefore, although Kelly presents the location of the Watchers’ prison in 1 Enoch as being very diverse and conflicting, it is actually much more coherent than he has suggested. Reicke is of the opinion that the first and simplest explanation of the location of the prison would be in the underworld.52 While there is no total unanimity in the book, a study of the passages that mention the location of the prison reveals that it is generally understood to be underground. The texts of Jude 6 and 2 Pet 2:4 also support this conclusion.53 Though Christ’s proclamation to the spirits happened during and by means of His ascension,54 this does not imply that the spirits were imprisoned in one of the heavens. Although the location in the heavens does appear in 2 Enoch and is a possibility in 1 Peter, the far more common location of the prison for the Watchers was under the ground. This demonstrates a strong connection between the prison in the Watchers tradition and the abyss in Revelation, which was also under the ground. The Duration of the Incarceration The purpose of this section is to analyze the duration of the incarceration of the Watchers in the prison and in so doing, to continue to examine the connection between the traditions of the prison of the Watchers and the abyss of Revelation. Jude 6 states that the Watchers were held in the prison with eternal chains. Without considering the context, this might lead one to the conclusion that the prison is eternal and the purpose of the prison is to hold the inmates there forever. However, although the chains that bind the angels are said to be eternal, the angels are kept there only until the judgment. Bauckham states that the chains are only temporary since after the judgment these angels will be transferred to the fire of Gehenna but that they are called “eternal” for stylistic

51.  See the previous section. 52.  Reicke, Disobedient Spirits, 116. 53.  In Jude, the location of the incarceration is not stated explicitly although the use of ὑπὸ ζόφον (“in the nether darkness”) and δεσμοῖς ἀϊδίοις (eternal chains) provides clues. The expression ὑπὸ ζόφον was used repeatedly in classical literature to refer to the darkness of the underworld. See G. L. Green, who lists the following examples: Aeschylus, Persae 839; Euripides, Hippolytus 1416; Quintus Smyrnaeus 2.619; Homer, Odyssey 11.55; 20.356; Homer, Iliad 21.56; Sib. Or. 4:43 (Green, Jude and 2 Peter, 70). 54.  Watson, “Early Jesus Tradition,” 159.

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reasons.55 He believes that Jude’s terminology depends on 1 En. 10:5,56 where Azaz’el is said to be bound forever.57 It is significant that although Azaz’el’s imprisonment is said to be eternal, in the next verse it is stated that he would be led away on the great day of judgment. The ambiguity found in these two passages regarding whether the imprisonment is eternal or temporary is also found in 1 En. 10:11–12.58 Because in each of these three passages a future day of judgment is clearly stated, the best way to account for the conflicting statements is to understand that the eternality refers to the imprisonment and punishment together that will never end, not strictly to the state of being bound in the prison. In the Watchers tradition, there are three fairly clear statements of eternal imprisonment in the ground (1 En. 14:5; 21:10; Jub 5:10),59 but other equally clear declarations that imprisonment only lasts until the time of judgment (1 En. 54:5–6; 88:3 with 90:24–26, the Greek version of Jub 10:7, 2 Pet 2:4, and related to the Watcher tradition, Isa 24:21–22). It cannot be said, then, that there is total uniformity regarding the duration of incarceration in the prison. What can be said, however, is that a very common understanding of the incarceration of the Watchers is that they are imprisoned in the ground until the time of judgment. This corresponds to the use of prisons in ancient times that were not for the purpose of judgment but rather to hold the prisoner until the time of sentencing and 55.  Bauckham, Jude, 2 Peter, 53. 56.  A majority of commentators agree that Jude 6 is drawing on the Book of the Watchers. See Charles, “Jude’s Use”; Hultin, “Bourdieu Reads Jude,” 43–48; Moo, 2 Peter, Jude, 241, 247–50; Mason, Watchers Traditions, 71. 57.  Bauckham, Jude, 2 Peter, 53. Bauckham uses the spelling “Azaz’el” to refer to the Watcher while Nickelsburg and VanderKam use the spelling “Asael.” 58.  For 1 En. 10:5, Isaac writes concerning the textual variants that “B and C add ‘cover him with darkness and let him abide there forever’ ” (“1 Enoch,” OTP 1:17, n. 10-j). Nickelsburg, in his commentary, also translates the duration as eternal while Nickelsburg and VanderKam substitute “an exceedingly long time” for “eternal” (Nickelsburg, 1 Enoch 1; Nickelsburg and VanderKam, 1 Enoch: Hermeneia, 27). Black understands the imprisonment in 10:5 to be temporary, as seen by his comments concerning 10:6: “As v. 6 implies, that period will terminate when, on the great day of judgment, Asael will be thrown into the conflagration of fire” (Book of Enoch, 134). Regarding 1 En. 10:12, both Nickelsburg and Isaac translate the verse in a way that combines the concept of eternality with termination. Nickelsburg translates, “until the eternal judgment is consummated” (1 Enoch 1, 215), while Isaac writes, “until the eternal judgment is concluded” (“1 Enoch,” OTP 1:18). S. Bhayro avoids this difficulty with his translation “until the judgment which for all eternity is accomplished” (Shemihazah and Asael Narrative, 199). Because 10:11 mentions the time of incarceration to be seventy generations and since the general context makes it clear that there was a judgment that followed the initial incarceration, the sense of a long incarceration preceding eternal judgment is clear. 59.  Michael Knibb acknowledges the priority of a distinction between the place of imprisonment and the place of eternal punishment. In commenting on 1 En. 67:4, he writes that the author seems “to confuse the place where the Watchers were ‘shut up’ prior to the judgment (cf. 10:4–6, 12–13) with Gehenna itself (cf. 54:5–6)” (Knibb, Essays, 138).

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judgment came.60 The duration of the imprisonment in the abyss of Revelation is not eternal either, but rather occurs before the judgment that takes place in the lake of fire. The Offspring of the Watchers An interesting element of the Watchers tradition is the description of their offspring. The Book of the Watchers describes them as being giants and as bringing destruction to the lives of people (1 En. 15:8–12; 19:1). The solution found was for God to cause them to attack one another and to kill each other. The spirits that came forth from the bodies of the giants are described as evil spirits who tempt and terrorize people on earth.61 Two passages related to this story are Jub 10 and Luke 8. The first discusses the fate of the children of the Watchers and the second has important similarities to Jub 10 and mentions the banishing of demons to the abyss. Both have important implications for the topic of the abyss in John’s Apocalypse. Jubilees 10:1–1162 describes these evil spirits leading astray and destroying Noah’s descendants. Because of this, Noah asks that God would assign them to the place of judgment (10:4–5). Although Stuckenbruck infers that nine tenths of the spirits were utterly destroyed,63 it is more likely that they were assigned to the prison where the Watchers were located (10:4–5). This interpretation takes into account that they were bound (10:7, similar to the Watchers in 5:10), that Noah does not ask that they be destroyed but rather that they be shut up and taken to the place of judgment (10:5), and that the Greek fragment of v. 7 says that they were to be thrown into the abyss until the day of judgment (ὁ κύριος ἐκέλευσε τῷ ἀρχαγγέλῳ Μιχαὴλ βαλεῖν αὐτοὺς εἰς τὴν ἄβυσσον ἄχρι ἡμέρας τῆς κρίσεως).64 According to the text, God agrees to do what Noah asks but the chief of the spirits, Mastema, who is later called the devil (10:11), asks that one tenth be left with him so that he can continue his work. This request is granted. 60.  Van der Toorn, “Prison,” 468. 61.  Samuel Thomas believes that incantations contained in Songs of the Sage (4Q510–11) and other texts were meant to exorcise the spirits that had come out of the Giants as recounted in 1 En. 15:8–12 (“Watchers Traditions,” 146–47). 62.  The Book of Jubilees was written sometime during the middle of the second century bce. See Stuckenbruck, Myth of Rebellious Angels, 24. For information on its mentions of the abyss, see Endres, “Watchers Traditions,” 123. The author follows Genesis closely but also shows that he knew the Book of the Watchers well. Endres, “Watchers Traditions,” 126; Stuckenbruck, Myth of Rebellious Angels, 25; Hanneken, “Watchers,” 26, 32–37; Kugel, Walk Through Jubilees, 53. 63.  Stuckenbruck, Myth of Rebellious Angels, 30. 64.  Scott and Penner, “Jubilees.”

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The story of Jesus sending the demons into the pigs (Luke 8:27–33) shares important commonalities with Jub 10. Points of contact between the two texts are the use of the Greek ἄβυσσος to refer to some sort of unwelcome prison to where the spirits are sent or threatened to be sent, the fact that both texts tell the story of evil spirits rather than the Watchers,65 the sending of the spirits to the abyss appears to be a step that precedes and is related to their judgment, the sending of the spirits to the prison occurs in a setting after the time of the Watchers, and there is a granting of a request that lightens the sentence somehow. In the Lukan story, the request of the demons to not be sent to the abyss appears to be related closely to the earlier request to not torture them (Luke 8:28).66 They are extremely afraid of the abyss and of the potential of being sent there to await final judgment.67 This fear and the desire to not go there corresponds to Jewish and Jewish-​Christian writings about the Watchers, as already seen in this chapter. However, whereas most of the prison-​related texts identify the Watchers as those who are imprisoned, Luke describes evil spirits who were active and free during the ministry of Jesus. The demons in Luke beg Jesus not to do that which God did to nine tenths of the spirits in Jub 10:9, 11; that is, send them to the abyss. If the author of Luke knew the tradition reflected in Jub 10, it is possible that he conceived of the spirits that were called Legion as being part of the one tenth which remained on the earth. If so, it would account for the demons’ knowledge of the abyss and their strong aversion to going there.68 Although the connection between Jubilees and Luke is not known, it does seem clear that this story in Luke 8 echoes the traditions of the Watchers and their offspring. 65.  Both accounts refer to the evil beings both as evil spirits and as demons. 66.  Kleist, “Gadarene Demoniacs,” cited by Nolland, Luke 1–9:20, 408. If the version of this story found in Matt 8 is examined as well, further indications are found that the demons feared the coming judgment. For example, Legion asks whether Jesus has come to torment them before the time (Matt 8:29). Nolland writes that “βασανίσαι (‘torment’) has a literal sense of ‘torture in judicial examination (to establish the truth),’ but that is not exactly what we have here” (Gospel of Matthew, 376). D. A. Hagner points out that the demons are well aware of two things: first, that an eschatological judgment awaits them; and second, the time of that judgment has not yet arrived (Matthew 1–13, 227). 67.  Lamarche is a bit careless when he refers to the abyss in this context as the place where the spirits reign and from where they go out to contaminate the earth (“L’abîme semble donc représenter le « lieu » où régnent les esprits du mal. Ils en sont sortis pour contaminer la terre”) (“Possédé de Gérasa,” 591). Although that is a characterization that fits some of the passages that describe spiritual beings who dwell beneath the earth, it does not fit here, where the abyss is viewed as a prison and a place that they desperately want to avoid. 68.  An interesting connection between the Matthean version of this story and the Jubilees account is that the complaint of Legion is that Jesus is torturing them “before the time” (Matt 8:29). If related to the Jubilees account, this could be seen as a complaint that Jesus is breaking the arrangement that God made with Mastema in Jub 10:7–11.

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Two themes emerge from the preceding analysis of Jubilees and Luke 8 which are vital for understanding John’s use of the abyss. The first is that in both stories, the place where evil spirits are sent or threatened to be sent is called the ἄβυσσος. These are the clearest examples outside of Revelation in which ἄβυσσος is identified as a prison for spiritual beings.69 As I will demonstrate in Chapter 5, John used the tradition of the prison for the Watchers in his portrayal of the abyss. It is possible that these stories were known by John and aided him in making the connection between the ἄβυσσος and the prison for the Watchers. The second point is that in Luke 8 the abyss prison, which is normally understood to be in the ground, is associated with water. Whereas the demons ask that Jesus not send them to the abyss, they wind up in the water (the lake in Luke 8:33 and the sea in Matt 8:32 and Mark 5:13). Many scholars see a connection in Luke 8 between the abyss, on the one hand, and the drowning of the pigs in the sea/lake, on the other.70 This is most likely true judging from the evidence of a close connection between the waters and the abyss in the literature that has been examined in previous sections.71 What became of the demons in Luke 8 is not at all clear, but in comparing this story to the two other Gospel sea stories examined below, a common element emerges that is the authority of Jesus over the sea and other powers. As God showed mastery over the sea in the Old Testament, Jesus shows mastery over the sea/abyss in the Gospels. Inhabitants of the Abyss in the Greek Magical Papyri The Greek Magical Papyri deserve to be mentioned in this chapter. Even though they do not form part of the Watchers tradition, they do share the important similarity of describing evil creatures who dwell in the abyss. The papyri themselves often date from after the time of John’s Apocalypse,72 but they provide valuable information about magical literature from earlier times. A survey of the use of the word “abyss” in Betz’ edition reveals that this was one of the places 69.  However, see the section below on Greek Magical Papyri. 70.  For example, Conzelmann speaks of the lake in Luke going down to the abyss and writes concerning the demons’ fate that “evidently the devils are sent to where they do not wish to go, into the abyss” (Theology of St. Luke, 44–45). Similarly, the lake “becomes the way to the abyss for the demons” (Fitzmyer, Gospel According to Luke I–IX, 739). See also Bovon, Luke 1, 329. 71.  This idea is strengthened by the hypothesis that Luke made a deliberate attempt to echo the LXX version of Ps 105:7–12 which describes the Reed Sea crossing. Klutz, Exorcism Stories, 109–13. Klutz points out important similarities between both texts, including the use of the word ἄβυσσος. 72.  See Aune, “Apocalypse of John and Graeco-​Roman Revelatory Magic”; Evans, Ancient Texts, 310–11.

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associated with the dwelling of supernatural beings.73 One incantation, for instance, calls upon the chief daimons in the following way: “I call upon you, holy, very-​powerful, very-​glorious, very strong, holy, autochthons, assistants of the great god, the powerful chief daimons, you who are inhabitants of Chaos, of Erebos, of the abyss, of the depth, of earth.”74 Another says “you who are the Good Daimon of the world, the crown of the inhabited world, you who rise from the abyss, you who each day rise a young man and set an old man.”75 It should be noted that the authors of these magical incantations did not necessarily view the inhabitants of the abyss as evil. These daimons or daemons, however, would most likely have been considered evil by New Testament authors and probably by many members of John’s audience as well. Wink writes that “whatever the separate tributaries in which the Greek ‘daemons’ and the Jewish ‘demons’ may have first arisen, they have in first-​century Jewish sources largely run together into a single channel of united opposition to God.”76 Not only is the abyss described as an abode for demons, there are also passages that, similar to the Old Testament, describe the abyss as watery. “Then he laughed a second time. All was water. Earth, hearing the sound, cried out and heaved, and the water came to be divided into three parts. A god appeared; he was given charge of the abyss [of primal waters], for without him moisture neither increases nor diminishes.”77 The Greek Magical Papyri associate the abyss with evil supernatural beings who dwelled within it. This corresponds to the connotations of evil that the abyss reflects in John’s Apocalypse, as well as its description of evil creatures that live in the abyss (Rev 11:7; 13:1). Concluding Thoughts Regarding the Prison for the Angels In attempting to gain insight on how John and his audience conceptualized the abyss, I have dedicated much space to examining the prison for the angels. There are two reasons why this is justified. First, the prison shares a great deal in common with the abyss as it is described in Revelation. Four significant similarities have been observed between the prison and the abyss in Revelation. Both are used at times to incarcerate spiritual beings, both are located below the earth,78 73.  Betz, Greek Magical Papyri. 74.  PGM IV.1345–46. 75.  PGM XXXVI.217–20. 76.  Wink, Naming of the Powers, 26. 77.  PGM XIII.168–71. For other examples of the abyss referring to the sea or primordial waters, see also PGM IV.3061–65 and PGM VII.260–63. 78.  All of the references in Revelation to creatures exiting the abyss utilize the verb αναβαὶνω except the account of the dragon’s imprisonment. The locusts of ch. 9 exit from the smoke that was said to have risen from the abyss.

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both are temporary until the time of judgment,79 and those who are in the abyss are evil and dangerous. Second, the prison is actually called the abyss in several Greek texts. Although this point might seem surprising after surveying the many passages in the Old Testament and other Jewish literature that describe the abyss as being watery and very similar to the sea, there exist several important similarities between the watery abyss and the prison. The first similarity is that both contain evil or are associated with evil. Whereas the sea and abyss are known for being the home of the enemy of God known as the dragon, the prison is the place where celestial beings who have opposed God are kept. A second similarity is that both concepts are understood to be geographically very low, either within or below the earth.

The Sea in the Gospels Two stories from the Gospels describe Jesus’s mastery of the sea. The first is the calming of the sea in the Synoptics and the second story is Jesus going to his disciples on the water in Matthew, Mark, and John. In their telling of these stories, the Gospel authors highlight many similarities between the actions of Jesus and the control that Yahweh exercises over the sea in the Old Testament. The Calming of the Sea When Jesus rose up and rebuked the wind and the waves, he was doing more than simply saving the lives of his disciples; he was acting like God. Though a number of elements can be found in these three parallel accounts that associate Jesus with God’s activity in the Old Testament, the language and actions of Jesus demonstrate this similarity most clearly. Jesus’s Language and Actions That Are Similar to Those Ascribed to Yahweh As was demonstrated in Chapter 2, the Old Testament contains many examples of the dominion that God exercises over the waters. These ideas are expressed in various ways, such as His destroying or taming the sea monster (Job 26:12–13; 41:1–5; 104:26; Pss 74:13–14; 89:10; Isa 27:1; 51:9–10), His frightening or placing the sea into submission (Job 38:8–11; Ps 104:7–9; Jer 5:22), and His dividing 79.  Although a few references to the prison in the Second Temple Judaism literature do refer to it as eternal.

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of the Reed Sea (Exod 15:8; Ps 77:16–20). In the Old Testament the only one who is ever shown controlling the sea is God. No one else has the power or the authority.80 Yet it is done by Jesus, and seemingly with little effort on his part. He arises from his nap, and without imploring his Father to act, he demonstrates his authority and power.81 Interestingly, even the name that Matthew and Mark give to this body of water demonstrates a connection between God’s acts and this act of Jesus. The body of water, called the Sea of Galilee, is more properly referred to as a lake, which is the term that Luke uses (Luke 5:1, 2; 8:22, 23, 33),82 but that word lacks the mythical connotations that accompany the word “sea.”83 Mark and Matthew’s decision to use the term in the sea rescue stories, despite the other reasons for doing so,84 gives to the accounts mythical and figurative connotations. Other elements that serve to identify Jesus with Yahweh are the facts that Jesus was sleeping and the disciples woke him. One demonstration of a deity’s absolute domination over his realm is the ability to sleep undisturbed.85 In the Old Testament specifically, the idea of awakening God is often seen as a petition for him to rescue his people (Pss 35:23; 44:23–26; Isa 51:9–11). The Isaiah passage is especially significant because in it, God is asked to awake and to deliver his people as he had done previously when he conquered Rahab, which represented the sea. In the Gospel account, Jesus is also asked to awake and he proceeds to battle the sea and gain victory over it. The sleeping of Jesus is mentioned not to indicate his powerlessness nor his serene trust in God, but rather to indicate his possession of absolute authority.86 Psalm 107:23–30 has strong parallels with the story of Jesus calming the sea. In the psalm, those who went out on the sea were terrified because of the tempest and the huge waves. They cried out to Yahweh who then calmed the sea so that they could arrive safely at their destination. What Yahweh does in 80.  2 Maccabees 9:8 illustrates the arrogance and pride of Antiochus Epiphanes by saying, “Thus he who had just been thinking that he could command the waves of the sea, in his superhuman arrogance, and imagining that he could weigh the high mountains in a balance, was brought down to earth and carried in a litter, making the power of God manifest to all.” 81.  Ballentine notes that of the six passages in this textual tradition, only Matt 14:22–33 mentions God (Conflict Myth, 174). The focus is completely on Jesus and his relationship with God is not stated directly but implied by the similarity of the actions of Jesus to the actions of God. 82.  R. Steven Notley notes that while θάλασσα normally refers to sea water, λίμνη normally refers to fresh water (“Sea of Galilee,” 183–88). 83.  “Though limnē is more geographically precise, the more ambiguous thalassa is rich in connotations from the Hebrew scriptures” (Malbon, “Jesus of Mark”). See also Kratz, “θάλασσα.” 84.  See Notley, “Sea of Galilee.” 85.  Batto, “Sleeping God.” 86.  Ibid., 174–75.

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saving the crew in Ps 107 is what Jesus does in saving his disciples on the Sea of Galilee.87 Language That Is Similar to Exorcism Language Many scholars have noted the similarity of the language that Jesus uses (especially in Mark) to calm the sea with the language he uses to drive out evil spirits.88 Jesus rebuked (ἐπετίμησεν) the wind and told the sea to be muzzled (σιώπα). Kee has written about the word ἐπετιμάω and its Semitic counterpart ‫ ָּגעַר‬. He is convinced that “rebuke” is wholly inadequate to translate the sense of these words. He gives many examples from the Textus Receptus and the Dead Sea Scrolls in which the idea expressed is one of putting enemies in subjection rather than to rebuke.89 It is especially useful to observe the ways in which ‫ָ ּגעַר‬ and its derivatives are used to refer to what God does to the sea and the waters of chaos in the Old Testament (2 Sam 22:16; Job 26:11–12; Pss 104:7; 106:9; and Isa 50:2).90 What Jesus did in rebuking the wind and the evil spirits was part of the cosmic plan of God in which he “was regaining control over an estranged and hostile creation, which was under subjection to the powers of Satan.”91 Therefore, the fact that Jesus rebuked the wind is another indication, not only that Jesus was acting like Yahweh in the Old Testament, but also that the storm and sea were imagined as taking on demonic characteristics. In Heil’s treatment of this passage and its place in the book of Matthew, he understands the disciples’ statement in 8:27 that “even winds and sea obey him” to be significant. He reasons that if even winds and sea obey him, the implication is that something or someone else obeyed him as well. In the context, he finds two reports of exorcisms that happened directly before and after Matthew’s report of the stilling of the sea (Matt 8:16, 28–34). Just as demonic powers have obeyed the rebuke of Jesus, the wind and the sea do the same.92 87.  Meier, Marginal Jew, 932. D. E. Nineham associates this psalm so closely to the Gospel miracle story that he wonders if the mention of other boats in Mark 4:36 was added so as to “fulfill” this psalm, which also mentions boats in the plural (Ps 107:23) (Gospel of St. Mark, 149). See also John, Meaning, 74. 88.  Cf. Pesch, “Markan Version.” 89.  Kee, “Terminology.” 90.  See Kennedy, “Root g’r.” 91.  Kee, “Terminology,” 246. 92.  Heil, Jesus Walking, 89. R. A. Guelich agrees and writes that “by having Jesus address the elements as though they were demonic . . . the story underscores the nature of the struggle” (Mark 1–8:26). See also E. E. Ellis, who writes, “Christ, by his act, foreshadows the coming conquest of the kingdom of God over the demonic realm” (Gospel of Luke, 129). Joel Green writes, “Jesus’ stilling the storm is not an exorcism, in the same way his cleansing a leper is not an exorcism; in

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Jesus Going to His Disciples on the Water Although there are a number of elements in this story93 which demonstrate Jesus’s similarity to God, two are especially important for the study of the abyss. The first is the ability of Jesus to walk on water and the second is the rescue of his disciples who are in the midst of the water. Walking on the Water When Old Testament writers describe the great works of God in controlling or battling the sea, they sometimes speak in terms of God walking or moving on the water. For instance, Job 9:8 pictures God treading on the waves of the sea, which in a figurative sense may refer to the sea monster Yamm.94 The idea of treading on the sea, similar to what Mic 1:3 and Amos 4:13 say about the earth, refers to God’s dominance and unlimited power over it.95 The Septuagint rendering of this verse has an important difference in that instead of speaking of Yahweh treading on the heights or the back of the sea, it says that He walks on the sea as if on ground. This version is extremely close to the language of Jesus walking on the water in Mark.96 Heil and Meier agree that in the LXX version, the text has been demythologized and that the idea of treading on the sea monster has faded away.97 What the wording in the Greek and Hebrew have in common is the sense that they both demonstrate God’s power over and mastery of the sea. One could not walk on the sea without having mastery over it.98 Job 38:16 is significant, not only because it declares that God walks on the sea and abyss,99 but also because it occurs in the context of a theophany. Jesus also walked on the water, and in doing so revealed himself more fully to the disciples. Mark’s wording suggests that this is an epiphany story and that Jesus is revealing himself to his disciples.100 The main evidence for this view is the act of walking on water itself, the phrase “he wanted to pass by both calming the storm and cleansing a leper, though, the redemptive work of God has drawn near to overcome evil in all its forms (Gospel of Luke, 333). 93.  See Matt 14:22–33; Mark 6:45–53; John 6:15–21. 94.  See Heil, Jesus Walking, 39; Albright, “Das Buch Hiob,” 227; Wakeman, God’s Battle, 118; Clines, Job 1–20, 230–31. 95.  Heil, Jesus Walking, 39. 96.  Mark adds the definite article before “sea” while the Septuagint does not. 97.  Heil, Jesus Walking, 41; Meier, Marginal Jew, 914. 98.  Heil, Jesus Walking, 41–42. 99.  “Deep” is the English translation of the Greek ἄβυσσος. Notice that sea and abyss are parallel to each other. 100.  See Guelich, who represents this viewpoint. Mark 1–8:26, 350–51.

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them,”101 and the self-​designation “it is I.”102 Heil points out that Peter demonstrates, by asking to walk on the water in Matt 14:28, that he has understood the epiphanic action of Jesus. Peter “recognizes the significance of Jesus’s walking on the sea as an act of dominance over the wind and waves.”103 The Rescue of the Disciples As the disciples rowed through the night, the sea was becoming rough (John 6:18) and they were harassed in their rowing (Mark 6:48) because the wind was contrary (Matt 14:24). Though the texts do not confirm that they were in danger for their lives, Heil believes that this is a sea-​rescue story along the lines of three Old Testament sea-​rescue stories that demonstrate in some way God’s power over the water (Exod 14:13–31; Ps 107:23–32; Jonah 1:1–16).104 For the study of the abyss, the main importance of Heil’s observation is that “since it is God who is master of the waters in the Old Testament, distress at sea means distress oriented to a divine saving action through power over water.”105 Jesus is seen in the Gospels as possessing that same power to save people from the sea that Yahweh demonstrated in the Old Testament.106 In Ps 77:16–20, it is not entirely clear if the path of God upon the sea is supposed to refer to the path that was opened up by the dividing of the sea, or whether it is a simple reference to Yahweh needing to pass over the sea in order to subdue it and thus make a way for his people. In either case, the emphasis is on Yahweh needing to make the way through the sea in order to save his people. The imagery corresponds nicely to what Jesus did. He walked on the water in order to save his disciples and make a way for them through the sea.107 This making a way for them is especially clear in John’s Gospel, where the author informs the reader that upon entering the boat, Jesus and his disciples immediately found themselves at their destination (John 6:21). In Matthew’s account Peter gets out of the boat and briefly walks toward Jesus before he begins to sink. When Peter begins to sink and is rescued by 101.  “To ‘pass by them’ (παρελθεῖν αὐτούς) most probably has its significance in the similar language used in an epiphany of God to Moses (Exod 33:19–23; 34:6) and Elijah (1 Kgs 19:11) as the One who ‘passed by them’ in a moment of self-​revelation” (Guelich, Mark 1–8:26, 350–51). 102.  Both Hurtado and Guelich defend the position that though this phrase can be a simple phrase of self-​identification, in this context it probably alludes to God’s self-​revelation in passages such as Exod 3:14; Isa 43:25; 48:12 and 51:12. Hurtado, Mark; Guelich, Mark 1–8:26, 351. 103.  Heil, Jesus Walking, 60. 104.  Ibid., 35. 105.  Ibid., 36. 106.  Eve, Jewish Context, 383–84. 107.  Derrett thinks walking on water was the counterpart to the dividing of the waters of the Jordan (“Why and How,” 333–39).

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Jesus, the epiphany mentioned above is furthered by means of Jesus pulling Peter up out of the waters as Yahweh had done before. “Save me, O God! For the waters have come up to my neck. I sink in deep mire, where there is no foothold; I have come into deep waters, and the flood sweeps over me” (Ps 69:1–2).108 Finally, Jesus reaches out his hand to rescue Peter in a similar way to Yahweh being asked to reach out His hand in order to rescue the psalmist from the many waters (Ps 144:7). In analyzing this story in Matthew, Heil believes that Jesus calming the storm raised a vital question in the book as to the identity of Jesus (who is this man?), but that that question is only answered gradually as the story of Jesus unfolds. He notes that after experiencing the miracle of Jesus walking on the water, the disciples understand: “And those in the boat worshiped him, saying, ‘Truly you are the Son of God’ ” (Matt 14:33).109 “It is this epiphanic revelation of Jesus in 14:22–33 which evokes the response of the disciples to his true character as Son of God (14:33) and answers the question of Jesus’s true identity.”110 In Chapter 2 I demonstrated in several ways that the sea is often portrayed as evil and in conflict with God. In the sea rescue stories, the Gospel writers allude to this Old Testament material in order to describe Jesus’s power, authority, and relationship to God.111 By calming the sea, walking on water, and rescuing his disciples who were in the midst of the water, Jesus demonstrated the characteristics of God as seen in the Old Testament, and the sea was portrayed as being in some respects in opposition to God. This use of the sea in the Gospels is similar to the use that John makes of the abyss in Revelation. In subsequent chapters it will become clear that John describes the abyss as evil and in opposition to God, and that God is seen to have mastery over it, to protect His people from it, and even to use it to protect his people. Although in Revelation Jesus is not the one who is portrayed as controlling the abyss, the way that the abyss is used to demonstrate God’s power and His protection of His people is similar to the way that the sea is used in the Gospels.

Conclusion Much of the material examined in this chapter portrays the abyss in a similar manner as the Old Testament, namely, that it signifies the sea or is closely related to the sea. However, in the literature studied in this chapter there are several 108.  Heil, Jesus Walking, 61–63. See also Pss 18:17 and 69:14–16. 109.  Ibid., 91–94. 110.  Ibid., 93. 111.  See Batto, Slaying the Dragon, 4.

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examples of the abyss described as a prison for angels. This prison for angels was an important element of the Watchers tradition and has important parallels to the abyss in John’s Apocalypse. The common conceptions between this prison and Revelation’s abyss are the incarceration of evil beings, the location of the prison underground, and the duration of the imprisonment until the time of judgment. The prison is also similar to the watery abyss of the Old Testament in that both are associated with evil, mainly as seen in the evil creatures that are found there, and both are located within or under the earth. Finally, the sea portrayed in the Gospel accounts shares with the abyss in Revelation that both are used to demonstrate God or Jesus’s control of evil and protection of their people.

Chapter 4

The Abyss and Its Interpretive Significance in Revelation

The word ἄβυσσος appearsin the book of Revelation seven times (9:1, 2, 11; 11:7; 17:8; 20:1, 3), and in 13:1 the sea is used in such a way that most commentators agree that the idea of the abyss is being referenced.1 This means that in the book of Revelation, five passages make mention of the concept of the abyss. The importance of the concept, though, is not accurately appreciated simply by counting the times it is mentioned. The abyss plays an important role in the description of evil that is a major theme in this book. John’s Apocalypse also describes the way that God has responded and will respond to this evil, and the abyss is an integral part of this process. The last two chapters surveyed texts that affected the way that a first-century author and his or her audience would have understood the abyss. The present chapter examines the use of this concept in Revelation itself by means of looking at specific interpretive issues from the perspective of the abyss. This approach is helpful because it not only sheds light on the function of the abyss in these passages but also demonstrates how focusing on this concept provides new understanding into the overall interpretation of the book, especially with regard to evil.

The Relationship of the Beast’s Exit from the Abyss in Chapters 13 and 17 Revelation 13 and 17 are the two chapters of Revelation in which scholars have most clearly seen references to Nero.2 These are seen in the head that had suf1.  For instance, Mounce, Book of Revelation, 244; Brighton, Revelation, 348; Johnson, Triumph of the Lamb, 187; Boxall, Revelation, 187; Resseguie, Revelation of John, 179–80; Bauckham, Climax of Prophecy, 436; Beale, Book of Revelation, 684. 2.  For background on this issue of Neronian influence, see Beale, Book of Revelation, 687–94; Charles, Critical and Exegetical Commentary, 2:67–87; Charlesworth, “Nero”; Aune, Revelation 6–16, 728–30, 738–40, 891–94; Aune, Revelation 17–22, 950; Thomas, Revelation 19,

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fered a mortal wound (13:3, 12, 14), the beast that had recovered from that wound (13:3, 12, 14), the number 666 (13:18), the statement that the beast “was, is not, and will come” which appears in several different versions in 17:8a, 8b, and 11, the statement that the beast was an eighth king who was of the seven (17:11), and the statement that the beast was to lead an army against Rome herself (17:16–18). It is common for scholars who have been convinced by this evidence to conclude that in speaking of the beast as the one who was, is not, and will come up out of the abyss (17:8), John is referring to the same events as those alluded to in Rev 13:1, 3, 12, 14.3 Bauckham, however, thinks that several factors argue against this identification and rather than see the two exits of the beast from the sea/abyss as alluding to the same events, he asserts that John was creating a history for the beast4 and that the exit of ch. 17 occurs later than the exit and recovery in ch. 13. This interpretation of the relationship between the beast’s exit in ch. 13 and ch. 17, if true, has important implications for the use of the abyss in this book.5 Bauckham’s “History for the Beast” Bauckham presents the following points in support of his interpretation.6 First, whereas ch. 13 describes the recovery of the beast as symbolizing the restoration 95–109. For discussion of the extent to which the Nero myth factors into these two chapters, see Minear, “Wounded Beast”; Lawrence, “Nero Redivivus”; Kreitzer, “Hadrian”; Bodinger, “Mythe de Néron”; Van de Water, “Reconsidering the Beast”; van Henten, “Nero Redivivus Demolished”; Klauck, “Do They Never Come Back?”; Wilson, “Early Christians in Ephesus”; van Kooten, “Year of the Four Emperors”; Tonstad, “Appraising the Myth.” 3.  Osborne, Revelation, 621; Mounce, Book of Revelation, 314; Roloff, Revelation of John, 198; Johnson, Revelation, 740. 4.  Bauckham, Climax of Prophecy, 437. 5.  Of the commentaries that have been written since Bauckham, a few have agreed with him, many have failed to mention his interpretation, and some have quickly rejected it without giving significant arguments against it. Agreed: Beale, Book of Revelation, 692; Koester, Revelation, 571, 677. Failed to mention: Aune, Revelation 6–16; Aune, Revelation 17–22; Michaels, Revelation; Chilton, Days of Vengeance. Quickly rejected: Osborne, Revelation, 621. 6.  Bauckham, along with many commentators, thinks that the beast was understood to be a representation of Rome (Climax of Prophecy, 424, 429). Steven Friesen writes that “Commentators are nearly unanimous that Rev 13 deals with Roman imperial power and with the worship of the Roman emperors” (“Myth and Symbolic Resistance,” 303). In another place Friesen writes, “John superimposed this Leviathan imagery, rich in cosmogonic, eschatological, and political symbolism, on the Danielic image of oppressive world empires. The result was no longer an exegesis of Daniel but rather an exegesis of Roman authority. Mythic themes and characters flowed together to label Rome as the ghastly embodiment of all of history’s oppressors, one of the great sources of chaos in the world, and a mythic opponent of Israel’s God. The empire was the culmination of the history of evil in the world” (Friesen, Imperial Cults, 175). At times, though, the description of the beast appears to demand the more specific referent of Nero, who, as Bauckham explains, was uniquely associated with evil because of his persecution of the church in Rome (Climax of Prophecy, 384, 410–11).

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and enhancement of Rome, ch. 17 depicts the beast as bringing about the downfall of Rome.7 Second, whereas the beast in ch. 13 attacks and defeats the believers, in ch. 17 he wars against Christ and is defeated.8 Third, the descriptions of the beast in the two chapters are based in part on two different traditions of the myth of Nero’s return.9 The use of two different traditions substantially changes the emphasis that comes through in John’s two portrayals of the beast.10 Fourth, the Christological parody in the two cases is targeting a different event in Christ’s life, and therefore the beast’s career. Whereas ch. 13 contains a parody of Christ’s resurrection, ch. 17 includes a parody of Christ’s parousia.11 The reason why this point has not been widely recognized is most likely due to the fact that commentators have not appreciated the extent of John’s creative thinking as well as his desire to present a history for the beast.12 Fifth, a point that has been noticed by many authors13 is that whereas the head is said to have received the mortal wound in ch. 13, it is the beast that recovered and received adulation from the earth-​dwellers as a result. Historically this is best explained by the fact that while Nero (one of the heads) received the mortal wound, it was the Roman Empire that recovered from that symbolic wound to one of its heads.14 The year of the four emperors that began after Nero’s death could easily have meant the death of the empire and at the time probably appeared to signify exactly that. However, with the rise of Vespasian, the empire recovered and was seen to be just as strong as it had been before. It was an astonishing recovery that can easily be seen to deserve the acclamation of the earth dwellers in 13:3–4: “The whole world was astonished and followed the beast . . . and they also worshipped the beast and asked, ‘Who is like the beast? Who can make war against him?’ ” If John were writing during the reign of Domitian, which is assumed in this work, then this recovery happened in John’s past. Revelation 17:8 and 11, however, deal with a time in John’s future because it is paralleling Christ’s parousia and 7.  Bauckham, Climax of Prophecy, 429, 439. 8.  Ibid., 437. 9.  The common designation of this myth is Nero redivivus, which refers to Nero’s return from the dead. However, this term is troublesome because it is not at all clear that the common belief was that Nero had died; rather, it may indicate that he had escaped and would one day return. See van Kooten, “ ‘Wrath Will Drip,’” 178–79; van Kooten, “Year of the Four Emperors,” 206–7. See also the review of literature in Bauckham, especially his conclusions regarding redivivus (Climax of Prophecy, 407–31, esp. 422–23). In referring to this myth, I will normally use the term “Nero myth” or “the myth of Nero’s return.” See Collins, Combat Myth, 176–83; Kraybill, Imperial Cult, 161–63; Satake, Die Offenbarung, 347–48; Thomas, Revelation 19, 99. 10.  Bauckham, Climax of Prophecy, 426–31. 11.  Ibid., 437. Beale agrees, saying: “the healing of the beast’s wound in 13:3 is a different event from the beast’s reemergence from the abyss and consequent destruction” (Book of Revelation, 692). 12.  See Bauckham, Climax of Prophecy, 438. 13.  E.g., Minear, “Wounded Beast,” 96. 14.  Bauckham, Climax of Prophecy, 441–44. Contra Minear, “Wounded Beast,” 66.

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because it is stated by John that this coming of the beast will happen after the present state of “not being.” Sixth, Bauckham points out that if the recovery of the beast from the mortal wound in ch. 13 represents the personal return of Nero, a future event from the perspective of John’s Apocalypse, then everything that happens from 13:3 onward, including the activity of the second beast, would need to belong to an even more distant future. This is a key point that few authors have noticed. They inconsistently understand 13:3 to have as its referent the personal return of Nero, while at the same time understand the referent for the second beast to be the imperial cult as it existed in John’s day.15 Bauckham’s view of the meaning of the fatal wound that was healed, on the other hand, fits well with this likely interpretation of the second beast. An important difference between chs. 13 and 17, according to the interpretation presented here, is that in ch. 13 John is writing about a past event from his perspective, the recovery of Rome, while ch. 17 deals with the future. John desires to demonstrate in ch. 17 by means of the expectation of Nero’s return that two different contemporary expectations were destined to be proven false. The first was the expectation that Rome’s power would go on forever16 and the second was that Nero would return leading an army that would attack and destroy Rome. Nero would then set up his own empire. John’s prophecy is seen to addresses the contradiction between these two pagan expectations and it exploits the fact that both were attached to Roman imperial succession because of Nero’s role in both.17 What John portrays is the coming of the pagan messiah who destroys Rome itself. This destruction contradicts “the idolatrous faith in the eternity of Roman rule.”18 However, the empire that he attempts to establish on the ruins of Rome is doomed to fail as Christ battles against him and defeats him. The Beast “Is Not” According to the view explained above, the fact that the beast “is not” (17:8) refers to the disappearance of Nero and the belief that he would return at the head of a Parthian army. An alternate way of understanding this statement, however, is that instead of Nero being in view in 17:8 and 11, John is referring to the oppression of the Roman Empire, which was not currently making itself felt but 15.  For instance, see Johnson, Triumph of the Lamb, 190–92, 196. 16.  Craig Koester writes, “The dominion of Rome was understood to be enduring. Texts from the period look for ‘the eternal continuation’ of imperial rule and the ‘permanence’ of the empire. Revelation’s insistence that such an empire will end poses a challenge to this aspect of the ideology” (“Revelation’s Visionary Challenge,” 10). 17.  Bauckham, Climax of Prophecy, 449–50. 18.  Ibid.

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which would return in the future. Caird gives an example of this view when he comments that “the fact that he (John) can say ‘it is not’ is the clearest possible indication that there was no open and organized persecution at the time when he was writing.”19 Caird is arguing that Rome was a beast insofar as it persecuted the people of God. To the degree that the beast ceased persecuting the church, Rome ceased being present as a beast. Therefore, since Rome was not actively persecuting the church, the beast “is not” in the period that John was writing. Further, according to this alternate interpretation, John could say that the beast would come again because he believed that Roman imperial power would again persecute God’s people in the future. While certainly possible and while fitting the probable historical context in John’s day,20 this interpretation suffers from at least two major difficulties. First of all, the description of the dragon’s war against God’s people in ch. 12 and his use of the two beasts in ch. 13 appear to be describing a rebellion much broader and more overarching than what could be contained in Nero’s or another emperor’s persecution of the church. John and his readers found themselves living in the symbolic three and a half years described in chs. 11–1321 and it is doubtful that John would have wanted to communicate that the beast, as that great enemy of God and God’s people, was not currently present. The seven messages to the churches also contradict the idea that the beast was not present. Even though the messages only mention one fatality (2:13), the battle that was being lost by some of the churches was a real one and it was a battle being fought while John wrote his apocalypse. Satan, the beast, and the false prophet were all present and accounted for in the battle for the lives of the churches. A second reason why the interpretation represented by Caird is not the best one is that the immediate context (17:9–10) communicates the reality that the beast is still present in the form of a king. However one understands the meaning of the seven heads, whether as seven specific Roman emperors, seven world powers, or as a number representing the totality of the Roman military power,22 the beast is decidedly present and wielding power in the form of his sixth head. Therefore, it is likely that the phrase “is not” (17:8, 11) signifies that the beast, as manifested solely by the Nero myth, was not currently present but would return and complete his mission of destroying the harlot. So, in effect, John is writing about two aspects of the beast. One is his oppressive nature, currently operating in the Roman Empire, which continually attacked and warred against 19.  Caird, Revelation, 216. 20.  See Thompson, Book of Revelation, 95–115; Thompson, “Ordinary Lives,” 28–34. 21.  Beale, Book of Revelation, 565–68; Koester, Revelation, 563. 22.  My opinion is that the number seven is used not to speak of exactly seven emperors but rather to communicate the complete number of Roman emperors. See Caird, Revelation, 218–19; Mounce, Book of Revelation, 317; Bauckham, Climax of Prophecy, 404–7; Kiddle, Revelation, 350.

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God’s people, albeit at times with more ferocity than at others. This aspect is communicated in 17:9–11 by the terms “heads” and “kings.” The second aspect is the beast’s return to destroy the harlot and war against the Lamb in a final eschatological battle. This is the aspect that is communicated by means of the word “beast” and the allusions to the Nero myth.23 Implications The reason that space has been dedicated to the history of the beast is because of his important relationship to the abyss. When the beast is not present, he is in the abyss, and when he comes again, it is out of the abyss that he comes. Some have argued that each of the exits of the beast from the abyss or sea describe the same exit, but this only makes sense if Rev 11:7, 13:1, and 17:8 are all describing the same event in the history of the beast. As the discussion above has demonstrated, it is highly likely that ch. 17 describes events that occur later in the career of the beast than ch. 13. If this is the case, then the period of time spent in the abyss symbolizes something different as well. The Parallel Between the Abyss and the River Euphrates The first implication of this interpretation is that it increases the similarity between John’s use of the Euphrates and his use of the abyss. As will be shown below in Chapter 6, there are several factors in John’s Apocalypse that suggest a strong and significant overlap between these two concepts. This overlap is increased by what has been shown above regarding the fact that 17:8 and 11 refer to the beast as he is manifested in the Nero myth. Whereas 16:12–16 and 19:19 suggest that the beast leads armies from the other side of the Euphrates in order to war against the Lamb, certain versions of the Nero legend portray Nero as also coming from the other side of the Euphrates as he leads his armies against Rome.24 Revelation 17:8 states that the beast would come from the abyss in order 23.  In a similar way, Kiddle writes, “When John speaks of the Beast who in the present carries the woman, he is thinking of the abiding principle of evil to which the Empire is devoted . . . but when he talks about the Beast who was, is not, but is to rise, he is thinking of this evil power specifically as it was incarnate in Nero, as it is to be incarnate in the Antichrist, the resurrected Nero” (Revelation, 346). See also Minear’s explanation of this seeming contradiction of the beast not being present while the sixth king is present (I Saw a New Earth, 242–43). This use of the beast to allude to both Rome and to Nero is similar to what John does in Rev 13 as he presents both the beast and one of its heads that had recovered from a fatal wound. Because of the complexity of this allusion, in this book I sometimes focus on the way that the beast symbolizes aspects of the Roman Empire and sometimes focus on the way it symbolizes Nero. 24.  Sib. Or. 4:119–24, 137–39; cf. 5:94–99. See John J. Collins for information on Nero in the Sibylline Oracles (Sibylline Oracles, 80–87).

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to do these same two things (war against the Lamb in 17:14 and destroy Rome in 17:16). This means, then, that the time that the beast “is not” (that is, he is in the abyss) in 17:8 corresponds to the time that he is beyond the Euphrates,25 and in a similar manner the beast’s return from the abyss corresponds to Nero’s return from beyond the Euphrates. The Similarity Between the Dragon and the Beast A second implication of the history of the beast is that it serves to closely associate the beast and the dragon. It is clear that John wanted to accentuate their similarities because he described both of them as having a common appearance (12:3; 13:1)26 and as exiting from the abyss. However, by understanding the beast’s exit in 17:8 to be his parousia as opposed to some sort of resurrection as seen in ch. 13, it accentuates the similarities between the dragon and the beast and ties their exits (17:8; 20:7–8) together more closely. For one thing, both exits occur later in the progression of the book. As argued above, the exit from the abyss in ch. 17 describes the future return of the beast from John’s point of view, and the exit of the dragon presumably happens in the future as well. Second, the exits of the beast and the dragon are similar in their relationship to God’s people. In the case of the beast, he returns and gathers to himself ten kings and together they fight against the Lamb and his people.27 In the case of the dragon, he returns and gathers to himself Gog and Magog and moves to destroy the camp of God (Rev 20:8–9). In both cases, the attempt to destroy God’s people fails. Third, in both exits from the abyss (17:8; 20:7–8) there is a clear message that the return of both the beast and the dragon will only be for a short while and then they will be destroyed. In ch. 17 it is said twice that the beast goes to his destruction (17:8, 11), and then in 19:20 he is placed in the lake of fire. The dragon, in a similar way, is allowed to exit from the abyss for a short time (20:3) and then is quickly placed in the lake of fire as well (20:10). Fourth, if the battle of ch. 19 is an expansion of the battle of the beast and the ten horns in ch. 17, then the description of this battle of the beast against the Lamb uses the language of Ezek 38–39 while the battle of the dragon in ch. 20 does the same thing.

25.  I. T. Beckwith’s comment harmonizes nicely with this idea: “Euphrates is apparently thought of less really than typically, as a kind of horizon-​line beyond which lies the unknown and dreaded East” (Apocalypse, 250). 26.  See Rainbow, “Millennium as Metaphor,” 215. John Court contributes the point that “although there are two distinct episodes, two different contexts in Rev. 12 and 13, none the less there is a common mythological form behind the dragon and the beast from the sea” (Myth and History, 124). 27.  Revelation 17:14 mentions that God’s people (the chosen and faithful) are with the Lamb when the beast and the Lamb battle each other.

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An assumption that John’s audience could have reasonably drawn from these similarities between the dragon and the beast is that the beast does what he does as a direct result of the fact that the dragon does what he does.28 The similarity in description, the parallel exits from the abyss, the fact that the dragon gives the beast his authority, and the common elements in the description of the battles are all indications that when John’s readers suffer at the hands of the beast in any of his manifestations, they are really suffering at the hands of Satan.29 Concluding Thoughts If Rev 13 and 17 describe two different events in the career of the beast, the significance of the beast’s exit from the abyss in 17:8 is affected. It increases the similarity of the abyss with the Euphrates, which is an important element in the arguments below in Chapter 6. Also, the similarities of the exits of the dragon and the beast are heightened, which is significant for the discussion of traditions in Chapter 5.

The Reasons for the Dragon’s Exit from the Abyss in Chapter 20 The second abyss-​related interpretive issue to be examined in this chapter is closely related to the dragon’s imprisonment and exit from the abyss in Rev 20. The view of some scholars is that instead of opting for a traditional premillennial, amillennial, or postmillennial interpretation for Rev 20:1–6, the passage should be interpreted as a symbolic declaration of the defeat of Satan and the vindication of the saints or martyrs that logically occurs at the second coming of Christ.30 According to this view, the thousand years is meant not to describe a 28.  See David deSilva, who argues a very similar point from a different perspective (Seeing Things John’s Way, 199). For discussion of the parodies seen in Revelation in which an aspect of God is mimicked by Satan and his followers, see Poythress, “Counterfeiting.” This relationship between the dragon and the beast could easily be seen as a parody of the relationship between God and Christ (“Counterfeiting, 411–12). 29.  L. J. Lietaert Peerbolte communicates something similar when he writes that the empire in which John’s readers live is really a tool of Satan (Antecedents of Antichrist, 168). 30.  Koester, Revelation, 781–83; Schnackenburg, God’s Rule, 345–46; Schüssler Fiorenza, Priester für Gott, 323–24; Marshall, “Christian Millennium,” 217–35; Bauckham, Theology, 106–8; Mathewson, “Re-​examination”; McKelvey, “Millennium,” 97–99. It is beyond the scope of this study to enter into the complicated topic of millennium views. Although most of the insights presented in this study are not affected by my millennial perspectives or those of my readers, the passage under consideration in this section is the one passage that clearly mentions a thousand-​year reign of Christ and imprisonment of Satan and so one’s view of the millennium does come into play. Each millennial position has difficulties and the point of this section is, by means of an examination

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literal period of time but rather to demonstrate that God’s people have triumphed and that Satan has been defeated. The time period is stripped of its quantitative and temporal character and is meant to qualify the rule of Christ in a theological sense.31 The thousand years, then, is symbolically describing the completeness of God’s victory and this victory takes place not at Christ’s first advent but rather at his parousia.32 Koester’s approach to the millennium is similar to that assumed here and he helpfully describes it in the following way: “The approach taken here is that John’s readers would have seen themselves living in the time when Satan and the beast were at work, and not in the millennial age after the beast was defeated and Satan was bound. For them, the end of evil remained a future hope. But this approach also recognizes that the visionary world does not outline a chronological sequence of events that can be correlated directly with the readers’ world.”33 This position has much to commend it, but a difficulty with this interpretation is the fact that the dragon must be released after the thousand years is over (Rev 20:3). If Rev 20:1–6 is supposed to demonstrate the defeat of Satan and the vindication of the saints, why should Satan be released at all? It would seem in some ways to negate both of the points just mentioned. For instance, if Satan is released from the abyss after the thousand years, can it really be said that the millennium describes his defeat? If Satan is released from the abyss after the millennium, can the millennium really be said to demonstrate the ultimate vindication of the saints? The goal of this section is to focus attention on the abyss itself in order to better understand what the dragon’s entrance into and exit from it signifies. Precursors to the Dragon’s Presence in the Abyss In Chapter 3 above, a precursor for the dragon’s imprisonment in the abyss was found in the Watchers tradition. Three more precursors, all from the Old Testament, are briefly identified and described in this section. The Abode of the Dragon Beginning in Rev 12, John introduces the dragon and quickly identifies him as the ancient serpent that is called the devil and Satan (12:9). This clearly associates the dragon with the serpent in the garden who deceived Eve, but of the abyss, to solve difficulties that are inherent in that millennial position that I find most convincing and most natural in the context of John’s Apocalypse. 31.  Schüssler Fiorenza, Priester für Gott, 323–24. 32.  Mathewson, “Re-​examination,” 243. 33.  Koester, Revelation, 782.

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John’s further description of this beast as a multiheaded dragon who opposes heaven also serves to associate the dragon with the cosmic enemy of God that various Old Testament writers portray as a dragon or sea monster (Job 26:12–13; Pss 74:13–14; 89:9–10; Isa 27:1; 51:9–10). This dragon, called both Leviathan and Rahab, had multiple heads (Ps 74:13–14), was an enemy of God, and was destined to be destroyed by God at a future time (Isa 27:1). Significantly for this topic, the dragon’s abode was often understood to be the abyss (Job 41:31–32; Ps 148:7; Isa 51:9–10) or the sea, which in poetical and mythical contexts is a term closely related to the abyss (Gen 1:21; Ps 104:25–26; Isa 27:1). The Capture and Destruction of the Dragon in the Old Testament The treatment of the dragon by Yahweh in the Old Testament is varied. Often the dragon is portrayed as being destroyed (Job 26:12–13; Pss 74:13–14; 89:9–10; Isa 51:9–10), but in other passages he is not. When he is not destroyed, he is defeated in a sense that suggests capture (Job 7:12; 41:1–5) or subdued in a sense that suggests that he is a pet (Ps 104:26). These observations lead to a greater understanding of why the dragon enters into and then exits from the abyss. Just as Old Testament writers describe the dragon being subdued by God and assigned to his place in the sea, so John describes him being subdued by God and assigned to his place in the abyss. In like manner, just as the Old Testament writers sometimes describe the utter destruction of the dragon by God, so John shows the dragon eventually being assigned to the lake of fire and being completely destroyed (20:10). Therefore, the placing of the dragon in the abyss in Rev 20:1–3 and his release in order to eventually go to the lake of fire is not a surprising novelty but rather a demonstration that God will continue to work in the way that He did in the past, and that Old Testament descriptions of God’s victory over evil will be repeated and fulfilled in the future.34 He will once again put the dragon under guard in the abyss.35 He will once again destroy the dragon completely. Both of these symbols describe God’s victory over the dragon.36

34.  Isaiah 27:1 is significant in this discussion because it refers to the destruction of the dragon that would occur in the future. 35.  Shane Wood is technically correct when he writes, “there are no Old Testament connections to the ‘binding’ and ‘imprisonment’ of Satan.” He is correct because it is the dragon that is imprisoned in the Old Testament, not Satan. However, it should be noted that in both the Old Testament and in Revelation, a dragon is imprisoned. Wood too quickly moves to the Book of the Watchers to find parallels to Rev 20:1–3 and thus misses the Old Testament precursors to the binding of Satan that have been described above (Alter-​Imperial Paradigm, 190). 36.  This topic will be developed at greater length in Chapter 5.

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The Capture of the Sea and the Abyss in the Old Testament In the Old Testament, the dragon is not only described as living in the sea but also at times identified with it (Job 26:12; Pss 74:13; 89:9–10). Therefore, precursors to the binding of the dragon can be found in those passages in which the sea is said to be bound, held back, or locked up behind barred doors (Job 38:8–11; Pss 33:7; 104:9; Jer 5:22). Jeremiah 5:22 graphically describes the sea as tossing and roaring in vain as it presumably tries to cross over the boundary set by God. One imagines a trapped, wild creature attempting to escape. Of the four passages just mentioned, the one that uses language that speaks clearly of locking is Job 38:8–11. In a similar way to Marduk locking up the waters of the deceased goddess Tiamat,37 the book of Job describes God as having set the limits for the sea by placing doors and bars. The idea is of a double door to which a bar is set thus preventing the two doors from swinging open. That is what God has done to the sea so that it cannot escape from its proper place. This passage occurs in that section of the book in which God describes his mighty acts to Job, including his mastery over Leviathan the dragon. This passage is also found only 19 verses away from a description of the capturing of the abyss. It is fascinating to read Job 38:30 with Satan’s imprisonment in the abyss in mind because here it is said that ‫( ְּתהֹום‬LXX ἄβυσσος) is captured.38 The context suggests that this refers to the freezing of water that makes it hard as stone and thus the abyss is captured beneath this ice.39 This passage provides a possible precursor to John’s description of the abyss being locked up with the dragon in it.40 Although it cannot be demonstrated that John was familiar with this particular passage, it is probable that this section of Job that went into great detail in its description of Leviathan was key to the Old Testament understanding of this dragon. John’s description of a sea beast and a land beast in Rev 13 is most likely an allusion to Leviathan and Behemoth in Job 40–41.41 Also, John’s skillful use of the sea, abyss, and dragon makes it probable that he was very familiar with these traditions as they appear generally in the Old Testament and specifically in Job. Therefore, it is possible that John saw the interesting parallel of the sea being locked up in Job 38:8–11 and the abyss being captured in Job 38:30.42 In a passage in which the great acts of God are described to Job, one demonstration of this greatness is 37.  “Epic of Creation,” COS 1.11:398–99. 38. The Hebrew word is ‫ ָלכַד‬. Its most common meaning is to capture, seize, or take. See BDB, s.v. ‫ ָלכַד‬. 39.  See Clines, Job 21–37, 1062–63. 40.  It is interesting that the only other use of this verb in the hithpael refers to Leviathan’s scales in Job 41:17. 41.  See Beale, Book of Revelation, 682; Day, God’s Conflict, 62–87. 42.  See also the LXX version of Job 41:24 which says that Leviathan regarded Tartarus of the deep (ἄβυσσος) as a captive.

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God’s ability to control and subdue the sea. God’s ability to lock up the dragon in the abyss can be seen as an equally great demonstration of God’s power and protection of His people. Christ’s second advent would mean the definitive and consummated victory of God over the dragon. John demonstrates this victory in various ways; one of which is to show that the dragon is bound and thrown into the abyss. While this is not presented by John as the final word on the dragon’s defeat, this incarceration had precursors in the capture and restraint of the sea and the sea dragon that were familiar ways to describe God’s victory over his opponents in the Old Testament. The Need for the Dragon to Exit the Abyss As has already been stated, the exit of the dragon from the abyss is problematic for the view that the thousand-​year incarceration symbolically represents the defeat of the dragon and the vindication of the saints. The difficulty revolves around the fact that this exit appears to make the victory hollow insofar as the saints are attacked once again and the dragon’s imprisonment is shown to be only temporary. A careful study of the passage, though, reveals that God’s victory is not diminished by the dragon’s exit. The End of the Enemies from the Abyss What have John’s readers heard about the abyss and its inhabitants by the end of ch. 19? They have heard that some type of horrifying locusts and their king were released (9:1–11). Then they heard of a beast that arose out of the sea/abyss to attack the saints on three different occasions (11:7; 13:1; 17:8). Finally, they heard that the beast and the false prophet were destroyed in the lake of fire (19:20). So even though the beast and false prophet are destroyed, John’s audience has heard of four different ascents from the abyss or sea. An insightful question from this audience would be “why should we not expect another beast to come up in the future?” This would be an appropriate question since there are hints in the book that the beast keeps coming back.43 The dragon is the one who has been inspiring and directing the beasts, but up until this point of the book the dragon has not been in the abyss. One way to understand the fact that the dragon has come out of the abyss and then is destroyed in the lake of fire is that the abyss is now empty. The inspiration behind the evil inhabitants of the abyss has been destroyed and he will no longer call up any agents (cf. Rev 12:18–13:1). This would mean that as of 20:8, 43.  See Rev 13:3, 12; 17:8, 11.

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the abyss is empty for all time. Bauckham communicates something similar when he writes that the dragon’s release from the abyss was necessary in order to demonstrate that the saints’ triumph was irreversible. The release allows the dragon to try one more time to defeat God’s people but he is not able.44 In this understanding, far from demonstrating a flaw in the great design of God’s victory, the release of the dragon is necessary to show just how complete the victory actually is. The Fulfillment of Prophecy Although it might appear strange that what looked like a complete victory in Rev 20:1–6 was in actuality only the first stage of the victory, this same pattern appears in two important sources for John’s Apocalypse. Ezekiel 37 describes a resurrection of God’s people (37:1–14) followed by the arrival of the Davidic Messiah (37:15–28). One could easily assume that this was the beginning of a lasting state of blessedness. However, the next event described is a ferocious attack in which Gog and Magog attempt to destroy God’s people but are defeated by God in the process (Ezek 38–39). Isaiah 24–27 describe a similar pattern. In 24:21–22 the heavenly powers and earthly rulers are incarcerated in pits, then the reign of God and the messianic banquet follow in 24:23 and 25:6–9, and finally the resurrection of God’s people is described in 26:19. However, even after these strong indications of ultimate blessing, Isa 26:20–21 warns God’s people to hide themselves because God will execute judgment on evil people. It is in the next verse (Isa 27:1) that the destruction of Leviathan is described.45 God’s victory apparently comes in multiple stages. In examining these two prophets, it becomes clear that the idea of a two-​ staged victory of God over evil is not an invention of John but one that is found in his sources. John has harmonized his description of the defeat of the dragon in a similar way, which is why the dragon must exit the abyss and attempt to destroy God’s people, even after the thousand-​year imprisonment appeared to indicate that complete victory had already been accomplished. The Dragon Destroyed After His Release As mentioned above, the binding of the dragon in the abyss corresponds to many texts that describe the imprisonment of celestial beings. Of the many 44.  Bauckham, Theology, 107. 45.  See Mealy for these and other points of contact between Isa 24–27 and Rev 19–20 (After the Thousand Years, 99–101).

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sources that tell this story, most of them speak of an incarceration that is followed by a release to judgment (Isa 24:21–22; Jude 6; 2 Pet 2:4; 1 En. 10:4–6, 12–14; Jub 5:10). This release was integral to the story because incarceration was seen not as punishment but rather as securing the prisoner until judgment could be enacted.46 Earlier in the book of Revelation, John had already described the beast and the locusts as coming up out of the abyss, but ch. 20 marks the first time that the dragon is clearly located within it. So, with Christ’s second advent, the dragon is removed entirely from the earth and can no longer deceive the nations (20:3), nor apparently harm God’s people. The fact that the dragon is now locked up in the abyss might seem in and of itself to be a sufficient arrangement that could demonstrate a permanent triumph of God over the dragon, but John was a student of his sources and knew that the angelic beings in both Isa 24 as well as many versions of the Watchers myth were released in order to go to judgment. John appears to follow them in stating that the dragon too must be released. John was faithful to his sources and at the same time adapted them to his Christian purposes.47 However, whereas in his sources the angelic beings appear to go directly from prison to their judgment, in the case of the dragon, he is permitted a short interval between his release and the lake of fire so that he can attempt one more time to deceive the nations and destroy God’s people. Then he too will go to his judgment, as Isa 24:22 and the other versions of the tradition have explained. This parenthesis between release from the abyss and entrance into judgment is masterfully utilized by John. The idea that there will be a period of time in between the traditional exit from the abyss and entrance into the fire of judgment allows John to harmonize two different sets of traditions. First, he alludes to those Old Testament passages that detail an attack on the people of God after they have seemingly entered into their full messianic rest. Because the dragon in Revelation has been released, he can lead these armies against God’s people for one final all-​out assault (Rev 20:7–9). Second, John shows the fulfillment of the many descriptions of the incarceration of evil celestial beings in the abyss and subsequent judgment and destruction.48 Because of this harmonizing, it is easier to see the logic of this surprising situation in which the dragon is 46.  Van der Toorn, “Prison,” 5:468. 47.  See Bauckham, Climax of Prophecy, 185. Bauckham writes that John shared many concerns and Old Testament themes in common with contemporary Jewish apocalypses but that his desire was “to root his own version of the traditional theme in the deeper theme of Christ’s conquest of all evil through his death.” 48.  “Für eine zeitlich begrenzte Fesselung eines Widersachers Gottes mit erneuter Loslassung in der Art von Offenbarung 20,1–3.7–10 dagegen finden sich in der jüdischen Apokalyptik keine Parallelen” (Bauer, Das tausendjährige Messiasreich, 187). While it is true that there are no Jewish apocalyptic parallels to the exact form of the story that is found in Revelation, this section has demonstrated that John inserted a gap between imprisonment and final judgment and that he was

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incarcerated, the saints are vindicated, and then the dragon is released again. The dragon must be released for a short time (20:3) because the activity of the dragon during this period is necessary for God’s complete victory to be accomplished, and for the story of the dragon to harmonize with John’s sources.49 The Dragon’s Progression of Descent In the interpretation argued in this book, the fall of the dragon from heaven in Rev 12 describes something different than his imprisonment in the abyss in ch. 20. Whereas ch. 12 describes the consequences of the first advent of Christ for the dragon, chs. 19–20 describe the second advent of Christ and the consequences that that advent will have on the dragon. Having said this, it is to be admitted that there are very important similarities between the two passages that have caused many to think that the descent of the dragon into the abyss is describing the same event as his descent to the earth in Rev 12. However, instead of these similarities signifying that both passages describe the same fall of the dragon, it is more likely that John’s readers would have seen these events as highlighting the progressive defeat of Satan that is accomplished by the two different advents of Christ. The following arrangement demonstrates both the significant similarities and the differences between the two accounts. Revelation 12—A baby comes to earth and is attacked (12:4). Revelation 19—A warrior comes to earth and is attacked (19:19). Revelation 12—The effect that Christ’s coming has on the dragon is that he is cast down to a lower level (earth) and this is done by an angel. Revelation 20—The effect that Christ’s second coming has on the dragon is that he is cast down to an even lower level (abyss) and this is done by an angel. Revelation 12—The result of the coming of Christ and the casting down to earth of the dragon is that he can no longer accuse the saints nor harm the woman. He can, however, attack the children of the woman. Revelation 20—The result of the second coming of Christ and the casting down of the dragon to the abyss is that the dragon can no longer deceive the nations and presumably can no longer attack the saints.50 alluding to a number of different stories and traditions when he wrote about the dragon’s imprisonment, release, and subsequent destruction. 49.  Chapter 5 will continue the investigation of this theme. 50.  The reasons for assuming that the dragon cannot attack the saints while in the abyss are the following: (1) the completeness of his imprisonment is emphasized by the triple description of the

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Revelation 12—On earth, the dragon can still attack and persecute the children of the woman, but only for a short time. Revelation 20—In the abyss the dragon cannot deceive anyone nor attack God’s people. However, after the dragon is released from the abyss, he can deceive the nations and attempt to attack the saints, but only for a short time. The preceding arrangement demonstrates both a reason for the dragon to be placed in the abyss as well as a reason for him to be released. The dragon enters the abyss because it must be shown that in a similar way to Christ’s first advent, the action of Christ causes the dragon to be further limited in the evil that he can accomplish (Rev 12:8–9; 20:3). However, in order to show that this is the culmination of Christ’s work, during the second advent the dragon is not just thrown to a lower level, but he is deposed to the lowest location possible and is bound so as to give him no opportunity to harm the saints (bound, shut, sealed). His release from the abyss is also necessary. He is released in order to show that in a similar way to the first advent, the dragon only has a short time to do evil (Rev 12:12; 20:3). However, in order to show that evil will be totally eliminated as a result of this second advent, at the end of the short time, the dragon is completely and utterly destroyed in the lake of fire.51 In considering the fall of the dragon in two stages in Revelation, it is worth noting that something similar to this occurs in the story of the fall of the king of Babylon in Isa 14.52 In describing the dragon’s fall from heaven in Rev 12, John most likely borrows either from this story in Isaiah, or the myth that the writer of Isaiah used in order to describe the king’s downfall.53 It must be admitted that in the Isaianic poem, the emphasis is placed upon the king attempting to ascend to the heights and to ultimately be thrust down to the pit, which in this case is Sheol (Isa 14:9–11, 15).54 Still, it is worth recognizing that in this very poem that probably formed the basis for John’s description of the expulsion of angel binding the dragon, closing the abyss over him, and sealing the entrance of the abyss; (2) only after he is released from the abyss is he described as attacking the saints; and (3) this passage alludes to Dan 7 in which the saints are vindicated and the little horn is destroyed and so is unable to harm the saints during their period of vindication. 51.  “Just as Satan was ‘thrown down’ from heaven in chapter 12 and ‘thrown’ into the pit at 20.3, so now he suffers yet another throwing” (Labahn, “Dangerous Loser, 169–70). 52.  See Steven Grabiner for a discussion of similarities and differences between Isa 14 and Rev 12 (Revelation’s Hymns, 57–60). 53.  See Collins, Combat Myth, 79–85; Clifford, Cosmic Mountain, 161–65; Lichtenberger, “Down-​Throw,” 141–45. 54.  There is an important sense in which Sheol is related to the abyss in the Old Testament. This can be seen in the fact that both are described as below the earth in extreme opposition to the location of heaven (Amos 9:2; Job 11:8; Isa 7:11; Ps 107:26) and that the abyss at times is shown to parallel the place of the dead (Job 38:16–17; Jonah 2:2–6; Ps 71:20).

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the dragon from heaven, the king is also said to have been cut down to the earth:55 “How you have fallen from heaven, O star of the morning, son of the dawn! You have been cut down to the earth, You who have weakened the nations!” (Isa 14:12).56 Therefore, this poem serves as a precursor to the progressive descent of the dragon. Just as the king attempted to make his throne in the heights, the dragon was in some sense installed in heaven. Just as the king was cut down to the earth, so the dragon was cast out of heaven to the earth. Just as the king was finally plunged down to the pit, which was Sheol, the dragon was cast down to the pit that was the abyss. Finally, just as there was peace and tranquility on the earth after the king had been thrust down to Sheol (Isa 14:4–8), so there is an absence of deception and the warring activity of the dragon once he is chained in the abyss. Concluding Thoughts The entrance of the dragon into the abyss is a powerful symbol that demonstrates the victory of God and the vindication of the saints. The exit of the dragon from the abyss, however, can lead some to wonder how complete that victory and vindication actually is. This section has provided multiple reasons why the exit of the dragon not only makes sense, but also forms an integral part of the description of God’s total victory over the dragon. Far from diminishing the victory that God is seen to have won, the exit of the dragon from the abyss actually amplifies the triumph of God.

The Referents of the Fallen Star and the Angel of the Abyss in Chapter 9 The topics studied up to this point in Chapter 4 are the beast that exits from the abyss and the dragon that is incarcerated in the abyss, only to be released afterward. Both of these characters have received a great deal of attention in scholarly literature. Two characters related to the abyss that have received much less attention are the fallen star that opens the abyss in 9:1 and the angel of the abyss who is king over the locusts (9:11). Although there is no consensus as to the identity of the referents of these two symbols, the different options put forth by scholars are fairly few in number. The purpose of this section is, by means of paying special attention to their relationship to the abyss, to arrive at a likely 55.  See Shipp, Of Dead Kings, 155–56. 56. Although Gunkel assumed that ‫ אֶ ֶרץ‬in this verse meant the underworld (see table 5.1 in Johnston), Johnston demonstrates that this is not likely (Shades of Sheol, 100, 110).

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conclusion regarding who John’s audience would have understood the referents of these symbols to be. The Moral Character of the Fallen Star It is almost universally accepted that the star that fell from heaven in 9:1 represents an angelic being.57 What is debated, however, is whether the angelic being is good or evil. Charles is often cited as being a strong representative of the first option. He points out that when dealing with stars that represent angelic beings, sometimes their falling and their descending are used interchangeably in the same context. He cites 1 En. 86:1 and 3 as examples and writes that “thus ‘to fall’ and ‘to descend’ are synonymous expressions when applied to stars symbolizing angels.”58 Although many have followed Charles in his opinion that the angel in 9:1 is a good angel,59 his example in 1 En. 86 is an unfortunate one and his logic is unsatisfactory. His example is found within the animal vision of 1 Enoch and describes the fall of the Watchers. Therefore, he is basing his analysis on words that are describing the activities of evil angels both in v. 1 and v. 3. So, while it is true that v. 3 uses the expression of a star descending to symbolize the descent of an evil angel, that is not the question that arises from Rev 9:1. The only thing that a comparison of 1 En. 86:1 and 3 reveals is that both “falling” and “descending,” when used of stars, can refer to the descent of an evil angel. What it does not prove is that a falling star can refer to a good angel, which is really the question being asked regarding Rev 9:1. Neither Charles nor the authors that follow him have found any examples that demonstrate this. Beale strongly supports this point by writing that “commentators have not adduced one example where a falling star metaphor is applied to a good angel” and he states that falling star language is “uniquely reserved for evil angels in the OT, Jewish writings, and the NT.”60 Because of the lack of evidence that any ancient writers used falling star imagery to refer to the descent of good angels, and because of the common practice of using this imagery to refer to evil angels,61 57.  See Aune, Revelation 6–16, 525; Forsyth, Old Enemy, 252. Koester writes, “The disputed question is whether this star is a demonic being, whose fall is really an expulsion from heaven, or whether it is an angel of God, whose fall is simply a descent from heaven” (Revelation, 455). See Beale for multiple examples in the Old Testament and other Jewish literature of stars that are portrayed as heavenly powers of good or evil (Book of Revelation, 399). Of significant importance to this point is the fact that Jesus identifies stars as angels in the vision that John received in Rev 1:20. 58.  Charles, Critical and Exegetical Commentary, 1:238–39. 59.  Koester, Revelation, 455; Mounce, Book of Revelation, 185; Osborne, Revelation, 362; Hughes, Book of the Revelation, 108; Thomas, Revelation 8–22, 27; Duvall, Revelation, 131. 60.  Beale, Book of Revelation, 492. 61.  See ibid. and the following texts that Beale cites: 1 En. 86:1–3 (already mentioned); 88:1–3; 90:23–26; T. Sol. 20:14–17; Sib. Or. 5:72.

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the best option is to understand that the referent of the fallen star of Rev 9:1 is an evil, supernatural being.62 The Parallels to the Abyss Passage of Revelation 9 Before settling on the referent of the star, it would be helpful to look for parallels to this scene in other mentions of the abyss in Revelation. There are two that share several aspects in common with this scene. A comparison of Rev 12:18–13:1 with Rev 9:1–11 reveals the common features of an angelic being that has fallen from heaven and presides over the exit of evil creatures from the sea or abyss who ascend and begin to attack people. Whereas in Rev 9 the star opens the abyss, in 12:18–13:1 the dragon stands on the sea shore and appears to call up the beast from out of the sea.63 Also, whereas in ch. 9 the locusts and presumably the angel of the abyss exit,64 in 12:18–13:1 the beast comes up from the sea. The other abyss-​passage that shows similarities to 9:1–11 is Rev 20:1–3. This is the parallel passage that is most often mentioned by writers who comment on the identity of the fallen star in 9:1. A comparison of this passage with 9:1–11 reveals the common elements of an angelic being coming down from heaven and a key being used to either unlock or lock the abyss so that an evil being or beings can be incarcerated or released. Although the dragon is subsequently released in 20:7–9, those verses do not describe the unlocking of the abyss with the key nor the descent of an angelic being to open the prison. The similarities between 20:1–3 and 9:1–11 are not as significant as is often assumed because in ch. 9 the one with the key is probably an evil angel who unlocks, while in 20:1–3 the one with the key is almost certainly a good angel who locks. Another issue that affects the level of correspondence between these two passages is that of the development of the story. It is likely that the action in ch. 20 is logically posterior to the action that takes place before ch. 20.65 This is 62.  R. L. Thomas agrees and asserts that 9:11 also supports the interpretation that the angel who opens the abyss is evil (Magical Motifs, 95). S. Thompson understands that the key was actually given to the fifth angel as opposed to the fallen star. However, his justification for this interpretation is based on the unlikely assumption that the one who carries the key in 9:1 is in fact the angel who descends with the key in 20:1 (“End of Satan,” 261). 63.  See Siew, War, 171. He argues not only that the dragon calls up the beast but that all of ch. 13 is colored by the dragon’s actions. 64.  A few scholars propose that the fallen star and the angel of the abyss are the same creature. This is possible because the text does not say specifically that the angel of the abyss had been located inside. However, it is likely that this angel exits the abyss on its opening because he is the king of those creatures that emerge and because, since he is called the angel of the abyss, it is likely that his abode would be within the abyss itself. Martyrdom of Isaiah 10:6, for instance, mentions the angel who is in Sheol. 65.  See Mathewson, “Re-​examination,” 242–43.

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because, despite the cyclical nature of the apocalypse, the incidents described in ch. 19 (the arrival of the rider on the white horse, the great battle, and the assigning of the beast and false prophet to the lake of fire) strongly move the story forward. Also, as was argued above, there is a progression of descent that is observed between the throwing down of the dragon that occurs in ch. 12 and the throwing down that occurs in ch. 20. Also, the fact that the beast and false prophet are said to already be in the lake of fire when the dragon is cast there (20:10) strongly suggests that the events of ch. 19 are understood to take place before those of ch. 20. Although Rev 20:1–3 is often treated by scholars as a close parallel to 9:1–11 and as a significant clue that the fallen star is a good angel,66 the degree of similarity between these passages is not as great as many have suggested and this passage’s potential for identifying the star of 9:1 is quite small. Revelation 12:18–13:1 is actually a closer parallel to 9:1–11 and should be taken into account in the interpretation of the fallen star and the angel of the abyss. The Referent of the Fallen Star Returning again to the similarities between 9:1–11 and 12:18–13:1, it is interesting to observe that the referents of the dragon and the beast in 12:18–13:1 are the same ones that some commentators have suggested as referents of the fallen star and the angel of the abyss.67 None of these authors, however, cites the parallels between 9:1–11 and 12:18–13:1 as evidence for their interpretation. To begin with the fallen star, the one who summons the beast from the sea (12:18–13:1) is the dragon who is clearly identified in 12:9 as Satan. Several commentators, in trying to identify the fallen star in 9:1, have proposed Satan as the referent.68 If the star that descends in 9:1 is an evil angel, which has been argued above, Satan is a better option than that of an unnamed evil angel. 69 It was not uncommon to portray Satan as a fallen angel using the description of the fall of the king of Babylon in Isa 14.70 This traditional motif was used 66.  For instance, Osborne, Revelation, 362; Mounce, Book of Revelation, 185. 67.  See below. 68.  Chilton, Days of Vengeance, 245; Robbins, Revelation, 123; Swete, Apocalypse, 112; McDowell, Meaning and Message, 104; Hendriksen, More Than Conquerors, 145; Corsini, Apocalypse, 174–76, 179. 69.  For the opinion that the star is an unnamed, evil angel, see Caird, Revelation, 117–18; Kiddle, Revelation, 154, 155; probably Aune, Revelation 6–16, 525. 70.  Susan Garret, in defending the view that Luke 10:18 is an allusion to Isa 14, says that Rev 9:1 is another New Testament passage that seems “to presuppose interpretation of the biblical material or related mythical traditions as references to Satan.” In this quote, as well as her comments on p. 56 of the same book, she demonstrates that she shares the opinion defended here that the fallen star in Rev 9:1 should be understood as a symbol for Satan (Demise of the Devil, 135–37).

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to describe the fall of Satan in such passages as Luke 10:18,71 Life of Adam and Eve 12:1; 15:1, 3; 16:1, possibly Rev 8:10–11,72 and most importantly Rev 12:7–10. This latter passage describes the fall of Satan and his angels, which are most likely represented as stars in Rev 12:4. Satan then is banished to the earth where he has the authority to persecute the offspring of the woman and to call up the beast from the sea/abyss (12:8–13:1). The parallels with Rev 9:1–11 are clear. A star falls from heaven73 and is given authority to open up the abyss from which proceed evil creatures that are bent on attacking people. The major difference between the two passages is the fact that in the case of chs. 12–13, the beast is brought up and he persecutes God’s people, while in ch. 9 the angel of the abyss leads the locusts in terrorizing those who are not God’s people; that is, those who are not sealed. The explanation for this difference in victims can be seen in the recognition that Revelation portrays the dragon and the beast as consistently bringing destruction to all people. They attack and persecute believers (11:7; 12:12–17; 13:5–7; 19:19; 20:7–9) and they attack (17:16) and cause the downfall of unbelievers as well (14:9–11; 16:2, 4–6, 10–11; 19:21). The two accounts in Rev 9:1–11 and 12:18–13:1 are each illustrating one of these destructive tendencies. Interpreting the fallen star of 9:1 as Satan has the advantage of tying together three abyss passages with the same referent; that is, Rev 9:1–11; 12:18–13:1; and 20:1–3, 7–9 all include Satan as an actor in the story. It could be objected that Satan has a very different role in chs. 9 and 12:18–13:1 than he does in ch. 20. However, this is explained by noticing the wonderful irony that is displayed. Whereas Satan is the one who opens the abyss in 9:1 by means of a key, he is in ch. 20 locked inside this same abyss, presumably by means of the same key. If this is the interpretation at which John’s audience arrived, then the significance of an angel with a key coming down from heaven in both 9:1 and 20:1 would have suggested the ironic and encouraging scenario of Satan being imprisoned in the very prison that he was earlier allowed to unlock.74 71.  As asserted by Garret, Demise of the Devil, 50; Green, Gospel of Luke, 418; Marshall, Gospel of Luke, 428–29; Bock, Luke 1.1–9.50, 1006. Contra Fitzmyer, The Gospel According to Luke X–XXIV, 862; Nolland, Luke 9:21–18:34, 563. 72.  See Beale, Book of Revelation, 479; Caird, Revelation, 114–15; Stefanović, Revelation, 298. 73.  While it is true that Satan is symbolized not as a star in Rev 12 but as a dragon, it is highly likely that stars symbolize his angels. In addition, the Old Testament passage to which this story alludes was seemingly understood by the Septuagint translator to refer to the first-​rising star (ὁ πρωὶ ἀνατέλλων) in Isa 14:12. 74.  This point is strengthened by the work of Joe Lunceford who finds in these two passages one of many examples of counter-​images in the book of Revelation (Parody and Counterimaging, 42–46).

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The Referent of the Angel of the Abyss The other symbol in 12:18–13:1 is the beast that, according to many commentators, would have reminded John’s readers of Nero or the imperial power of Rome.75 This is the same referent as that which some have proposed as being the probable referent of the angel of the abyss. Many commentators point out that Apollyon comes from the name Apollo who was closely associated with Nero76 and was the god of whom Domitian claimed to be the incarnation.77 Boxall states that Apollyon would have prompted associations with the god Apollo and that Nero was explicitly identified with this god.78 He writes of 9:1–11 that “some at least would have pictured the vision in terms of Nero riding at the head of a great and destructive Parthian army,79 the human façade of a demonic, destructive and ultimately self-​destructive invasion.”80 Beckwith points out that the description of the locusts in Rev 9:1–11 is likened to an advancing army.81 While it is true that this imagery could be seen as simply a result of the borrowing of Joel’s locust army imagery (Joel 2:4–11), it should not be assumed that this is the only referent. The next passage in Revelation (9:13–21) also describes an army advancing and later in the book there are several descriptions more of an army advancing or drawn up for battle (16:12–14; 17:12–14; 19:17–21; 20:7–9). In three of these examples, the beast is involved in the leading of these armies, which is another point of evidence for the possibility that John’s audience would have associated the king over 75.  See Thomas, Revelation 19, 12–13; Collins, Crisis and Catharsis, 125, 148; Beale, Book of Revelation, 684–85; Sweet, Revelation, 215; Hanhart, “Four Beasts,” 580; Rowland, Open Heaven, 431–32. For the complex allusion to Rome and Nero in Revelation, see the discussion in the sections “Bauckham’s ‘History for the Beast’ ” and “The Beast ‘Is Not’ ” earlier in this chapter. 76.  See Larry Kreitzer for the picture of a coin that depicts Nero as Apollo (Striking New Images, 207–8). Albert A. Bell writes that Apollyon is “a name highly suggestive of Nero’s patron deity Apollo” (“Date of John’s Apocalypse,” 98). For background on Nero’s association with Apollo, see Champlin, Nero, 112–44, esp. 142–43. See Aune for a great deal of information on possible backgrounds for both Abaddon and Apollyon, including Abaddon’s connection with Belial. He points out that not only did Nero claim a special relationship with Apollo, but he was also identified with Belial in some early Jewish literature (Revelation 6–16, 534–35). See also Frey, “Relevance,” 251. 77.  See Beasley-​Murray, Book of Revelation, 162; Krodel, Revelation, 130–31. 78.  Boxall, Revelation, 145. See also Thomas, Revelation 19, 13. 79.  “As with the first four seals, this attack is a consequence of empire. Empires always elicit challengers. The attackers resemble Rome’s archrival, the Parthian Empire (9:13–19).” Carter, Roman Empire, 125. See also Muñoz León, Apocalipsis, 87. 80.  Boxall, Revelation, 145. Beasley-​Murray comments that if John had in view the fact that Nero and Caligula aped the deity Apollo and that Domitian considered himself the incarnation of Apollo, this description of the king “was a master stroke of irony: the destructive host of hell had as its king the emperor of Rome!” (Book of Revelation, 162–63). 81.  Beckwith, Apocalypse, 562–63.

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the abyss with Nero.82 If Nero is the referent of the angel of the abyss, then an important similarity between 9:1–11 and 17:16–18 is that in both cases, Nero, as referent of the beast, comes out of the abyss and leads an evil army against those who are not God’s people.83 A Foreshadow of the Beast Accepting this proposal that John’s audience would have associated the angel of the abyss with Nero has the advantage of explaining why this angel is only mentioned one time in Revelation. He is mentioned only once because the symbol changes and then remains constant as the beast for the rest of the book. The mention of a mortal wound in one of the heads of the beast, (13:3), the number 666 (13:18), the return of the beast from the abyss (17:8), and the leading of the ten horns against the harlot (17:16–17) all served to associate the beast with Nero84 and to bring to mind the expectation that he would return to lead a Parthian army against Rome. The subtle allusion to Nero that is seen in 9:11, however, is more likened to foreshadowing that gives the listener a clue as to what was to come later in the story. Garrow writes that foreshadowing was an important tool for John, especially in the identification of the contents of the scroll.85 He defines foreshadowing as “an announcement of a future occurrence in the story-​line which leaves the audience partially uncertain as to the exact nature or timing of that event.”86 In a similar way, the mention of the angel of the abyss who leads the locusts out of the abyss functions as a vague reference to 82.  J. Massyngberde Ford’s opinion that the angel of the abyss refers to Belial is well taken. She refers to references in the Qumran scrolls and other Jewish literature that present Belial as the military leader of the forces of darkness (Revelation, 152–53). This might point to Satan being the referent for the angel of the abyss, especially because Satan (the dragon) is seen leading an army of evil forces against God’s people in Rev 20:7–9. However, in Revelation, the beast is presented even more often than the dragon as leading evil forces (17:12–14; 19:17–21, and 16:12–14, where the dragon, beast and false prophet are all involved). Because of John’s presentation of both the dragon and the beast as being military leaders of evil forces, the evidence that Ford presents cannot be decisive. More comments regarding the possibility of Satan as the referent for the angel of the abyss are found below. 83.  M. E. Boring, in arguing that the mention of Apollyon indicates that Rome is in view, compares this passage to Rev 17–18 and comments that Rome is described as being both subject to the divine judgment as well as demonic instrument of it. He sees both 9:1–11 and 17:16–18 as teaching that evil is ultimately self-​destructive because in both cases, Rome is attacking and destroying itself (Revelation, 137–38, 184–85). 84.  It is argued earlier in this chapter that the reference to the healing of the beast’s mortal head wound finds a better referent in Rome than in Nero, but the wounded head itself would most likely have caused Nero to come to the mind of John’s audience. 85.  Garrow, Revelation, 15–34. 86.  Ibid., 15.

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an eschatological event that is later more clearly revealed in the beast-​passages that have just been cited. Two Different Names Another interesting point to notice is that if the interpretation presented above is accepted, then the first beast is similar to the false prophet in that both are called by two different names. The second beast is introduced in Rev 13:11 but in chs. 16, 19, and 20 he is not referred to as a beast but rather as the false prophet. The probable reason for the mention of the two beasts in ch. 13 is to allude to the two beasts Leviathan and Behemoth.87 However, after this initial presentation, the second beast is called the false prophet that more accurately describes his role. The first beast, on the other hand, continues to be called the beast throughout the book for several good reasons. First, he embodies the characteristics of all four beasts of Dan 7. Second, as Bauckham describes,88 the Greek word θηρίον, when transliterated into Hebrew, has the numerical value of 666,89 which is significant in the interpretation of Rev 13:18. Third, Nero was called a beast in sources unrelated to the Jewish apocalyptic tradition. Bauckham presents several examples of pagan authors who called Nero by this name.90 The similarity between the two beasts that is relevant in this argument is that both of these creatures were identified at their first appearance in a certain way that was then abandoned as they received another name. This point is strengthened somewhat by noticing that in both cases, the character is called by the first name (or set of names: Angel of the abyss, Abaddon, Apollyon) only once and then it is never repeated. According to this interpretation, the character of 9:11 is identified once as the angel of the abyss, and the two names in Hebrew and Greek, but from then on is known as the beast. The second character is called “another beast” once (13:11) and is never again referred to as a beast. Apollyon as Nero Some scholars, in contrast to the interpretation presented above, believe that the most likely referent of the angel of the abyss is Satan.91 If the only name given 87.  See Beale, Book of Revelation, 682. 88.  Bauckham, Climax of Prophecy, 388–89. 89. See Gamber, Das Geheimnis, 62–63; Gumerlock, “Nero Antichrist.” Gideon Bohak finds examples of this type of gematria in 3 Bar. 4:3–7 (possibly two examples) and 4:10 (“Greek–​Hebrew Gematrias”). 90.  Bauckham, Climax of Prophecy, 409–10. 91.  See Koester, Revelation, 460–61, and the following footnote.

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to this angel had been Abaddon (destruction), then this argument would have been convincing because of the traditions that used Abaddon in their description of Belial, the prince of the demons.92 However, the additional mention of his name in Greek pushes the evidence toward Nero. This is because the Greek word Apollyon carries the meaning of destroyer rather than destruction.93 If there are various allusions to Nero in this book, a common opinion among commentators and defended earlier in this chapter, then one should be alert to and consider the possibility of a Nero allusion whenever an obscure character is introduced, especially one who leads evil forces. The fact that Apollyon means destroyer could easily be seen as an allusion to Nero. While it is true that destroying is an action that could be applied to a host of different referents, Nero occupies a special place in the Jewish-​Christian list of destroyers because of the suspicion that he had set fire to Rome (partially destroying it)94 and because of the destruction that he had unleashed against Christians during his reign. Both of these elements of Nero’s destructive activities are referenced in the book of Revelation, as seen by the fact that the beast at times attacks believers (Rev 11:7; 13:1–18; 15:2; 19:19) and at times attacks the wicked (17:16–18) or is the cause of their destruction.95 It is interesting that 17:16 mentions that the beast and his followers will set fire to the harlot, which symbolizes Rome. While this most likely alludes to the fiery destruction of the unfaithful of Jerusalem (Ezek 23:25), the fire also serves as a subtle reminder that this future destruction of the harlot will not be the first time that this Nero figure has set fire to and destroyed Rome. In Chapter 6 of this work it is argued that the description of the locusts in Rev 9 would have brought the Parthians to the mind of John’s audience. If John’s audience thought of the Parthians when listening to the description of the locusts, it would be natural to think of Nero when hearing about the king over these locusts. This is because of the common belief that Nero would lead a host of Parthians against Rome.96 This is strong support for the interpretation that the king of the locusts represented Nero, not only because the Return of Nero 92.  See Aune, Revelation 6–16, 534. Ford states that “the angel of the abyss may be compared to that of Belial in the Qumran scrolls where he is mentioned some thirty-​three times” (Revelation, 152). Andrew Chester agrees that Abaddon is perhaps to be identified with Belial-​Satan (“Chaos,” 341). 93.  “Apollyon is not an exact rendering of Abaddon, as John perfectly well knew (the usual term is apoleia, which John himself uses in 17:8, where it is translated ‘perdition’)” (Beasley-​Murray, Book of Revelation, 162). 94.  See Smalley, Revelation, 234. 95.  Although there is only one passage that specifically says that the beast attacks the wicked, another form of destruction that he brings on to the wicked is seen in the descriptions of what happens to those who follow the beast (14:9–11; 16:2, 4–6, 10–11; 19:21). 96.  See Sib. Or. 4:119–24, 137–39; cf. 5:94–99.

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myth was current at the time but also because there are several allusions to this myth later in the book (Rev 13:3; 17:8). Parallels Between the Fifth Trumpet and the Fifth Bowl Another piece of evidence that supports the identification of Apollyon with Nero is the parallels that are found between the fifth trumpet and the fifth bowl. It is widely recognized and will be examined in Chapter 6 that the first six trumpets and the first six bowls share strong similarities. Of particular interest is the fact that the beast is mentioned in the fifth bowl judgment. Because of the many similarities in the other pairs of trumpets and bowls, it is reasonable to look for similarities between the fifth trumpet and fifth bowl as well. One of these similarities is the anguish and torture that comes to the ungodly in both of these plagues. Another similarity, as has been argued in this section, can be found in the referent of the angel of the abyss and the beast. Whereas the angel of the abyss is identified as a king in the fifth trumpet, the beast is described in the fifth bowl as having a throne and having a kingdom. This kingship in both examples, and the similarities of the corresponding trumpets and bowls in general, point to the fact that the king in the fifth trumpet has the same referent as the beast who has a throne in the fifth bowl. The Authority of the Beast An added advantage of identifying the angel of the abyss with the beast of 13:1 is that it elucidates the authority of the beast that is described in chs. 13 and 16. In Rev 13:2, the dragon gives to the beast his power, his throne, and great authority.97 In 13:5, it is said that it is given to the beast to exercise authority for forty-​two months. He resembles the dragon in that both of them wear diadems that presumably symbolize sovereignty and rule. Later in Rev 16:10, as has just been mentioned, the beast is described as having both a throne and a kingdom, although it is never clearly said that he is a king. This authority and kingship of the beast, symbolized by his throne and his diadems, is more understandable if the first reference to the beast is Rev 9:11, where he is actually called a king. Also, whereas the kingly authority of the beast is clearly given to him by Satan in ch. 13, accepting the interpretation presented above has the advantage of showing that Rev 9:1–11 says something similar in that Satan opens the abyss and allows the beast the opportunity to exercise his authority on earth, just as he does in ch. 13.

97.  See Gallusz, Throne Motif, 210–11.

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Concluding Thoughts John refers to both Satan and to Nero in various ways throughout the book. He portrays them as key antagonists of God as the apocalypse moves forward. Both of them are closely tied to the abyss and by studying this relationship throughout the book, ample evidence emerges to suggest that the referent of the fallen star is Satan and the referent of the angel of the abyss is Nero. This interpretation would have provided insight for John’s audience about Satan and Nero as they continued to be referenced throughout the rest of John’s Apocalypse.

Conclusion The investigation in this chapter has approached interpretative issues from the perspective of the abyss. First, comparing the beast’s exits from the abyss in chs. 13 and 17 demonstrates the creative ways that John utilized the Nero myth to communicate important messages not only about the current state of evil in the world of John’s audience but also about the ultimate destruction of evil in the future. Second, focusing on the reasons for and the implications of the dragon’s release from the abyss gives a greater vision for the significance of God’s victory over Satan. It also reveals that, far from diminishing the greatness of God’s victory and the saints’ vindication, the dragon’s release from captivity plays a significant role in John’s portrayal of his ultimate defeat. Third, comparing the abyss exit of 9:1–11 with other abyss exits in Revelation reveals important similarities with 12:18–13:1 which prove useful in identifying probable referents for the fallen star and the angel of the abyss. The insights gained through this analysis argue for a greater prevalence of Satan and Nero than might otherwise have been appreciated. Although this chapter has provided further research into the abyss itself, its principal contribution is to increase that which is known about abyss-​related topics in John’s Apocalypse. This process of viewing Revelation from below, as it were, provides insight into the nature of evil as portrayed by John and clarifies the purpose of some of the characters that appear in the story. As John’s audience assimilated what the apocalypse had to say to them in their current situation, the abyss played a vital role in developing the book’s message about evil and what God was doing about it.

Chapter 5

Traditions That Have Shaped the Description and Function of the Abyss in Revelation

Previous chapters have surveyedthe background and the uses of the abyss and related concepts in the Old Testament and other literature in an attempt to better understand how the abyss might have been understood by John and his audience. Much of this information in Chapters 2 and 3 is organized around three traditions that influenced John as he crafted his description of the abyss. While John is not totally dependent on any of the three, each of them makes important contributions to the overall meaning and function of the abyss in this apocalypse. The three traditions are the dragon that lives in the sea, God’s restraint of the waters that threaten to overwhelm the earth, and the prison for the Watchers. The purpose of this chapter is to demonstrate the contributions that each of them have made to John’s portrayal of the abyss and the communication of his message.

The Dragon That Lives in the Sea The power and majesty of God is demonstrated in the Old Testament by means of His control and victory over the dragon. John skillfully appropriated this character in his apocalypse to represent Satan, and the victory of God over the dragon is repeated at the end just as it happened at the beginning. The abode of the dragon in the Old Testament is consistently described as the sea.1 Because of the close association between the sea and the abyss, John found in the abyss an appropriate concept that he could use to describe where evil creatures had their abode. As will be seen later in this chapter, another tradition was also used that allowed John to describe an abyss that no longer retained its watery character.

1.  As demonstrated in Chapter 2 above, in rare cases the Old Testament identifies the abyss as being the abode of the dragon.

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The best example of the abyss used as an abode is found in Rev 11:7. The beast that kills the two witnesses is described as the beast that comes up out of the abyss. Presumably the beast comes from the abyss because that is where he lives. Unlike other passages in Revelation that describe the abyss or related concepts, this exit appears to be at the whim of the beast himself. That is, even though there are clear indications that God controls some of the exits of creatures from the abyss, the description in 11:7 gives the impression that the beast is free to exit whenever he wishes to do so. First, in describing him as the beast who comes up from the abyss, it leaves open the possibility that he comes up multiple times.2 Second, unlike other descriptions of exits in Revelation, here there is no indication of an unlocking of the abyss. Therefore, in this passage, instead of implying that the beast is trapped in the abyss, the focus is placed on the idea that the beast exits from the abyss because that is where he lives. The Nature of the Inhabitants of the Abyss One contribution that the use of this tradition makes to John’s Apocalypse is to communicate the nature of those who ascend from the abyss. Even though the Old Testament at times describes the sea-​inhabiting dragon as benign (Gen 1:21; Ps 104:26), the general impression is that the dragon is the enemy of God. His domain is the domain of evil and those who have their abode there would have been considered evil.3 This association with evil comes partly because of the close connection in the Old Testament between the abyss, Sheol, and death. It also is due in part to the fact that only evil creatures are presented as living in the abyss.4 Triumph of God Over the Dragon That Dwells in the Abyss A second contribution that this tradition makes to John’s Apocalypse is to demonstrate the certainty that those creatures that have their dwelling in the abyss will be subdued by God. In Chapter 2, a number of passages are highlighted in which the conflict between God and the dragon is utilized to demonstrate God’s strength and sovereignty. Because of this background, the listener who heard of creatures coming from the abyss in John’s Apocalypse, if he or she related these exits to the Old Testament accounts of God and the dragon, would have understood that the ultimate fate of these creatures was that they would be defeated by God. This becomes even more evident as one considers Isa 27:1, in 2.  See Beale, Book of Revelation, 589. Contra Mathewson, Revelation, 146. 3.  Sweet, Revelation, 167; Beale, Book of Revelation, 493–94; Morris, Revelation, 125. 4.  Cf. 1 En. 10, 18–21; Luke 8:31.

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which the destruction of the sea monster is projected into the future. Furthermore, Bauckham points out that besides the prediction of Isa 27:1, other reasons why an informed reader would expect the eventual destruction of the dragon is because of the prediction of Gen 3:15 and because “it is the common lot of mythological dragons to be slain.”5 This fate of the abyss-​dwelling creatures is most clearly described in Rev 17:8 and 20:7–9. In 17:8, it is written that the beast will come from the abyss and go to destruction. In 20:7–9, the dragon emerges from the abyss and then is destroyed by God. The identification of the abyss as the abode of the sea monster suggests that just as God has always been the victor over the evil creatures who dwell in the sea and abyss, so also He will be victorious over them in the future as well. Enemy Nations Portrayed as the Sea Monster A third contribution that this tradition makes to John’s Apocalypse is related to the way that Old Testament writers identified enemy nations as the sea monster who attacked God’s people and was defeated by God. This is most clearly seen in the Old Testament references to Egypt.6 Although Egypt is mentioned once in Revelation and alluded to various times, she is not portrayed in this book as a beast or monster. Rather, her place appears to be taken by the Parthians and by Rome. The Parthians are not named in Revelation but most scholars agree that they are in view in at least a few passages.7 The most likely references are found in Rev 6:2; 9:13–21; 16:12–16; and 17:12–18. The Parthians are not seen as coming from the abyss specifically, but in 9:13–21 and 16:12–16 John writes of beasts and of an army that come from the other side of the Euphrates. The possibility that John’s audience would have thought of the Parthians as a possible referent for these beasts and this army is strengthened not only by the characteristics that John describes but also because the Parthians really did live on the other side of the Euphrates from the perspective of John’s churches. As will be argued in Chapter 6, it is likely that the Euphrates functions in a similar way to the abyss in this apocalypse8 which increases the likelihood that John’s audience would have made the connection between sea-​dwelling monsters that represent enemy nations in the Old Testament, and abyss-​dwelling beasts that represent enemy nations in Revelation.

5.  Bauckham, Climax of Prophecy, 195. 6.  See Cristiano Grottanelli for discussion of this point and for more examples of enemy nations seen as monsters (Kings and Prophets, 51). 7.  Beale, Book of Revelation, 376, 507; Mounce, Book of Revelation, 298; Aune, Revelation 6–16, 891–94; Collins, “Apocalypse,” 1004; Yeatts, Revelation, 169. 8.  See Havrelock, “Two Maps.”

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Revelation 13 contains another example of John describing an enemy nation as if it were a monster from the sea. Rather than regarding this as a symbol for the Parthians, John’s audience would almost certainly have thought of this as representing Nero or some aspect of the Roman Empire.9 The Old Testament background of this exit is Dan 7, where four beasts that represent four kingdoms exit the sea.10 The beast in Revelation manifests characteristics of each of the four Danielic beasts and sums up in himself all the characteristics of earlier oppressor nations. The important point to note here is that Dan 7 contains another example of an Old Testament writer portraying enemy nations as if they were beasts or monsters from the sea, and John has continued this tradition in his portrayal of Rome as a beast from the sea. In a similar way to the use of the Euphrates in 9:13–21 and 16:12–16, John does not use the word “abyss” to describe the place from where this evil beast arises but rather uses a related term. Of all the concepts in Revelation that function in similar ways to the abyss, the sea is by far the most obvious. Not only is there a significant overlapping in the semantic domain of the two words in the Old Testament, but here in Rev 13 John portrays this exit of the beast from the sea in a very similar way to the exit of the beast from the abyss in 11:7 and 17:8. Therefore, another contribution that the tradition of the sea dragon makes to this apocalypse is found in the portrayal of enemy armies as beasts that come from the abyss-​like watery domains in Revelation.

God’s Restraint of the Waters That Threaten to Overwhelm the Earth Chapter 2 of this book describes a common ancient conception of the universe and notes that one consequence of this outlook was the fear that the abyss would overwhelm and destroy the earth. The waters that were under, around, and above the world had the potential to quickly end all life and many Old Testament writers acknowledged God’s power as the only defense against this frightening potential becoming reality. Although none of John’s descriptions of the abyss involve the release of water,11 all of the descriptions share in common a releasing of destructive forces upon the earth. There is an important similarity then, 9.  See the sections “The Relationship of the Beast’s Exit from the Abyss in Chapters 13 and 17” and “The Referents of the Fallen Star and the Angel of the Abyss in Chapter 9” in Chapter 4. 10.  For background on this animal imagery, see Collins, Daniel, 280–91, 295–97; Lucas, “Sources”; Lucas, Daniel, 167–72. 11.  The closest parallel to this that is found in Revelation is the release of water that emerges from the dragon’s mouth in 12:15. This will be discussed below.

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between the dry abyss of Revelation and the watery abyss of the Old Testament. In the case of Revelation, instead of water threatening to overwhelm the people, the destructive forces that threaten to overwhelm are the demonic locusts, the beast, and the dragon.12 This act of overwhelming is not limited to that which comes from the abyss, but can also be seen in 200 million cavalry units (9:14–21) and the kings of the east and of the whole world (16:12–16) which come from the other side of the Euphrates. In a similar way, four extremely destructive winds (7:1–3) as well as Gog and Magog (20:7–9) overwhelm the land as they come from the four corners of the earth.13 The Relationship Between the Abyss in Revelation 9:1–11 and the Great Flood This use of the abyss to communicate the threat of evil forces overwhelming the earth is perhaps seen most clearly in Rev 9:1–11. The abyss is opened, almost certainly by God’s express consent,14 and horrible locusts come forth that proceed to terrorize those who do not have the seal of God upon them. Just as the watery abyss in the Old Testament had the potential to overwhelm the earth with destructive forces, so here the abyss opens and destructive forces are released. This parallel is seen even more clearly when one compares the release of the locusts with the release of the abyss waters in the Genesis flood narrative. In Rev 9:5 and 10, John uses the enigmatic number five to describe the number of months for which the locusts are allowed to operate. Five is not a common number for John but he mentions it twice in this passage. There are various suggestions as to why he uses this particular period of time15 but an interpretation that is only rarely suggested is that the five months correspond to the amount 12.  Jacques Ellul makes a similar point in his commentary on Revelation. He understands the trumpet plagues to be a sort of de-​creation with the plagues taking the world back to before creation. In this context he speaks of the unchaining of the abyss in 9:1–12 as a return to chaos before God’s Spirit instilled order. He writes, “the Creator is not only the one who is at the origin, but also the one by whose power the forces of destruction and of the Abyss are kept at bay: it is because he has traced a limit to the sea that the latter no longer engulfs everything; it is because he holds tightly the ‘cover’ of the Abyss that the latter no longer bursts forth when God ceases” (Apocalypse, 68). In writing this, he is making a similar point to what I am arguing, namely, that the destructive forces that exit from the abyss in Revelation perform a similar function to the waters that are released from the Old Testament abyss (Apocalypse, 74). 13.  Chapter 6 examines concepts in Revelation that are used in ways that are similar to the abyss. Both the Euphrates and the four corners of the earth are examined. 14.  This is clear from the fact that the star had been given a key. See Sweet, Revelation, 167; Osborne, Revelation, 362. 15.  For various interpretations of the meaning of the five months, see Aune, Revelation 6–16, 530; Rissi, Time and History, 25–28.

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of time that the waters of the abyss prevailed over the earth during the flood (Gen 7:24; 8:3).16 Since the abyss plays a prominent role in the flood narrative (Gen 7:11; 8:2), it can be seen that the five months in both Gen 7–8 and Rev 9 describe the amount of time in which destructive forces that were released from the abyss were allowed to terrorize or destroy the wicked. The similarities between the flood story and Rev 9:1–11 then, are that in both cases something (1) comes forth from the abyss (2) in judgment (3) for 150 days (five months) (4) to destroy/terrorize (5) those who do not follow God. There are at least two reasons why these similarities have not been sufficiently appreciated. First, the differences between the dry abyss of Revelation and the watery abyss of the Old Testament have likely prevented commentators from observing the significant elements that the two have in common. Second, while the Genesis narrative describes the duration of this plague in units of days (Gen 7:24; 8:3), John describes the same amount of time in units of months. It could be argued, then, that the use of a different unit of time would have prevented John’s audience from making the connection between the two stories. This argument, however, can be answered by noting John’s preference for using months when referring to evil or to persecution and using days to refer to protection of God’s people. This is seen in the three-​and-​a-​half-year time period that appears in Rev 11–13. John uses the unit of months when referring to the duration of evil or to refer to hostile powers (11:2; 13:5) but uses the unit of days in order to refer to God’s protection of His people (11:3) and to refer to the woman who was protected by God in the wilderness (12:6).17 This could then explain why in our passage John uses months instead of days when speaking of a terrible plague that terrorized those people who had not been sealed by God. If this preference for using months had been explained to John’s audience, or if they noticed it themselves, it is not difficult to imagine them making the connection between the inundation of the world with water and the inundation of the world with demonic locusts— in both instances to bring judgment on nonbelievers. Another detail that supports the idea that the flood was instrumental in the framing of the abyss in Rev 9 is a similarity found in 1 En. 9:1–11 (especially 9:3 and 10) and Rev 8:3–4. In both cases the prayers and cries of the saints reach God and in both cases God responds by sending destruction to the earth.18 In the case of 1 Enoch, the destruction comes in the form of the Great Flood, while in the Revelation passage, the destruction comes in the form of the trumpet plagues. It is significant that in the context of this great destruction the abyss is mentioned 16.  Stefanović thinks that the five-​month period of time is an allusion to the 150 days of the flood narrative, but he does not explore the implications of this as I have done in this section (Revelation, 307). 17.  Lupieri, Commentary, 194–95. See also Resseguie, Revelation of John, 30–31. 18.  See Beale, Book of Revelation, 457.

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in Revelation for the first time and its occupants are released. Whereas the first four trumpets parallel closely the plagues of Egypt, the fifth and sixth trumpets describe the outpouring of destruction from the abyss and the River Euphrates, similar in important ways to what occurred during the Great Flood. It is demonstrated throughout this study that the traditions of the Watchers were instrumental in the description of the abyss in Revelation. What is significant for the point under discussion is that the flood was intimately tied together with the Watchers myth. This is seen in those texts that develop the story of the prison for the Watchers (Book of the Watchers, Jubilees, Book of Parables, Animal Apocalypse) as well as Gen 6; Isa 24:21–22;19 1 Pet 3:18–22; and 2 Pet 2:4–5. Because of the close connection between the Watchers myth and the flood, and because of the many allusions to the Watchers tradition in this apocalypse, the fact that there is no mention of the flood is surprising. This appears even more unusual when one considers that in a book that describes so many acts of judgment, the prime Old Testament example of judgment makes no appearance. This curious absence is explained, however, if the devastation of the flood is reimagined in the form of evil creatures that came forth from the abyss to inundate the earth. The Relationship Between the Abyss in Revelation 11 and the Restraint of Destructive Waters Another demonstration of how evil creatures from the abyss take the place of destructive waters is found in the story of the two witnesses in Rev 11. The two witnesses are presented in such a way as to tie them closely to Moses and Elijah because the miracles that they can perform match the miracles of the two Old Testament heroes (11:5–6). These exceptional miracles serve to protect the witnesses until they finish their testimony (11:7). The power of these miracles and the wording of 11:7 (“and when they have finished their testimony, the beast . . . will attack them”) strongly suggest that the beast was prevented from attacking them until their testimony was complete. The restraining of the beast appears even more likely when one considers the fact that another great miracle that Moses and Elijah shared was the restraining of potentially destructive waters (Exod 14 and 2 Kgs 2). This indicates that another miracle that resembled the great acts of Moses and Elijah, although not explicitly mentioned, was operating in the ministry of the two witnesses. This miracle was the holding back of destructive forces until a desired action could be accomplished. Whereas Elijah and Moses had held back the destructive waters until they and their companions had passed through the river and the sea, the witnesses were given the power 19.  Cf. Isa 24:18–20.

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to hold back the destructive, abyss-​dwelling beast until they had completed their testimony. In John’s Apocalypse, evil creatures have taken the place of the threatening and destructive waters. The Release of Water from the Mouth of the Dragon Even though the dragon, armies, beasts, and demonic creatures have taken the place of water as the elements in Revelation that come from the abyss and threaten to overwhelm and destroy, there is one verse in which water is used as the destructive element (Rev 12:15).20 In this passage, the serpent (dragon) spews out a river of water in order to overwhelm and sweep away the woman.21 In the Old Testament, rivers as well as the sea and the abyss were included in the list of watery elements that had the potential of overwhelming and destroying life, and the parallel concepts of waters and rivers were at times described as God’s enemies (Pss 29:3; 74:15; 77:16; 93:3–4; Isa 50:2; 51:10; Nah 1:4; Hab 3:8–9).22 In Israel, this close parallel between rivers and the sea was strengthened by the fact that God did not only divide the sea for Israel’s crossing, but He divided the Jordan River as well.23 In Rev 12:15, the water comes not from the abyss but rather from the dragon’s mouth and is described as being like a river of water that was meant to carry away the woman. When this attempt fails, the dragon goes and calls up the beast from the sea. This sequence of events strengthens the connection between the overwhelming flood waters of the Old Testament and the overwhelming evil creatures that exit from the abyss. First, the river of water was sent forth by the dragon, the counterpart to the ancient dragon that inhabited the abyss. Second, the intention of the dragon was to sweep the woman away in the flood, which corresponds closely to the ancient fear of the abyss waters sweeping away and destroying humanity. Third, after 20.  Caird believes that the bowl plagues that are poured out on the earth correspond to the overwhelming water of the Reed Sea. If this were the case, it would be another example in this book of a liquid being used to overwhelm and destroy. However, Caird’s interpretation has convinced very few (Revelation, 197, 201). Another possible example of a liquid overwhelming people is Rev 14:19–20, which describes the wine press of God’s wrath. It is said that blood flowed from the wine press as high as a horse’s bridle for 1,600 stadia. This amount of blood would overwhelm and destroy anyone who was caught in its path, but there is no suggestion that people were caught up in this inundation of blood. Therefore, I believe that Rev 12:15 is the only example in Revelation of a liquid being poured out in order to overwhelm and destroy people. 21.  For discussion of the use of the Greek myth of Leto and Python and the Egyptian myth of Isis and Seth-​Typhon in Rev 12 and 13, see Collins, Combat Myth, 57–71; van Henten, “Dragon Myth.” 22.  See Aune, Revelation 6–16, 707; Wakeman, God’s Battle, 92–97. For discussion of the parallel between sea and rivers in the context of Ps 66:6, see Dahood, Psalms 51–100, 120–21; Goldingay, Psalms 42–89, 290; Hossfeld and Zenger, Psalms 2, 145. 23.  Joshua 3–4; Ps 114:3. The sea looked and fled, Jordan turned back.

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this failed attempt the alternative is to call up an evil creature from the sea/abyss that proceeds to overwhelm God’s people with violence (Rev 13:1–7). Thus, this passage contains another example of evil creatures taking the place of flood waters as the destructive force that threatens to overwhelm the earth. It has been shown in this section that one of the traditions that was used in the description of the abyss in John’s Apocalypse was God’s restraint of the waters that threatened to overwhelm the earth. John skillfully utilizes this tradition in order to demonstrate a key similarity between his dry abyss and the watery abyss of the Old Testament and other ancient literature. The similarity is that both of these abysses pose a constant threat to inundate and overwhelm the world with destructive forces.24 The creative use of this tradition explains the surprising lack of mention of the Great Flood of Gen 6. The reason why the flood is not mentioned is because it has been re-imagined as the abyss from which destruction threatens to exit.

The Prison for the Watchers The third major tradition that shapes John’s description and use of the abyss is the myth of the Watchers. This myth is developed most extensively in 1 Enoch and is present in several of the different texts that were brought together to form that book. The story was well known and valued, as can be seen by its influence on a number of New Testament books.25 In Revelation, the influence of the tradition is most clearly observed in 9:1–11 and 20:1–3, 7–9. Scholars have long seen the allusions to this story but as will be argued below, the importance of this tradition was even greater for John’s description of the abyss and to the development of his message than has normally been recognized. There are at least three major contributions that this tradition has made to the concept and use of the abyss in the book of Revelation. How Evil Will Be Eliminated The first contribution of the Watchers tradition is that it provides a model on which John can base his description of the ultimate termination of evil. In the 24.  The fact that it is God who decides when and in what manner the destructive forces can exit is discussed in Chapter 8. 25.  “1 Enoch has had more influence on the New Testament than has any other apocryphal or pseudepigraphic work” (Charles, Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha, 2:180). He gives many examples of this influence on pp. 180–82. Isaac writes that 1 Enoch influenced Matthew, Luke, John, Acts, Romans, 1 and 2 Corinthians, Ephesians, Colossians, 1 and 2 Thessalonians, 1 Timothy, Hebrews, 1 John, Jude, and Revelation (“1 Enoch,” OTP 1:10).

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description of the imprisonment of the Watchers, the abyss is normally presented as only a temporary prison while the final destination of the Watchers occurs in another place as seen in 2 Pet 2:4; Jude 6; 1 En. 10:5–6, 12–14; 54:1–6; and Jub 5:10. This final place of destruction is often described as being fiery, which leads to the possibility that it was instrumental in John’s description of the lake of fire.26 In a similar way, the abyss in Revelation is not permanent but temporary; as seen in the various exits of evil creatures from the abyss throughout the book and the description of eternal punishment of the two beasts and the dragon in the lake of fire. John, therefore, made use of the Watchers tradition by describing the final judgment of evil as occurring not in the abyss but in a subsequent place that is described as fiery and eternal. John uses the Watchers tradition to show the elimination of evil in a second way as well. The incarceration needs to come to an end (Rev 20:3, 7), but, as described above in Chapter 4, an important way of describing the dragon’s defeat is his incarceration in that utterly secure prison of the Watchers tradition from which there is no escape. The fact that John alludes to the tradition of the Watchers is clear from his description of the angel binding the dragon and totally securing him in the abyss with no hope of release until the time set by God.27 This prison, as described in the myth of the Watchers, gave John the means by which he could describe the defeat of the dragon in order to highlight the victory of the saints and yet still leave the possibility of future activity that will bring the definitive end to the dragon and evil in general. Captivity Versus Destruction There are several versions of the sea monster myth in the Old Testament that demonstrate differing fates for the dragon after his encounter with God. Some of these texts that refer to the outcome of God’s battle with the dragon speak of the dragon’s complete destruction at the hands of Yahweh. God crushed the heads of Leviathan (Ps 74:13–14), He pierced and slayed the dragon (Isa 51:9–10; Job 26:12–13), and He gave him as food for the animals (Ps 74:14). However, God is also described as keeping the dragon as a pet (Job 41:1–8) and keeping him under guard (Job 7:12). The fact that Leviathan can be roused suggests he is still alive (Job 3:8) and Ps 104:26 certainly portrays him as being alive and possibly as being a captured animal.28 This continued existence of the dragon is also seen in that verse that must have played an important role in John’s development of his 26.  This point will be discussed more fully in Chapter 7. 27.  See 1 En. 10:4–6, 10–14; 12:4–6. 28.  Wakeman, God’s Battle, 67–68. Gunkel, in referring to this concept especially as seen in Job 40; Ps 74:14 and Isa 27:1, says that “according to tradition reproduced by the poet, he still existed in the present time” (Creation and Chaos, 36). See also 1 En. 60:7; 2 Baruch 29:4; 4 Ezra 6:49, 52.

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description of the dragon, namely in Isa 27:1: “In that day, the LORD will punish with his sword, his fierce, great and powerful sword, Leviathan the gliding serpent, Leviathan the coiling serpent; he will slay the monster of the sea.” If the dragon Leviathan will be destroyed in the future, he is not destroyed right now. This dual fate is also seen in references to the sea in which the sea monster theme is either not present or is used in parallel to the description of the physical sea. A common way to write of God’s destruction of the sea is that He dried it up. In Isa 51:10, the sea, in parallel with Rahab, is said to have been dried up (‫ )חָ ֵרב‬and refers to the Reed Sea crossing. In Isa 50:2 and Nah 1:4, the same Hebrew verb is used to refer in a more general sense to God drying up the sea. It would seem that if a sea is dried up, it is destroyed; but in a similar way that many passages portray the sea monster as being subdued but not destroyed, so also many passages speak of the sea as being limited and controlled but not destroyed. God places limits and barriers to prevent the sea from inundating the earth and this is often communicated by means of imagery that suggests captivity (Job 9:8; 38:8–11; Pss 33:7; 93:3–4; 104:6–9; Prov 8:27–29; Jer 5:22). The Two Fates of the Sea Monster Represented in the Imprisonment in the Abyss and the Eternal Destruction in the Lake of Fire This ambiguity regarding the fate of the dragon and the sea in the Old Testament is seen in the fate of the dragon in John’s Apocalypse as well. The dragon is imprisoned first, in the abyss, and then in the end he is totally destroyed in the lake of fire. The myth of the Watchers gave John the ideal framework with which he could describe how the dual fate of the dragon is worked out in the future. Not only does this myth contain both a capturing as well as the destruction of the Watchers, but the imprisonment occurs in the abyss that, as has been seen earlier in this book, was understood in the Old Testament to be the abode of the sea dragon. Even though there are important differences between the watery abyss of the Old Testament and the earthly abyss described in Revelation, this captivity of the dragon in the abyss accentuates one of the important commonalities. After this confinement in Rev 20, a fate for the dragon that corresponds to the slaying of the sea monster is described. That is, the dragon is placed in the lake of fire where his destruction is eternal.29 It is to be admitted that the form of slaying is different when comparing the sea monster with the dragon of Revelation. In the Old Testament the dragon is normally slain with a sword30 or is crushed.31 29.  Rev 20:10; 21:18; cf. 14:11. “The first time God vanquished Leviathan He did not annihilate him; in the end of days He will not only conquer but destroy so that evil will vanish from the universe” (Gordon, “Leviathan,” 2). 30.  Cf. Isa 27:1; 51:9. 31.  Cf. Pss 74:13, 14; 89:10.

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In John’s version, the fate of the dragon is similar to that of the beast in Dan 7:10–11 and to the fate of the Watchers in the Watchers myth. Daniel 7 includes the idea of a fiery end while the Watchers tradition includes the added detail of captivity that precedes the fiery judgment.32 By following the example laid out in the myth of the Watchers in which there is a progression from the abyss to the place of judgment, John works out the story of the conflict between God and the dragon in the future as the dragon is first imprisoned in the abyss and then destroyed in the lake of fire.33 John makes clear by means of his description of the eternality of the lake of fire (Rev 20:10; 21:18; cf. 14:11) that when God places the beasts and the dragon there, all ambiguity concerning the fate of evil ends. These evil creatures are not just captured with the possibility of release but destroyed eternally in a fiery lake from which they will never exit. The Similarity of the End and the Beginning: The Destruction of the Dragon at Creation and the Attempts of the Serpent to Tempt and Destroy The captivity and the destruction of the dragon are related to an interesting pattern that is seen in Revelation and other apocalyptic literature: that is, the end is similar to the beginning.34 Two of the clearest examples of this are the new creation and the allusions to the Garden of Eden. With regard to the first, several passages in the Old Testament describe the first part of God’s creative activity as being the capturing or destroying of the sea monster.35 With regard to the garden of Eden, in Gen 3 the serpent deceived the inhabitants of the garden after creation was complete. Both of these stories are replayed again at the end of Revelation after the dragon exits from captivity. I begin with the story of the garden. Revelation 20:3 states that after the dragon is incarcerated in the abyss he must be released again for a short time. There are several indications in the immediate context that cause the listener or reader to think of the Garden of Eden. First, the dragon will deceive (Rev 20:3, 8, 10), which is a clear allusion to the serpent that deceived Eve in Gen 3. Second, the dragon is referred to as the “ancient serpent” in Rev 20:2. In addition to these allusions to Eden, there is a sense in which a new beginning has taken place in that God has brought people to life and that death will no longer affect them (20:4–6). This sense of new life is reminiscent of the new life that Adam 32.  Cf. 1 En. 10:6, 13; 54:6; 90:24. 33.  It can be said that the beast also follows this same progression of going to the abyss and then to the lake of fire. However, the clear sense of the beast being imprisoned in the abyss is absent. 34.  See Gunkel, Creation and Chaos, 231–34; Westermann, Beginning and End, 21–27. David Syme Russell writes, “Two ‘re-​creation motifs’ run through much apocalyptic thinking. One is that the end will in some way correspond to the beginning” (Apocalyptic, 34). 35.  See the section “The Dragon that Lives in the Sea” in Chapter 2.

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and Eve experienced. Just two chapters later, in the first part of ch. 22, there are more allusions to Eden as the new creation is described.36 These allusions include the river that flows through the city, the tree of life, and the mention that there is no more curse.37 The assurances that the Lord God will be very present (21:3; 22:3) and that his people will see his face (22:4) might also be subtle allusions to the intimacy shared between God and Adam and Eve in the garden (Gen 3:8). The actions of the serpent in 20:7–9 as he exits from his captivity are certainly not identical to Gen 3, but they do appear related. Instead of trying to deceive those in God’s camp, he goes out to deceive the nations. Once that is done, he marches against the camp, not to deceive those who are in the camp but to surround and battle against them. Two points should be considered regarding the similarities between the deception of Adam and Eve in Gen 3 and the attempt to destroy God’s people in Rev 20. First, when the serpent did succeed in deceiving Adam and Eve, one of the results was their eventual death (Gen 3:3, 19). In like manner, though the dragon does not try to deceive the saints in Rev 20:8–9, he presumably does try to kill them. Second, the fact that the dragon does not deceive God’s people brings to mind the words of Jesus: “False Christs and false prophets will arise and show signs and wonders, to lead astray, if possible, the elect” (Mark 13:22). The book of Revelation contains a truth that is quite similar; that is, the saints have been sealed by God (Rev 7; 9:1–12; 14:1–5; cf. 3:10). It is likely that this sealing involves the protection of the faith of the saints as opposed to physical protection.38 It would be reasonable to suppose, then, that the reason the serpent does not try to deceive the saints is because they have been sealed and so deceiving them is not possible. The dragon, then, who is also called the serpent, must be released for a short time from his captivity in the abyss. What he does has strong parallels to what the serpent did in the garden. The dragon needs to be released from his captivity because he needs to be given the chance to do once again what he had done after the first creation.39 It is apparent however, that he is unable to defeat God’s people and the conditions of the new creation will be much different than the first. He is then destroyed eternally in the lake of fire. The story of the captivity and destruction of the dragon in Revelation alludes not only to the Garden of Eden but also to the ancient myth of the destruction of the dragon in the process of creation. After the dragon is released from captivity 36.  See Mathewson, New Heaven, 186–203. 37.  See ibid., 201–3, and the authors that Mathewson cites. He argues that the removal of the curse in 22:3 refers to the “ban of destruction” itself instead of the thing that is banned or accursed. 38.  See Charles, Critical and Exegetical Commentary, 1:243; Beale, Book of Revelation, 409– 12; Kistemaker, New Testament Commentary, 248–49. 39.  See Caird, Revelation, 257; Bauckham, Theology, 107–8.

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and tries to destroy the camp of the saints, he is destroyed in the lake of fire and soon after that a new creation is described. When one considers the fact that in Rev 19–21 one finds the symbol of a dragon that emerges from the abyss, a new creation, allusions to the Garden of Eden, and the destruction of the dragon before the new creation occurs, it becomes apparent that these allude to the traditions of God destroying the sea monster before, or as a part of his work of creation. This allusion to God’s conflict with the dragon becomes even more clear in 21:1. In this verse John says not only that he saw the new heaven and new earth but also that the sea was no longer present. It is widely accepted that the reason the sea is missing in the new creation is because of its association with evil.40 Considering the close relationship between the sea and the sea dragon in the Old Testament, it is not surprising that if the dragon is destroyed in ch. 20, the sea is no longer present in ch. 21. John demonstrates that the end is like the beginning by means of his allusions to the Garden of Eden and the destruction of the dragon before the new creation. These allusions are closely tied to the dual fate of the dragon in the Old Testament. However, unlike the ambiguity experienced when comparing a number of different Old Testament or ancient Near Eastern traditions, the story in Revelation shows the dragon first being imprisoned and then being destroyed. By presenting the two fates in this clear chronological way, the certainty of the destruction of evil is demonstrated. There are various elements found in the final chapters of Revelation that serve to assure the reader or hearer that even though the end is like the beginning in significant ways, the new creation will not be vulnerable to evil as the first creation had been. The certainty of the dragon’s eternal destruction in the context of the new creation is one of these indications. An objection that can be raised against the preceding analysis, specifically the supposed allusions to the Garden of Eden, is that if an allusion to the serpent’s temptation in the garden were intended, then one might expect the attack of the dragon on the camp of God (20:7–9) to have occurred after the new creation that is found in ch. 21 and the Eden language of 22:1–3. This would have corresponded more closely to the Eden account that occurs after the first creation had taken place. Placing the dragon’s attack after the new creation in Rev 21, however, was not viable for two reasons. First, there was an important difference between the first Eden and the last. Sin was introduced into the garden after the first creation by the serpent and it was followed by a long history of sin and redemption. The last Eden, however, symbolizes the beginning of a period in which sin and evil have been eliminated forever (Rev 22:1–5) and so the serpent is portrayed as no longer present in the new heavens and new earth. The second reason why the serpent could not have threatened the people of God after 40.  See Chapter 7.

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the new creation was because, unlike the Old Testament, in John’s Apocalypse the dragon and the serpent are combined into one character. The sea monster was understood in some texts to have been destroyed before or during the process of the original creation while the serpent was alive and active in the garden after the creation had been completed. In John’s Apocalypse, however, the figures of the dragon and serpent are blended into one and therefore it would have been incongruent for this one creature both to be destroyed before the creation of the new heavens and new earth and also to be allowed to continue living afterward. Not only would it have been incongruent to describe the dragon/serpent as living on after the new creation, but it would have severely weakened the message of a final solution to evil. John found in the captivity and destruction of the Watchers a way to utilize the dual fate of the Old Testament sea monster in his story of the dragon. By demonstrating that the dragon was both captured and then destroyed, John associated his message with a powerful, dual tradition from the Old Testament that described a great enemy of God and his eventual defeat. Using the dual tradition also gave John the ability to describe in several ways how the end will be like the beginning and to communicate theological content about the future victory and vindication of the saints. Gap Between Release and Destruction Although there is substantial evidence that demonstrates that the Watchers tradition contributed much to John’s Apocalypse, one major area in which John parts from this source is in the activity of the inmate in between his release and his destruction. The most obvious example of this contrast is the dragon’s release in Rev 20. Despite the ample evidence that the story alludes to the Watchers myth, when the dragon is actually released, he immediately sets out to gather an army to war against God’s people. This is in stark contrast to what is found in 1 En. 10:5–6, 12; 54:1–6; Jub 5:10; 10:7–9; Jude 6; 2 Pet 2:4, and Isa 24:21–22 in which the release from the abyss is apparently followed immediately by the Watchers’ judgment. By allowing a time for the dragon to be active after his incarceration, several important points can be expressed and symbolized about the nature of the last days. These points have been examined above and include the attempt to destroy the people of God, the destruction of the dragon prior to the new creation, and the demonstration that an attack of God’s people occurs after the messianic rest in accordance with Ezek 37–39 and Isa 24–26. In the case of the beast, there is a similar pattern of the creature doing evil in between his release from the abyss and his destruction in the lake of fire. In the descriptions of the beast, this point is not as obvious as in the story of the dragon because the allusions to the Watchers myth are not as visible in the sections of

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the book that pertain to the beast. However, the statement in 17:8 that the beast comes up from the abyss to go to his destruction gives a strong indication that the Watchers myth is in view. After a statement like this, one would expect the next paragraph to describe the beast’s judgment, but this is not what happens. Rather, in a similar way to the dragon, the beast goes about gathering an army and warring against the Lamb and against the harlot. Significant events occur during this gap that add to the drama and to the message of this book. Later, in ch. 19, after the destruction of the harlot, John describes the attack against the Lamb and then finally the “going to his destruction” occurs. This parenthesis that is seen in the fate of both the beast and the dragon can easily be interpreted as an allusion to the fate of the fourth beast in Dan 7. There are strong similarities because the beast of Dan 7 comes from the sea, attacks the people of God (by means of the little horn), and is finally placed in the fiery river. However, John’s version is more complex and it has been demonstrated that there is much more to the abyss than simply being the abode of evil from which the beast exits as in Dan 7. In Revelation it is also seen as being a prison for evil creatures in a similar way to the Watchers myth. Because of this it is preferable to see this parenthesis not so much as an allusion to Dan 7, but rather as something that John has creatively inserted into his adaptation of the story of the Watchers.41 The description of a gap in between the exit of the abyss and the going to destruction serves the purpose of allowing the story of the dragon’s imprisonment to reflect all three of the traditions that have been examined in this chapter. This is significant because the concept of a prison (tradition 3) does not harmonize naturally with the idea of an abode (tradition 1) or the concept of a constant threat to overwhelm the earth (tradition 2). The dragon’s imprisonment in the abyss, then, clearly emphasizes the concept of a prison (tradition 3), but by means of the time gap in between the imprisonment and the dragon’s destruction, the dragon is free to exit (tradition 1) and to threaten to completely overwhelm (tradition 2) the camp of God’s people (20:9). This last tradition is especially apparent because the armies that the dragon leads resemble destructive waters in that they are like the sands of the sea and they rise up (ἀνέβησαν) and completely surround the camp (Rev 20:8–9).42

41.  Another possible reference to the fate that overshadows all the activities of the abyss-​ dwelling creatures is found in Rev 9:11. The two names given for the angel of the abyss are not only given in different languages but have slightly different meanings. Although Apollyon means “destroyer” in Greek, Abaddon means “destruction” in Hebrew and refers to the place of destruction in passages such as Job 26:6 and 28:22. Considering the clear indications that the beast and the dragon go to destruction after exiting the abyss (17:8; 20:3, 7, 10), it is possible that the Hebrew name of the angel of the abyss is a sign that these creatures will share the same fate. 42.  See the section “Four Corners of the Earth in Revelation 20:7–9” in Chapter 6.

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Conclusion The concept of the abyss as it appears in Revelation draws heavily from three traditions that are found in the Old Testament and other literature. These are the dragon that lives in the sea, God’s restraint of the waters that threaten to overwhelm the earth, and the prison for the Watchers. As John uses these traditions in his portrayal of the abyss and its relationship to evil creatures, he demonstrates that the abyss functions as the place where evil creatures live (tradition 1), evil creatures are imprisoned (tradition 3), and from where evil creatures emerge to overwhelm and destroy (tradition 2). These traditions shape not only John’s abyss but the message of the entire book. This is most clearly seen in its contribution to the book’s assurance of God’s control over evil, both in the present and the future of John’s audience. This control is communicated in various ways, not only by means of what is actually said about the abyss and its inhabitants but also by means of the background and the context of the traditions that John utilizes. A listener who understood or was instructed in this background could have received a rich and complex assurance of the fact that God continues to restrain evil and that He will surely destroy it once and for all in the future.

Chapter 6

Similar Concepts to the Abyss in Revelation

Two significant details from previous chapters need to be mentioned at the outset of this chapter. First, the abyss is described in Revelation as being the home of evil creatures, the prison of evil creatures, and/or the place from where evil creatures ascend in order to overwhelm and destroy. Second, in this study of the abyss so far, Rev 13:1 has played a significant role even though the sea is referenced instead of the abyss. This is because the sea in 13:1 functions in a similar manner to the abyss in that it is described as a place where the beast lives and from where he ascends in order to overwhelm the earth.1 In this chapter I examine various words and phrases with the purpose of determining whether their use in Revelation would likely have led John’s audience to assume that they, just like the word “sea” in Rev 13:1, functioned in a similar way to that of the abyss in relation to evil. This examination is done by means of a study of these concepts in their immediate context and the wider context of the book as a whole. First, I will determine whether these words and phrases are used in such a way that they describe an abode, prison, and/or a place from where evil creatures come forth in order to overwhelm the earth and destroy. Second, I will look for other contextual indicators that connect the concept to the abyss. For instance, in some cases the concept being considered appears in a passage that parallels in some significant way another passage that mentions the abyss. Third, I will consider whether there are contextual indicators that actually serve to de-​emphasize the similarities between the abyss and the word or phrase under study. As a result of these three analyses, a reasonable assessment can be made as to whether John’s audience would have inferred that these concepts had a similar function as the abyss in regard to evil. 1.  Bauckham actually refers to them as identical (Climax of Prophecy, 436). See also Mounce, Book of Revelation, 244; Beale, Book of Revelation, 684; Brighton, Revelation, 348; Johnson, Triumph of the Lamb, 187; Boxall, Revelation, 187; Resseguie, Revelation of John, 179–80.

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The words and phrases that will be evaluated are the sea, the River Euphrates, the prison, the rivers and springs, the earth, Hades, heaven, and the four corners of the earth. These words were chosen either because they share significant semantic range with the abyss outside of Revelation, or because within this book they appear to exhibit important characteristics that are similar to the abyss. The result of this comparison of the abyss with other concepts will be a broader understanding of John’s use of this term and the symbolism that he employed to describe evil and God’s response to it.

The Sea As mentioned above, nearly all commentators are in agreement that the use of the sea in Rev 13:1 is very similar to the use of the abyss throughout the book of Revelation.2 The reasons for the certainty among commentators can be summarized as follows. First, the beast is seen in 13:1 as exiting the sea in a similar way to his exit from the abyss in 11:7 and 17:8. That is, in all three passages the same character ascends, attacks the saints, and is followed by the earth dwellers.3 Second, a likely explanation for why John uses “sea” instead of “abyss” in this passage is that John clothes the arrival of the beast in the language and imagery of the little horn of Dan 7. Since the beast that carried the little horn ascended from the sea, it is appropriate that John uses the sea instead of the abyss in this instance. Third, as seen in earlier chapters, there is substantial overlap in the semantic range of the sea and the abyss in the Old Testament. In summary, it is likely that the function of the sea in 13:1 is very similar to that of the abyss.

The Euphrates River The Euphrates River is included in this list because of its use as the place from beyond which an eschatological opponent comes (Sib. Or. 4:120, 139; 13:99, 124) 2.  Because of the overwhelming agreement among scholars concerning this point, I will dedicate very little space to this concept. 3.  These similarities are as follows: In Rev 11:7, the beast is described as doing battle with the two witnesses and killing them, which is highly popular with the earth dwellers and so is celebrated (11:10). In 13:1–8, the beast is enlisted by the dragon to do battle with the saints and to blaspheme God and those who live in heaven. The earth dwellers are amazed by him, follow him, and even come to worship him (13:3, 4, 8). In 17:8, it is clear that the beast comes out of the abyss, not to go immediately to destruction but to do battle with God and the saints (17:14). Revelation 17:8 says that the earth dwellers will be astonished by him and 17:12–14 says that ten kings will give their authority to the beast.

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and because of its use in the Old Testament to describe the place from where the enemies of Israel and Judah come (Isa 7:20; 8:7; Jer 46:10). In Revelation it is mentioned twice: once in the sixth trumpet (9:14) and once in the sixth bowl (16:12). The Fifth and Sixth Trumpets There are a number of interesting similarities between the events associated with the blowing of the fifth and sixth trumpets.4 This is of interest in the present study because of the role that the abyss plays in the fifth trumpet. If there are sufficient similarities between the two plagues, it strengthens the possibility that the sixth trumpet, with its use of the Euphrates, was describing something similar to the fifth, with its use of the abyss. In the fifth trumpet (9:1–11), locusts are released from the abyss and they torment people who are not sealed. In the sixth (9:13–19), four angels who are held at the River Euphrates are released that results in the death of one third of humankind. The similarity that is immediately obvious is that in both cases there are restrained beings who are released in order to attack humans. However, there appear to be other significant similarities as well between the two passages. There is a similarity in the fact that in both instances, the creatures are an amalgam of various animals and humans. In the case of the locusts, they have various parts that look as if they belong to men, women, scorpions, and lions. Their approach is said to sound like horses. In a similar manner, the horses in the sixth trumpet have heads like lions and tails like serpents. The horses themselves are not said to have human parts, but the wording of the description combines the horses and those who sit upon them in such a way as to reduce distinctions between them. Revelation 9:17 contains the following: καὶ οὕτως εἶδον τοὺς ἵππους ἐν τῇ ὁράσει καὶ τοὺς καθημένους ἐπʼ αὐτῶν, ἔχοντας θώρακας πυρίνους καὶ ὑακινθίνους καὶ θειώδεις. Scholars are divided as to whether the horses, the riders, or both horses and riders are wearing the breastplates. Indeed, it is impossible to be sure since the masculine plural ἔχοντας could have either ἵππους, καθημένους, or both as its subject. This ambiguity could easily be intentional as it reduces the distinction between the horses and the riders. Another unusual feature of the description is that it is the horses that actually kill one third of the human population. The riders fade to the background as if they were just another characteristic or appendage of the horses. This serves to increase the similarity

4.  Boxall writes concerning the sixth trumpet that “the description of this mighty cavalry is strangely evocative of the locusts of the fifth trumpet” (Revelation, 148).

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between the locusts that have faces that resemble human faces and the horses that have riders. There is also an interesting combination of the demonic and the mortal. Most commentators see the locusts as being in some way demonic5 because of factors such as their initial presence in the abyss, the unnatural act of attacking people instead of eating plants, the terrorizing accessory of a scorpion’s tail, and their hybrid nature.6 However, even though they are demonic, their physical characteristics resemble people and animals. The sixth trumpet combines the demonic and the human in a different way. Whereas the evil angels are the ones who are released in order to kill one third of humanity (9:14–15), it is the horses and their riders that are seen by John (9:17), and it is the horses that actually kill (9:17–19). This can be seen as an example of a pattern in John’s Apocalypse in which John hears one thing and then sees something that explains or clarifies what he has heard.7 The evil angels are indeed those who kill, but they do it by means of their representatives. Some scholars have found another similarity between the two passages that consists of elements suggestive of the Parthians.8 These elements include references to horses and riders, the hair of women, golden crowns, faces like men, and especially the fact that in both cases there is special mention of the harm that is done by the tails of the creatures; that is, the scorpion stingers of the locusts and the serpent-​like tails of the horses.9 These last details gain importance when one considers the fact that the Parthian soldiers fought on horseback and shot arrows with deadly accuracy both as they charged and as they rode away (the famous Parthian shot).10 This proposal that John’s audience would have heard a reference to the Parthian threat of course is not to deny the obvious allusions in the fifth trumpet to the eighth Egyptian plague and to Joel 1–2. Nor does it 5.  See Beale, Book of Revelation, 491; Mounce, Book of Revelation, 187; Beasley-​Murray, Book of Revelation, 161; Thomas, Revelation 8–22, 30. 6.  See especially Ford, “Jewish Law,” 208–12. The illustrations that she lists are from, Jewish Symbols, vol. 3. 7.  Cf. 1:10, 12–13; 5:5–6; 7:4, 9. See Farmer, “Undercurrents and Paradoxes,” 114–15; Davies, Paul Among the Apocalypses?, 56. 8.  Kiddle, Revelation, 164; Ford, Revelation, 151–52; Keener, Revelation, 270–72; Thomas, Revelation 19, 16; Kraybill, Imperial Cult, 162; Harrington, Revelation, 113; Reddish, Revelation, 183. 9.  Farmer, Revelation, 85; Streett, Here Comes the Judge, 86. 10.  “The mention of the Euphrates River carried special significance for the original readers because it marked the eastern extent of Roman influence. Across it lay the Parthians, who had twice defeated the Roman army (53 bce and 62 ce). The Romans lived in fear that one day the Parthians would pour across the Euphrates in a massive invasion. The terror of the Parthian army lay in its mounted archers, who shot one volley as they charged and another volley over their horses’ tails as they retreated, a tactic reflected in John’s description of the demonic horde” (Farmer, “Undercurrents and Paradoxes,” 113).

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deny the allusions in the sixth trumpet to Old Testament descriptions of attacking armies that come from beyond the Euphrates. The point is not to deny these allusions but rather to suggest that even as the locusts and horses are described in terms that would remind John’s audience of God’s judgment through locusts and armies in the past, this imagery would also have brought to their mind the contemporary threat of the Parthians11 whom God could also use to judge in the present or the future.12 Not only are there elements in both plagues that might well have associated the attackers with the Parthians in the minds of John’s audience, but there are also similarities regarding the identity of the victims. Although it is clearly stated in the fifth trumpet that the ones who are attacked are those who have not been sealed and so are not God’s people, the description of the sixth trumpet simply states that the horses kill one third of humankind. On the surface this might suggest that the horses attack indiscriminately both those who are God’s people and those who are not. However, on further reflection it appears that the victims in both plagues are similar. In 9:20–21 it is said that the rest of humankind (οἱ λοιποὶ τῶν ἀνθρώπων) who were not killed failed to repent of their idol worship and their murders, sorcery, immorality, or thefts. The implication is that the entire group was involved in these activities, both the ones killed and the ones who survived. This leads to the conclusion that God’s people are not included in this group that was attacked. This means that in a similar manner to the locusts who emerged from the abyss, the horses that came from the Euphrates did not attack God’s people.13 The point of reviewing these elements in the descriptions of the fifth and sixth trumpet plagues is to emphasize how much they have in common. If the trumpets have this much in common, then the probability increases that John’s audience would have seen the abyss and the Euphrates to be functioning in similar ways. In the sixth trumpet the angels are said to be bound at the Euphrates. The fact that they are bound ties this trumpet to the fifth since bound angels are a common element found in passages that speak of the abyss or subterranean prisons.14 There is also a similarity in that the abyss in the fifth trumpet is opened to allow the agents of God’s judgment to do their work. In a similar way, the Euphrates is a symbol of a place from where the bearers of God’s judgment come because there are many examples in the Old Testament of armies coming 11.  See Wainwright, Mysterious Apocalypse, 130–31. 12.  1 Enoch 56:5–8 describes the angels of God who stir up the Parthians and Medes in order to enact judgment on sinners. 13.  Koester would appear to agree with this assessment judging from his statement that “the world’s idolaters, who are said to worship demons (Rev 9:20), are turned over to demonic beings, who slaughter them” (Revelation, 472–73). 14.  1 Enoch 10:4–6, 12–14; 88:1–2; Jude 6; 2 Pet 2:4; Rev 20:1–3.

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from beyond the Euphrates to enact God’s justice.15 The Parthians could be seen as a contemporary example of bearers of God’s judgment. This comparison of the fifth and sixth trumpets provides evidence that John’s use of the Euphrates in 9:14 is similar to his use of the abyss. This is seen not only in the fact that both places described a type of prison from where evil creatures came forth to overwhelm and attack people, but other contextual indicators tie the two concepts together as well. The Sixth Trumpet and the Sixth Bowl The similarities between the sixth trumpet and the sixth bowl are easily seen. In both cases, the Euphrates river is crossed by an army and there are demonic creatures that are involved in enabling the armies to cross. At first it might appear that the mention of the Euphrates in the sixth trumpet is more easily associated with the abyss than its mention in the sixth bowl. That is because in the sixth trumpet the horses associated with the Euphrates are similar to the abyss-​dwelling locusts in that they appear to be demonic and because they clearly attack people. Those that come from the Euphrates in the sixth bowl judgment, on the other hand, are probably human and they are not said in this passage to attack people. However, there are a variety of factors that suggest strong similarities between the abyss in Revelation and the Euphrates mentioned in the sixth bowl judgment. Chapters 17 and 18 contain descriptions of the fall of Babylon that are amplifications of the seventh bowl judgment (16:17–19). Of the different descriptions of the harlot’s punishment, one of them states that she is to be completely destroyed by the ten horns that have given their authority to the beast (17:12–18). Some commentators have argued that these ten horns are the kings that are mentioned in the sixth bowl judgment.16 This is probable because just as these ten horns are kings (17:12), the characters in the sixth bowl plague are the kings of the earth (16:12). That the number ten in Revelation symbolizes totality and completeness17 argues for the fact that a reference to “ten horns which are kings” is very similar to a reference to “the kings of the earth,” a phrase that intimates that all the kings on earth are included or at least represented. An identification of the ten 15.  The mention of the Euphrates “evokes the OT prophecy of an army from beyond the Euphrates (from ‘the north’) whom God will bring to judge sinful Israel (Isa. 5:26–29; 7:20; 8:7–8; 14:29–31; Jer. 1:14–15; 4:6–13; 6:1, 22; 10:22; 13:20; Ezek. 38:6, 15; 39:2; Joel 2:1–11, 20–25)” (Beale, Book of Revelation, 506). Brevard Childs writes of Israel having “mythologized an historical tradition” (“Enemy from the North,” 302). 16.  Beasley-​Murray, Book of Revelation, 258; Osborne, Revelation, 592; and esp. Beale, Book of Revelation, 878–79. 17.  Resseguie, Revelation of John, 29, 171–72, 202.

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horns with the kings of the earth is also probable because in both cases the beast is involved in leading them (16:13–16; 17:12–13, 16–17; 19:19–21) and in both cases they participate in the fight against the Lamb (16:16; cf. 19:19–21; 17:14).18 If the kings of the earth in the sixth bowl are to be identified with the ten horns who are kings (17:12–14), then there is a very strong connection between the Euphrates and the abyss. In the sixth bowl, the deceiving spirits go out from the beast (and the dragon and false prophet) and the result is that the army crosses the Euphrates and prepares for war, led by the beast (cf. Rev 19:19–12). In the description of the ten horns, they also prepare for battle and are led by the beast (17:13–14) who, rather than coming from the Euphrates, comes from the abyss (17:8). The amount of similarity in the two passages supports the idea that the abyss and the Euphrates are used in similar ways. Symbolic Uses of the Euphrates In addition to these arguments, there is a different kind of reasoning that supports the notion that John’s audience probably would have associated these two uses of the Euphrates with the abyss. Havrelock, in writing of the two different “maps” that are found in the Old Testament to identify the territory of Israel, argues that both of them describe the western border as the Mediterranean and the eastern border as a river; that is, either the Jordan or the Euphrates.19 She says that it was important to Israel’s conception of itself as a nation that the land extend from water to water. She writes that “since the social configuration of Israel claims divine order as its root, the correspondence between the land and creation serves as a necessary precondition for the territorialization of the divine promise.”20 Therefore, even when the actual situation of where the borders lay is different, there is a sense in which the east–west axis must extend from the sea to some river so that the land can form a microcosm of the universe.21 So the 18.  This assumes that the army brought to Armageddon in ch. 16 is the same one that fights against the rider on the horse in 19:19. This interpretation is probable and is shared by many authors. See Beale, Book of Revelation, 834–36, 967–68; Aune, “Apocalypse of John and Palestinian Jewish Apocalyptic,” 179. 19.  Havrelock, “Two Maps,” 649. For information on cartography in the ancient Middle East, see Millard, “Cartography,” 107–16. 20.  Havrelock, “Two Maps,” 658. See Ryan for more on this and for the idea that in the author’s mind, the Roman Empire had usurped Israel’s internal borders (Hearing, 68–70). 21.  Grottanelli, writing in a different context, says something similar: “since Egyptian domination literally implies the impossibility of an orderly (yahwistic) Israelite microcosm in the Promised Land, whereby the covenant with the Patriarchs may be accomplished, the monstrous nature of Pharaoh and his people is not simply symbolic but is felt as a very profound and concrete reality” (Kings and Prophets, 50).

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description of the borders of the land were important not only for practical reasons of knowing where their land began and ended but for theological reasons as well. That which existed beyond their borders was seen not simply as another country but as dangerous, unholy, and threatening.22 Havrelock writes, “as the boundary between the earth and the sea separates the order of creation from the primordial chaos associated with water, so the land is separated from the threat of the foreign by boundaries of water.”23 This concept of crossing a boundary in order to enter the land is not foreign to John’s way of describing evil. He presents the beast as coming out of the sea to attack God’s people (13:1) and leading an army that comes from the other side of the Euphrates (Rev 16–17). What comes from the sea and what comes from the Euphrates are visualized in this book as being evil and chaotic. Not only must one cross a boundary to travel from the Euphrates or the sea to the land, but to go from the abyss to the earth is to cross a boundary as well. Whereas the sea and the Euphrates can be visualized as bordering the land on a horizontal plane, the abyss is seen to border the land on a vertical plane. This is especially seen in Rev 9:1–11 and 20:1–3, where the locking and unlocking of the abyss emphasizes the fact that one must cross a boundary in order to move between the abyss and the earth. Based on the preceding analysis, it is very likely that John’s readers would not only have considered the Euphrates to be functioning in a similar way to the abyss, but they would have also identified the two concepts closely. Evil was detained at the Euphrates, as seen in the four angels who were bound (9:14), and the armies of the world only advanced toward the battle at Armageddon once the way had been opened to them (16:12). Once they were released, these forces crossed the boundary and were overwhelming in their numbers (9:16; 16:14) as they battled with God’s people (17:14; 19:14) and brought judgment on God’s enemies (9:15; cf. 9:20; 17:16). These passages demonstrate a great deal of similarity with those that describe creatures that are incarcerated in the abyss and then released upon the earth.

Prison Revelation 18:2 forms part of the description of Babylon’s destruction. This judgment was already mentioned in 14:8, 16:19, and ch. 17, which begins the 22.  The Euphrates in the Old Testament “stood for the boundary that separated God’s people from their enemies. Regions beyond the Euphrates were regarded as the symbol of the archenemies of God and Israel” (Stefanović, Revelation, 314–15). Karel van der Toorn asserts that the Euphrates sometimes carries mythological connotations in the Bible, especially in the book of Revelation (“Euphrates”). 23.  Havrelock, “Two Maps,” 658.

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two-​chapter description of her destruction. In 18:2, allusion is made to several Old Testament passages that describe the future destruction of various cities that are rebellious toward God. These are the cities of Babylon (Isa 13:21–22; Jer 50:39; 51:37); Edom (Isa 34:11–14); Assyria (Zeph 2:14–15); and Jerusalem (Jer 9:11). The message of 18:2 is clear. Just as Babylon, Edom, Jerusalem, and Assyria were destined to be deserted because of their rebellion against God, so too would Rome24 be destroyed and deserted. The detail that is relevant to the current topic of study is the repetition of φυλακή two or possibly three times in 18:2 to describe where unclean spirits, unclean birds, and perhaps unclean beasts would be located. Because of the widely used tradition of angels and spirits being incarcerated in a prison below the ground, the use of φυλακή has some interesting implications. The word to which φυλακή is set in parallel is κατοικητήριον, which describes some sort of dwelling place. Because of this, it is possible to understand φυλακή to be connoting nothing more than a place where these unclean creatures abide.25 However, it is suggestive that in a book that describes evil creatures as being imprisoned, this word would be used to describe the place where unclean and evil creatures were located. Instead of using ἔπαυλις or αὐλή, good options that were offered by the translator of Isa 34:13 (LXX), John chooses φυλακή, which is not used in any of the Old Testament passages normally cited as sources for John’s imagery in this verse.26 This word was a common term for prison and is used by John in a pivotal passage describing the abyss, namely Rev 20:7: “And when the thousand years are completed, Satan will be released from his prison.” Attention would have been drawn to this word, not only because of its normal meaning but also because it is used two or three times in the same verse. The third mention of φυλακή is possibly a later addition, but if it is original,27 24.  It is widely held that Babylon is used here as a symbol for the city of Rome. 25.  For instance, Aune translates it as “preserve” (Revelation 17–22, 986). 26.  Beale argues that this term is synonymous with habitation. He cites the Septuagint of Dan 4:25, which uses φυλακή as the place where God and the angels would take king Nebuchadnezzar and is parallel to the desert. He points out that Theodotion uses the term “dwelling” (κατοικητήριον) in the same verse and Beale feels this is a demonstration that this word meant “dwelling” (Book of Revelation, 894–95). However, the Septuagint version is saying that the king was forcefully removed to another place that corresponds to the desert. The idea is not necessarily that of being taken to a new abode but rather of being taken to a place of judgment. It is true that Theodotion does use the term for dwelling, but his version does not emphasize the punitive nature of Nebuchadnezzar’s new situation as much as the Septuagint and therefore has a different nuance. The main point of this verse in Theodotion is that Nebuchadnezzar’s abode would be with the animals. Therefore, Beale’s argument that this word is synonymous with habitation is not a strong one. 27.  Bruce Metzger writes that the UBS committee considered that, although absent in several important witnesses, the phrase probably appeared in the original text of Revelation (Textual Commentary, 682–83). Aune, even though he ultimately decides that this phrase was probably a later

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it is significant that the word “prison” is used in this verse to describe the place where every unclean beast (θηρίου ἀκαθάρτου) is located. One can easily imagine how the use of beast and prison together would have drawn the mind of the listener to the multiple exits of the beast from the abyss and sea. The use of the word φυλακή is a key and rather surprising term in the middle of a fairly straightforward allusion to several Old Testament passages and it can be said to be used in a similar way to the abyss. Although there is no reference to evil creatures exiting from this place, φυλακή is used in 18:2 either to refer to the abode of evil creatures or to their prison, as the above analysis has argued. So John’s audience might have noticed something in common between the abyss and the prison, although the similarities are certainly not as great as with the sea or the Euphrates. Perhaps the result of hearing this term caused dissonance in the minds of John’s first audience so that after assimilating the main point of these verses, they were drawn to reflect on the passage from another angle. Although they would have understood the main point to be that Rome will be judged and destroyed by God, on reflection or at the suggestion of a Christian prophet in their midst,28 they might have considered how Rome was analogous to the abyss. Rome was the abode of great wickedness. More specifically, the beast as personified in Nero lived in and came from both the abyss and from Rome. The person listening to this description who knew the Jewish Scriptures would have remembered how all sorts of strange and demonic creatures were said to have made their abode in the ruins of these once great cities. However, the inclusion of the term φυλακή could have caused the listener to also ponder the fact that God had imprisoned the evil angels and was keeping them for the day of judgment. God was sovereignly moving history toward the ends that he had established and the judgment of Rome and the evil spirits were both part of this process.

Rivers and Springs In Chapters 2 and 3 of this work, it was demonstrated that the abyss was sometimes conceived as supplying the water that flowed to the surface of the earth through rivers and springs. Deuteronomy 8:7 and Ezek 31:4 are good examples of this use. The third trumpet and third bowl plague are targeted against the rivers and springs (Rev 8:10; 16:4), and so there arises the question of whether the addition, admits that the omission of this phrase is easier to explain than its insertion (Revelation 17–22, 965). 28.  See the discussion of the possible role of Christians prophets in explaining the text to John’s audience in the section “The Assumed Audience” in Chapter 1.

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rivers and springs in these two contexts might have had a similar function to that of the abyss. Ryan asserts that certain people in John’s day would have imagined the references to the springs of water of the third trumpet and third bowl as the “vast network of throats” of Hades that punctured the land from below.29 This idea has similarities to the idea of the abyss providing water to the rivers and springs. However, in order to demonstrate that the phrase “rivers and springs” is used in a similar way to the abyss in these two passages, it should be possible to find indications of this in the immediate context. These indications, however, are not present. There is no indication that evil creatures live or are imprisoned in the rivers and springs, nor does anything come from them to overwhelm the earth. In the third trumpet, there is a strong emphasis on how this plague affects people on earth. The waters become bitter and many people die as a result. In a similar way, the third bowl is poured out on the rivers and springs that turn to blood. It could be argued that in referring to the waters turned to blood, John’s audience would have been reminded of the fact that the Egyptian plagues were meant to judge the Egyptian gods (cf. Exod 12:12; Num 33:4). In the same way, by speaking of the waters turning to blood in the third bowl plague, it could be argued that God was attacking the abyss and therefore judging the evil spiritual powers that lived in the abyss. However, it is unlikely that John’s audience would have considered this to be the case because, once again, that which is emphasized is not the effect that this plague had on evil spirits but rather the effect it had on the people who were forced to drink the water. Another reason for denying that the rivers and springs are used in a similar way to the abyss in the third trumpet and bowl is the fact that the first four plagues in each sequence are targeting the earth, sea, rivers and springs, and the sun. In each case it is emphasized what the physical effects of the plague are and how it effects the people living on the earth. The descriptions, joined together in a group of four, are straightforward and they contrast with the fifth and sixth trumpets and bowls that are much more eclectic and mythical. Also, the abyss figures prominently in the fifth trumpet. It is unlikely that John’s readers would have made the extremely subtle connection between the third trumpet and the abyss when the fifth trumpet clearly and unambiguously mentions it.

The Earth In Rev 13:11, the second beast ascends from the earth. The possibility that the earth is here used in a similar way to the abyss should be considered for several reasons. First, in at least one Old Testament passages, the abyss (‫)ּתהֹום‬ ְ is closely 29.  Ryan, Hearing, 88.

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tied to the earth (Ps 71:20). Second, the prison for the angels that was examined in Chapter 3 normally portrays the abyss to be within the earth. Third, Revelation portrays the abyss to be within the earth so that one who ascends from the abyss ascends from the earth. Fourth, the one who comes up from the earth in this passage is intimately tied in John’s Apocalypse to the dragon and the first beast, both of whom spent time in the abyss and both of whom came up and out of the abyss. A variety of factors, however, serve to emphasize the differences between the two beasts and the places from where they come, rather than to emphasize their similarities. First, whereas a beast coming from the sea could have reminded John’s audience of Roman imperial power, the beast arising from the earth would have reminded them of local officials and religious leaders who promoted the imperial cult.30 Second, whereas the dragon had fallen from heaven in ch. 12 and the first beast had come from the sea in 13:1, so the second beast comes from the earth so as to emphasize that the satanic trinity that contests God’s sovereignty, comes from these three regions of creation.31 Third, the beast from the sea and another beast from the land formed an allusion to the tradition that described Leviathan who lived in the sea and Behemoth who lived on land. All three of these insights deflect the focus from the fact that the second beast arises from the earth in a similar way to the beast who arises from the sea and abyss. So, there are seen in this passage important similarities with the abyss in that an evil creature who appears to have his abode in the earth arises from it and joins in the attack on the saints. However, there are also contextual factors that de-​emphasize these similarities. It is likely that John’s audience would have noticed how the use of the earth in this context had a similar function to the abyss, but whether they would have associated the two closely together is not clear.

Hades In Chapters 2 and 3 it was seen that the abyss and Sheol/Hades are sometimes used in similar ways. Because of this and because Hades is mentioned four times in Revelation (1:18; 6:8; 20:13, 14), it is important to consider the possibility that Hades serves a similar function as the abyss in this book. At least two arguments can be made, in the context of the book of Revelation, that this is the case. The first argument is that because Rev 1:18 describes Jesus as holding the keys to 30.  See Koester, Revelation, 589; Barclay, Revelation, 89; Murphy, Fallen Is Babylon, 297. 31.  Bauckham, Climax of Prophecy, 32, 240.

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death and Hades, the key to Hades could be the same key that is given to the fallen star in 9:1 (cf. 20:1–3) so that he can open the shaft to the abyss. If this key were the same, then the implication would be that Hades and the abyss refer to the same place. Although this might sound convincing at first, to mention a key that locks and unlocks Hades is simply to reflect the common conception of Hades or Sheol being a prison.32 The abyss, especially as it is represented in Greco-​Roman and Pseudepigraphal literature, is also portrayed as a prison. So, even though some assume that the keys are the same, it is just as likely that the mention of the keys is simply used to illustrate two points: that both Hades and the abyss have characteristics of a prison, and that Jesus and God are sovereign over both. The second argument involves the beast who was, is not, and is to ascend from the abyss in Rev 17:8. It can be argued that if the beast is a person, then the state of “not being” is death that implies the person is in Hades. Since the place from where the beast comes after “not being” is called the abyss, then the interpretation is that the abyss and Hades refer to the same location.33 In Chapter 4 of this work, however, it was argued that it is a mistake to treat each of the exits of the beast from the sea or abyss as if they were describing the same event. Both Mealy and Collins argue that Rev 17:8 is describing a resurrection of the beast,34 but this is unlikely. It is true that an antithesis between Christ’s resurrection and the resurrection of the beast is described in John’s Apocalypse, but this is most clearly seen in Rev 13:1–3. If, as was argued in Chapter 4, Rev 17:8 describes the parousia of the beast rather than his resurrection, then the equivalence of the abyss and Hades is severely diminished. Another point that argues against the equating of the abyss and Hades is the fact that it is never suggested in this book that the human dead are located in the abyss.35 “Although some other writers might have referred to the abyss as the place of the dead, Revelation does not do so.”36 So, while John closely ties together Hades with death, the abyss is clearly treated as something different. In comparing the two places, then, the similarities are that both can be viewed as a prison and that both can be viewed as being located below the earth. However, the differences are even more striking than the similarities. Hades, for instance, imprisons not necessarily evil but rather the dead. Evil does not exit from Hades in this book in order to overrun the world or to bring destruction. Finally, some pains are taken by John to differentiate the two places, as 32.  Cf. Jonah 2:2–6. 33.  See Mealy, After the Thousand Years, 98–99. Collins assumes that Hades and the abyss refer to the same place in Revelation (Combat Myth, 176). 34.  Mealy, After the Thousand Years, 98–99; Collins, Combat Myth, 176. 35.  See Bauckham, Climax of Prophecy, 436; Koester, Revelation, 456. 36.  Koester, Revelation, 456.

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explained in the previous paragraph. It would seem, then, that Hades would probably not have been closely identified with the abyss, even though the two do have some important commonalities.

Heaven Although heaven and the abyss are sometimes treated as opposites,37 it is appropriate that the use of heaven in Revelation be considered in this chapter. This is because heaven is seen in ch. 12 as the place where the dragon appears to have his abode. Although John does not explicitly say that his abode is in heaven, the dragon is described as being thrown down from there (Rev 12:9) and that there was no longer any place for him in heaven (12:8). Both of these statements suggest that before this exit, he was considered in some way to be an inhabitant of heaven, along with his angels (12:9). Another indication that the dragon in some sense belonged in heaven is because the hymn that is sung says that he had been constantly accusing God’s people day and night before God (12:10). Since God’s dwelling is in heaven, the dragon’s constant accusations before God insinuates that the dragon was normally there. Not only was the dragon’s abode in some sense understood to be in heaven, but he is described as exiting heaven with the result that he attacks the saints and brings destruction upon them (Rev 12:17–13:18). In this sense it can be said that heaven is the abode of the dragon and that he exits heaven in order to bring destruction. Another similarity between the function of the abyss and heaven is that plagues come from the one (Rev 9:1–11) as well as the other (Rev 6; 8; 9; 16). The angels with the trumpets and the angels with the bowls are said to come out from heaven and the four living creatures who call out the four riders are also located in heaven. Especially significant to this point is the fact that the fallen star who unlocks the abyss and releases its plagues in 9:1–11 is said to come from heaven. It was argued in Chapter 4 that the referent of this character is Satan, which as was seen in the previous paragraph, comes from heaven in a similar manner in Rev 12. Even though there are interesting similarities between heaven and the abyss in the book of Revelation, it is unlikely that John’s audience would have closely identified the two. This is because the two places were seen as totally different, with one representing good and the other representing evil. However, it might be asked what the similarities between the two might have communicated to John’s audience. First of all, they might have noticed that evil, in the form of the dragon, the beast, and the second beast, is represented as coming from all 37.  Cf. Gen 49:25; Deut 33:13; Ps 107:26.

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three levels of the universe: heaven, the sea, and the earth. Bauckham describes this as a “satanic trinity” that symbolizes the forces of opposition to God’s rule as creator of heaven, earth, and the sea as stated in Rev 10:6.38 The fact that all three are defeated and assigned to the lake of fire in chs. 19 and 20 served as an indication that God will in the end overcome all opposition. A second insight that might have been gained by noticing the similarities between heaven and the abyss involves the fact that the dragon did not leave voluntarily from heaven but was cast out. If John’s audience were to associate this casting out with the successful mission of Christ, which is likely,39 then the fact that the dragon had had his abode in heaven but now had been once and for all thrown out would have been a strong encouragement to God’s people because of the ending of the dragon’s accusations against them. The third insight might well have been the fact that this exit from heaven in order to bring destruction was actually more closely related to the dragon’s entrance into and imprisonment in the abyss in ch. 20 than to his exit from the abyss in the same chapter. That is because the evil dragon’s exit from heaven was the first stage in his descent that would continue as he entered the abyss and would only come to an end once he was thrown into the lake of fire. The similarities between heaven and the abyss would have, in the end, only served to remind John’s audience of the inevitable destruction of evil.

Four Corners of the Earth Twice in the book of Revelation a reference is made to the four corners of the earth (7:1; 20:8), although the two do not appear to be used in similar ways. In Rev 7:1, it describes the place where four angels stand, while in 20:8 the four corners of the earth appear to be a metaphor for a vast expanse of territory where the dragon goes to look for recruits. When the term is used outside of Revelation, it often refers to the entire world (Isa 11:12; Ezek 7:2; T. Ash. 7:1–7), which is closer to John’s use in 20:8 rather than 7:1. The reasons for examining these two uses of the phrase are the facts that there is some evidence that the outer edges of the earth were understood to be the entrance to the underworld40 and because forces are seen to be coming out from this place to overwhelm the earth (Rev 7:1–3) and the saints (20:8–9). 38.  Bauckham, Climax of Prophecy, 284. 39.  “Der Krieg entsteht infolge der Inthronisation Jesu” (Giesen, Die Offenbarung, 286). See also Mounce, Book of Revelation, 236–40; Brighton, Revelation, 333. 40.  See Mealy, After the Thousand Years, 127; Krodel, Revelation, 337; Tromp, Primitive Conceptions of Death, 37; Rissi, Future of the World, 35–36. On Ps 61:2(3), see Dahood, Psalms 51–100, 84. Clifford thinks that this phrase refers to a remote place as in Deut 28:49 and Isa 5:26 and 43:6 (Cosmic Mountain, 286).

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Four Corners of the Earth in Revelation 7:1 The use of this phrase in Rev 7:1 closely parallels 2 Baruch 6–7, which describes four angels who stand at the four corners of Jerusalem. Their task is to burn down the corners of the city but they are commanded to wait until the holy items in the temple are hidden and protected. Once this is accomplished, the angels burn down the corners of the wall so that the enemy army can enter and enact judgment on Jerusalem. The similarities with this passage in Rev 7 are striking. In both cases there is mention of angels standing on the four corners and their task is to prevent some coming destruction until another angel has performed his task of protecting something belonging to God. After this protection has been accomplished, the four angels in each case allow destruction and judgment to occur.41 Aune points out that the perspective of the author in Rev 7:1 is that of looking down from heaven onto the earth.42 Despite the fact that the earth was often conceptualized as being a flat disc, here it appears to be viewed as square or rectangular in shape.43 Since the description is supposedly based on a vision from a heavenly vantage point, there is good reason to treat it as inherently different than similar statements that are given in different contexts from different perspectives. For instance, Isa 11:12: “He will raise an ensign for the nations, and will assemble the outcasts of Israel, and gather the dispersed of Judah from the four corners of the earth.” There is nothing in the context of this verse to suggest that four corners are actually being visualized by the author, but rather the sense one receives is that the ones who will be gathered are at present scattered all over the world. In Rev 7, on the other hand, John is describing a vision in which he is looking from heaven and he specifies that there are four angels standing on four corners. The context suggests that the four corners are the boundaries of the earth itself; that is, if the winds cannot blow on the earth because of the four angels, it is because the angels are on the boundaries of the earth and from there they prohibit the winds from entering.44 It follows, then, that beyond where the angels are, there is no earth or land. This is where the four winds, which the angels are holding back, originate. As Mealy indicates,45 there are substantial similarities between John’s vision and 1 En. 18–19. For instance, the four winds are mentioned in 1 En. 18:2 as they are in Rev 7:1. As it would appear that John is describing the boundaries of the earth, so 1 Enoch speaks of the place where the earth ends (1 En. 18:12, 14). Fallen 41.  In Revelation this destruction and judgment occur in chs. 8–9. 42.  Aune, Revelation 6–16, 450. 43.  Ibid.; Swete, Apocalypse, 95. 44.  Mealy, After the Thousand Years, 127. 45.  Ibid.

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stars are highlighted in both cases (Rev 8:10; 9:1; 1 En. 18:14–16; 21:3–6) and, if the Enoch passage is extended to 1 En. 21:7, there is even the mention of a type of entrance or shaft to the abyss in both passages (Rev 9:1). 1 Enoch 18–21 mentions that beyond the ends of heaven and earth is found the prison where disobedient stars are punished (1 En. 18:13–14; 21:1–3). One way to conceive of this description is that the dome of the heavens or firmament meets the earth at this place (1 En. 18:11–14) and beyond this boundary is a dreadful nothingness (1 En. 18:12–13; 21:1–2). Mealy notes that in 1 En. 18 “there appears to be a three-​way boundary at the ends of the earth between earth, heaven and the abyss.”46 What Mealy does in his study is to relate closely this space beyond the earth and sky with the abyss. This is problematic, though, because both the abyss in Revelation and the prison in 1 Enoch in general are normally portrayed as being in the earth, not beyond it. What he refers to as the abyss is better identified as the prison for the disobedient stars, which should be distinguished from the prison for the Watchers.47 Still, it can be said that even though the four corners of the earth in Rev 7:1 do not refer to the entrance to the abyss, that which is beyond the four corners is beyond the earth. This might have brought to the minds of John’s audience some concepts associated with the underworld, especially if they were familiar with the traditions reflected in 1 En. 18–21. The similarities between the use of the phrase “four corners of the earth” and the use of the abyss are significant. The four corners of the earth are described as the place from where angels prevented destructive forces from coming on to the earth. This act of preventing evil from entering an area is quite similar to what has been discussed above regarding the abyss and the River Euphrates. Not only is there a sense of binding such as is characteristic of incarceration, but there is also the clear idea of the bonds being removed so that the destructive or evil forces can overwhelm the earth. To do this, the winds must cross a border that is another similarity shared with several of the passages discussed above. These factors provide evidence that John’s audience would have understood that the four corners of the earth in 7:1 were used in a similar way to the abyss. Four Corners of the Earth in Revelation 20:7–9 Revelation 20:7–9 describes the dragon’s release from the abyss and his subsequent deception of the nations. These nations are located in the four corners of the earth: καὶ ἐξελεύσεται πλανῆσαι τὰ ἔθνη τὰ ἐν ταῖς τέσσαρσιν γωνίαις τῆς γῆς. Although it is common to view the location of these nations as being in all 46.  Ibid., 128. 47.  This is discussed above in Chapter 3.

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the world, including the most distant places, there is some evidence that the four corners of the earth is part of an unusual description of the dragon raising up an army of the dead,48 of demons,49 or of newly resurrected people.50 In these interpretations, the four corners of the earth refer to the entrance of the underworld and several of the phrases in 20:8–9 are used to defend this conclusion.51 Some of these arguments are briefly presented below in order to explore how John’s description of the dragon’s activities would have been understood and received by his audience. The dragon is described as deceiving the nations that are appositionally referred to as Gog and Magog. There is an obvious allusion here to Ezek 38–39,52 but whereas in Ezekiel the two names appear as “Gog, of the land of Magog” (Ezek 38:2), here both words appear to be personal names. A number of authors, regardless of their interpretation of the identity of Gog and Magog, do assert that these names would have suggested to John’s audience that mythological characters were in view.53 Bøe writes concerning the use of Gog and Magog in many different sources that “what we do find are suggestions that Gog and Magog are ‘mythical’ figures, whose identities are highly enigmatic, and who shall be defeated by God’s direct, transcendental interference.”54 So even though it is clear that Rev 20:7–9 alludes to the battle of Ezek 38–39, there are reasons to believe that John’s audience would have found hints that something was being referred to beyond a large, literal army. The number of the soldiers that the dragon attracts is like the sand of the sea. This again is a common expression signifying a great number (Josh 11:4; Judg 7:12; 1 Sam 13:5). It is used in several different contexts in the Old Testament but the most common use is to describe the large size of an army. Therefore, John’s audience could easily have understood this phrase to mean nothing more than a very large number of soldiers; and yet the only other use of the phrase “sand of the sea” in Revelation is used to describe where the dragon stood as he apparently called up the beast from the sea.55 It is ironic, then, that this phrase “sand of 48.  Schüssler Fiorenza, Revelation, 107. 49.  Rissi, Future of the World, 34–36; Kraft, Die Offenbarung, 253, 259. 50.  Mealy, After the Thousand Years, 120–42. 51.  Schüssler Fiorenza, Revelation, 107. 52.  Bøe, Gog and Magog, 299, 387. 53.  For example, see Roloff, Revelation of John, 228; Kuhn, “Γὼγ καὶ Μαγὼγ.” These authors think that Gog and Magog are to be seen as mythological, partly because of the mention of the four corners of the earth. 54.  Bøe, Gog and Magog, 317. He directs his readers to Schüssler Fiorenza, Revelation, 107; Krodel, Revelation, 337. 55.  Kraft describes this as an unusual expression to refer to the seashore in 12:18 and then writes concerning 20:8: “Eben dieses Stichwort, ἄμμος τῆς θαλάσσης, taucht 20:8 bei seiner Loslassung wieder auf, als habe der Satan den Sand des Meeres in das Dämonenheer verwandelt, mit dem er gegen Gott zu Felde zieht” (Die Offenbarung, 254).

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the sea” is used only twice by John: first to describe the dragon calling up from the abyss-​like sea a beast that was to persecute the saints (13:1, 7) and second to describe the same dragon calling together an army from the four corners of the earth that will go up to attack the camp of the saints. The phrase ἀνέβησαν ἐπὶ τὸ πλάτος τῆς γῆς is another part of John’s description that is intriguing. While this phrase is used in traditional Old Testament expressions of human armies that attack God’s people (Ezek 38:11, 16), a few scholars believe that the “rising up” carries connotations of rising from the underworld.56 Although there is insufficient evidence to demonstrate that this is what John’s audience would have understood, it is interesting that the language of “going up” is only used in Revelation to refer to smoke rising, someone ascending to heaven, or evil creatures ascending from the abyss, sea, or earth.57 One should consider then the possibility that this use of “going up” would have reminded John’s audience of the beast, locusts, and dragon ascending from the abyss. So, similar to the phrase “sand of the sea,” this expression, which is common enough in Old Testament contexts, when considered in the context of Revelation, finds curious parallels that might hint of something more than the attack of a traditional army. As for the phrase “broad plain of the earth,” its closest parallel is found in the Septuagint of Dan 12:2.58 In that verse, those who are buried in the broad plain of the earth will rise. Mealy recruits this parallel to support his claim that those who attack are the resurrected dead whom the dragon has now deceived and led up to attack the saints. Even though these phrases are curious and may hint at something deeper than a far-​flung population that is gathered and led by the dragon, it is not likely that John’s audience would have understood Gog and Magog to be describing an army of the dead, of demons, or of newly resurrected people. For instance, a significant problem for the view that Gog and Magog are the newly resurrected dead is that according to it, Satan comes out of the abyss where he has not been able to deceive the dead and then goes out to the abyss (four corners of the earth) to deceive and gather the dead.59 Mealy, in defending this view, doesn’t explain why John would mention the dragon exiting the abyss and then by means of a different term say that the dragon returns to the same place to gather the dead together (καὶ ἐξελεύσεται πλανῆσαι τὰ ἔθνη τὰ ἐν ταῖς τέσσαρσιν γωνίαις τῆς γῆς). It won’t work to defend this view by saying that the nations were imprisoned in a different section of the underworld, because part of Mealy’s argument 56.  For instance, Kraft imagines demons crawling up from all sides of the underworld onto the earth that would appear from the perspective of the sea as a plateau (ibid., 259). See also Rissi, Future of the World, 35–36. 57.  Mealy, After the Thousand Years, 136. 58.  Ibid. 59.  Ibid., 128–30. Bøe notices this problem as well (Gog and Magog, 322).

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depends on the dragon being together with the kings of the earth in the abyss for the thousand years.60 The interpretation that Gog and Magog refer to a demon army that comes out of the underworld has serious problems as well.61 One of the difficulties of this view is that Rev 20:1–3 presents the abyss as having only one entrance that, when locked, makes the abyss a literal prison. But this view understands that the entrance to the underworld is located all around the edges of the earth.62 It could be argued that the abyss where the dragon was imprisoned is a different place from the underworld of the demons. However, a significant problem is that although John emphasizes the cessation of the deceit of the nations (20:3), after the dragon is released he goes out to once again deceive them, which according to this view are the demons. It is worth asking why demons would ever need to be deceived into following Satan in his attack on God’s people. They are constantly portrayed in the New Testament as only too willing to do just that. In some respects, the phrase “four corners of the earth” in ch. 20 has a similar function to the abyss. This is seen in at least three ways. First, the phrase describes the dwelling place of evil people as seen by their attack against the camp of the saints and their identification as Gog and Magog. Second, it describes a place from where evil comes to overwhelm63 and attack God’s people. Third, this army that emerges from the four corners is somehow led or released by the dragon, as are also the beast in Rev 13:1, the armies of the east in 16:12–14, and perhaps the locusts in 9:1–11. What is not clear is whether a border is crossed as they came forth and whether the army that is formed consists of human soldiers or spiritual forces of some kind. So, would John’s audience have closely identified the double reference to the four corners of the earth with the abyss? From what has been presented, it appears that Rev 7:1 is describing a vision in which the ends of the earth are in view and as a result of this the access to the underworld may be in view as well. From this place, evil forces are held back and then released and they cross a border as they damage and overwhelm the earth. This evidence demonstrates that there is a great deal of similarity in the function of the two concepts and John’s audience could have identified the two closely together. The same phrase in ch. 20 is used in a different way. As argued above, it is likely that John’s audience interpreted this phrase as referring to a vast area from 60.  Mealy, After the Thousand Years, 128–30. See the review articles by Beale and Rissi critiquing Mealy’s book: Beale, “Review Article: J. W. Mealy After the Thousand Years”; Matthias Rissi, “Review Article: After the Thousand Years.” 61.  See Mealy, After the Thousand Years, 122–24; Bøe, Gog and Magog, 315–22. 62.  Kraft, Die Offenbarung, 259. 63.  The aspect of overwhelming is seen in the fact that their numbers were like the sand of the sea, they marched up over the broad earth, and they surrounded the camp of the saints.

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where the dragon gathered his army in order to attack the saints. However, it does appear likely that those who first heard or read these two accounts would have found the description of the army that the dragon led to battle to have been thoroughly colored by mythical associations that invited reflection. As they pondered John’s evocative phrases, the greater context of the book, the previous use of this phrase in 7:1, and the shared conceptual framework of their time, they may have been drawn to consider alternate meanings for the four corners of the earth that would have led them to reflect on the nature and the source of evil.

Conclusion The abyss-​related concepts that John employs have significant implications for his message about evil and God’s control of it. First, they give the reader or listener more material to analyze when drawing conclusions about John’s message. For example, in Chapter 4 I argued that when hearing of the fallen star who opens the abyss in Rev 9:1–2, John’s audience had good reason to associate this figure with Satan. As part of the argument, I compared that passage with Rev 12:18–13:1, even though this passage mentions not the abyss but rather the sea. Just as the sea, because it is closely related to the abyss, is used to provide information on the dragon in this example, so other words function that way as well. For instance, the dragon is instrumental in calling the armies forth from the Euphrates in ch. 16 and from the four corners of the earth in ch. 20. So, the argument that Satan is to be identified with the fallen star who releases the locusts from the abyss in Rev 9 is strengthened because there exists in Revelation a pattern of Satan calling forth evil creatures from places that are similar to the abyss. A second implication is that these related concepts serve to increase the complexity and richness of the allusions. For instance, by using the word “sea” instead of the word “abyss” in Rev 13:1, the complexity of the allusions to the beast’s coming is increased such that the symbolism includes not only that which is implied by his coming from the abyss in 11:7 and 17:8 but also that which Dan 7 brings to mind regarding the four beasts that exit the sea in that passage. John does something similar with the Euphrates and his portrayal of the beast. By identifying the beast with the Euphrates in Rev 16:12–13, he strengthens the allusions to the myth of the return of Nero. As seen above, some versions of the myth of Nero’s return include the idea that he would come from beyond the Euphrates leading an army of Parthians. So John not only mentions the beast coming from the abyss and leading an army in Rev 17, he also portrays him leading an army across the Euphrates in ch. 16 (cf. Rev 19:19). By referring to both the abyss and the Euphrates, John joins together multiple layers of allusions and

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so creates a complex, polyvalent symbol of evil. The evil is active but is also controlled by God and will be destroyed by Him in the future. A third implication is that in John’s use of abyss-​related concepts, he develops the idea of evil crossing a border. With regard to these border crossings, whether used of the abyss, the sea, the Euphrates, or the four corners of the earth in Rev 7:1, there is normally some indication either that the guarding of the border had been lifted so that the crossing could occur, or that an evil creature facilitated the crossing in some way. This gives the impression that chaotic forces are ever threatening to enter the land from the sides or from below and it is God who restrains this evil and controls its entrance into the world.

Chapter 7

The End of the Abyss

The final chapters of John’s Apocalypse describe new heavens and a new earth and the end of those things that have no part in the new creation. Seven things are mentioned in Rev 21 which are no more,1 and in this context one would expect to find a description of the end of the abyss since it has been so closely associated with evil and opposition to God. Throughout the hearing of this book, John’s audience has observed numerous times that evil comes out from the abyss or other related places and causes destruction. Since the abyss is not mentioned by name after the dragon’s exit in 20:3, John’s listeners could have assumed that this threat would continue on indefinitely. An important question that needed answering was what happens to the abyss at the end of Revelation. One possible answer to this question that occupies most of this chapter is that the end of the abyss is closely tied to the end of the sea as stated in Rev 21:1. However, before evaluating this answer and its implications, two other possible answers to the question are considered.

Two Possible Answers for What Becomes of the Abyss The Abyss Converted into the Lake of Fire Perhaps John’s audience assumed that the abyss was converted into the lake of fire. There are several reasons why this possibility should be considered. First, a lake that burns with fire and brimstone has no clear antecedent in Jewish or Greco-​Roman literature.2 Since there are no clear sources for this concept in 1.  Things that are no more are sea, death, mourning, crying, pain, anything accursed, and night. 2.  “Toutefois, les textes juifs sur le feu et le soufre allégués précédemment sont insuffisants à eux seuls, dans la mesure où aucun l’eux n’associe ces éléments à un lieu de damnation spécifique, comme le fait l’Apocalypse en en faisant pour ainsi dire la matière de son enfer” (Bertrand, “L’étang de feu,” 94). Aune agrees and although he cites possible antecedents for a lake of fire in Egyptian

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the literature that is normally accessed, perhaps a place that had already been described in this work was given a new name and now served a distinct but somewhat similar purpose. A second reason for considering this option is because there are important similarities between the abyss and the lake of fire. Both the abyss and the lake of fire are places where evil beings are said to be present. The beast and the dragon were both located in the abyss and in the lake of fire at one time in this book, and there is no mention of God’s people or good angels ever occupying either of these places. Another similarity is the image of smoke and the suggestion of fire. The description of the abyss mentions smoke four times in two verses: “He opened the shaft of the bottomless pit, and from the shaft rose smoke like the smoke of a great furnace, and the sun and the air were darkened with the smoke from the shaft. Then from the smoke came locusts on the earth, and they were given power like the power of scorpions of the earth” (Rev 9:2–3). The term “smoke” is not specifically used to describe the lake of fire but smoke is mentioned in a context that appears to be describing it. Revelation 14:9–10 says that “if any one worships the beast and its image, and receives a mark on his forehead or on his hand, he also shall drink the wine of God’s wrath, poured unmixed into the cup of his anger, and he shall be tormented with fire and sulfur.” Revelation 14:11 then says: “And the smoke of their torment goes up for ever and ever.” This is a clear allusion to the lake of fire that is later similarly described as burning with fire and sulfur (Rev 19:20; 20:10; 21:8). A third reason for understanding the abyss to have been converted into the lake of fire is because there appears to be some precedent for this. It has been shown in other parts of this work that although some versions of the Watchers tradition make a clear distinction between the abyss and the place of final judgment, some appear to equate the abyss with a fiery place of judgment that does not end. Despite these reasons that support the possible conversion of the abyss into the lake of fire, this interpretation ultimately should be rejected. In the book of Revelation there is a clear distinction between the two places. The dragon exits from the abyss in 20:7 and then is thrown into the lake of fire in 20:10. There is no hint or indication that the lake of fire should be identified with the abyss in this context. Something similar is said about the beast. Revelation 17:8 says that he will exit from the abyss and go to destruction. This corresponds nicely with the tradition of the prison for the Watchers that has been a major element in John’s description of the abyss. As the description of the beast’s literature, he says that the channel of transmission from Egypt to Revelation is unknown (Revelation 17–22, 1065–66). See Zandee, Death as an Enemy, 133–42. It seems unlikely that a book that has borrowed very little from Egyptian literature would borrow so directly from it at this point in the book.

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activities develop, it becomes clear that the meaning of “going to destruction” is that he is cast into the lake of fire in 19:20. The fact that he comes from the abyss and goes to the lake of fire argues against the idea that these two places should be identified as the same. As for the similarity in some of the traditions that seem to fuse the prison together with the place of final punishment, two points should be noted. First, in the Watchers tradition, there are more passages that distinguish the prison from the place of punishment than those that equate them.3 Second, even though there are some traditions that fuse together the abyss with the final place of judgment, John does not do this anywhere else in his apocalypse.4 The fact that he does not associate the two anywhere else in Revelation argues against the combining of the two at the end of the book. The Abyss Remains Empty A second way to answer the question of what becomes of the abyss in the book of Revelation is that since all those creatures that were known to have inhabited the abyss have now exited,5 the abyss is now simply an empty holding tank that in itself is not dangerous nor evil. This interpretation, like the first one mentioned, should ultimately be discarded. To assume that the abyss is now harmless because it is empty is to misunderstand how the abyss has been used in the book of Revelation. The abyss is a symbol of wickedness and opposition to God. The abyss is not simply the abode of evil creatures but is itself evil and is only prevented from overwhelming the earth by means of the control that God exercises over it. Another reason why this answer does not satisfy is because both the sea and Hades, terms that have traditionally been related to the abyss and at times are understood to contain evil, have been eliminated (20:13–14; 21:1). They are not just emptied but destroyed altogether 3.  See the section “The Duration of the Incarceration” in Chapter 3. 4.  “Both the abyss and Hades are different from the lake of fire, which is the place of eternal punishment. The beast may come up from the abyss (Rev 11:7; 17:8), and Satan may be confined there (20:1–3), but in the end both are thrown into the lake of fire (19:20; 20:10), as are Death and Hades themselves (20:14–15). Some writers use the word ‘abyss’ for the realm of fiery torment (Matt 13:42, 50) or combine the abyss, Hades, and the lake of fire into a composite portrait of hell, but each region remains distinct in Revelation” (Koester, Revelation, 456–57). Fitzmyer mistakenly describes the abyss as the “final prison of Satan and the demons” giving only Rev 20:3 as support for this (Gospel According to Luke I–IX, 739). Not only does Rev 20:3 fail to describe the final abode for Satan, but it gives no indication that the demons are there with him. One could argue that Rev 9:1–11 describes the abyss as the home of demons, but the argument that this is their final abode is severely weakened by the fact that these demons are released in 9:3 and that the beast leaves the abyss in 11:7 and 17:8. 5.  This would include the demonic locusts, the beast, the dragon, and probably the angel of the abyss.

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in the lake of fire. One wonders why the abyss should not be treated in the same way.

The End of the Abyss Described in Revelation 21:1 Because of the shared semantic range of the words “sea” and “abyss” in both Revelation and earlier literature, the most likely answer to the question of what happens to the abyss is found in Rev 21:1. Although the abyss is not mentioned in this verse, the absence of the sea is likely meant to communicate that what the abyss symbolized is no longer present in the new creation. This is because the most common explanations for the mention of the sea’s absence, which are described below, depend upon negative associations of the sea that the abyss also shares.6 Moo helpfully writes that “although Rev 21:1 does not say the ἄβυσσος is no more, the link between this region and the sea suggests that the connotations associated with the abyss may be included in the removal of the sea.”7 This explanation of the fate of the abyss is to be preferred, not only because of the evidence presented in this section but also because of problems with the alternate interpretations mentioned above. Also, that John would have simply dropped the topic of the abyss is unlikely for two reasons. First, the abyss has played an important role in John’s Apocalypse as Chapters 4 to 6 above have demonstrated. Second, John takes pains to explain the destiny of most of the evil characters and concepts in this book. For instance, he explains what happens to the dragon, the two beasts, Gog and Magog, the kings of the earth, those whose names were not written in the book of life, the harlot, the great city, the sea, Death and Hades, the former things, and night. The likeliest option is that after developing this important concept, John describes that that which the abyss represents will be eliminated in the new creation. This is communicated by saying that the closely related term “sea” is no more. A number of interpretations for the absence of the sea in 21:1 will now be examined, although no attempt will be made to decide which is the most likely to be the meaning that John intended. This is because John has used the concept of the sea in a variety of ways in his work and so it is unlikely that there would be only one referent to the symbol of the sea or only one resultant meaning of the 6.  One of the strongest evidences for identifying the abyss with the sea in 21:1 is that the sharing of semantic domain between these two concepts is most extensive in precisely the context of those topics that John is emphasizing in this part of the book. The topics are the evil and opposition demonstrated toward God as well as geographical location. As will be demonstrated in the first two points below, the immediate context of 21:1 reveals that these two themes were key elements in what John was communicating when he wrote that the sea was no more. 7.  Moo, “Sea That Is No More,” 157.

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metaphor unless John gave indications of which of those he wanted his audience to understand.8 It appears more likely that John’s audience is meant to reflect on what the end of the sea would have meant for life in the new creation that John describes. Several of the following interpretations have little to do with the abyss because they rely on that portion of the semantic range of “sea” that is not shared by the word “abyss.” However, it will be demonstrated that several of the interpretations have significant implications for our understanding of the abyss and what its disappearance might mean. A Symbol of Evil and Opposition to God It is widely recognized that the sea often symbolizes evil and opposition to God. Therefore, a common interpretation of the sea’s disappearance is that all that which is evil and that opposes God will be eliminated in the new creation.9 These things do not form part of the new creation but rather are destroyed outright or assigned to the lake of fire. This interpretation is a very likely one, not only because of the many examples of this symbolism both within and outside of Revelation but also because the context of 21:1 supports it. The context immediately prior to this verse describes the elimination of the dragon who now joins the two beasts in their destruction, and it describes the elimination of those who are not recorded in the Lamb’s book of life. Hades and death are also eliminated as they are cast into the lake of fire (20:14). The context immediately following 21:1 describes the elimination of negative elements such as death, mourning, crying, and pain10 and repeats the idea that those who are evil and disobedient (21:8) will not form part of the new creation.11 So it is likely that John is using the sea as a symbol that denotes, among other things, evil and opposition to God.12 Because the semantic overlap between sea and abyss is extensive in this particular area, this interpretation strongly supports the idea that the elimination of the abyss is assumed in this verse. In Chapter 5, the point was made that in various ways, John describes the end in a similar way to the beginning. The fact that the sea no longer exists after the new creation (Rev 21:1a–b) is a good example of this. Just as some passages 8.  “It is not clear that any single use of sea imagery earlier in the book is determinative for the interpretation of Rev 21:1c” (ibid., 161). See Beale for a defense of the idea that the sea functions on multiple symbolic levels (Book of Revelation, 1042–43). 9.  See Dumbrell, End of the Beginning, 167; Deutsch, “Transformation of Symbols,” 115–16; Tõniste, Ending of the Canon, 143. 10.  See Moo, “Sea That Is No More,” 151; van Ruiten, “Intertextual Relationship,” 501–3. 11.  See Paul Minear’s comments on the concept of “firstness” (“Cosmology,” 26). 12.  Pierre Prigent describes the sea as “the most feared element of creation . . . which is seen in all of the Oriental myths as being a force that is hostile to the creator god” (Commentary, 592).

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in the Old Testament and ancient Near Eastern literature demonstrate that the creator god destroyed or subjugated the sea or sea monster as part of the work of creation,13 so in this passage the sea no longer exists after the new creation has been accomplished. This point is stated here because the destruction or subjection of the sea/sea monster at the first creation appears to be a result of it being chaotic and in opposition to God. That fits well with what this first section affirms as being the reason why the sea does not exist in the new creation. Beale agrees with the point made earlier that the disappearance of the sea very likely symbolizes more than one thing. He finds five different referents for the sea in the book of Revelation and he thinks that each of these was implied in the description of the lack of a sea in the new creation.14 In this way, Beale rightly emphasizes that the sea is a polyvalent symbol and so there can be more than one referent for the metaphor. Of the five meanings that Beale finds in the book of Revelation, the one that he sees as primary is the one that corresponds mostly closely to the abyss: the origin of cosmic evil.15 He cites Rev 4:6, 12:18– 13:1, and 15:2 as examples of this meaning. The Lowest Level of the Universe In Rev 21:1, John says that he saw new heavens and a new earth. Two of the three levels of the universe, as it was traditionally conceptualized, are clearly mentioned. To understand that the sea in 21:1 refers only to a body of water that is considered a part of the second level16 is to assume that no mention is made of the third level of the universe in Rev 21. This is unlikely. It is more likely that John’s audience is to understand that whereas the heavens and the earth are part of the new creation, the lowest level of the universe, which can be represented by the sea,17 has no place there. Boxall writes that “the three-​tiered 13.  See the section “The Dragon That Lives in the Sea” in Chapter 2. 14.  Beale, Book of Revelation, 1042. He lists the five meanings in the following way: 1. the origin of cosmic evil (especially in the light of Old Testament background; so 4:6; 12:18; 13:1; 15:2) 2. the unbelieving, rebellious nations who cause tribulation for God’s people (12:18; 13:1; Isa. 57:20; cf. Rev. 17:2, 6) 3. the place of the dead (20:13) 4. the primary location of the world’s idolatrous trade activity (18:10–19) 5. a literal body of water, sometimes mentioned together with “the earth,” used as a synecdoche in which the sea as a part of the old creation represents the totality of it (5:13; 7:1–3; 8:8–9; 10:2, 5–6, 8; 14:7; 16:3 [?]). 15.  Ibid., 1043. See also Follis, “Sea,” 1059. 16.  The sea most likely functions as part of the second level of the universe in Rev 7:1, 2, 3; 10:2, 5, 8; 12:12. See Jordaan, “Cosmology,” 6. 17.  Cf. Pss 96:11; 107:23–26; Amos 9:2–3.

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universe has collapsed into two tiers, and almost immediately will collapse into one (21:3).”18 The symbolism of the sea as the lowest part of the universe is a semantic category that is shared with the abyss (Rev 11:7; 13:1; 17:8; Jonah 2:3–6).19 This is a second interpretation of the absence of the sea, then, which is strongly supported by the context and is very significant for the topic of the removal of the abyss. The Enemy Nations Another possible referent for the sea in Rev 21:1 is the mass of unbelieving nations that cause tribulation for God’s people.20 This option is strongly supported by Thomas Schmidt, who writes that “sea imagery acquires a corollary function as metaphorical representation for the human enemies of God.”21 While he has found in Revelation some imagery that identifies the sea with people (Rev 17:1, 15), evil people is not the predominant referent for sea found in the book. More common ways to refer to evil people in Revelation are with human designations22 or by referring to them as creatures of some kind.23 Moo is probably correct in saying that Schmidt’s explanation overemphasizes “what is only a subsidiary use of sea imagery in Revelation and makes it the controlling theme.”24 So, even though evil people would not have been one of the primary referents for the symbol of the sea, the evil connotations of the sea mentioned earlier in this chapter would certainly have included enemy nations. The Final Act of God’s Control of the Sea Some authors such as Mathewson,25 Ford,26 and Brütsch27 have highlighted the possibility that there are indications of a new exodus in the description of 21:1. Considering the many allusions to the exodus in this book, this view should be 18.  Boxall, Revelation, 293. 19.  In Revelation the phrase “under the earth” also appears to be used to refer to the lowest level of the universe (Rev 5:3, 13). For a possible explanation for the four-​part description of the universe in 5:13, see Resseguie, Revelation Unsealed, 78–79. For more on the structure of the universe as seen in Revelation, see Aune, Revelation 6–16, 525–26. Two errata should be noted on p. 526 where, although Rev 15:3 and 15:8 are printed, Aune is actually referring to Rev 5:3 and 5:13. 20.  See Beale’s second category (Book of Revelation, 1042). 21.  Schmidt, “ ‘And the Sea Was No More,’ ” 238 (emphasis original). 22.  For example, Rev 16:14–16; 19:19–21. 23.  For example, Rev 9:14–19; 11:7; 13:1–18; 17:8–13; and possibly Rev 9:3–11. 24.  Moo, “Sea That Is No More,” 159. 25.  Mathewson, “New Exodus.” 26.  Ford, Revelation, 361–65. 27.  Brütsch, Die Offenbarung, 16.

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considered carefully. The sea imagery in the book of Revelation that contains the clearest example of the exodus motif is Rev 15:2–3. Here, God’s people are standing beside the sea and they sing the song of Moses. The symbolism communicates that just as God had brought the Israelites through the Reed Sea, He has also brought His people through the persecution that is represented by a sea of glass mixed with fire.28 Considering the context of Rev 20–22, with its many descriptions of God’s ultimate and complete victory over evil, a similar point can be seen in the removal of the sea in 21:1. Here the sea is not divided to allow safe passage, but it is removed altogether. Mathewson supports this argument by finding various exodus themes in Rev 21:1–5.29 The mention of the sea’s removal within the immediate context of the new creation is in itself a strong indicator that God’s protection of His people is a significant element in the meaning of this metaphor. Mathewson writes that “beginning with the initial creative act (Gen 1:2, 9–10) and finding repetition in the flood (Gen 8:1–13) and the exodus (Ps 106:9),30 the display of God’s power over the sea is constitutive of a new creative act.”31 The mention of the absence of the sea then, is the climax and the last in a series of acts in which God is said to have created by means of his control of the water. He created the heavens and the earth through the dividing of the waters and the defeat of the sea dragon. He re-​created the world through the release of the flood waters and the subsequent restraint of them. He created a new people by means of dividing the Reed Sea and leading them through it. At the end, he eliminates the sea altogether in the process of creating the new heavens and new earth. Observed as part of God’s history of controlling the dangerous and unruly sea, the elimination of the sea is one of the most powerful symbols that John could have used to describe future blessing and safety. Bauckham, in speaking of the removal of the sea in terms of the Great Flood, writes that “the judgment of the old creation and the inauguration of the new is not so much a second Flood as the final removal of the 28.  Ford asserts that when the Israelites crossed the Reed Sea on dry ground, in a sense the sea was no more (Revelation, 361). Beale finds in this verse an echo of Isa 51:9–10 which in his words “metaphorically equates the removal of the waters at the Reed Sea deliverance to the removal of sorrows at the consummation of the ages” (Book of Revelation, 1043). 29.  For instance, Mathewson argues that the reference to the holy city in 21:2a constitutes an allusion to Isa 52:1 which is found in a context describing the second exodus from Babylon to Zion. The reference to making all things new in Rev 21:5b is an unmistakable allusion to Isa 43:19 which is frequently identified as the most explicit example of new exodus terminology in Isa 40–55. Finally, the reference to the covenant dwelling of God with His people (Rev 21:3) reverberates with exodus connotations and refers to the wilderness tabernacle (“New Exodus,” 255–57). 30.  John Sailhamer points out that the Reed Sea crossing, the Great Flood, and the division of the waters in Gen 1 all have the similarity of God needing to remove the waters because they served as a barrier for God’s people to inhabit the earth (Pentateuch as Narrative, 91; cited in Mathewson, “New Exodus,” 251). 31.  Ibid., 253.

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threat of another Flood.”32 He sees in the removal of the sea in Revelation that God remains faithful to the Noahic covenant and even goes beyond it, because whereas God has been faithful in the past to restrain the sea as he promised Noah, now the need for restraint is past because He has taken the “creation beyond the threat of evil.”33 Moo supports this point through his comments on the relationship between the sea in the Genesis account of the first creation and the removal of the sea in the new creation. He notices that the first and last things that are removed in ch. 21 are the sea and the darkness (21:1, 25; 22:5). These are elements that existed in the pre-​creation account of Gen 1:2 and that in both the first creation and the new creation these elements are in some way subjugated, divided, or restrained.34 He writes that in “the complete elimination of the sea and night, creation has been brought beyond any threat of future evil, chaos or judgment.”35 Revelation 21:1c describes the final act of controlling the sea that is the culmination of a long history that began at creation. The final removal makes clear that the danger and chaos that the sea represents will have no place in the new heavens and new earth. As will be seen below, this understanding of the removal of the sea has important implications for the absence of the abyss. The Literal Sea Some authors argue that there is no need to look any further than the literal, physical sea in the interpretation of 21:1. One support for this interpretation is that the sea is used this way in other parts of Revelation.36 Proponents of this viewpoint cite the fact that the sea can be considered a physical part of creation that fled from the throne (20:11) in order to make room for the new creation.37 They can also cite the fact that it was the literal sea that “separated John and his beloved communities of anxious Christians.”38 Although this is possible, other interpretations mentioned above are more likely in the context of this verse. The fact that the sea was part of creation that fled from the throne is not a convincing argument, since the earth and sky fled as well. Since there is a new earth in Rev 21:1, it is reasonable to expect there to be a new sea as well. This argument becomes even less convincing when it is seen that the physical sea has a role to 32.  Bauckham, Theology, 53. See also McDonough, “Revelation,” 184. 33.  Bauckham, Theology, 53. 34.  Moo, “Sea That Is No More,” 165–66. 35.  Ibid., 166–67. See also D. J. A. Clines, who writes of the original flood as not being able to eliminate the mark that sin had left on the earth. The new creation however, will contain nothing of this mark (“Noah’s Flood I,” 138). 36.  See Beale’s interpretation number five (Book of Revelation, 1042). 37.  See Moo, “Sea That Is No More,” 150. 38.  Boring, Revelation, 216. See also Niles, As Seeing the Invisible, 179.

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play in Rev 20:13, demonstrating that John is not suggesting that the sea ceased to exist after the earth and sky fled in 20:11. The interpretation of Boring that John describes the absence of the physical sea because it is what separated him from his beloved community39 is not convincing either. The new creation is being described by John in all of its splendor and eternality. He is describing the end of all sin and pain and sadness. Even though the physical sea was now causing him pain, it is not likely that John would adjust his view of the entire new, eternal creation based on a relatively short-​term situation that was causing him pain at this time. The Sea Above the Earth An uncommon use of sea but one that appears in the Old Testament is the sea that is located between the earth and heaven.40 Sometimes ‫ ְּתהֹום‬was imagined to be the watery deep that not only lay beneath and surrounded the earth but also encompassed it from above.41 This idea conforms well to the description of the separation of the waters in Gen 1. This passage describes not only the separation of the land from the water on day three, but also the separation of the abyss into the waters above and the waters below on day two. The sea then could be envisioned as not only existing below and around the earth but also as being above the earth. The most ambitious defense of the interpretation that the sea in Rev 21:1 refers to this celestial sea is that of Mealy.42 One of the greatest strengths of this interpretation is that the immediate context of Rev 21:1 emphasizes the closeness between God and His people.43 Since this interpretation understands that the removal of the celestial sea is for the purpose of removing that which separates heaven and earth, it fits well into the context of this passage. Another point in favor of this interpretation is the reference to something like a sea of glass before the throne in Rev 4:6 (ὡς θάλασσα ὑαλίνη ὁμοία κρυστάλλῳ). If this is supposed to represent the celestial sea that separates heaven from the earth,44 then the removal of the sea in 21:1 conceivably refers 39.  Boring, Revelation, 216. 40.  Cf. Gen 7:11; Ps 104:3; Amos 9:6. 41.  See Walton, Ancient Near Eastern Thought, 176. 42.  Mealy, After the Thousand Years, 193–212. 43.  For example, the dwelling of God is now with His people (21:3), the fact that a temple is not seen in the new Jerusalem because God and the Lamb serve as the temple (21:22), and the new Jerusalem is in the shape of a cube (21:16), which probably alludes to the dimensions of the holy of holies (1 Kgs 6:20) and the idea that the holy of holies now encompasses the entire universe. See Davies, Paul Among the Apocalypses, 137–38; Deutsch, “Transformation of Symbols,” 113; Farrer, Rebirth of Images, 253; Gundry, “New Jerusalem”; Beale, Temple, 368–70. 44.  Contra Boring, “Revelation 19–21,” 73.

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to the removal of this same celestial sea.45 Mealy not only argues this point but also points out the indications in the book of Revelation that there existed a veil between heaven and earth that needed to be penetrated if earth-​dwellers were to go to heaven or if heaven-​dwellers were to come to earth. In his list of examples, he includes Rev 4:1–3, where an open door gave John access to heaven, Rev 6:14–17, in which the sky was split apart revealing the throne and the Lamb to those who were on earth,46 and Rev 15:5–6, in which the sanctuary in heaven was opened and the seven angels with bowls came out.47 Mealy correctly surmises that if John’s readers had had these passages in mind, they would have understood that in order for the tabernacle of God to have been with men (Rev 21:3), the veil that separated heaven from earth would have needed to be removed. This removal, he believes, is stated in 21:1c.48 Although this view has strong points in its favor, various criticisms can be leveled at it.49 For instance, although it is true that the separation between heaven and earth was now going to be eliminated, John’s audience would probably not have associated the sea with this separation. This is because when the heavens, the earth, and the sea are mentioned together as they are in Rev 21:1, it normally denotes either all of creation (with “sea” referring to the underworld), or of the earth and the heavens (with “sea” referring to the visible seas as being part of the earth). What was not common was for the sea in this three-​part description to refer to the celestial sea. Also, although Rev 4:6 could easily refer to the celestial sea as Mealy indicates, no other mention of the sea in the book of Revelation clearly carries this meaning and most of the mentions are clearly referring to something else.50 Another criticism of Mealy’s view is the fact that the sea in Rev 21:1 is associated with six other clearly negative things,51 while the celestial sea is not normally portrayed as something negative. It must be said, however, that this criticism can be countered by arguing that the negativity is found not in the sea itself but in the separation between God and humankind that the celestial sea creates. The removal of the separation between heaven and earth could be one of the ways that John’s audience would have understood Rev 21:1c, although it would not have been one of the more obvious meanings. This interpretation does not 45.  Contra Giesen, who argues that it is unlikely that the sea of 21:1 refers to the glassy sea of 4:6 (Die Offenbarung, 452). 46.  See also Rev 6:14–17 and 11:19. 47.  Mealy, After the Thousand Years, 196–97. 48.  Ibid., 197–98. 49.  See Beale, Book of Revelation, 1043. 50.  Cf. Rev 5:13; 7:1–3; 8:8–9; 10:2; 12:12; 13:1; 16:3; 18:17, 19; 20:13. 51.  Moo, “Sea That Is No More,” 151.

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correspond to the abyss as it is portrayed in Revelation. Although the meaning of the abyss in some Old Testament contexts includes the celestial sea, John does not portray it this way in his apocalypse. The Place of the Dead A relationship between the sea and the place for the dead can be found both in the context that follows and that which precedes Rev 21:1. In the chiasmus found in Rev 21:1–5, the point that parallels the absence of the sea in 21:1c is the absence of the old things, including death, in 21:4a–c.52 In the context that precedes 21:1, the word “sea” is found in close proximity to “Death and Hades” (Rev 20:13) and it is likely that the sea was used in this context to refer to the place of the dead. Bauckham finds in his study of the phrase “giving back the dead” that the use of both terms to signify where the dead were located was frequent in pseudepigraphal literature.53 This being the case, the fact that the sea was giving up its dead could be a precursor to the statement that the sea was no more.54 The referent of the symbol would be the place of the dead and the meaning of the metaphor would be that death will no longer be present in the new creation.55 This interpretation, while certainly possible, has little to say about the abyss. In this apocalypse, John distinguishes between Hades as the abode of the dead, on the one hand, and the abyss that is the abode of evil, demonic beings, on the other.56

Implications of the End of the Abyss in Revelation As indicated earlier, there were probably a number of ways in which John’s audience understood the statement that in the new creation, the sea is no more. A few of these interpretations have very little to do with the fate of the abyss, which makes sense since the uses of the sea in Revelation are varied and do not always approximate the abyss. However, because of the close relationship that often does exist between these two concepts, several of the interpretations listed above suggest that the abyss no longer exists in the new creation and these interpretations carry important implications for the message of the book. In the following section an analysis will be made of what the absence of the 52.  Mathewson, New Heaven, 33. 53.  Bauckham, “Resurrection,” 281–82, 291. 54.  Ibid., 291. 55.  This would correspond to Beale’s third category (Book of Revelation, 1042). 56.  See Bauckham, Climax of Prophecy, 436; Koester, Revelation, 456–57.

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abyss might have signified for John’s audience. The comments will be organized around the three traditions that were instrumental in John’s description of the abyss in Revelation. The Abode of Evil and the End of the Abyss As was mentioned earlier in this chapter, the most common interpretation for the absence of the sea is that it represents evil and its removal symbolizes that nothing evil will exist in the new creation. This interpretation is related to the tradition of the dragon that lives in the sea. The tradition’s influence is seen not only in the implications of evil with which it paints the abyss but also in that enemy nations in Revelation are represented by abyss-​dwelling beasts in a similar way to which the Old Testament portrays enemy nations by means of the sea-​dwelling dragon or the sea-​dwelling beasts of Dan 7. Right before the elimination of the sea is mentioned in Rev 21:1, the dragon is seen to have exited from the abyss and to have been destroyed in the lake of fire along with the beast and false prophet (20:7–10). Not only are these major antagonists now removed and destroyed, but the place from which they arise has been eliminated forever. The Prison for the Watchers and the End of the Abyss In the sense that the abyss served as a prison for evil creatures in Revelation, it was a blessing because it was used by God to restrain evil. This is most clearly seen as the abyss is unlocked in 9:1–2 and locked in 20:1–3. By the end of ch. 20, the most important inhabitants of the abyss, the dragon and the beast, had come out and had been confined to the lake of fire. This means that the prison was no longer needed to control or to restrain them. The removal of the abyss implies, then, that it is no longer needed because there is no longer any evil creature that needs to be restrained by God. The new creation, which is most clearly expressed by the city described in ch. 21, will never host any evil and thus there is no need for a prison within it. The removal of the abyss is an indication of the security that will be found in the new creation. The Control of the Waters and the End of the Abyss As mentioned earlier in this chapter, not only during the Reed Sea crossing but during creation and the flood as well, God had removed the waters in order for his people to live in safety. The removal of the sea in Rev 21:1 was God’s final step in eliminating this threat. The watery abyss of the Old Testament was closely identified with the sea, as seen in the fact that in each of the three Old Testament water stories, the abyss is used at least once to describe the waters

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that were removed.57 John took advantage of this similar usage by portraying a different kind of abyss that also threatened to overwhelm and destroy, not with water but with evil forces. If John’s audience recognized this close relationship between the sea and the abyss or were at least made aware of it, then the removal of the sea would have appeared even more meaningful to them in their reflecting on the abyss. They might have recognized that of course the abyss has no place in the new creation because just as God needed to remove the sea in the Old Testament examples just mentioned, He needed to remove the abyss in the future as well so that His people could dwell in safety and be free from the threat that the abyss posed.

Conclusion The answer to the question of what happens to the abyss is found in Rev 21:1. The long history of the close relationship between the sea and the abyss reaches its conclusion. By saying that the sea is no more, it is understood that the abyss is no more. In this short statement John summarizes many profound assurances of hope and well-​being for God’s people by indicating that all the threats that the physical world and evil spiritual forces have posed throughout history are totally eliminated in the new creation. If there is no more abyss, then there will be no more evil creatures or nations exiting from their abysmal abode to oppress God’s people. Nor will there be any evil beings that need to be incarcerated and controlled. Finally, the absence of the abyss removes the threat that it will someday overwhelm the earth with destructive forces. If John’s audience understood the absence of the sea to symbolize these realities, it would have been a strong statement regarding God’s defeat of evil and the security that His people would experience in the new creation.

57.  The Creation: Gen 1:2; the flood: Gen 7:11; 8:2; the Reed Sea: Pss 77:16 (LXX 76:17); 106:9; Isa 51:10; 63:13.

Chapter 8

Revelation’s Contribution to the Understanding of Evil and God’s Response to It

Previous chapters have demonstratedthat by means of the abyss and related symbols, John communicated profound insights regarding evil and how God responds to it and will respond to it in the future. This chapter gathers together and briefly expounds on the most significant implications that these insights would most likely have had for John’s audience. As explained in Chapter 1, a plausible reconstruction of the context in which John’s audience lived was one of constant pressure from neighbors and local governments to participate in public religion and to display affection for and commitment to the Roman Empire—practices for which Asia Minor was known and that John regarded as idolatrous. Although there was probably no widespread and systematic persecution of believers, information gained both from within and from outside of this apocalypse suggests that persecution was a constant possibility and that pressure to conform to the widespread idolatry was common. This pressure could come from neighbors, religious leaders, and local governments, and to make matters even more serious, the implications from much of what is written in Revelation could have suggested to John’s audience that persecution would increase as would the number of martyrs.1 John’s message concerning the abyss and related concepts, however, provides encouragement for those who wished to respond positively to John’s challenge to persevere in their loyalty to God. Levenson comments on the fact that on several occasions in the Old Testament, passages that celebrate and emphasize God’s control of the abyss and the sea monster are found in contexts in which the writer is trying to assimilate the fact that chaos seems to have once again been released.2 Levenson 1.  Cf. Rev 2:10; 6:11; 12:11; 15:2; 20:4. 2.  Levenson, Creation, 17–25. The examples on which Levenson comments are Ps 74:10–20; Isa 51:7–13; and Ps 89:39–50. This last passage refers to the control of the waters that God gave to his viceroy David.

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acknowledges that the writers believed strongly in God’s abiding control of the sea and his protection of his people, but they had difficulty understanding how their present circumstances harmonized with this belief. The survival of the tamed agent of chaos, whether imagined as the Sea, Leviathan, or whatever, points to an essential and generally overlooked tension in the underlying theology of these passages. On the one hand, YHWH’s unique power to defeat and subjugate his adversary and to establish order is unquestioned. On the other hand, those passages that concede the survival of the defeated enemy raise obliquely the possibility that his defeat may yet be reversed. They revive all the anxiety that goes with this horrific thought. It is sure that so long as God continues to exercise his magisterial vigilance and his suzerain faithfulness, the reversal of the defeat of chaos is impossible. But the experience of this world sorely tries the affirmation of this ever vigilant, ever faithful God, and it was in these moments of trial that the unthinkable was thought.3 As John’s audience listened to the unfolding story of chaos being released onto the earth, not only by means of plagues but also by means of beings that arise from the abyss and overwhelm the earth, they might have experienced the same sort of dissonance that Levenson describes as they sensed the tension between the great “magisterial vigilance” of God, on the one hand, and great chaos being released, on the other. God and Christ are certainly portrayed often by John in this book as powerful and firmly in control,4 yet in spite of this, chaos appears to reign. The four winds, the locusts, the cavalry units, the beasts, the armies, and the dragon exit the abyss and sea, come from the four corners of the earth, or pass over the Euphrates in order to overrun the earth. Perhaps John’s audience, in associating these characters with people and forces in their contemporary world, began to “think the unthinkable.” However, for the one who listened until the end, the awakening of this dissonance and fear should have served only to bring the questions out into the open so that they could be answered in full. By the end of the story, the agents of chaos are subdued and eliminated and pains have been taken by the author to demonstrate that those things that God needed to control in order to protect His people no longer need to be controlled at all. Faith that God will manage and control evil can one day be transformed into the realization that evil no longer needs to be controlled because it no longer exists. 3.  Ibid., 17–18. 4.  Cf. Rev 1:4–5, 7–8; 2:1–3:22; 4:2–11; 5:11–14; 7:1–3; 20:11–12.

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The implications that appear in the following sections are presented as those that John’s audience might have inferred from having listened to this apocalypse. Obviously there is no way to be certain, but based on the probability that prophets were present in the churches to help explain the symbols and the Old Testament background, and based on what is known of the historical situation and how the symbols probably reminded John’s audience of realities that were current in their time, the following implications are reasonable and they emerge from the contemporary historical reading strategy that was described in the introduction. These also correspond well with what is known of the author. It is very probable that John had pastoral concerns when he wrote to his audience, and the seven messages in Rev 2 and 3 would have made it clear that he wanted to encourage them to stay faithful despite the temptation to conform to the values and practices of wider society. The following implications are consistent with such a desire on the part of the author.

Implications of John’s Use of the Abyss and Related Concepts The Abyss Is Used by God to Restrain Evil The locking and unlocking of the abyss are powerful symbols of the control that God exercises over evil creatures. The abyss, though it is a symbol of opposition to God, is also a symbol of God’s restraint of evil. This was already present in the traditions that John used in his description of the abyss. The Watchers tradition clearly showed the restraint that God exercised over the angels, and the power of God was seen in the traditions of God’s control of the sea and His domination of the sea monster. In John’s Apocalypse, this restraining activity is seen in relation to the dragon of ch. 20 and the locusts of ch. 9. It is also observed in those concepts that were used in similar ways to the abyss. For instance, in Rev 16:12 the kings from the east are only able to come forth to battle once the Euphrates has been dried up. In 9:14, the four angels had been bound at the River Euphrates so that they could not bring death and destruction on the earth. Earlier, in 7:1 the four winds were similarly bound at the four corners of the earth. Although the question of why God would allow evil to escape from this prison might have come to the mind of John’s audience, in this first point it is simply recognized that evil is restrained by God and the predominant symbol that John uses to communicate this is the abyss. A point briefly mentioned in Chapter 2 is that in the Old Testament, the abyss is at times viewed in a positive manner. This is seen especially in Gen 49:25, Deut 8:7, and Ezek 31:4, which all speak of the abyss providing the water

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that is seen in the springs and rivers. In John’s Apocalypse, however, there is no sense that anything positive ever arises from the abyss; rather, it is associated with evil. The closest that John comes to presenting the abyss in a positive manner is the description of God using the abyss to imprison and restrain evil creatures. Evil Creatures Are Used for God’s Purposes John’s audience might have been troubled by the fact that even though God was able to restrain and imprison evil by means of the abyss, the River Euphrates, and the angels at the four corners of the earth, this evil at times was allowed to exit from these places. One response to this difficulty that can be found in John’s treatment of the abyss and related concepts is that evil is used by God to accomplish His own purposes, regardless of whether the creatures attack God’s people or God’s enemies. In Rev 9:1–11, for instance, although the locusts are released from the abyss, they are only allowed to torture and punish those who have not received God’s seal. In the release of the dragon in 20:7–9, although it is true that the dragon’s goal is to attack God’s people, the consequence of his actions is simply to gather together Gog and Magog in order for them to be destroyed by God and for the dragon to be cast into the lake of fire. The exit of the beast in 17:8 appears to be dictated by God, as seen not only by the mention of his going to destruction but also by his leading of the ten horns to attack the great harlot and to destroy her. Evidence of God’s control over this situation is seen clearly in that the horns receive their authority (17:12), the authority they receive may be exercised for only one hour (17:12), they do what they do because God has placed that desire in their hearts, and God’s words will be fulfilled (17:17). Finally, Rev 16:12–16 says that the Euphrates is dried up as a result of the sixth bowl, which one of the angels pours out. The result is that the way is prepared for the coming of the kings of the earth who gather together in Ἁρμαγεδών for the purpose of doing battle on the great day of God Almighty. Only in ch. 19 does it become clear what is to happen. They are destroyed by the rider on the white horse and so it is seen that the drying up of the Euphrates, while allowing hostile forces to gather for war in the short term, in the long term served God’s purposes by facilitating the destruction of His enemies. Another of God’s purposes in allowing evil and destruction on the earth is to give people the opportunity to repent. God’s desire for repentance and many people’s refusal to comply is amply demonstrated in Jesus’s messages to the seven churches (2:5, 16, 21–22; 3:3, 19), the response of people to the pain of the fifth bowl (16:9–11), and the exit of the horses and their riders from the Euphrates (9:20–21).

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Evil Is Allowed to Exit Only at the Proper Time It can be seen not only that God allows evil to exit the abyss in order to accomplish His purposes but also that God allows these exits only at the proper moment. This is seen in a number of examples. For instance, the dragon is locked up in the abyss for a thousand years during which time the saints reign and their vindication is displayed. Even though the dragon must be released for a short time, this will only happen after the thousand years are over. So, in symbolic fashion John explains to his audience that the release only happens after the time of the saints’ vindication has been completed. Another example in which the timing of the abyss exit is seen to emphasize God’s control and power is the exit that occurs in Rev 11:7. While it is true that the beast that exits the abyss wars against and kills the two witnesses, it must be significant that John informs his audience that this only occurs once the witnesses have finished (τελέσωσιν)5 their testimony. Another example of the careful timing of God is the scene in 7:1–3 in which the angels at the four corners of the earth are to continue to hold back the four destructive winds of the earth until after God has sealed the saints. The exit of the locusts from the abyss in 9:1–11 is related to this restraint, as seen by the fact that those whom the locusts attack are the ones who have not been sealed. The abyss opens and destructive forces exit, but only at the opportune moment when God has prepared His people. For those of John’s audience who were persevering in their obedience to God, this should have been a great relief and comfort. The Activities of the Evil Abyss Dwellers Occur in the Shadow of Their Own Destruction It was demonstrated earlier in this book that John follows the Watchers myth in showing that the beast (Rev 17:8) and dragon (Rev 20:1–3, 7–10) are located in the abyss and are kept there until the time that they go to destruction. The difference in John’s version is that there is a parenthesis between the exit from the abyss and the arrival at the place of judgment. This parenthesis allows John to describe several important things about the end, but what is most significant here is that it serves to place the actions of the beast and the dragon under the shadow of the impending judgment that is rapidly approaching. Related to this is the mention, in the context of the dragon’s activities, that the time is short.6 5.  Louw and Nida define the meaning of τελέω in this context as “to bring an activity to a successful finish—‘to complete, to finish, to end, to accomplish’ ” (Greek-–English Lexicon, s.v. τελέω). 6.  Rev 12:12; 20:3. It could also be argued that the shortness of time for the beast is expressed in the fact that he is able to exercise his authority for only 42 months (Rev 13:5). Compare the time of his authority to the thousand years of the saints’ vindication.

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The time is short because defeat and destruction are inevitable for the dragon and for all evil. Thinking of the activities of these fear-​producing characters as simply being their final, desperate actions before they are eternally destroyed reveals their inability to resist indefinitely the power that God exercises over them. For those in John’s audience who were persevering under various attacks, this message would not remove the pain caused by evil, but it would provide hope that evil would not triumph in the end but would be eliminated. God’s People Are Vulnerable to Physical Attacks but Are Spiritually Protected There are occasions in the book of Revelation in which the exit from the abyss appears to be less clearly under the control of God. For instance, the exit of Rev 13:1 appears to be initiated by the dragon rather than by God. When the beast appears, he is empowered by the dragon and he wars against the saints. The other exit that shows less indication of God’s sovereignty is that of Rev 11:7. Similar to 13:1, there is no indication that God unlocks the abyss but rather the grammar presents the possibility that this beast ascends from the abyss on various occasions. This suggests that his ascending is not controlled by God but by himself. The tradition that appears to have been most influential in the description of these exits is that of the sea monster having his abode in the sea. Of the traditions that strongly influenced John’s description of the abyss, this is the one that places the least emphasis on the demonstration of God’s power. However, it bears mentioning that even though the description of these two exits do not emphasize God’s control, His power is very evident in other ways. One of these aspects has already been noted earlier in this chapter; that is, that the beast in 11:7 is only able to attack and kill the two witnesses after they have completed their testimony. Another aspect that shows God’s control and power in these two exits is that the wider context in which they appear is one that emphasizes protection amidst suffering and persecution, as the next paragraph demonstrates. There are a number of points in chs. 11–13 which could have served to communicate to John’s audience that even though the saints are vulnerable to the attacks of their enemies, they also enjoy the spiritual protection of God. For instance, this message could have been inferred from the description of the temple in Rev 11:1–2. Whereas the temple and altar are measured and thus protected, the outer courts of the temple are allowed to be trampled.7 A second way in which this principle is communicated is that the two witnesses (11:3–12), who 7.  “The outer court imagery is another way to view the same reality, the church, from an alternative point of view. Whereas the imagery of measuring sees the church from the point of view

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are able to offer their testimony with power and impunity, are killed by the beast once their work is completed (11:7). A third example is seen in that even though the woman is protected and nourished by God in the desert (12:6, 14), her children are attacked by the dragon and the beast (12:17; 13:7). Fourth, even though the dragon goes off to war against the offspring of the woman (12:17), he knows that his time is short (12:12). The fifth example is found in the five mentions of the period of time that equals three and a half years. An examination of the five mentions of this time period reveal that all of them either refer to persecution or trampling (11:2; 13:5), or to protection and nourishment (11:3; 12:6, 14). Seeing as they are so closely tied in context to these other indications that have just been mentioned, it is likely that this time period, alluding to Daniel’s time, times and half of time (Dan 7:25; 12:7), is meant to communicate both spiritual protection by God and physical vulnerability and persecution by the enemies of the saints.8 The best example of spiritual protection combined with physical vulnerability is seen in John’s portrayal of the martyrs. Although the martyrs are obviously not physically protected from harm, they are shown to be spiritually protected by means of them being comforted (6:9–11), victorious (12:11; cf. 15:2), vindicated (20:1–6), and raised again (2:10) to reign with Christ (20:4). If these symbols were interpreted by John’s audience in a similar way to the above analysis, it would have been significant to them that the two abyss exits (11:7; 13:1) which emphasize God’s sovereignty less than the others are both found in this short section of Revelation that contains the only five references to three and a half years in this book (chs. 11–13). That is because this section emphasizes the idea that the saints are protected spiritually from the forces of evil even while they are vulnerable to the physical attacks of their enemies. So, in these two exits from the abyss, the idea that is emphasized is not that the abyss is a prison for evil, nor that those who exit from the abyss are headed to their destruction, but rather it is emphasized that the abyss is the abode of evil and that its inhabitants might at any time come forth to persecute God’s people. However, in the midst of these frightful indications of the ubiquity of danger, John’s audience is reminded that God’s people are protected and shielded spiritually from evil.

of a spiritually protected community, the imagery of the court trampled views the church from the perspective of a physically vulnerable community” (Resseguie, Revelation of John, 161). 8.  Beale explains that “the three and a half years reveals two perspectives about the saints’ destiny: they undergo tribulation (11:2; 12:14; 13:5–6) but are nonetheless protected from spiritual harm” (Book of Revelation, 566). Mounce writes concerning this time period that “The repeated use of the various designations in Revelation and the contexts in which they appear serves to point out that the periods of final witness, divine protection, and pagan antagonism are simultaneous” (Book of Revelation, 215). See also Roloff, Revelation of John, 129–30; Wilcock, I Saw Heaven Opened, 105–6, 119, 125–26.

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The Opposition That God’s People Face Ultimately Can Be Traced Back to the Dragon Several sections of this book focus attention on the fact that the dragon and the beast are closely identified in both their appearance and their activities.9 An assumption that can be drawn from these similarities is that the beast does what he does as a direct result of the fact that the dragon does what he does. The similarity in description, the parallel exits from the abyss, and the common elements in the description of the battles might very well have been seen by John’s audience as evidence that when John’s readers suffer at the hands of the beast in any of his manifestations, they are really suffering at the hands of Satan, the dragon. Another factor that could have created a similar response in John’s audience is the way that certain animals brought to mind earthly armies and governments such as Rome and the Parthians. This would have encouraged reflection on the nature of evil as they thought, for example, about the fact that it is the dragon that calls out the beast (Rev 12:18–13:1). If the referent of the beast is Nero and the Roman Empire, an implication would be that Satan is the power behind the oppression that this empire inflicts. To accept this and to assimilate its truth would have had significant consequences in the manner in which John’s audience reacted to persecution and to the humans who carried it out. It could be seen as a similar message to that which the author of Ephesians wrote at 6:12: “For our struggle is not against flesh and blood, but against the rulers, against the powers, against the world forces of this darkness, against the spiritual forces of wickedness in the heavenly places.” Satan Will Be Unable to Thwart God’s New Creation Although according to Revelation the end will have similarities to the beginning,10 the successful attempt of the serpent to disrupt God’s new work in Gen 3 will not be successful in the future (Rev 20:7–10). It was demonstrated in Chapter 5 that in the dragon, John creatively ties together the serpent of Gen 3 with the Old Testament dragon who is the enemy of God. In portraying the activity of the seven-​headed dragon at the end of Revelation, John is demonstrating one of his most important examples of how the end will parallel the beginning. For John’s audience, however, the similarities would have only served to set the stage for the all-​important differences. Both the captivity and the destruction of the Old Testament dragon are represented in Revelation but are presented 9.  See especially the section “The Similarity Between the Dragon and the Beast” in Chapter 4. 10.  See the section “Captivity Versus Destruction” in Chapter 5.

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chronologically so that there is no doubt that when the dragon is placed in the lake of fire, his destruction is complete. In a similar manner, the attempt of the serpent to disrupt God’s new creation is also described by John (Rev 20:7–10), but this time the serpent’s failure is clearly seen. For those of John’s readers who were persevering in their obedience, this would have been an encouragement as they observed that the exit of the dragon from the abyss resulted in a clear differentiation between Satan’s influence in the first creation and his influence in the last. Their reflection on this great difference would have served to assure them that whereas in the first creation God allowed evil to enter, in the new creation this will not be a possibility. The Progression of Descent of the Dragon Demonstrates His Eventual Destruction In this book the two descents of the dragon in chs. 12 and 20 are seen as representing two different events.11 The first advent of Christ described in ch. 12 results in the removal of the dragon from heaven so that he can no longer accuse the saints. The second advent results in removing the dragon to the abyss, a place where he can no longer hurt the saints in any way. After the dragon exits the abyss, he is placed in the lake of fire where he will experience eternal destruction. Even though John’s audience would have been able to see evidence of Satan’s influence in the world around them (Rev 2:9, 13, 24; 3:9), they would have been encouraged to learn from John’s Apocalypse that the descent of Satan began at Christ’s first advent and that Satan’s subsequent imprisonment in the abyss would further this descent and lead to his final and utter destruction. God Will Remove the Threat Altogether This study of the abyss in Revelation has revealed that one aspect that it shares with the watery abyss of the Old Testament is the sense of threat. In the Old Testament it was feared that the sea and watery abyss could potentially inundate the earth at any time and it was only by means of God’s protection that the world was kept safe. John demonstrates a similar truth in that only because of God’s protection is the world not totally inundated and destroyed by evil.12 The mention in Rev 21:1 that there will no longer be a sea in the new creation probably would have communicated to John’s audience that the threat of evil and 11.  See the section “The Dragon’s Progression of Descent” in Chapter 4. 12.  See the section “God’s Restraint of the Waters That Threaten to Overwhelm the Earth” in Chapter 5.

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the threat of destruction will be finally removed. Not only are the dragon and the beasts destroyed eternally in the lake of fire, but the very place from which they arise will no longer exist.

Conclusion Even though many in John’s audience were facing opposition and were observing the powerful and malignant influence of the dragon and the beast, reflection on John’s Apocalypse would have demonstrated that God has already planned and assured the defeat of Satan and all his forces. The abyss, the sea, the Euphrates, the four corners of the earth, and other concepts were all skillfully used by John to show this. Even though the initial mentions of the abyss would most likely have provoked fear and despair in the minds of John’s readers because of the evil that it represented, John demonstrates throughout this book that in actuality this fearful concept is only one more aspect of God’s creation that He controls and uses in order to bring His good plans to fruition.

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Smick, Elmer. “Another Look at the Mythological Elements in the Book of Job.” WTJ 40 (1978): 214–29. Smith, B. K., and F. S. Page. Amos, Obadiah, Jonah. New American Commentary 19B. Nashville: Broadman & Holman, 2001. Smith, Mark S. The Origins of Biblical Monotheism: Israel’s Polytheistic Background and the Ugaritic Texts. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001. ———. The Priestly Vision of Genesis 1. Minneapolis: Fortress, 2010. Spitta, F. Christi Predigt an Die Geister. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1890. Stadelmann, Luis I. J. The Hebrew Conception of the World. Analecta Biblica 39. Rome: Pontifical Biblical Institute, 1970. Stefanović, Ranko. Revelation of Jesus Christ: Commentary on the Book of Revelation. Berrien Springs: Andrews University Press, 2009. Streett, M. J. Here Comes the Judge: Violent Pacifism in the Book of Revelation. LNTS 462. London: T&T Clark, 2012. Stuart, D. Hosea-​Jonah. WBC 31. Dallas: Word, 2002. Stuckenbruck, Loren T. “Demonic Beings and the Dead Sea Scrolls.” Pages 121–44 in Explaining Evil: Definitions and Development. Edited by J. Harold Ellens. Santa Barbara, CA: Praeger, 2011. ———. The Myth of Rebellious Angels. Wissenschaftliche Untersuchungen zum Neuen Testament 335. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2014. Suter, David Winston. Tradition and Composition in the Parables of Enoch. Society of Biblical Literature Dissertation Series 47. Missoula, MT: Scholars Press, 1979. Sweet, John P. M. Revelation. SCM Pelican Commentaries. London: SCM, 1979. Swete, Henry Barclay. The Apocalypse of St. John; the Greek Text with Introduction, Notes and Indices. London: Macmillan, 1906. Tate, Marvin E. Psalms 51–100. WBC 20. Dallas: Word, 1990. Thomas, David Andrew. Revelation 19 in Historical and Mythological Context. Studies in Biblical Literature 118. New York: Peter Lang, 2008. Thomas, R. L. Magical Motifs in the Book of Revelation. LNTS 416. London: T&T Clark, 2010. ———. Revelation 8–22: An Exegetical Commentary. Chicago: Moody, 1995. Thomas, Samuel. “Watchers Traditions in the Dead Sea Scroll.” Pages 137–50 in The Watchers in Jewish and Christian Traditions. Edited by Angela Kim Harkins, Kelley Coblentz Bautch, and John C. Endres. Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress, 2014. Thompson, Leonard L. The Book of Revelation: Apocalypse and Empire. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990. ———. “Ordinary Lives: John and His First Readers.” Pages 25–48 in Reading the Book of Revelation: A Resource for Students. Edited by David A. Barr. Leiden: Brill, 2004. Thompson, S. “The End of Satan.” AUSS 37 (1999): 257–68. Tiller, Patrick A. A Commentary on the Animal Apocalypse of I Enoch. Atlanta, GA: Scholars Press, 1993. Tõniste, Külli. The Ending of the Canon: A Canonical and Intertextual Reading of Revelation 21–22. LNTS 526. London: Bloomsbury T&T Clark, 2016. Tonstad, Sigve. “Appraising the Myth of Nero Redivivus in the Interpretation of Revelation.” AUSS 46 (2008): 175–99.

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Index of Authors

Achtemeier, P. J., 28 Albright, W. F., 54 Alster, B., 16 Anderson, B. W., 17, 25, 28 Aune, D. E., 1, 4, 9, 13, 37, 49, 58, 59, 75, 77, 79, 82, 87, 92, 108, 110, 111, 117, 125, 130 Balentine, S. E., 33 Ballentine, D. S., 23, 26, 52 Bandstra, A. J., 43 Barclay, W., 113 Batto, B. F., 52, 56 Bauckham, R. J., 2, 4, 6, 9, 10, 12, 13, 41, 46, 58–62, 65, 70, 71, 81, 87, 97, 102, 113, 114, 116, 132, 135 Bauer, T. J., 71 Bautch, K. C., 37, 38, 41 Baynes, L., 40, 41 Beal, T. K., 33 Beale, G. K., 1, 3, 8, 10, 11, 13, 58–60, 62, 68, 75, 78, 79, 81, 86, 87, 90, 97, 102, 105, 107, 108, 110, 121, 128–35, 144 Beasley-Murray, G. R., 79, 82, 105, 107 Beckwith, I. T., 64, 79 Bell, A. A., 79 Bertrand, D. A., 124 Betz, H. D., 50 Bhayro, S., 46 Biguzzi, G., 6 Black, M., 44, 46 Block, D. I., 32

Bock, D. L., 78 Bodinger, M., 59 Bøe, S., 119–21 Bohak, G., 81 Boring, M. E., 80, 132, 133 Bovon, F., 49 Boxall, I. B., 58, 79, 102, 104, 130 Bratcher, R. G., 17 Bright, J., 30 Brighton, L. A., 58, 102, 116 Brueggemann, W., 30 Brütsch, C., 130 Caird, G. B., 62, 77, 78, 92, 97 Caquot, A., 28 Carter, W., 79 Champlin, E., 79 Charles, J. D., 46 Charles, R. H., 1, 8, 44, 58, 75, 93, 97 Charlesworth, M. P., 58 Chester, A., 82 Childs, B. S., 107 Chilton, D., 59, 77 Clifford, R. J., 73, 116 Clines, D. J. A., 15, 19, 27, 28, 54, 68, 132 Cohn, N., 22 Collins, A. Y., 3, 39, 60, 73, 79, 87, 92, 114 Collins, J. J., 3, 7, 11, 30, 31, 63, 88 Conzelmann, H., 49 Corsini, E., 77 Court, J., 64 Cross, F. M., 31

167

168

Index of Authors

Dahood, M., 16, 26, 32, 92, 116 Dalton, W. J., 43, 44 Davids, P. H., 43, 44 Davies, J. P., 105, 133 Day, J., 22, 24, 26, 28, 68 DeClaissé-Walford, N., 19 Delcor, M., 37 Denis, A. M., 38, 39 Derrett, J. D. M., 55 deSilva, D., 8, 65 Deutsch, C., 128, 133 Dhorme, E., 28 Doak, B. R., 28 Dumbrell, W. J., 128 Duvall, J. S., 75 Elliott, J. H., 43, 44 Ellis, E. E., 53 Ellul, J., 89 Emerton, J. A., 26 Endres, J. C., 47 Evans, C. A., 49 Eve, E., 55 Evelyn-White, H. G., 37 Farmer, R. L., 105 Farrer, A., 133 Fekkes, J., 13 Fishbane, M. A., 27 Fitzmyer, J. A., 42, 49, 78, 126 Follis, E. R., 129 Fontenrose, J., 22 Ford, J. M., 80, 82, 105, 130, 131 Forsyth, N., 25, 75 Foster, B. R., 23 Frey, J., 79 Friesen, S. J., 5, 7, 59 Fry, E. McG., 15 Gallusz, L., 83 Gamber, K., 81 Garret, S. R., 77, 78 Garrow, A. J. P., 3, 4, 80 Giesen, H., 116, 134 Glasson, T. F., 41 Goldingay, J., 27, 28, 30, 92 Goodenough, E. R., 105

Goodspeed, E. J., 43 Gordis, R., 28 Gordon, C. H., 95 Gore-Jones, L., 42 Grabiner, S., 73 Gray, G. B., 41 Green, G. L., 45 Green, J. B., 54, 78 Grottanelli, C., 87, 108 Grudem, W., 43 Guelich, R. A., 53–55 Gumerlock, F. X., 81 Gundry, R., 133 Gunkel, H., 17, 25, 28, 30, 94, 96 Hagner, D. A., 48 Hanhart, K., 79 Hanneken, T. R., 40, 47 Hanson, R. S., 32 Harkins, A. K., 42 Harrington, W. J., 105 Hasel, G. F., 17, 25 Havrelock, R., 87, 108, 109 Heil, J. P., 53–56 Hendriksen, W., 77 Henten, J. W. van, 59, 92 Hess, R. S., 26 Hill, D., 4 Hogan, K. M., 40 Holladay, W. L., 30 Horowitz, W., 15 Hossfeld, F. L., 92 Hughes, P. E., 75 Hultin, J. F., 46 Hurtado, L. W., 55 Jacobsen, T., 23 Jacobson, R. A., 19 Jenson, R. W., 29 Jobes, K. H., 39, 43 John, J., 53 Johnson, A. F., 59 Johnson, D. E., 58, 61, 102 Johnston, P. S., 14, 74 Jordaan, G. J. C., 129 Joyce, P., 29

Index of Authors Kaiser, O., 21 Kee, H. C., 53 Keel, O., 20 Keener, C. S., 38, 105 Kelly, J. N. D., 43, 44 Kennedy, J. M., 53 Kiddle, M., 62, 63, 77, 105 Kistemaker, S. J., 97 Klauck, H.-J., 59 Kleist, J. A., 48 Kloos, C., 26 Klutz, T., 49 Knibb, M. A., 46 Knight, J., 2 Koester, C. R., 5–7, 59, 61, 62, 65, 66, 75, 81, 106, 113, 114, 126, 135 Kooten, G. H. van, 59, 60 Kraft, H., 119–21 Kratz, R., 52 Kraus, H. J., 20 Kraybill, J. N., 60, 105 Kreitzer, L. J., 59, 79 Krodel, G. A., 79, 116, 119 Kugel, J. L., 47 Kuhn, K. G., 119 Labahn, M., 73 Lamarche, P., 48 Lawrence, J. M., 59 Lessing, R. R., 28 Levenson, J. D., 32, 138, 139 Lewis, T. J., 15 Lichtenberger, H., 73 Lietaert Peerbolte, L. J., 65 Lohfink, N., 21 Longenecker, R. N., 38 Longman, T. III, 24, 28 Louw, J. P., 142 Lucas, E., 15, 88 Lunceford, J. E., 78 Lupieri, E., 90 Mabie, F. J., 25 Malbon, E. S., 52 Marshall, I. H., 65, 78 Martin-Achard, R., 20 Mason, E. F., 43, 46

169

Mathewson, Dan, 33 Mathewson, Dave, 13, 65, 66, 76, 86, 97, 130, 131, 135 May, H. G., 18 Mays, J. L., 27 McCarthy, D. J., 26 McDonough, S. M., 13, 132 McDowell, E. A., 77 McKane, W., 30 McKelvey, R. J., 65 Mealy, J. W., 16, 70, 114, 116–21, 133, 134 Meier, J. P., 53, 54 Metzger, B. M., 110 Michaels, J. R., 59 Millard, A. R., 108 Minear, P. S., 59, 60, 63, 128 Moo, D. J., 21, 38, 46 Moo, J., 127, 128, 130, 132, 134 Morris, L., 86 Mounce, R. H., 58, 59, 62, 75, 77, 87, 102, 105, 116, 144 Moyise, S., 8, 13 Muoz Léon, D., 79 Murphy, F. J., 113 Nickelsburg, G. W. E., 38–42, 46 Nida, E. A., 142 Niles, D. T., 132 Nineham, D. E., 53 Nolland, J., 48, 78 Notley, R. S., 52 Olson, D. C., 42 Osborne, G. R., 2, 59, 75, 77, 89, 107 Oswalt, J., 27 Ouro, R., 18 Page, F. S., 18 Pardee, D., 23 Paul, I., 7, 12 Paulien, J., 8, 13 Pearson, B. A., 41 Penner, K., 39, 47 Pesch, R., 53 Pierce, C. T., 43 Pope, M. H., 23, 28 Poythress, V. S., 65

170

Index of Authors

Price, S. R. F., 6 Prigent, P., 128 Rainbow, P. A., 64 Reddish, M. G., 105 Reed, A. Y., 40 Reicke, B. I., 43, 45 Reid, D. G., 24 Resseguie, J. L., 10, 58, 90, 102, 107, 130, 144 Reyburn, W. D., 15, 17 Reymond, P., 21 Rissi, M., 89, 116, 119, 120 Robbins, R. F., 77 Roloff, J., 59, 119, 144 Rowland, C., 79 Ruiten, J. van, 128 Russell, D. S., 96 Ryan, S. M., 14, 16, 18, 37, 38, 108, 112 Sailhamer, J. H., 131 Satake, A., 60 Schmidt, T. E., 130 Schnackenburg, R., 65 Schüssler Fiorenza, E., 7, 65, 66, 119 Scott, I. W., 39, 47 Scott, J. M., 37 Seely, P. H., 15, 32 Seow, C. L., 29 Shipp, M., 74 Siew, A. K. W., 76 Slater, T. B., 5, 6 Smalley, S. S., 82 Smick, E., 26 Smith, B. K., 18 Smith, M. S., 26, 31, 34 Spitta, F., 43 Stadelmann, L. I. J., 14–16, 20, 32 Stefanović, R., 78, 90, 109 Streett, M. J., 105 Stuart, D., 18 Stuckenbruck, L. T., 40, 42, 47 Suter, D. W., 41 Sweet, J. P. M., 79, 86, 89 Swete, H. B., 77, 117

Tanner, B. L., 19 Tate, M. E., 20, 27 Thomas, D. A., 58, 60, 79, 105 Thomas, R. L., 75, 76, 105 Thomas, S., 47 Thompson, L. L., 62 Thompson, S., 76 Tiller, P. A., 41 Töniste, K., 128 Tonstad, S., 59 Toorn, K. van der, 47, 71, 109 Tromp, N. J., 16, 20, 116 Tsumura, D. T., 14, 17, 23, 25 Tur-Sinai, N. H., 28 Vail, E. M., 17, 25, 33 Van de Water, R., 59 VanderKam, J. C., 38, 40, 46 Vogelgesang, J. M., 13 Wainwright, A. W., 8, 106 Wakeman, M. K., 17, 22, 25, 54, 92, 94 Walton, J. H., 15, 19, 20, 22, 23, 26, 32, 133 Watson, D. F., 45 Watson, R. S., 25, 26 Wensinck, A. J., 20 Westermann, C., 96 Whitney, K. W., 26 Wilcock, M., 144 Wilson, G. H., 28 Wilson, M., 59 Wink, W., 50 Winter, B. W., 6 Witherington, B. III, 5 Wood, S. J., 67 Wright, J. E., 14, 15, 37 Yeatts, J. R., 87 Zandee, J., 125 Zenger, E., 92

Index of Scripture

Hebrew Bible/Old Testament Genesis 1  15, 131, 133 1:2  15, 17, 31, 131, 132, 137 1:6–8  32 1:6  15 1:9–10  131 1:21  31, 67, 86 3  96, 97, 145 3:3  97 3:8  97 3:15  87 3:19  97 6  43, 91, 93 6:1–4  41 7–8  90 7:11  15, 18, 31, 32, 90, 133, 137 7:24  90 8:1–13  131 8:2  15, 18, 31, 32, 90, 137 8:3  90 9  32 49:25  16, 18, 19, 115, 140 Exodus 3:14  55 12:12  112

14  91 14:13–31  55 15:5  18, 21 15:8  18, 21, 52 15:10  21 20:4  14, 16, 32 33:19–23  55 34:6  55 39:3  15 Numbers 33:4  112 Deuteronomy 5:8  14, 16, 32 8:7  18, 19, 31, 111, 140 28:49  116 30:13  38 33:13  18, 31 33:15  115 Joshua 3–4  92 11:4  119 Judges 7:12  119 1 Samuel 2:8  16 13:5  119

2 Samuel 22:12  15 22:16  53 1 Kings 6:20  133 19:11  55 2 Kings 2  91 Nehemiah 9:6  14 Job 3:8  25, 94 7:12  25, 29, 94 9:6  16 9:8  32, 54, 95 9:13  25 11:8  14, 73 16:12  27 24:16 LXX  39 26:5  20 26:6  100 26:10–12  19 26:11–12  53 26:12–13  25, 27, 51, 67, 94 26:12  25, 68 28:8–11  68 28:14  17 171

172

Index of Scripture

Job (cont’d) 28:22  100 36:16  18 37:21  15 38:4–6  16 38:7  20 38:8–11  15, 32, 33, 51, 68, 95 38:11  19 38:16–17  73 38:16  17, 20, 54 38:30  17, 68 40–41  68 41  29 41:1–34  25, 28 41:1–8  94 41:1–5  51 41:17  68 41:23 LXX  17 41:24  18, 68 41:24 LXX  17 41:31–32  31, 67 41:31  17, 31 Psalms 3:7  68 9:13  20 18:5–6  21 18:15–17  34 18:17  34, 56 24:1–2  19 24:2  16, 32 29:3  92 30:3  21 32:7 LXX  17 33:7  17, 32, 95 35:7 LXX  17 35:23  52 36:6  17 40:2  21 41:8 LXX  17 42:7  17 44:23–26  52 61:2  116 61:3  116 65:6–7  34 69:1–2  20, 56 69:14–16  56

70:20 LXX  18, 20 71:20  18, 20, 73, 113 73:13–14  25 74:10–20  138 74:13–14  25, 26, 51, 67, 94 74:13  25, 27, 68, 95 74:14  24, 94, 95 74:15–17  27 74:15–16  27 74:15  92 75:3  16 76:17 LXX  18, 137 77:15 LXX  18, 31 77:16–20  52, 55 77:16  18, 92, 137 78:15  18, 31 87:4  25 89:9–10  25, 27, 67, 68 89:10  25, 27, 51, 95 89:39–50  138 93:3–4  32, 92, 95 96:11  129 103:4  21 103:6 LXX  17 104:3  15, 32, 133 104:5–9  16 104:6–9  15, 32, 95 104:6  17 104:7–9  19, 32, 33, 51 104:7  53 104:9  68 104:25–26  31, 67 104:26  25, 51, 86, 94 105:7–12  49 105:9 LXX  18 106:9  18, 53, 131, 137 106:26 LXX  17 107  20, 53 107:23–32  55 107:23–30  52 107:23–26  129 107:23  53 107:26  17, 20, 73, 115 114:3  92 134:6 LXX  17 135:6  17 136:6  16, 19, 32

144:1–2  34 144:7  34, 56 144:10–11  34 146:6  14 148:4  15, 32 148:7  17, 31, 67 Proverbs 3:20  17, 31 8:24  17, 31 8:27–29  14, 32, 33, 95 8:27  17 8:28  15, 18, 31 8:29  15 Isaiah 5:26–29  107 5:26  116 6  11 7:11  73 7:20  104, 107 8:6–8  34 8:7–8  107 8:7  104 11:12  116, 117 12:29–31  107 13:21–22  110 14  73, 77 14:4–8  74 14:9–11  73 14:12  74, 78 14:15  14, 73 17:12–14  34 24–27  70 24–26  99 24  71 24:11–14  110 24:17–23  41 24:18–20  91 24:21–22  41, 46, 70, 71, 91, 99 24:21  41 24:22  71 24:23  70 25:6–9  70 26:19  70 26:20–21  70

Index of Scripture 27:1  24, 25, 28, 31, 51, 67, 70, 86, 87, 94, 95 30:7  25, 28 34:13 LXX  110 38:10–11  20 38:18  14 40–55  131 40:19  15 43:6  116 43:19  131 43:25  55 44:27  18, 31 48:12  55 50:2–3  27 50:2  53, 92, 95 51:7–13  138 51:9–11  52 51:9–10  25, 27, 28, 51, 67, 94, 131 51:9  95 51:10  18, 92, 95, 137 51:12  55 52:1  131 57:20  129 63:13  18, 137 Jeremiah 1:14–15  107 4:6–13  107 5:22  32, 33, 51, 68, 95 6:1  107 6:22  107 9:11  110 10:22  107 13:20  107 46:10  104 50:39  110 51  30 51:34  25, 30 51:36  30 51:37  110 51:42  30 51:44  30 Ezekiel 1  11 1:22–23  15 1:25–26  15

7:2  116 10  11 10:1  15 23:25  82 26:19  17, 32 29  30 29:3–6  25, 28, 29 29:3  29 29:4  29 30  30 31:4  18, 19, 31, 111, 140 31:15  18, 31 32  30 32:2–7  25, 28, 29 32:2  29 32:3  29 32:5–6  30 37–39  99 37  70 37:1–14  70 37:15–28  70 38–39  64, 70, 119 38:2  119 38:6  107 38:11  120 38:15  107 38:16  120 39:2  107 Daniel 7  30, 73, 88, 96, 100, 103, 122, 136 7:2  30 7:10–11  96 7:12  30 7:17  30 7:25  30, 144 12:2  120 12:7  144 Joel 1–2  105 2:1–11  107 2:4–11  79 2:20–25  107 Amos 4:13  54

7:4  18, 31 9:2–3  129 9:2  14, 73 9:6  133 Jonah 1:1–16  55 1:9  14 2:2–6  73, 114 2:3–6  130 2:5  17, 20 2:6  18 2:6 LXX  17 Micah 1:3  54 Nahum 1:4  92, 95 Habakkuk 3:8–15  33 3:8–9  92 3:10  17 Zephaniah 2:14–15  110 Ecclesiasticus 1:3  38 16:18  38 24:29  38 42:18  38 43:23  38 New Testament Matthew 8  48 8:16  53 8:28–34  53 8:29  48 8:32  49 13:42  126 13:50  126 14:22–33  52, 54, 56 14:24  55 14:28  55 14:33  56

173

174

Index of Scripture

Mark 4:36  53 5:13  49 6:45–53  54 6:48  55 13:22  97 Luke 5:1  52 5:2  52 8  47–49 8:22  52 8:23  52 8:27–33  48 8:28  48 8:33  49, 52 10:18  78 John 6:15–21  54 6:18  55 6:21  55 Romans 1:1–4  9 10:7  38 1 Corinthians 15:1–4  9 Philippians 2:5–11  9 1 Peter 3:18–22  42, 43, 91 3:19–20  43 3:19  43 3:22  43 2 Peter 2:4–5  91 2:4  41, 45, 46, 71, 94, 99, 106 Jude 6  45, 71, 94, 99, 106

Revelation 1:1–3  2 1:1  4, 10 1:3  4 1:4–5  139 1:7–8  139 1:10  105 1:11  4 1:12–13  105 1:18  113 1:20  10 2  140 2:1–3:22  4, 139 2:5  141 2:6  8 2:9–10  8 2:9  13, 146 2:10  138, 144 2:13–15  8 2:13  62, 146 2:16  141 2:20  8 2:21–22  141 2:24  8, 146 3  140 3:3  141 3:7–9  13 3:9  8, 146 3:10  97 3:11  9 3:17–18  8 3:19  141 4:1–3  134 4:2–11  139 4:6–8  11 4:6  129, 133 5:3  37, 130 5:5–6  9, 105 5:8–13  9 5:9  9 5:11–14  139 5:12  9 5:13  129, 130, 134 6  115 6:2  87 6:8  113 6:9–11  144 6:11  138

6:12  145 6:14–17  134 7  97, 117 7:1–3  89, 116, 129, 134, 139, 142 7:1  116–18, 121–23, 129, 140 7:2  129 7:3  129 7:4  105 7:9  9, 105 7:14  9 7:17  9 8–9  117 8  115 8:8–9  129, 134 8:10–11  78 8:10  111, 118 9  76, 78, 82, 90, 115, 122, 140 9:1–12  89, 97 9:1–11  69, 76–80, 83, 84, 89, 90, 93, 104, 109, 115, 121, 126, 141, 142 9:1–2  122, 136 9:1  37, 39, 58, 74–78, 114, 118 9:2–3  125 9:2  58 9:3–11  130 9:3  126 9:5  89 9:10  89 9:11  58, 74, 83, 100 9:13–21  79, 87, 88 9:13–19  79, 104 9:14–21  89 9:14–19  130 9:14–15  105 9:14  104, 107, 109, 140 9:15  109 9:16  109 9:17–19  105 9:17  104, 105 9:20–21  106, 141 9:20  106, 109 10:2  129, 134

Index of Scripture 10:5–6  129 10:5  129 10:6  116 10:8  129 11–13  62, 90, 143, 144 11  91 11:1–2  143 11:2  90, 144 11:3–12  143 11:3  90, 144 11:5–6  91 11:7  31, 50, 58, 63, 69, 78, 82, 86, 88, 91, 103, 122, 126, 130, 142–44 11:10  103 11:18  4 11:19  134 12–13  78 12  62, 64, 66, 72, 73, 78, 92, 113, 115 12:3  64 12:4  72 12:5  9 12:6  90, 144 12:7–10  78 12:8–13:1  78 12:8–9  73 12:8  115 12:9  66, 115 12:10  115 12:11  138, 144 12:12–17  78 12:12  73, 129, 134, 142, 144 12:14  144 12:15  88, 92 12:17–13:18  115 12:17  144 12:18–13:1  69, 76–79, 84, 122, 129, 145 12:18  119, 129 13  58–65, 68, 83, 84, 88, 92 13:1–18  82, 130 13:1–8  103 13:1–7  93 13:1–3  114

13:1  31, 50, 58, 63, 64, 69, 83, 102, 103, 109, 113, 120–22, 129, 130, 134, 143, 144 13:2  83 13:3–4  60 13:3  59–61, 69, 80, 83, 103 13:4  103 13:5–7  78 13:5–6  144 13:5  83, 90, 142, 144 13:7  120, 144 13:8  9, 103 13:11  81, 112 13:12  59, 69 13:14  59 13:15–17  6 13:18  59, 80, 81 14:1–5  97 14:4  78 14:7  129 14:8  109 14:9–11  78, 82 14:9–10  125 14:11  96, 125 14:19–20  92 15:2–3  131 15:2  82, 129, 138, 144 15:3  130 15:5–6  134 15:8  130 16–17  109 16  81, 83, 108, 115, 122 16:2  78, 82 16:3  129, 134 16:4–6  78, 82 16:4  111 16:6  4 16:9–11  141 16:10–11  78, 82 16:12–16  63, 87–89, 141 16:12–14  79, 80, 121 16:12–13  122 16:12  104, 107, 109, 140 16:13–16  108

175

16:14–16  130 16:14  109 16:16  108 16:17–19  107 16:19  109 17–18  80 17  10, 58–61, 63–65, 84, 107, 109, 122 17:1  130 17:2  129 17:4  64 17:6  129 17:8–13  130 17:8  31, 58–65, 69, 80, 82, 83, 87, 88, 100, 103, 108, 114, 122, 126, 130, 141, 142 17:9–11  63 17:9–10  62 17:9  10 17:10  10 17:11  59–62, 64, 69 17:12–18  87, 107 17:12–14  79, 80, 103, 108 17:12–13  108 17:12  107, 141 17:13–14  108 17:14  9, 64, 103, 108, 109 17:15  130 17:16–18  59, 80, 82 17:16–17  80, 108 17:16  64, 78, 82, 109 17:17  141 18  107 18:2  109, 110 18:10–19  129 18:17  134 18:19  134 18:20  4 18:24  4 19–21  98 19–20  70, 72 19  64, 69, 72, 77, 81, 100, 116, 141 19:11–16  9 19:11  9

176

Index of Scripture

Revelation (cont’d) 19:14  109 19:17–21  79, 80 19:19–21  108, 130 19:19  63, 72, 78, 82, 108, 122 19:20  64, 69, 125, 126 19:21  78, 82 20–22  131 20  65, 72, 73, 76–78, 81, 97–99, 116, 121, 122, 136, 140 20:1–6  65, 66, 70, 144 20:1–3  37, 67, 76–78, 93, 106, 109, 114, 121, 126, 136, 142 20:1  58, 78 20:2  96 20:3  58, 64, 66, 71–73, 94, 96, 100, 121, 124, 126, 142 20:4–6  96 20:4  138, 144 20:7–10  136, 142, 145, 146 20:7–9  71, 76, 78, 79, 87, 89, 93, 97, 98, 118, 119, 141 20:7–8  64 20:7  94, 100, 110, 125 20:8–9  64, 97, 100, 116, 119 20:8  69, 96, 116, 119 20:10  67, 77, 96, 100, 125, 126 20:11–12  139 20:13–14  126 20:13  113, 129, 134, 135 20:14–15  126 20:14  113, 128 21  98, 124, 129, 136 21:1–5  131, 135 21:1  124, 126–37, 146 21:3  97, 130, 131, 133, 134 21:4  135 21:8  125, 128 21:16  133

21:18  96 21:22  133 21:25  132 22  97 22:1–5  98 22:1–3  98 22:3  9, 97 22:4  97 22:5  132 22:6  4 22:7  2, 9 22:9  4 22:10  2 22:12  9 22:16  4 22:18–19  2 22:20  9 Apocrypha 2 Maccabees 9:8  52 Pseudepigrapha 1 Enoch 1–36  40 6–21  40 6–11  40 8  40 8:3–4  90 9:1–11  90 9:1  90 9:6  40 9:7–9  40 9:10  90 10  44, 86 10:4–6  40, 46, 71, 94, 106 10:5–6  94, 99 10:5  46 10:6  46, 96 10:10–14  94 10:11–13  40 10:11–12  46 10:12–14  71, 94, 106 10:12–13  42, 46 10:12  99 10:13  96 12–16  40

12:4–6  94 13:9  44 14:5  44, 46 15–16  44 15:8–12  47 17–19  37 17:6–8  38 17:8  38 18–21  40, 86, 118 18–19  40, 117 18  118 18:2  117 18:10–11  40, 41, 45 18:11–14  118 18:11  40, 41 18:12–16  40 18:12–14  44 18:12–13  118 18:12  117 18:13–14  118 18:14–16  118 18:14  117 19:1–2  41, 45 19:1  40, 41, 47 20–36  37 21:1–6  40 21:1–3  118 21:1–2  118 21:3–6  118 21:7–10  40, 41, 45 21:7  38, 40 22:1–3  44 54:1–6  41, 94, 99 54:3–6  44 54:5–6  46 54:6  96 55:3–56:4  41 56:5–8  106 60:7  94 67:4  44, 46 67:6  44 83:4  32 83:7  32 86  75 86:1–3  75 86:1  75 86:3  75 88:1–3  41, 75

Index of Scripture 88:1–2  106 88:1  41, 44 88:2  42 88:3  41, 42, 46 90:23–26  75 90:24–26  46 90:24  96 2 Baruch 6–7  117 29:4  94 2 Enoch 7  43 7:1–3  43 18  43 3 Baruch 4:3–7  81 4:10  81 4 Ezra 6:49  94 6:52  94 Jubilees 5:10  46, 47, 71, 94, 99 10  47, 48 10:1–11  47 10:4–5  47 10:5  47 10:7–9  99 10:7  39, 46, 47 10:9  39, 48 10:11  47, 48 Life of Adam and Eve 12:1  78 15:1  78 15:3  78 16:1  78 Martyrdom of Isaiah 10:6  76 Sibylline Oracles 4:43  45 4:119–24  63, 82

4:120  103 4:137–39  63, 82 4:139  103 5:64–99  82 5:72  75 5:94–99  63 13:99  103 13:124  103 Testament of Asher 7:1–7  116 Testament of Solomon 20:14–17  75 Qumran 1QHa 11.6–19  42 11.14–19  42 11.17  42 11.20–37  42 16.5–17.38  42 Classical and Ancient Christian Literature Aeschylus, Persae 839  45 Euripides, Hippolytus 1416  45 Hesiod, Theogony 507–616  41 713–21  42 719–21  37 729  41 742  41 789–91  38 806  41

177

Hesiod, Works and Days 42–105  41 170–73  38 Homer, Iliad 8  41 8.13–16  37 13  41 18.607  37 21.194–96  37 21.56  45 451  41 481  41 Homer, Odyssey 10.510–12  37 11.13  37 11.55  45 20.356  45 24.11–12  38 Pherecydes, Fragment 5  41 Quintus, Smyrnaeus 2.619  45 Strabo, Geography 1.1.8  38 Virgil, Aeneid 6.548  41 Papyri PGM IV.1345–46  50 IV.3061–65  50 VII.260–63  50 XIII.168–71  50 XXXVI.217–20  50

Bulletin for Biblical Research Supplements

1. Bridging the Gap: Ritual and Ritual Texts in the Bible, by Gerald A. Klingbeil 2. War in the Bible and Terrorism in the Twenty-First Century, edited by Richard S. Hess and Elmer A. Martens 3. Critical Issues in Early Israelite History, edited by Richard S. Hess, Gerald A. Klingbeil, and Paul J. Ray Jr. 4. Poetic Imagination in Proverbs: Variant Repetitions and the Nature of Poetry, by Knut Martin Heim 5. Divine Sabbath Work, by Michael H. Burer 6. The Iron Age I Structure on Mt. Ebal: Excavation and Interpretation, by Ralph K. Hawkins 7. Toward a Poetics of Genesis 1–11: Reading Genesis 4:17–22 in Its Near Eastern Context, by Daniel DeWitt Lowery 8. Melchizedek’s Alternative Priestly Order: A Compositional Analysis of Genesis 14:18– 20 and Its Echoes throughout the Tanak, by Joshua G. Mathews 9. Sacred Ritual: A Study of the West Semitic Ritual Calendars in Leviticus 23 and the Akkadian Text Emar 446, by Bryan C. Babcock 10. Wrestling with the Violence of God: Soundings in the Old Testament, edited by M. Daniel Carroll R. and J. Blair Wilgus 11. Wealth in Ancient Ephesus and the First Letter to Timothy: Fresh Insights from Ephesiaca by Xenophon of Ephesus, by Gary G. Hoag 12. Paul and His Mortality: Imitating Christ in the Face of Death, by R. Gregory Jenks 13. “Did I Not Bring Israel Out of Egypt?” Biblical, Archaeological, and Egyptological Perspectives on the Exodus Narratives, edited by James K. Hoffmeier, Alan R. Millard, and Gary A. Rendsburg 14. Honor, Shame, and Guilt: Social Scientific Approaches to the Book of Ezekiel, by Daniel Y. Wu 15. Hostility in the House of God: An Investigation of the Opponents in 1 and 2 Timothy, by Dillon T. Thornton 16. Hope for a Tender Sprig: Jehoiachin in Biblical Theology, by Matthew H. Patton 17. Making Sense of the Divine Name in Exodus: From Etymology to Literary Onomastics, by Austin Surls

18. Trees and Kings: A Comparative Analysis of Tree Imagery in Israel ’s Prophetic Tradition and the Ancient Near East, by William R. Osborne 19. Bearing Yhwh’s Name at Sinai: A Reexamination of the Name Command of the Decalogue, by Carmen Joy Imes 20. Poor and Rich in James: A Relevance Theory Approach to James’s Use of the Old Testament, by Nelson R. Morales 21. “I Will Walk Among You”: The Rhetorical Function of Allusion to Genesis 1–3 in the Book of Leviticus, by G. Geoffrey Harper 22. Signs of Continuity: The Function of Miracles in Jesus and Paul, by Greg Rhodea 23. Atonement in the Priestly Torah: The Meaning of kipper and the Purpose of the Israelite Sanctuary, by James A. Greenberg 24. The Law’s Universal Condemning and Enslaving Power: Reading Paul, the Old Testament, and Second Temple Jewish Literature, by Bryan Blazosky 25. You Shall Know that I Am Yahweh: An Inner-Biblical Interpretation of Ezekiel’s Recognition Formula, by John F. Evans 26. Death and Divine Judgment in Ecclesiastes, by Kumiko Takeuchi 27. Exploring the Composition of the Pentateuch, edited by L. S. Baker Jr., Kenneth Bergland, Felipe A. Masotti, and A. Rahel Schafer Wells 28. The Abyss in Revelation: A View from Below, by Edward Gudeman