The 21st-Century Voice: Contemporary and Traditional Extra-Normal Voice [2 ed.] 9780810888418, 9780810888401

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The 21st-Century Voice

The 21st-Century Voice Contemporary and Traditional Extra-Normal Voice Second Edition

Michael Edward Edgerton

ROWMAN & LITTLEFIELD

Lanham • Boulder • New York • London

Published by Rowman & Littlefield A wholly owned subsidiary of The Rowman & Littlefield Publishing Group, Inc. 4501 Forbes Boulevard, Suite 200, Lanham, Maryland 20706 www.rowman.com Unit A, Whitacre Mews, 26-34 Stannary Street, London SE11 4AB Copyright © 2015 by Michael Edward Edgerton All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any electronic or mechanical means, including information storage and retrieval systems, without written permission from the publisher, except by a reviewer who may quote passages in a review. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Information Available Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Edgerton, Michael Edward, author. The 21st-century voice : contemporary and traditional extra-normal voice / Michael Edward Edgerton. — Second edition. pages cm Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-1-4422-4824-3 (hardcover : alk. paper) — ISBN 978-0-8108-8840-1 (pbk. : alk. paper) — ISBN 978-0-8108-8841-8 (ebook) 1. Voice—Physiological aspects. 2. Singing—Physiological aspects. I. Title. MT821.E32 2015 783'.04—dc23 2014047260

™ The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of American National Standard for Information Sciences—Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials, ANSI/NISO Z39.48-1992. Printed in the United States of America

To Tara Mae

Contents

List of Figures

ix

List of Tables

xvii

List of Recordings

xix

Permissions

xxiii

Preface to the First Edition

xxvii

Preface to the Second Edition

xxix

Introduction

xxxi

PART I: AIRFLOW 1

Airflow

3

PART II: SOURCE 2

Vocal Folds

17

3

Laryngeal Semiperiodic Source

31

4

Register

35

PART III: RESONANCE/ARTICULATION 5

Filtering

47

6

Turbulent-to-Absolute Airflow Modification

67

PART IV: HEIGHTENED POTENTIALS 7

Combinatorial, Multiphonic Principles

8

Extremes

127

9

Multidimensional Voice

133

Appendix A: Voice Science

149

Appendix B: Glossary

169

Appendix C: Representative Compositions

175

Index

191

About the Author

195

vii

95

Figures

1.1

Brooks: Madrigals, No. 4, Nellie Was a Lady

1.2

Edgerton: The Hidden Thunder of Screaming Souls

1.3

Geyer: Sedna

1.4

Holmqvist: Liquid Structures

1.5

Einbond: Without Words

1.6

Simple tube representations of lunged and unlunged airflow

1.7

Excerpt featuring lunged/unlunged and change of airflow

1.8

Contrast of lunged and unlunged airflow with a variety of articulation

1.9

Dehaan: Three Études for Solo Voice

1.10

Holmqvist: Liquid Structures

1.11

Dharmoo: Vaai Irandu

1.12

Ordinary to breathy sound

1.13

Crescendo/decrescendo on fricatives

1.14

Unvoiced melodies controlled via oral cavity aperture and tongue movement

1.15

Edgerton: Keltainen huone

1.16

Dynamic flexibility of unvoiced production

1.17

Changing ratios of breath-to-air mixture

1.18

Green: B A 4

1.19

Holmqvist: Liquid Structures

1.20

Exercise 1, sternum on exhalation (abdomen in vs. abdomen out)

1.21

Exercise 2, sternum on exhalation featuring dynamic movement

1.22

Exercise 3, /s/ to strengthen the support muscles

1.23

Exercise 4, increase dynamic power

1.24

Exercise 5, increase flexibility

1.25

Exercise 6, increase strength and flexibility through static posturing and resistance

1.26

Exercise 7, glottal pulsing versus diaphragmatic pulsing

3 4 5 5 6 6 6 7 7 7 8 8 8 9 9 10 10 10 11 12 12 13 13 13

ix

13 14

Figures

x

2.1

Kourliandski: Voice-Off

2.2

Hadzajlic: Freezing Moon

2.3

Brooks: Tracce

2.4

Extremely rapid glottal articulations

2.5

Hopson: Nine Tas

2.6

Holmqvist: Liquid Structures

2.7

Edgerton: A Marriage of Shadows

2.8

Edgerton: Anaphora

2.9

Composing/performing ratios of pitch-to-air mixture

2.10

Olson: Le Revenant

2.11

Glottal configurations during the production of vocal fry

2.12

Exercise to help secure onset of vocal fry

2.13

Pressed voice features a greater intensity during adduction with a longer closing phase

2.14

Kourliandski: Voice-Off

2.15

The elements of vibrato may be emphasized separately

2.16

Holmqvist: Liquid Structures

2.17

One process for developing asymmetry of oscillation

2.18

Theoretical mode shapes of the vocal folds showing both the superior and the frontal views of the vocal folds

2.19

Example of biphonation produced with asymmetrical vocal fold oscillation

2.20

Edgerton: A Marriage of Shadows

2.21

Edgerton: Cataphora

2.22

Steps to produce the glottal whistle (M4)

2.23

Edgerton: prāṇa

2.24

Edgerton: A Marriage of Shadows

3.1

Potential supraglottal oscillators

3.2

Edgerton: Cataphora

3.3

Edgerton: Anaphora

3.4

a. Esophageal speech on an outgoing stream of air; b. Speech using an artificial larynx

4.1

Registral placement

4.2

Vocal fold length, thickness, and mode of three registers

4.3

Oscillatory movement between two adjacent registers, then between two nonadjacent ones

4.4

Namtchylak: Night Birds

4.5

Edgerton: Anaphora

4.6

Notation for cross-register oscillation from London’s Psalm of These Days II

4.7

Edgerton: A Marriage of Shadows

18 19 19 19 20 20 20 21 21 22 22 23 23 24 24 25 25 26 26 27 27 28 29 29 31 32 33 33 35 36 36 37 37 38 38

Figures

4.8

Nasal filter with glottal stops in alternation with normal tones begins to feature pitch separation

4.9

Changing pitch contours while decoupling nasal production from glottal stops

4.10

Japan: Satsuma Biwa

4.11

Dharmoo: Vaai Irandu

4.12

Rodriguez: Voix

4.13

Edgerton: Cataphora

4.14

Oscillation within and between registers

4.15

Transition from harmonic voice to rough voice

5.1

Khubeev: Noir

5.2

Harizanos: The Bells

5.3

Holmqvist: Liquid Structures

5.4

Dharmoo: Vaai Irandu

5.5

Elements of the IPA vowel pronunciation guide

5.6

Suprasegmentals and tones and word accents

5.7

Diacritical markings

5.8

Transcription of English text

5.9

Phonetic representation of a specific culture’s style of speech

5.10

Brooks: Madrigals, No. 4, Nellie Was a Lady, measures 19–27

5.11

Location of articulatory regions on upper palate and location of articulatory regions on lower palate

5.12

Location of articulatory regions in pharynx and notation for tongue regions and manners of filter articulation

5.13

Vowel-to-vowel filter and Wishart, complex filters from On Sonic Art

5.14

Brooks: Tracce

5.15

Dehaan: Three Études for Solo Voice

5.16

Aperture shape to inner vowel

5.17

Rounded, lateral, and superior-inferior apertures can be combined with changing vowel

5.18

Protruded, intruded, lips to left, lips to right, and opposing orientations can be combined

5.19

Holmqvist: Liquid Structures

5.20

Tongue tip placement with rounded aperture and superior-to-inferior orientation

5.21

Tongue tip placements with lateral aperture

5.22

Edgerton:

5.23

Dental placement and jaw protrusion/retraction

5.24

Combined dental position, pitch/rhythm, text, tongue region, palatal placement, and manner

5.25

Price: A Play on Words

5.26

Example of three-part filter

5.27

Dehaan: Three Études for Solo Voice

xi

38 39 39 40 40 42 42 43 47 47 48 48 48 49 49 49 50 50 52 52 53 53

aka Taffy Twisters

53 54 54 54 54 55 55 55 55 56 56 56 57

Figures

xii

5.28

Edgerton: Keltainen huone

5.29

Contributions of nasal port: none, coupled with oral, and nasal alone

5.30

Scaling of timbres combining oral and nasal, then nasal, then nasal with placement

5.31

Holmqvist: Liquid Structures

5.32

Glottal stops with non-nasal, half-nasal, and full-nasal resonance

5.33

Green: B A 4

5.34

Spectrogram of a reinforced harmonic sung melody from Tuva and frequency versus amplitude plot that shows a harmonic with significantly higher amplitude than its fundamental period

5.35

Metaphor of amplifying glass over scaffolding

5.36

Spectrogram of reinforced harmonic production in which the fundamental frequencies and the reinforced harmonics are designed to form a two-part counterpoint and frequency versus amplitude plot that shows a balance between the fundamental period and its harmonic

5.37

Method 1 of reinforced harmonic production featuring bilabial opening as reinforced harmonic rises and method 2 featuring tongue tip remaining on or near alveolar ridge with mid-tongue movement toward hard palate as reinforced harmonic rises

5.38

Method 3 featuring tongue retraction for the low harmonics and tongue advancement for the higher harmonics (e.g., /o/ to /i/) and method 4 dominated by movement in the pharynx while the tongue tip and blade remain stable

5.39

Potentially robust fundamental frequencies for reinforced harmonic production

5.40

Green: B A 4

5.41

Green: B A 4

5.42

Rodriguez: Voix

6.1

Kourliandski: Voice-Off

6.2

Brooks: Tracce

6.3

IPA consonant pronunciation guide

6.4

IPA anatomical-to-manner consonant chart

6.5

Unlunged and ingressive turbulent behaviors

6.6

Brooks: Madrigals (No. 2, Bad Bottle Blues)

6.7

Dehaan: Three Études for Solo Voice

6.8

Regions for bilabial fricatives, buzzes, and whistles

6.9

Notation for bilabial salival/sibilant whistles

6.10

Dehaan: Three Études for Solo Voice

6.11

Kokoras: Hiss and Whistle

6.12

Offset bilabial articulation

6.13

Edgerton: Friedrich’s Comma

6.14

Labial-dental regions of articulation

6.15

Green: B A 4

6.16

Bidental regions

57 58 58 59 59 59 60 61

62

62

63 63 64 64 65 67 67 68 68 68 69 69 73 73 73 73 73 74 74 76 76

Figures

6.17

Holmqvist: Liquid Structures

6.18

Offset bidental regions shown superior-anterior

6.19

Bidental and offset bidental articulation

6.20

Dental-labial and dental-vestibule articulation

6.21

Edgerton: Friedrich’s Comma

6.22

Holmqvist: Liquid Structures

6.23

Holmqvist: Liquid Structures

6.24

Holmqvist: Liquid Structures

6.25

Tongue trill articulation

6.26

Dehaan: Three Études for Solo Voice

6.27

Front, mid, and rear tongue trills

6.28

Green: B A 4

6.29

Cheek regions

6.30

Kourliandski: Voice-Off

6.31

Cheek and lips and cheek, lips, and tongue

6.32

Cheek and tongue and cheek and ingressive air

6.33

Cheek, saliva, teeth, and tongue; external cheek articulation

6.34

Holmqvist: Liquid Structures

6.35

Uvula and soft palate charts

6.36

Epiglottic, pharyngeal, and salival regions

6.37

Green: B A 4

6.38

Green: B A 4

6.39

Green: B A 4

6.40

Green: B A 4

6.41

Price: A Play on Words

7.1

Complex multiphonics: two voiced sources, voiced and unvoiced sources, and two unvoiced sources

7.2

Chant-like phonation by a female Xhosa singer featuring subharmonics at 8ve, 10th, and 12th

7.3

Location of double sources in (imitated) chant mode

7.4

Coronal views of double source featuring supraglottal oscillation

7.5

Views of double source featuring asymmetrical vocal fold oscillation

7.6

Vocal folds in combination with vocal fry

7.7

Combination of vocal fold pitch with vocal fry

7.8

Combination of vocal fold pitch with false folds and vocal fry

7.9

Lower end of falsetto range is better for falsetto chant

7.10

Ingressive chant features increased range of pitch, intensity, and ability to produce multiphonics

7.11

Minton: Untitled

xiii

76 77 77 77 80 81 81 81 81 81 82 82 85 85 85 85 86 88 88 88 89 89 90 90 90 95 97 97 98 98 99 100 100 100 101 102

Figures

xiv

7.12

Biphonation featuring contrary motion: Upper pitch moves up then down, while lower pitch moves down then up

7.13

Biphonation: Upper pitch remains the same, while lower pitch moves down

7.14

Hadzajlic: Freezing Moon

7.15

Simple combination of sustained unvoiced sounds with voiced sounds

7.16

Contrapuntal ability of voice and lip buzz

7.17

Edgerton: Cataphora

7.18

Glottal pitch with whistle features significant contrapuntal independence

7.19

Edgerton: A Marriage of Shadows

7.20

Regions of pharyngeal frications

7.21

Potential air characteristics combined with salival deposits

7.22

Glottal pitch with perceptible air sonority—each identified with separate dynamic markings

7.23

Voice with air sounds

7.24

Dehaan: Three Études for Solo Voice

7.25

Holmqvist: Liquid Structures

7.26

Glottal pitch with tongue flutter

7.27

Tongue-teeth slaps from London’s Psalm of These Days II

7.28

Velar articulation

7.29

Glottal pitch with uvular trill

7.30

Dehaan: Three Études for Solo Voice

7.31

Holmqvist: Liquid Structures

7.32

Notation for oral and pharyngeal frication

7.33

Holmqvist: Liquid Structures

7.34

Dehaan: Three Études for Solo Voice

7.35

Notation for whistle with sustained oral cavity articulation

7.36

Notation for whistle with pharyngeal articulation

7.37

Edgerton: Anaphora

7.38

Notation for combining whistle with egressive nasal fricatives

7.39

Double tongue vibration (front, mid, and rear identified separately)

7.40

Tongue with lip flutter, featuring both coarse and fine behaviors

7.41

Salival-dental articulation with air, place, velocity, and volume

7.42

Edgerton: Anaphora

7.43

Notation for salival cheek fricative with indications for airflow

7.44

Edgerton: Anaphora

7.45

Salival frication with bilabial flutter, including airflow and manner

7.46

Nasal fricative with bidental stops, identifying left, mid, and right regions

103 103 104 104 105 105 106 106 106 107 108 108 108 108 109 109 110 110 111 111 112 112 112 113 113 114 114 115 115 116 116 117 117 117 118

Figures

7.47

Nasal air frication with bilabial articulation

7.48

Nasal frication with percussive lingual articulation

7.49

Notation for nasal frication with sustained alveolar or palatal articulation

7.50

Notation for nasal frication with lip buzz

7.51

A true vocal tract circular airflow phenomenon

7.52

Double source mode (chant) with lingual frication

7.53

Chant with whistle

7.54

Holmqvist: Liquid Structures

7.55

Glottal pitch, pharyngeal and lingual articulation

7.56

Voice, lip buzz, tongue vibration (voice, stem up; buzz, stem down; tongue vibration/flutter in box)

7.57

Voice, lip buzz, tongue vibration (buzz, stem up; voice, stem down; tongue vibration on lower stave)

7.58

Voice, lip buzz, tongue vibration

7.59

Dual tongue vibration with glottal pitch

7.60

Glottal pitch, tongue vibration, labial-dental frication

7.61

Holmqvist: Liquid Structures

7.62

Edgerton: Anaphora

8.1

Hadzajlic: Freezing Moon

8.2

Edgerton: The Hidden Thunder of Screaming Souls

8.3

Edgerton: Anaphora

8.4

Brooks: Madrigals

9.1

Edgerton:

9.2

Kourliandski: Voice-Off

9.3

Rodriguez: Voix

9.4

Cassidy: A Painter of Figures in Rooms

9.5

Johnson: A general interrupter to ongoing activity

9.6

Attractor states

9.7

Edgerton: A Marriage of Shadows

9.8

Edgerton: Anaphora

9.9

Dharmoo: Vaai Irandu

9.10

Edgerton: Friedrich’s Comma

9.11

Edgerton: Kut

9.12

Green: B A 4

9.13

Baldwin: Various Terrains

9.14.

Condensed multidimensional and scaled networks for solo voice in The Old Folks at Home by Edgerton

A.1

Gross anatomy of respiration

aka Taffy Twisters

xv

118 119 119 119 119 120 120 121 121 122 122 122 123 123 125 125 128 128 129 130 133 134 135 135 136 137 137 139 139 140 141 141 142 144 149

Figures

xvi

A.2

Division of lower trachea into left and right bronchi

A.3

Clustered air sacs of the alveoli

A.4

Vertical cross-section of larynx; external laryngeal framework

A.5

Open glottis and nearly closed glottis

A.6

Superior view of vocal folds

A.7

Mucosal wave

A.8

Source characteristic—frequency

A.9

Source characteristic—amplitude versus frequency

A.10

Opening and closing characteristics of glottal cycle

A.11

Major elements of upper vocal tract articulatory system

A.12

Influence of vocal tract on signal

A.13

Formant structures compared with vocal tract shapes

A.14

Source, vocal tract, and radiation characteristic equals net output

A.15

Perturbation analysis

A.16

Attractors and bifurcations

A.17

Period-doubling attractor or subharmonics

A.18

Biphonation, or two independent frequencies

A.19

Sequence featuring limit cycle followed by chaos, then period-doubling, chaos, limit cycle, repeat

150 151 152 152 153 154 156 156 157 157 159 159 159 160 162 163 163 164

Tables

1.1

Egressive versus Ingressive Airflow

4.1

Operatic Fach Classification

36

4.2

Unusually Low and High Female and Male Voices

40

5.1

Childs: Music for Singer—Timbral Cues (1964)

60

6.1

Comprehensive Model of Articulation—Place/Manner Chart

71

6.2

Labial Chart

75

6.3

Dental Chart

78

6.4

Tongue to Palatal Regions

83

6.5

Cheek Regions Paired with Manners

87

6.6

Uvula, Soft Palate, Epiglottis, Pharynx, Salival, Head Oscillation, Body Oscillation, and External Articulation

91

Multiphonics: Voiced and Voiced, Voiced and Unvoiced, Unvoiced and Unvoiced, and Three or More

96

7.1

5

8.1

Factors Associated with Common Voice Disorders

130

9.1

Multiple Parameters within an Acoustic Framework

134

9.2

Multiphonic Combinations within an Acoustic Framework

138

9.3

Morphology in Rhotic by Blonk

143

9.4

Perceptual Distance in Rhotic by Blonk

144

9.5

Potential Outputs from Multidimensional Desynchronization in The Old Folks at Home by Edgerton

145

A1.1

Components Influencing Onset of Phonation

153

A1.2

Common Modes of Phonation

155

xvii

Recordings

In this revised edition, audio samples identified in each chapter can be found at the publisher’s website: https://rowman. com/ISBN/9780810888401, under the “Features” tab. Track 1.1 Track 1.2 Track 1.3 Track 1.4 Track 1.5 Track 1.6 Track 1.7 Track 1.8 Track 1.9 Track 1.10 Track 2.1 Track 2.2 Track 2.3 Track 2.4 Track 2.5 Track 2.6 Track 2.7 Track 2.8 Track 2.9 Track 2.10 Track 2.11 Track 2.12 Track 2.13 Track 2.14 Track 2.15 Track 2.16 Track 2.17 Track 2.18 Track 2.19 Track 2.20 Track 2.21 Track 2.22 Track 2.23 Track 2.24 Track 2.25 Track 3.1 Track 3.2

Brooks: Madrigals, No. 4, Nellie Was a Lady Edgerton: The Hidden Thunder of Screaming Souls Geyer: Sedna Manipulation of Articulation That Results in Different Rates of Unlunged Airflow Velocity Contrast of Lunged and Unlunged Airflow with Changing Articulation Dharmoo: Vaai Irandu Edgerton: Keltainen huone Wishart: Vocalize Green: B A 4 Edgerton: Anaphora Kourliandski: Voice-Off Voiced Vowels /i/, /e/, /a/, /o/, /u/ Unvoiced Vowels /i/, /e/, /a/, /o/, /u/ Voiced Consonants /d/, /b/, /z/ Unvoiced Consonants /t/, /p/, /s/ Unvoiced, Pitched Sounds: Whistle, Bilabial Trill, Lingual Trill, Uvular Trill Hadzajlic: Freezing Moon Hopson: Nine Tas Edgerton: A Marriage of Shadows Edgerton: Anaphora Composing/Performing Ratios of Pitch-to-Air Mixture Olson: Le Revenant Egressive Vocal Fry to Ingressive Vocal Fry Christi: Passage to Womanhood Ovcharenko: Invocation of Rain Kourliandski: Voice-Off Homler: Signals Bijma: Why? Bye! Homler: Signals Dutton: Ummm Edgerton: A Marriage of Shadows Miranda: in Principio Neubauer: Untitled Edgerton: prāṇa Edgerton: A Marriage of Shadows Untitled Kargyraa Style Blonk: Kolokol Uma xix

xx

Track 3.3 Track 3.4 Track 3.5 Track 4.1 Track 4.2 Track 4.3 Track 4.4 Track 4.5 Track 4.6 Track 4.7 Track 4.8 Track 4.9 Track 4.10 Track 4.11 Track 5.1 Track 5.2 Track 5.3 Track 5.4 Track 5.5 Track 5.6 Track 5.7 Track 5.8 Track 5.9 Track 5.10 Track 5.11 Track 5.12 Track 5.13 Track 5.14 Track 5.15 Track 5.16 Track 5.17 Track 5.18 Track 6.1 Track 6.2 Track 6.3 Track 6.4 Track 6.5 Track 6.6 Track 6.7 Track 6.8 Track 6.9 Track 6.10 Track 6.11 Track 6.12 Track 6.13 Track 6.14 Track 7.1 Track 7.2 Track 7.3 Track 7.4 Track 7.5 Track 7.6 Track 7.7 Track 7.8 Track 7.9

Recordings

Edgerton: Cataphora Edgerton: Anaphora Esophageal Speech Namtchylak: Night Birds Edgerton: Anaphora London: Psalm of These Days II Edgerton: A Marriage of Shadows Dharmoo: Vaai Irandu Rodriguez: Voix Miranda: in Principio Low, Normal Modes Damped Asymmetries by Jaap Blonk Miranda: La Voz Cantante Edgerton: Cataphora Khubeev: Noir Harizanos: The Bells Dharmoo: Vaai Irandu Brooks: Madrigals, No. 4, Nellie Was a Lady Two-Part Filters, Aperture to Vowel (Round, Lateral, Superior to Inferior, Protrusion, Intrusion, Left, Right, Opposite) Two-Part Filter, Aperture to Tongue Tip Placement Edgerton: aka Taffy Twisters Price: A Play on Words Edgerton: Keltainen huone Different Ratios of Nasality Green: B A 4 Untitled Kargyraa Style Untitled Khoomei Style Untitled Sygyt Style Hykes: True to the Times Green: B A 4 Green: B A 4 Rodriguez: Voix Kourliandski: Voice-Off Brooks: Madrigals, No. 2, Bad Bottle Blues Kokoras: Hiss and Whistle Edgerton: Friedrich’s Comma Green: B A 4 Edgerton: Friedrich’s Comma Green: B A 4 Kourliandski: Voice-Off Edgerton: Mountain Songs Green: B A 4 Green: B A 4 Green: B A 4 Green: B A 4 Price: A Play on Words Two Voiced Sources Voiced and Unvoiced Sources Two Unvoiced Sources Untitled, Chant-like Falsetto Chant by Unamunos Quorum Ingressive Chant Minton: Untitled Bijma: Why? Bye! Homler: Signals

Recordings

Track 7.10 Track 7.11 Track 7.12 Track 7.13 Track 7.14 Track 7.15 Track 7.16 Track 7.17 Track 7.18 Track 7.19 Track 7.20 Track 7.21 Track 7.22 Track 7.23 Track 7.24 Track 7.25 Track 7.26 Track 7.27 Track 7.28 Track 7.29 Track 7.30 Track 8.1 Track 8.2 Track 8.3 Track 8.4 Track 8.5 Track 8.6 Track 9.1 Track 9.2 Track 9.3 Track 9.4 Track 9.5 Track 9.6 Track 9.7 Track 9.8 Track 9.9

Moss + Minton: Helden Tenors Blonk: Facial: Sabb Miranda: La Voz Cantante Namtchylak: White Food Neubauer: Untitled Biphonation, As Shown in Figures 7.12 and 7.13 v.f. + gsub Multiphonic, Followed by gsub Alone, Followed by v.f. + gsub Multiphonic Followed by v.f. Alone Blonk: Lautgedicht (Supraglottal with Voice) Hadzajlic: Freezing Moon Edgerton: Cataphora Edgerton: A Marriage of Shadows London: Psalm of These Days II London: Psalm of These Days II London: Psalm of These Days II Examples from B.01 through B.14 (Voiced and Unvoiced Multiphonics) Edgerton: Anaphora Edgerton: Anaphora Edgerton: Anaphora Examples C.01–C.23 (Unvoiced and Unvoiced Multiphonics) Examples D.01–D.21 (Three or More Perceived Tones) Edgerton: Anaphora Namtchylak: Lost Rivers Hadzajlic: Freezing Moon Blonk: Geen Krimp IV Edgerton: The Hidden Thunder of Screaming Souls Edgerton: Anaphora Stäbler: Drüber Edgerton: aka Taffy Twisters Kourliandski: Voice-Off Rodriguez: Voix Johnson: A general interrupter to ongoing activity Edgerton: A Marriage of Shadows Edgerton: Anaphora Dharmoo: Vaai Irandu Edgerton: Friedrich’s Comma Green: B A 4

xxi

Permissions

SCORES Baldwin, Michael. Various Terrains. Self-published manuscript, 2011. Brooks, William. Madrigals. Frog Peak Music, 1982. ———. Tracce. Self-published manuscript, 2013. Cassidy, Aaron. A Painter of Figures in Rooms. Self-published manuscript, 2012. Dehaan, Daniel R. Three Études for Solo Voice. Self-published manuscript, 2010. Dharmoo, Gabriel. Vaai Irandu. Self-published manuscript, 2009. Edgerton, Michael Edward. Anaphora. BabelScores®, 2001. ———. Cataphora. Self-published manuscript, 2009. ———. Friedrich’s Comma. BabelScores®, 1999. ———. The Hidden Thunder of Screaming Souls. Self-published manuscript, 1989. ———. Keltainen huone. BabelScores®, 2008. ———. Kut. Self-published manuscript, 2002. ———. A Marriage of Shadows. BabelScores®, 2008. ———. prāna. Self-published manuscript, 2002. ———. Taffy Twisters. C. P. Press Publications, 1998. Einbond, Aaron. Without Words, 2012. © 2014 Edition Gravis Verlag GmbH, Brühl, Germany. Printed with kind permission. Geyer, Leo. Sedna. Self-published manuscript, 2011. Green, Anthony. B A 4. Rashonn Music Resource Plus, 2013. Hadzajlic, Hanan. Freezing Moon. Self-published manuscript, 2012. Harizanos, Nickos. The Bells. Self-published manuscript, 2012. Holmqvist, Kay. Liquid Structures. Self-published manuscript, 2012. Hopson, Holland. Nine Tas. Creative Commons, 1994, 2008. Johnson, Evan. A general interrupter to ongoing activity. Self-published manuscript, 2011. Khubeev, Alexander. Noir. Self-published manuscript, 2010. Kokoras, Panayiotis. Hiss and Whistle. Self-published manuscript, 2013. Kourliandski, Dmitri. Voice-Off. Editions Jobert, 2008. Olson, Tawnie. Le Revenant. Self-published manuscript, 2011. Price, William. A Play on Words. Self-published manuscript, 1997. Rodriguez, Mauricio. Voix. Self-published manuscript, 2005.

IMAGES Figures 3.4a and 3.4b. The pictures titled Esophageal Speech on an Outgoing Stream of Air and Speech Using an Artificial Larynx courtesy of InHealth Technologies (http://www.inhealth.com). Figures 5.5, 5.6, and 5.7. “The International Phonetic Alphabet (2005)” licensed under Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 via Wikimedia Commons, http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:IPA_chart_2005_png.svg#mediaviewer/File:IPA_ chart_2005_png.svg. Figures 5.13b and 5.13c. Complex Filters from On Sonic Art by Trevor Wishart, 1984. xxiii

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Figure 5.37. Videofluroscopic images titled Method One, Low Harmonic and High Harmonic and Method Two, Low Harmonic and High Harmonic; subject, Bernard Dubreuil; radiologist, Margaret Fagerholm; principle investigator, Michael Edward Edgerton. Figure 5.38a. Videofluroscopic image titled Method Three, Low Harmonic and High Harmonic; subject, Rollin Rachele; radiologist, Margaret Fagerholm; principle investigator, Michael Edward Edgerton. Figure 5.38b. Videofluroscopic image titled Method Four, Low Harmonic and High Harmonic; subject, David Hykes; radiologist, Margaret Fagerholm; principle investigator, Michael Edward Edgerton. Figures 6.3, 6.4, and 6.5. “The International Phonetic Alphabet (2005)” licensed under Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 via Wikimedia Commons, http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:IPA_chart_2005_png.svg#mediaviewer/File:IPA_ chart_2005_png.svg. Figure 7.7. Views of Double Source Featuring Asymmetrical Vocal Fold Oscillation from “Sketches of vocal folds during their subharmonic vibratory cycle. Sketches 22–28 show the creation of the ‘ripple’ in the second open phase” from Jan G. Švec’s “On Vibration Properties of Human Vocal Folds: Voice Registers, Bifurcations, Resonance Characteristics, Development and Application of Videokymography,” thesis at the University of Groningen, the Netherlands, © 2000 Jan Švec, Olomouc, the Czech Republic. Figures A.17, A.18, and A.19. The spectrograms Period Doubling Attractor or Subharmonics; Biphonation, or Two Independent Frequencies; Sequence Featuring Limit Cycle Followed by Chaos, Then Period Doubling, Chaos, Limit Cycle, Chaos, Period Doubling and Chaos from M. E. Edgerton, J. Neubauer, and H. Herzel, “Nonlinear Phenomena in Contemporary Musical Composition and Performance,” Perspectives of New Music 41, no. 2 (2003): 30–65. Original material (artwork, line art, spectrograms, etc.) in figures 1.6, 1.25, 2.4, 2.11, 2.13, 2.15, 2.17, 2.18, 2.19, 2.22, 3.1, 4.2, 4.4, 4.10, 4.14, 4.15, 5.11, 5.12, 5.13a, 5.16, 5.17, 5.18, 5.20, 5.21, 5.23, 5.29, 5.30, 5.34, 5.35, 5.36, 6.8, 6.12, 6.14, 6.16, 6.18, 6.19, 6.20, 6.25, 6.27, 6.29, 6.31, 6.32, 6.33, 6.35, 6.36, 7.1, 7.2, 7.3, 7.5, 7.6, 7.11, 7.12, 7.13, 7.21, 7.30, 7.31, 9.6, A.11, A.12, A.14, and A.16 by the author. Newly composed musical material in figures 1.7, 1.8, 1.12, 1.13, 1.14, 1.16, 1.17, 1.20, 1.21, 1.22, 1.23, 1.24, 1.26, 2.9, 2.12, 4.3, 4.8, 4.9, 5.19, 5.24, 5.26, 5.32, 5.39, 6.9, 7.7, 7.8, 7.9, 7.10, 7.15, 7.16, 7.18, 7.22, 7.23, 7.24, 7.25, 7.26, 7.28, 7.37, 7.38, 7.40, 7.41, 7.42, 7.43, 7.45, 7.47, 7.48, 7.49, 7.50, 7.51, 7.52, 7.53, 7.54, 7.55, 7.57, 7.58, 7.59, 7.60, 7.61, 7.62, and A.8 by the author. Adapted by the author from other sources in figures 4.6, 5.8, 7.4, 7.27, A.1, A.2, A.3, A.4, A.5, A.6, A.7, A.9, A.10, A.13, and A.15.

RECORDINGS Anonymous. Esophageal Speech, sample provided by Philip C. Doyle, PhD, Voice Production and Perception Laboratory, School of Communication Sciences and Disorders, the University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, Canada. Bijma, Greetje. Why? Bye! Performed by Greetje Bijme, Intakt. Blonk, Jaap. Facial: Sabb. Performed by Jaap Blonk, Staalplaat. ———. Geen Krimp II. Performed by Jaap Blonk, Staalplaat. ———. Geen Krimp IV. Performed by Jaap Blonk, Staalplaat. ———. Kolokol Uma. Performed by Jaap Blonk, Staalplaat. ———. Lautgedicht. Performed by Jaap Blonk, Staalplaat. Brooks, William. Madrigals. Performed by Electric Phoenix, Wergo Records. Christi, Ellen. Passage to Womanhood. Performed by Ellen Christi, Network Records. Dharmoo, Gabriel. Vaai Irandu. Performed by Michèle Motard, self-published recording. Dutton, Paul. Ummm. Performed by Paul Dutton, unpublished recording. Edgerton, Michael Edward. Anaphora. Performed by Almut Kuehne, self-published recording. ———. Anaphora. Performed by Rebekka Uhlig, self-published recording. ———. Cataphora. Performed by Jan Heinke, self-published recording. ———. Friedrich’s Comma. Performed by Angela Rademacher and Hanno Koloska, self-published recording. ———. The Hidden Thunder of Screaming Souls. Performed by Patricia Repar and Claudia Watson, self-published recording. ———. Keltainen huone. Performed by Merle Noir, self-published recording. ———. A Marriage of Shadows. Performed by Angela Rademacher-Wingerath and ensemble Ars Nova. ———.prāna. Performed by Liina Ockenström, Marjo Pääkkönen, Teija Kormilainen, Salla Seppä, unpublished recording. ———. Taffy Twisters (a.k.a., Cantor’s Dust). Performed by Rebekka Uhlig, SPHN Galerie. Geyer, Leo. Sedna. Performed by Manchester University Vocal Trio, self-published recording. Globokar, Vinko. Airs de voyage vers l’intérieur. Performed by Atelier Schola Cantorum Stuttgart (director Clytus Gottwald), Bayer Records. Green, Anthony. B A 4. Performed by Bly and Lisbeth Sonne, self-published recording. Hadzajlic, Hanan. Freezing Moon. Halvorsen, Arne. Unvoiced and Unvoiced Multiphonic (track 7.28). Performed by Arne Halvorsen, self-published recording. Harizanos, Nickos. The Bells. Performed by Elisabeth Kaiser, self-published recording.

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Homler, Anna. Signals. Performed by Anna Homler, Intakt. Hopson, Holland. Nine Tas. Performed by Merle Noir, self-published recording. Hykes, David. True to the Times. Performed by David Hykes, New Albion Records. Johnson, Evan. A general interrupter to ongoing activity. Performed by Carl Rosman, self-published recording. Khubeev, Alexander. Noir. Performed by Ensemble Aleph. Kokoras, Panayiotis. Hiss and Whistle. Performed by Ensemble Holophony Project. Kourliandski, Dmitri. Voice-Off. Performed by Natalia Pschenitschnikova, self-published recording. London, Edwin. Psalm of These Days II. Performed by the Extended Vocal Techniques Ensemble of the University of California, San Diego, CRI. Minton, Phil. Untitled. Performed by Phil Minton, self-published recording. Minton, Phil, and David Moss. Groan Men. Performed by Phil Minton and David Moss, Intakt. Miranda, Fatima. in Principio. Performed by Fatima Miranda, Unió Músics. ———. La Voz Cantante. Performed by Fatima Miranda, Unió Músics. Moss, David, and Phil Minton. Helden Tenors. Performed by David Moss and Phil Minton, Intakt. Namtchylak, Sainkho. Lost Rivers. Performed by Sainkho Namtchylak, Free Music Production Publishing. ———. Night Birds. Performed by Sainkho Namtchylak, Free Music Production Publishing. ———. White Food. Performed by Sainkho Namtchylak, Free Music Production Publishing. Neubauer, Jürgen. Untitled. Performed by Jürgen Nuebauer, self-published recording. Olson, Tawnie. Le Revenant. Performed by Stacie Dunlop and Krista Vincent, self-published recording. Ovcharenko, Halyna. Invocation of Rain. Performed by the Ukranian State Broadcasting Corporation, self-published recording. Price, William. A Play on Words. Performed by Thomas Couvillon, John Crabtree, John Endicott, and Aaron Johnson, voice; Alison McCubbin, soprano; and William Price, conductor. Quorum, Unamunos. Falsetto chant from Centipede’s Progress. Performed by Unamunos Quorum, Footloose Productions. Rodriguez, Mauricio. Voix. Performed by Fondation Royaumont, Voix Nouvelles, Les Jeunes Solistes de Royaumont, Céline Boucard (soprano), Julie Mauchamps (mezzo), Jean-Christophe Jacques (baritone), and Rachid Safir (conductor). Schipper, Elke. Frequenzgang III. Performed by Elke Schipper, Gertraud Verlag. Schnebel, Dieter. !Madrasha. Performed by Atelier Schola Cantorum Stuttgart (director Clytus Gottwald), Bayer Records. Stäbler, Gerhard. Drüber. Performed by Bärbel Boginski, Willi Lieverscheidt, Jürgen Lösche, Gabriele Müller, Gerhard Stäbler, Johannes Vetter, Gerd Zacher, Rainer Zillhardt, and Wilhelm Schulz, Edition EarPort. Tran Quang Hai. Low Normal Modes. Performed by Tran-Quang Hai, self-published recording. Ward, Paul. Biphonation, as Shown in Figures 7.12, 7.13, from the film Diplophonia by Paul H. Ward, Ronald Goldman, Jay Sanders, and Paul Moore, Division of Otolaryngology and the Bill Wilkerson Hearing and Speech Center at Vanderbilt University School of Medicine in Nashville, Tennessee. Wishart, Trevor. Vocalize. Performed by Trevor Wishart, Paradigm Records. ———. Vox III. Performed by Electric Phoenix, Wergo. Xovalyg, Kaigal-ool. Untitled Chant-Like. Performed by Kaigal-ool Xovalyg, University of Wisconsin. ———. Untitled Kargyraa style. Performed by Kaigal-ool Xovalyg, University of Wisconsin. ———. Untitled Khoomei Style. Performed by Kaigal-ool Xovalyg, University of Wisconsin. ———. Untitled Sygyt Style. Performed by Kaigal-ool Xovalyg, University of Wisconsin. Zender, Hans. Fragmente (Canto V). Performed by Atelier Schola Cantorum Stuttgart (director Clytus Gottwald), Bayer Records. Excerpts recorded by the author: Tracks 1.4, 1.5, 2.2, 2.3, 2.4, 2.5, 2.6, 2.11, 2.13, 5.5, 5.6, 5.10, 7.1, 7.2, 7.3, 7.16, 7.24, 7.28, and 7.29.

Preface to the First Edition

A historical presentation of extra-normal voice is exceedingly complicated and lengthy, for it would not only include western experimental processes, beginning mainly in the mid-1950s (although at various times the Sumerian hymn [–800 B.C.], Grecian odes [600 B.C.], Judaic responsorial and antiphonal psalms [+500 B.C.], Christian plainchant [A.D.], organum [9th century], Ars Nova [14th century], and later the nuove musiche of the baroque would have been thought to be radical developments in their own day), but also nonwestern music and nonlinguistic verbal utterance. To be clear, a historical examination is neither my specialty nor a particularly strong interest. Rather my interests are with composition, and therefore this book is designed to serve creative, explorative activity that is nonetheless historically and globally aware. As a result, this book presents a framework for further vocal sound exploration and not a retelling of the distant or near past. Beginning in the late 1950s, such composers as Dieter Schnebel, Luciano Berio, John Eaton, Giacinto Scelsi, Gyorgy Ligeti, Kenneth Gaburo, Pauline Oliveros, Sylvano Bussotti, Robert Erickson, and Mauricio Kagel began to explore the production and organization of nonstandard vocal music. Perhaps because much of this new art represented attacks on the forms and concepts of modernism through the emphasis of antinarrative, isolation, incoherency, and the physical body as theatrical marker, most of this work did not attempt to utilize extensions of technique systematically. This is completely understandable, for unlike instruments the human voice cannot very easily be taken apart and put back together. Because of the lack of standardized fingering charts for vocal sound production within the larynx, most composers attempted to explore performance technique and expression through phonetically based articulatory procedures or, to a far lesser degree, through the combination of multiple vocal sound sources, combining primarily harmonic with inharmonic input, or less with special phenomenon, such as subharmonics or overtone singing. For many, these results were thrilling and fine, but as such, they often resembled a series of nonscalable novelties that often found little perceptual density necessary to experience the multiple layers during repeated hearings of interesting work. As a result, the era of extended vocal techniques came to a screeching end sometime during the late 1970s or so. Today, in the early twenty-first century, this book proposes to lay out the structural foundations that underlay decoupled and scaled multidimensional phase spaces of voice. It is this author’s contention that continued artistic exploration could be achieved by decoupling select robust parameters involved in the production of sound. This is a demanding conception that has its basis in the nonlinear dynamical world of many, if not all, natural phenomena. A simplified way to conceive of nonlinearities in a system is that, under certain conditions, a small change of one parameter may produce large changes in the output (i.e., a butterfly flapping its wings in Brazil causes the ice storm in Berlin), while conversely a large parameter change may produce small or no changes to the output of a system. For performers, this may mean having to relearn their instruments. At output, these methods often produce extra-complex sonorities (nonlinear and transient phenomena) that incidentally offer the possibility of increasing redundancy across the multidimensional phase space of sound production. Then, depending upon the density of redundancy, a more tightly knit structure may be perceived as a positive value. Several publications have documented the extended technique movement in different ways and include On Sonic Art by Trevor Wishart (1984) and Alternative Voices by Istvan Anhalt (1984). Further literature includes master’s or doctoral theses “Writing for Singers in the Sixties” by R. M. Newell at the University of California–San Diego (1970), “Aspects of Vocal Multiphonics” by Bonnie Barnett at the University of California–San Diego (1972), “Aspects Involving the Performance of Contemporary Vocal Music” by A. M. Chase at the University of California–San Diego (1975), “An xxvii

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Introduction to Extended Vocal Techniques: Some Compositional Aspects and Performance Problems” by Deborah Kavasch at the University of California–San Diego (1980), and “Emphasizing the Articulatory and Timbral Aspects of Vocal Production in Vocal Composition” by E. M. Clark at the University of Illinois (1985). Last, a recent introductory book to extended vocal techniques is titled Exploring Twentieth-Century Vocal Music: A Practical Guide to Innovations in Performance and Repertoire by Sharon Mabry. This book is the result of an invitation I received in 1995 from Barney Childs and Phillip Rehfeldt to contribute a text discussing voice for the New Instrumentation series, then at the University of California Press. Immediately, it was clear that the voice as an instrument with no buttons, levers, or keys presents particular difficulties when discussing extra-normal behaviors that are not based upon loosely fitting metaphor. As a result a decision was made to organize the presentation within a bioacoustical framework that would attempt to communicate quantifiable information to a large readership with diverse interests. As might be expected, such an approach is necessarily interdisciplinary and requires information to be drawn from music, acoustics, voice science, linguistics, ethnography, engineering, and physics. I am especially indebted to Dr. William Brooks for his sustained encouragement and support, beginning well before this project and continuing through today. In 1995, I was living in Redlands, California, and had already begun to work with voices in a manner that was influenced by voice physiology and acoustics. To my benefit, the editors of the University of California Press, New Instrumentation series, were looking to complete the series, and it was at this time that they saw my work with voice and invited me to contribute this book on voice. Therefore, to Barney Childs, Phillip Rehfeldt, and Bert Turetzky I am especially indebted. Much of the scientific framework upon which this book rests was gathered during a three-year postdoctoral fellowship with the National Center for Voice and Speech, Ingo Titze, director. My postdoctoral mentor was Dr. Diane Bless, an otolaryngologist at the University of Wisconsin Hospitals and Clinics, Waisman Center, who fully supported financially and intellectually the interdisciplinary nature of voice research. To both Dr. Bless and Dr. Titze I am especially indebted. In 1984, Trevor Wishart self-published On Sonic Art, in my view the most relevant text preceding The 21st-Century Voice, and until now it is the only systematic treatment that presents acoustical and physiological information in the service of a presentation designed to offer a pragmatic approach to explorative vocal artistic practice. In this way, I am especially indebted to Trevor Wishart. Numerous scholars and artists from different descriptions have encouraged this project and offered helpful suggestions. Others have suggested areas of exploration or have offered materials supporting the examination of potentials. In particular I would like to thank Hanna Auerbacher, Bonnie Barnett, David Berry, Jaap Blonk, Paul Dutton, Margaret Fagerholm, Clytus Gottwald, Ed Harkins, Folkmar Hein, Hanspeter Herzel, Deborah Kavasch, Ray Kent, Aliaa Khidr, Phil Larson, Ted Levin, Ewald Liska, Paul Malenkovich, Roger Marsh, Phil Minton, Meredith Monk, David Moss, Juergen Neubauer, Carol Plantamura, Martin Riches, Xavier Rodet, Owe Ronstrom, Nelson Roy, Dieter Schnebel, Gerhard Stäbler, Brad Story, Johann Sundberg, Jan Švec, Steve Tasko, Tran Quang Hai, Susan Thibeault, Rebekka Uhlig, and Gary Weismer. Next, I would like to acknowledge those who have provided critical advice or assistance with other matters supplemental to this book, without whom the text could not have been written. They include Ramon Anthin, Herbert Brün, Bruce Campbell, Kristy Cheadle, Jesper Elen, Joel Eriksson, Tecumseh Fitch, John Fonville, Kenneth Gaburo, Carol Hobson, Jere Hutcheson, Jarmo Kähkönen, Cheong-Mook Kim, Helmut Lachenmann, George Lewis, Ed London, Frank Mueller, Jae-Sung Park, Morgan Powell, Miller Puckett, Greg Smith, Keychun Song, Mark Sullivan, Gary Verkade, and August Wegner. Finally, thanks to Bruce Philips, Nicole Carty, Sam Grammer, Melissa Ray, and Jeff Wolf at Scarecrow Press for their roles in helping to complete this project. Naturally, all mistakes and misunderstandings are my own.

Preface to the Second Edition

The year 2014 is a hopeful time for new vocal music. A fragmented cultural economy and the decline in importance of massive score and recording publishers are forcing creative artists to turn to less established ways to promote their work. In turn, without the controlling hand of dominant cultural authorities, large segments of artists are beginning to push boundaries in ways that resemble a time past in which experimentation was seen as a natural course of events in a healthy cultural landscape. This seems especially true in large cities, where small venues of experimentation operate for a few weeks and then disappear. The idea, of course, is not to sell to the masses or even to the small market of classical music consumers but simply to continue the time-mandated inquiry into “What’s next?” These experiments of course are multifaceted, but one development seems to stand apart from the others. Based on increasing technical sophistication, this trend involves an increasing microscopic investigation of sound. For example, in the composition Voice-Off by Dmitri Kourliandski, mostly unvoiced sounds produced within the oral cavity are made not only audible but also prominent through the use of close microphone placement. Such techniques enhance source production within the vocal tract so dental stops, salival fricatives, and air timbres become prominent; they also project and make audible the resonant environment inside the mouth. Another trend is the exploration of vocal fold asymmetries by various vocalists. Vocal improvisers dominate these explorations, although a growing number of new music vocalists are becoming acquainted with such aesthetics and techniques. In my composition Anaphora, I ask the vocalist to produce the illusive glottal whistle (M4). To my knowledge, this technique (seen only in the domain of vocal improvisers) consists of a whistle-like sound produced deep in the throat, and its profile often consists of two or more time-varying frequency contours in a single face. Since performances of Anaphora by Rebekka Uhlig, Angela Rademacher-Wingerath, and Almut Kühne, I have begun to notice more singers using this fascinating and strange sonority. Chapter 9 presents the issues of multidimensionality via desynchronized and scaled networks. For me, this is less an issue of compositional complexity and more designed to explore the dynamical basis of sound production based on the intended use of bifurcations between different sound classes. The contexts this applies to are many and do not presume any sort of aesthetic preference. Examples of this type of multiparametric decoupling can be heard in limited guises in pop and jazz, as well as in serious, new music. Since the first edition of this book, I’ve continued to explore voice throughout Europe with dedicated professional vocalists as well as amateur singers and children. Then in 2012, this study continued with a major change of venue when I accepted the position of associate professor at the University of Malaya in Kuala Lumpur, where I have been conducting Merle Noir, a vocal group focused on contemporary voice. For this second edition, I thank Bennett Graff and Monica Savaglia at Rowman & Littlefield for their roles in helping to complete this project. Naturally, all mistakes and misunderstandings are my own. In this second edition, audio samples identified in each chapter can be found at the publisher’s website, https:// rowman.com/ISBN/9780810888401, under the “Features” tab. Additionally, videos associated with each chapter can be found on a YouTube channel titled “The 21st-Century Voice,” under the “Playlists” tab, at http://www.youtube .com/channel/UCff1EskPTb_leIh7slQrIAQ/playlists.

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This second edition continues the exploration of voice within an anatomical and acoustical framework. The new book retains the same fundamental structure as the first but adds new methods for training the extra-normal voice. Additionally, I improved the musical examples with the intention of fleshing out and adding perspective to the composition and performance of the 21st-century voice. The book no longer includes a CD; instead, audio samples are available on the Rowman & Littlefield website at https://rowman.com/ISBN/9780810888401, under the “Features” tab. These examples are supplemented by an expanding list of videos at the YouTube channel “The 21st-Century Voice,” under the “Playlist” tab, at http://www.youtube.com/channel/UCff1EskPTb_leIh7slQrIAQ/playlists. I have replaced chapters 9 (interface) and 10 (context) from the first edition with a discussion of multidimensional voice that focuses on the possibility of unlocking dynamical bifurcations among sound categories rather than any specific aesthetic intent.

FOUNDATIONS The classical acoustic theory of speech production is an appropriate framework to discuss contemporary vocal techniques. This theory suggests that voiced sounds are produced by a wavelike motion of the vocal folds that chops up a mostly outgoing airstream, resulting in a series of air pulsations. These pulses carry an acoustically complex tone with a fundamental frequency and associated harmonic spectrum. This disturbance to the airflow is known as a sound source, which passes through the upper vocal tract to be shaped by the properties of the resonant environment. Associated with the resonant properties of the vocal tract is articulation, or the movement of the lips, jaw, tongue, velum, and so on. The movement of the articulators acts as a filter on the outward (or inward) airflow, which imposes a passive filter, and features dominant regions of resonant energy separated by low-amplitude valleys between the peaks. Normally in speech and song, the first three or four formants are considered perceptually relevant.

AIR Air pressure is the driving force of speech and song. For egressive (outward) phonation, the volume of the air in the lungs is slightly decreased as air is sent upward into the subglottal, glottal, and supraglottal regions. In the subglottal region, an excess of air is built up in order to send a stream of air through the glottis. Typical subglottal air pressure varies a moderate amount for speech, while during singing the variation can be extensive. During speech, the variation is so small that it is considered to be negligible, while during singing the pressure variation can affect pitch and dynamic articulation, resulting in an error of fundamental frequency (singing out of tune) or inaccurate pressure pulsation during staccato or marcato passages. In chapter 1, the property of air as an explicitly emphasized perceptual component is discussed in the following ways: (1) direction of airflow, (2) lunged or unlunged airflow, and (3) air as prominent inharmonic sonority.

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SOURCE A source refers to the acoustic disturbance within an environment, such as a percussive strike of a mallet to a drumhead or the oscillation of paired vocal folds. The human voice source features wide variations of fundamental frequency, each with many overtones (or harmonics). The fundamental frequency (F0) is determined by the length and vibrating mass of the vocal folds so that long, thin folds produce high pitches, while short, fat folds produce low pitches. The cricthyroid and the thyroarytenoid muscles, in particular, control these properties. At a normal intensity, the spectrum typically decreases at about 12 dB/octave. When the intensity is increased, the slope of the spectral amplitude curve is decreased, and the higher overtones increase in energy. Loudness is determined by a coupling of the voice source with subglottal air pressure. With all other factors remaining constant, a rise in subglottal pressure will raise the frequency of the voice source a few hertz. However, musically, a crescendo (increase of intensity) may require that the voice source remains at a constant (or decreasing) pitch. In other words, to stay in tune, a singer needs to reduce the activation of the laryngeal muscles that regulate F0 while increasing air pressure. The mode of phonation affects both the timbre (and quality) and register of the voice source. Vocal timbre often is classified as pressed, breathy, or flow phonation. These differences occur through a change of adduction (average percentage of closing phase of one glottal cycle). An increased percentage of adduction results in a reduction of amplitude that sounds pressed, or tense, strained, or strangled. At the opposite extreme, a reduced percentage of adduction, in which loosely adducted folds nearly fail to close the glottis, results in breathy phonation. Between these two extremes is a quality known as flow phonation, which features a clear closed phase and high peak amplitude with a strong fundamental voice source. In addition to timbre, the mode of phonation affects the voice register. In the male voice, there are at least three registers: (1) vocal fry (pulse), (2) chest (modal), and (3) falsetto (loft). In vocal fry, the vocal folds are thick and lax and appear to produce air pulsations that are equally spaced or that appear in groups of pulses separated by pauses. The F0 of glottal pulses occurs as a change of mode at a pitch lower than what is normally considered to be voiced phonation— often well below 100 Hz. During chest register, the folds are less lax while the glottal pulses are more regular, with a long closing phase (more than 50 percent). In falsetto, the vocal folds are stretched thin and feature incomplete glottal closure. Though less clear, it is assumed that female voices use both the modal and loft registers. The 21st-Century Voice devotes chapters 2 through 4 to how source characteristics can explicitly heighten vocal potential. Chapter 2 discusses source, laryngeal manipulation, unvoiced to barely voiced, voiced, onset to offset, breathiness, vocal fry, low damped phonation, open-to-close ratio manipulation, pressed to loose, wide vibrato/ tremolo, asymmetries, and glottal whistle. Chapter 3 discusses other laryngeal or near-laryngeal issues, including supraglottal, subglottal, and esophageal phonation. Chapter 4 discusses issues related to register, including oscillation, color (timbre), unusual tessitura, emphasis of shifting mechanism, and glissandi.

ARTICULATION/RESONANCE Fundamentally, the voice source may be characterized as separate from the vocal tract because the mode of oscillation is not affected by changes in articulation. This category of articulation and resonance represents two different but connected principles that comprise chapters 5 (“Filtering”) and 6 (“Turbulent to Absolute Airflow Modification”). Articulation refers to movement of the tongue, lips, jaw, soft palate, and so on during speech and song. Resonance refers to the inherent acoustic properties that the vocal tract assumes at every moment. An important acoustic property of the resonant environment of the vocal tract is seen in the configuration of the regions of high and low acoustic pressure. These regions of high pressure are known as formant frequencies and are seen as high-amplitude frequency peaks within a frequency-to-amplitude spectrum envelope plot. The frequencies of these resonant peaks depend on the length of a tube (vocal tract) and its configuration (articulation). The length of the vocal tract influences formant frequencies; longer tracts feature, on average, lower formant frequencies, so that males generally have lower formant frequencies than females, while tenors feature somewhat higher formant frequencies than basses. This length differential prominently figures into the perception of voice quality. Voice source may be considered separate from vocal tract. Two examples may illuminate the principle: First, produce the vowel /i/ on any pitch, and then change the vowel from /i/ to /o/ while retaining the same F0. Second, exchange the behaviors; choose a low F0 on the vowel /i/. While retaining the vowel /i/, move the F0 from a low pitch to a higher one

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and then back to the previous low pitch. What both examples have shown is that the resonant frequencies are separate from the source frequencies. In the former case, the source frequencies remain the same while the resonant frequencies shift predictably higher and lower. In the latter case, the resonant frequencies remain the same while the source frequencies move higher and lower. A phenomenon known as the singer’s formant has been well documented with the western classical singing voice. This formant provides the acoustic power to project over and through unusually loud and dynamic environments, such as an orchestra. This quality appears to boost the intensity of the voice in a region where the ear is particularly sensitive, which results in a shiny or brassy quality. Acoustically, this phenomenon is characterized by a high amplitude spectral peak in the region of 3 to 3.5 kHz. This high amplitude peak may be explained as a clustering of F3, F4, and F5. This formant cluster may be explained as a widening of the pharynx by lowering the larynx. Acoustically the lower 2 centimeters above the larynx, the laryngeal tube, is considered a separate resonator that is not much influenced by the rest of the vocal tract. When the pharynx is widened, the supraglottal resonator joins the upper vocal tract resonator. This has often been reported for opera singers or soloists in orchestral settings. Formants are often modified to increase the effect of coupling the resonant frequency F1 with the source frequency F0. However, there are cases when this coupling is avoided, such as when the value of F1, which may vary between 250 Hz and 1000 Hz, is low and the pitch is high. Then it is clear that the F0 may easily have a higher frequency than F1, which places extreme demands on the control parameters of the multidimensional parameter space. However, singers tend to avoid the situation where F0 is higher than F1; sopranos often widen their jaw opening as the pitch rises in order to tune the resonant and source frequency, which results in an increased pitch amplitude and radiated sound level. Chapters 5 and 6 explain the radical concept of composing with elements of the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) in order to heighten the complexity of resultant sound output, which carries the similar quality for instrumental sound exploration and composition in the late 1950s and through the 1960s. However, the IPA is limited in place and acoustic output based on the efficiency of the communicative act within a particular linguistic origin. Therefore, as this text is about potential for sound production, a model needed to be developed that would account for all regions and manners available for human sound production while maintaining flexibility and ease of absorption and retention. The result is the a mapping of vocal tract articulation for filter-like, turbulent, and absolute airflow modification. One further advantage of this model is that it develops an environment for the conceptualization and production of a contrapuntal complex of harmonic and inharmonic sources within one face.

HEIGHTENED POTENTIALS Chapters 7, 8, and 9 discuss heightened and special potential uses of the voice that expand upon the basic framework of air, source, resonance, and articulation. Chapter 7 presents four large categories of multiphonic source production, including (1) voiced and voiced, (2) voiced and unvoiced, (3) unvoiced and unvoiced, and (4) three or more. These categories represent the least used techniques in composed music. Not surprisingly, these techniques are more regularly heard in performances by experimental vocal improvisers (e.g., Stratos, Minton, Blonk) than in performances of contemporary composed music. In addition to the recordings of chapter 7, a few of the recordings of chapter 2 present other multiphonic productions. Chapter 8 presents the nasty issue of pushing the instrument to an extreme. This is a delicate issue, and after the presentation of three different emphases (complex and unstable oscillation, forced blown, and rasp), the causes and treatments of vocal disorders are presented. Last, as many performers around the globe are willing to pursue such behaviors, it is warranted that a method for training hygienic extreme vocal production is presented. Chapter 9 presents a discussion of the multidimensional voice focused on bioacoustic diversity that occurs when any one sound production element is desynchronized from the ordinary. These procedures have been understood since the 1990s in reference to bioacoustics and pathological voice but have been slow in gaining any foothold in musical thought. The basic premise is that each parameter involved in sound production by instruments or voices can be shifted away from normal, which produces a corresponding change in sound quality or even class. Then, further, each parameter can be scaled between minimal and maximal values, which not only produces changes of sound but also offers the potential for intelligently composing ratios of relatedness ranging from closely related to distantly and even nonrelated. There is a growing number of composers and performers who are exploring these notions, and I present a diverse sampling of such methods. To be clear, I do not propose that these methods imply an adherence to some notion of complexity but, rather simply, a decoupling of one or more elements from normal, no matter its context.

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Introduction

ENDING MATERIAL Also included are appendixes A (“Voice Science”), B (“Glossary”), and C (“Representative Compositions”). This is a book about potential based on a comprehensive biomechanical network of vocal sound production. In this light, it is necessary to separate instrumental possibilities from current fashionable trends of form, technique, context, and philosophy. This book does not consist of a historical survey but is an active continuation of exploration. Of course, the text offers brief insights into western, contemporary vocal traditions but importantly suggests that “extended” vocal techniques, while often thrilling, left little room for integral and developed compositional work. Artistic freedom and responsibility is a shifting and subjective paradigm. Readers will bring personal emotions, acquired traditions, and social networks into their views of sound and its organization. Therefore, and most importantly, this book is intended as a pragmatic tool for exploration, presenting a clear and concise framework into which all possible means of sound production can be placed. New and extended methods of production and conceptualization are presented so a higher functionality can be enjoyed from this most inherently nonlinear instrument of musical expression—the human voice.

SUGGESTED READINGS AND REFERENCES Anhalt, I. Alternative Voices. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1984. Aurbacher-Liska, H. The Voice in New Music. Wilhelmshaven, Germany: Florian Noetzel Verlag, 2007. Bartolozzi, B. Metodo per Oboe. Milan: Edizioni Suvini Zerboni, 1969. ———. New Sounds for Woodwinds. London: Oxford University Press, 1967. Chase, A. M. “Aspects Involving the Performance of Contemporary Vocal Music.” Master’s thesis, University of California–San Diego, 1975. Dempster, S. The Modern Trombone. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1975. Dick, R. The Other Flute. St. Louis, MO: Multiple Breath Music Company, 1989. Edgerton, M. E., J. Neubauer, and H. Herzel. “Nonlinear Phenomena in Contemporary Musical Composition and Performance.” Perspectives of New Music 41, no. 2 (2003): 30–65. Erickson, R. Sound Structure in Music. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1975. Erickson, R., and J. MacKay. Music of Many Means. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press, 1995. Fant, G. Acoustic Theory of Speech Production. The Hague: Mouton, 1960. Gottwald, C. Hallelujah und die Theorie des Kommunikativen Handelns. Stuttgart, Germany: Klett-Cotta, 1998. Hein, F., ed. Musik und Sprache. Berlin: Akademie der Künste, 1986. Howell, T. The Contemporary Flute. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1972. Jensen, K. “Extensions of Mind and Voice.” Composer 2 (1979): 13–17. Kavasch, D. An Introduction to Extended Vocal Techniques: Some Compositional Aspects and Performance Problems. Reports from the Center for Music Experiment at the University of California, San Diego, vol. 1, no. 2. La Jolla, CA: Center for Music Experiment, 1980. Kent, R., and C. Read. The Acoustic Analysis of Speech. San Diego: Singular, 1992. Kientzy, D. Les sons multiples aux saxophones. Paris: Éditions Salabert, 1981. Large, J., and T. Murry. “Studies of Extended Vocal Techniques: Safety.” NATS Bulletin 34 (1978): 30–33. Linklater, K. Freeing the Natural Voice. New York: DBS, 1976. Liska-Aurbacher, H. “Die Stimme kann mehr als singen und sprechen.” Musik und Kirche, Zeitschrift für Kirchenmusik 4 (2000): 218. Neil, L. A. Writing for the Pedal Harp. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985. Newell, R. M. “Writing for Singers in the Sixties.” D.M.A. thesis, University of California–San Diego, 1970. Peyser, J. 20th Century Music. New York: Schirmer Books, 1971. Raphael, B. “Dancing on Shifting Ground: Voice Coaching in Professional Theater.” Voice and Speech Review (2000): 165–70. Rehfeldt, P. R. New Directions for Clarinet. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1978. Schnebel, D. “Sprech- und Gesangsschule.” Melos 4 (1972): 198–206. Schneider, J. The Contemporary Guitar. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1982. Shere, C. Thinking Sound Music. Berkeley, CA: Fallen Leaf Press, 1995. Strange, P., and A. Strange. The Contemporary Violin: Extended Performance Techniques. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001. Sundberg, J. Science of the Singing Voice. DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 1987. Titze, I. R. Principles of Voice Production. Englewood Cliffs, CA: Prentice Hall, 1994. Turetzky, B. The Contemporary Contrabass. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1974. Wishart, T. The Book of Lost Voices. York, UK: Philip Martin, 1979. ———. “The Composers View: Extended Vocal Technique.” Musical Times 5 (1980): 313–14. ———. On Sonic Art. London: Gordon and Breach, 1983.

I

AIRFLOW

Chapter One

Airflow

Breath is the basis of speech and song. During expiration, the amount of air in the lungs lowers until inspiration occurs. The breath cycle begins when air pressure rises, which helps to open the vocal folds, allowing air to pass through the glottis. During the production of speech and song, the vocal folds open and close rapidly at a rate equal to its fundamental period. Air and muscular properties (myoelastic-aerodynamic) combine to produce efficient self-sustaining oscillation of the opening and closing sequence. Airflow affects extra-normal voice production through the following categories: egressive/ingressive, lunged/unlunged, air prominent, support mechanism to affect sound in extra-normal ways, and end of breath. At the end of this chapter, I present a few pedagogical issues of breath support.

EGRESSIVE/INGRESSIVE Voice may use an outward (egressive)– or inward (ingressive)–moving airflow. In figure 1.1, the soprano and tenor alternate between ingressive and egressive airflow. The arrow pointing to the left refers to ingressive airflow; the arrow pointing to the right refers to egressive airflow.

Figure 1.1. W. Brooks.

Brooks: Madrigals, No. 4, Nellie Was a Lady. Courtesy of

Track 1.1, Brooks: Madrigals, No. 4, Nellie Was a Lady Of course, the differences between egressive and ingressive airflow can be heightened to develop effective performances. The excerpt in figure 1.2 shows how the unique properties of ingressive airflow are used dynamically.

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4

Figure 1.2.

Chapter One

Edgerton: The Hidden Thunder of Screaming Souls. Courtesy of M. Edgerton.

Track 1.2, Edgerton: The Hidden Thunder of Screaming Souls Ingressive phonation is not well understood, especially during singing. From my experience, some comparisons between egressive and ingressive phonation, relevant to composers and performers of extra-normal voice, are itemized in table 1.1. Additionally, in 2012 an important dissertation by DeBoer titled “Ingressive Phonation in Contemporary Vocal Music” was completed, and those findings are summarized beneath mine. The pedagogy of ingressive singing asks for an increased sensitivity primarily to vocal fold adductory pressure, rate and volume of airflow, dehydration, duration, and endurance. For adductory pressure, it is important to not press the voice too much and to ensure that the voice has frequent pauses to recoup. Additionally, the amount and force of incoming air needs to be trained slowly so the singer begins with small volumes and force, only increasing with increased stamina. Last, dehydration is a crucial element to monitor. Preparation is important, so drinking plenty of fluids (water) before performance will help, as well as having a sip or two during any lengthy breaks in singing. Also during singing, the shape of the lips and oral cavity helps reduce dryness by narrowing the air canal leading to the vocal folds. Lastly, the duration of ingressive singing is important, so durations are shorter on inspiration. As intensity increases, ingressive durations lessen. Endurance is an issue with ingressive singing. Generally, singers need more rests or periods of egressive phonation to balance their voices and rehydrate the vocal folds. Ingressive phonation, though seemingly not normal, is seen in some languages and performance settings. For example, the Inuit throat singing featured in a type of gambling game contains an alternation of ingressive and egressive utterances. Seemingly fascinated by these practices, Geyer references Inuit throat singing in his composition Sedna. As the composer indicates, elements of Inuit throat singing are used in this piece but in such a way that is possible for untrained throat singers to perform. In this excerpt, the crossed note asks the singer to whisper on egressive breath with a slight growl; the crossed note with a circle is an inhaled whisper. The effect is continuous breathing in and out with slight voicing (see figure 1.3). Next, in the composition Liquid Structures, Holmqvist is definitely not referencing world music practices when he asks for an ingressively produced tone. Here he is not asking for a multiphonic but rather a indistinct tone (see figure 1.4). In the excerpt from Without Words by Einbond, the vocalist sings ingressively across a wide range while using relative amounts of breathiness, pressure, and vocal fry. The singer articulates text fragments to avoid the notions of a narrative text and derive new and perhaps unintended meanings (see figure 1.5).

Table 1.1.

Egressive versus Ingressive Airflow

Action

Egressive

Ingressive

Tessitura

Narrower, more uniform

Scalar movement Pitch control

Uniform throughout range More fine-tuned control

Dynamic control

More fine-tuned control

Timbre Multiphonics

Wide diversity of timbre Depending on singer, a broad topology available

Vocal fry Breathy tones

Harder to produce, less resonant Available, though not naturally occurring except in pathology Yes Wide dynamic range Greater Efficient until overtaxed

Wider, less uniform—middle range seems inconsistent Not uniform throughout range Less fine-tuned control—can be emphasized and considered a virtue in some contexts Less fine-tuned control—can be emphasized and considered a virtue in some contexts Even wider diversity of timbre Especially for the novice, multiphonics are more accessible Easier to produce, more resonant Naturally occurring

“Normal” tones Intensity Duration Recover/rest Hydration

Unless extreme air volume is used, vocal folds will remain hydrated if singer is healthy

Yes but not as proficient Smaller dynamic range than egressive Lesser Can require longer periods than egressive to recover prephonatory posture during ingressive Even with healthy singers at moderate air volume, ingressive phonation has the potential to dehydrate relatively quickly

Findings from DeBoer 2012 Rate of airflow Pitch Closing phase, glottal cycle Vibratory cycle Larynx position Vocal folds Comprehension Subglottal pressure and flow Vibrato Loudness

Lower than ingressive Lower than ingressive Longer closed phase than ingressive Closing inferior to superior Higher than ingressive Vocal folds shorter and thicker Articulation ordinary At higher pitches, similar to ingressive At lower pitches, lower pressure and flow Occurs naturally Loudness and resonance higher

Figure 1.3.

Higher than egressive Higher than egressive Shorter closed phase than egressive Closing reversed—superior to inferior Lower than egressive Vocal folds lengthened and thinner Comprehension of consonants lower At higher pitches, similar to egressive At lower pitches, higher pressure and flow Not naturally occurring Loudness and resonance diminished

Geyer: Sedna. Courtesy of L. Geyer.

Track 1.3, Geyer: Sedna

Figure 1.4. qvist.

Holmqvist: Liquid Structures. Courtesy of K. Holm-

Chapter One

6

Figure 1.5.

Einbond: Without Words.

LUNGED/UNLUNGED Egressive airflow may be either lunged (pulmonic) or unlunged (nonpulmonic). A lunged airflow refers to air that is sent from the lungs, while an unlunged airflow uses the static air above the closed vocal folds. This classification is indebted to Trevor Wishart in his book On Sonic Art (1983), where he suggests a three-part division of lunged, half-lunged (airflow above the closed glottis), and unlunged (oral cavity) air (see figure 1.6).

Figure 1.6. Simple tube representations of lunged and unlunged airflow.

Figure 1.7 decouples airflow direction from airflow origins (lunged vs. unlunged) using an unvoiced /t/. In this excerpt, airflow direction is indicated by the arrows (to the left equals ingressive; to the right equals egressive), while origins are indicated above or below the center horizontal line.

Figure 1.7.

Excerpt featuring lunged/unlunged and change of airflow.

Another difference between lunged and unlunged airflow is that lunged airflow expels air at a far greater volume and force than unlunged sound. In language, unlunged sounds include mouth sounds (such as /t/) or those farther back in the throat (such as /x/). Of course, unlunged sounds can be ejected at a greater velocity than habitually produced consonants

Airflow

7

by using (1) pharyngeal contraction and expansion, (2) tongue movement, or (3) cheek expansion and contraction (with or without bilabial constriction or some external device, e.g., the hand). Figure 1.8 asks the singer to produce unlunged sounds at different rates of velocity with tongue and pharyngeal movement and constriction.

Figure 1.8.

Contrast of lunged and unlunged airflow with a variety of articulation.

Track 1.4, Manipulation of Articulation That Results in Different Rates of Unlunged Airflow Velocity

Track 1.5, Contrast of Lunged and Unlunged Airflow with Changing Articulation Dehaan in Three Études for Solo Voice asks the singer to transition between unlunged and lunged airflow during a sequence in which an unvoiced /ti/ transitions to an unvoiced /ta/ (see figure 1.9).

Figure 1.9.

Dehaan: Three Études for Solo Voice. Courtesy of D. Dehaan.

Similarly, Holmqvist in Liquid Structures frames the distinctions between lunged and unlunged origins with unvoiced utterances. Note how the composer indicates the relative perceptual height of the different vowels by their vertical placement on the stave (see figure 1.10).

Figure 1.10. Holmqvist: Liquid Structures. Courtesy of K. Holmqvist.

Dharmoo in Vaai Irandu asks the singer to simultaneously produce both lunged (upper line) and unlunged (lower line) material. The upper line sings the majority of sustained sounds using lunged consonants and vowels, while the lower line produces mostly unlunged consonants superimposed upon them (see figure 1.11).

Chapter One

8

Figure 1.11.

Dharmoo: Vaai Irandu. Courtesy of G. Dharmoo.

Track 1.6, Dharmoo: Vaai Irandu

AIR PROMINENT Air can be an interesting sound source and not only an origin of kinetic energy to support vocal fold acoustic disturbance. Figure 1.12 asks the singer to transition from an ordinary to a breathy tone. This excerpt indicates a duration of four pulses but practically depends on how much air is expelled during the breathy phase, as well as how much time the singer has to prepare for this gesture. A plausible sequence may involve increasing durations from three to ten seconds.

Figure 1.12.

Ordinary to breathy sound.

Figure 1.13 asks the singer to increase then decrease the perceptible amount of air using an /s/ sibilant that is filtered by a series of unvoiced vowels produced at the lips. Here we wish to develop the dynamic capability of unvoiced sounds. Try to have a consistent volume timbre during the increase and decrease of airflow.

Figure 1.13.

Crescendo/decrescendo on fricatives.

In addition to noisy sonorities, unvoiced sounds can also alter their relative height to produce, essentially, melodies. The next example shows an example of unvoiced melodies that are determined by lip and tongue movements and air volume. In this passage, the lips stay static in the /u/ position while the tongue moves between the five cardinal vowels to produce first an ascending melody, then an ascending leapfrog melody, followed by a descending leapfrog melody. Physically, the melody is associated with the frequency of the dominant resonant peak of the unvoiced vowels, which is normally F2. In this example, the lips are tuned to /u/ in order to emphasize the second formant. As in chapter 5, this articulatory strategy is beneficial for producing reinforced harmonics (see figure 1.14).

Airflow

Figure 1.14.

9

Unvoiced melodies controlled via oral cavity aperture and tongue movement.

Unvoiced melodies can be prominent and able to differentiate height quite well. In my composition Keltainen huone (Yellow Room) written for children’s choir, the voices explore predominantly unvoiced melodies. Note in this excerpt how the voices are asked to produce both rapidly articulated stops as well as sustained sibilants (see figure 1.15).

Figure 1.15.

Edgerton: Keltainen huone. Courtesy of Babel Scores.

Track 1.7, Edgerton: Keltainen huone Figure 1.16 retains a static position at the lips and inside the mouth, here focusing on dynamic changes of airflow. In this case, an unchanging and unvoiced palato-alveolar fricative /ʃ/ is filtered by a bilabial /u/, while airflow is scaled between pp (very low) and ff (very high).

Chapter One

10

Figure 1.16.

Dynamic flexibility of unvoiced production.

Figure 1.17 asks the singer to decouple intensity of airflow from intensity of vocal fold pitch. This is a difficult maneuver but possible, as the muscles of the larynx are able to asymmetrically vary both the rate and intensity of airflow and voicing. The result is that the mixture of pitch to air can be controlled and repeated by performers. This example shows how both air and pitch mixture may use separate intensity markings.

Figure 1.17.

Changing ratios of breath-to-air mixture.

Finally, in Vocalize, Trevor Wishart explores the voice as an instrument. In this example, he uses unvoiced sounds to focus on this unique vision and not simply as markers to identify phonemic or textual boundaries.

Track 1.8, Wishart: Vocalize SUPPORT MECHANISM TO AFFECT SOUND IN EXTRA-NORMAL WAYS The abdomen and diaphragm, along with other elements of the support system, have the potential to render a normal sound into an extra-normal sound. In the following example by Green, the singer is tasked with a large diaphragmatic change in order to produce a hollow sound with the belly in (see figure 1.18). Other uses of the support mechanism bifurcating a normal tone to an extra-normal tone may be seen in exercises 2, 4, and 7 in the last section labeled “Support Pedagogy.”

Figure 1.18.

Green: B A 4. Courtesy of A. Green.

Track 1.9, Green: B A 4

Airflow

11

END OF BREATH Going to the end of the breath, or rather dipping into the reserve capacity that humans rarely use, has the potential to produce a special sound featuring transient and uncontrolled sonorities. From the performance notes of my composition Anaphora: in Buddhist thought, absolute clarity is found in between the breaths; particularly after exhalation and before inhalation; here the performer is asked to sing past her/his normal duration and into the respiratory reserve; the notation is not representative, here the gesture includes beginning with a very low pitch, beyond the lowest secure tone; the duration is very long, past normal duration; the tone will break up erratically, stop oscillation, begin oscillation, feature registral breaks, short transient whistles, turn biphonic, creaky and fry-like—all with low airflow.

Holmqvist asks the singer to go to the end of the breath—but in this excerpt it is unclear whether the singer is asked to continue with ingressive breath. The differences between ingressive and egressive are enormous and really do suggest different outputs and behaviors. With egressive airflow, the idea is to attempt to completely lose control at the end of the breath cycle, whereas with ingressive breath, the vocal tract is dealing with overconsumption and therefore an increase of pressure due to too great a volume (see figure 1.19).

Figure 1.19.

Holmqvist: Liquid Structures. Courtesy of K. Holmqvist.

A recorded example of singing into the reserve capacity or “end of the breath” may be heard in my composition Anaphora. This is a special technique that requires dedication to performance, challenging the performer to hold onto the phrase even as the breath continues to leave the body.

Track 1.10, Edgerton: Anaphora

SUPPORT PEDAGOGY During the breath cycle, it is important to maximize the efficiency of transferring air power into a sound source. In concert, a singer needs vocal flexibility, endurance, and vitality, which are assisted by an effective alignment and stability of the torso. Compared to speech, singing has far greater demands on breath support, as it is important that the singer resist a natural release of air by slowing the rate of expiration. This means keeping the rib cage and solar plexus relatively high with widely suspended ribs but without feeling overinflated. Breath is the basis of voice production that ultimately involves the entire body. The singer should have the feeling that action occurs below the ribs by moving the abdominals inward and outward. Exercise 1 focuses on the resilience and vitality needed to support vocal production. This exercise uses two methods: one pulls the abdominals inward on exhalation, while the other pushes the abdominals outward on exhalation. The idea is that both may be effective depending on the vocalist’s action (see figure 1.20). Exercise 2 furthers abdominal support by introducing dynamic contraction and expansion. Especially with the asymmetries required with much vocal exploration, dynamic abdominal movement often instigates and interrupts while generally supporting a wide variety of multiphonic and irregular gestures (see figure 1.21). Singing is best coupled with efficient maneuvers and appropriate form. It is important to do no harm, which means if tightness, pain, or dehydration occurs, then the singer should refine the technique or refrain from such behavior altogether.

Figure 1.20.

Exercise 1, sternum on exhalation (abdomen in vs. abdomen out).

Figure 1.21.

Exercise 2, sternum on exhalation featuring dynamic movement.

Airflow

13

Exercise 3 is designed to increase endurance by bolstering the support muscles. During exhalation, the singer slowly releases air with a soft /s/ through barely opened lips. As the example continues, try to focus on a stable and uniform sound (see figure 1.22).

Figure 1.22.

Exercise 3, /s/ to strengthen the support muscles.

Exercise 4 extends dynamic power by vigorously repeating /s/ at ff. This short exercise increases dynamic response of diaphragmatic control with a heightened air pressure and velocity (see figure 1.23).

Figure 1.23.

Exercise 4, increase dynamic power.

Exercise 5 focuses on flexibility by using rapid articulations of /s/. Try to produce a consistency of tone, speed, and loudness. This exercise transfers to different sorts of quick-moving articulatory passages—such as quickly articulated glottal stops (chapter 5; see figure 1.24).

Figure 1.24.

Exercise 5, increase flexibility.

Exercise 6 introduces pyramids of temporal cycles involving inhalation, suspension, and exhalation. The idea is to increase vitality of production through static posturing and resistance. As durations increase in each subsequent level, try to focus on keeping the ribs broadly expanded (see figure 1.25).

Figure 1.25. Exercise 6, increase strength and flexibility through static posturing and resistance.

Chapter One

14

Movements of the teeth, tongue, and palate shape airflow during speech and song. Two infrequently used methods that also shape expiration include glottal stops and diaphragm pulses. Exercise 7 presents a phrase to be repeated twice: In verse 1, the voice produces a sequence of rapid glottal pulses; in verse 2, the voice changes to diaphragmatic pulses, then finally ends with a combination of both. The numbers above the notes show how many articulations are to be produced on each note. In verse 3, the integers indicate position and quantity (see figure 1.26).

Figure 1.26.

Exercise 7, glottal pulsing versus diaphragmatic pulsing.

SUGGESTED READINGS AND REFERENCES Baken, R. “Acoustic and Physiologic Characteristics of Inspiratory Phonation.” Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 102, no. 3 (1997): 1838. DeBoer, A. “Ingressive Phonation in Contemporary Vocal Music.” Doctoral dissertation, Bowling Green State University, 2012. Eklund, R. “Pulmonic Ingressive Phonation: Diachronic and Synchronic Characteristics, Distribution and Function in Animal and Human Sound Production and in Human Speech.” Journal of the International Phonetic Association 38, no. 3 (2008): 235. Guyton, A. C. Textbook of Medical Physiology. 6th ed. Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders, 1981. Hill, J. H., and O. Zepeda. “Language, Gender, and Biology: Pulmonic Ingressive Airstream in Women’s Speech in Tohono O’odham.” Southwest Journal of Linguistics 18, no. 1 (1999). Hixon, T. J. Respiratory Function in Speech and Song. London: Taylor and Francis, 1987. Jensen, K. M. “A Study of Extended Vocal Techniques with Particular Reference to Practical Composition Usage since 1972.” Doctoral dissertation, Royal Holloway, University of London, 1981. Kavasch, D. An Introduction to Extended Vocal Techniques: Some Compositional Aspects and Performance Problems. Reports from the Center for Music Experiment at the University of California, San Diego, vol.1, no. 2. La Jolla, CA: Center for Music Experiment, 1980. Kelly, C. L., and K. V. Fisher. “Stroboscopic and Acoustic Measures of Inspiratory Phonation.” Journal of Voice 26, no. 1 (1999). McKinney, J. C. The Diagnosis and Correction of Vocal Faults. Nashville: Broadman, 1982. Miller, D. G., A. M. Sulter, H. K. Schutte, and R. F. Wolf. “Comparison of Vocal Tract Formants in Singing and Nonperiodic Phonation.” Journal of Voice 11, no. 1 (1997). Ng, M. L., Y. Chen, S. Wong, and S. Xue. “Interarticulator Timing Control during Inspiratory Phonation.” Journal of Voice (2010). Orlikoff, R. F., and R. J. Baken. “Vocal Fold Vibratory Behavior under Conditions of Reversed Airflow.” Journal of the Acoustical Society of America (1997). Orlikoff, R. F., R. J. Baken, and D. H. Krauss. “Acoustic and Physiologic Characteristics of Inspiratory Phonation.” Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 102, no. 3 (1997). Pitschmann, L. “The Linguistic Use of the Ingressive Airstream in German and the Scandinavian Languages.” General Linguistics 27 (1987): 153–61. Robb, M., et al. “Acoustic Comparison of Vowel Articulation in Normal and Reverse Phonation.” Journal of Speech Language and Hearing Research 44 (February 2001): 118–27. Stathopoulous, E. T., and C. M. Sapienza. “Respiratory and Laryngeal Function of Women and Men during Vocal Intensity Variation.” Journal of Speech and Hearing Research 36 (1993): 64–75. Sundberg, J. “Human Singing Voice.” In Encyclopedia of Acoustics, edited by M. J. Crocker, 1687–95. New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1997. Titze, I., and F. Alipour. The Myoelastic-Aerodynamic Theory of Phonation. Forthcoming.

Reminder: All examples referred to in the chapter can be found at https://rowman.com/ISBN/9780810888401 (select the “Features” tab).

II

SOURCE

Chapter Two

Vocal Folds

SOURCE A sound source refers to an acoustic disturbance within a resonant environment, such as the vibration of the lips against the mouthpiece of a trombone or the oscillation of vocal folds. This sound source may be periodic (such as vocal fold oscillation during normal phonation) or nonperiodic (such as with fricatives or stops). This section on source encompasses chapters 2, 3, and 4 and discusses the ways that acoustic disturbances affect the vocal tract within or adjacent to the larynx. Nonperiodic sound sources produced through approximation, frication, or stopping of the airstream in the upper pharyngeal, oral, and nasal cavities are discussed in chapter 6. During phonation, all sounds can be identified as voiced (vocal folds as source) or unvoiced (non–vocal fold source). For speech and song, the vocal folds are the primary source of periodic disturbance within the vocal tract; however, this chapter focuses specifically on how sound production with the vocal folds may contribute to the creative use of the extra-normal voice. In humans, the vocal folds have the ability to produce a great variety of sounds over a broad pitch and dynamic range. A few words on these latter two aspects are appropriate here. In voice, each pitch consists of a fundamental period (frequency) with many harmonics that depend on both vocal fold length and tension. Meanwhile, loudness depends on the efficient transfer of power between subglottal air pressure and the voice source. The mode of phonation is central to the production of the extra-normal voice, as it is the way the vocal folds vibrate that determine timbre, register, and multiphonics, among others. In particular, the mode heavily influences the closing phase of the glottal cycle, such that a longer closing phase results in a lower amplitude that appears pressed or tense; when the closing phase is even longer, such sounds may become strained or strangled. Conversely, shortening the closing phase can fail to completely close the glottis, resulting in a breathy phonation. Somewhere between the two is a mode known as flow phonation, which features a strong fundamental frequency with a gently descending slope. The source can affect the extra-normal voice via laryngeal manipulation, unvoiced to barely voiced, voiced, onset to offset, breathiness, vocal fry, low damped phonation (creaky voice), pressed to loose (open-to-close ratio manipulation) adduction, vibrato/tremolo, asymmetries, and glottal whistle (M4).

LARYNGEAL MANIPULATION People tend to move their larynges during speech and song. Such movements are mostly natural and not so obvious, but for some actions, the laryngeal movement seems to be heightened, constituting a necessary stylistic marker. For example, operatic singers in the west tend to lower the larynx when producing the singer’s formant compared to normal phonation. On the other hand, other styles have been reported to raise the larynx, such as during Chinese classical opera, country and western music, and Broadway musical theater styles. Regarding the extra-normal voice, Dmitri Kourliandski in Voice-Off asks the singer to use quick striking movements with larynx. The composer instructs the singer, with mouth closed, to produce “short ‘striking’ sounds deep in the gorge, change the pitch by moving Adam’s-apple up and down” (see figure 2.1).

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Figure 2.1.

Kourliandski: Voice-Off. Courtesy of Editions Jobert.

Track 2.1, Kourliandski: Voice-Off

UNVOICED TO BARELY VOICED Unvoiced sounds are those produced without vocal fold vibration and without a clear pitch that generally feature broadband inharmonic sonorities. However, some unvoiced sounds, although not featuring vocal fold oscillation, may produce a clear sense of pitch, such as when producing whistles and bilabial, lingual, and uvular trills. Barely voiced sonorities are those that feature just a small hint of pitch. In Freezing Moon by Hadzajlic, the singer is asked to produce two different forms of whisper, the first with a sense of pitch on f♯ and the second with no sense of pitch (see figure 2.2).

Track 2.2, Voiced Vowels /i/, /e/, /a/, /o/, /u/

Track 2.3, Unvoiced Vowels /i/, /e/, /a/, /o/, /u/

Track 2.4, Voiced Consonants /d/, /b/, /z/

Track 2.5, Unvoiced Consonants /t/, /p/, /s/

Track 2.6, Unvoiced, Pitched Sounds: Whistle, Bilabial Trill, Lingual Trill, Uvular Trill

Track 2.7, Hadzajlic: Freezing Moon

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Figure 2.2. Hadzajlic: Freezing Moon. Courtesy of H. Hadzajlic.

Brooks, in Tracce, asks singers to produce an unvoiced sound (x crosses through the notehead) followed by breathy sounds (a single stroke through the notehead; see figure 2.3).

Figure 2.3. Brooks: Tracce. Courtesy of W. Brooks.

VOICED Voiced sounds are produced by a vibration of the vocal folds. Normally, voiced sounds are perceived as periodic, though, of course, the voice may produce multiphonic, complex, and even chaotic sonorities. These are discussed later in this chapter and in chapter 7.

ONSET TO OFFSET Harsh attacks and releases are normally not seen in speech and song but rather are used to emphasize some point. However, some practices, such as during ethnic and experimental performance, do use heightened onset and offset behaviors during voiced/unvoiced and lunged/unlunged singing. Figure 2.4 presents an example of emphasized onset/offset from the classical music tradition of India performed by Parween Sultana. In this passage, the performer sings passages with extremely rapid glottal pulses or stops superimposed

Figure 2.4.

Extremely rapid glottal articulations by Parween Sultana.

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on the melodic material. In this spectrogram a passage is shown that features rapid pitch movement that is coupled with glottal articulations. This example of emphasized onset/offset is from Nine Tas by Holland Hopson, in which the voices are asked to superimpose irregular glottal stops that speed up and then slow down on the pitch c4 (see figure 2.5).

Figure 2.5.

Hopson: Nine Tas. Courtesy of H. Hopson.

Track 2.8, Hopson: Nine Tas In Liquid Structures by Holmqvist, extremely rapid glottal stops are produced at a relatively high pitch and identified as fold tremolo (see figure 2.6).

Figure 2.6.

Holmqvist: Liquid Structures. Courtesy of K. Holmqvist.

In my composition A Marriage of Shadows, I ask the singer to use an extremely nasal tone while articulating glottal stops on every note of a rapidly ascending passage from C4 to B♭. At the end of this phrase, the voice alternates between an ordinary tone and one with glottal stops (see figure 2.7).

Figure 2.7.

Edgerton: A Marriage of Shadows. Courtesy of Babel Scores.

Track 2.9, Edgerton: A Marriage of Shadows In a different way, my composition Anaphora emphasizes the onset/offset of a tone during an improvised sequence where different methods for beginning and ending a tone are explored via manipulations of airflow, vocal fold tension, and vocal tract configuration (see figure 2.8).

Vocal Folds

Figure 2.8.

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Edgerton: Anaphora. Courtesy of Babel Scores.

Track 2.10, Edgerton: Anaphora

BREATHINESS A breathy tone involves mixing air with a harmonic tone. Figure 2.9 begins with a normal tone that transitions to a breathy one. Physically, a breathy tone occurs when the vocal folds do not fully close the airstream. Mostly breathy tones are avoided in speech and song but can be used to color an existing tone or to be a gesture of its own or even to form an individual member in a contrapuntal complex.

Figure 2.9. Composing/performing ratios of pitch-to-air mixture.

Track 2.11, Composing/Performing Ratios of Pitch-to-Air Mixture

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In Le Revenant, Olson combines a breathy tone with a type of speech-song similar to sprechstimme. The composer writes, “The ‘pitched speech’ bears a family resemblance to Schoenberg’s sprechstimme, but should be breathier, almost whispered, and the singer should work to make the sound genuinely frightening to her listeners, rather than silly-sounding (as sprechstimme too often is). She may find it helpful to incorporate some of the rough, cracking sounds heard in the voices of the aged” (see figure 2.10).

Figure 2.10.

Olson: Le Revenant. Courtesy of T. Olson.

Track 2.12, Olson: Le Revenant

VOCAL FRY Vocal fry is an overused, stereotypical sound in much composed music of the extended technique variety. The tone is nearly periodic that features a “crackly” quality, sounding somewhat like the embers of a decaying fire. Vocal fry may be produced on egressive or ingressive airflow. For contemporary music, vocal fry is useful as a vehicle or doorway toward finding more interesting asymmetries. Physiologically, the vocal folds have been reported to feature asymmetries from anterior to posterior (see figure 2.11).

Figure 2.11.

Glottal configurations during the production of vocal fry.

Track 2.13, Egressive Vocal Fry to Ingressive Vocal Fry

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The following exercise can help stabilize the onset of a vocal fry. In figure 2.12, the singer is asked to imitate a baboon while gently drawing in two breaths with the lips rounded, then two breaths with mouth closed; the singer then sustains each for two pulses, followed by a rest for four pulses. Repeat until onset becomes stable.

Figure 2.12.

Exercise to help secure onset of vocal fry.

LOW DAMPED PHONATION (CREAKY VOICE) Creaky voice is a term that comes from linguistics and generally refers to a type of low-pitched, unstable, and damped mode of phonation. Most descriptions indicate that to find creaky voice one should “sing the lowest comfortable note you can and then go lower.”

Track 2.14, Christi: Passage to Womanhood

PRESSED TO LOOSE (OPEN-TO-CLOSE RATIO MANIPULATION) ADDUCTION Pressed voice features a harsher and longer closing phase in each glottal cycle (see figure 2.13). The resultant sound features more energy at midrange frequencies that can be described as brassy with forward placement. The tradition of authentic Bulgarian women’s choral singing is often cited as an example of pressed voice. Track 2.15 features an authentic voice from the tradition of Bulgarian women’s choral singing.

Figure 2.13. Pressed voice features a greater intensity during adduction with a longer closing phase.

Track 2.15, Ovcharenko: Invocation of Rain

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In Voice-Off by Dmitri Kourliandski, the singer is asked to explore the tension of the vocal fold cycle by strongly pressing the vocal folds in order to produce “dry and raspy sounds of unfixed pitch” (see figure 2.14).

Figure 2.14.

Kourliandski: Voice-Off. Courtesy of Editions Jobert.

Track 2.16, Kourliandski: Voice-Off

VIBRATO/TREMOLO Vibrato involves the width of pitch movement, the speed of undulation, the loudness variation, and regularity. Most people seem to have some form of natural vibrato, though I have met singers who cannot produce vibrato. In performance and composition, any of the four elements may be shifted alone or in combination with any of the others—even all four at once, though this is exceedingly difficult. Figure 2.15 presents four sequences, each focused on a single element.

Figure 2.15.

The elements of vibrato may be emphasized separately.

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In Liquid Structures, Holmqvist asks the singer to produce an intensity (amplitude) vibrato with the lips narrowly rounded. The rounded lips as well as the vowel /ü/ will help the singer to retain a straight tone with no perceptible frequency movement (see figure 2.16).

Figure 2.16. Holmqvist: Liquid Structures. Courtesy of K. Holmqvist.

ASYMMETRIES Asymmetric movement of the vocal folds is central to voiced multiphonics. However, until now, there has been little systematic research done in this area, although performers like Jaap Blonk (1998) and Phil Minton (2008) have consistently explored such methods. In chapter 7, the important case study by Paul Ward and colleagues of one subject who had complete control of both voices during biphonation is discussed in greater detail. For now, we focus on other types of asymmetries. Figure 2.17 presents a method for producing a fairly accessible biphonic sound that seems to involve two separate modes—a low, nearly ordinary tone combined with a higher tone, similar to a whistle. The steps to producing this multiphonic include (1) produce an ordinary voice; (2) change the tone to nasal (increasing back pressure on vocal folds); (3) tighten the forward portion of the vocal folds; (4) produce a creaky voice (sing lowest tone and then go lower), keeping the vocal folds lax in one part; (5) widen the mouth opening; and (6) imagine, then allow, high transient pitches (whistles) to be heard. Vocal fold asymmetries involve at least two types of behaviors: differences between the left and right vocal folds (left vibrating faster than right or vice versa) and differences of glottal configuration from anterior to posterior orientation. Both types produce the perception of multiple pitches. The following physical aspects can help to produce multiphonic sonorities: torso posture and tension, laryngeal tension, vocal fold mucosal wave, mouth opening, lingual position, jaw and neck position, and tessitura.

Figure 2.17.

One process for developing asymmetry of oscillation.

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Figure 2.18 shows five theoretical mode shapes (eigenmodes) of two-dimensional vocal fold vibration (though more modes probably exist) that can be applied to both left-right asymmetries and anterior-posterior (A-P) modes. Scientific study has shown that even complicated vibratory patterns can be explained with only a few modes. The total number of eigenmodes is related to the number of horizontal and vertical modes of freedom. When discussing complex vibratory states, such modal analyses may be useful to performers to conceptualize how to decouple the vertical and horizontal vibratory modes within the vocal folds and their interaction with other mechanical or aerodynamical oscillators in the sub- and supraglottal airways. Modes 10 and 11 correspond to simplified models of normal vocal fold oscillation, while modes 21, 31, and 32 suggest more complex, irregular, or “extra-complex” vibration patterns.

Figure 2.18. Theoretical mode shapes of the vocal folds showing both the superior and the frontal views of the vocal folds (adapted from Švec 2000).

From research with singers who focus on producing controlled biphonic (or tri- or quadraphonic) states, among others, it’s my impression that perhaps even 41 or 42 modes may exist. Two examples that may feature either 32 or 42 modes are included in this book. The first example is shown in figure 2.19 and heard in track 2.20 in the example of Paul Dutton, while the second is shown in figure 7.11 and heard in track 7.7 by Phil Minton.

Figure 2.19.

Example of biphonation produced with asymmetrical vocal fold oscillation, by Paul Dutton (2000).

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Track 2.17, Homler: Signals

Track 2.18, Bijma: Why? Bye!

Track 2.19, Homler: Signals

Track 2.20, Dutton: Ummm In my composition A Marriage of Shadows, the singer is asked to produce a left-dominant vocal fold asymmetry followed by a right-dominant vocal fold (see figure 2.20).

Figure 2.20.

Edgerton: A Marriage of Shadows. Courtesy of Babel Scores.

Track 2.21, Edgerton: A Marriage of Shadows In my composition Cataphora, the singer is asked to produce a biphonic sequence modeled on one of Phil Minton’s well-known multiphonics (see chapter 7). Note that the pitches are only suggestive and not intended to be reproduced, though the register indications (falsetto vs. modal) should be observed (see figure 2.21).

Figure 2.21.

Edgerton: Cataphora. Courtesy of M. Edgerton.

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GLOTTAL WHISTLE (M4) The glottal whistle (M4) is a totally unusual and otherworldly whistle-like sound that occurs deep in the throat. For singers who produce this sound, the feel and sense of this sound seem to occur at the upper boundary to the vocal folds with no vocal fold oscillation. As of 2014 there has been only a little systematic study of this phenomenon, which has been inconclusive as to the question of vocal fold oscillation. In 2004 it was reported that this whistle was presumed to have occurred as the result of a vortex produced at the upper edges of the glottis on either an egressive or ingressive airflow. However, no visualization confirmed this presumption. Generally airflow is low, though ingressive seems to have higher flow rates than egressive. Important for composers and performers of new music is that the glottal whistle is able to simultaneously produce two or more independent frequency contours over time, which essentially provides the listener with a counterpoint of two or more tones. In my experience, singers may use either a lax or highly tensed glottis. Often it helps if the tone is nasal, perhaps to allow feedback onto the supraglottal cavity.

Track 2.22, Miranda: in Principio Figure 2.22 outlines a few tendencies for producing M4. Using moderate airflow only without vocal fold adduction, search for a high resonant sound by raising the palate, “smelling a rose,” and smiling like the Joker. Next, in an almost Zen-like concentration, allow but don’t make the sound happen; rather, let it go. The feeling is not to produce the sound but rather that it emanates from out of the top of the head. Attempt to forget the throat. For example, lay with your back on the floor, then lift one or both legs, and hold for a second. Then repeat with longer intervals; the idea is to keep tension in the belly while relaxing the torso and neck.

Figure 2.22.

Steps to produce the glottal whistle (M4).

The steps outlined include: (1) use either ingressive or egressive airflow, (2) use minimal airflow, (3) use either a lax glottis or a tightly constricted larynx with high subglottal pressure, (4) use no oscillation of the vocal folds (don’t produce; let it happen), (5 and 6) increase tension in the lower torso and abs while relaxing the upper torso and neck, and (7) use nasal placement (this suggests that the velopharyngeal port is open) when combined with a raised palate; this extra tubing may contribute to the feedback loop necessary to set up the presumed supraglottal vortex.

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Track 2.23, Neubauer: Untitled

Track 2.24, Edgerton: prāṇa Due to the unstable nature of the glottal whistle, my composition prāṇa specifies only the approximate beginning and ending of each tone (see figure 2.23). For composers, it is important to recognize that each whistle requires a certain period of time to set the laryngeal framework. However, the time required can change considerably depending on the surrounding context, so a more taxing section occurring before the production of the glottal whistle requires more time to set the instrument. Naturally specifying absolute pitch is totally out of the question.

Figure 2.23.

Edgerton: praˉn.a. Courtesy of M. Edgerton.

At the end of my composition A Marriage of Shadows, the vocalist is asked to first produce a high tone in the whistle register followed by the glottal whistle. The result is that we hear two simultaneous modes appearing to produce at a minimum two independent frequency contours. Please note that although the glottal whistle is dependable and repeatable, it does take careful preparation and the ability of the singer to relax, even if using a tightly constricted larynx (see figure 2.24).

Figure 2.24.

Edgerton: A Marriage of Shadows. Courtesy of Babel Scores.

Track 2.25, Edgerton: A Marriage of Shadows

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SUGGESTED READINGS AND REFERENCES Blonk, J. Vocalor. Amsterdam: Stalplaat, 1998. Dutton, P. “Ummm.” From Mouth Pieces: Solo Soundsinging. Quebec: Ohm/Avatar, 2000. Edgerton, M. E., S. Tan, G. Evans, M. H. Jang, B. K. Kim, F. Y. Loo, K. C. Pan, N. Hashim, and J. Amin. “Pitch Profile of the Glottal Whistle.” Malaysian Journal of Science 32, no. 2 (2013). Keinmann, A., and F. Michek. “Physiologie und Akustische Analysen der Pfeifstimme der Frau.” Folia Phoniatrica 45 (1993): 247–55. Luchsinger, R., and C. DuBois. “Phonetische und Stroboskopische Untersuchungen an einem Stimmphänomen.” Folia Phoniatrica 8 (1956): 201–10. Miller, D. G., and H. K. Schutte. “Physical Definition of the Flageolet Register.” Journal of Voice 7, no. 3 (1993): 206–12. Minton, P. No Doughnuts in Hand. London: Emanem, 2008. Scherer, R. C., S. Li, M. Wan, S. Wang, and H. Wu. “Numerical Study of the Effects of Inferior and Superior Vocal Fold Surface Angles on Vocal Fold Pressure Distributions.” Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 119, no. 5 (2006). Švec, J. G. “On Vibration Properties of Human Vocal Folds: Voice Registers, Bifurcations, Resonance Characteristics, Development and Application of Videokymography.” Doctoral dissertation, University of Groningen, Groningen, the Netherlands, 2000. Titze, I. R., and B. H. Story. “Acoustic Interactions of the Voice Source with the Lower Vocal Tract.” Journal of the Acoustic Society of America 101 (1997): 2234–43. Walker, J. S. “An Investigation of the Whistle Register in the Female Voice.” Journal of Voice 2, no. 2 (1988): 140–50.

Reminder: All examples referred to in the chapter can be found at https://rowman.com/ISBN/9780810888401 (select the “Features” tab).

Chapter Three

Laryngeal Semiperiodic Source

During speech and song, the vocal folds typically provide the sound source. However, humans do possess the capacity to vocalize above and below the vocal folds—even in the absence of the larynx. In this chapter we look at three such means: supraglottal oscillation, subglottal vibration, and postlaryngectomy speech. SUPRAGLOTTAL OSCILLATION The ventricular folds are paired structures above the vocal folds that can disrupt an outgoing flow of air with a rough mode of vibration. When vibrating, these folds are coupled with the arytenoids, aryepiglottic bands, and the epiglottis (see figure 3.1).

Figure 3.1.

Potential supraglottal oscillators.

Track 3.1, Untitled Kargyraa Style

Track 3.2, Blonk: Kolokol Uma 31

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Three well-known musical styles (Tibetan chant, Tuvan throat singing [Kargyraa style], and Xhosa [women of Africa]) have been reported to use vocal and ventricular fold vibrations to produce a double source phenomenon that many refer to as subharmonics. The ratio of oscillation for the ventricular folds most often doubles the period of oscillation compared to the true folds, although reports of a twelfth and two octaves have been published. Far less common are reports of supraglottal structures vibrating without the vocal folds, although recordings do exist that feature such phenomena. In Cataphora, written for vocalist Jan Heinke, the three-part multiphonic is comprised of (1) an ordinary vocal fold pitch combined with (2) a vocal fry or vocal fold asymmetry and (3) ventricular fold oscillation. Note how approximate speeds for the false folds are indicated at the beginning of the excerpt as a moderate speed followed by a transition to a very slow speed, which then transitions to a fast speed (see figure 3.2).

Figure 3.2.

Edgerton: Cataphora. Courtesy of M. Edgerton.

Track 3.3, Edgerton: Cataphora

SUBGLOTTAL VIBRATION Many performers experienced with the extra-normal voice have indicated that they produce a sound that seems to originate from below the vocal folds. To my knowledge, there are no published references to such a phenomenon. However, as opposed to supraglottal sources, subglottal sounds are produced easily both with and without the true folds. This mode of phonation can involve a difference of oscillatory mode between the lower portion of the vocal folds bordering the trachea and the upper edges bordering the epilaryngeal tube, a tracheal deformation, or a vorticity between the trachea and the inferior border of the folds. Subglottal vibration was included in a study of fifty-six classes of vocal multiphonics in my composition Anaphora, written for Rebekka Uhlig. In addition to a subglottal vibration, this passage asks the singer to reinforce any available harmonics from this rough mode of phonation. Note that the intensity is low so the singer will not hurt herself because the durations of subglottal vibrations should be short at soft levels to minimize the subglottal turbulence. Also note that the fundamental frequency can be shifted according to the needs of each singer (see figure 3.3).

POSTLARYNGECTOMY SPEECH Due to such diseases such as cancer or trauma, it is sometimes necessary to remove the larynx. The resultant inability to produce voice is one of the most distressing pathologies that a patient may experience. Fortunately, there are ways by which a rough type of voice may be produced by such patients. The first method uses other anatomical structures to produce a rough voice and is known as esophageal speech. During esophageal speech, the pharyngoesophageal (PE) segment becomes the vibratory source for sound. This site is also known as the neoglottis because it replaces the glottis between the vocal folds as the origin of sound production. The power source consists of outward-flowing air from the esophagus—a bit like a burp. Together, the air and neoglottis vibrate the walls of the throat, producing sound for the

Laryngeal Semiperiodic Source

Figure 3.3.

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Edgerton: Anaphora. Courtesy of Babel Scores.

Track 3.4, Edgerton: Anaphora new voice. The tongue, lips, and teeth form words as the sound passes through the mouth. The vibratory characteristic of the neoglottis is a bit crude when compared to the complexity of the vocal folds and results in mostly low-pitched (60 to 120 Hz) and low-intensity speech with poor intelligibility (see figure 3.4a).

Figure 3.4. a. Esophageal speech on an outgoing stream of air; b. Speech using an artificial larynx. Courtesy of InHealth Technologies, www.inhealth.com.

The second method uses some sort of artificial sound source, known as an electrolarynx. Similar to an electric razor, the device emits a vibrating noise and is held against the throat. By mouthing words, the laryngectomee converts these external vibrations into speech (see figure 3.4b). Some healthy performers, including experimental vocal improvisers,

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comedians, and ethnic/traditional musicians, use other external methods for converting such sound into malleable articulation for speech. Three methods for developing the vitality that esophageal speech requires are (1) injection, (2) inhalation, and (3) swallowing. With the injection method, the tongue forces the already-static air in the mouth back into the pharynx. Next, the pharyngeal air is swallowed into the stomach, which lowers air pressure in the esophagus below atmospheric pressure, allowing air to flow down past the PE segment to be prepared for speech. The second method (inhalation), involves inhaling rapidly to draw air into the esophagus. As a result of decreased pressure, a vacuum is created that draws the pressure-positive air from the oral cavity and pharynx into the esophagus. For the third method (swallowing), water is swallowed, which is immediately followed by the production of sound. Slightly different, tracheoesophageal (TE) speech is the most common method of voice rehabilitation after total laryngectomy. This form of speech uses a one-way valve that allows pulmonary air to be diverted into the esophagus and into the upper vocal tract to form speech. Studies have shown that TE speech is more effective and understandable than esophageal speech or when using an artificial larynx.

Track 3.5, Esophageal Speech An example of multiple voices using semiperiodic laryngeal sources in an artistic context involves a choir made up of twelve laryngectomy patients. This choir, known as the Sua Voz Choir, consists of patients, mostly more than sixty years old, who use esophageal voice, prosthesis, electronic larynx (vibrator), oral speech, and sound articulations. A link is provided by Rowman & Littlefield, https://rowman.com/ISBN/9781442248243, Features tab.

SUGGESTED READINGS AND REFERENCES Bellandese, M. H., J. W. Lerman, and H. R. Gilbert. “An Acoustic Analysis of Excellent Female Esophageal, Tracheoesophageal, and Laryngeal Speakers.” Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research 44 (December 2001): 1315–20. Iskowitz, M. “Teaching Laryngectomees to Become Functional Speakers.” Advance: for Speech-Language Pathologists and Audiologists 8, no. 45 (1998): 13–15. Kavasch, D. An Introduction to Extended Vocal Techniques: Some Compositional Aspects and Performance Problems. La Jolla: Center for Music Experiment, University of California–San Diego, 1980. Sakakibara, K. I., H. Imagawa, T. Konishi, K. Kondo, E. Z. Murano, M. Kumada, and S. Niimi. “Vocal Fold and False Vocal Fold Vibrations in Throat Singing and Synthesis of Khöömei.” In Proceedings of the International Computer Music Conference 2001, 135–38. Havana, Cuba, 2001. Salmon, S. J. “Methods of Air Intake for Esophageal Speech and Their Associated Problems.” In Laryngectomee Rehabilitation, edited by R. L. Keith and F. L. Darley. 3rd ed. Austin, TX: PRO-ED, 1994. Slavin, D. C., and C. T. Ferrand. “Factor Analysis of Proficient Esophageal Speech: Toward a Multidimensional Model.” Journal of Speech and Hearing Research 38, no. 6 (1995): 1224. Stager, S. V., S. Bielamowicz, A. Gupta, S. Marullo, J. R. Regnell, and J. Barkmeier. “Quantification of Static and Dynamic Supraglottic Activity.” Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research 44 (December 2001): 1245–56.

Reminder: All examples referred to in the chapter can be found at https://rowman.com/ISBN/9780810888401 (select the “Features” tab).

Chapter Four

Register

Singing from the lowest to highest tones requires changes in the vocal folds, articulator placement, and resonator properties that encompass sensations known as registral placement. Functionally, these registers are similar to the gears of a manual transmission automobile. In a manual transmission automobile, we shift to a higher gear as speed increases, and as speed decreases, we shift to a lower gear. The same is true for voice: We shift to a higher register as pitch increases, and as pitch decreases, we shift to a lower register. As we shift from one register to the next, the vocal folds change in important ways that affect the mode of oscillation. The number of registers in use is widely disputed, with opinions ranging from one to more than ten, with three or four registers being most common (see figure 4.1).

Figure 4.1.

Registral placement. From After Symposium on Registers, edited by J. Large.

For men, three commonly identified registers are vocal fry, modal (chest), and falsetto (loft). When using vocal fry, the vocal folds are thick and lax, with multiple glottal chinks from anterior to posterior. As discussed in chapter 2, vocal fry generally features an extremely low fundamental frequency (F0) that resembles a series of clicks or pulses that are more or less regular. Within modal register, the folds are less lax, more periodic, and with a higher F0. In falsetto register, the vocal folds are thin, tightly stretched, and rarely feature complete closure of the glottis (see figure 4.2). Closely related to the concept of vocal register is the categorization of voice according to its range and quality. This categorization (known as Fach in German) traditionally categorized voices as soprano, mezzo-soprano, alto, tenor, baritone, and bass. However, in the operatic world, voices became specialized, with other distinctions becoming common (see table 4.1). For sopranos, the highest voice is coloratura, with little intensity low in her range, while the lyric and spinto feature a warmer sound not quite as high as the coloratura. The dramatic soprano is especially intense in the mid-to-upper range with tremendous cutting power, and the mezzo features a darker quality than the dramatic and with a lower tessitura. The lowest female voice, the alto, carries a darker tone quality that lies slightly above the tenor range. Likewise, the high male voices, not including the castrati and countertenor, are designated as the lyric (highest tessitura with the lightest quality); the spinto, or heroic (thicker quality, playing the role of hero in Italian opera); and the 35

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Figure 4.2.

Vocal fold length, thickness, and mode of three registers.

Table 4.1.

Operatic Fach Classification

High to Low

↓

Soprano

Alto

Tenor

Baritone

Bass

Coloratura Lyric Spinto Dramatic Mezzo

Alto

Lyric Heroic Helden

Lyric Cavalier Dramatic Wagnerian

Bass-baritone Basso-buffo Basso cantante Basso profundo

Light to Dark

↓

helden, or dramatic (loud, strong voice with tremendous stamina in a lower tessitura) tenor. For the baritone voice, the lyric is close to the helden tenor in quality but in a lower tessitura; the cavalier in a similar range suggests a flamboyant characterization; the dramatic baritone with a slightly darker and heavier quality often performs the role of the bad guy, while the Wagnerian baritone specializes in Wagner operas. For the bass voice, the bass-baritone has a slightly darker timbre than a baritone; the basso-buffo has a wide pitch, timbral, and expressive range in order to characterize the roles of the fool or clown; the basso cantante has a low range, often featuring a fluid songlike quality; the basso profundo is the lowest tessitura with the darkest quality. This chapter does not focus on bel canto traditions of voice but rather continues exploring how register can assist vocal potential through oscillation, color (timbre), unusual tessitura, mechanics of shifting emphasized or under examination, and glissandi.

OSCILLATION Pitch oscillation is used in contemporary, traditional, and even popular music. These oscillations encompass movement within a single register, between two adjacent registers, or between two widely separated registers (see figure 4.3).

Figure 4.3. Oscillatory movement between two adjacent registers, then between two nonadjacent ones.

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Oscillatory movement of frequency vibrato is mentioned in chapter 2. Naturally, all those elements that affect vibrato also influence oscillatory movements, such as intensity and speed. The spectrogram in figure 4.4 shows an oscillatory passage by Sainkho Namtchylak. Taken from her performance of Night Birds, this composition features moments of oscillation that alternate with long pauses. This example seems similar to the other Tuvan traditions that mimic animals, water, and wind in the service of praise and healing.

Figure 4.4.

Namtchylak: Night Birds.

Track 4.1, Namtchylak: Night Birds The excerpt in figure 4.5 from my composition Anaphora features a high-register oscillation at *3, similar to that produced by Namtchylak in Night Birds. Here, this high oscillation is primed by the preceding vocal fold tremolo, as the high-register oscillation requires the separation seen with the rapid glottal stops.

Figure 4.5.

Edgerton: Anaphora. Courtesy of Babel Scores.

Track 4.2, Edgerton: Anaphora

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Depending on the amount of pitch movement, oscillatory movement can involve movement between adjacent or widely separated registers. An example of cross-register oscillation can be seen in the tenor part from Psalm of These Days II by Edwin London (see figure 4.6).

Figure 4.6.

Notation for cross-register oscillation from London’s Psalm of These Days II.

Track 4.3, London: Psalm of These Days II The last example of oscillation features a greater number of regions at high, mid, and low tessitura, including those within a single register and between adjacent registers. This example from my composition A Marriage of Shadows asks the singer to produce rapid glottal stops in an approximate range and pitches ad lib, while varying the contour, speed, and duration (see figure 4.7).

Figure 4.7.

Edgerton: A Marriage of Shadows. Courtesy of Babel Scores.

Track 4.4, Edgerton: A Marriage of Shadows

Steps to Producing Iterative Oscillations 1. Figure 4.8, at the top, asks the singer to alternate normal tones with tones featuring rapid glottal stops using a half-nasal filtering. Then in the bottom panel, the same pattern is repeated using a fully nasal tone. In this exercise, the nasal filter combined with the glottal stops begins to feature pitch separation. It helps to try imagining a shifting of pitch.

Figure 4.8. Nasal filter with glottal stops in alternation with normal tones begins to feature pitch separation.

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2. Figure 4.9 continues the previous idea, though with the addition of changing the pitch contour while decoupling nasal tones from glottal stops.

Figure 4.9.

Changing pitch contours while decoupling nasal production from glottal stops.

COLOR (TIMBRE) Vocal color varies significantly between geographical regions and languages. For example, tonal languages link meaning with relative pitch height, such as with Chinese-Mandarin, while others do not link semantic content with height, such as in English. Naturally, changing pitch does not necessarily imply color change, but it seems that Asian cultures do feature more timbral diversity than in the West. Differences of vocal timbre between registers are often exploited in ethnic singing. One example is shown in figure 4.10, in which Kinshi Tsuruta begins to sing in a low register, then switches to a head voice to produce an ornamented line, followed by a return to the low register. As can be seen on the spectrogram, the lower register features more energy throughout the entire spectrum, as indicated by the increased amplitude of the higher harmonics. During the section labeled as “head voice,” a decrease of energy in the higher harmonics is evident, and the impression is that the singer is using tongue retroflexion with bilabial rounding and protrusion.

Figure 4.10.

Japan: Satsuma Biwa.

In Vaai Irandu by Dharmoo, register is used actively to promote color change. The composer writes that the timbral exploration is inspired from South Indian Carnatic music (Kalyani, Thodi, Shankarabharanam, Abhogi, and Saveri). Throughout this composition, the low and middle registers should be nasalized, while an open voice should be used in the higher register. However, the composer indicates that the nasalization should not be extreme nor approaching a caricature (see figure 4.11).

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Figure 4.11.

Dharmoo: Vaai Irandu. Courtesy of G. Dharmoo.

Track 4.5, Dharmoo: Vaai Irandu Two registers are identified in Voix by Mauricio Rodriguez, with the higher notated on the top three-line stave, while the lower is notated on the bottom three-line stave. Although not explicitly identified, color difference is implicated in the differences between the higher and lower registers (see figure 4.12).

Figure 4.12.

Rodriguez: Voix. Courtesy of M. Rodriguez.

Track 4.6, Rodriguez: Voix

UNUSUAL TESSITURA Usually women sing at higher pitches than men. This section looks at unusual pitch profiles of both male and female voices. Table 4.2 identifies frequently discussed traditions featuring unusual tessitura. Table 4.2.

Unusually Low and High Female and Male Voices

Unusually High

Unusually Low

Male

Female

Countertenor Naturally high (modal) Boy soprano-alto Kallman syndrome Castrato Don Cossack, strohbass Tibetan monks Tuvan throat singers Naturally low (modal)

Naturally high “Whistle” register

Naturally low Xhosa singers

The high male voice has been well documented and includes countertenor voice, naturally high (modal) voice (including rock/popular singers), boy soprano-alto voice, Kallman syndrome voice, and castrato voice. The countertenor voice is a high male voice and is still practiced by a handful of artists. Initially, the term referred to the voice part approximately one-third above the tenor. Two methods seem to dominate countertenor production: using either a well-developed falsetto or a naturally high voice. The range of the countertenor lies above the tenor and can, in some cases, match the

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range of the soprano. Often the countertenor voice is weak at low pitches but becomes more intense near the middle of its range, while near the top it becomes thin and harsh. Another high male voice reported in the medical literature is a condition associated with a hormonal dysfunction from the hypothalamus known as Kallman syndrome. This condition resulting in the abridged growth of the male larynx features an abnormally high F0, with a timbre closely resembling female voices. One well-known singer with this condition was “Little” Jimmy Scott. The castrati, however, were anything but normal, who through surgical intervention retained prepubescent laryngeal size and supposedly timbre. From our vantage point of the early 21st century, the practices of the 17th-century cultural elite on children to acquire such a phenomenon seem exceptionally cruel and unusual. Regardless, with maturity, it has been claimed that the castrati’s lung capacity, chest size, physical endurance, and strength were greater than that of normal males. For example, Farinelli, the famous 18th-century castrato, could allegedly sustain a note longer than a minute and sing lengthy passages of more than one hundred notes! The high, natural female voice is a cultural staple. For centuries, the special qualities of these high voices have captivated audiences in all styles and most cultures. In the western classical tradition, high female voices include coloratura, lyric, spinto, and dramatic soprano. The term whistle register has been tossed around quite a bit over the last thirty years or so with much confusion. This confusion has been furthered by the publication of scientifically peer-reviewed papers in well-regarded journals that are based on non–whistle-register productions. In at least two of these high-profile articles, I’ve been able to hear the samples, and they are not even close to a whistle-register production. Just what constitutes whistle register is the subject of significant disagreement among voice professionals. What is clear is that this mode of phonation is not perceptually or acoustically similar to a whistle, so why call it a whistle? Track 4.7 features an extremely high pitch.

Track 4.7, Miranda: in Principio Low male and female voices may use normal modes, highly damped modes, modes with some type of subharmonic, or those featuring asymmetric vibration or supraglottal oscillation. Tracks 4.8 and 4.9 provide examples of low voices— low, normal modes and damped asymmetries.

Track 4.8, Low, Normal Modes

Track 4.9, Damped Asymmetries by Jaap Blonk

MECHANICS OF SHIFTING EMPHASIZED OR UNDER EXAMINATION Performers may emphasize abrupt, disjunct movements within a single register or between registers. One such performer is Fatima Miranda, who features an incredible flexibility in most aspects of voice.

Track 4.10, Miranda: La Voz Cantante In the next example from my composition Cataphora, vocalist Jan Heinke found in training sessions a very interesting method for emphasizing the shifting mechanism with accented registral jumps. However, he additionally developed a multiphonic capability with these registral jumps, which have to do with harmonic reinforcement as well as the previ-

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ously discussed glottal tremolo. Here, the singer is asked to produce a strong tone on D4 with much energy in the midfrequency range. Using the vowel /u/, the singer places the tongue tip on the alveolar ridge and then sharply releases to produce an accented grace note on the lingual /l/. Then, a harmonic reinforcement of D4 is combined with the previously mentioned glottal stop preparation that leads nearly to a glottal whistle (M4). Lastly, on the harsh /l/ release, a percussive stroke should appear if lingual pressure and rebound are sufficient (see figure 4.13).

Figure 4.13.

Edgerton: Cataphora. Courtesy of M. Edgerton.

Track 4.11, Edgerton: Cataphora

GLISSANDI Glissandi within and between registers are commonly used in contemporary compositions. Sometimes the singer looks to emphasize different colors, while at others a uniform timbre is desired. Obviously, these pitch movements may involve diatonic, chromatic, or irregular scalar movements. Perhaps more than any other style of performance, Korean P’ansori features an incredible diversity, bravura, and virtuosity. Registral jumping, timbral variation, and oscillations of pitch and loudness are prominent features of P’ansori performance. Registral jumping refers to fundamental frequency movement between adjacent or widely separated registers. In figure 4.14, a spectrogram shows oscillatory movement and register placement by Kim, So-Hee.

Figure 4.14.

Oscillation within and between registers by Kim, So-Hee.

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43

Pitch/loudness oscillation features movement between two more or less well-defined states, whether in the frequency or amplitude domain or both. Naturally, not all movements need to be classified as oscillation but can be regarded as irregular pitch movement among a number of satellite pitches (or amplitudes). Kim, So-Hee, returns to important pitches throughout the excerpt, thus implying a high level of control, although the movement is fast and disjunct (similar to a yodel). The style of phonation is light in order to produce the quick-moving and registral-jumping pitches. Evidence of a timbral marker in P’ansori voice across different singers seems to involve the dominance of harmonic 2. This is made possible by the amplification of this harmonic by the second formant frequency, which features a very high amplitude and narrow bandwidth. Perceptually, P’ansori singers often use rough voice qualities to emphasize the dramatic narrative. In these instances, the acoustic signal is still periodic and stable, although noise is added to the output. Physiologically, it seems that pressed phonation using a higher mode of oscillation could be responsible. As documented throughout this text, there are many ways for producing irregular time series or adding inharmonic components to a signal due to the human ability to control intended nonlinear phenomena in the vocal tract. The prominent parameters that seem to be emphasized include high airflow and vocal fold asymmetries. From personal experience as performer, coach, listener, and researcher, it is clear that singers can produce both clear and rough-sounding voices. It is well documented how singers or actors can perform with a rough or hoarse quality on stage while having a perfectly normal-sounding voice otherwise—one such example is shown in figure 4.15 by Kim, So-Hee, who produces both clear and rough-sounding voice.

Figure 4.15. Transition from harmonic voice to rough voice. In the waveform above the spectrogram, note the wide amplitude of excursion associated with the harmonic voice, while the rough voice is associated with a reduced amplitude of excursion; also note the increase of noise in the spectrum when producing rough voice.

SUGGESTED READINGS AND REFERENCES Bloothooft, G., and P. Pabon. “Vocal Registers Revisited.” In Proceedings of Eurospeech ’99, 423–26. Budapest, 1999. Coffin, B. Coloratura, Lyric and Dramatic Soprano. Vol. 1. Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 1960. Dejonkere, P., M. Hirano, and J. Sundberg. Vibrato. San Diego: Singular Publishing Group, 1995. Echternach, M., J. Sundberg, S. Arndt, M. Markl, M. Schumacher, and B. Richter. “Vocal Tract in Female Registers—A Dynamic Real-Time MRI Study.” Journal of Voice 24, no. 2 (March 2010): 133–39. Garnier, M., N. Henrich, J. Smith, and J. Wolfe. “Vocal Tract Adjustments in the High Soprano Range.” Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 127, no. 6 (June 2010): 3771–80. Gibian, G. L. “Synthesis of Sung Vowels.” Quarterly Progress Report, Massachusetts Institute of Technology 104 (1972): 243–47. Giles, P. A Basic Countertenor Method. London: Kahn and Averill, 2005. Henrich, N. “Mirroring the Voice from Garcia to the Present Day: Some Insights into Singing Voice Registers.” Logopedics Phoniatrics Vocology 31, no. 1 (January 2006): 3–14.

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Herzel, H., and R. Reuter. “Whistle Register and Biphonation in a Child’s Voice.” Folia Phoniatrica et Logopaedica 49, no. 5 (1997): 216–24. Hollien, H. “On Vocal Registers.” Journal of Phonetics 2 (1974): 125–43. Jenkins, J. S. “The Voice of the Castrato.” Lancet 351 (1998): 1877–80. Keinmann, A., and F. Michek. “Physiologie und Akustische Analysen der Pfeifstimme der Frau.” Folia Phoniatrica 45 (1993): 247–55. Large, J. “Towards an Integrated Physiologic-Acoustic Theory of Vocal Registers.” National Association of Teachers of Singing Bulletin (February–March 1972): 18–36. ———, ed. “Vocal Registers in Singing: Proceedings of a Symposium, November 7, 1969.” Paris: Mouton, 1973, 10. Large, J., S. Iwata, and H. van Leden. “The Male Operatic Head Register versus Falsetto.” Folia Phoniatrica 24 (1972): 19–29. ———. “The Primary Register Transition in Singing.” Folia Phoniatrica 11 (1970): 385–96. Large, J., and T. Shipp. “The Effect of Certain Parameters on the Perception of Vocal Registers.” National Association of Teachers of Singing Bulletin (October 1969): 12–15. Levin, T., and M. Edgerton. “The Throat Singers of Tuva.” Scientific American 281, no. 3 (1999): 70–77. Luchsinger, R., and C. DuBois. “Phonetische und Stroboskopische Untersuchungen an einem Stimmphänomen.” Folia Phoniatrica 8 (1956): 201–10. MacColl, G., P. Bouloux, and R. Quinton. “Kallmann Syndrome: Adhesion, Afferents, and Anosmia.“ Neuron 34, no. 5 (May 2002): 675–78. Miller, D. G., and H. K. Schutte. “Physical Definition of the Flageolet Register.” Journal of Voice 7, no. 3 (1993): 206–12. Moon, S. J. “General Acoustical Characteristics of Pansori Singing Voice.” Malsori 42 (2001): 15–24. Roubeau, B., N. Henrich, and M. Castellengo. “Laryngeal Vibratory Mechanisms: The Notion of Vocal Register Revisited.” Journal of Voice 23, no. 4 (2009): 425–38. Rubin, H. J., M. Le Cover, and W. Vennard. “Vocal Intensity, Subglottic Pressure and Airflow Relationship in Singers.” Folia Phoniatrica 19 (1967): 393–413. Russo, V., and J. Large. “Psychoacoustic Study of the Bel Canto Model for Register Equalization: Male Chest and Falsetto.” Journal of Research in Singing 1, no. 3 (1978): 1–25. Shipp, T., P. A. Lindestad, F. MacCurtain, J. S. Walker, and G. E. Welch. “Whistle Register and Falsetto Voice.” Journal of Voice 2 (1988): 164–67. Spencer, M. L., and I. R. Titze. “An Investigation of a Modal-Falsetto Register Transition Hypothesis Using Helox Gas.” Journal of Voice 15, no. 1 (March 2001): 15–24. Švec, J. G., J. Sundberg, and S. Hertegård. “Three Registers in an Untrained Female Singer Analyzed by Videokymography, Strobolaryngoscopy and Sound Spectrography.” Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 123, no. 1 (January 2008): 347–53. Thurman, L., G. Welch, A. Theimer, and C. Klitzke. “Addressing Vocal Register Discrepancies: An Alternative, Science-Based Theory of Register Phenomena.” In Second International Conference on Physiology and Acoustics of Singing. Denver, 2004. Titze, I. R. “A Framework for the Study of Vocal Registers.” Journal of Voice 2, no. 3 (1988): 183–94. Walker, J. S. “An Investigation of the Whistle Register in the Female Voice.” Journal of Voice 2, no. 2 (1988): 140–50. Wise, T. “Yodel Species: A Typology of Falsetto Effects in Popular Music Vocal Styles.” Radical Musicology 2 (2007): 57 pars. Youngson, R. M., ed. Collins Dictionary of Medicine. Glasgow: HarperCollins, 1992.

Reminder: All examples referred to in the chapter can be found at https://rowman.com/ISBN/9780810888401 (select the “Features” tab).

III

RESONANCE/ARTICULATION

Chapter Five

Filtering

Chapter 5 looks at the filtering effects of the vocal tract, followed by the sounds of language embodied in notation by the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). Then a comprehensive mapping of the vocal tract above the larynx, including those regions not contained within habitual language use, are presented. Pragmatic at its core, this mapping is easy to learn and remember. For contemporary composition, both filter and turbulent aspects of this model provide a reasonable structure to develop multidimensional networks for developing polyphonic complexes in a single face. VOCAL TRACT FILTERING The oral cavity is the area from the velum to the lips. Oral modification occurs continuously in speech and song by movement of the lips, jaw, tongue, and velum to produce open, fricative, and stopped sounds. Here the focus is unusual filtering effects. In Noir by Khubeev, the composer asks the vocalist to sing the following text with a closed mouth, as best as possible: “La ville grouillant, dans le noir, de sa rumeur qui ne s’arrete jamais.” The letter f in the following excerpt refers to the speed at which the text is articulated (see figure 5.1, left side). Khubeev asks the vocalist to continue with the closed mouth and touch the hard palate with the tongue at slow, moderate, and fast rates of articulation (see figure 5.1, right side).

Figure 5.1.

Khubeev: Noir. Courtesy of A. Khubeev.

Track 5.1, Khubeev: Noir In The Bells by Harizanos, the singer is asked to sing the word night, first with a tremolo, then with closed lips on /ai/, and then to open the lips on the offset /t/ (see figure 5.2).

Figure 5.2.

Harizanos: The Bells. Courtesy of N. Harizanos.

Track 5.2, Harizanos: The Bells 47

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Liquid Structures by Holmqvist is conceptually unrelated to language, as the approximants featured here result from tongue positions identified as high to low or right to left (see figure 5.3).

Figure 5.3.

Holmqvist: Liquid Structures. Courtesy of K. Holmqvist.

Meanwhile, in Vaai Irandu, composer Gabriel Dharmoo asks the singer to produce nasalized tones in the low and medium registers. Influenced by Carnatic musical traditions from India, the singer is asked to refrain from producing a caricature (cartoonish) or overtly nasal tone. Further, the composer writes, “If the performer is trained in Western classical voice, she should avoid open and clear vowels and avoid raising the velum. When placing her voice, if the performer wishes to seek inspiration directly from carnatic music, it is suggested she listens to carnatic music recordings by vocalist Bombay Jayashri as a starting point” (see figure 5.4).

Figure 5.4.

Dharmoo: Vaai Irandu. Courtesy of G. Dharmoo.

Track 5.3, Dharmoo: Vaai Irandu

SOUNDS OF LANGUAGE The IPA is a system of notating the elements of speech from many of the world’s languages. For composers, the IPA has proven to be an effective tool for notating more precisely vocal sounds that relate to language. Practically, this means that access to such a tool could inspire composition to explore vocal expressions that vary from known language habits or from language altogether. Thus, composers have at their disposal a larger field of sound elements that can potentially parallel the increased sophistication that have become commonplace for instruments (see figure 5.5).

Figure 5.5.

Elements of the IPA vowel pronunciation guide.

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Fluid speech production and manner is complex. Any notation must be a tradeoff between comprehensiveness and pragmatism, so a performer needs information useful for producing a particular sound and its associated morphology. As people speak or sing, they raise and lower the resonant frequencies of their vocal tracts by moving their tongues, lips, and so on. Theoretically, the vocal tract has an infinite number of formants, but only the arrangement of the first two or three account for most of the perceived differences in vowel quality. See appendix A for an overview of voice science. Figure 5.6 presents symbols on the left that represent contextual parameters found in speech or song, such as rhythm, meter, or stress, while on the right side, the symbols relate to tonal aspects of speech. These symbols are designed to be intuitive in order to be useful in pragmatic contexts, such as when conducting fieldwork in remote settings.

Figure 5.6. Suprasegmentals (left) and tones and word accents (right). From IPA chart, 2005, licensed to Wikimedia Creative Commons, Share Alike 3.0 via Wikimedia Commons.

Diacritical markings in figure 5.7 identify manner. Voicing is identified as breathy, creaky, and aspirated, while the tongue articulates with the lips, palate, velum, and pharynx. Tongue movement implicating filtering effects are identified as advancement, retraction, central, raised, and lowered, including the tongue root and offset characteristics. Finally, resonant properties, including lip rounding and nasalization, are presented.

Figure 5.7. Diacritical markings. From IPA chart, 2005, licensed to Wikimedia Creative Commons, Share Alike 3.0 via Wikimedia Commons.

Figure 5.8.

Transcription of English text.

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How might this look? Figure 5.8 presents a transcription of an English-language text into IPA. In figure 5.9, a phonetic transcription of an American-English text, minus the suprasegmental, accent, and diacritical markings, is presented. Here, the rationale for using a standardized notation is to reference a specific articulative behavior—in this case, the style of 19th-century southern-U.S. lyric speech. This is from Madrigals by Brooks.

Figure 5.9. Phonetic representation of a specific culture’s style of speech—in this case, 19th-century southern-U.S. speech, from Madrigals by William Brooks. Courtesy of W. Brooks.

In the following excerpt from Madrigals (No. 4, Nellie Was a Lady), the phonetic transcription is helpful in identifying more accurately the desired pronunciation. In this composition, Brooks paired specific linguistic and performance elements within a theatrical framework to draw on the richness found at the intersections between speech, sound, and music. Also this fourth movement references barbershop singing of the southern United States and black American lyric speech. In the second verse, the barbershop quartet is singing on a raft but slowly sinks into the river, leaving behind a wind-up gramophone to finish the sad tale (see figure 5.10). The IPA is useful for notating place of articulation that is dependent on language identification. As mentioned, this brilliantly allows composers to begin composing vocal behaviors with a higher degree of sophistication. However, the IPA is not comprehensive in terms of place or behavior, therefore a novel model of articulation designed for use with nonlanguage habits was developed and is presented later.

Figure 5.10. a. Brooks: Madrigals, No. 4, Nellie Was a Lady, a. measures 19–21; b. measures 22–24; c. measures 25–27. Courtesy of W. Brooks.

Figure 5.10.

(continued)

Track 5.4, Brooks: Madrigals, No. 4, Nellie Was a Lady

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EDGERTON MODEL OF FILTER ARTICULATION Lingua-Palatal Map Performers can systematically explore the filter and resonant components of vowel-like sonorities in order to produce behaviors and acoustical products outside of speech. In essence, that performer can play the vocal tract as an instrument simultaneously, in multiple modes. The rationale for such experiments is to continue exploring the tools and expression of voice.

Figure 5.11. Left: location of articulatory regions on upper palate, A—outside lip, B—on lip, C—in vallecular, between lip and teeth, D—on teeth, E—on alveolar ridge, and F—on hard to soft palate. Right: location of articulatory regions on lower palate, A—outside lip, B—on lip, C—in vallecular, between lip and teeth, D—on teeth, E—on alveolar ridge, F—on hard to soft palate.

This model of articulation conceptually centers on a mapping of the vocal tract above the larynx that is comprised of a series of points (see figures 5.11 and 5.12), to which the tongue may touch or approximate (see figure 5.12). The manner of articulation encompasses stops, fricatives, approximants, or vortex-induced oscillations.

Figure 5.12. Left: location of articulatory regions in pharynx, with X1 being the highest and X5 being the lowest. Right: notation for tongue regions and manners of filter articulation.

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Specifically, this chapter identifies ways that non-normal filtering can help to continue the search for new tools and new expressions. All lingual-to-palatal states can be combined with any other articulator, including mandibular, dental, palatal, pharyngeal, and laryngeal. A. Two-Part Filter The first alternative to habitual vowel-like production is a two-part filter that combines the shape of one vowel at the lips with a second vowel within the mouth or throat. With this principle, a vowel may be combined with any other vowel (see figure 5.13, left). In figure 5.13, mid and right are two examples of complex filters from On Sonic Art by Trevor Wishart. In the middle, the top symbol refers to oral cavity vowel formation, while the lower element refers to tongue tip placement (in this case, with tongue tip halfway toward /i/ or /r/). On the left side, the lower /le/ refers to oral cavity vowel, while the (u) above refers to mouth shape.

Figure 5.13.

a. Vowel-to-vowel filter; b. and c. Wishart, complex filters from On Sonic Art. Courtesy of T. Wishart.

Brooks in Tracce asks the singer to use a two-part filter in which an oral cavity production (here, a sibilant /s/) is filtered by the lips, in this case changing from an /i/ to /u/ to /ɛ/ (see figure 5.14).

Figure 5.14.

Brooks: Tracce. Courtesy of W. Brooks.

Dehaan in Three Études for Solo Voice asks the singer to shape an unvoiced /ʃ/ with different lip shapes according to the notated vowels on the upper line (see figure 5.15).

Figure 5.15.

Dehaan: Three Études for Solo Voice. Courtesy of D. Dehaan.

Two-part filters can use an identification of mouth shape rather than using bilabial vowel shape in order to explore filters outside of language archetypes. The lips can vary by degrees of roundness, width, height, and protrusion (see figure 5.16).

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Figure 5.16.

Aperture shape to inner vowel.

The examples in figures 5.17 and 5.18 present extremes of altered lip shapes that can be combined with any vowel. Generally the smallest and largest shapes are shown, but obviously any number of steps can be scaled between minimal and maximal. For example, in the first category, rounded aperture, a performer or composer can use any number of shapes, not just six.

Figure 5.17.

Figure 5.18.

Rounded, lateral, and superior-inferior apertures can be combined with changing vowel.

Protruded, intruded, lips to left, lips to right, and opposing orientations can be combined.

Track 5.5, Two-Part Filters, Aperture to Vowel (Round, Lateral, Superior to Inferior, Protrusion, Intrusion, Left, Right, Opposite) In figure 5.19, left, Holmqvist in Liquid Structures asks the singer to filter the vowels /o/ and /i/ with different mouth shapes, including rounded, lateral, and protruded. In figure 5.19, right, Holmqvist asks the singer to produce an oral cavity fricative and sibilant with protruded lips.

Figure 5.19.

Holmqvist: Liquid Structures. Courtesy of K. Holmqvist.

Two-part filters can identify mouth shape with tongue tip placement to explore filters outside of language archetypes. The composer-performer can combine any mouth shape with any tongue placement. Tongue placement can use any general description, IPA, or the comprehensive lingua-palatal mapping. Three manners seem accessible—open, approximant, or lightly touching—but of course many other possibilities exist. Figure 5.20 presents only two examples,

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rounded aperture with tongue placement and superior-to-inferior orientation with tongue tip placement, though any lip and tongue position can be used.

Figure 5.20.

Tongue tip placement with rounded aperture and superior-to-inferior orientation.

Track 5.6, Two-Part Filter, Aperture to Tongue Tip Placement Two-part filters can identify mouth shape with lingua-palatal map to explore filters outside of language archetypes. In this mapping, points are identified within the oral cavity and pharynx, to which the tongue as a filter can approximate or lightly make contact. In figure 5.21, a lateral aperture shape is combined with various lingua-palatal positions.

Figure 5.21.

Tongue tip placements with lateral aperture.

Figure 5.22 is an excerpt from my composition aka Taffy Twisters, which features vocal articulation utilizing elements from the Comprehensive Model of Articulation. In this excerpt, note how lip shape is combined with place and manner.

Figure 5.22. Edgerton: Taffy Twisters. Courtesy of M. Edgerton.

Track 5.7, Edgerton:

aka Taffy Twisters

Two-part filters can identify dental placement with lingua-palatal map (see figure 5.23) and jaw protrusion/retraction with lingua-palatal map to explore filters outside of language archetypes. This category is included, as the teeth may be decoupled from lips, such as by increasing and decreasing the space between the teeth, while keeping the lips closed.

Figure 5.23.

a. Dental placement; b. Jaw protrusion/retraction.

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Figure 5.23, left, shows relative degrees of opening between upper and lower teeth. In figure 5.23, right, teeth placement is altered through jaw advancement and retraction. Not shown is the category of jaw movement side to side. Of course, these positions and manners are not exhaustive, and the creative performer will devise alternatives to those presented. Figure 5.24 identifies one strategy for combining dental position with pitch, text, tongue region, palatal region, and manner.

Figure 5.24. Combined dental position, pitch/rhythm, text, tongue region, palatal placement, and manner.

Two-part filters can identify jaw tremolo with lingua-palatal map (or naturally any other oral cavity response) to explore filters outside language archetypes. The solution by William Price in A Play on Words is to combine dental tremolo (jaw quiver) with habitual pronunciation of text (see figure 5.25).

Figure 5.25.

Price: A Play on Words. Courtesy of W. Price.

Track 5.8, Price: A Play on Words

B. Three-Part Filter Two-part filters can be expanded to three-part filters that combine lip, teeth, and lingua-palatal map. Figure 5.26 presents a counterpoint between the teeth and lip that colors the pitch, approximants, and slight turbulence in novel ways.

Figure 5.26.

Example of three-part filter.

To sum, composers and performers have numerous methods to extend vowel-like sounds. These methods include vowel-to-vowel, front aperture shape-to-vowel, front aperture shape-to-tongue placement (at lip boundary or according to the Edgerton model), dental position, and a three-part filter model. All of these methods involve real acoustic differ-

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ences when compared to habitual vowel-like production. These extensions range from subtle to extreme and in every case require a higher level of concentration and absorption for composer, performer, and listener. Certainly more possibilities exist for the extensions of open-like productions, and the previous discussion can be seen as an invitation for personal expression and examination. No method is best, and all serve a variety of purposes and situations. The idea is to make an informed choice and then choose an appropriate method for each situation. .

C. Placement Variation or Relative Height of Vowels The perceptual height of a vowel can change while retaining its identity, such as /i/ or /u/. This variation is the result of small changes in tongue, palate, lip rounding, and so on. Acoustically, such variations in the height of a vowel occur through a raising or lowering of the formant frequencies associated with that vowel. This variation can be heard during voiced passages but can be more effective when unvoiced. What this section refers to is a shifting of resonant energy during the production of a single vowel. For example, sustain a habitual unvoiced /a/ and listen to its relative height. Then sustain a second unvoiced /a/ with the perception of a greater height, followed by a third unvoiced /a/ at a lower height. If the perception of a higher then lower pitch is heard, what occurs is not an actual shifting of fundamental frequency but a shifting of the regions of resonant energy within the vocal tract. Dehaan in Three Études for Solo Voice extends habitual vowel production in two ways: (1) in the 3/8 measure, producing a mouth shape trill (changing lip shapes) over an unchanging and unvoiced oral cavity vowel, and (2) in the 2/16 measure, lowering the relative height of the unvoiced vowels (see figure 5.27).

Figure 5.27.

Dehaan: Three Études for Solo Voice. Courtesy of D. Dehaan.

My composition Keltainen huone, written for a children’s choir in Alajärvi, Finland, focuses on varying the height of unvoiced sounds. In figure 5.28, a rising passage on unvoiced /d/ and /k/ is followed by a descending resonant glissando on an unvoiced /i/.

Figure 5.28.

Edgerton: Keltainen huone. Courtesy of Babel Scores.

Track 5.9, Edgerton: Keltainen huone

D. Nasal Modification The nasal tract can contribute to the extra-normal voice by offering a distinctive timbre (e.g., nasal sound), by producing a percussive sound via the velo-pharyngeal port, or by sending a perceptual airflow that results in noise or whistles or other nasal-liquids. Generally, the nasal cavity can be considered in the following three ways: (1) not in use, (2) shared use of airflow by both oral and nasal cavities, or (3) through the nasal cavity alone (see figure 5.29).

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Figure 5.29.

Contributions of nasal port: none, coupled with oral, and nasal alone.

When the nasal port is used to alter the timbre of a sound, the airflow can be divided between the oral and nasal cavities or can be used by the nasal cavity alone (as when the ng of sing is spoken). The junction at which the pharynx joins the oral and nasal cavities features a hinge-like device (velo-pharyngeal port) that controls airflow into the nasal cavity. When the airflow is divided between the oral and nasal cavities during the production of a sound, a complicated phenomenon occurs that adds zeros in the radiated signal.

Figure 5.30. Scaling of timbres combining oral and nasal, then nasal, then nasal with placement.

Track 5.10, Different Ratios of Nasality When singers use forward placement, or the sensation of projecting into the masque (area near the frontal sinuses), they are often using a mixture of flow between oral and nasal cavities. In general, any nasal modification can be manipulated to produce a scaling of timbres rather than just an on or off state (see figure 5.30). An example of singing in the masque is seen in Liquid Structures by Holmqvist, who asks the singer to alter the resonance of the vocal tract through forward placement (see figure 5.31). Often the use of the nasal tract is beneficial for producing extra-normal voice behaviors, such as with some multiphonics, the glottal whistle (M4), and high-pitched registral oscillations. Figure 5.32 asks the singer to produce glottal stops on the vowel /i/ using non-nasal, half-nasal, and fully nasalized resonances.

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Figure 5.31. Holmqvist: Liquid Structures. Courtesy of K. Holmqvist.

Figure 5.32. Glottal stops with non-nasal, half-nasal, and full-nasal resonances.

In B A 4 by Green, the singer is invited to alternate between an open (ng) and closed (a) nasal tract. Depending on the abilities of the singer, harmonics can begin to pop out of the texture. Note the beginning of this passage with two finger clicks to the cheek—because the production is nasal, it is possible that one or more reinforced harmonics will sound (see figure 5.33).

Figure 5.33.

Green: B A 4. Courtesy of A. Green.

Track 5.11, Green: B A 4

E. Pharyngeal Modification Changes in the pharynx occur via movement of the pharyngeal walls, tongue root, and epiglottis. For vowel-like sonorities, a performer can alter the resonant values to slightly change the timbre of the sound, but honestly the biggest effect the pharynx has is with turbulent sounds, which are discussed in chapter 6. One type of filtered pharyngeal modification is seen with the rising and lowering of the larynx that has been reported in different singing styles or techniques, such as western opera (lower larynx), country and western (higher larynx), belting (higher larynx), and so on.

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TIMBRAL CHANGE Human speech features small fluctuations of voice quality that appear as changes to formant frequencies, bandwidths, aerodynamic pressures, source characteristics, and so on. Some performers have relied on metaphor (brassy, breathy, reedy, pressed), imitation (voice as trumpet, impersonation [e.g., “Sound like Johnny Carson”]), and characterization (Bugs Bunny, Daffy Duck, pigeons, wind sounds) to effect timbral change. Aria by John Cage is a prominent composition that asks the singer to use different voice types and timbres. Obviously many composers have exploited timbral modification in their scores, most often leaving quite a bit of interpretive room for the singer. Table 5.1 features a few of the written cues from the score to Music for Singer by Barney Childs, in which the performer is asked to produce such qualities as child-like voice, wide vibrato, chest tone, grand opera, low-register whisper, recitative style, blues voice, and sprechstimme. Table 5.1.

Childs: Music for Singer—Timbral Cues (1964)

child-like voice quality thoughout extended hiss on all sibilants loud, penetrating, lowregister whisper; exaggerate articulation lively, exploit whole range of voice; high notes falsetto

tone gradually more nasal chest tone throughout whole passage “blues” voice quality

generally p to ppp, but all consonants hit explosively whole passage “grand opera” style Sprechstimme throughout

light, running, irregular length phrases; big vibrato throughout

moderate, nervous, but restrained; thin head tone throughout

include several long Bach sequence–style melismas recitative style hands cupped over mouth throughout, vary degree of “muting” nasal tone throughout; on at least two notes, use tremolo of major 3rd+

REINFORCED HARMONICS Reinforced harmonic singing produces the perception of a drone with a flute- or whistle-like melody. Most often this is heard as a drone with a melody (much like a bagpipe) or sometimes in the West as two voices with more or less equal ampltiudes. The production of a melody on the harmonics is a manipulation of the resonant frequencies that highlights individual harmonics; the production of a melody on harmonics is not a manipulation of the source, or fundamental frequency—in other words, the harmonics do not move, only the tool by which we select the harmonics, or the resonator. The left side of figure 5.34 shows a spectrogram of ethnic/folk reinforced harmonic production, referred to as throat singing. Here we see the representation of a melody in the sygyt style from the country of Tuva. In this performance practice, the reinforced harmonic is piercing, while the fundamental frequency is heavily damped, functioning as an almost hidden drone (particularly if sung in a train station). In this representation, the reinforced harmonics are the dark/bold lines that are identified by number, while the fundamental frequency is the lowest line. On the right side of figure 5.34, a power spectrum shows that the amplitude of the harmonic is considerably greater than that of the fundamental frequency.

Figure 5.34. Left: Spectrogram of a reinforced harmonic sung melody from Tuva. Right: Frequency versus amplitude plot that shows a harmonic with significantly higher amplitude than its fundamental period.

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Reinforced harmonics are classified as a filtering effect rather than a combinatorial multiphonic (see chapter 7), as all perceivable components are generated from one source—a fundamental frequency (pitch) with a higher melody resulting from the amplitude reinforcement of selected harmonics. This reinforcement selectively amplifies one harmonic while damping adjacent harmonics. Metaphorically, this is achieved by placing a very small yet powerful amplifier (or magnification glass) upon the scaffolding of the harmonics, thus allowing one element to become perceptually isolated from its neighbors (see figure 5.35).

Figure 5.35.

Metaphor of amplifying glass over scaffolding.

Two interrelated components are featured during reinforced harmonic production: (1) the isolation of a single harmonic and (2) frequency movement of the harmonic melody. First, the isolation of a single harmonic from its neighboring harmonics is the key to the successful production of overtone singing. This isolation refers to the extreme amplitude difference between the reinforced harmonic and its neighboring harmonics that is achieved by a complex interaction between the vocal folds and vocal tract. Not all of the elements responsible for the perceptual isolation of a single harmonic are understood. What is understood is (1) an isolated harmonic must be tuned precisely in the middle of a formant; (2) the measure of the radiated bandwidth (or damping) of the isolated harmonic decreases; (3) lip rounding increases inertance and lowers radiation losses, which decreases bandwidth; and (4) the glottal source changes dramatically when switching from normal to reinforced harmonic phonation. The exact contribution of the source, as well as the coupling characteristics of the vocal folds to the sub- and supraglottal systems during reinforced harmonic production, need further examination. During the production of reinforced harmonics, in which the drone retains the same pitch, the ratios between a F0 and its h0 (a fundamental frequency and its harmonic) remain unchanged. In order to produce the perception of a harmonic pitch change, one formant is made to dominate the resonant energy of the vocal tract. This chosen formant, usually the first or second, perturbs nodes and antinodes of the vocal tract. It is this formant movement that aligns with selected discrete harmonics to produce the perception of melodic movement upon the harmonic. Next, the left side of figure 5.36 shows an example of a western reinforced harmonic musical style that features a two-voice polyphony between the fundamental frequencies and the reinforced harmonics. The right side of Figure 5.36 shows more of a balance between the fundamental period and the reinforced harmonic.

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Figure 5.36. a. Spectrogram of reinforced harmonic production in which the fundamental frequencies and reinforced harmonics are designed to form a two-part counterpoint (from Stuart Hinds); b. Frequency versus amplitude plot that shows a balance between the fundamental period and its harmonic.

Four different articulatory methods are documented here, though it is quite possible that others exist. Figure 5.37 shows method 1 on the left side, which is controlled by the opening and closing of the mouth so, as the reinforced harmonic rose, the mouth widened. The right side of figure 5.37 shows method 2, which involves placement of the tongue tip on the alveolar ridge (the bony ridge directly behind the upper teeth) while mid-tongue moves upward toward the hard palate as the harmonics rise. As opposed to method 1, here the lips seem to be used only to finely tune the harmonic in the middle of the dominant formant. For those with an interest, this is the method used by the Tuvans to produce sygyt.

Figure 5.37. a. Method 1 of reinforced harmonic production featuring bilabial opening as reinforced harmonic rises; b. Method 2 featuring tongue tip remaining on or near alveolar ridge with mid-tongue movement toward hard palate as reinforced harmonic rises.

On the left side of figure 5.38 is method 3, in which the reinforced harmonics are played by the tongue moving from an /o/ to an /i/ as the reinforced harmonics rise. This is the method of articulation used in the Khoomei style of Tuvan throat singing. Perceptually, this style typically features a greater amplitude of the reinforced harmonic than method 1 but is less prominent than method 2. Meanwhile, on the right side of figure 5.38 is method 4, in which the majority of the movement occurs in the pharyngeal cavity. During this method, the tongue tip/blade remain in a stable midpalatal position, while the tongue root is positioned near the rear pharyngeal wall for lower harmonics and moves forward until a large gap is found in the space between rear tongue and epiglottis (vallecula) for mid to high harmonics. For the highest harmonics, the epiglottis swings forward to close the vallecular space—surprisingly all with very little movement in the upper vocal tract. As before, lip rounding acts to “fine tune” the harmonic with the dominant formant. For the composer, it might not be important to identify which method is used, although a greater familiarity with the characteristics of an instrument often produces a more sophisticated art. Also, for composers it’s best to work with a performer because not everyone is able to produce the four methods listed here. The manner of production might not be the most important issue to address but rather the specific harmonics used over any fundamental.

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Figure 5.38. a. Method 3 featuring tongue retraction for the low harmonics and tongue advancement for the higher harmonics (e.g., /o/ to /i/); b. Method 4 dominated by movement in the pharynx while the tongue tip and blade remain stable.

The range of fundamental frequencies and harmonics available for reinforced harmonic production varies by voice type and gender. The composer will want to know at which fundamental frequencies a particular singer can reinforce harmonics. Generally, as the F0 rises, the upper limit of the harmonics available for reinforcement seems to go down, leading some to speculate that a ceiling of perceptible reinforced harmonics may exist. Most frequently, the harmonics available for a low F0 include harmonics 3 to 16 (and up to even h36 for extremely low F0s), while a higher F0 might have an upper limit of 8 to 12. A general concept suggests that a lower F0 produces higher harmonics (although not necessarily higher frequencies), while a higher F0 produces lower harmonics. The fundamental frequencies that seem best suited for the production of reinforced harmonics are those that lie within one octave of a singer’s lowest pitch—excluding the lower third or so (see figure 5.39).

Figure 5.39. Potentially robust fundamental frequencies for reinforced harmonic production.

Harmonic singing has been reported to have originated around inner Asia, most notably from Tuva and Mongolia. However, harmonics are universal and are the physical basis behind the quality and strength of the sound produced by instruments (including voice). Although the original style may have originated in central Asia, no one should claim ownership of harmonic reinforcement, perhaps only the significant markers that are unique to a specific style or culture. Many singers in other parts of the world use harmonics in different ways, no doubt some to imitate Tuvan throat singing, but many use harmonic reinforcement to reproduce an identification of the physical elements that are central to the sound concept of a culture. These physical elements are then gathered together in visible arenas of performance (and imbued with the ritual power of performance), which form the bases of codified behaviors that become integrated into the notion of style. Therefore, while elements of a codified tradition may be claimed by members of a particular society, an expression using harmonics disembodied from a culturally identified tradition should be seen for what it is—a musical resource available to all. Other uses of reinforced harmonics or spectral accentuation include the sacred chanting of Tibetan monks (who reinforce primarily harmonic 10, see chapter 7), the Xhosa women (who reinforce between harmonics 3 and 6 using a double source, see chapter 7), and Bulgarian women who do not reinforce one tone but rather emphasize a broader band of the spectrum.

Track 5.12, Untitled Kargyraa Style

Track 5.13, Untitled Khoomei Style

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Track 5.14, Untitled Sygyt Style

Track 5.15, Hykes: True to the Times The ability to produce reinforced harmonics is not the result of a specialized anatomy or an exceptional musical ability. In fact, many people reinforce broad-band segments of their speech every day. Therefore, most readers should be able to reinforce some harmonics with little trouble.

EXTERNAL FILTERS External filtering can involve hands, flute, didgeridoo, box, toilet bowl, microphone, tube, seashell, or another face to produce bibuccal singing, to name just a few. Other external effects include oscillation of the head, cheek, and body to influence the sound as a filter. External filtering used in musical contexts is seen in traditional cultures, including the Inuit (bibuccal singing), Papua New Guinea (the Iatmul), Australia (didgeridoo and voice), the Solomon Islands (voice with panpipes), India (Rajasthan tradition featuring flute with voice), and Laos (k’mu, voice, and flute). In B A 4, Green asks the singer to produce a vocal fry while using an alternation of the left and right hands to cover the mouth (see figure 5.40). He also asks the singer to produce an ingressive multiphonic with smoothly changing mouth positions while waving one hand between the mouth and microphone (see figure 5.41).

Figure 5.40.

Figure 5.41.

Green: B A 4. Courtesy of A. Green.

Green: B A 4. Courtesy of A. Green.

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Track 5.16, Green: B A 4

Track 5.17, Green: B A 4 In Voix, Rodriguez asks the singer to cover the mouth with both hands formed into a hollow cavity, with the right hand touching the mouth. This external cavity is similar to making bird and other animal calls. In his notation, the upper line indicates an open cavity (with hand specified) with the lower line closed (see figure 5.42).

Figure 5.42.

Rodriguez: Voix. Courtesy of M. Rodriguez.

Track 5.18, Rodriguez: Voix

SUGGESTED READINGS AND REFERENCES Adachi, S., and M. Yamada. “An Acoustical Study of Sound Production in Biphonics Singing, Xoomij.” Japan-China Joint Meeting on Musical Acoustics 2 (1997): 21–26. Bloothooft, G., E. Bringmann, M. van Cappellen, J. B. van Luipen, and K. P. Thomassen. “Acoustics and Perception of Overtone Singing.” Journal of the Acoustic Society of America 92 (1992): 1827–36. Causse, R., J. Kergomard, and X. Lurton. “Input Impedance of Brass Musical Instruments—Comparison between Experiment and Numerical Models.” Journal of the Acoustic Society of America 75 (1984): 241–54. Chen, M. Y. “Acoustic Correlates of English and French Nasalized Vowels.” Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 102 (1997): 2360–70. Clark, E. M. “Emphasizing the Articulatory and Timbral Aspects of Vocal Production in Vocal Composition.” D.M.A. thesis, University of Illinois, Urbana, 1985. Dang, J., K. Honda, and H. Suzuki. “Morphological and Acoustical Analysis of the Nasal and Paranasal Cavities.” Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 96 (1994): 2088–2100. Dmitriev, L. B., B. P. Chernov, and V. T. Maslov. “Functioning of the Voice Mechanism in Double-Source Touvinian Singing.” Folia Phoniatrica 35 (1983): 193–97. Dubreuil, B. Personal communication. Edgerton, M. E. “Palatal Sound: A Comprehensive Model of Vocal Tract Articulation.” Organized Sound 4, no. 2 (1999): 93–110. Grusin, M. “Intensified Vocal Harmonics as a Compositional Resource.” D.M.A. thesis, University of California–San Diego, 1975. Jones, D. E. “Compositional Control of Phonetic/Nonphonetic Perception.” Perspectives of New Music 25 (1987): 138–55. Klingholtz, F. “Overtone Singing: Productive Mechanisms and Acoustic Data.” Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 7 (1993): 118–22. Kob, M. “Analysis and Modelling of Overtone Singing in the Sygyt Style.” Applied Acoustics 65, no. 12 (December 2004): 1249–59. Levin, T., and M. E. Edgerton. “The Throat Singers of Tuva.” Scientific American 281, no. 3 (1999): 70–77. Maccarini, A. R., H. Tran Quang, J. Sundberg, and G. Tisato. “Overtones Singing: Acoustical Analysis and Singing Technique.” In Workshop Presentation at the 26th Annual Symposium: Care of the Professional Voice. Philadelphia: The Voice Foundation, 1997. Rachele, R. Overtone Singing Study Guide. Amsterdam: Cryptic Voices Productions, 1997. Sklar, S. Introduction to Khoomei Workshop. Minneapolis: Skysong Productions, 1997. Sumi, G. “An Acoustical Consideration of Xoomij.” In Musical Voices of Asia, edited by R. Emmert and Y. Minegishi, 135–41. Tokyo: Heibonsha, The Japan Foundation, 1980. Sundberg, J. “Articulatory Interpretation of the Singing Formants.” Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 55 (1974): 838–44.

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Titze, I. R., and B. H. Story. “Acoustic Interactions of the Voice Source with the Lower Vocal Tract.” Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 101 (1997): 2234–43. Tran Quang H., and D. Guillou. “Original Research and Acoustical Analysis in Connection with the Xoomij Style of Biphonic Singing.” In Musical Voices of Asia, edited by R. Emmert and Y. Minegishi, 162–73. Tokyo: Heibonsha, The Japan Foundation, 1980. Walcott, R. “The Choomij of Mongolia: A Spectral Analysis of Overtone Singing.” Selected Reports in Musicology 2 (1974): 55–60. Wishart, T. On Sonic Art. London: Gordon and Breach, 1983. Zemp, H., and H. Tran Quang. The Song of Harmonics. Paris: Centre National de la Recherché Scientifique, 1989. Video.

Reminder: All examples referred to in the chapter can be found at https://rowman.com/ISBN/9780810888401 (select the “Features” tab).

Chapter Six

Turbulent to Absolute Airflow Modification

Chapter 6 presents the other side of articulation, covering turbulent disruptions to the airflow, known in language as stops, fricatives, sibilants, among others. This chapter begins with those sounds from language and extends our thinking to nonlanguage conceptions using the Edgerton model of articulation.

TURBULENT SOUNDS Chapter 5 discusses filter effects of the vocal tract on airflow. This chapter addresses partial and total airflow disruptions. Similar to approximants, fricatives, and stops, these disruptions can slightly color a sound, produce a sustained noise-like sound, or stop airflow. Every region of the vocal tract is capable of producing either turbulent or absolute constrictions to airflow, including external influences originating on the outside of the body.

Figure 6.1.

Kourliandski: Voice-Off. Courtesy of Editions Jobert.

Track 6.1, Kourliandski: Voice-Off In Voice-Off by Dmitri Kourliandski, a general tongue movement is indicated as “fast sporadic movements, tongue in mouth; mouth slightly open; quasi-gurgling sounds” (see figure 6.1), while in Tracce by Brooks, a rolled /r/ transitions into an /r/ fricative (see figure 6.2).

Figure 6.2.

Brooks: Tracce. Courtesy of W. Brooks.

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SOUNDS OF LANGUAGE The influence of the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) as a filtering effect is presented in chapter 5. The value of the IPA for composers and performers is that it allows for more precision in the notation of those sounds borrowed from language. Figure 6.3 features symbols designed to identify the approximate place of articulation for the upper vocal tract (labial, lingual, palatal, etc.). Figure 6.4 features symbols for consonant production within a framework that identifies an anatomical component with manner on an outgoing stream of air (pulmonic). Figure 6.5 features symbols that identify manner on an unlunged or ingressive airstream (see chapter 1) as clicks, voiced implosives, and ejectives.

Figure 6.3.

IPA consonant pronunciation guide.

Figure 6.4. IPA anatomical-to-manner consonant chart. From IPA chart, 2005, licensed to Wikimedia Creative Commons, Share Alike 3.0 via Wikimedia Commons.

Figure 6.5. Unlunged and ingressive turbulent behaviors. From IPA chart, 2005, licensed to Wikimedia Creative Commons, Share Alike 3.0 via Wikimedia Commons.

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These charts represent the pronunciation, character, and manner of speech that became fertile ground for the inspiration of new vocal composition. The second movement of the composition Madrigals by William Brooks (see figure 6.6 and track 6.2) uses phonetic notation to represent speech habits of the mid-19th-century American South. This second movement is based on Brooks’s phonetic analysis of a poem by Stephen Foster, where he seems more interested in the sounds of language then representing any sort of semantic code from that language.

Figure 6.6.

Brooks: Madrigals (No. 2, Bad Bottle Blues). Courtesy of W. Brooks.

Track 6.2, Brooks: Madrigals, No. 2, Bad Bottle Blues Dehaan, in Three Études for Solo Voice, breaks down language further, from phonemes to individual letters. Note placement on the three-line stave, which represents the height of the unvoiced stops and fricatives (see figure 6.7).

Figure 6.7.

Dehaan: Three Études for Solo Voice. Courtesy of D. Dehaan.

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The IPA is an effective method of notation that offers relative precision for pronunciation, place, and manner. Especially for voice, the technicity of such a system is so tightly intertwined with the sounds of language that epistemic (of or relating to knowledge or knowing) bits of one system may be translated cross-modally into technical tools and used to build the syntactic conditions of the system. Likewise, parts of the technical system can acquire epistemic status and thus impact the semantic underlay of a system. In powerful ways, the interplay between the tools of experimentation and its expression/meaning is at the core of an experimental system—even its driving force. However, the IPA is not a comprehensive model of vocal tract articulation but rather is limited to sounds within languages. As shown in this book, there are more regions of articulation and manner that can be useful creatively and are not language based. Therefore, this next section liberates articulation from language. Of course, language and the network of semiotic relationships are robust. However, creative souls who are searching for “what’s next” might wish to articulate expressions that are outside of mappings of articulation to semantic code. Thus I’ve presented a novel mapping of articulation that identifies turbulent to absolute methods of airstream modification by identifying regions of constriction at the lips, teeth, tongue (front, mid, back), cheeks, uvula, pharynx, soft palate, epiglottis, saliva, head oscillation, body oscillation, and external drumming onto a sound.

EDGERTON MODEL OF TURBULENT TO ABSOLUTE AIRFLOW MODIFICATION The parts of the anatomy that produce a constriction upon airflow include the lips, teeth, tongue (front, mid, back), cheeks, uvula, pharynx, soft palate, epiglottis, saliva, head oscillation, body oscillation, and external drumming. Paired with these regions are the manners by which articulation occurs. Each section identifies the region and manner of constriction. For a comprehensive chart showing manner and articulation, see table 6.1. For specific place information relative to each region, please see each subsection. Table 6.1 is an overview that identifies place of articulation with manner. Composers should recognize that these regions of articulation move about. Due to the inherent nonlinearity of the system, essentially equal movements within the vocal tract do not always produce correspondingly uniform results. This suggests that large movements can result in little to no acoustic change, while small movements can result in large acoustic changes. Musically this means that some vocal fold behaviors can produce bifurcations to period doubling, chaos, or even tori. However, in this table, the manners are all associated with the source characteristic produced at the point of articulation. A. Lips (Labial) There are four types of labial turbulent to absolute airflow modifications: 1. Bilabial fricatives, trills, buzzes, and whistles. As shown in figure 6.8, the lips may produce clear pitches with a buzz or whistle or inharmonic flaps at different regions from left to right, including multiple and simultaneous productions. One strategy for notating bilabial activity is to indicate region and perhaps density over time. In figure 6.9, bilabial sibilant/salival whistles are produced with a tight constriction left, center, and right. The lip pressure varies from moderate to high and can produce single to multiphonic sonorities. In Three Études for Solo Voice, Dehaan asks the singer to produce a bilabial trill, which he indicates is a rapid vibration of the lips—probably some sort of small-amplitude buzz with a slight pitch but not as regular as the typical brass buzz (see figure 6.10). In Hiss and Whistle, Kokoras asks the singer to assist the bilabial action with their fingers by stretching the lips and blowing with a narrow and high-pressure airstream. It’s unclear whether this effect should produce single or multiple salival whistles or perhaps something else, but the gesture is imaginative and gives the performer room to explore (see figure 6.11). 2. Offset bilabial. As shown in figure 6.12, an offset bilabial position refers to the position of the upper lip in relation to the lower lip, one in front of the other, that can vary from side to side. The result of this unusual source production features primarily whistles, buzzes, and salival noise. In my composition Friedrich’s Comma, the singer is asked to produce offset bilabial fricatives in addition to rapidly rising or lowering pitch contours on egressive and ingressive airflow. The idea is to try to balance the voiced and unvoiced components. Note also the jaw movements left, center, and right (see figure 6.13).

× ×

4. Labial-Dental

Tremolo A. Lips (Labial)

1. Bilabial

×

2. Offset Bidental ×

×

B. Dental

× ×

1. Bidental

3. Dental-Labial

×

4. Dental-Lingual ×

×

5. Dental to Outside of Lip

×

6. Dental to Vestibule between Teeth and Lip

×

×

2. Tongue Trills

C. Tongue

×

×

×

×

1. Lingual to Oral Tract

×

×

×

2. Cheek and Lips

×

×

3. Cheek, Lips, and Tongue

×

×

D. Cheeks

×

1. Cheek Regions

4. Cheek and Tongue

×

5. Cheek and Ingressive Airflow ×

×

6. Cheek, Saliva, Teeth, and Tongue 7. Externally Struck

2. Soft Palate

L. External Articulation

External Articulation

K. Body Oscillation

× Body Oscillation

J. Head Oscillation

× Head Oscillation

I. Salival

× Salival

H. Pharynx

× Pharynx

G. Epiglottis

? Epiglottis

F. Soft Palate

Soft Palate

E. Uvula

×

1. Uvula

(continued)

Comprehensive Model of Articulation—Place/Manner Chart

×

×

Click

Table 6.1.

×

×

×

3. Labial-Lingual

×

Suck

×

2. Offset Bilabial

×

Flap

×

Buzz

×

Roll/Trill

×

Plosive

×

Rolled Fricative

Velopharyngeal Port

×

×

×

1. Bidental

×

×

2. Offset Bidental

×

×

3. Dental-Labial

×

×

4. Dental-Lingual

×

×

5. Dental to Outside of Lip

×

×

6. Dental to Vestibule between Teeth and Lip

×

1. Lingual to Oral Tract

×

2. Tongue Trills ×

×

×

×

×

2. Cheek and Lips

×

×

×

3. Cheek, Lips, and Tongue

×

×

×

4. Cheek and Tongue

×

×

×

×

×

×

D. Cheeks

×

1. Cheek Regions

C. Tongue

×

×

4. Labial-Dental

B. Dental

×

3. Labial-Lingual

A. Lips (Labial)

×

2. Offset Bilabial

×

1. Bilabial

×

Fricative

×

×

Whistle

5. Cheek and Ingressive Airflow ×

6. Cheek, Saliva, Teeth, and Tongue 7. Externally Struck E. Uvula F. Soft Palate G. Epiglottis H. Pharynx I. Salival J. Head Oscillation

Body Oscillation

K. Body Oscillation

External Articulation

L. External Articulation

× Head Oscillation

×

Salival

× ?

×

×

×

×

×

× × × ×

×

Pharynx

2. Soft Palate

×

×

Epiglottis

×

×

Soft Palate

1. Uvula

Table 6.1. (continued)

Stops

×

External Influence

Figure 6.8.

Figure 6.9.

Figure 6.10.

Regions for bilabial fricatives, buzzes, and whistles.

Notation for bilabial salival/sibilant whistles.

Dehaan: Three Études for Solo Voice. Courtesy of D. Dehaan.

Figure 6.11.

Kokoras: Hiss and Whistle. Courtesy of P. Kokoras.

Track 6.3, Kokoras: Hiss and Whistle

Figure 6.12.

Offset bilabial articulation.

Chapter Six

74

Figure 6.13. Scores.

Edgerton: Friedrich’s Comma. Courtesy of Babel

Track 6.4, Edgerton: Friedrich’s Comma 3. Labial-lingual. This method of articulation refers to tongue-to-lip manners and uses the mapping of the upper vocal tract presented in chapter 5. These actions are discussed in “C. Tongue.”

Figure 6.14.

Labial-dental regions of articulation.

4. Labial-dental regions. The position of lips and teeth can be varied front to back and side to side. The resulting sounds include air sounds, as well as salival fricatives and whistles—often heard as multiphonics (see figure 6.14). To close this bilabial section, B A 4 by Green decouples the upper lip from the lower lip in a very inventive context that offers quite a bit of interpretive freedom. For the singer it is important to explore the audible variants of lower to upper lip position, especially at fff because the high airflow tries to dominate (see figure 6.15). Table 6.2 is a labial chart that identifies regions of articulation on an ingressive or egressive and lunged or unlunged air. B. Dental There are six types of dental airflow modifications: 1. Bidental regions. When the teeth strike one another, the filtering action of the lips can vary between open and close and side to side. The available sounds include harsh, percussive strikes or, when sustained, salival fricatives and whistles (see figure 6.16). In Liquid Structures by Holmqvist, the composer asks the singer to initially produce a strong nasal airflow accompanied by percussive dental articulations. Obviously, the singer needs amplification so that an audience can hear the dental stops (see figure 6.17). 2. Offset bidental regions. Articulation involves the upper or lower teeth forward or combined with side-to-side movement. This results in whistles, salival noises, and airflow sounds (see figure 6.18). 3. Dental-labial. This is discussed earlier in “A. Lips (Labial),” under “4. Labial-dental regions.” 4. Dental-lingual. This is presented later in “C. Tongue,” under “1. Lingual-to-oral tract (utilizing the comprehensive mapping of the vocal tract).”

Table 6.2.

Labial Chart A. Lips (Labial)

1. Bilabial

3. LabialLingual

2. Offset Bilabial

4

5

1

2

3

4

5

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

Suck

5

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

Inferior-Anterior

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

1

2

3

4

5

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

External Influence

Stops

Velopharyngeal Port

Click

Tremolo

3

Flap

4

Buzz

2

Roll/Trill

3

Plosive

1

Rolled Fricative

2

Superior-Anterior

Fricative

1

Inferior-Anterior

Whistle

Superior-Anterior

4. Labial-Dental

Figure 6.15.

Green: B A 4. Courtesy of A. Green.

Track 6.5, Green: B A 4

Figure 6.16.

Figure 6.17.

Bidental regions.

Holmqvist: Liquid Structures. Courtesy of K. Holmqvist.

Turbulent to Absolute Airflow Modification

Figure 6.18.

77

Offset bidental regions shown superior-anterior.

5. Dental to outside of lip. The upper teeth are easily placed on the outside of the lower lip, but the lower teeth are not so easily positioned outside the upper lip and seem to require an extremely flexible jaw. When using ingressive airflow, a slight sense of whistle may be produced, otherwise complex wideband inharmonic sounds are plentiful (see figure 6.19).

Figure 6.19.

Bidental and offset bidental articulation.

6. Dental to vestibule between teeth and lip. Placement of the upper teeth in the lower vestibule or the lower teeth in the upper vestibule is a bit difficult and probably varies considerably between performers. With an ingressive airflow and teeth firmly placed on the outer wall of the inner vestibule, a salival pitch is quite easy to produce. Naturally, salival noises are plentiful (see figure 6.20).

Figure 6.20.

Dental-labial and dental-vestibule articulation.

Table 6.3 identifies the potential manners of articulation that are available to each region of dental articulation. Prominent manners that are seen in composed music and in improvised settings include percussive-like articulation, as well as sustained disturbances (such as frications, salival noises, whistles, and pops) that heighten the influence of the dentition. The ability to move the jaw side to side in order to alter the place of articulation seems to vary considerably between performers. Depending on the context in which dental production occurs, it might be best to utilize amplification in the production of these behaviors. Naturally, the dentition functions as a filter on sound production, but with well-placed microphone(s), it is possible to hear robust staccato dental stops.

Rolled Fricative Fricative Whistle Velopharyngeal Port Stops External Influence

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

2

×

3

4

×

5

×

6

×

7

×

1

×

2

×

3

1. Bidental

×

5

6

×

7

×

1

×

2

×

×

3

×

×

4

×

×

5

×

×

1

×

×

2

Closed Aperture

2. Offset Bidental

3

×

4

×

×

5

×

×

1

×

×

2

Inferior-Anterior

×

×

Open Aperture ×

×

3

×

×

4

×

×

5

×

×

1

×

×

2

×

×

3

×

×

4

Open Aperture ×

Closed Aperture

Superior-Anterior

4

×

×

×

×

×

Aperture Open

×

3. Dental-Labial

×

4. Dental-Lingual

Dental Chart

1

×

B. Dental

×

Aperture Closed

Table 6.3.

Tremolo Buzz Plosive Click Suck Flap Roll/Trill

5. Dental to Outside of Lip

6. Dental to Vestibule between Teeth and Lip

2

×

3

×

×

4

×

×

×

5

×

×

×

1

×

×

×

2

×

×

×

3

×

×

1

×

×

2

×

×

3

×

×

4

×

×

5

×

×

1

×

×

2

×

×

3

InferiorAnterior

1

×

×

×

SuperiorAnterior

×

×

×

InferiorAnterior

×

×

SuperiorAnterior

×

Chapter Six

80

C. Tongue There are three types of lingual airflow modifications: 1. Lingual to oral tract (utilizing the comprehensive mapping of the vocal tract). The tongue contributes to many sounds using a wide variety of means. This model of articulation introduced in chapter 5 centers around a novel mapping of the vocal tract that consists of a series of relative points or regions above the larynx that portions of the tongue may touch or approximate. The manner of articulation broadly encompasses stops, fricatives, approximants, or vortex-induced oscillations. The sonorities include whistle-like tones, salival fricatives, sibilant, pops, and air-induced noises, as well as other transient, less well-defined states. This chapter presents potentials for extending turbulent to absolute airflow modifications. As mentioned in chapter 5, some of the acoustic correlates of turbulent modification utilizing this model are documented in Edgerton (1999). As before, we can combine all lingual-to-palatal actions with other articulations, including mandibular, dental, palatal, pharyngeal, and laryngeal manipulation (see table 6.1). One reason for developing a comprehensive system of place and manner is to capitalize on the ability of one performer to produce a contrapuntal complex within a single face. Performer-composers come up with their own creative solutions—one example from my composition Friedrich’s Comma is shown in figure 6.21. In this example, multiple anatomical elements are identified, as are the associated manners that are scaled within minimal to maximal values. The significance of scaling these behaviors has three effects. The first is to fully explore the phase space of each parameter in order to increase the diversity of acoustic output. Second, one may increase redundancy across the entire parameter space. Third, increased coherence across multiple dimensions offers stability of form and process, even in highly complex and transient modes of production.

Figure 6.21.

Edgerton: Friedrich’s Comma. Courtesy of Babel Scores.

Track 6.6, Edgerton: Friedrich’s Comma In Liquid Structures, Holmqvist asks the singer to produce approximants with the tongue blade at specific locations using the lingua-palatal chart identified in chapter 5. Approximants may be considered either a filter or turbulent effect, depending on the closeness of the articulator to the vocal tract. In figure 6.22, the singer will likely produce both filtering and turbulent effects. In figure 6.23, Holmqvist asks the singer to produce similar articulations with the tongue blade but in this case as fricatives, not approximants. In figure 6.24, Holmqvist asks the singer to produce percussive articulations at the region just behind the upper teeth.

Turbulent to Absolute Airflow Modification

81

Figure 6.22. Holmqvist: Liquid Structures. Courtesy of K. Holmqvist.

Figure 6.23.

Holmqvist: Liquid Structures. Courtesy of K. Holmqvist.

Figure 6.24. Holmqvist: Liquid Structures. Courtesy of K. Holmqvist.

2. Tongue trills. Tongue trills can be produced with the front, mid, and rear parts of the tongue. In addition to single-region trills, it is possible to produce oscillations at any two or even three regions simultaneously. Trills can be pitched using well-defined periodic oscillation or can be rough and coarse nonperiodic oscillation (see figure 6.25). Lingual trills are used in the composition Three Études for Solo Voice by Dehaan. Note how the tongue trills are colored first by an /a/ vowel, followed by an /ʃ/ sibilant (see figure 6.26). A notation for identifying front, mid, and back tongue trills is shown in figure 6.27.

Figure 6.25.

Figure 6.26.

Tongue trill articulation.

Dehaan: Three Études for Solo Voice. Courtesy of D. Dehaan.

Chapter Six

82

Figure 6.27.

Front, mid, and rear tongue trills.

3. Tongue outside oral cavity (through lips with air, whistle, vibration). In B A 4 by Anthony Green, the vocalist is asked to stick the tongue out of the mouth, with the lips forming a tight seal around the tongue. Then the singer is asked to blow with varying pressure while moving the tongue from left to right. One can imagine a number of possible outputs from pitch with air noise to noise alone. It would be helpful if the composer gave an indication of the type of sound he imagined (see figure 6.28).

Figure 6.28.

Green: B A 4. Courtesy of A. Green.

Track 6.7, Green: B A 4 Table 6.4 features articulation with tongue to palate. Naturally, speakers from the same linguistic class and geographical region have similarities in articulation; when looked at more closely, research has found that significant variation of articulation exists within cultures, which can be useful for composition.

Plosive

C. Tongue

D 1–9

Tongue Tip C 1–9

E 1–9

F 1–6

B 1–7

F 1–6

E 1–9

F 1–6

Mid/Rear Tongue

1. Lingual to Oral Tract Tongue Blade C 1–9

E 1–9

B 1–7

D 1–9

A 1–9

A 1–9

B 1–7

D 1–9

Lower Palate C 1–9

E 1–9

F 1–6

1

3

Pharynx

2

4

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

F

×

×

M

×

×

R

×

×

S

2. Tongue Trills

×

(continued)

Table 6.4. Tongue to Palatal Regions

Tremolo Click

Buzz Suck Flap Roll/Trill Rolled Fricative

Table 6.4.

(continued)

C. Tongue

Tongue Tip

2

3

4

Pharynx 1

Lower Palate F 1–6

Mid/Rear Tongue

1. Lingual to Oral Tract Tongue Blade

E 1–9

E 1–9

D 1–9

D 1–9

C 1–9

C 1–9

B 1–7

B 1–7

A 1–9

F 1–6

F 1–6

E 1–9

E 1–9

D 1–9

F 1–6

C 1–9

×

B 1–7

×

A 1–9

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

Fricative

×

Whistle Stops

Velopharyngeal Port External Influence

M

R

S

2. Tongue Trills

F

×

Turbulent to Absolute Airflow Modification

85

D. Cheeks There are seven types of cheek airflow modification: 1. Cheek regions. A singer may send air into either side or both simultaneously (see figure 6.29). In Voice-Off by Dmitri Kourliandski, the singer is asked to present a quasi-mouth gurgle, with the mouth closed and moving the air from cheek to cheek (see figure 6.30).

Figure 6.29.

Cheek regions.

Figure 6.30. Jobert.

Kourliandski: Voice-Off. Courtesy of Editions

Track 6.8, Kourliandski: Voice-Off 2. Cheeks and lips. The cheeks and lips can be vibrated simultaneously to produce a lip buzz, whistle, or frication (see figure 6.31).

Figure 6.31.

Cheek and lips and cheek, lips, and tongue.

3. Cheeks, lips, and tongue. The cheeks, lips, and tongue can be vibrated to produce a tongue and cheek trill, lip buzz, whistle, and frication with cheek influence (see figure 6.31). 4. Cheek and tongue. A singer can produce a percussive sound or tremolo with heavy air frication (see figure 6.32).

Figure 6.32.

Cheek and tongue and cheek and ingressive air.

5. Cheek and ingressive airflow. With precisely placed ingressive air into the cheeks, a vibration may occur (see figure 6.32).

Chapter Six

86

6. Cheek, saliva, teeth, and tongue. When emphasizing one or more elements, a singer can produce a wide variety of sounds with the cheek, saliva, teeth, and tongue. It might be helpful to think of extremes for each element. Airflow can be lunged or unlunged. If unlunged, the disturbance of air can be circulated throughout the oral cavity (see figure 6.33).

Figure 6.33. ticulation.

Cheek, saliva, teeth, and tongue; external cheek ar-

7. Externally struck. Striking the head, face, or neck can produce percussive or pitched sounds. The sense of pitched sounds can be resonant and repeatable, for instance, when tapping the cheek, manipulations of inner oral cavity produces clearly heard melodies. Acoustically, such pitches correspond to the dominant resonant frequency of the oral cavity (see figure 6.33). Cheek articulation is a dramatic gesture that is part of multiple component sonority, such as cheek emphasis with bilabial buzz or flutter. The combination of multiple components is explored in detail in chapter 7. Please see table 6.5 that links regions of cheek articulation with manner. Table 6.5 features cheek regions paired with manners. E. Uvula Holmqvist in Liquid Structures calls for both a uvular tremolo and uvular trill. Probably tremolo is more precise because the uvula breaks up a sound by adding repeated percussive strokes to a tone; it might be possible to raise or lower the sense of pitch with the uvula (hence the perception of a trill), but generally it’s difficult to change the speed of a uvular iteration (see figure 6.34). There is one type of uvular airflow modification—the uvular tremolo. The uvula moves forward and back to produce a tremolo-like sound (see figure 6.35). Uvular articulation can act upon inward- or outward-moving airflow. The uvula can be voiced or unvoiced (in which case, close amplification will be necessary). F. Soft Palate Soft palate movement involves the opening and closing of the velopharyngeal port. Obviously this has a strong filtering function but can also be used as percussive strokes or as an abrupt release to produce a palatal plosive. There are two states of soft palate airflow modification: 1. Open. The velopharyngeal port is open to allow air into the nasal cavity (as in ng of sing). 2. Closed. The velopharyngeal port is closed, as during a non-nasal /a/ (see figure 6.35). G. Epiglottis There is one type of epiglottic airflow modification—an epiglottic frication. It might be possible to perform an epiglottic frication on an egressive airflow. Though this has not been reported in the literature, there are reports of Arabic pharyngeal fricatives that place source location between the arytenoids and base of the epiglottis and between the aryepiglottic folds and upper part of the epiglottis (see figure 6.36). In my composition Mountain Songs, the singer is asked to produce an epiglottic frication on an outgoing airflow featuring a partially closed supralaryngeal region. Normally, epiglottic closure is said to be an unconscious reaction used to protect the respiratory tract during chewing and swallowing.

Table 6.5.

Cheek Regions Paired with Manners D. Cheeks

1. Cheek 2

3

3. Cheek, Lips, and Tongue

1

1

2

3

4

×

×

×

×

2

3

4. Cheek and Tongue 1

2

3

4

1

2

3

6. Cheek, Saliva, Teeth, and Tongue 1

2

3

4

5

6

×

×

×

×

×

×

G. Externally Struck 1

2

3

4

5

6

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

Rolled Fricative

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

External Influence

Stops

Velopharyngeal Port

Whistle

Roll/Trill

Flap

Suck

Click

×

Fricative

Plosive

Buzz

Tremolo

1

2. Cheeks and Lips

5. Cheek and Ingressive Airflow

Chapter Six

88

Figure 6.34.

Holmqvist: Liquid Structures. Courtesy of K. Holmqvist.

Figure 6.35.

Uvula and soft palate charts.

Figure 6.36.

Epiglottic, pharyngeal, and salival regions.

Track 6.9, Edgerton: Mountain Songs

H. Pharynx There is an indeterminate number of regions in the pharynx that can modify an airflow as either stop or frication produced with the tongue base and pharyngeal walls. Certain languages, such as Arabic and German, use pharyngeal consonants. In this mapping, five levels of articulation are identified (see figure 6.36). I. Salival Saliva can modify or influence airflow in many ways. For instance, excessive saliva at any location in the vocal tract can influence output (see figure 6.36). This influence can be dominant or an equal member within a multiphonic or as accompaniment. Salivals can be indicated by region, manner, or context. Saliva by its nature is not stable and shifts according to pressure and location.

Turbulent to Absolute Airflow Modification

89

J. Head Oscillation Head oscillation can modify airflow from side to side or up to down through vigorous shaking that produces a tremolo or rough pulsation. K. Body Oscillation Body oscillation modifies airflow as tremolo-like or pulsated behaviors through a vigorous shaking that can modify especially lax glottal postures. B A 4 by Green includes an example of tremolo or oscillation outside the larynx that affects the glottal sound, both as pitch change and appearance of transients (see figure 6.37).

Figure 6.37.

Green: B A 4. Courtesy of A. Green.

Track 6.10, Green: B A 4 In B A 4 by Green, we see a second example of body oscillation affecting the vocal fold–produced sound. In this case, the singer is asked to shake a leg to produce unstable and transient sounds (see figure 6.38).

Figure 6.38.

Green: B A 4. Courtesy of A. Green.

Track 6.11, Green: B A 4

Chapter Six

90

L. External Articulation There are many ways that external drumming can modify airflow, such as producing a tremolo with the fingers or articulating reinforced harmonic by flicking the cheeks. In the first example, Green in B A 4 asks the singer to hit the body while altering the mouth position and producing an unvoiced /ʃ/, with the effect producing a thumping tremolo if on the torso; if on the neck near the larynx, this can alter the glottal cycle. Note that the clenched teeth adds tension to the laryngeal area that inhibits the production of transients (see figure 6.39).

Figure 6.39.

Green: B A 4. Courtesy of A. Green.

Track 6.12, Green: B A 4 In the next excerpt from B A 4 by Green, the singer is asked to use the external articulations to stop the sound by hitting the upper chest or choking oneself. In both cases the laryngeal posture and upper torso tension needs to be somewhat relaxed, otherwise the external strikes alone may not stop the sound (see figure 6.40).

Figure 6.40.

Green: B A 4. Courtesy of A. Green.

Track 6.13, Green: B A 4 Price in A Play on Words asks the singer to rearticulate the hand against the mouth during a section with voicing (see figure 6.41).

Figure 6.41.

Price: A Play on Words. Courtesy of W. Price.

Track 6.14, Price: A Play on Words

Turbulent to Absolute Airflow Modification

91

Table 6.6 identifies the effects associated with the uvula, soft palate, epiglottis, pharynx, salival articulation, head oscillation, body oscillation, and external articulation.

Table 6.6.

Uvula, Soft Palate, Epiglottis, Pharynx, Salival, Head Oscillation, Body Oscillation, and External Articulation

E. Uvula

F. Soft Palate 2

H. Pharynx 1

2

3

4

5

×

I. Salival

J. Head Oscillation

1

2

1

2

3

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

K. Body Oscillation

×

L. External Articulation 1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

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Plosive

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Flap Roll/Trill

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×

Fricative

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Rolled Fricative

Suck

×

Click

Buzz

Tremolo

1

G. Epiglottis

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

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×

×

×

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Velopharyngeal Port

×

Stops

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External Influence

Whistle

×?

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92

Chapter Six

All of the methods from chapters 5 and 6 can be placed within a multidimensional framework in which the elements of articulation can be seen to encompass properties of scalability. The importance of scaling parameters is to develop the ability to produce complex musical sonorities that carry the feature of quantitative parameter change over time. This is discussed further in chapter 9. In total, articulation by humans features a wide variety of source and filtering effects that influence the behavior of vocal fold oscillation to produce extra-normal acoustic sonorities.

SUGGESTED READINGS AND REFERENCES Appelman, R. The Science of Vocal Pedagogy. London: Indiana University Press, 1967. Bradlow, A., and T. Bent. “The Clear Speech Effect for Non-Native Listeners.” Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 112, no. 1 (July 2002): 272–84. Clark, E. M. “Emphasizing the Articulatory and Timbral Aspects of Vocal Production in Vocal Composition.” D.M.A. thesis, University of Illinois, Urbana, 1985. Clark, J., and C. Yallop. An Introduction to Phonetics and Phonology. 2nd ed. Oxford, UK: Blackwell, 1995. Edgerton, M. E. “Palatal Sound: A Comprehensive Model of Vocal Tract Articulation.” Organized Sound 4, no. 2 (August 1999): 93–110. Fry, D. B., ed. Acoustic Phonetics: A Book of Basic Readings. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976. Hassan, Z. M., and B. Heselwood, eds. Instrumental Studies in Arabic Phonetics. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 2011. Krause, J., and L. Braida. “Investigating Alternative Forms of Clear Speech: The Effects of Speaking Rate and Speaking Mode on Intelligibility.” Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 112 (November 2002): 2165–72. Ladefoged, P. Elements of Acoustic Phonetics. 2nd ed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996. Lindblom, B., and J. Sundberg. “Acoustical Consequences of Lip, Tongue, Jaw, and Larynx Movement.” Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 50 (1971): 1166–79. Nittrouer, L. “Learning to Perceive Speech: How Fricative Perception Changes, and How It Stays the Same.” Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 112, no. 2 (August 2002): 711–19. Stevens, K. N. “The Quantal Nature of Speech: Evidence from Articulatory-Acoustic Data.” In Human Communication: A Unified View, edited by E. E. David and P. B. Denes. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1972. Weglarski, A., A. Sewall, R. L. Whitehead, N. Schiavetti, and D. E. Metz. “Effect of Vowel Environment on Consonant Duration: Extension of Normative Data to Adult Contextual Speech.” Journal of Communication Disorders 33, no. 1 (January-February 2000): 1–10. Weismer, G., K. Tjaden, and R. D. Kent. “Can Articulatory Behavior in Motor Speech Disorders Be Accounted for by Theories of Normal Speech Production?” Journal of Phonetics 23, nos. 1–2 (January–April 1995): 149–64.

Reminder: All examples referred to in the chapter can be found at https://rowman.com/ISBN/9780810888401 (select the “Features” tab).

IV

HEIGHTENED POTENTIALS

Chapter Seven

Combinatorial, Multiphonic Principles

This chapter takes a practical approach to producing multiphonics by precisely identifying two or more elements that can be combined within a single face. The distinction of this book is that the multiphonics discussed in this chapter are the result of combining two or more voiced or unvoiced sound sources but not those multiphonics that result from a filtering function, such as during reinforced harmonic production. As introduced in chapter 2, voiced sounds are those produced within the laryngeal framework that primarily feature a clear sense of pitch, while unvoiced sounds are those produced as stops, fricatives, approximants, whistles, or buzzes at many locations above the larynx and feature either pitched or nonpitched sounds. These multiphonics are organized in the following categories: the combination of two voiced sources, the combination of voiced and unvoiced sources, the combination of two unvoiced sources, and the combination of three or more sources (see figure 7.1).

Figure 7.1. Complex multiphonics: a. Two voiced sources; b. Voiced and unvoiced sources; c. Two unvoiced sources.

Vocal artists in popular and avant-garde music, contemporary theater, performance, and spoken art poetry have for many years exploited multiphonic potentials, but composers have been slow, negligent, or resistant to using such sounds in their work. This has made the task of finding any specificity in the production of these techniques in composed scores a difficult task. As a result, I’ve developed systematic approaches to introduce extended vocal techniques through a series of pedagogical pieces that are designed for nonspecialists in my collections KOSMOS I and II.

Track 7.1, Two Voiced Sources

Track 7.2, Voiced and Unvoiced Sources

Track 7.3, Two Unvoiced Sources 95

96 Table 7.1.

Chapter Seven Multiphonics: Voiced and Voiced, Voiced and Unvoiced, Unvoiced and Unvoiced, and Three or More

A. Voiced and Voiced 1. chant and variants (falsetto with “fry” + ingressive glottal pitch with ingressive “fry”) 2. asymmetrical vocal fold vibration 3. sub- or supraglottis oscillation with voice 4. esophageal speech with other

B. Voiced and Unvoiced 1. glottal pitch with lip buzz 2. glottal pitch with whistle (lateral or rounded) 3. glottal pitch with pharyngeal articulation 4. glottal pitch with articulation in the oral cavity 5. glottal pitch with nasal articulation 6. glottal pitch with salival articulation 7. glottal pitch with air 8. glottal pitch with lingua-labial 9. glottal pitch with tongue flutter or frication 10. glottal pitch with velar articulation 11. glottal pitch with uvula 12. glottal pitch with externally produced sources 13. vocal fry with air 14. vocal fry with bilabial 15. damped asymmetries with sibilant C. Unvoiced and Unvoiced D. Three or More 1. pharyngeal articulation with lip buzz 1. chant mode with lingual 2. pharyngeal articulation with oral cavity frication/sibilant 2. chant mode with whistle 3. whistle with breath 3. chant (asymmetrical mode) with pharyngeal articulation 4. whistle with lip vibration 4. glottal pitch, lingual frication, and salival frication at cheek 5. whistle with sustained oral cavity fricative, approximant and gum 6. whistle with pharyngeal articulation 5. glottal pitch, pharyngeal articulation, tongue vibration 7. whistle with egressive nasal fricatives or approximant 6. glottal pitch, tongue vibration (front, mid, rear), lip vibration 8. two-part whistle (buzz or frication) 9. double bilabial 7. glottal pitch, rear tongue vibration, front tongue vibration 10. cheek with lip 8. glottal pitch, tongue vibration, labial-dental frication 11. double tongue vibration 9. glottal pitch, mid to rear tongue vibration, lingua-dental 12. tongue with cheek frication 13. tongue with labial flutter 10. glottal pitch, tongue, whistle 14. tongue with oral cavity frication 11. glottal pitch, cheek, lip 15. salival frication—dental 12. glottal pitch, saliva, uvula 16. salival frication—cheek 13. three-part laryngeal source 17. salival frication—bilabial 14. ingressive dental, salival frication with an egressive nasal 18. salival articulation with percussive dental artic frication/approximation 19. egressive nasal frication or approximation with percussive 15. ingressive bilabial, salival frication with an egressive nasal dental frication/approximation 20. egressive nasal frication or approximation with bilabial 16. salival fricative, nasal and mouth air articulation 17. dual lip vibration with cheek 21. egressive nasal frication or approximation with percussive 18. dual lip vibration with glottal pitch lingual-alveolar 19. dual lip vibration, glottal pitch, saliva 22. egressive nasal frication or approximation with sustained 20. two-part asymmetry with air alveolar/palatal frication 21. two-part asymmetry, air, saliva 23. egressive nasal frication or approximation with lip buzz 22. air, voice, pharyngeal fricative 24. egressive nasal frication or approximation with ingressive 23. gargle, finger tap, glottal pitch lip buzz

Voice is a highly personal matter, and singers vary greatly in their abilities to produce extra-normal voice, especially with voiced-voiced combinations. However, most performers are able to produce some variant of most behaviors and are urged to search for musical solutions to the available sounds. Table 7.1 presents an introductory list of combinatorial multiphonics.

VOICED AND VOICED A.01. (Imitated Tibetan) Chant Mode and Variants (Imitated Tibetan) chant is a multiphonic that combines two voiced sources that generally vibrate at a 2:1 frequency ratio (an octave), though other ratios are possible (see figure 7.2).

Combinatorial, Multiphonic Principles

Figure 7.2. and 12th.

97

Chant-like phonation by a female Xhosa singer featuring subharmonics at 8ve, 10th,

Chant is generally produced at low pitch, although chant may be produced at higher pitches, including falsetto. In principle this technique combines a normal-feeling modal pitch with another lower pitch (using either the feeling of a vocal fry or alternatively supraglottal oscillation of the false folds). Perhaps self-evident, (imitated Tibetan) chant requires that both sources be maintained through the duration of the sound. In this section, three types of chant are identified: (1) imitated Tibetan chant, (2) falsetto with fry, and (3) ingressive chant.

Figure 7.3. Location of double sources in (imitated) chant mode.

Chant may be produced in two ways. The first involves sustaining a normal vocal fold pitch with some form of supraglottal oscillation (false folds, arytenoids, aryepiglottic folds, or epiglottic root). The second method involves sustaining a normal vocal fold pitch with the feeling of a vocal fry (both tones produced with the vocal folds alone—see figures 7.3 and 7.4). Both types of imitated chant are perceptually and acoustically similar. The first method featuring supraglottal oscillation can present a more resonant quality than the second method featuring asymmetrical glottal configuration. Most likely, a performer is able to produce either one or the other, although anecdotal reports have suggested that some performers can produce both. Figure 7.5 represents (imitated Tibetan) chant featuring the simultaneous oscillation of the vocal folds and the ventricular folds. The sequence begins with vocal fold closure in frame 1, followed by an open glottis in frames 2 to 4. Frame 5 shows closure of both the vocal folds and ventricular folds, while frames 6 to 8 show an opening then closing of the airway. Frames 9 to 12 repeat the opening sequence. In this first method, the vocal folds close at a rate equal to the

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Figure 7.4.

Coronal views of double source featuring supraglottal oscillation.

Figure 7.5.

Views of double source featuring asymmetrical vocal fold oscillation.

fundamental period, while the ventricular folds close at the rate of 2:1. The ventricular folds might not feature complete closure in the anterior to posterior dimension, and because they have fewer muscle fibers, this mode of vibration can feature less fine-tuned control than the vocal folds. As shown in figure 7.6, the second method can be produced with the vocal folds alone, combining a normal-feeling vocal fold pitch with what feels like a vocal fry. When produced by the vocal folds alone, Švec, Schutte, and Miller (1996) suggest that subharmonic patterns can be produced through the use of asymmetrical behavior between the left and right folds, such as with a 3:2 entrainment. Figure 7.6 models the 3:2 entrainment, which is characterized by high airflow and low adduction. Frames 1 to 7 depict the opening movements of the vocal folds. In frame 8, the maximum excursion is seen. Following in frames 9 to 12, a closing phase occurs until closure is reached in frame 13. Frame 14 repeats the cycle, reaching its maximum excursion in frame 18. At this point, the vocal folds begin a second closing phase that is, however, interrupted by the lateral motion of the upper-fold margins. Presenting multiple dimensions, this interruption features in the upper

Combinatorial, Multiphonic Principles

Figure 7.6.

99

Vocal folds in combination with vocal fry.

margins an opening phase in frames 22 to 27, while in the lower margins, the folds exhibit medial movement. In frame 27, the third maximal excursion occurs. Frames 28 to 31 show the final closing phase, with the folds closed in frames 32 and 33. This third glottal maximum seems to be evidence of a decoupling of the vocal fold modes. Interestingly, the authors suggest that the subharmonic is produced as a difference tone, where the frequency at 70 Hz is the result of subtracting the frequency 140 Hz from 210 Hz (see figure 7.6). More research is needed to explore musical issues, such as what the limits of the timbral, gestural, and frequency independence are between both sources. The precise aural identification of the lower pitch source is often difficult due to the pitch instability, temporal emphasis, timbral characteristic, and extreme low tessitura of the lowest source. We have a good understanding of the pitch profile of the true folds, but our knowledge of the pitch profile of the false folds (method 1) or the second fry-like vibration (method 2) is very limited. For example, composers and performers want to know the limits for pitch movement of the lower member of the chant mode, so can we avoid the simple intervals of the 8ve, 10th, 12th, or 15ve?

Track 7.4, Untitled, Chant-like

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A few tips to help achieve a simulated chant are: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11.

For maximum vibrancy, choose a glottal pitch approximately one octave above the lowest possible pitch. As always, warm up the voice properly. Warm up vocal fry, beginning lightly and relaxed. Achieve a steady-state fry, both ingressively and egressively. Sound a normal glottal pitch, then add what feels or sounds like fry; or Begin with a fry, then add normal glottal pitch. If fry is difficult to achieve egressively, use ingressive fry to initiate the fry, then quickly shift the flow of air. The difficulty most often occurring with chant involves maintaining both oscillators simultaneously. One might focus on maintaining a consistent fry, then add a soft, glottal pitch. The performance of this technique should be relaxed at all times. Try imagery: Sing a relaxed midrange pitch, then allow the fry to click, fall, or drop into place.

Figure 7.7 begins with an ordinary voice sustaining the vowel /u/ on any pitch, then adding vocal fry using the vowel /I/ while continuing to sustain the ordinary pitch. Figure 7.8 is designed to train the addition of both the false folds and vocal fry to a vocal fold pitch. Note at the end how all three sources are combined.

Figure 7.7.

Figure 7.8.

Combination of vocal fold pitch with vocal fry.

Combination of vocal fold pitch with false folds and vocal fry.

A.01.A. Variant 1: Falsetto with “Fry” This variant combines a falsetto tone with a lower-frequency element (supraglottal or vocal fry). The falsetto is a high male voice, similar in range to the alto but with a higher, childlike quality. The falsetto chant mode is more difficult to produce than normal chant mode due to the stretched and thinned vocal folds. During falsetto production, the vocal folds are tightly stretched, so they do not achieve full closure. This effect of tightly stretching the elastic bands (vocal folds) results in a mode of vibration that reduces movement of the mucosal wave and excursion during abduction. Together, the increased tension and less-flexible tissue have a large impact on phonation, such that small deviations from an optimal state (i.e., by adding vocal fry) can push phonation into either chaotic motion or rest. Having limited degrees of freedom during falsetto production affects the ability of the folds to accept a second, lower-frequency oscillation by increasing the weight of the tenseness parameter. Unfortunately, the system requires precisely the opposite effect—an increase in laxness—in order to produce both tones with the true folds. This additional demand makes it more difficult to sustain the periodic falsetto pitch, as the folds are so tightly stretched that the additional load often serves to stop vibration altogether. The range of this multiphonic seems to be limited to the lower end of a performer’s falsetto range (see figure 7.9).

Figure 7.9. Lower end of falsetto range is better for falsetto chant.

Track 7.5, Falsetto Chant by Unamunos Quorum

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A.01.B. Variant 2: Chant Using Ingressive Air (Glottal Pitch with Fry) This technique, produced on inward airflow, is another variation of normal chant. Compared to egressive chant, this seems to feature an increased range of pitch and intensity, as well as provides more access to complex multiphonics (see figure 7.10).

Figure 7.10.

Ingressive chant features increased range of pitch, intensity, and ability to produce multiphonics.

Track 7.6, Ingressive Chant

A.02. Asymmetrical Vocal Fold Vibration The vocal folds are able to produce an amazing variety of sounds. In the discussion of chant, asymmetrical vocal fold oscillation is identified as one of the two basic methods for producing the (imitated Tibetan) chant mode. However, through radical manipulation, the vocal folds can produce two or more independent pitch contours over time (see figure 7.11). Termed biphonation, one method involves the left and right folds vibrating at different frequencies. Most often, singers cannot control pitch exactly, rather they produce multiple tones with little control over contour. In 1969, there was a well-documented case in the medical literature of a seventeen-year-old female amateur singer who had full and independent control of the vocal folds, giving her the ability to sing two melodies simultaneously in similar, parallel, oblique, or contrary motion. As reported by Ward, Sanders, Golman, and Moore (1969), she had a completely normal voice and could produce the double voice at will. Further, utilizing high-speed photography and cinefluorography, it was visualized that the subject produced double voice through asymmetrical vocal fold vibration, in which the left and right folds vibrated at different frequencies. As opposed to the samples found in tracks 7.7 through 7.14, the acoustic output is perceived as a rough tone. This is presumably due to the closeness of the two frequencies and the particular mode(s) of phonation. Two spectrograms are shown. Figure 7.12 presents contrary movement, with the upper voice featuring ascending and then descending movement, while the lower voice the opposite. Figure 7.13 presents oblique motion, in which the upper pitch remains the same while the lower pitch moves down. Ward and coauthors (1969) found that, during single voice, the subject had a normal larynx with no sign of pathology, and further, during double-voice production, the ventricular folds were abducted (open) and normal. During double voice, a number of complementary experimental procedures (high-speed photography, cinefluorography, sonograms) verified that the vocal folds were the sole oscillatory structures responsible for airflow disruption. Therefore, the au-

Figure 7.11.

Minton: Untitled.

Track 7.7, Minton: Untitled

Track 7.8, Bijma: Why? Bye!

Track 7.9, Homler: Signals

Track 7.10, Moss + Minton: Helden Tenors

Track 7.11, Blonk: Facial: Sabb

Track 7.12, Miranda: La Voz Cantante

Track 7.13, Namtchylak: White Food

Track 7.14, Neubauer: Untitled

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103

Figure 7.12. Biphonation featuring contrary motion: Upper pitch moves up then down, while lower pitch moves down then up.

Figure 7.13.

Biphonation: Upper pitch remains the same, while lower pitch moves down.

Track 7.15, Biphonation, As Shown in Figures 7.12 and 7.13 thors determined that both tones were produced by the vocal folds. High-speed photography demonstrated that during biphonation the vocal folds featured asynchronous movement. Because air pressure against the vocal folds and airflow through the glottis affect both folds equally, it was concluded that differential contraction of the laryngeal musculature was responsible for the double voice. A.03. Sub- or Supraglottis Oscillation (“Gravel”) with Voice This multiphonic combines a low, slightly pressed, and damped vocal fold oscillation with another low, gravelly sound, similar to a growl. During this multiphonic, the pressed tone takes the higher pitch, while the growl produces the lower

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pitch. Precisely what occurs is not known, however for the performer, a sensation of discomfort occurs beneath the vocal folds during the production of the gravel voice. Physiologically, subglottal resonators have not been documented, and anatomically, the upper trachea does not seem to feature flexible structures capable of producing oscillation. Therefore, this lower pitch element may be the result of turbulence occurring at the inferior edge of the folds.

Track 7.16, v.f. + gsub Multiphonic, Followed by gsub Alone, Followed by v.f. + gsub Multiphonic Followed by v.f. Alone

Track 7.17, Blonk: Lautgedicht (Supraglottal with Voice) In Freezing Moon, Hadzajlic asks the singer to produce a subglottal mutiphonic in the form of a growl while singing the word shapes (see figure 7.14).

Figure 7.14. Hadzajlic: Freezing Moon. Courtesy of H. Hadzajlic.

Track 7.18, Hadzajlic: Freezing Moon

A.04. Esophageal Speech with Other Esophageal speech is discussed in chapter 3. Here we identify that a singer can combine esophageal speech with another source within or near the larynx.

VOICED AND UNVOICED Figure 7.15 combines a voiced /u/ at any pitch with unvoiced /s/, with each retaining a separate identity. As shown, the unvoiced sibilant /s/ is brought in and out of the dominant /i/ texture.

Figure 7.15.

Simple combination of sustained unvoiced sounds with voiced sounds.

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105

B.01. Glottal Pitch with Lip Buzz This technique involves the simultaneous production of a glottal pitch with a lip buzz. The lip buzz features many variations from fine-tuned pitches to multiple pitch sonorities. The regions of buzz production may involve vibration at the corners or middle portion of the lips. During this multiphonic, both elements are heard separately, although the tightly closed aperture reduces the loudness of the glottal pitch to a muffled tone. Because of the added influence of each upon one another, the range of the glottal pitch and lip buzz can be reduced when combined. Both the buzz and glottal pitch can assume distinct identities, but this depends on the ability of the singer to asymmetrically open one portion of the lips to allow sound to radiate outside of the mouth (see figure 7.16). In my composition Cataphora, the singer is asked to produce a lip buzz while producing the multiphonic registral flip that is discussed in chapter 4 (see figure 7.17).

Figure 7.16.

Contrapuntal ability of voice and lip buzz.

Figure 7.17.

Edgerton: Cataphora. Courtesy of M. Edgerton.

Track 7.19, Edgerton: Cataphora

B.02. Glottal Pitch with Whistle (Lateral or Rounded) A singer may combine a glottal pitch with a whistle (lip or palatal). Known as a voiced whistle, this technique is similar to the glottal/lip buzz multiphonic but features greater pitch independence between both sources (see figure 7.18).

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Figure 7.18.

Glottal pitch with whistle features significant contrapuntal independence.

This combination varies with pitch range and intensity of vocal fold oscillation as well as degree of coupling between both sources. Generally, a lower pitch produces a sharper interaction, while the higher the glottal pitch, the less the interference to the whistle pitch. A stronger glottal pitch supports or interacts with the whistle better than a weaker pitch. Pitches that constructively couple are more prominent than those that do not. In A Marriage of Shadows, the singer is asked to produce a lingua-palatal whistle while singing. Although it is possible to balance the articulation of a text with closed bilabial behaviors (though not possible to retain clear intelligibility of any text), I wanted to present a shimmering vocal presence to mix with the overall effect of this section (see figure 7.19).

Figure 7.19.

Edgerton: A Marriage of Shadows. Courtesy of Babel Scores.

Track 7.20, Edgerton: A Marriage of Shadows In one of the masterpieces of contemporary vocal music, Psalm of These Days II by London, a voiced whistle is found in all parts, though only voice is given a specific pitch. This is followed immediately by an ingressive ululation in all parts.

Track 7.21, London: Psalm of These Days II

B.03. Glottal Pitch with Pharyngeal Articulation The combination of a glottal pitch with a sustained pharyngeal frication produces a rough, noisy tone. Depending on the strength of frication, the glottal source can be quite robust or can cease phonation, especially if in falsetto. Therefore, special care might be needed depending on the context and sonic requirements.

Figure 7.20.

Regions of pharyngeal frications.

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Pharyngeal frications and stops occur in such languages as Arabic, German, Korean, and French. These constrictions are articulated at a number of points. Outside of language, the points of constriction can involve movement from high to low, side to side, and front to back. A healthy attitude of experimentation can allow for perceptible differences of place and manner. The elements of constriction involve various combinations of pharyngeal wall, epiglottic, and tongue root movement (see figure 7.20). B.04. Glottal Pitch with Articulation in the Oral Cavity As presented in chapter 6, oral cavity frications can be sustained. When combined with a glottal pitch, wide varieties of harmonic and inharmonic sonorities are available. B.05. Glottal Pitch with Nasal Articulation A glottal pitch can be combined with an articulated nasal airflow. Mucous, adenoids, or foreign objects in the nasal cavity can affect the airflow in order to add a special color to the sound. In some cases, the nasal airflow can produce a whistle. The noise component of this multiphonic probably does not have a wide dynamic range and perhaps is best used with amplification. B.06. Glottal Pitch with Salival Articulation A glottal pitch can be combined with a sustained salival fricative (see figure 7.21). The salival frication occurs as the result of an excessive accumulation of saliva, which is set into motion through interaction with airflow. Pockets of excess saliva can theoretically accumulate at any point in the vocal tract and include at least bilabial, labial-dental, cheeks, cheek and gum, tongue tip, tongue and upper palate, tongue and lower palate, and upper pharynx. The gestural properties of this multiphonic are liquid noise disturbances to the glottal pitch. These liquid disturbances include narrow and focused liquids with a clear sense of pitch to widely unfocused and chaotic sonorities, which destroy the sense of pitch. Additionally, there are three states of airflow that set saliva into motion: 1. Interaction with an outgoing lunged airstream 2. Interaction of salival deposits in oral cavity with unlunged airflow 3. Interaction with ingressive airflow

Figure 7.21.

Potential air characteristics combined with salival deposits.

The salival source is highly volatile and unstable and depletes quickly, so one should keep a lot of liquid handy! Carefully noting the locations and effects of salival accumulation can change one’s intended output from metaphor to an expression merging intention, exploration, and an uncommon attitude. B.07. Glottal Pitch with Air A glottal pitch can be combined with perceptible air. The multiphonic can resemble an insufficient valving of a breathy voice or can be developed further in more musically compelling ways (see figure 7.22). In figure 7.23, both the voiced and unvoiced sounds each retain a separate identity. Here, a voiced Latin text is joined or interrupted by an air sound.

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Figure 7.22.

Glottal pitch with perceptible air sonority—each identified with separate dynamic markings.

Figure 7.23.

Voice with air sounds.

In Three Études for Solo Voice, Dehaan adds a level of complexity, as the crescendo and decrescendo of the air is decoupled from the voiced sounds (see figure 7.24). In Liquid Structures by Holmqvist, air and voice are decoupled. Note how the intensity of the vocal fold pitch decreases while the air intensity continues to increase. In order for the singer to make this work, he or she might have to shift the tongue position to a fricative to achieve the sense of an increase of noise even though the air might decrease during the pitch decrescendo; as might be expected, the opposite is easier (increase of tone with decrease of noise). Such maneuvers are not impossible but require the singer to radically alter his or her normal sound production characteristic (see figure 7.25).

Figure 7.24.

Dehaan: Three Études for Solo Voice. Courtesy of D. Dehaan.

Figure 7.25. Holmqvist: Liquid Structures. Courtesy of K. Holmqvist.

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B.08. Glottal Pitch with Lingua-Labial A glottal pitch can be combined with lingua-labial (tongue and lip) flutter, such as is seen in Psalm of These Days II by Edwin London. In this instance, the lip-tongue flutter follows a forced blown complex egressive multiphonic. Oddly enough, the composer chose not to notate the multiple components of the former nor the iterative nature of the flutter. In general, the frequency of lingua-labial flutter has a small range of variation, so it might not be worthwhile to indicate the speed of oscillation.

Track 7.22, London: Psalm of These Days II

B.09. Glottal Pitch with Tongue Flutter, Frication A glottal pitch can be combined with lingual flutter inside the oral cavity, behind the lips. Rather than indicate precise frequency of oscillation characteristics, a more effective solution might be to specify a series of oppositions for speed (slow–fast), tessitura (high–low), or intensity (light–harsh) (see figure 7.26).

Figure 7.26.

Glottal pitch with tongue flutter.

In figure 7.27, the composition Psalm of These Days II by London shows the combination of a tongue-teeth slap with a glottal pitch from the tenor part. The excerpt features many extended techniques: • • • • • •

glottal pitch with tongue flutter chant multiphonic unvoiced tongue flutters tongue-teeth slap forced blown multiphonics performing with “childish behavior”

Figure 7.27. Tongue-teeth slaps from London’s Psalm of These Days.

Track 7.23, London: Psalm of These Days II

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B.10. Glottal Pitch with Velar Articulation This technique involves the combination of a glottal pitch with the opening and closing of the nasal cavity. Perhaps better considered as a filtering phenomenon (see chapter 5), this technique is discussed here because of the significant timbral change compared with non-nasal phonation, and the intensity of velar articulation during a rapid tremolo-like production can produce some soft percussive sounds. Figure 7.28 shows a rough schematic of a closed and then open velopharyngeal port. As illustrated here, the opening to the nasal cavity involves a door-like structure that, depending on the speed and intensity of closure, can produce a somewhat percussive quality that is especially attractive when combined with aperture-controlled reinforced harmonics.

Figure 7.28.

Velar articulation.

B.11. Glottal Pitch with Uvula This technique involves the combination of a glottal pitch with uvular oscillation. The uvula serves no apparent function in humans, however performers have developed the ability to set this small piece of hanging flesh into motion, such that it is able to disrupt an outgoing airflow, superimposing a series of pulses onto a well-defined glottal pitch (see figure 7.29).

Figure 7.29.

Glottal pitch with uvular trill.

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B.12. Glottal Pitch with Externally Produced Sources This technique involves the combination of a glottal pitch with externally produced sources. The external sources can be percussive or sustained and placed on any external region that affects the radiated sound. The possible external sources are many and include tapping the cheek with a finger or placing an electric shaver on the neck and face while phonating, among others. B.13. Vocal Fry with Air Glottal fry can be combined with airflow. However, this multiphonic is much more sensitive to the amount of airflow sent through the glottis because the mode of oscillation during fry has lesser degrees of freedom, thus an increase of air can cause a bifurcation to either a resting state or periodic phonation. Dehaan in Three Études for Solo Voice combines a crescendo then decrescendo on the air while the vocal fry remains static. Some performers are able to change the intensity of a vocal fry, while others are not. The composer wants to make clear his intentions to the performer, as it is hard to decouple air from vocal fry (see figure 7.30).

Figure 7.30.

Dehaan: Three Études for Solo Voice. Courtesy of D. Dehaan.

B.14. Vocal Fry with Bilabial Vocal fry can be combined with bilabial articulation, though in practice this is difficult. In order to produce this combination, the singer must have a robust fry.

Track 7.24, Examples from B.01 through B.14 (Voiced and Unvoiced Multiphonics): B.01, Blonk: Labior; B.02, Globokar: Airs de voyage vers l’intérieur; B.03, Schipper: Frequenzgang III; B.04, Schnebel: !(madrasha II); B.05, M. E. Edgerton; B.06, Blonk: Facial: Flab; B.07, Zender: Fragmente (Canto V) + M. E. Edgerton; B.08, see track 7.6; B.09, Wishart: Vox 3; and B.10–B.14, M. E. Edgerton

B.15. Damped Asymmetries with Sibilant This category can produce the perception of two or three separate properties, depending on the intention and skill of the performer. In Liquid Structures by Holmqvist, the composer intends the vocalist to produce a single vocal-fold tone with asymmetrical vibration of the vocal folds. Asymmetries featuring a single tone most likely are quite different from ordinary in terms of its bandwidth and time-varying properties. Note the addition of the bilabial filters used to help specify a desired output (see figure 7.31).

Figure 7.31.

Holmqvist: Liquid Structures. Courtesy of K. Holmqvist.

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UNVOICED AND UNVOICED C.01. Pharyngeal Articulation with Lip Buzz A pharyngeal articulation can be combined with a lip buzz to produce one noise and one pitch source—both unvoiced. Because the lips are closed for the lip buzz, the pharyngeal frication is muted, and the lip buzz is prominent. If the pharyngeal articulation is emphasized, be careful not to use excessive tension and force, as this region seems to be susceptible to soreness. As might be intuitive, many of the low-amplitude sounds presented throughout this book might well be enhanced using electronic amplification. C.02. Pharyngeal Articulation with Oral Cavity Frication A pharyngeal articulation can be combined with an oral cavity frication to produce two inharmonic sources (see figure 7.32). In Liquid Structures, Kay Holmqvist asks the vocalist to sustain an /s/ sibilant simultaneously with a high pharyngeal fricative at location x1. This is preceded by the /s/ sibilant using a wide lateral opening at the lips (see figure 7.33).

Figure 7.32.

Notation for oral and pharyngeal frication.

Figure 7.33. Holmqvist: Liquid Structures. Courtesy of K. Holmqvist.

C.03. Whistle with Breath Dehann in Three Études for Solo Voice combines a whistle with breath. Note how the whistle and breath feature different intensity markings (see figure 7.34).

Figure 7.34.

Dehaan: Three Études for Solo Voice. Courtesy of D. Dehaan.

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C.04. Whistle with Lip Vibration A whistle can be combined with a lip vibration. C.05. Whistle with Sustained Oral Cavity Articulation This technique combines a sustained oral cavity frication with a whistle (see figure 7.35). This multiphonic has unique multiple sound sources, as the tongue is the major element in the production of both sources. During a palatal whistle, the tongue develops sufficient approximation at the alveolar ridge to produce the whistle. Then during this multiphonic, oral cavity articulation can occur behind the front teeth or at the sides of the tongue on the side teeth. Both sources tend to inhibit each other or even cancel each other out through an antagonistic relationship of these two separate yet related sources.

Figure 7.35.

Notation for whistle with sustained oral cavity articulation.

The bilabial whistle features an even more subtle constriction than the lingua-palatal whistle. The points of oral cavity articulation are numerous and involve front, mid, and rear tongue frication. It is expected that much variation occurs between performers during the production of the various oral cavity frication sites when producing the bilabial whistle. C.06. Whistle with Pharyngeal Articulation A pharyngeal articulation can be combined with a whistle to produce a harmonic-inharmonic multiphonic. The manner can involve two sustained sonorities, or the pharyngeal frication can fracture the whistle into a series of pulses (see figure 7.36). My composition Anaphora asks the singer to combine a descending series of pharyngeal frications with any type of whistle (see figure 7.37).

Figure 7.36.

Notation for whistle with pharyngeal articulation.

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Figure 7.37.

Edgerton: Anaphora. Courtesy of Babel Scores.

Track 7.25, Edgerton: Anaphora

C.07. Whistle with Egressive Nasal Frication or Approximation A whistle can be combined with a perceptible, egressive nasal airflow. A lingua-palatal whistle is more readily available, but a bilabial whistle might achieve sufficient turbulence if the rounded aperture is efficient. For this and all of the following multiphonics in this category, the energy of the radiating airflow is significantly reduced as the fluid flow is divided between the two tubes of the oral and nasal cavities. Just how much flow is allowed out from either port is determined entirely by the performer, as we are capable of stopping air in either passage. A general principle is that the more dominant the nasal airflow, the shorter the duration of the multiphonic. The whistle dominates at low nasal airflow rates, while at higher airflow rates, the nasal frication dominates and the whistle starts to lose its focus (see figure 7.38).

Figure 7.38.

Notation for combining whistle with egressive nasal fricatives.

Various degrees of constriction can occur in the nasal cavity. These degrees of constriction generally produce inharmonic sources but can on occasion produce a whistle. Be aware that the ability to replicate this technique is limited and transient. It is best not to count on the reproduction of a nasal whistle unless an external source is applied or if the performer has exceptional capabilities.

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C.08. Double Whistle A variety of multiphonic whistles are available. It is reported that certain performers are able to whistle contrapuntally (e.g., “Frère Jacques” in canon). Two methods are here described. First, a double whistle is produced by extending and lifting the tongue, thus producing two chambers where both tones can wander and combine freely within the space of somewhat more than one octave. Using this method, the tongue is slightly out of a wide open mouth, with slight gaps on each side of the tongue. The tongue is raised to touch the hard palate in order to form a wall to divide the cavity in two. The pitch seems to be controlled through variation of aperture with tongue and lip. The range seems to be from the unison to a major 6th. With practice, it is possible to whistle contrapuntally. Second, a triple whistle is produced by extending, rolling, and lifting the tongue, thus producing one smaller chamber on top of the tongue in addition to the other two. This upper chamber is slightly smaller with a higher tone than the others. This small chamber is slightly open toward the sides, therefore the sound becomes a bit diffused, adding slight inharmonicities and sounding less clean. Using this technique, three-tone chords can be produced. As presented in the voiced and unvoiced category, all of these sounds can be accompanied by voice, but beware that the voiced frequencies tend to entrain the vortexed airflow. C.09. Double Lip Vibration (Bilabial Multiphonic) The lips can buzz or vibrate in one, two, or more regions. C.10. Cheek with Lip Lip vibration can be combined with a disturbance in either cheek. C.11. Double Tongue Vibration This technique combines the simultaneous oscillation of two regions of the tongue. For purposes of this book, three regions are identified: front, mid, and rear (see figure 7.39).

Figure 7.39. Double tongue vibration (front, mid, and rear identified separately).

C.12. Tongue with Cheek The tongue can be combined with vibrations in either cheek. Also, the tongue can vibrate in the front, mid, or rear with various tension. C.13. Tongue with Lip Flutter This technique combines lingual flutter with bilabial flutter. The bilabial source can produce a finely tuned buzz to a coarser flutter, while the tongue can be finely tuned or out of control (see figure 7.40).

Figure 7.40. behaviors.

Tongue with lip flutter, featuring both coarse and fine

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C.14. Tongue with Oral Cavity Frication Tongue frication can be combined with an oral cavity frication. C.15. Salival Frication: Dental Salival frication can be combined with bidental articulation. The salival frication can occur at any region in which excess saliva accumulates and is able to influence egressive, ingressive, or unlunged airflow. The resultant salival sound varies from place to place, from change of airflow velocity and direction, and from volume of accumulated liquids. The dynamic range of dental articulation ranges from a quiet tapping to a loud slamming of the teeth (see figure 7.41). My composition Anaphora features a sequence of bidental stops with saliva. Note how the saliva shifts from left to right, while the bidental stops oscillate between right and left (see figure 7.42).

Figure 7.41.

Figure 7.42.

Salival-dental articulation with air, place, velocity, and volume.

Edgerton: Anaphora. Courtesy of Babel Scores.

Track 7.26, Edgerton: Anaphora

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C.16. Salival Frication: Cheek An inharmonic salival fricative can be combined with cheek expansion and compression. The airflow can be either lunged or unlunged. When lunged, the resultant sound can occur at the bilabial aperture; when unlunged, the resultant sound can occur between cheek, gum, and tongue (see figure 7.43). Figure 7.44, from Anaphora, features a series of outward saliva ejectives that are combined with slapping both cheeks with the singers’ hands.

Figure 7.43. Notation for salival cheek fricative with indications for airflow.

Figure 7.44.

Edgerton: Anaphora. Courtesy of Babel Scores.

Track 7.27, Edgerton: Anaphora

C.17. Salival Frication: Bilabial Likewise, an inharmonic salival fricative can be combined with bilabial articulation. The salival fricative can be either lunged or unlunged, while the bilabial articulation can be either finely tuned or of a coarser oscillation (see figure 7.45). A word of caution: While the lunged and coarse variety of salival fricatives might be a pleasure to produce, they are not very polite (not good for a first date or most job interviews).

Figure 7.45. Salival frication with bilabial flutter, including airflow and manner.

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C.18. Salival Articulation with Percussive Dental Articulation (Staccato) Salival articulation can be combined with staccato dental attacks. C.19. Egressive Nasal Frication/Approximation with Percussive Dental Articulation A bidental articulation can be combined with a perceptible, egressive nasal airflow. The range of dental articulation encompasses quiet tapping to loud slamming of the upper and lower teeth. The effect is a wind sound (varied by air velocity and amount of constriction), onto which is added a slight tapping or harsh slamming sound. It is possible to identify regions of teeth tapping that occur on the left side, right side, or middle (even perhaps far left, left, mid, right, far right). As with many of these behaviors, the theatrical gesture might have an influence on the context and would be well worth identifying among the total frame (see figure 7.46).

Figure 7.46.

Nasal fricative with bidental stops, identifying left, mid, and right regions.

C.20. Egressive Nasal Frication/Approximation with Bilabial Articulation A bilabial articulation can be combined with a perceptible, egressive nasal airflow. The bilabial articulation is produced when the lips come apart. In order to make an effective plosive, the lips must achieve a full closure with either light or heavy pressure. The effect of this bilabial “pop” ranges from a shallow plosive to a full-bodied and robust “explosive” plosive. Bilabial articulations in this context are not as reliable nor as fast as the previous bidental articulations. Physiologically, the lips need to attain full closure, build up pressure, and then release for one cycle. Compared to the slamming together of two surfaces (such as the vocal folds), this motion is more complicated and time consuming. Additionally, the possibility of moisture loss during repeated and lengthy periods of articulation is a factor. Various bilabial positions can be used; the following are generic positions, to which will be added individual abilities (see figure 7.47).

Figure 7.47.

Nasal air frication with bilabial articulation.

C.21. Egressive Nasal Frication/Approximation with Percussive Lingual-Alveolar Articulation A variety of lingual articulations can be combined with a perceptible, egressive nasal airflow. For this category, all regions of lingual articulation should be available with nasal airflow. The articulations are generally short and consistently reproducible, with the only major hindrance involving lingual fatigue. Lingual articulation is capable of producing the perception of pitch if sufficient saliva is maintained. As the oral aperture becomes larger, the pitch rises; when the aperture becomes smaller, the pitch lowers (see figure 7.48).

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Figure 7.48.

119

Nasal frication with percussive lingual articulation.

C.22. Egressive Nasal Frication or Approximation with Sustained Lingual to Alveolar or Palatal Approximation or Frication This technique combines a sustained lingual-to-palatal, unlunged, salival frication (swishing saliva) with a perceptible, egressive nasal airflow. The duration of the saliva swish is generally short (see figure 7.49).

Figure 7.49. Notation for nasal frication with sustained alveolar or palatal articulation.

C.23. Egressive Nasal Frication or Approximation with Lip Buzz An egressive nasal airflow can be combined with a lip buzz. This technique has the quality of short bilabial bursts (pitch pulses?) superimposed upon the egressive nasal airflow (see figure 7.50).

Figure 7.50.

Notation for nasal frication with lip buzz.

C.24. Egressive Nasal Frication or Approximation with Ingressive Lip Buzz An ingressive lip buzz can be combined with a perceptible, egressive nasal airflow. This might be the only case of truly circular airflow available within the respiratory system. This is a subtle technique, as both nasal frication and ingressive lip buzz are quiet with little dynamic range (see figure 7.51).

Figure 7.51.

A true vocal tract circular airflow phenomenon.

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Track 7.28, Examples C.01–C.23 (Unvoiced and Unvoiced Multiphonics): C.01–C.06, M. E. Edgerton; C.07, Arne Halvorsen; C.08, Blonk: Labior; C.09, M. E. Edgerton; C.10.A + C.10.B, Blonk: Labior; and C.11–C.23, M. E. Edgerton

THREE OR MORE The techniques presented in this section combine three or more sound sources. D.01. Chant Mode with Lingual Frication Chant can be combined with lingual frication. The effect adds another level of filtering on an already-established chant mode of phonation, producing a prominent inharmonic noise source. The addition of the lingual frication damps the chant production and is dependent on the intensity of lingual frication. The manner of lingual frication includes sustained inharmonic sonorities or, as a series of rapidly repeated stops, tremolo. This multiphonic presents a masking source of frication ranging from short, intermediate bursts to sustained periods of frication (see figure 7.52).

Figure 7.52.

Double source mode (chant) with lingual frication.

D.02. Chant Mode with Whistle Chant can be combined with a whistle. Adding whistle to chant emphasizes the front cavity filter, reducing the amplitude of chant and creating a pure whistle tone that adds a “shine” or “edge” to this multiphonic. The interaction of chant and whistle seems to have a profound effect on the vitality of the multiphonic. The lingua-palatal whistle seems to be more compatible with chant than the rounded, bilabial whistle (see figure 7.53). Chant with a lingua-palatal whistle is used in the composition Liquid Structures by Holmqvist (see figure 7.54).

Figure 7.53.

Chant with whistle.

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Figure 7.54.

121

Holmqvist: Liquid Structures. Courtesy of K. Holmqvist.

D.03. Chant (Asymmetrical) with Pharyngeal Articulation Chant, in its asymmetrical mode, can be combined with pharyngeal articulation. D.04. Glottal Pitch, Lingual and Salival Frication of Cheek/Gum A glottal pitch can be combined with lingual and salival frication to form a multiphonic with one harmonic and two inharmonic sources. This multiphonic might work best with a lower glottal pitch. The lingual frication at the alveolar or palatal ridge requires excessive muscular tension and air pressure to form a frication. The salival fricative between cheek and gum can be formed in one cheek or both. One of the keys to this particular multiphonic is to balance the needs between the muscular tension required for lingual frication and the flexibility in the cheek and gum region required for salival frication. D.05. Glottal Pitch, Pharyngeal Oscillation, Tongue Vibration This multiphonic combines a glottal pitch, pharyngeal articulation, and tongue vibration. Partly implicating the ability of the respiratory system to achieve remarkable physiological acts, this multiphonic uses one element to produce two separate sources—front-tongue oscillation and tongue-root oscillation. In chapter 6, five levels of pharyngeal constriction are identified, though other regions of constriction might be possible. During this multiphonic, these pharyngeal constrictions produce inharmonic sources that are combined with a periodic vocal fold pitch and a nearly periodic tongue vibration pitch. The physiological components are configured in such a way as to sandwich the inharmonic source between two harmonic oscillators—that is, the pharyngeal constriction is surrounded by the vocal folds and the front tongue vibration. The three sources, while intimately related, are capable of achieving perceptual independence during the production of this multiphonic. Musically, this suggests independent control of single or multiple parameters, such that one is altered while the others remain static or two are altered while one remains or all three are altered (see figure 7.55).

Figure 7.55.

Glottal pitch, pharyngeal and lingual articulation.

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D.06. Glottal Pitch, Tongue Vibration (Front, Mid, Rear), Lip Frication This technique combines a glottal pitch, tongue vibration, and a bilabial frication. There are two types of bilabial fricatives that may be used: (1) lip flutter (a broad, loose flapping of the lips) and (2) lip buzz (as discussed earlier, a tight embouchure designed to produce well-regulated vibration of the lips). The gestural properties of the two bilabial fricatives are considerably different and should be considered during the compositional process. The character of the flutter is rougher and more complex and produces salival plosives as part of its gestural quality (much to the dismay of those sitting in the front row). The character of the lip buzz is a cousin to the flutter, a bit more refined and articulate with a higher degree of pitch independence from its neighbors. The farther back one can identify lingual oscillation, the more successfully the tongue vibration maintains its degree of separation from the other components of this multiphonic. When using a lip buzz, try to develop a pitched three-part contrapuntal complex. When using lip flutter, try to develop different perceptible flutters while keeping all other parameters constant (see figures 7.56, 7.57, and 7.58).

Figure 7.56. Voice, lip buzz, tongue vibration (voice, stem up; buzz, stem down; tongue vibration/flutter in box).

Figure 7.57. Voice, lip buzz, tongue vibration (buzz, stem up; voice, stem down; tongue vibration on lower stave).

Figure 7.58.

Voice, lip buzz, tongue vibration.

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D.07. Glottal Pitch, Rear Tongue and Front Tongue Vibration A glottal pitch can be combined with two different forms of lingual vibration: front and rear. The frequency characteristics of the lingual oscillators seem dependent on each other. The degree of pitch separation that is available is limited, such that the front, mid, and rear tongue regions might be able to finely tune precise pitch relationships, but little to no evidence exists (see figure 7.59).

Figure 7.59. Dual tongue vibration with glottal pitch. Note that relative tongue speed is identified by either an increase or decrease in the density of the slashes.

D.08. Glottal Pitch, Tongue Vibration, Labial-Dental Frication This technique combines a glottal pitch, tongue vibration, and labial-dental frication. The effect adds a front oral cavity filter to the glottal and tongue vibration sources or a front noise source to a nearly periodic pitch tongue vibration with a periodic pitch of the vocal folds. The labial-dental frication can be either superior-anterior or inferior-anterior (see figure 7.60).

Figure 7.60.

Glottal pitch, tongue vibration, labial-dental frication.

D.09. Glottal Pitch, Mid-to-Rear Tongue Vibration, Lingua-Dental Frication This technique combines a glottal pitch, mid-to-rear tongue vibration, and lingua-dental frication. This technique is not particularly taxing on the performer, but it does require quite a bit of discipline to maintain lingua-dental frication while producing the mid-to-rear tongue vibration. The effect of the front tongue vibration interferes with and filters the mid-torear tongue vibration and glottal pitch. The production of the glottal pitch and lingual oscillation is hindered or lessened as a result of the need to retain lingua-dental frication, which seems to require that the tongue assume an extreme rigidity of manner and forward posture. D.10. Glottal Pitch, Tongue, Whistle A glottal pitch can be combined with tongue vibration and whistle. D.11. Glottal Pitch, Cheek, Lip A glottal pitch can be combined with cheek and lip vibration.

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D.12. Glottal Pitch, Saliva, Uvula A glottal pitch can be combined with saliva and uvular articulation. D.13. Three-Part Laryngeal Source This technique combines three different sources within the larynx that can be produced within the vocal folds entirely or through a combination of vocal folds with sub- or supraglottal disturbances. This type of production represents many types of multiphonics. D.14. Ingressive Dental, Salival Fricative with an Egressive Nasal Frication/Approximation An ingressive dental articulation can be combined with salival fricative and nasal articulation. D.15. Ingressive Bilabial, Salival Fricative with an Egressive Nasal Frication/Approximation An ingressive bilabial frication can be combined with a salival fricative and nasal frication. D.16. Salival Fricative, Nasal and Mouth Air A salival fricative can be combined with nasal and mouth air. D.17. Dual Lip Vibration with Cheek Dual lip vibrations can be combined with a cheek emphasis. D.18. Dual Lip Vibration with Glottal Pitch Dual lip vibrations can be combined with a glottal pitch. D.19. Dual Lip Vibration, Glottal Pitch, Saliva Dual lip vibrations can be combined with a glottal pitch and saliva. D.20. Two-Part Asymmetry with Air Two-part vocal fold asymmetry can be combined with perceptible airflow. D.21. Asymmetry, Air, Saliva Two-part asymmetry can be combined with air and saliva.

Track 7.29, Examples D.01–D.21 (Three or More Perceived Tones): D.01–D.12, M. E. Edgerton; D.13, Homler: Signals; D.14–D.17, M. E. Edgerton; D.18, Blonk: Labior; D.19–D.20, M. E. Edgerton; D.21, Blonk: Geen Krimp I

D.22. Air, Voice, Pharyngeal Fricative Figure 7.61 by Holmqvist combines three separate sources that change ratios over time: an air source, vocal fold pitch, and pharyngeal fricative. In this case, the decrease of the pharyngeal fricative while the air noise increases should be relatively easy. In this excerpt, the difficulty is to retain the vocal fold pitch at pp while increasing air loudness.

Combinatorial, Multiphonic Principles

Figure 7.61.

125

Holmqvist: Liquid Structures. Courtesy of K. Holmqvist.

D.23. Gargle, Finger Tap, Voice Anaphora features voice that competes with a gargle while tapping the cheek with the fingertip (see figure 7.62).

Figure 7.62.

Edgerton: Anaphora. Courtesy of Babel Scores.

Track 7.30, Edgerton: Anaphora

SUGGESTED READINGS AND REFERENCES Barnett, B. M. “Aspects of Vocal Multiphonics.” Master’s thesis, University of California–San Diego, La Jolla, 1972. Berry, D. A., D. W. Montequin, and N. Tayama. “High-Speed Digital Imaging of the Medial Surface of the Vocal Folds.” Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 110, no. 5 (2001): 2539–47. Edgerton, M. E. Anaphora. Paris: Babel Scores, 2001. ———. “The Extra-Normal Voice.” In The Oxford Handbook of Singing, edited by J. Nix. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014. ———. “The Extra-Normal Voice: EVT in Singing.” In Perspectives on Teaching Singing: A Celebration of Vocal Pedagogy in the 21 Century, edited by S. Harrison and J. O’Bryan. Dordrecht: Springer, 2014.

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———. “Multiple Sound Sources of the Vocal Tract.” National Center for Voice and Speech Status and Progress Report 13 (1999): 131–40. Edgerton, M. E., S. Tan, G. Evans, M. H. Jang, B. K. Kim, F. Y. Loo, K. C. Pan, N. Hashim, and J. Amin. “Pitch Profile of the Glottal Whistle.” Malaysian Journal of Science 32, no. 2 (2013). Fuks, L., B. Hammarberg, and J. Sundberg. “A Self-Sustained Vocal-Ventricular Phonation Mode: Acoustical, Aerodynamic and Glottographic Evidences.” KTH TMH-QPSR 3 (1998): 49–59. Gerratt, B. R., K. Precoda, and D. G. Hanson. “Diplophonia: Features in the Time Domain.” Paper presented at the annual convention of the American Speech-Language-Hearing Association, New Orleans, 1987. Gerratt, B. R., K. Precoda, D. G. Hanson, and G. S. Berke. “Source Characteristics of Diplophonia.” Unpublished manuscript, 1984. Halvorsen, A. Personal communication. Imagawa, H., K.-I. Sakakibara, N. Tayama, and S. Niimi. “The Effect of the Hypopharyngeal and Supra-Glottic Shapes on the Singing Voice.” Proceedings of the Stockholm Music Acoustics Conference (2003): 1–4. Kaufman, W. Tibetan Buddhist Chant. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1975. Large, J., and T. Murry. “Observations on the Nature of Tibetan Chant.” Journal of Research on Singing (1979). Lindestad, P.-Å., M. Södersten, B. Merker, and S. Granqvist. “Voice Source Characteristics in Mongolian ‘Throat Singing’ Studied with High-Speed Imaging Technique, Acoustic Spectra, and Inverse Filtering.” Journal of Voice 15, no. 1 (2001): 78–85. London, Edwin. Psalm of These Days. CRI, New World Records (audio). New York: Peters (score). Marasovich, W. A., H. S. Gopal, S. E. Gerber, and W. S. Gibson. “Diplophonia in a Neonate.” International Journal of Pediatric Otorhinolaryngology 25 (1993): 227–34. Nonomura, N., S. Seki, M. Kawana, T. Okura, and Y. Nakano. “Acquired Airway Obstruction Caused by Hypertrophic Mucosa of the Arytenoids and Aryepiglottic Folds.” American Journal of Otolaryngology 17 (1996): 71–74. Sakakibara, K.-I., H. Imagawa, T. Konishi, K. Kondo, E. Z. Murano, M. Kumada, and S. Niimi. “Vocal Fold and False Vocal Fold Vibrations in Throat Singing and Synthesis of Khöömei.” In Proceedings of the International Computer Music Conference 2001, 135–38. Smith, H., K. Stevens, and R. Tomlinson. “On an Unusual Mode of Chanting by Certain Tibetan Lamas.” Journal of the Acoustic Society of America 41 (1967): 1262–64. Švec, J. G., H. K. Schutte, and D. G. Miller. “Subharmonic Vibratory Pattern in Normal Vocal Folds.” Journal of Speech and Hearing Research 39 (1996): 135–43. Terrio, L., and D. Schreibweiss-Merin. “Acoustic Analysis of Diplophonia: A Follow-Up Report.” Perceptual and Motor Skills 77 (1993): 914. Titze, I. R., and B. H. Story. “Acoustic Interactions of the Voice Source with the Lower Vocal Tract.” Journal of the Acoustic Society of America 101, no. 4 (1997): 2234–43. Titze, I. R., and D. T. Talkin. “A Theoretical Study of the Effects of Various Laryngeal Configurations on the Acoustics of Phonation.” Journal of the Acoustic Society of America 66, no. 1 (1979): 60–74. Ward, P. H., J. W. Sanders, R. Golman, and G. P. Moore. “Diplophonia.” Annals of Otology, Rhinology, and Laryngology 78 (1969): 771–77.

Reminder: All examples referred to in the chapter can be found at https://rowman.com/ISBN/9780810888401 (select the “Features” tab).

Chapter Eight

Extremes

Extreme vocal behaviors, such as shouting, screaming, and rasping, are complex acts that involve a mixture of air, musculature, and tissue responses to increased loads placed within the vocal tract. Naturally, a vocalist increases the possibility of causing vocal damage when excessive force is used when singing. Therefore, this chapter presents not only extreme vocal behaviors that may be used in creative contexts but also information on how to safely train and treat such practices. A distinction should be presented. If an extreme behavior is habitual and presents difficulties to one’s health, then a speech-language pathologist (SLP) should be consulted. However, if an extreme behavior is nonhabitual and part of a well-regulated system that poses no health difficulties, then a performer often has the ability to regulate his or her activities with an attentive ear. Of course, if a performer begins to develop voice disorders, then he or she should seek professional advice from a qualified SLP. In this chapter, extreme vocal behaviors are classified as complex and unstable oscillations (musculature), forced blown (air), and rasp. These distinctions are somewhat subjective, as the components are tightly interwoven, but it seems the first category emphasizes muscular tension, while the second emphasizes extremely high airflow, and the third involves low airflow combined with a damped form of adduction (harsh closure, little excursion during abduction). Therefore, these three categories suggest broadly defined parameter spaces involving laryngeal movement, airflow, and tension. More research on such extreme behaviors is needed to understand the stresses, strains, and ratios of the associated parameters so that pedagogues and clinicians are better able to serve populations who produce excessive manners. Following the presentation of the three categories is information on the causes and treatments of common vocal disorders that stem from extreme vocal use. To end, a pedagogical method by Bonnie Raphael designed to train the hygienic production of extreme behaviors is presented. Now a bit of skepticism. Much of what is known about these modes of production is subjective, as the ability to collect data is hampered by the methods of collection, which hinder extreme productions in the clinical setting. However, for many voice professionals, this scientific information is thought to be irrelevant at best, as the ear and body awareness of most performers combine to form the best tools of measurement. Then, simply, anecdotal evidence by members of the performance, pedagogic, and scientific communities suggests that certain performers have the ability to practice extreme vocal behaviors without lasting ill effects while others do not. This suggests that specific global characteristics (neurological, physiological) allow some to safely perform extreme behaviors for their entire careers. Just what these ratios of applied tensions on individual psyches and specific physiological behaviors are is not known, which further adds to the mystique that certain performers have lungs made of “tempered steel.” Therefore, the notion that a method of training or treatment exists that can enable a performer to “safely” perform otherwise vocally violent techniques while retaining the original intensity and quality, or if training or treatment has a robust effect on production, remains unfulfilled and awaits further scientific knowledge.

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THREE CATEGORIES OF EXTREME BEHAVIORS Complex and Unstable Oscillations (Musculature) Complex and unstable oscillations seem to involve an emphasis of muscular tension that produces pitch movements between two or more pitch regions with significant amounts of noise. Over time, such behaviors can feature a wide dynamic range. Subjectively, muscular tension seems to dominate, while airflow and vertical laryngeal movement assist. Additionally, supraglottal oscillation, involving the ventricular folds, arytenoids, aryepiglottic folds, and epiglottic root, can play a supporting role. Track 8.1 features extreme behaviors that are characterized by aggressive oscillatory properties.

Track 8.1, Namtchylak: Lost Rivers The composition Freezing Moon by Hadzajlic features a complex and unstable scream, which seems to involve excessive vocal fold tension more than high airflow as the primary parameter to be decoupled (see figure 8.1).

Figure 8.1.

Hadzajlic: Freezing Moon. Courtesy of H. Hadzajlic.

Track 8.2, Hadzajlic: Freezing Moon

Forced Blown (Air) Excessive airflow through the glottis can produce noisy sonorities or push a normal oscillatory regime into an unbalanced and irregular mode of phonation. Track 8.3 seems to feature an increased velocity of airflow that bifurcates a normal tone to a complex multiphonic.

Track 8.3, Blonk: Geen Krimp IV My composition The Hidden Thunder of Screaming Souls features forced blown air to produce this extreme gesture, using both egressive and ingressive phonation. In figure 8.2, only egressive air is used.

Figure 8.2.

Edgerton: The Hidden Thunder of Screaming Souls. Courtesy of M. Edgerton.

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Track 8.4, Edgerton: The Hidden Thunder of Screaming Souls Anaphora, written in 2001, is a study of fifty-six classes of vocal multiphonics, which I wrote for Rebekka Uhlig from Berlin. Directly after the opening gesture, the vocalist is asked to produce a series of forced blown sonorities via extremely high airflow combined with an unforced and low-tension vibratory characteristic. The singer is not expected to produce the tones of the notated multiphonic, rather she may target the tone on A5 and allow the additional tones to appear, depending how the nonlinearity between air and the vocal folds affects the output (see figure 8.3).

Figure 8.3.

Edgerton: Anaphora. Courtesy of Babel Scores.

Track 8.5, Edgerton: Anaphora

Rasp Rasp seems to involve excessive adductory tension along with low airflow and a small abductory excursion. Excessive laryngeal muscular tension often results in vocal pathology. To be sure, many performers engage in activities that use excessive and unbalanced laryngeal tension without developing pathology, but such performers seem to be an exception. As might be obvious, the difficulty of this discussion is that tissue tends to recuperate after stressful behavior—up to a point. However, this region of hygienic behavior is not universal, therefore if a healthy voice is desired, then it is best to err on the side of safety. Physiologically, extreme tension can result in tightly adducted vocal folds during the closing phase of each glottal cycle. In addition, differential pressures can be applied along the anterior-to-posterior axis, or between the left and right vocal folds. Lastly, supraglottal tension forming a midline approximation of the arytenoid cartilages, ventricular folds, epiglottic base, or aryepiglottic folds can be engaged by both healthy and dysfunctional voices. From the popular music world, some singers known for their raspy voices include Kim Carnes, Joe Cocker, Macy Gray, Stevie Nicks, Brian Johnson (AC/DC), Bonnie Tyler, and Rod Stewart.

Track 8.6, Stäbler: Drüber Raspy voice is explicitly asked for in Madrigals by William Brooks. In figure 8.4, the singer is prompted to produce a rasping, frog-like sound in conjunction with an ingressive breath.

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Figure 8.4.

Brooks: Madrigals. Courtesy of W. Brooks.

CAUSES AND TREATMENTS OF VOCAL DISORDERS The causes of voice disorders are numerous and have huge consequences for the person affected. The underlying causes of voice disorders are due to multiple factors that include the initial problem, promoting altered compensatory strategies and often affecting lifestyle, psychological, stress-related, and organic conditions. Because the voice is so intimately connected with a person’s psyche, anything can, and often does, alter a person’s voice. Five categories have been identified that affect vocal health (see table 8.1). Table 8.1.

Factors Associated with Common Voice Disorders

Infection and inflammation

Vocal misuse and abuse Benign and malignant growths

Neuromuscular diseases

Psychogenic conditions

Laryngopharyngeal reflux (LPR) Chronic tobacco use (smoking) Upper respiratory infection Muscle tension dysphonia(s) Acute vocal abuse Reinke’s edema Vocal nodules Granulomas Papillomas Carcinoma (cancer) Dystonia (spasmodic dysphonia) Paralysis/paresis Degenerative conditions (including parkinsonism and presbylarynges) Conversion reactions Relapsing aphonia/dysphonia

Infection and Inflammation Common upper respiratory tract infections include the common cold and influenza. Often during infection, the membranes lining the vocal folds become inflamed and produce hoarseness or a lowering of the voice. Generally, this type of condition lasts no longer than a week to ten days, but sometimes the condition worsens, and the patient develops chronic dysphonia. When laryngitis occurs, the patient must modify the amount of voice use—for the professional performer, this means reducing the number of performances or limiting the amount of participation in performance. One of the most common causes of hoarseness and laryngitis is a condition known as laryngopharyngeal reflux (LPR). LPR refers to a condition in which the contents of the stomach flow back into the throat. Most patients with this condition are not aware that they have reflux, as heartburn is not a prominent feature. Patients with reflux more commonly complain of hoarseness, a lump in the throat, difficulty swallowing, chronic throat clearing, or cough. Reflux also appears to incite abnormal laryngeal muscular tension and is associated with Reinke’s edema, vocal nodules, vocal granulomas, and even carcinoma (cancer) of the vocal folds. Additionally, smoking appears linked to reflux and is considered a major cause of laryngeal inflammation, as smoking weakens the esophageal-pharyngeal valve and the increased possibility of backward flow.

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Vocal Misuse and Abuse Vocal misuse and abuse is the most common cause of voice disorders seen in clinics. Increased muscle tension in combination with poor breath support often results in a condition known as dysphonia, or the tendency to exhibit inappropriate and excessive laryngeal muscle tension that often sounds rough and harsh. Another form of vocal misuse, the “BogartBacall” syndrome, occurs when either men or women speak or sing out of their range and often combines poor breath support with excessive laryngeal muscle tension. Vocal nodules result from vocal abuse and misuse. Fortunately, they are reversible with a modification to a person’s lifestyle. These lesions are likened to calluses that result from increased stress on tissue. In some patients, nodules are associated with vocal dysfunction, while in others the lesions have no functional disturbance. For medical clinicians, there is controversy as to the issue of surgical intervention, with three schools of thought: operate often, operate sometimes, operate never. The issues involved with surgery are complex, with many questions unresolved, such as: Should nodules in children be treated differently from adults? When, how, and why do nodules naturally resolve in children? Why are nodules so uncommon in adult males? How much therapy is necessary? What are criteria for compliance with therapy and for successful therapy? For children under ten years of age, few otolaryngologists recommend surgical removal of nodules because, when nodules are removed, they tend to recur. This is because the vocal behavior of children is difficult to modify, even during the postoperative period. However, surgical intervention in adults raises new issues. Many clinicians recommend voice therapy for patients with vocal nodules, however if these lesions do not resolve in several weeks, surgery is advised. Benign and Malignant Growths Benign lesions (lesions favoring recovery and not harmful) are most commonly associated with Reinke’s edema, vocal nodules, and granulomas. Uncommon growths include papillomas (a wartlike growth in the vocal folds caused by a herpes-type virus or from vocal abuse or reflux) and carcinoma (cancer) of the vocal folds, which is uncommon in nonsmokers but can be seen in patients with reflux. Neuromuscular Diseases Neuromuscular diseases can be classified into three groups: vocal fold paralysis (or paresis), motor skills disorders, and degenerative disorders. Paralysis and paresis are most often the result of trauma or cancer, or its causes might be unknown. The affecting injury can be the result of an automobile accident, sports injury, or other trauma, while cancer can affect the laryngeal nerves. Neuromuscular diseases that affect motor skills include spasmodic dysphonia, which results in a strained, strangled speech, and Parkinson’s disease. Degenerative disorders affect both the nervous system and muscles. Parkinson’s belongs to this group, as well as in the category for motor skills disorders, because in this condition there is degeneration of the basal ganglia, which is the portion of the brain that is responsible for integrating fine motor movements. Other degenerative disorders include atrophy of the vocal folds and other neurological conditions. Psychogenic Conditions Psychogenic conditions refer to the loss or a change to a person’s voice due to a psychological trauma. This is relatively uncommon, and most who suffer from this condition can recover normal voice without psychiatric or psychological intervention. In summary, vocal disorders appear across all sectors of society from professional voice users to those whose employment or career is not dependent on voice. This discussion on the causes and treatments of vocal disorders is appropriate for this chapter on extreme behaviors. Most relevant might be the information regarding vocal misuse and abuse, as the behaviors of this chapter involve excessive physiological maneuvers.

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PEDAGOGY OF THE EXTREME VOICE The following section offers some tips for training the extreme voice, based on guidelines offered by Bonnie Raphael, head of the Professional Actor Training Program at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. In her own words, Raphael remarks that because theater deals with the out-of-the-ordinary individual or with the relatively normal individual in often unusual circumstance, the actor is sometimes required to scream or shriek onstage. If screaming is done correctly, it is effective without damaging the actor’s vocal mechanism. If, however, screaming is done carelessly, it may work (if you’ve got a very hardy vocal mechanism or don’t work in very long rehearsals) but can cause discomfort to the actor and even some vocal limitation or damage to the larynx. So learn how to do it correctly and preserve the best voice for as long as you can.

Some of the tips she offers include the following: • Warm up the voice. • A good scream is a mixture of tone and noise. Tone feels like a vocalized yawn, the noise produced by pharyngeal constriction. • The vocal tract must be well hydrated. • Use well-supported air. • Begin the scream with an /h/, not a glottal stroke. • Use a soft onset, then increase loudness rapidly. • Use head register. • Don’t push too hard—don’t lose control. • Warm down after the scream (slow breathing, loosen body, soft humming, drink water). • Practice your scream in small steps for short periods. • Don’t smoke.

SUGGESTED READINGS AND REFERENCES Boone, D. R., and S. C. McFarlane. The Voice and Voice Therapy. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1988. Kellman, R. M., and D. A. Leopold. “Paradoxical Vocal Cord Motion: An Important Cause of Stridor.” Laryngoscope 92 (1982): 58–60. Koufman J. “The Differential Diagnosis of Paradoxical Vocal Cord Movement.” The Visible Voice 3, no. 3 (1994). Koufman, J. A., and G. Isaacson. “Voice Disorders.” Otolaryngologic Clinics 24, no. 5 (1991). McKinney, J. C. The Diagnosis and Correction of Vocal Faults. Nashville: Broadman, 1982. Raphael, B. “Screaming without Suffering.” Voice Talk 1, no. 3 (1995): 9. ———. “The Sounds of Violence: Vocal Training in Stage Combat.” Theatre Topics 1, no. 1 (March 1991): 73–86. Roy, N., and D. M. Bless. “Personality Traits and Psychological Factors in Voice Pathology: A Foundation for Future Research.” Journal of Speech Language Hearing Research 43, no. 3 (June 2000): 737–48. Roy, N., D. Bless, and D. Heisey. “Personality and Voice Disorders: A Superfactor Trait Analysis.” Journal of Speech Language Hearing Research 43, no. 3 (June 2000): 749–68. Roy, N., K. Ryker, and D. M. Bless. “Vocal Violence in Actors: An Evaluation of Its Acoustic Consequences and the Effects of Training in Hygienic Laryngeal Release Techniques.” Journal of Voice 14 (2000): 215–30. Sakakibara, K.-I., L. Fuks, H. Imagawa, and N. Tayama. (2004). “Growl Voice in Ethnic and Pop Styles.” In Proceedings of the International Symposium on Musical Acoustics, March 31 to April 3, 2004, Nara, Japan. Ward, P. H., D. G. Hanson, and G. Berci. “Observations on Central Neurologic Etiology for Laryngeal Dysfunction.” Annals of Otology Rhinology and Laryngology 90 (1981): 430–41.

Reminder: All examples referred to in the chapter can be found at https://rowman.com/ISBN/9780810888401 (select the “Features” tab).

Chapter Nine

Multidimensional Voice

Multidimensional networks offer an interesting methodology in the search for new expressions in music. For me, the value of these methods is more expanding the bioacoustical diversity of voice production and less an exercise in technical complexity. This approach is inherently connected with the nonlinearity of our vocal tract, which is discussed later in this chapter. The main benefit of this approach is to produce extra-complex sonorities that exceed a single pitch with a gently sloping spectrum as is normally seen in speech and song. Such sonorities feature the perception of multiple pitches, spectral reinforcement/manipulation, subharmonics, sustained pitch and noise, noise sonorities, and transient and unstable sonorities, among others.

MULTIPLE PARAMETERS aka Taffy Twisters shows multiple parameters identified in a musiThe following excerpt from my composition cal score. In figure 9.1, one singer is asked to combine pitch contour with aperture shape with articulation of vowels and consonants (using IPA) with vowels, approximants, fricatives, and stops using the comprehensive lingua-palatal method from chapters 5 and 6.

Figure 9.1.

Edgerton:

, aka Taffy Twisters. Courtesy of M. Edgerton.

aka Taffy Twisters

Track 9.1, Edgerton:

With voice we usually do not externally manipulate pitch, dynamics, or timbre, such as with musical instruments. As a result, it is difficult to identify precisely the individual parameters used by singers. As there are an enormous number 133

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of parameters involved in producing sound, simplified models can provide powerful conceptual tools by which performers reliably predict the results of parametric change. A useful acoustic model consists of a driving force, a source of acoustical disturbance, a resonant medium, and articulation. For artistic use, we won’t dive too deeply into the science, but suffice to say that in each category there are multiple parameters that can be shifted away from normal in scalar formations that impact the sound output. For example, vocal fold tension can shift between an extremely lax glottis to a hyperpressed glottis in order to produce a variety of extra-complex sonorities (see table 9.1). Table 9.1.

Multiple Parameters within an Acoustic Framework

Air

Source

Resonance

Articulation

airflow through glottis

tension of vocal folds

intensity of sound subglottal pressure phase within breath cycle (e.g., end of breath) support characteristic air direction

pitch range to voice type glottal valving laryngeal height

coupling between resonator and source nasality placement of sound Singer’s formant

front-to-back tongue placement (bright/dark) lingual fricatives, sibilants, etc.

open-to-close ratio (brassy/ordinary)

This focus on shifting idiomatic behaviors into other nonidiomatic ratios during sound production is implicated by James Tenney when he discusses two primary factors responsible for perceptual cohesion and segregation: “The factor of similarity applies not only to pitch and timbre, but also to the other parameters—dynamic level, envelope, temporal and vertical density, etc.—and in fact it may be said to function with respect to any attribute of sound by which we are able, at a given moment, or within a given time-span, to distinguish one sound or sound-configuration from another” (Tenney 1988). Regarding the extra-normal voice, a performer can manipulate any element to produce an audible change of sound quality. However, due to the inherent nonlinearity in voice, a large parametric change does not always produce a correspondingly large change in the acoustic output, nor does a small parametric change produce only a small change in its output. Further, within any single parameter, each performer has the opportunity to scale each parametric space, utilizing the amount of effective steps between minimal and maximal values determined by an appropriate amount of variation in each context. In Voice-Off by Kourliandski, the singer is asked to combine normal voice with breath noise (inhale and exhale) with dry and raspy sounds produced by strongly pressed vocal folds with sporadic tongue movements of a quasi-gurgling quality with cheek sounds, pouring air from one cheek to the other with percussive Adam’s-apple sound (see figure 9.2).

Figure 9.2.

Kourliandski: Voice-Off. Courtesy of Editions Jobert.

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Track 9.2, Kourliandski: Voice-Off In Voix by Rodriguez, each voice part identifies multiple parameters. In the center of each voice part are two three-line staves that identify movement within high and low registers. At the top of each system is a two-line staff that indicates manipulation of an external resonator formed by both hands, while at the bottom is a single-line staff that indicates air/ breath sounds (see figure 9.3).

Figure 9.3.

Rodriguez: Voix. Courtesy of M. Rodriguez.

Track 9.3, Rodriguez: Voix In A painter of figures in rooms, Cassidy developed a somewhat graphical tablature notation that identifies tongue position on a separate two-line stave from central space that indicates pitch, air pressure (volume), mouth shape, and glottal position/tension. The composer had the idea to present layers that are independent, though in practice the elements shift within a single face as homophonic textures. Significantly, Cassidy does acknowledge the dynamical nature of voice when he writes about the unpredictable nature of some of the notated activities (see figure 9.4).

Figure 9.4.

Cassidy: A Painter of Figures in Rooms. Courtesy of A. Cassidy.

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In A general interrupter to ongoing activity, Johnson asks the singer to explore the sound world of frications, sibilants, and other sorts of noise-making activity through mostly nonscalable multiple parameterizations. As the composer writes, this piece is a study of the voice as an instrument that is uniquely capable of occluding itself. This occlusion takes place on a number of levels: the noisily tongue-blocked airflow of fricative and sibilant consonants, which comprise the fundamental sonic material of the piece; the diffusion of the text’s vowels into whistles and hisses, as more or less destructive background colorations; and the fragile compromises necessitated by an overloaded structure wherein almost every physical effort partially overwrites every other. (see figure 9.5)

Figure 9.5.

Johnson: A general interrupter to ongoing activity. Courtesy of E. Johnson.

Track 9.4, Johnson: A general interrupter to ongoing activity

NONLINEAR PHENOMENA A brief discussion on nonlinear phenomena is essential to the discussion of multidimensionality, although I only touch on a few basic scientific ideas. For voice, nonlinear phenomena have been reported for newborn cries, pathological voices, extra-normal extended vocal technique, animal vocalizations, and speech. It was even reported that nonlinear vocalisms have functional and communicative relevance for animals and humans (Fitch, Neubauer, and Herzel 2002; Kohler 1996).

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Central to the understanding of nonlinear dynamics, all natural systems feature dynamical regimes, known as attractors. For voice, the relevant attractors include limit cycle (for voice, a pitch), folded limit cycle (for voice, subharmonics), torus (for voice, biphonation), and chaos (for voice, irregular, aperiodic, and noise-like behavior) (see figure 9.6). Attractors represent a particular state for parameters, such as vocal fold tension or subglottal pressure during phonation. Naturally, the system parameters change over time. When the values begin to vary beyond a threshold, transitions begin to occur between these attractors. Known as bifurcations, these transitions include Hopf bifurcation (a transition from a steady state to a limit cycle), period-doubling bifurcations (transitions from a limit cycle to folded limit cycles), secondary Hopf bifurcation (a transition from a limit cycle to a torus due to the excitation of another independent oscillation), and cascades of subharmonic bifurcations. Bifurcations often are precursors of deterministic chaos, such that small parameter shifts induce jumps to nonperiodic oscillations.

Figure 9.6. Attractor states.

For those wishing a bit more information on the attractor states related to voice, I begin with a discussion of the attractor class, subharmonics. (Imitated Tibetan) chant involves either the combination of vocal folds in conjunction with the ventricular folds or, alternatively, vocal fold asymmetry, in which a normal tone is combined with a vocal fry. Tori are two or more independent frequency contours that involve vocal fold asymmetries (left-right, multiple mode, vortex induced). In the only scientific study of true biphonation, one subject had control of both voices. Documented on film, she was able to produce similar, oblique, and contrary motion. Examined with high-speed photography, it was found the subject produced biphonic voice with the left and right vocal folds vibrating at different frequencies. However, in a completely different way, a singer can produce tori with aerodynamic vortices forces, known as a glottal whistle or M4. In my composition A Marriage of Shadows, the singer is asked to engage in practices that produce nonlinear phenomena. For example, figure 9.7 shows the penultimate phrase that asks the singer to produce a glottal whistle (M4). Due to the unstable nature of the source production, it is not possible to specify exact pitches nor, in most cases, register. Generally it is not even possible to control how many independent frequency contours (voices during biphonation, triphonation, etc.) are available to any singer. In every case, the composer should collaborate with a particular singer to see what he or she is able to produce.

Figure 9.7.

Edgerton: A Marriage of Shadows. Courtesy of Babel Scores.

Track 9.5, Edgerton: A Marriage of Shadows

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Chaos in voice is represented by wideband, noisy signals that are produced with aerodynamic forces or tissue vibration. For example, one chaotic sonority involves the combination of high airflow, lax vocal fold vibration, and relatively high pitch. In this production, the glottal pitch features incomplete closure, allowing the high airflow to continue as a separate, perceptual entity. Added to this noise and pitch sonority is a subharmonic, normally at the octave. A second chaotic attractor involves the combination of ventricular and vocal fold vibration with high air pressure. This method involves a pressed mode of phonation that is combined with ventricular fold constriction to produce a harmonic tone simultaneously with a broad-band tone. Already, reports have been published that ventricular folds produce the low-frequency component of subharmonic singing in Tibetan chant, the Kargyraa method of Tuvan overtone singing, and by Xhosa singers. However, this second method uses the ventricular folds to produce relatively high frequencies and loud clicks. MULTIPHONIC COMBINATIONS/MULTIPLE SOUND SOURCES Multiple sound sources are the focus in chapter 7 and are reviewed here briefly. Multiphonics have been important resources for contemporary, avant-garde music for the past fifty years, since Bartolozzi began to systematize his ideas with woodwinds. This led to the development of expanded sound resources for voice through such compositions as Davies’s Three Songs for a Mad King, Ligeti’s Aventures and Nouvelle Aventures, and Lachenmann’s temA, among others. In scientific and medical literature, multiple sound sources are considered dysfunctional behaviors due to clinical work with patients. So although artistic use is quite different than those with disease, our understanding of vocal multiphonics can be increased if we gather more information about multiple sound sources from physiology and anatomy. Information about the mechanics of multiple sound sources is found in the literature on diplophonia. This research suggests there are several causes of diplophonia, including unilateral vocal fold polyps causing different vibratory patterns of the two folds, ventricular folds acting as an additional source, congenitally absent or rudimentary vocal folds, asymmetrical loading of mucous on the vocal folds, adolescent voice change, and the voluntary control of asymmetrical vocal fold vibration. Multiple sound sources can occur at any level of the vocal tract and can be broadly categorized as related to their degree of voicing (voiced vs. unvoiced) or as sources produced within the acoustic categories of power, source, articulation, and resonance. Table 9.2 presents multiple combinations within each category. My composition Anaphora is a study in fifty-six classes of voiced and unvoiced multiphonics. Figure 9.8 shows a sequence with the following four combinations: number 34—an egressive nasal frication with lingua-palatal stops using tongue tip, number 35—an ingressive nasal frication with lingua-palatal stops using tongue blade, number 36—a bilabial buzz with pharyngeal frication, and number 37—two bilabial buzzes (left and right) with a vocal fold pitch.

Source

Resonance

Articulation

Nasal air frication + Lingua-dental air frication

Lingua-dental whistle + Air sonority

Oscillation of nasal filter open and close + Moderate airflow

Rear tongue flutter + Air frication at lower teeth, tongue

High airflow + Vocal fold pitch (subharmonics)

Tibetan chant and variants (vocal folds + ventricular folds)

Throat/overtone singing (pressed voice + radical filtering)

Voice + Repeated tongue clicks

High airflow + Bilabial frication (with voice)

Voice + Sustained tongue frications

Lingual-pharyngeal articulation + Open velopharyngeal port to produce rising and lowering pitch through nasal cavity

Bilabial whistles or “pops” + Front tongue flutter

High airflow + Unvoiced vowels /i-e-a-o-u/

“Turkey” glottal stops + Registral jumps

Airflow through nasal port + Airflow through oral cavity

Percussive cheek tap + Rapid lingual movement (with rounded lips) to produce sense of pitch change

Resonance

Articulation

Power Power

Multiphonic Combinations within an Acoustic Framework

Source

Table 9.2.

Multidimensional Voice

Figure 9.8.

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Edgerton: Anaphora. Courtesy of Babel Scores.

Track 9.6, Edgerton: Anaphora In figure 9.9, composer Dharmoo in Vaai Irandu, a work inspired by South Indian Carnatic music, asks the singer to superimpose percussive phonemes (clicks and ejective consonants) on a voiced melodic line in order to present the illusion of one face producing the material from two mouths and to construct an imaginary meta-raga.

Figure 9.9.

Dharmoo: Vaai Irandu. Courtesy of G. Dharmoo.

Track 9.7, Dharmoo: Vaai Irandu

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In my composition Friedrich’s Comma, multiple strata are combined that are designed to interact, interrupt, dominate, and support the voiced melody. In this setting, the melody is joined by IPA markings with aperture shapes with labial manners with nasal flows (articulation, sustained noise, or whistles) with jaw manners with dental articulations with lingua-palatal manners with cheek influence with uvula frication or tremolo with pharyngeal articulation (see figure 9.10).

Figure 9.10.

Edgerton: Friedrich’s Comma. Courtesy of Babel Scores.

Track 9.8, Edgerton: Friedrich’s Comma Friedrich’s Comma presents timbral exploration through a heightened graininess that occurs in response to multiple articulative strata based on my mapping of the vocal tract that expands the phonetic-based model to well over one hundred locations and postures with their associated manners. For this small study, I developed a physiologic grid where multiple levels of information could be transmitted simultaneously. The significance of this model is that it allows for the possibility of developing a contrapuntal complex of independent strata within one face.

SCALED MULTIDIMENSIONAL NETWORKS When singing, numerous parameters combine to form the sound quality of the singer. During normal singing, these parameters feature limited excursion from the ordinary. However, when one or more robust elements is desynchronized from normal, changes to the sound quality and gestural identification begin to occur. When desynchronized, each parameter can vary between minimal and maximal values, for example, with airflow through the glottis (none to maximum flow) or vocal fold tension (extremely lax to hyperpressed). In music composition, perhaps the first report of the explicit use of scaled, multidimensional use is identified by Hübler (1984) in a paper discussing expanded string technique. Other composers and performers who have exploited multidimensionality in limited, mostly nonscalable ways include composers Scelsi, Ferneyhough, Schnebel, and Wishart and performers Stratos, Minton, and Blonk, among others. As seen in the previous examples, compositions featuring multiple elements often use many layers simultaneously to achieve complex, chaotic states. However, compositions interested in scaling elements outside of pitch and rhythm might search for subtleties with fewer strata. In my composition Kut, I often ask the singer to desynchronize one or two elements simultaneously in order to explore the sound world of

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shamanism from Korea, the Mugyo. In figure 9.11, the singer simultaneously shifts nasality from maximum to minimum with laryngeal height from minimum to maximum.

Figure 9.11.

Edgerton: Kut. Courtesy of M. Edgerton.

Another example of scaled multidimensionality in music is found in the composition B A 4 by Green, in which the singer dynamically controls upper lip position, lower lip position, and voice (see figure 9.12).

Figure 9.12.

Green: B A 4. Courtesy of A. Green.

Track 9.9, Green: B A 4 In Various Terrains by Baldwin, the score consists of eleven staves, which the singer has to juggle simultaneously (see figure 9.13). This type of performance sets up conflicts in which a performer has to decide which element to emphasize or even perform. Inherent in this type of work is a give-and-take, a push-and-pull between different elements. In this way, no two performances will be the same if the performer truly engages with the various elements in play. In Various Terrains, the multidimensional elements in each vertical grouping are: • Strand 1—whistle, air stream, mouth shape, growl • Strand 2—tongue placement, mouth shape, flutter, growl • Strand 3—vocal fry, pitch, mouth shapes, clicks

Figure 9.13.

Baldwin: Various Terrains. Courtesy of M. Baldwin.

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The composer writes in the performance notes, the performer is required to (as much as is possible) articulate three independent strands of musical information simultaneously. In order to project the simultaneous articulation of multiple musical strands, the performer must oscillate between the three independent strands, in an attempt to provide the listener with all of the musical material at any given moment. . . . The performer should treat each strand of musical material as equally important; at no point should any strand, or any specific stave for that matter, be assigned a higher degree of hierarchical importance. The end result should be that of a kaleidoscopic shifting of perspective and articulation of the various musical strands. . . . An important distinction between “as quickly as possible” and a “random or improvisatory” rate of oscillation must be made. The performer must constantly be engaging with the score on a moment-to-moment basis, and with the physical limitations of visually navigating (maneuvering) the physical space the score (in this case the paper) occupies.

For composers and performers, I suggest that scaled multidimensional networks can be robust environments for unlocking dynamical potential. This doesn’t suggest chaotic or unpredictable outcomes but rather that multiple dynamical outputs can result from parametric decoupling. To a certain extent, these can be repeatable and expected. In a way, these types of procedures offer a type of real-world freedom by combining high complexity with biomechanical dynamic considerations. The benefit for composers, performers, and audiences is that the feeling of exciting, freely improvised music is now intimately linked with tightly constrained and rigorous compositional practice. In this book, I make a call for composers to know the instrument better so one can reasonably predict from specific parametric decoupling which constellations and bifurcations are possible for voice. I think it is a fair criticism that, if a composer does not care about the sonic result, why should the performer? Multidimensional networks offer the potential for traversing a greater topology of production and output that range from parametric change focused on a single idea to that which is spread among multiple elements.

TWO CASE STUDIES: SINGLE PARAMETRIC FOCUS AND MULTIPLE PARAMETRIC FOCUS Parametric Change: Single Idea (Blonk’s Rhotic) Rhotic by Jaap Blonk is an example of scaling one element—the letter /r/ during vocal performance. This composition features numerous modifications to this rhotic consonant (/r/). In language, the relations to /r/ include alveolar trill, alveolar approximant, alveolar flip/tap, retroflex fricative, retroflex approximant, retroflex flap, and uvular trill and uvular frications, among others. Blonk used four categories of manipulation in his performance of Rhotic: airflow, laryngeal behavior, the upper vocal tract (filter and articulation), and bilabial influence. Although an incredible amount of diverse sounds are produced, most procedures still carry a recognizable relationship to /r/. However, even though many sounds are perceptually linked to /r/, they carry neither the same perceptual nor generative distance to /r/. A general process used in this performance involved the simultaneous morphology of one or two elements with the result that one perceives a nearly constant change in the total timbral space. Initially, Rhotic features an unvoiced, /r/-colored, tongue-tip trill that is combined with slight lip opening/closing that produces a sense of pitch contour (pitch rise as lips open, pitch lower as lips close). Next, Blonk added slight tongue movement with increased tongue pressure. Throughout Rhotic, one has the feeling of nearly constant, mostly small-scale parametric change. The main processes used to change the initial idea appear in table 9.3. Table 9.3.

Morphology in Rhotic by Blonk

Initial Idea

Morphology

/r/

Tongue vibration, front and back Lips opening and closing to filter noise sonorities (tongue trill, ventricular fold clicks, vocal fry) and produce pitch contours Non-modal vocal fold production, including asymmetries, vocal fry, hyperpress, creaky voice, rough voice Tongue movement to color sound and alter vowel Dramatic timbre change through mimicry, such as with child’s voice and a sound that nearly resembles Donald Duck Ventricular folds producing harsh and sharp clicks Air as a separate, perceptual property

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144 Table 9.4.

Perceptual Distance in Rhotic by Blonk Close

Moderate

Distant

No Relation

Air

crescendi/decresendi of air

not used

Laryngeal

rough voice and vocal fry

Oral/Nasal/Pharyngeal

unvoiced, modal voice, falsetto retroflex /r/, front tongue trill

ingressive airflow as heavy noise sonority nearly M4 and biphonic

high tongue pressure, tongue accents with increased pressure

chant mode with harsh false fold clicks, tongue-root vibration

Bilabial

lip broadening/lessening

lip broadening/lessening

not used

high airflow with no /r/ color. false folds with pressed glottis vowel changes losing /r/ coloring, back and front tongue vibration together loose bilabial flutter with no /r/ coloring

As previously mentioned, some productions are perceptually and generatively closer to /r/ than others. Table 9.4 rests upon judgments of the manipulated material to be closely related, moderately related, distantly related, and not related to /r/ and presents examples for each category. In Rhotic by Blonk, we have an example of scaling a single element during vocal performance. As shown in table 9.4, nearly every category of production carried close to distant related elements. Although heavily invested in the unusual sonorities and gestures of contemporary music, it’s clear the composer was thinking in terms of novelty and redundancy, or the issues that composers have always dealt with, and I contend that this aspect of scaling is one crucial element to such a perception. Transformations among Multiple Elements (Edgerton‘s The Old Folks at Home) In my composition The Old Folks at Home, I condense multiple elements from a larger composition into an extremely short time span for demonstration purposes only. In this excerpt, nine elements are joined to the normal pitch/rhythm staff. The idea is that every parametric change from ordinary produces a change of timbre or even acoustical class (see figure 9.14).

Figure 9.14.

Condensed multidimensional and scaled networks in The Old Folks at Home by Edgerton. Courtesy of M. Edgerton.

Multidimensional Voice Table 9.5.

145

Potential Outputs from Multidimensional Desynchronization in The Old Folks at Home by Edgerton

Letter

Potential Output

A

Air noise with subharmonic multiphonic can alternate with single pitches. Lip flutter is rough. Beginning with extreme airflow, each successive level features a crescendo of air noise. At moderate-high to high airflow, noise begins to appear, as does subharmonics. Also with ventricular fold laxness, other nonharmonic tones can appear due to air-induced and transient ventricular fold asymmetries Tone begins to be choked with transient register flips. Due to oscillation of ventricular folds, subharmonics can appear. The ventricular folds can add subharmonics and, due to the high airflow, produce loud, percussive clicks. This produces a complex tone with two separate components—a harmonic tone with harmonic number 4 being the loudest (and potentially with a subharmonic) while simultaneously a broad-band tone from approximately F6 to C7. This can feature harmonic and/or subharmonic jumps. High air noise with potential subharmonic leads to phonation in chest register, then modal register. Low transient pitches (perhaps with multiple nonharmonic tones). The notated pitches can sound at an octave. The timbral changes should occur with the change of register (even though phonation uses creaky voice, keep the idea of register change). This produces transient interval movement. Glottal whistle produces potentially unstable, multiphonic, and time-varying sonorities. This leads to pitch and register change that may affect resonator, glottal pressure, and airflow volume to produce additional time-variant behavior. At the beginning, a rapid opening and closing of the velopharyngeal port can produce registral jumps of an octave or more with sharp clicks. The lax folds help to allow pitch movement, leading to /ʃ/ in combination with an opening and closing velopharyngeal port to produce a pulsing of noise, leading to the production of E5 on an ingressive breath with continued velopharyngeal port opening and closing to result in unstable pitches and noise. The ventricular folds produce a brassy sound with harmonics being reinforced in the change from open to close velopharyngeal port. Hyperpressed ventricular folds on ingressive airflow produce high-pitched and glassy tone—perhaps even a glottal whistle. Multiple pitches can result. A biphonic sequence can appear. The frequency contour(s) can feature time-variance due to change of register and tongue movement. At ordinary tension, the biphonation stops and features timbral change due to the nasal and register behavior. Depending on the ability of singer, a clear biphonic sequence can appear. (Alternatively, a tone in midrange can appear with either high or low tones or with different tones, producing roughness.) Nasality should help to stabilize the asymmetry with multiphonic potential. And the lip buzz should be loose, allowing the ventricular fold asymmetry to still propagate outside the lips. And lip buzz and voice tone should carry equal weight. Low asymmetry can produce clearly identified low tone(s) or even a wideband clustering of low tones, while the increasing nasality helps to separate the multiple components produced by the ventricular fold asymmetry. And bilabial or linguadental whistles produce different tones with the voiced tones, while the uvula trill adds percussive strokes to rapidly changing nasal to non-nasal production. Multiple high pitches should occur. The front tongue trill continues through the rest. A strong and irregular midtongue flutter inhibits accurate pitch production. Hyperpressed ventricular fold tension inhibits clear pitch definition, producing a noisy tone with perhaps wideband components, and rear-tongue flutter produces a strong noise, while the increasing airflow begins to produce air noise. Strong air noise with a strong subharmonic.

B C D

E F

G H

I J K L

M

N O P Q R

In figure 9.14, eighteen modifications to an already-active melody are labeled A through R at the top of the score. Because the score features a modified tablature notation that does not show the resultant sound but rather what to do, I have included descriptions of potential expected sonorities in table 9.5. This excerpt was developed from a larger composition with the intent of showing many desynchronized elements on a single page. From my perspective, the biological diversity of this page is too great and would need to be relaxed somewhat to allow the biomechanics of the voice system to function. However, in either case, any analysis of sonic relatedness will be focused on the results of a particular singer, as it is expected that different singers achieve different results. One connected approach to the analysis of relatedness can apply to the generative distance that any particular behavior has with its normal value. For example, airflow can be scaled between absolute minimum (no air) and maximum. For any given passage, say at an mf, a singer can identify some moderate value as being ordinary. Then, depending on the other behaviors, air can be scaled according to the compositional idea, which can be intuitively felt as degrees of relatedness. In conclusion, the voice is capable of incredible diversity that this chapter only begins to address. In current artistic practice, the biomechanical limits of voice are being explored through multidimensionality that allows inherent nonlinear properties to be engaged with methods that desynchronize one or more elements within scaled networks from ordinario sound production. These explorations are diverse in nature, with no central mandate among those continuing such forward-leaning practices, which is seen as a virtue.

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SUGGESTED READINGS AND REFERENCES Anhalt, I. Alternative Voices: Essays on Contemporary Vocal and Choral Composition. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1984. Aurbacher-Liska, H. Die Stimme in der Neuen Musik. Heinrichshofen: Florian Noetzel Verlag, 2003. Backus, J. The Acoustical Foundations of Music. New York: W. W. Norton, 1969. Barnett, B. M. “Aspects of Vocal Multiphonics.” Master’s thesis, University of California–San Diego, 1972. Bartolozzi, B. Metodo per Oboe. Milan: Edizioni Suvini Zerboni, 1969. Behrman, A. “Global and Local Dimensions of Vocal Dynamics.” Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 105, no. 1 (January 1999): 432–34. Benade, A. Horn, Strings and Harmony. Garden City, NY: Doubleday Anchor Books, 1960. ———. “The Wolf Tone on Violin Family Instruments.” Catgut Acoustical Society Newsletter 24 (1975): 21–23. Berry, D. A., H. Herzel, I. R. Titze, and K. Krischer. “Interpretation of Biomechanical Simulations of Normal and Chaotic Vocal Fold Oscillations with Empirical Eigenfunctions.” Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 95 (1994): 3595–3604. Berry, D. A., H. Herzel, I. R. Titze, and B. H. Story. “Bifurcations in Excised Larynx Experiments.” Journal of Voice 10 (1996): 129–38. Blonk, J. Vocalor. Amsterdam: Staalplaat, 1997. CD. Bloothooft, G., E. Bringmann, M. van Capellen, J. van Luipen, and K. Thomassen. “Acoustics and Perception of Overtone Singing.” Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 92, no. 4, pt. 1 (October 1992): 1827–36. Bouhuys, A. “Sound-Power Production in Wind Instruments.” Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 37 (1965): 453–56. Chase, A. M. “Aspects Involving the Performance of Contemporary Vocal Music.” Master’s thesis, University of California–San Diego, 1975. Clark, E. M. “Emphasizing the Articulatory and Timbral Aspects of Vocal Production in Vocal Composition.” D.M.A. thesis, University of Illinois, 1985. Dejonckere, P. H., and J. Lebacq. “An Analysis of the Diplophonia Phenomenon.” Speech Communication 2 (1983): 47–56. Edgerton, M. E. “Anaphora.” Unpublished manuscript, 2001. ———. “Music within the Continuum.” Submitted to Perspectives of New Music, 2013. ———. The 21st-Century Voice: Contemporary and Traditional Extra-Normal Voice. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press, 2005. Edgerton, M. E., A. Khidr, and D. Bless. “Multiple Sound Sources of the Vocal Tract: An Analysis of (Imitated Tibetan) Chant.” National Center for Voice and Speech Status and Progress Report 13 (1999): 131–40. Edgerton, M., J. Neubauer, and H. Herzel. “The Influence of Nonlinear Dynamics and the Scaling of Multidimensional Parameter Spaces in Instrumental, Vocal and Electronic Composition.” In Proceedings of 4th Generative Art Conference: Generative Design Lab DIAP, Politecnico di Milano, Milan, Italy, 2001. ———. “Nonlinear Phenomena in Contemporary Music.” Perspectives of New Music 41, no. 2 (2003). Fant, G. The Acoustic Theory of Speech Production. The Hague: Moulton, 1960. Fitch, T., J. Neubauer, and H. Herzel. “Calls Out of Chaos: The Adaptive Significance of Nonlinear Phenomena in Mammalian Vocal Production.” Animal Behavior 63, no. 3 (March 2002): 407–18. Fletcher, N., and T. Rossing. The Physics of Musical Instruments. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1998. Fletcher, N. H., and A. Tarnopolsky. “Acoustics of the Avian Vocal Tract.” Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 105 (1999): 35–49. Fuks, L. From Air to Music: Acoustical, Physiological and Perceptual Aspects of Reed Wind Instrument Playing and Vocalventricular Fold Phonation. Stockholm: Royal Institute of Technology, 1999. Gerratt, B. R., K. Precoda, and D. G. Hanson. “Diplophonia: Features in the Time Domain.” In Annual Convention of the American Speech-Language-Hearing Association. New Orleans: American Speech-Language-Hearing Association, 1987. Gerratt, B. R., K. Precoda, D. G. Hanson, and G. S. Berke. “Source Characteristics of Diplophonia.” Unpublished manuscript, 1984. Glass, L., and M. C. Mackey. From Clocks to Chaos: The Rhythms of Life. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1988. Griffiths, P. Modern Music: The Avant-Garde since 1945. London: Dent, 1981. Herzel, H. “Bifurcations and Chaos in Voice Signals.” Applied Mechanics Review 46 (1993): 399–413. Herzel H., D. A. Berry, I. R. Titze, and M. Saleh. “Analysis of Vocal Disorders with Methods from Nonlinear Dynamics.” Journal of Speech and Hearing Research 37 (1994): 1008–19. Herzel, H., and R. Reuter. “Whistle Register and Biphonation in a Child’s Voice.” Folia Phoniatrica et Logopaedica 49 (1997): 216–24. Hübler, K. “Expanding the String Technique.” Interface 13 (1984): 187–98. Jensen, K. “Extensions of Mind and Voice.” Composer 2 (1979): 13–17. Kavasch, D. “An Introduction to Extended Vocal Techniques: Some Compositional Aspects and Performance Problems.” In Reports from the Center, vol. 1. La Jolla: Center for Music Experiment, University of California–San Diego, 1980. Kim, S.-H. P’ansori: Korea’s Epic Vocal Art and Instrumental Music. Nonesuch Explorer Series. New York: Nonesuch, 1972. Kimura, M. “How to Produce Subharmonics.” Journal of New Music Research 28 (1999): 177–84.

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Kob, M. “Analysis and Modelling of Overtone Singing in the Sygyt Style.” Applied Acoustics 65, no. 12 (2004): 1249–59. Kob, M., N. Henrich, H. Herzel, D. Howard, I. Tokuda, and J. Wolfe. “Analysing and Understanding the Singing Voice: Recent Progress and Open Questions.” Current Bioinformatics 6 (2011): 362–74. Kohler, K. J. “Articulatory Reduction in German Spontaneous Speech.” In Proceedings of the Fourth Speech Production Seminar (Autrans), edited by ESCA, 1–4. San Diego: Singular, 1996. La Barbara, J. “Voice Is the Original Instrument.” In Joan La Barbara: The Reluctant Gypsy’s Balancing Act—Voice Is the Original Instrument. New York: Lovely Music, 2003. CD. Ladefoged, P. Elements of Acoustic Phonetics. 2nd ed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996. Large, J., and T. Murray. “Studies of Extended Vocal Techniques: Safety.” NATS Bulletin 34 (1979): 30–33. Laver, J. The Phonetic Description of Voice Quality. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1980. Lee, M. H., J. N. Lee, and K. S. Soh. “Chaos in Segments from Korean Traditional Singing and Western Singing.” Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 103 (1998): 1175–82. Levin, T., and M. Edgerton. “The Throat Singers of Tuva.” Scientific American 281, no. 3 (1999): 70–77. Marasovich, W. A., H. S. Gopal, S. E. Gerber, and W. S. Gibson. “Diplophonia in a Neonate.” International Journal of Pediatric Otorhinolaryngology 25 (1993): 227–34. Mazo, M., D. Erickson, and T. Harvey. “Emotion and Expression: Temporal Data on Voice Quality in Russian Lament.” In Vocal Fold Physiology: Voice Quality Control, edited by O. Fujimura and M. Hirano, 173–87. San Diego: Singular Press, 1995. McKinney, J. C. The Diagnosis and Correction of Vocal Faults. Nashville: Broadman, 1982. Mende, W., H. Herzel, and K. Wermke. “Bifurcations and Chaos in Newborn Cries.” Physics Letters 145A (1990): 418–24. Mergell, P., H. Herzel, and I. Titze. “Irregular Vocal Fold Vibration: High-Speed Observation and Modeling.” Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 108 (2000): 2996–3002. Minton, P. A Doughnut in One Hand. Berlin: FMP, 1998. Neubauer, J., M. Edgerton, and H. Herzel. “Non-Linear Phenomena in Contemporary Vocal Music.” Journal of Voice 18, no. 1 (2004): 1–12. Newell, R.M. “Writing for Singers in the Sixties.” D.M.A. thesis, University of California–San Diego, 1970. Nonomura, N., S. Seki, M. Kawana, T. Okura, and Y. Nakano. “Acquired Airway Obstruction Caused by Hypertrophic Mucosa of the Arytenoids and Aryepiglottic Folds.” American Journal of Otolaryngology 17 (1996): 71–74. Rose, P. “Phonetics and Phonology of Yang Tone Phonation Types in Zhenhai.” Paper presented at the First International Conference on Wu Dialects, Hong Kong, 1988. Sakakibara, K.-I., L. Fuks, H. Imagawa, and N. Tayama. “Growl Voice in Ethnic and Pop Styles.” In Proceedings of the International Symposium on Musical Acoustics, March 31 to April 3, 2004, Nara, Japan. Sakakibara, K.-I., H. Imagawa, T. Konishi, K. Kondo, E. Z. Murano, M. Kumada, and S. Niimi. “Vocal Fold and False Vocal Fold Vibrations in Throat Singing and Synthesis of Khöömei.” In Proceedings of the International Computer Music Conference, 135–38, 2001. Steinecke, I., and H. Herzel. “Bifurcations in an Asymmetric Vocal Fold Model.” Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 97 (1995): 1571–78. Stratos, D. Cantare la Voce. Milan: Cramps Records, 1978. CD. Sundberg, J. “The Acoustics of the Singing Voice.” Scientific American (March 1977): 82. Tenney, J. META-HODOS: A Phenomenology of 20th-Century Musical Materials and an Approach to the Study of Form. Oakland, CA: Frog Peak Music, 1988. Terrio, L., and D. Schreibweiss-Merin. “Acoustic Analysis of Diplophonia.” Perceptual and Motor Skills 77 (1993): 914. Tigges, M., P. Mergell, H. Herzel, T. Wittenberg, and U. Eysholdt. “Observation and Modelling Glottal Biphonation.” Acustica/Acta acustica 83 (1997): 707–14. Titze, I. Principles of Voice Production. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1994. Titze, I. R., R. Baken, and H. Herzel. “Evidence of Chaos in Vocal Fold Vibration.” In Vocal Fold Physiology: Frontiers in Basic Science, edited by I. R. Titze, 143–88. San Diego: Singular, 1993. Ward, P. H., J. W. Sanders, R. Goldman, and G. P. Moore. “Diplophonia.” Annals of Otology, Rhinology, and Laryngology 78 (1969): 771–77. Wilden, I., H. Herzel, G. Peters, and G. Tembrock. “Subharmonics, Biphonation, and Deterministic Chaos in Mammal Vocalization.” Bioacoustics 9 (1998): 171–96. Williams, G. P. Chaos Theory Tamed. Washington, DC: Joseph Henry, 1997. Wishart, T. On Sonic Art. London: Gordon and Breach, 1983.

Reminder: All examples referred to in the chapter can be found at https://rowman.com/ISBN/9780810888401 (select the “Features” tab).

Appendix A Voice Science

Our understanding of the voice has benefited from multidisciplinary study, in which insights from the sciences, humanities, religious studies, and the fine arts reveal the spiritual, cognitive, mechanical, and emotional bases behind the mysteries of the human animal. One particularly prominent issue that benefits from such cooperation involves language evolution and how humans, alone in the animal kingdom, acquired the faculty of language. Ultimately, this line of inquiry addresses the underlying computational systems of communication in order to understand why a mass of flesh, blood, and electrical activity (brain) gives rise to consciousness.

AIR (POWER SOURCE) Air pressure is the driving force of speech and song. For egressive (outward) –flowing phonation, the volume of the air in the lungs is slightly decreased as air is sent upward into the subglottal, glottal, and supraglottal regions. Physiologically, the lungs propel egressive airflow when sufficient pressure is generated, sending it through the vocal tract before radiating to the external environment. The main function of our lungs is to bring fresh oxygen into our bodies while removing carbon dioxide and other gaseous waste products. The lungs, central nervous system, diaphragm, chest wall musculature, and circulatory system all contribute to this function. The inspired oxygen travels from the lungs through the bloodstream to cells in all parts of the body. These cells use the oxygen as fuel and give off carbon dioxide as waste, which is carried by the bloodstream back to the lungs to be eliminated or exhaled (see figure A.1).

Figure A.1.

Gross anatomy of respiration. Courtesy of M. Edgerton.

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The total surface area of the lungs is about eighty square meters (roughly the size of a tennis court). Each lung consists of only approximately 10 percent tissue, while the rest is filled with air and blood. The structures that support the lung must be delicate enough to allow gas exchange yet strong enough to maintain the alveolar integrity. The lung can be divided into the conducting airways (air space) and the gas exchange portions. As we breathe in air, we use the muscles of our rib cage and the diaphragm to pull air into our lungs. Physiologically, the diaphragm contracts and flattens, which allows air to be sucked into the lungs. Lung inflation generates an elastic recoil force, which produces a negative pressure. Following inspiration, the diaphragm and the rib cage muscles relax, and air is expired, with the elastic recoil of the expanded chest wall and lungs supplying the driving force. However, during forceful expiration, the passive velocity is overcome by employing the muscles of expiration. On each side of the chest are membranes that cover each lung. The greater the lung distention during inhalation, the greater the elastic recoil and the more negative the pressure. At rest, lung volume is balanced between elastic recoil and lung pressure. Subglottally, an excess of air is built up in order to send a stream of air through the glottis. Typical subglottal air pressure varies between about 0.5 and 3 kPa for speech and can be as high as 10 kPa for song. As might be expected, both speech and song feature variation of subglottal pressure. During speech, this variation is so small that it is considered negligible, while during song, pressure variation becomes more important, as pressure affects pitch and dynamic articulation. Air is inhaled through the mouth and nose. Particularly relevant to ingressive phonation, mucous membranes in our mouth and nose warm and moisten incoming air while trapping particles of foreign matter. The air passes through the throat and into the windpipe (trachea), which is further protected from the entry of foreign matter by reflexive closure of the glottis and epiglottis. The trachea is surrounded on three sides by cartilage, while the membraneous posterior wall articulates with the esophagus. The lower trachea divides into the left and right bronchi. Like tree branches of irregular length and diameter, each bronchus continually divides and becomes narrower toward its terminus. The terminal bronchioles are the smallest of the conducting airways (see figure A.2).

Figure A.2. Division of lower trachea into left and right bronchi. Courtesy of M. Edgerton.

The airways end in the alveoli (small, thin air sacs that are arranged in clusters). When you breathe in, the newly inspired air reaches all of the alveoli at the same time and with the same volume. By enlarging the chest cavity, the “balloons” expand as air rushes in to fill the vacuum. When you breathe out, the “balloons” relax and air moves out of the lungs. The alveoli have approximately twenty-three divisions of the airway. Tiny blood vessels surround each of the 300 million alveoli in the lungs. Oxygen moves across the walls of the air sacs, is picked up by the blood, and is carried to the rest of the body. Carbon dioxide or waste gas passes into the air sacs from the blood and is breathed out. These tiny air sacs are connected by a network of pathways, called bronchioli, that begin superiorly in the trachea, then separate inferiorly into smaller and smaller tubes in each lung. In all alveoli, lung pressure is equal (see figure A.3).

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Figure A.3. Clustered air sacs of the alveoli. Courtesy of M. Edgerton.

The total volume of air that an average adult can hold is around six to seven liters. However, only part of this air is used, as normally around two liters must remain (called the residual volume); otherwise the lungs collapse. The remaining four to five liters (called the tidal volume), is usable for respiration or phonation, although this amount is rarely used (typically only 10 to 15 percent of the tidal volume at rest, while the remainder is held in reserve for more demanding physical activities, such as athletics or singing). To summarize, during inhalation, we expand the rib cage and lower the diaphragm. This causes an increase in the volume of air in our lungs and a decrease of lung pressure. Then, during exhalation, the rib cage contracts and the diaphragm rises, thus decreasing lung volume and causing pressure to rise. This pressure then causes the air to rush out of the lungs. The cycle of breathing can be divided into four discrete phases. SOURCE The larynx performs an important role in humans by disturbing airflow in order to produce speech or song. The larynx is located at the point where the upper vocal tract splits into two separate pathways: the trachea (or windpipe), which carries air into and out of the lungs, and the esophagus, which carries food for digestion. Therefore, the larynx can be considered to have three important functions: (1) control of airflow during breathing, (2) protection of the airway, and (3) production of sound for speech. Voiced sounds are produced by a wavelike motion of the vocal folds that chops up a mostly outgoing airstream and results in a series of air pulsations. These pulses carry an acoustically complex tone with a fundamental frequency and associated harmonic spectrum. This disturbance to the airflow is known as a sound source, which passes through the upper vocal tract to be shaped by the properties of the resonant environment. The trachea, found immediately below the vocal folds, leads downward to the lungs. The vocal folds are folds of tissue that open and close to produce phonation and remain open during normal respiration. Above the vocal folds is another pair of folds, called the ventricular folds or sometimes the false vocal folds. The ventricular folds are important, along with the epiglottis, in preventing foreign substances from entering the lower respiratory system. The ventricular folds do not play a major role in speech or song normally but are often used in sacred and secular expression from traditional, ethnic communities (including Tibetan chant and the Kargyraa style of Tuvan throat singing) to contemporary vocal usage and hyperfunctional vocal dysfunction (see chapter 7). The larynx consists of a framework of cartilage surrounded by soft tissue. The most prominent piece of cartilage is a shield-shaped structure called the thyroid cartilage, whose anterior portion is often referred to as the Adam’s apple. Supporting the larynx from above is a U-shaped bone called the hyoid. This bone is attached to the mandible by muscles and tendons and is important in elevating the larynx during deglutition and phonation. The lower part of the larynx consists of a circular piece of cartilage called the cricoid cartilage. Below the cricoid are the rings of the trachea (see figure A.4). At the center of the larynx lie the vocal folds. These folds consist of spongy muscles covered by a thin layer of tissue called mucosa. The folds are a paired structure, consisting of a left and right fold that forms a V when viewed from above. Posterior to each fold is cartilage called the arytenoids, which open and close during respiration and speech (see figure A.5).

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Figure A.4. Vertical cross-section of larynx; external laryngeal framework. Courtesy of M. Edgerton.

Figure A.5.

Open glottis (left) and nearly closed glottis (right). Courtesy of M. Edgerton.

TISSUE COMPOSITION AND VISCOSITY The composition and function of vocal fold tissue can be measured by its viscosity (a measure of how poorly a substance flows). This is a crucial measure for vocal fold oscillation that predicts when oscillation begins and how much energy is needed to keep the vocal folds in motion. This period of onset, otherwise known as phonation threshold pressure (PTP), was defined as the minimum subglottic pressure required to produce vocal fold oscillation. Directly relevant to the performing voice, the four options to lower PTP that make it easier to produce sound are (1) to decrease mucosal wave velocity, (2) to decrease the prephonatory glottal width, (3) to increase the thickness of the vibrating portion of the vocal fold, and (4) to decrease the tissue viscosity. The crucial pressure required to begin self-sustained oscillation can vary widely from person to person and seems depend on hydration, vocal skill, pitch, and fatigue (see table A.1).

Appendix A Table A.1. Hydration

Vocal Skill Pitch Fatigue

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Components Influencing Onset of Phonation Proper hydration of the vocal fold mucosa is a key factor for PTP, as fully hydrated mucosa is more mobile and easily deformed. This means that they can respond more easily with less force applied and can change shape and spring back much better than dehydrated mucosa. PTP depends on the shape of the vocal tract and larynx. The skill of the vocalist to manipulate the tract and regulate air pressure greatly influences the quality of performance. Generally, the PTP required increases as the fundamental frequency increases. Research suggests that PTP increases with fatigue.

Following onset, energy supplied by a mostly egressive airflow sustains normal phonation. However, energy is lost (in the form of heat) during phonation because of friction and must be overcome in order to sustain phonation. In order to decrease the amount of energy required to sustain oscillation, the following options apply: (1) decrease the length and thickness of the vocal folds, and increase the depth of the vocal folds or decrease the frequency of oscillation; (2) decrease vibrational amplitude by decreasing loudness of voice (suggesting that greater tissue movement results in greater energy loss through increased friction); and (3) lower tissue viscosity. Therefore, an increase in tissue viscosity results in greater energy losses for the onset and sustains phases of phonation. For singers, the keys to a large dynamic range are being able to generate onset easily and being able to reduce energy dissipation in order to sustain vocal fold oscillation. Mechanically, this offers an interesting contradiction that nature handles wonderfully, as phonation ideally needs a very loose, pliable, low viscous tissue in the mucosa while requiring highly stressed tissue in the ligament of the muscle.

MUSCLES OF THE LARYNX The larynx is controlled by two groups of muscles: intrinsic muscles, the muscles that move the folds and other muscles within the larynx, and extrinsic muscles, the muscles responsible for controlling the position of the larynx within the neck. The vocal folds are opened primarily by the posterior cricoarytenoid muscles. The body of the folds consists of a muscle called the thyroarytenoid. The interarytenoid muscle connects the arytenoids and brings them together. The lateral cricoarytenoid muscle runs from the arytenoid to the lateral portion of the cricoid cartilage, serving to close the larynx (see figure A.6). The cricothyroid (CT) muscle runs from the cricoid to the thyroid cartilage. When it contracts, the thyroid cartilage tilts forward, putting more tension on the vocal folds and thereby raising the pitch of the voice. The extrinsic muscles, called strap muscles (because they look like straps), raise and lower the entire larynx. These movements are important for swallowing and can be used to develop fine control of vocal quality.

Figure A.6. Superior view of vocal folds. Courtesy of M. Edgerton.

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MUCOSAL WAVE During speech and song, the vocal folds open and close many times per second. This motion is complex, beginning with the lower edge of the vocal folds and progressively opening using a wavelike motion that is known as the mucosal wave (see figure A.7).

Figure A.7.

Mucosal wave. Courtesy of M. Edgerton.

This wave is necessary for the folds to open in a uniform and symmetric manner, which is usually necessary for the production of healthy speech and song. Disturbances to this symmetric movement, such as a swelling or cyst, will cause an imbalance to the oscillatory regime, which will cause changes to vocal quality and can lead to dysphonia.

PITCH, QUALITY, AND REGISTER Vocal fold tension is the primary element of F0 control, so when increased stress is placed on vocal fold fibers, the F0 increases. The two muscles responsible for shortening or lengthening the folds are the CT and the thyroarytenoid (TA). These two sets of muscles can work independently of one another in F0 regulation. Specifically, the CT muscles lengthen the vocal folds by pulling the thyroid cartilage forward, while the TA muscles shorten the vocal folds. Research has shown that skilled performers tend to balance CT and TA activity, so a rise in the F0 coincides with an increase in TA activity as long as the CT activity is not near its maximum. The relationship of vocal fold length and the F0 is not linear, as stepwise increases in vocal fold length do not produce likewise increases in F0. Much like the ratio between the ten-

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sion of a rubber band and its pitch, the F0 rises only if a considerable increase of stress with length occurs more than an increase of length alone. As presented earlier, vocal fold tension is the primary control of F0 and determined by length only (CT). However, during falsetto or soft phonation, when vibrational amplitudes (the maximal excursion of the vocal folds) are small, oscillation occurs primarily in the cover. Just how much control singers and speakers have in regulating the depth of vibration of the cover is not known but it is suspected that the vocal ligament (the area between the epithelium and the TA muscle) might absorb the majority of stress, thus leaving the superficial layers loose for vibration at high fundamental frequencies. The mode of phonation affects the timbre (or quality) and register of the voice source. Vocal timbre often is classified as pressed, breathy, or flow phonation. These differences occur through a change of adduction (average percentage of closing phase of one glottal cycle). An increased percentage of adduction results in a reduction of amplitude that sounds pressed, or tense, strained, or strangled. At the opposite extreme, a reduced percentage of adduction, in which loosely adducted folds nearly fail to close the glottis, results in breathy phonation. Between these two extremes is a quality known as flow phonation, which features a clear closed phase and high peak amplitude with a strong fundamental voice source. No single mode is likely to represent the entire vibratory pattern of the vocal folds at a given time. Different parts of the vocal folds tend to vibrate in different ways simultaneously. However, our understanding of this subject is complicated by the fact that observations on living subjects can only be made from above using a laryngoscope, so we are not able to view the lower parts of the folds during vibration. At the University of Iowa, Ingo Titze has identified modes of vibration with two integers, with the first representing the number of lengthwise divisions in the movement of the folds and the second representing the number of vertical divisions of this movement. The four most common modes (from most common to least common) are listed in table A.2. In addition to timbre, the mode of phonation affects the voice register. Registers are differences in voice quality and are thought to change with movement of pitch or sometimes loudness. Table A.2. 10 Mode 11 Mode 20 Mode 30 Mode

Common Modes of Phonation Amplitude is at its maximum in the center of the fold and decreases gradually toward the ends. Adds a vertical movement to the lengthwise vibratory patterns of the other three modes listed. In this mode, a halfwavelength pattern of vibration in the horizontal and vertical plane occurs. The length of the fold is split into two, as each half vibrates as in the 10 mode. Note that the center of the fold does not vibrate at all. Similar to the 10 and 20 above, but now the fold is divided into three parts, each of which vibrates in the 10 mode.

In the male voice, four registers are frequently discussed: (1) vocal fry (pulse), (2) chest (modal), (3) head, and (4) falsetto (loft). In vocal fry, the vocal folds are thick and lax and appear to produce air pulsations that are both equally spaced or that appear in groups of pulses separated by pauses. The F0 of glottal pulses are heard as a change of mode at a very low frequency, often lower than what is normally considered to be voiced phonation—often well below 100 Herz. During modal register, the folds are less lax, while the glottal pulses are more regular, with a long closing phase (more than 50 percent). During head register, the folds feature an increased tension in a higher pitch range. The folds are open for more than 50 percent of each cycle, with a smaller portion of muscle engaged in phonation. In falsetto, the vocal folds are stretched thin and feature incomplete glottal closure. Though less clear, it is assumed that female voices use both the modal and loft registers. The differences between registers are created by many factors, including the balance between the TA and CT muscles, the balance between abduction and adduction of the vocal folds, the amount of the folds that is in vibration, and the shape of the vocal tract. The rationale for the existence of registers and their changes are still unknown. The major perceptual elements include changes of timbre and the sensation of a “break” in the voice. The two major theories on the physical causes of register suggest that (1) subglottal resonance influences the vibrations of the vocal folds by reinforcing the resonant frequencies in the regions where registral shifts occur, and (2) the thyroarytenoid muscle tends to accumulate stress as pitch raises and at a certain level must break into another kind of vibration. 1. Subglottal Resonance When the vocal folds vibrate, they send sound waves upward into the vocal tract and out into the environment. However, the folds also send sound waves downward into the airway below the glottis into the trachea. Unlike the upwardradiating sound waves, these waves cannot readily escape the body and are reflected around in the subglottal tract until they dissipate. Some of these subglottal waves bounce back up and influence in varying degrees the underside of the

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folds. This impact can interfere with the vibration of the folds and the timing of the subglottal waves. The major variable affecting the strength of these subglottal waves is the natural resonant frequency of the trachea. Like the resonant frequencies of the supraglottal vocal tract, the subglottal resonant frequencies can reinforce certain frequencies within certain bandwidths. Research since 1988 has suggested that these tracheal resonant frequencies tend to reinforce subglottal waves in regions at which register shifts occur (e.g., D4 to F#4 and D5 to F#5). 2. Thyroarytenoid Muscle When low in pitch, the TA muscle is very active, with a large part of it being in vibration. As the pitch rises, the stress on the TA muscle increases. It is suggested that when this stress reaches the maximum sustainable stress, the voice is forced to break into another type of vibration.

ACOUSTIC CORRELATES The human voice produces sound when the vocal folds disturb the air flowing through the larynx. The folds open and close periodically, causing the air pressure to oscillate at a fundamental frequency. Because this vibration is not sinusoidal, it also generates tones above the fundamental pitch, which occur at whole-number multiples of the fundamental frequency and are generally referred to as harmonics. The strength (amplitude) of these harmonics decreases as frequency rises, at approximately 12 dB per octave. Shown in figure A.8 is a fundamental frequency with its corresponding harmonics. Note that these do not align perfectly with the equal temperament.

Figure A.8.

Source characteristic—frequency. Courtesy of M. Edgerton.

Figure A.9 is an example of decreasing source energy. As stated earlier, generally the source signal alone is considered to fall at about 12dB per octave, or the middle slope in the diagram. The weighting of the spectral components influences part of timbral quality. Generally, a shallower slope results in a more brassy sound (with more energy in the higher harmonics), and a steeper slope results in a more “fluty” sound (less energy in the harmonics, with most in the F0).

Figure A.9.

Source characteristic—amplitude versus frequency. Courtesy of M. Edgerton.

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Important variables during phonation involve the opening and closing characteristics of the vocal folds during each glottal cycle. Specifically, these components measure opening and closing as a function of time (percentage of a cycle) and distance (excursion from midline, often referred to as amplitude of excursion). As is seen in figure A.10, time and distance are measured with the glottal flow waveform. When the opening quotient is high, the sound tends to be softer. When the closing quotient is high, or the offset more abrupt, greater energy is given to the higher harmonics and strengthens the vocal tract resonance output by reducing sound leakage back down into the trachea, thus resulting in a more brassy sound.

Figure A.10. Opening and closing characteristics of a glottal cycle. Courtesy of M. Edgerton.

ARTICULATION AND RESONANCE The voice source can be characterized as separate from the vocal tract, in that the mode of oscillation often is not affected by changes in articulation. Articulation refers to movement of the tongue, lips, jaw, soft palate, and so on during speech and song (see figure A.11). Resonance refers to the inherent acoustic properties that the vocal tract assumes at

Figure A.11. Major elements of upper vocal tract articulatory system. Courtesy of M. Edgerton.

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every moment. An important acoustic property of the resonant environment of the vocal tract is seen in the configuration of the regions of high and low acoustic pressure. These regions of high pressure are known as formant frequencies and are seen as high-amplitude frequency peaks within a frequency-to-amplitude spectrum envelope plot. The frequencies of these resonant peaks depend on the length of a tube (vocal tract) and its configuration (articulation). The length of the vocal tract influences formant frequencies. Longer tracts feature, on average, lower formant frequencies, and males generally have lower formant frequencies than females, while tenors feature somewhat higher formant frequencies than basses. This length differential prominently figures into the perception of voice quality. The major elements of the upper vocal tract articulatory system include: • Alveolar Ridge: A short distance behind the upper teeth is a change in the angle of the roof of the mouth. (In some people, it is quite abrupt, in others very slight.) This is the alveolar ridge. Sounds that involve the area between the upper teeth and this ridge are called alveolars. • (Hard) Palate: The hard portion of the roof of the mouth. The term palate by itself usually refers to the hard palate. • Soft Palate/Velum: The soft portion of the roof of the mouth, lying behind the hard palate. The tongue hits the velum in the sounds /k/ and /g/. The velum can also move—if it lowers, it creates an opening that allows air to flow out through the nose; if it stays raised, the opening is blocked, and no air can flow through the nose. • Uvula: The small, dangly thing at the back of the soft palate. The uvula vibrates during the /r/ sound in many French dialects. • Pharynx: The cavity between the root of the tongue and the walls of the upper throat. • Tongue Blade: The flat surface of the tongue just behind the tip. • Tongue Body/Dorsum: The main part of the tongue, lying below the hard and soft palates. The body, specifically the back part of the body (hence dorsum, Latin for back), moves to make vowels and many consonants. • Tongue Root: The lowest part of the tongue in the throat. • Epiglottis: The fold of tissue below the root of the tongue. The epiglottis helps cover the larynx during swallowing, making sure (usually!) that food goes into the stomach and not the lungs. A few languages use the epiglottis in making sounds. English is fortunately not one of them. • Vocal Folds: Folds of tissue stretched across the airway to the lungs. They can vibrate against each other, providing much of the sound during speech. • Glottis: The opening between the vocal folds. During a glottal stop, the vocal folds are held together, and there is no opening between them. • Larynx: The structure that holds and manipulates the vocal folds. The Adam’s apple in males is the bump formed by the front part of the larynx.

ACOUSTIC CORRELATES Resonance and articulation are two separate yet interrelated components of speech production and therefore are grouped together within this section. Resonance refers to the inherent properties of an acoustic space that can, depending on the relative strengths of its dominant resonant frequencies, affect the source signal. Articulation refers to the movements within a space that determine the location, frequency, and amplitude of that signal. Within the vocal tract, articulation refers to the movements of the lips, tongue, mandible, soft palate, pharynx, and so on. The source-filter model assumes that a source signal with certain acoustic characteristics is acted upon by the vocal tract in order to shape it into speech or song. As seen to the bottom left of figure A.12, a voiced source consists of a F0 with a series of harmonics that sound simultaneously and that occur at whole-number multiples of the F0. The amplitudes of the harmonics decrease as the frequency increases. In adult males, the length of the vocal tract is approximately seventeen cm (for women the tract is slightly shorter). The shape of the vocal tract changes as articulation occurs. Depending on the position of the tongue, jaw, lips, and so on, certain frequencies are amplified while others are dampened. This means that the vocal tract acts as a passive filter to sculpt the input source signal into the desired, targeted output. This shaping process occurs as a series of dominant resonant frequencies (generally the first four are considered most robust) amplify the harmonics, which fall within a critical bandwidth, while attenuating those harmonics that fall outside this bandwidth. These dominant frequencies are called formants. As is seen in figure A.12, the harmonics are modified in amplitude by the transfer function of the vocal tract.

Appendix A

Figure A.12.

Influence of vocal tract on signal. Courtesy of M. Edgerton.

Figure A.13.

Formant structures compared with vocal tract shapes. Courtesy of M. Edgerton.

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Figure A.13 shows the correspondences between the vocal tract articulatory configuration of the vowels /i/, /ae/, /u/ and the resultant formant structure. It is the arrangement of these formants that is acoustically responsible for the different vowel sounds. Therefore, as we phonate, the complex source signal travels through differently shaped areas in the vocal tract which affect the source in various ways. Larger spaces in the vocal tract resonate at lower frequencies, while smaller spaces resonate at higher frequencies. In the vocal tract, the throat and the mouth are the largest spaces and produce the two lowest resonant frequencies. The throat/pharynx is designated as the first formant (F1), while the mouth is known as the second formant (F2). In singing or speaking, it is these two lowest formants that are controlled by shaping the resonant areas with lip and tongue movements to produce vowels. Generally, F2 responds to back-and-forth movements of the tongue, so as the tongue moves forward, F2 rises. F1 responds inversely to tongue height, so as the tongue rises, F1 lowers in frequency. Additionally, formant frequencies increase as the length of the vocal tract decreases (with lip spreading), while decreasing with lip rounding. The vocal tract can be understood to be a tube through which sound travels. Nevertheless, it is important to understand that the tract is not entirely a passive medium, as it has acoustical properties of its own that tend to act upon the radiating source signal. These properties consist of regions of high and low pressure that amplify or dampen spectral components of a signal sent through the tract. These regions of high and low pressure are identified as formants and as a transfer function of the tract: high-amplitude frequency regions (high pressure) serve to support the source energy, while lowamplitude frequency regions (low pressure) tend to dampen source energy (see figure A.14).

Figure A.14.

Source, vocal tract, and radiation characteristic equals net output. Courtesy of M. Edgerton.

In figure A.14 the source signal is sent into the vocal tract and shaped accordingly. This signal then radiates into the external environment and loses energy as it spreads over a larger area (because it interacts with the larger area of freestanding air). The effect of this radiation dampens lower frequencies more than it does higher frequencies. When combined, the source, filter, and radiation characteristics produce sound whose harmonics decrease at the rate of approximately 6 dB per octave (except within the formant peaks, of course).

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As people speak or sing, they raise and lower the resonant (formant) frequencies by moving their tongue, lips, and so on. These movements are perceived as accomplishing articulation for practical or creative use. As presented earlier, F1 is inversely related to tongue height (as during the change from /a/ in hot to /i/ in heed). The frequency of F2 is related to tongue advancement (F2 rises as the tongue moves from /o/ in hoe to the /i/ in heed). Theoretically, the vocal tract has an infinite number of formants, but the arrangement of the first three is felt to be most significant for the identification of vowels in speech. To understand why the formant frequencies shift, imagine that the vocal tract is a tube closed at one end (the folds) and open at the other (the lips). Next, imagine that the tube is uniform in cross-section, in which case the resonant frequencies are fixed by the length of the tube. For a tube 17.5 cm long—roughly equivalent to the vocal tract of an adult male—F1 peaks at 500 hertz, F2 at 1,500 hertz, F3 at 2,500 hertz. Each resonance represents a standing wave within the tube. In other words, the oscillations of air pressure assume a definite pattern in response to the changing molecular pressure differences along the tube. At certain positions called pressure nodes, the pressure is lowest, and the molecules must traverse their greatest distance. At other positions called pressure antinodes, the pressure is maximum, and the molecules are tightly packed. The location of these nodes and antinodes are shown in figure A.15. The closed end of the tube (at the vocal folds) prevents molecules from moving and is a pressure antinode. The end open to the outside air is a pressure node. Each higher formant adds a node and antinode.

Figure A.15.

Perturbation analysis. Courtesy of M. Edgerton.

Now suppose that the tube is squeezed, as happens when the tongue constricts the tract. The nodes and antinodes still alternate, but the frequency changes in proportion to the amount of squeezing. A constriction near a pressure node lowers the formant frequency, whereas a constriction near a pressure antinode raises it. For example, in figure A.15 (right), letter A lies at the lips. This is a pressure node for all formants, with the result that all formant frequencies decrease. At letter B, F1 is slightly lower than midway between high pressure and atmospheric (low) pressure and can be predicted to lower slightly from a neutral position; F2 is directly at a pressure antinode and raises from a neutral position; F3 seems slightly higher than midpoint and raises slightly from a neutral position. At letter C, F1 is near to pressure maxima and rises compared to a neutral position; F2 is slightly nearer pressure minima and lowers; F3 is directly at a pressure antinode and rises from a neutral position.

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TOWARD A FUNCTIONAL, EXPLORATIVE VOICE This text presents robust elements that factor into the production and existence of the creative explorative voice. One prominent question not yet addressed is the functional role of extra-normal voice. Extra-normal vocal phenomena, such as are documented in the main chapters of this text, are common in performance, extreme emotional states, pathological, and infant vocalization. Further, researchers studying language, biology, psychology, and anthropology have documented extra-normal vocal production in nonhuman vocalization. These findings, along with comparative studies of language acquisition, are relevant to the functional explorative voice. Thus far in this text, complex vocal repertoires have been discussed within a physiological and acoustical framework. As is documented, the acoustic output of voice is the result of a process begun with consciousness that initiates central and peripheral nervous systems to coordinate the varied contributions of respiration, laryngeal, and upper vocal tract movements. Since the 1960s, it has become well recognized that simple systems can exhibit extremely complex behavior if they include nonlinearities, particularly in their initial conditions. This insight has provided a powerful means for conceptualizing and analyzing real-world phenomena in many diverse fields, including meteorology, mathematics, physics, engineering, acoustics, and music. Complex and extra-normal acoustic outputs are common in nonhuman vocal repertoire and might play a crucial role in communication. It has been noted that nonlinear phenomena dominate the sound classes of certain nonhuman individuals and age classes. At its core, both humans and nonhumans feature a highly nonlinear system that implicates the mismatch between power, source, and resonant environment and has been found in the songs of the rhesus macaque, bats, songbirds, baboons, African hunting dogs, and zebra finches.

NONLINEAR PHENOMENA, DEFINITIONS, AND APPLICATIONS The human voice production system can be considered as multiple nonlinear-coupled oscillators. The vocal folds disrupt the outward-flowing airstream by utilizing a wavelike vibratory motion. This motion or oscillation is driven by the airflow provided by alveolar (lung) pressure that influences the adductory and tensile forces within the larynx to produce phonation. The vibratory properties can be quantified by analysis of eigenmodes with characteristic frequencies, damping, and the corresponding vibration patterns (modes). Normal periodic phonation can be regarded as an example of nonlinear phenomena because the driving pressure and rate of airflow carries a nonlinear relationship to the amplitude (excursion) and envelope (onset, sustain, offset) of vocal fold oscillation. Moreover, the stress-strain properties of vocal fold tissue and vocal fold collision are highly nonlinear. Understanding the complex dynamics of nonlinearly coupled oscillators requires an introduction to a few basic concepts of nonlinear dynamics. Standard analysis of real-world phenomena using methods from nonlinear dynamics are based on descriptions of the entire range of possibilities of a system, which is known as a phase space. The significance of a phase space is that, at every moment, the behavior of a system frozen in time can be represented by a single point. Over time these multidimensional coordinates may be geometrically mapped (into pictures) by stretching, squeezing, and folding shapes in the phase space to gain insight into the long-term behavior of a system. It has been found that phenomena frequently reach a particular dynamic regime (geometrical picture) after initial transients. This corresponding object is termed an attractor, of which four types have been identified: (1) steady state, a behavior whose variables are constant; (2) limit cycle, periodic behavior (repeating itself continuously); (3) torus, a two-dimensional object in phase space that results from the superposition of two independent oscillations; and (4) chaotic attractor, a nonperiodic geometrical shape that never repeats but stays within a limited space—a fractal dimension. For the most part, however, real-world phenomena tend to feature changes to their basic components, which might kick the behavior from one attractor to another. These shifts in parameter space are termed bifurcations. In the literature, three states have been identified: (1) hopf bifurcation, a transition from a steady-state to a limit cycle; (2) period-doubling bifurcations, transitions from a limit cycle to folded limit cycles; and (3) secondary hopf bifurcation, a transition from a limit cycle to a torus due to the excitation of another independent oscillation. Further, subharmonic bifurcations and tori often are precursors of deterministic chaos, such that small parameter shifts induce jumps to nonperiodic oscillations (see figure A.16).

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Figure A.16.

Appendix A

Attractors and bifurcations. Courtesy of M. Edgerton.

The phase space is built from dynamical variables that are necessary to determine the state of the nonlinear system. For phonation, the phase space variables include the amplitude and velocity of the vibrating tissue and its driving pressure. From this information, nonlinear phenomena can be quantified through the calculation of fractal attractor dimensions or with lyapunov exponents (a way of measuring the effects of stretching, folding, or contracting in the phase space) and assembled in a special visual representation referred to as a phase space portrait. Applied to voice, steady state behavior occurs when the vocal folds are at rest. Then as subglottal air pressure begins to rise, a hopf bifurcation occurs to push the steady-state attractor into a limit cycle as the vocal folds begin to produce normal periodic vocal fold vibrations. Often during speech and song, period-doubling bifurcations occur and are often seen as subharmonic oscillation. Still classified as a special type of limit cycle, subharmonics often begin with periodic oscillation and transition to an oscillation with alternating amplitudes. This leads to the appearance of spectral peaks at half of the original frequency (octave jump). Less frequent, though still seen in speech and song, are phenomena that often begin with normal periodic vocal fold vibration (limit cycle) and then transition (secondary hopf bifurcation) to phonation featuring two or more independent frequencies produced by differing types of vocal fold asymmetries, such as biphonation (torus). As mentioned earlier, subharmonic bifurcations and tori often are precursors of deterministic chaos. In this case, the behavior is nonperiodic, irregular, and complex but not random. In a spectral representation, this phenomenon is characterized by broad-band noise-like components with residual spectral peaks. Further, sub- and supraglottal oscillation and resonance factors (ventricular fold phonation, epiglottic, and arytenoid cartilage) can contribute to a variety of extra-normal modes of phonation. In particular, sub- and supraglottal resonances are relevant for high-pitched phonation and biphonation. Due to nonlinearly interacting oscillators, sudden transitions to complex vibratory patterns are likely to occur. These abrupt changes to the dynamics of a system could be triggered by sudden perturbations or induced by slowly varying parameters. In the latter case, those transitions are termed bifurcations. Moreover, these different dynamic regimes are predicted to alternate rapidly even for slowly varying system parameters like pitch movement, formant modulation, change in subglottal pressure, or the varying interaction with supraglottal tissue structures. A comprehensive visualization of transitions can be achieved by bifurcation diagrams, which display different dynamical behavior depending on one or two varying system parameters. Such diagrams were calculated for a simplified two-mass vocal fold model, were measured for excised larynx experiments, and described for a pathological voice. Fortunately, many conclusions about the dynamics can be drawn from narrow-band spectra: subharmonics after period-doubling bifurcations correspond to parallel lines in between harmonics, typically at multiples of ½, ⅓, or ¼ of the original pitch (see figure A.17). In the case of biphonation, seemingly independent spectral components with no simple ratio as ½, ⅓, that are modulated differently or move independently, appear in the spectrum (see figure A.18). Finally, for chaos noise-like segments that appear via abrupt transitions, windows of normal periodic phonation or subharmonic phonation and remaining spectral peaks embedded in the noise-like broad-band spectrum can be observed in narrow-band spectra (see figure A.19).

Figure A.17.

Period-doubling attractor or subharmonics. Courtesy of M. Edgerton.

Figure A.18.

Biphonation, or two independent frequencies. Courtesy of M. Edgerton.

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Figure A.19. Sequence featuring limit cycle followed by chaos, then period-doubling, chaos, limit cycle, repeat. Courtesy of M. Edgerton.

UNDERLYING BASES OF COMMUNICATION Earlier I noted a comparison of language and music. Here I present information gathered from a comparison of the underlying bases of communication in human and nonhuman animals. It appears that human communication is significantly different from that of nonhuman animals. Although humans and nonhumans share consciousness and rudimentary modes of communication, only humans seem to have developed a faculty of language that appears to be hierarchical, generative, and recursive with infinite expression. At the beginning of time, the larynges of our human ancestors functioned as a valve to protect respiration and perhaps as a coarse sound-production mechanism. It has been further suggested that perhaps language and other finely tuned vocal behaviors developed due to exaptational forces (whereby an organism is developed for one modality but its internal characteristics might be adapted for other purposes). Chomsky identified a deep structure and a surface structure of language. More recently, Hauser, along with Chomsky and Fitch, suggested that the faculty of language consists of two levels. The first level consists of a broad function of language (FLB) that involves sensory-motor and conceptual-intentional modes and that is shared by both human and nonhuman animals. The second level of the faculty of language consists of a narrow function of language (FLN) that at its core is recursive and is responsible for the generation of the abstract, linguistic system alone. Is the mechanical ability to produce intelligible and fluent speech a unique human trait? Surprisingly, little evidence exists to support this claim. As biologists know very well, many nonhuman animals have the ability to not only mimic human speech but also are capable of discriminating cues, such as formant frequencies and rhythmic cues. But for reasons unclear at this time, although certain species (such as the dolphin) have rich conceptual systems, the corresponding acoustic signal is a surprisingly poor mismatch between intent and output. Five key points summarized from recent studies offer further cues toward our understanding of the faculty of language and suggest that in nonhumans: • • • • •

acoustically distinct calls are produced in response to functionally important contexts, the acoustic morphology functions as a stand-alone sign, small repertoires feature no creative development, acoustic morphology is fixed, and vocalization is not responsive to the desires of others.

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It has been suggested that the mechanisms underlying FLB in humans and nonhumans share a deeply conserved neural and developmental foundation. In fact, it has been reported that most aspects of neurophysiology and vertebral development, including regulatory and structural genes, neuron types, and neurotransmitters are shared. However, significant constraints do exist in the FLB of nonhumans, and interpretations that claim that such signals are precursors for human words need further supporting evidence.

FUNCTION From archaeological measurements, it is known that the human larynx descended over time to increase the size of the pharynx and perhaps to offer a more flexible, broad-band, and robust phonatory system. It has been suggested that such a system most likely existed within humans for a very long time before the development of fine-tuned vocal faculties, such as seen in speech. In society, music has functioned within the service of a private rite, then as unique commodity for the church, court, and state institution. Simultaneously, illegitimate and populist arts for centuries have served values of leisure and recreation. In the early 21st century, the global market economy reduces diversity of product, food, and the sounds we hear, while the Internet serves multiple masters that both support and attempt to reduce diversity. Notwithstanding the significance of such influence, this text does not address function socially. From study of animal communication systems, we know that inherent asymmetries of the phonological system are emphasized in order to function within context. However, relative to natural selection, the use of asymmetries is seen as a negative value, such when stable and symmetrical attributes of an individual improve one’s chances of success in finding a suitable mate. This seemingly incontrovertible fact, if applied to the style, function, and form of modern music, would comprise pretty damning information to its enthusiasts. Here is at least one benefit for not returning to a world of primitive humankind. Functionally, it has been claimed that nonlinearities in nonhumans might function to circumvent the “honesty” factor (e.g., a larger animal will have a deeper voice with lower formant frequencies than a smaller animal, and therefore the smaller animal might attempt to sound larger by lowering its larynx or raising intensity in order to choose a mate or to protect itself). However, do humans use extra-normal voice production to circumvent the honesty factor? Perhaps. Certainly, voice is used within sport and the fighting arts to support an offensive act in order to demoralize or intimidate an opponent. It seems plausible that lowered fundamental frequencies and formant frequencies are used in addition to an increase of aggressiveness, but more evidence of extra-normal voice production to circumvent the “honesty” factor seems to be required to make such a claim. In humans, the unintended use of nonlinear phenomena is characterized as a dysfunction or disease to be treated and therefore might share with animal phonation the broad function of language (FLB) or perhaps other internal-unconscious systems. Such disorders might involve reduced volume of voice, breathy and hoarse qualities, pressed-harsh voice, tremolos and oscillatory patterns, vocal fry, and so on. However, the intended use of nonlinear phenomena by humans occurs regularly and intentionally in performative contexts by those who manipulate the parameters of a multidimensional phase space, often in scalable and nonidiomatic ways. Functionally, this type of intended parametric variation fulfills the core property of FLN though recursion. In this way, recursion is understood to refer to a finite set of rules that are capable of repeated application in the generation of an infinite set of structures (sentences, paintings, fugues). The importance of this idea is that recursive rules comprise the formal means by which creativity can be generated. In this way, the intended production of nonlinear phenomena generates internal representations of sound production and parametric shift (i.e., steadily increase vocal fold tension while decreasing airflow), which is mapped onto the sensory-motor interface during the production of sound. Although certain physical constraints might serve as a limiting device on production (e.g., respiratory volume, rate of vocal fold oscillation, degree of independence between left and right folds), these do not impact the act of iteration but merely the compass and rate of production. Earlier, it was seen that the loci of laryngeal disorder were assigned to neurologic disorders, such as laryngeal nerve paralysis, Parkinson’s disease, and ataxia. The origins of such dysfunction are known to stem from upper and lower motor neurons, disorders of extra-pyramidal system, cerebellum, and neuromuscular junction. This increased knowledge about the system then lends to the efficacy of treatment and therapy. Likewise, it is suggested that the study of extra-normal vocal production might yield increased knowledge regarding the acoustical, mechanical, and neurological properties of humans (and nonhumans). In this way, advances in high-speed and neural-imaging techniques will increase knowledge that impacts the arts, medical therapy, and our understanding of cognition.

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RECAPITULATION Thus far, we have discussed the science of voice and how neurology impacts our understanding of ourselves and the world around us. We understand that certain animal species possess some form of consciousness and that our anatomies are very similar—indicating that language is not necessary for consciousness to occur. Indeed, consciousness might be due to a large collection of interacting neurons. Or an alternative hypothesis is that there are special sets of “consciousness” neurons distributed throughout the cortex that give rise to particular sensations. The secret of consciousness would then consist of all cortical neurons integrating a particular state at a particular moment, while a third idea suggests that a part of synaptic transmission (the neurotransmitter acetylcholine) plays a prominent role in consciousness. In any case, it seems unlikely that a wholly physicalist approach is able to satisfactorily explain why human thought originates from the functioning physical system. More likely, both the phenomenal and the physical must intersect in some fundamental way in order to reach closer to the mystery that has consumed so many for so long. Therefore, human proposition and experiment have yet to answer the most basic questions of the human mind. Perhaps the source of why we have thought at all will never be satisfactorily explained. As is shown earlier, consciousness does not require thought; but the inverse, that thought requires consciousness, is less clear. Such a final theory of consciousness would require that the central mystery be resolved—why a structured biological system gives rise to feelings and conscious sensations.

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Appendix B Glossary

abduct: To move apart, separate. abduction quotient: The ratio of the glottal half-width at the vocal processes to the amplitude of vibration of the vocal fold. acceleration: The rate of change of velocity with respect to time (measured in m/s2). acoustic power: The physical measure of the amount of energy produced and radiated into the air per second (measured in watts). adduct: To bring together, approximate. alveolar pressure: The pressure that is common to all of the alveoli in the lungs (measured in kPa). alveoli: Tiny airsacs within the lungs where the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide takes place. amplitude: The maximum excursion from equilibrium in an oscillatory movement or waveform. amplitude spectrum: A display of relative amplitude versus frequency of the sinusoidal components of a waveform. amplitude-to-length ratio: The ratio of vibrational amplitude at the center of the vocal fold to the length of the vocal fold. antagonist (muscle): An opposing muscle. anterior: Toward the front. anterior commissure: The joining together of the vocal folds in the front of the larynx. antinodes: The “peaks” in a standing wave pattern. aperiodicity: The absence of periodicity; no portion of the waveform repeats exactly. aphonia: The absence of vocal fold vibration; the inability to set the vocal folds into vibration. arytenoid cartilages: Paired, pyramidal-shaped cartilages to which the vocal folds are attached. aspiration: The sound made by turbulent airflow preceding or following vocal fold vibration, as in /ha/ or /ah/. atmospheric pressure: The absolute pressure of the atmosphere (measured in any convenient unit, e.g., 760 mmHg). atrophy: A wasting away of cells. attractor: A trajectory in phase space. benign: A condition that is not malignant, recurrent, invasive, or progressive. A tumor or growth that is benign is noncancerous. Bernoulli’s principle: If the energy in a confined fluid stream is constant, then an increase in particle velocity must be accompanied by a decrease in pressure against the wall. bifurcation: A sudden qualitative change in the behavior of a system if parameters of the dynamical system, such as muscle tension, are varied. bilateral vocal fold paralysis: Paralysis of the thyroarytenoid muscle in both vocal folds. biomechanics: The study of the mechanics of biological tissue. biphonation: Two independent audible frequencies. breathy voice: The result of a widened glottis with excessive airflow that produces air turbulence. bronchioli: A tree-like structure of small ducts that connect the alveoli. bronchitis: Inflammation of the bronchial tubes. carcinoma: Cancer. carrier: A waveform (typically a sinusoid) whose frequency or amplitude is modulated by a signal. caudal: Toward the tail. 169

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chaos: A qualitative description of a dynamical system that seems unpredictable; nonperiodic behavior. component frequency: Mathematically, a sinusoid; perceptually, a pure tone. Also called partial. compression: A deformation of a body that decreases its entire volume. constructive interference: The interference of two or more waves such that enhancement occurs. contraction: A decrease in the dimension of interest (e.g., length). convergent (glottal shape): The glottis narrows from bottom to top. corner vowels: /a/, /i/, and /u/; vowels at the corners of a vowel triangle; they necessitate extreme placements of the tongue. creaky voice: The perceptual result of subharmonic or chaotic patterns in the glottal waveform. If a subharmonic is below about 70 Hz, then creaky voice can be perceived as pulse register. cricoid cartilage: A solid ring of cartilage that completely surrounds the laryngeal airway, located directly below the thyroid cartilage. cricothyroid muscle: An intrinsic laryngeal muscle that is used primarily to control pitch (paired). cysts: Benign, sac-like lesions with a hardened core. damp: To diminish or attenuate an oscillation. deformation: The result of stress applied to any surface of a continuous medium, unless the medium is infinitely stiff. Examples are elongation, compression, contraction, or shear. dehydration: A condition in which the body is deprived of fluids, possibly affecting the viscous and elastic properties of the vocal folds. destructive interference: The interference of two or more waves such that full or partial cancellation occurs. diaphragm: A large, dome-shaped sheet of muscle and tendon at the bottom of the rib cage that separates the lungs from the viscera. differential control (of muscles): Gradual release of a muscle with concomitant gradual contraction of an antagonist muscle. displacement: The distance between two points in space, including the direction from one point to the other. displacement flow: Air in the glottis that is squeezed out when the vocal folds come together. divergent (glottal shape): The glottis widens from bottom to top. dorsal: Toward the back. dynamics: A branch of mechanics that deals with the study of forces that accelerate object(s). edema: Excessive accumulation of fluid in tissues, causing a “puffing up” or “bloating” effect. Although edema does not necessarily impede vocal fold vibration, it may add a crackly, noisy component to the voice. elastic recoil pressure: The alveolar pressure derived from extended (strained) tissue in the lungs, rib cage, and the entire thorax after inspiration (measured in Pascals). electroglottogram: A display of the time-varying electrical conductance through the larynx in the glottal region. elongation: An increase in one dimension of interest (e.g., length). epiglottis: A flap of cartilage that seals the entryway to the larynx during swallowing and opens the entryway during breathing. expansion: A deformation of a body such that the entire volume increases. flow: The volume of fluid passing through a given cross-section of a transport system (e.g., a tube or a duct) per second; also called volume velocity. flow resistance: The ratio of pressure to flow. fluid mechanics: The study of motion or deformation of liquids and gases. flutter: Modulation in the 10–12 Hz range. force: A push or pull; the physical quantity imparted to an object to change its momentum. forced oscillation: Oscillation imposed on a system by an external source. formant: A resonance of the vocal tract. formant bandwidth: The difference in frequency between the two half-power points on the slopes of a resonance curve. formant tuning: A boosting of vocal intensity when F0 or one of its harmonics coincides exactly with a formant frequency. fricatives: Speech sounds produced by turbulence in a constriction of the vocal tract, such as an /s/ produced with the teeth. frontal (or coronal) plane: An anatomical plane that divides the body into anterior and posterior portions; across the crown of the head.

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fundamental frequency (F0): The lowest frequency in a periodic waveform; also called the first harmonic frequency and often associated with the dominant pitch perception. gas: A substance that preserves neither shape nor volume when acted upon by forces but adapts readily to the size and shape of its container. gastroesophageal reflux: The spilling of digestive acids onto laryngeal tissues, causing irritation. glottal resistance: The pressure across the glottis divided by the flow through the glottis. glottal stop (or click): A transient sound caused by the sudden onset or offset of phonation. glottis: The airspace between the vocal folds. granuloma: A large, grainy-surfaced growth often caused by prolonged intubation. harmonic: Equally spaced in frequency; a component whose frequency is an integer multiple of the fundamental. hemorrhage (of the vocal fold): Rupture of one or more blood vessels in vocal fold tissues. Hopf bifurcation: Transition from a steady state (resting vocal fold) to periodic oscillations (phonation). hyoid bone: A horseshoe-shaped bone that “floats” above the larynx and serves as a connecting post to the tongue, velum, etc. in vitro: Outside the living body; for example, in excised tissue, in a test tube, or on the lab bench. in vivo: In the living body. inertia: Sluggishness; a property that resists a change in its momentum. inferior: Below. infrahyoid muscle group: One of the two extrinsic muscle groups that includes the sternohyoid, the sternothyroid, the omohyoid, and the thyrohyoid muscles. intensity: A measure of power per unit area. interarytenoid muscle: An intrinsic laryngeal muscle that connects the two arytenoid cartilages. internal forces: Forces due to interactions (e.g., collisions) between particles of a substance. inverse filtering: A technique used to study the sound source at the glottis. Ideally, this technique removes the filtering effect of the vocal tract on the glottal source. The purpose is to study the source or the vocal tract in isolation, although there are both practical and theoretical limitations. jitter: Short-term (cycle-to-cycle) variability in fundamental frequency. kinematics: The study of movement without reference to forces. kinetic energy: The energy of matter in motion (measured in joules). kinetics: The study of movement as a consequence of known or assumed forces. laminar: Smooth or layered; in fluid mechanics, indicating parallel flow lines. laryngectomy: Removal of the larynx; either conservative (larynx is partially removed) or radical (entire larynx is removed). laryngitis: Inflammation of laryngeal tissues. larynx: An organ of the body situated in the neck that houses the vocal folds. lateral: Toward the outside (away from the center). lateral cricoarytenoid muscle: An intrinsic laryngeal muscle that brings together the vocal processes by rotation and forward rocking of the arytenoids on the cricoarytenoid joint (paired). lift: A transition point along a pitch scale where vocal production becomes easier. loft: A suggested term for the highest (loftiest) register; usually referred to as falsetto voice. longitudinal: Along a natural direction (e.g., in the direction of tissue fibers or in the direction of airflow). loudness: The amount of sound perceived by a listener; a perceptual quantity that can only be assessed with an auditory system. lumen: Cavity within tubular organ. mechanics: The study of objects in motion and the forces that produce the motion. medial (or mesial): Toward the center (midline or midplane). middle (or mixed) voice: The mixture between chest voice and falsetto; another term for “head” voice in singing. modulation: The systematic change of a cyclic parameter, such as amplitude or frequency. motor unit: A group of muscle fibers and the single motor nerve that activates the fibers. mucosa: Superficial layer of lamina propria. muscle fascicles: Groups of muscle fibers enclosed by a sheath of connective tissue. muscle fiber: A long, thin cell; the basic unit of a muscle that is excited by a nerve ending.

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Appendix B

muscular tension dysphonia: Excessive longitudinal tensions or prephonatory positioning that impedes vibration of the vocal folds. mutational dysphonia: A voice disorder in which vocal pitch and general pattern of vibration of vocal folds assume characteristics of the opposite gender. myofibril: A subdivision of a muscle fiber; composed by a number of myofilaments. myofilament: A microstructure of periodically arranged actin and myosin molecules; a subdivision of a myofibril. neutral equilibrium: The state in which a disturbance may cause a body to be displaced from its rest position, but left alone, the body is neither accelerated toward nor away from the original position. nodes: The “valleys” in a standing wave pattern where pressure or displacement is minimum. nodule: A growth on the surface of the vocal fold believed to be caused by repeated and prolonged collision between the tissue of opposing vocal folds. organic voice disorder: Disorders for which a specific lesion is identified in the larynx or elsewhere in the body. oscillation: A repeated back-and-forth movement. ossify: Turn to bone. papillomas: Small benign epithelial tumors that may appear randomly or in clusters on the vocal folds, larynx, and trachea. paresis (of the vocal folds): Partial paralysis. parietal pleura: The outermost of two membranes surrounding the lungs. Pascal’s law: Pressure is transmitted rapidly and uniformly throughout an enclosed fluid at rest. passaggi (Italian): Passages on a pitch scale where the voice tends to change register involuntarily. period: The time interval between repeating events. period-doubling: A new limit cycle with roughly double the original period becomes stable (i.e., in the time domain, we may observe an alternation of large and small amplitudes or periods). perturbation: A minor disturbance, or small change, from an expected behavior. pharynx: The airway in the neck above the larynx and below the velum. phase space: A space created by two or more independent dynamical variables, such as positions and velocities, to plot the trajectory of a moving object. phase spectrum: A display of the relative phases versus frequency of the components of a waveform. pitch: A perception of how high versus low in a sound. plosive: A transient speech sound generated by the sudden onset or offset of air movement in the vocal tract. point of insertion: In anatomy, where a muscle or other soft tissue ends. point of origin: In anatomy, where a muscle or other soft tissue begins. polyp: An edemic growth brought about by irritation of the epithelium. posterior: Toward the back. posterior cricoarytenoid muscle: An intrinsic laryngeal muscle that is the primary abductor of the vocal folds (paired). pressed voice: The result of a constricted glottis with insufficient airflow. pressure: Force per unit area; more precisely, the magnitude of a compressional stress. pulmonary system: The interrelated group of body structures that includes the lungs and the respiratory airways. quasiperiodic: An imprecise term sometimes used to suggest a small deviation from periodicity. rarefaction: A decrease in density. registers: Perceptually distinct regions of vocal quality as pitch or loudness is changed. resonance: Reinforced natural oscillation. restoring force: A force that brings an object back to a stable equilibrium position. sagittal: An anatomical plane that divides the body into left and right sides. secondary Hopf bifurcation: A modulation of the signal with another independent frequency. self-sustained oscillation: An oscillation that continues indefinitely without an external driving force. Because the net energy loss per cycle must be zero, self-oscillation requires an internal energy source. shimmer: Short-term (cycle-to-cycle) variability in amplitude. simple harmonic motion: Sinusoidal motion; the smoothest back-and-forth motion possible. singing registers: Pulse, chest, head, falsetto, whistle. sinus of Morgagni: Another name for the laryngeal ventricle; an airspace between the true and false vocal folds. sinusoid: A graph representing the sine or cosine of a constantly increasing angle; the smoothest and simplest back-andforth movement characterized by a single frequency, an amplitude, and a phase.

Appendix B

173

sound propagation: The process of imparting a pressure or density disturbance to adjacent parts of a continuous medium, creating new disturbances at points farther away from the initial disturbance. source-filter theory: A theory that assumes the time-varying glottal airflow to be the primary sound source and the vocal tract to be an acoustic filter of the glottal source. spectral slope: A measure of how rapidly energy decreases with increasing frequency or, for periodic waveforms, with increasing harmonic number. spectrum: A display of relative magnitudes or phases of the component frequencies of a waveform. stable equilibrium: A unique state to which a system with a restoring force returns after it has been displaced from rest. standing wave: A wave that appears to be standing still. It occurs when waves with the same frequency (and wavelength) moving in opposite directions interfere with each other. strain: Deformation relative to a rest dimension, including direction (e.g., elongation per unit length). strain creep: A continuous deformation (e.g., elongation) under constant applied stress. strain rate: The rate of change of strain with respect to time. stress: Force per unit area, including the direction in which the force is applied to the area. stress relaxation: Reduction of tissue stress over time at constant length. strohbass (German): “Straw bass”; another term for pulse register. subglottal: Below the glottis. subharmonic: A component of a waveform whose frequency is an integer fraction of the fundamental (e.g., ½, ⅓, ¼, etc.). sulcus (vocalis): A furrow or groove in the vocal fold, particularly on the medial surface. superior: Above. supraglottal: Above the glottis. suprahyoid muscle group: One of the two extrinsic muscle groups that includes the stylohyoid muscle, anterior and posterior bellies of the digastric muscle, geniohyoid, the hyoglossus, and mylohyoid. surfactant: Surface-active agent lining the alveoli of the lungs that plays an essential part in respiration by preventing the alveoli from collapsing at the end of expiration. tensile stress: A stress that points away from a surface, tending to pull an object apart. tessitura (Italian): Texture; the average pitch level of a song or part of a song in relation to the overall range of the instrument. thorax: The part of the body between the neck and abdomen. three-layer scheme (of vocal fold tissues): A description of the tissues of the vocal fold in which the mucosa consists of the epithelium and the superficial layer of the lamina propria, the ligament consists of the intermediate and deep layers of the lamina propria, and muscle refers to the thyroarytenoid muscle. thyroarytenoid muscle: An intrinsic laryngeal muscle that comprises the bulk of the vocal fold (paired). thyroid cartilage: The largest cartilage of the larynx, comprised of two plates joined anteriorly at the midline. Its anterior prominence is called the Adam’s apple. tidal volume: The amount of air breathed in and out during respiration (measured in liters). tori: Superposition of two or more oscillations with no rationally dependent frequencies. transglottal flow: Air that is forced through the glottis by a transglottal pressure. transverse: (1) Referring to an anatomical plane that divides the body crosswise or (2) a characterization of direction, indicating “perpendicular to the fibers or flow.” tremor: Modulation in the 4–6 Hz range. trillo (Italian): A rapid repetition of the same note, which usually includes repeated voice onset and offset. turbulence: Irregular movement of air, similar to white water, which usually causes a hissing sound. two-layer scheme (of vocal fold tissues): A description of the tissues of the vocal fold in which the body is equivalent to the deep layer of the lamina propria and the muscle, while the term cover is used to describe the combination of epithelium and superficial and intermediate layers of the lamina propria. unilateral vocal fold paralysis: Paralysis of the thyroarytenoid muscle of one vocal fold. velocity: The rate of change of displacement with respect to time (measured in meters per second, with the appropriate direction). ventral: Toward the belly. ventricular folds: The “false folds,” situated just above the vocal folds. ventricular phonation: Phonation using false folds.

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Appendix B

viscera: The midsection of the body containing the stomach and the intestines. visceral pleura: The innermost of two membranes surrounding the lungs. viscoelastic material: A material that exhibits characteristics of both elastic solids and viscous liquids (e.g., the vocal fold). The behaviors of viscoelastic materials depend on the rate of deformation and thermodynamic (temperature and pressure) differences. viscosity: Property of a liquid that measures resistance to speed of deformation; more formally, the ratio of shear stress to the rate of change of shear strain. vital capacity: The maximum volume of air that can be exchanged by the lungs with the outside. It includes the expiratory reserve volume, tidal volume, and inspiratory reserve volume (measured in liters). vocal fold stiffness: The ratio of the effective restoring force (in the medial-lateral direction) to the displacement (in the same direction). vocal folds: A paired system of tissue layers in the larynx that can vibrate to produce sound. vocal fry: A register with perceived temporal gaps; also known as pulse register. whisper: Sound created by turbulent glottal airflow in the absence of vocal fold vibration. whistle register: The highest of all registers (in pitch) said to occur in females. wobble: A slow vibrato resulting from a lack of excitement, poor muscle tone, or fatigue. wow: Modulation in the 1–2 Hz range.

Appendix C Representative Compositions

The following list is a short compilation of compositions that use the voice in styles representative of 20th-century contemporary music or utilize unusual modes of expression or are influenced by voice. In no way does this list presume to be representative of the field—many major works might be included on this list, but the reader is asked to understand that this text and materials are not intended to canonize methods and procedures but rather provide options for further exploration. Therefore, this list offers many different perspectives with no method as dominant. Allende-Blin, Juan. Walter Mehring Ein Wintermarchen. For baritone and chamber orchestra, 1994. Altmann, Peter. Mein Name Ist Urlappi. For two speakers or speaking choirs and instruments, 1973. Amy, Gilbert. Cette Étoile Enseigne À S’Incliner. For male choir and chamber ensemble, 1970. ———. Shinanim Shaananim. For alto and chamber ensemble, 1979. Antoniou, Theodore. Epilog, nach Homer Die Odyssee. For mezzo-soprano, narrator, and chamber ensemble, 1963. ———. Moirologhia for jani Christou. For piano, baritone, and instruments, 1975. ———. Songs on Sappho’s Poems. For medium voice and orchestra, 1964. Aperghis, George. Petrrohl. For six solo voices, 2001. ———. Récitations. For solo voice(s), 1977. Arques, Luis Blanes. Records Infantils. For chorus, 1971. Auric, Georges. Quatre Chants de la France Malheureuse. For voice and piano, 1943. Babbitt, Milton. Phenomena. For soprano and piano (or tape), 1969–1970. ———. Philomel. For soprano and tape, 1963. Badings, Henk. Funf Lieder. For middle voice and piano, 1974. Baird, Tadeusz. Exhortation. For speaker, mixed choir, and orchestra, 1961. ———. Suita Liryczna. For soprano and orchestra, 1953. Baldwin, Michael. Various Terrains. For solo voice, 2011. Barlow, Clarence. Im Januar am Nil. For chamber ensemble, 1984. Barraque, Jean. Chant Apres Chant. For voice, six percussionists, and piano, 1967. ———. Sequence. For voice, percussion, celesta, piano, harp, violin, and cello, 1955. Barrett, Richard. Coigitum. For mezzo-soprano and four instruments, 1986. Bartók, Béla. Cantata Profana. For mixed chorus, tenor solo, baritone solo, and orchestra, 1934. Bassett, Leslie. Notes in the Silence. For choir and piano, 1966. ———. Pierrot Songs. For soprano and chamber ensemble, 1990. ———. Time and Beyond. For baritone and three instruments, 1973. Becker, Gunther. Apochairetismos. For speaker, trumpet, and trombone, 1988. ———. Linie, Zirkel, Kreis. For five solo voices, 1983. Bense, Max. Rosenschuttplatz. For three male voices, 1966. Berberian, Cathy. Stripsody. For solo voice, 1966. Berg, Alban. Die Nachtigall. Arrangement for sixteen solo voices by C. Gottwald, 1907. Bergman, Erik. Lapponia. For mezzo-soprano, baritone, and chorus, 1975. Bergsma, William. Cantilena. For soprano and orchestra, 1981. Berio, Luciano. A-Ronne (documentary). For six voices, 1975. ———. Air. For soprano and orchestra, 1969. ———. Circles. For female voice, harp, and two percussion players, 1960. ———. Cries of London. For eight voices, 1974. 175

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Appendix C

———. Laborintus II. For voices, eight actors, narrator, and instruments, 1965. ———. Passaggio. For percussion, brass, winds, and strings, 1961–1962. ———. Sequenza III. For female voice, 1966. ———. Sinfonia. For eight voices and orchestra, 1968. Bialovsky, Marshall. Seven Academic Graffiti. For women’s chorus, 1975. Biasutti, Michele. Sabda. For voice and signal processing, 1991. Bibalo, Antonio. Nocturne for Apollo. For orchestra and choir, 1970. Binkerd, Gordon. Portrait Interieur. For mezzo-soprano, violin, and cello, 1973. Biriotti, Leon. . . . de La Melancolia y del suicidio. . . . For double male chorus and speaker, 1970. Birtwhistle, Harrision. Bow Down. For actors, musicians, and dancers, 1977. ———. The Fields of Sorrow. For two solo sopranos, chorus, and chamber ensemble, 1972. Blacher, Boris. Jazz-Kolorituren. For soprano, alto sax, and bassoon, 1962. Blackburn, Philip. Red River. For voices, 1983. ———. The Silver Swan. For tenor voice, 1982. Blank, Allan. The Penny Candy Store beyond the El. For voice and bassoon, 1964. Bloch, Augustyn. Anenaiki. For chorus, 1979. Bobak, Mark. as if as, (fea, n(o)w. For amplified solo female voice, 1995. Bond, Victoria. Cornography. For soprano, French horn, and bassoon, 1975. Borup, Jorgensen. im Volkston. For nine female voices, 1963. Botti, Susan. Jabber Wocky. For voice and percussion, 1993. Boucourechliev, Andre. Grodek. For flute, voice, and percussion, 1969. Boulez, Pierre. Cummings Ist der Dichter. For sixteen solo voices or mixed choir and orchestra, 1986. ———. Le Marteau Sans Maitre. For alto and chamber ensemble, 1958. ———. Pli Selon Pli. For soprano and orchestra, 1967. ———. Le Visage Nuptial. For soprano, female choir, and orchestra, 1959. Boyd, Anne. My Name Is Tian. For soprano and four instruments, 1979. Bozay, Attila. Csongor es Tunde. An opera, 1984. Brass, Nikolaus. Traumrede. For four voices, 1981. Braxton, Anthony. Trillium Dialog-A Composition No. 20. For solo singers, choir, and chamber orchestra, 1980. Bristow, Stephan. They Are Leaving. . . . For five animal players, sound, and light projection, 1975. Brody, Jack. Love Sonnets of Michelangelo. For soprano and mezzo-soprano, 1982. Brooks, William. Madrigals. For four voices, 1982. ———. Medley. For voice and piano, 1978. ———. A Peal for Calm. For two choirs and piano, 1987. ———. Tracce. For four singers (SATB) Brown, Earle. December. For six voices, 1952. Bruce, Neely. The Plague. A rock opera, 1984. Bryars, Gavin. Glorious Hill. For countertenor, two tenors, and baritone, 1988. Buhler, Hermann. Earth Bound. For voice, percussion, and electronics, 1990. Burge, David. A Song of Sixpence. For soprano and piano, 1967. Burgon, Geoffrey. Canciones del Alma. For two countertenors or two mezzo-sopranos and thirteen solo strings, 1975. Burns, Kristine H. The Enchanted Castle. For amplified soprano, piano, and tape, 1994. ———. Organic Gases. For five people, tape, and video, 1997. Burt, Warren. Nighthawk I. For speaker, tape, and video, 1977. Buss, Howard. Modern Times. For narrator, flute, and percussion ensemble, 1995. Bussotti, Sylvano. Ancora odono i colli—per sestetto vocale misto. For sextet, mixed voices, 1968. ———. Cinque Frammenti all’Italia. For one to six voices, 1968. ———. La curva dell’amore—per sestetto vocale misto. For sextet, mixed voices, 1968. ———. Due Voci. For soprano, orchestra martenot, and orchestra, 1958. ———. Il Nudo. For soprano, piano, and string quartet, 1964. ———. Oggetto amato. For mezzo-soprano, baritone, speaking voices, piano, and percussion, 1975. ———. La Passion Selon Sade (Mystere de chambre avec tableaux vivants). For instruments and narrator, 1965. ———. Per ventiquattro voci adulte o bianche. For twenty-four women, 1968. ———. Rar’ ancora—per sestetto vocale misto. For sextet, mixed voices, 1968. ———. The Rara Requiem. For voices and chamber orchestra, 1969. ———. Siciliano. For twelve men’s voices, 1962. ———. Solo el misterio—per coro misto. For mixed choir, 1968.

Appendix C

177

Cage, John. Aria. For solo voice, 1958. ———. Five. For five voices, 1988. ———. Hymns and Variations. For twelve amplified voices, 1979. ———. Litany for the Whale. For two voices, 1981. ———. She Is Asleep. For voice and prepared piano, 1943. ———. Solo for Voice 1. For voice, 1958. ———. Solo for Voice 2. For solo voice (or with concerto for piano and orchestra or with Fontana Mix or with Cartridge Music), 1960. ———. The Wonderful Widow of Eighteen Springs. For voice and piano, 1942. Campana, Jose Luis. Five Pieces for Guitar. For voice, chamber ensemble and tape, 1985. Cantrick, Robert B. Three Mimes. For singer and flutist, 1969. Cardew, Cornelius. The Great Digest, paragraph 2. For chorus and drums, 1969. ———. The Great Learning. For chorus and organ, singers and drummers, large instruments and voices, and untrained voices, 1971. Carrillo, Julian. Preludio a Colón. For soprano and seven instruments, 1969. Carter, Elliot. The Defense of Corinth. For narrator, men’s voices, and piano (four hands), 1941. ———. A Mirror on Which to Dwell. For soprano and chamber orchestra, 1976. ———. Syringa. For mezzo-soprano, bass, and chamber ensemble, 1978. Cassidy, Aaron. A painter of figures in rooms. For eight voices, 2012. Castiglioni, Niccolo. Cantus Planus. For two sopranos and chamber ensemble, 1990. ———. Così Parlò Baldassarre. For solo soprano, 1981. ———. Hymne. For choir, 1989. ———. Quodlibet aus “Figure.” For soprano solo voice and orchestra, 1965. Cerha, Friedrich. Netzwerk. For two singers, six narrators, dancers, and orchestra, 1981. ———. Verzeichnis. For sixteen voices, 1969. Chandra, Arun. In Detention. For two percussions, voice, and guitar, 1985. Chen, Lu-Chi. The Night Before. For narrator and chamber ensemble, 1973. Childs, Barney. Lanterns and Candlelight. For soprano and marimba, 1976. ———. Music for Singer. For voice, 1964. ———. Nine Choral Fragments. For chorus, 1965. Cleary, David. Bilbies VII. For soprano or tenor voice, 1998. Cobbing, Bob. The ABC in Sound (originally 1965 Sound Poems). London: Writers Forum, 1986. Experimental performance poetry/art. ———. e colony, a version (insert) (record). Typewriter 4, 1973. ———. Variations on a Theme of Tan, 1968. Experimental performance poetry/art. Colding-Jorgensen, Henrik. Barbare. For six solo voices, choir, and orchestra, 1975. ———. Enfance IV. For alto and piano, 1968. ———. Pa din Taerskel. For alto and orchestra, 1966. Constant, Marius. Le Jeu De Sainte Agnes. For solo voices, comedians, dancers, and chamber ensemble, 1987. Constantinides, Dinos. Four Songs on Poems by Sappho. For voice and piano, 1977. Conyngham, Barry. Basho. For soprano and seven instruments, 1980. Cope, David. In Time of the Breaking of the Nations. For soprano and piano, 1976. Corina, John. The Last Supper. For woman chorus, piano, and percussion, 1970. Cowell, Henry. Do You Doodle as You Dawdle? For chorus and piano, 1966. ———. Firelight and Lamp. For voice and piano, 1964. ———. The Little Black Boy. For voice and piano, 1964. ———. Supplication. For chorus and chamber ensemble, 1962. ———. Three Anti-Modernist Songs. For voice and piano, 1938. ———. Vocalise. For soprano, flute, and piano, 1964. Cox, Franklin. r. For four voices, 1994. ———. Vocale Etude #1. For three voices, 1989. Crawford, Ruth. Chinaman, Laundryman. For voice and piano, 1976. Creston, Paul. La Lattre. For voice and piano, 1978. Crumb, George. Ancient Voices of Children. For soprano, boy soprano, and instruments, 1970. ———. Apparition. For soprano and amplified piano, 1979. ———. Lux Aeterna. For five masked musicians. For soprano, bass flute, sitar, and two percussionists, 1971. ———. Madrigals, Book I–IV. For soprano and chamber ensemble, 1965/1969. ———. Night Music. For soprano, piano, and two percussions, 1963. ———. Songs, Drones, and Refrains of Death. For baritone, guitar, piano, and percussion, 1969.

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Appendix C

Czernowin, Chaya. Manoalchadia. For two female voices and bass flute, 1988. ———. Shu Hai Mitamen Behatalat Kidon. For female voice and its nine prerecorded reflections with live electronics, 1997. Dallapiccola, Luigi. Parole di San Paolo. For mezzo-soprano and chamber ensemble, 1964. ———. Preghiera di Maria Stuarda. For voices and orchestra, 1971. ———. Preghiere. For baritone and chamber orchestra, 1962. ———. Ulisse. An opera, 1968. Danielpour, Richard. Sonnets to Orpheus. For soprano and chamber ensemble, 1991. DAO. Khox to Who. For twelve voices (soprano, alto, tenor, and baritone), 1971. Darmstadt, Hans. Chorspiel. For chorus, 1972. Dashow, James. Maximus, to Himself. For soprano, flute, and piano, 1975. ———. Some Dream Songs. For soprano, violin, and piano, 1975. Davidovsky, Mario. Romancero. For soprano and four instruments, 1983. ———. Scenes from Shir Ha-Shirim. For soprano, tenor, bass soli, and chamber ensemble, 1988. Davidson, Tina. To Understand Weeping. For soprano and tape (three female voices), 1980. Davies, Peter Maxwell. Black Pentecost. For mezzo-soprano, baritone, and orchestra, 1983. ———. Cinderella. For child voices, 1980. ———. Eight Songs for a Mad King. For male voice and instrumental ensemble, 1971. ———. Miss Donnithorne’s Maggot. For mezzo-soprano and instrumental ensemble, 1977. ———. Taverner. For voice, 1972. De Campos, Augusto. Poetamenos. For voice(s), 1973. De Lio, Thomas. At Briggflatts Meetinghouse. For soprano and piano, 1988. ———. Bright Seaweed Reaping. For soprano and chamber ensemble, 1991. ———. Contrecoup. For soprano and three players, 1991. ———. Granite, And. For soprano and seven players, 1990. Deane, Anne. Sweet Tea. For two sopranos and piano, 1985. Dehaan, Daniel. Three Études for Solo Voice. For solo voice, 2010. Del Tredici, David. An Alice Symphony. For soprano, folk group, and orchestra, 1978. ———. Child Alice, part II. For soprano and orchestra, 1992. ———. Pop-pourri. For soprano, rock group, chorus, and orchestra, 1974. ———. Vintage Alice. For soprano, folk group, and chamber orchestra, 1972. Delage, Maurice. Four Hindu Poems. For voice and chamber ensemble, 1935. Dello Joio, Norman. Un Sonetto di Petrarca. For voice and piano, 1964. Denisov, Edison. Archipel de Songes. For voice and three instruments, 1994. ———. Blatter. For soprano and string trio, 1979. ———. Chansons Italiennes. For soprano and four instruments, 1964. ———. Chant d’automne. For soprano and orchestra, 1971. ———. Requiem. For soprano, tenor, choir, and orchestra, 1980. Depero, Fortunato. Verbalizzazione astratta di Signora. Sound poetry, 1916. Dessau, Paul. Tierverse von Bertoldt Brecht. For voice and prepared piano, 1973. Dharmoo, Gabriel. Vaai Irandu. For mezzo-soprano, 2009. Dillon, James. A Roaring Flame. For voice and double bass, 1982. ———. Who Do You Love. For tenor and five instruments, 1981. Dittrich, Paul-Heinz. Fabeln and Parabeln. For chorus, 1981. ———. Kammermusik IV. For soprano, seven instruments, and live electronics, 1980. ———. Vier Lieder. For high voice and piano, 1979. ———. Vocalblätter. For twelve solo voices, solo soprano, flute, and oboe, 1972. Dodge, Charles. The Waves. For voice and tape, 1984. Donatoni, Franco. De Pres. For female voice and five players, 1978. ———. SHE. For three sopranos and six instruments, 1986. ———. L’ultima Sera. For female voice and five instruments, 1980. Doolittle, Emily. Burn. For women’s or children’s voices, 1996. Druckman, Jacob. Dark upon the Harp. For mezzo-soprano, brass, and percussion, 1967. ———. Lamia. For soprano and orchestra, 1975. Du Bois, Rob. Pour Faire Chanter La Polonaise. For flute, soprano, and three pianos, 1966. Dusapin, Pascal. Semino. For six voices, 1985. ———. Two walking. For two sopranos, 1994.

Appendix C

Eaton, John. Blind Man’s Cry. For soprano and two electronic synthesizers, 1968. ———. Golk. For opera, 1995. ———. Let’s Get This Show on the Road: An Alternative View of Genesis. For opera, 1993. ———. Mass. For soprano, clarinet, and electronic synthesizers, 1970. ———. Myshkin. For opera, 1971. ———. Songs for R. P. B. For soprano, piano, and electronic synthesizer, 1964. ———. Thoughts on Rilke. For soprano and electronic synthesizer, 1966. Edgerton, Michael Edward. , aka Taffy Twisters. For voice and percussion, 1998. ———. Anaphora. For solo voice, 2001. ———. Azure Suite. For soprano and overtone singer, 1998. ———. Cantor’s Dust. For solo voice and electronic accompaniment, 2001. ———. Cataphora. For solo voice, 2009. ———. Divergence. For two voices and electronic accompaniment, 2001. ———. Friedrich’s Comma. For two voices, 1999. ———. The Hidden Thunder of Screaming Souls. For amplified voice and viola, 1989. ———. Hour History. An opera for percussion ensemble and eleven male voices, 1989. ———. Keltainen huone. For four voices, 2008 ———. KOSMOS, volume one on articulation. For extended vocal technique performer(s), 1998. ———. KOSMOS, volume two on reinforced harmonics. For extended vocal technique performer(s), 1998. ———. Kut. For voice and electronics (alternate version for voice, sh’eng, and violin), 2002. ———. A Marriage of Shadows. For flute, saxophone, percussion, guitar, and voice, 2008. ———. No!!! For two voices, video, and drummers, 1996. ———. pråna. For four voices and nonstable drone, 2002. ———. Sirens. For four to forty voices, 1998. Einbond, Aaron. Without Words. For soprano, eleven instruments, and electronics, 2013. Eloy, Jean-Claude. Kamakala. For three choirs and three orchestras, 1971. Endrich, Tom. Steps. For voice and clarinet, 1976. Enescu, Georges. Oedipe. For alto, tenor, soprano, and bass, 1964. Erb, Donald. God Love You Know. For chorus, narrator, instruments, and reverb, 1973. Erickson, Robert. Days and Nights. For soprano and three players, 1993. ———. Do It. For speaker soloists, 1968. ———. Down at Piraeus. For tape, soli, and chorus, 1968. ———. Sierra. For tenor and chamber orchestra, 1984. Escot, Pozzi. Lamentos. For soprano and chamber ensemble, 1962. ———. Missa Triste. For women’s chorus and any three instruments, 1994. Evangelisti, Franco. Spazio A5. For percussion, voices, and electronics, 1961. Febel, Reinhard. Heimath. For mezzo-soprano and cello. Heimath und niemand Weiss. Stuttgart: Künstlerhaus Stuttgart, 1983. Felciano, Richard. The Angels of Turtle Island. For soprano, three instruments, and live electronics, 1984. ———. Te Deum. For three boy’s voices, SATB soli and chorus, and chamber ensemble, 1984. Feldman, Morton. Chorus and Instruments II. For chorus, chimes, and tuba, 1967. ———. Intervals. For bass-baritone and four players, 1961. ———. The Ohara Songs. For bass-baritone and chamber ensemble, 1962. ———. Only. For solo voice, 1976. ———. Rothko Chapel. For viola, celesta, percussion, chorus, and solo soprano and alto, 1973. Ferneyhough, Brian. Missa Brevis. For twelve voices, 1969. ———. On Stellar Magnitudes. For mezzo-soprano and five instruments, 1994. ———. Time and Motion Study III. For sixteen solo voices with percussion and electronic amplification, 1974. Ferrari, Luc. Journal in Time. For narrator, actor, and piano, 1980. Finney, Ross Lee. The Martyr’s Elegy. For high voice, choir, and orchestra, 1966. ———. Poems. For voice and piano, 1955. ———. Spherical Madrigals. For chorus, 1965. ———. Still Are New Worlds. For speaking voice, choir, and orchestra, 1964. Finnissy, Michael. Haiyim. For chorus and two celli, 1984. ———. Mr. Punch. For voice and orchestra, 1986. ———. Ngano. For solo mezzo-soprano and tenor, chorus, and instruments, 1984. ———. Vaudeville. For mezzo-soprano, baritone, chamber ensemble, and dancers, 1983.

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Appendix C

Fish, Greg. Oratorio for a New World. For eight singers, two percussionists, and live electronics, 1992. Fonville, John. Several Songs of Sappho. For solo voice and viola (or cello), 1995. Fortner, Wolfgang. Chant de Naissance. For soprano solo, choir, and chamber orchestra, 1959. ———. Petrarca-Sonette. For chorus, 1980. ———. Die Pfingstgeschichte. For tenor solo, choir, and chamber ensemble, 1963. Foss, Lukas. Fragments of Archilochos. For countertenor, male and female speakers, four small choirs or optional large chorus, mandolin, guitar, and percussion, 1966. ———. Song of Songs. For soprano and orchestra, 1960. ———. Three Airs for Frank O’Hara’s Angel. For male speaker, soprano solo, women’s chorus, piano, percussion, and tape, 1972. ———. Time Cycle. For soprano and orchestra, 1960. Fritsch, Johannes. De Profundis. For soprano, countertenor, choir, and chamber ensemble, 1987. Gabel, Gerald. A Dream. For children’s choir and chamber ensemble, 1990. ———. Songs and Epitaphs of the Golden Sun. For soprano and chamber ensemble, 1985. Gaber, Harley. Voce II. For voice, flute, and percussion, 1965. Gaburo, Kenneth. Alas! Alack! A Cycle for Children. For women’s chorus (soprano and alto), 1950. ———. Antiphony III: Pearl White Moments. For chorus, soprano, alto, tenor, bass, and two-channel tape, 1963. ———. Antiphony IV: Poised. For chamber ensemble, two-channel tape, voice, and electronics, 1967. ———. Cantilena One. For soprano, 1951. ———. Cantilena Four. For soprano and trombone, 1975. ———. December 8. For forty male voices, 1967. ———. Humming. For soprano, alto, tenor, and bass, 1954. ———. Kyrie: (Orbis Factor: A Very Odd Do). For chorus generated by one voice in a small cave around Mandy’s Villa, tape, 1975. ———. Lingua I: Dante’s Joynte Poems and Theaters. For six shouting voices, overhead amber spot, 16mm film, and two-channel sound tape, 1968. ———. Lingua II: Maledetto. For seven virtuoso speakers, 1967–1969. ———. Mass. For tenors and basses, two-part a cappella, 1958. ———. The Music in Samuel Beckett’s Play. For three voices, 1973. ———. Never 1. For four groups of male voices (thirty-six or more), tenors, baritones, and basses, 1966. ———. Stray Birds. For soprano and piano, 1959. ———. Twenty Sensing Compositions. For one performer to ensembles of various sizes, 1968–1973. Garcia, Orlando Jacinto. Sitio sin nombre. For soprano and tape, 1990. Gasser, Ulrich. Aus den spruechen das lied der weisheit. For soprano, tenor, bass, and electronics, 1983. Gelt, Andrew. Homage to Gesualdo, Op.33. For a cappella chorus (organ optional), 1977. Gerber, Steven. Cantilena Four. For soprano and trombone, 1975. Gerhard, Roberto. Cancionero de Pedrell. For high voice and chamber orchestra, 1942. ———. Cantata. For soprano and tenor soli, chorus, and orchestra, 1932. Geyer, Leo. Sedna. For vocal trio, 2011. Ghent, Natasha. The Angel. For soprano and three players, 1989. Gideon, Miriam. Creature to Creature. For voice, flute, and harp, 1985. ———. Shirat Miriam lshabbat. For cantor, chorus, and organ, 1974. Gielen, Michael. Musica. For archi, pianoforte, baritone, trombone, and timpani, 1958. Gilbert, Anthony. Certain Lights Reflecting. For soprano and orchestra, 1989. ———. Inscapes. For soprano, reader, and three players, 1975. Gilbert, Pia. Food. For soprano and baritone soloists, trumpet, percussion, and piano, 1981. Glasow, Glenn. Requiem. For women’s chorus, 1950. Glasser, Stanley. Memories of Love. For countertenor and lute, 1983. Globokar, Vinko. Airs de voyages vers l’intérieur. For eight voices, clarinet, drum, and electronics, 1972. ———. Jenseits der Sicherheit. For solo voice, 1981. ———. Traumdeutung. For four choirs, 1967. ———. Voie. For three choirs and orchestra, 1966. Godin, Robert. Full Circle. For amplified voice, 1986. ———. Set. For reader and saxophone, 1987. Goehr, Alexander. Arden Must Die. For voice, 1967. ———. The Mouse Metamorphosed into a Maid. For solo voice, 1991. ———. Shadowplay. For speaker, tenor, flute, sax, horn, cello, and piano, 1976. Goeyvaerts, Karel. Goathemala. For mezzo-soprano and flute, 1966. Grech, Pawlu. Tre Canti. For soprano and piano, 1958.

Appendix C

Green, Anthony. B A 4. For two vocalists and dancer, 2013. Gubaidulina, Sofia. Hommage a t.s. eliot. For soprano and octet, 1987. Gutama Soegijo, Paul. Landschaften. For mixed chorus and ensemble, 1971. Guy, Barry. String Quartet III. For soprano and string quartet, 1973. Hadzajlic, Hanan. Freezing Moon. For flute and alto voice, 2012. Halffter, Cristobal. Dona Nobis Pacem. For choir, 1985. ———. In Memoriam Anaick. For speaker, choir, and instruments, 1973. ———. Jarchas de dolor de ausencia. For mixed choir, 1979. Harizanos, Nickos. The Bells. For solo voice, 2012. Harris, Roy. Abraham Lincoln Works at Midnight. For mezzo-soprano and three players, 1953. Harrison, Lou. Mass. For male and female voices and chamber ensemble, 1962. ———. May Rain. For voice, piano, and tam-tam, 1941. ———. Peace Piece One. For chorus and chamber ensemble, 1967. Hartmann, Karl Amadeus. Chaplin-Ford-Trott. For sprechrolle, soprano, tenor, baritone, and bass, 1988. ———. Der Mann, der vom Tode auferstand. For tenor, baritone, and sprechrolle, 1988. Harvey, Jonathan. How Could the Soul Not Take Flight. For double chorus, 1996. ———. Inner Light (2). For SSATB soli, instrumental ensemble, and tape, 1979. ———. Resurrection. For double choir and organ, 1981. Hattori, Koh-Ichi. Divertimento. For twelve voices and Japanese instruments, 1977. Hatzis, Christos. Requiem for the Alive. For actor, eight voices, and chamber ensemble, 1975. Haubenstock-Ramati, Roman. Amerika. An opera, 1964. ———. Comedie. Anti-opera, 1968. ———. Credentials or think, think lucky. For voice and eight players, 1961. ———. Jeux 4. For percussion, ad lib speaker, dancer, and mime, 1977. ———. Konstellationen. Graphic score, mixed media, 1971. ———. Mobile for Shakespeare, sonnets 53 and 54. For voice and six players, 1961. Hayakawa, Masaaki. Four Little Poems; Progressive Muscular Dystrophy. For soprano and chamber ensemble, 1975. Heider, Werner. Catalogue for Voice. For solo voice, 1975. ———. Commission. For baritone and chamber ensemble, 1972. Hennagin, Michael. The Family of Man. For chorus and percussion, 1971. Henry, Otto. The Sons of Martha. For soprano and percussion, 1970. Henze, Hans Werner. Elegy for Young Lovers. For opera, 1961. ———. Das Flors der Medusa. For choir, orchestra, and speaker, 1970. ———. Orpheus behind the Wire. For chorus, 1983. ———. Voices. For two vocalists and instrumental, 1973. Herfert, Franz Jochen. Ich bin nur . . . . For solo voice, 1987. Hervig, Richard. Antiphon II. For twelve voices and eight instruments, 1984. Hespos, Hans-Joachim. CRU. For voice and small drum, 1985. ———. Donaia. For speaker and chamber ensemble, 1986. ———. Fulaar. For museum, movement, percussion, speaker, singer, and lighting, 1989. ———. hykaye, Bima. For speaking choir, 1987. ———. laco, surreale szene (simultanes irren). For soprano, vocal trio, and chamber ensemble, 1997. ———. N a i. For solo voice, 1979. ———. Ohrenatmer. For voice and chamber ensemble, 1981. Hetu, Jacques. Les Clarites de la Nuit. For voice and piano, 1972. Hidalgo, Manuel. Cuatro Citas de Juan Goytisolo. For soprano and countertenor, 1999. Hiller, Lejaren. 57 Ponteach. For narrator and piano, 1977. ———. An Avalanche. For pitchman, prima donna, player piano, percussion, and tape, 1968. ———. Computer Cantata. For soprano, chamber ensemble, and tape, 1963. Hoch, Peter. Ein Atem Ringt in uns. For solo voices and chorus, 1971. Hodkinson, Sydney. Menagerie. For speaking chorus, 1977. ———. November Voices. For voice, narrator, and instruments, 1975. Hoiby, Lee. Bermudes. For vocal duet and piano, 1993. Holland, John. 15 Texts. For speaking voice, 1981. Holliger, Heinz. Gluehende Raetsel. For alto voice and ten instrumentalists, 1964. ———. Jisei II. For four male voices, 1989. ———. Scardenelli-Zyklus. For mixed choir a cappella, 1985.

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Holm-Hudson, Kevin. RIFF. For solo voice, 1995. Holmqvist, Kay. Liquid Structures. For flute, alto-saxophone, percussion, ten-stringed guitar, and voice, 2012. Holszky, Adrianna. Floten des Lichts. For singer and five brass, 1990. ———. Message, The Chairs. For mezzo-soprano, baritone, speaker, various sound objects, and live electronics, 1991. ———. Omaggio a Michelangelo. For sixteen solo voices, 1980. ———. Questions II. For soprano, baritone, and five players, 1981. ———. Vampirabile. For five female voices and percussion, 1988. Holt, Simon. Ballad of the Black Sorrow. For choir and chamber ensemble, 1989. Hopson, Holland. Nine Tas. For four voices, 1994, 2008. Hoyland, Vic. Dumb Show. For male, female, and percussion, 1983. ———. Jeux-Theme. For mezzo-soprano and chamber ensemble, 1975. ———. Michelangelo. For baritone, male chorus, and chamber ensemble, 1981. Huber, Klaus. . . . Nudo que ansi juntais . . . . For sixteen voices, 1984. ———. Senfkorn. For child’s voice (or soprano) and chamber ensemble, 1975. ———. Traumgesicht. For male voices, 1971. Huber, Nicolaus A. Sein als Einspruch. For eight solo voices, 1997. Hurd, Michael. Once in a Dream. For upper voices and piano, 1986. Hutcheson, Jere. Passing, Passing, Passing. For soprano and four players, 1977. ———. Shadows of Floating Life. For mezzo-soprano, tenor, and four instruments, 1974. Ichiyanagi, Toshi. Extended Voices. For voices and synthesizer/computer, 1967. Iida, Takashi. The Frog. For baritone and piano, 1975. Imbrie, Andrew. Psalm 42. For male chorus and organ, 1965. ———. Roethke Songs. For high voice and piano, 1990. Ishikata, Fuyuki. Itanano Maboroshi. For soprano and piano, 1994. Ives, Charles. Crossing the Bar. For solo quintet or mixed choir and organ, 1891. ———. I Come to Thee. For SATB, 1892. ———. Lincoln, the Great Commoner. For voices and orchestra, 1900. ———. Psalm 150. For four-part treble, SATB, and optional organ, 1894. ———. Quarter-Tone Chorale. For string orchestra, 1924. ———. Serenity. For chorus, harp, violins, and timpani, 1919. ———. 67 Psalm. For SATB, 1893. ———. Turn Ye, Turn Ye. For SATB and organ, 1890. Jaffe, David. Bird Seasons. For four voices, 1984. ———. Impossible Animals. For four voices and synthetic voices, 1986. Jarrell, Michael. Trace-Ecart. For soprano, alto, percussion, and double ensemble of eight instruments, 1984. Jensch, Lothar. Ed è subito sera. For soprano and chamber orchestra, 1963. Johnson, Bengt Emil. Alpha. For mixed choir, 1975. Johnson, Evan. A general interrupter to ongoing activity. For solo voice, 2011. Johnston, Ben. Calamity Jane to Her Daughter. For soprano and four players, 1989. ———. Ci-Git Satie. For voices, string bass, and drum set, 1966. ———. I’m Goin’ Away. For chorus, 1977. ———. A Sea Dirge. For mezzo-soprano and three players, 1974. ———. Sonnets of Desolation. For eight singers, 1990. Jolas, Betsy. Caprice for One Voice. For solo voice, 1975. ———. Mon Ami. For female pianist with child, 1974. ———. MOTS. For five vocal soloists and eight instruments, 1963. ———. Quator II. For soprano and three players, 1969. ———. Sonate A 12. For mixed choir of twelve soloists, 1970. Jones, David Evan. Pastoral. For voice and tape, 1983. Josephs, Wilfred. Night Music. For voice and orchestra, 1970. Kagel, Mauricio. . . . den 24.xii.1931. For baritone and instruments, 1991. ———. Anagrama. For four solo singers, speaking choir, and chamber ensemble, 1958. ———. Camera Oscura. For lighting, actors, loudspeakers, tape, and film, 1965. ———. Ensemble. For sixteen solo voices, 1971. ———. Furst Igor, Strawinsky. For bass voice and instruments, 1982. ———. Hallelujah. For thirty-two to forty-six voices, 1968. ———. Intermezzo. For voices and instruments, 1983.

Appendix C

———. Mare Nostrum. For countertenor, baritone, and chamber ensemble, 1975. ———. Mitternachtsstuk. For voices and instruments, 1986. ———. Rrrrr . . . . For voices, 1982. ———. Tremens. For two actors, chamber ensemble, tape, and projections, 1965. Karkoschka, Erhard. . . . nach Paul Celan. For speaker and six instruments, 1988. ———. vom Sterben von der neuen geburt. For narrator, five women’s voices, chamber ensemble, and tape, 1983. Kavasch, Deborah. The Owl and the Pussycat. For voices and narrator, 1980. ———. Requiem. For four voices and tape, 1978. Kayn, Roland. Ektropie. For chorus and orchestra, 1975. Kelemen, Milko. Landschaftsbilder. For mezzo-soprano and string quartet, 1988. ———. Monogatari. For sixteen solo voices, 1977. ———. Die Sieben Plagen. For solo voice, 1974. Kendrick, Ralph. The Slash. For chamber chorus, speaker, two contrabasses, and four percussionists, 1995. ———. Unpacking with Ben. For tenor and baritone, 1995. Kerr, Harrison. Notations on a Sensitized Plate. For voice and chamber ensemble, 1939. Keuris, Tristan. Three Michelangelo Songs. For mezzo-soprano and orchestra, 1990. Khubeev, Alexander. Noir. For soprano, clarinet (in B), piano, and percussion, 2010. Kilar, Wojciech. Diphthongos. For choir and orchestra, 1964. ———. Hoary Fog. For baritone and orchestra, 1979. Klein, Joseph. Dedi/seC(r)ATIONS (arias and interludes). For voice and percussion, 1986. ———. MOTET: memento mori. For four voices, 1988. Klein, Richard, and Mark Hosler. Wildman. For voice and electronic processing and percussion, 1991. Kobashi, Minoru. Kijo: A Demon Woman. For baritone and five percussionists, 1975. Kodaly, Zoltan. Psalmus Hungarieus. For tenor solo, chorus, and orchestra, 1923. Kokaji, Kunitaka. Song of Love. For voice and string quartet, 1980. Kokoras, Panayiotis. Hiss and Whistle. For alto recorder, tenor voice, and electronics, 2013. Kolb, Barbara. Chromatic Fantasy. For narrator and six instruments, 1979. ———. The Point That Divides the Wind. For organ, percussion, and three male voices, 1982. Korte, Karl. Of Time and Season. For chorus, soloists, marimba, and piano, 1983. ———. The Whistling Wind. For mezzo-soprano and tape, 1983. Kotonski, Wlodzimierz. Aeolian Harp. For soprano and four instruments, 1973. Kourliandski, Dmitri. Voice-Off. For solo voice, 2008. Kowalski, Michael. hors d’oeuvres. For soprano and trombone, 1975. Kratochwil, Heinz. Klangstudie. For voices and instruments, 1970. Krenek, Ernst. Feiertags Kantate. For mezzo-soprano, baritone, narrator, and orchestra, 1975. ———. The Flea. For voice and piano, 1960. ———. They Knew What They Wanted. For narrator and chamber ensemble, 1977. Kucharz, Lawrence. Choral Folio. For choir a cappella, 1987. ———. No. 24. For solo voice, 1976. Kurtàg, György. Einige Sätze aus den Sudelbüchern G. C. Lichtenbergs. For solo soprano, 1996. La Barbara, Joan. Calligraphy II/Shadows. For voice and Chinese instruments, 1995. ———. To Hear the Wind Roar. For chorus, 1991. La Plante, Skip. Riding on the Wing Wind. For voices, 1980. Lachenmann, Helmut. Consolation II. For sixteen voices, 1968. ———. temA. For flute, mezzo-soprano, and cello, 1968. Lanza, Alcides. Sensors IV. For choir with electronics and computer sounds, 1984. Larson, Libby. She’s Like a Swallow. For chorus, flute, and piano, 1988. Laske, Otto. Quatre Fascinants. For three altos and three tenors, 1971 (rev. 1992). Lavista, Mario. Dos Canciones. For voice and piano (or clavecin), 1966. Lazarof, Henri. Encounters. For soprano and chamber ensemble, 1995. Leach, Mary Jane. Ariel’s Song. For eight women’s voices, 1987. ———. Green Mountain Madrigal. For eight women’s voices, 1985. ———. Trio for Duo. For live and recorded voice and alto flute, 1985. Lechner, Konrad. Psalm “in die Paschae.” For high singing voice, 1975. Leeuw, Ton de. and they shall reign for ever. For mezzo-soprano and chamber ensemble, 1981. ———. Chimeres. For six voices, 1981. ———. Invocations. For mezzo-soprano, choir, and instruments, 1983.

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———. Natasja. For solo voice, 1990. ———. Transparence. For choir and six players, 1986. ———. Vocalise. For solo voice, 1968. LeFanu, Nicola. The Old Woman of Beare. For soprano and thirteen players, 1984. ———. A Penny for a Song. For soprano and piano, 1981. Leibowitz, Rene. Explanation of Metaphors. For narrator, two pianos, harp, and percussion, 1980. ———. Three Poems of Pierre Rexerdy. For choir and piano, 1971. Leichtling, Alan. Canticle 1. For soprano and flute obbligato, 1969. Leighton, Kenneth. Columba Mea. For soli, chorus, and string orchestra, 1983. LeSiege, Annette. . . . in the Silence of Contemplation. For soprano and three players, 1982. Levinas, Michael. Les lettres enlacées. For four voices, 2000. Lewis, Robert Hall. Combinazioni III. For narrator, oboe/English horn, percussion, and tape, 1986. Lidholm, Ingvar. Stamp Music. For soprano and tam-tam, 1971. Ligeti, Gyorgy. Aventures. For vocal soloists and ensemble, 1966. ———. Lux Aeterma. For sixteen solo voices, 1968. ———. Magyar Etüdök. For a cappella choir, 1983. ———. Nouvelle Aventures. For soprano, alto, bass, and chamber ensemble, 1966. ———. Requiem. For orchestra, two mixed choirs, and soprano, 1965. Lindborg, Per Magnus. Sr. For voice and flute, 1995. Loevendie, Theo. Six Turkish Folkpoems. For female voice and seven instruments, 1977. Logothetis, Anestis. Grafische Notationen. For instruments, 1967. Lombardi, Luca. Hasta que Caigan las Puertàs del Odio. For chorus, 1977. London, Edwin. Christmas Music. For tenor solo, chorus, bells, and organ, 1974. ———. Day of Desolation. For choir, 1971. ———. Four Proverbs. For soprano solo, women’s chorus, two trumpets, and bassoon, 1968. ———. Moon Sound Zone. For soprano, alto, tenor, bass, violin, viola, cello, and percussion, 1988. ———. Osanna. For women’s voices and piano, 1965. ———. Poebells. For narrator, mezzo-soprano, tenor soli, and percussion ensemble, 1977. ———. Psalm of These Days I. For mezzo-soprano, women’s chorus, and chamber ensemble, 1977. ———. Psalm of These Days II. For soprano, alto, tenor, and bass, 1979. ———. Psalm of These Days V. For chorus and band, 1980. ———. Sacred Hair. For choir, combs, and organ, 1973. Lorentzen, Bent. Comics. For entertainer, children’s and adult choir, amateur ensemble, and orchestra, 1987. Louie, Alexina. Bringing the Tiger Down from the Mountain. For mezzo-soprano and ten players, 1973. Luening, Otto. Lines from The First Book of Urizen and Vala, or a Dream of Nine Nights. For chorus, 1983. Luff, Enid. Phaedra. For soprano, chamber ensemble, and mime, 1980. ———. SWn dur (the Sound of Water). For mezzo-contralto, flute, and piano, 1981. ———. Weather and Mouth Music. For soprano and double bass, 1977. Lutoslawski, Witold. Les Espaces du Sommeil. For baritone and orchestra, 1975. ———. A Little Shell a Silver Windowpane. For voice and chamber orchestra, 1996. ———. Paroles Tissees. For tenor and four players, 1965. ———. Trois Poems d’Henri Michaux. For choir and orchestra, 1963. Lybbert, Donald. Lines for the Fallen. For soprano and two pianos, 1969. Macchi, Egisto. Voci. For mixed choir, 1963. MacDougall, Robert. Most of the Time He’s Laughing. For singer, dancer, chamber ensemble, two-channel tape, four-channel tape, and three sculptures, 1974. Mack, Dieter. Cina. For vocal trio and percussion instruments, 1982. MacMillan, James. Busqueda. For three soprani, eight actors, narrator, and chamber ensemble, 1988. ———. Comet New-Born, Arising at Morning. For cabaret singer and seven players, 1987. ———. Raising Sparks. For mezzo-soprano and ensemble, 1997. ———. Songs of a Just War. For soprano and chamber ensemble, 1984. Maderna, Bruno. Venetian Journal. For tenor, orchestra, and tape, 1972. Mahler, Gustav. Ich bin der Welt abhanden gekommen. Arrangement for sixteen solo voices by C. Gottwald, 1904. Mahnkopf, Claus-Steffan. Mon Cœur mis à nu. For four singers with claves, 1997. Makan, Keeril. Veinset. For bass clarinet, soprano, electric guitar, and violin, 1996. Malec, Ivo. Cantate pour Elle. For soprano, harp, and tape, 1966. Malipiero, Riccardo. Tre frammenti. For voice and piano, 1979.

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Mamlok, Ursula. Der Andreas Garten. For mezzo-soprano, flute, and harp, 1987. Manzoni, Giacomo. Suite Robespierre. For narrator, solo voices, chorus, and orchestra, 1979. Marco, Tomas. Transfiguración. For sixteen solo voices, 1974. Markevitch, Igor. Psaume-Tehillim. For soprano soli and orchestra, 1986. Marsh, Roger. Dum. For one performer, 1977. ———. Not a Soul but Ourselves . . . . For two female voices and two male voices, 1981. ———. Three Biblical Songs. For baritone and soprano soli, female chorus, and instruments, 1985. Martino, Donald. The White Island. For chorus and chamber orchestra, 1987. Martinu, Bohuslav. Nove Slovenske Pisne. For voice and piano, 1920. ———. Zwei Lieder auf Texte der Negerpoesie. For voice and piano, 1932. Martirano, Salvatore. L’s GA. For gas-masked politico, narrator, and electronics, 1968. ———. O, O, O, O, That Shakespeherian Rag. For chorus and chamber ensemble, 1961. Martland, Steve. Skywalk. For five voices and mixed chorus, 1989. Matsudaira, Yori-Aki. It’s Gonna Be a Hardcore! For soprano and piano, 1980. Matsudaira, Yoritsune. Katsura. For voice and five players, 1967. Matsumura, Teizo. Two Poems by the Prince of Karu. For soprano and piano, 1973. Matthews, David. Cantiga. For soprano and chamber ensemble, 1988. Matuszczak, Bernadetta. Septem Tubae. For choir, organ, and orchestra, 1971. Maw, Nicholas. Scenes and Arias. For soprano, mezzo-soprano, contralto, and orchestra, 1962. McCabe, John. Reflections of a Summer Night. For chorus and orchestra, 1977. McLean, Priscilla. Fantasies for Adults and Other Children. For soprano and amplified piano, 1981. ———. In Celebration. For chorus, piano, solo percussion, and tape, 1987. Meadows, Philip. DiS JuNK T. For two solo voices and choir, 1993. Mefano, Paul. Lignes. For bass and chamber ensemble, 1968. ———. Micromegas I. An opera, 1979. Mellers, Wilfred. Life Cycle. For two choirs and orchestra, 1969. Mellnas, Arne. Ten Proverbs. For mixed choir, 1981. ———. A Wind Has Blown. For chorus, 1980. Mendes, Gilberto. Motet em re Menor. For chorus, 1979. ———. Nasce Morre. For voices, percussion, and tape, 1966. Messiaen, Oliver. La Mort du Nombre. For soprano, tenor, violin, and piano, 1931. ———. Trois Melodies. For voice and piano, 1930. Mestres-Quadreny, Josep. Poemma. For voice and piano, 1972. Miereanu, Costin. Nacht. For mezzo-soprano and mixed choir, 1965. Miki, Minoru. Sohmon III. For soprano, marimba, and piano, 1988. Mimaroglu, Ilhan. Epicedium. For low female voice and four instruments, 1959. ———. String Quartet No. 4. For string quartet with voice obbligato, 1978. Mizelle, Dary John. Quanta and Hymn to Matter. For eight solo voices, choir, and orchestra, 1975. ———. Radial Energy I. For soprano and chamber ensemble, 1974. Mocchi, Egisto. Voci. For sixteen voices, 1963. Moevs, Robert. Et Occidentem Illustra. For mixed chorus and orchestra, 1967. Montague, Stephen. Tigida Pipa. For choir, percussion, and tape, 1983. Moretto, Vanni. Tip-Toe. For mezzo-soprano, baritone, and reciter, 1995. Morrill, Dexter. No. For chanter chorus and tape, 1977. ———. Six Dark Questions. For soprano and computer, 1979. Mosko, Stephen. Schweres Loos. For alto and three instruments, 1988. Motte, Diether de la. Hortheater. For eighteen speaking voices and melody instruments, 1977. Mumma, Gordon. Orait. For voices and percussion, 1987. Mundry, Isabel. Ohne Titel. For five voices, 1997. Musgrave, Thea. The Last Twilight. For chorus and brass, 1981. ———. Primavera. For soprano and flute, 1971. Nelson, Jon Christoper. They Wash Their Ambassadors in Citrus and Fennel. For mezzo-soprano and tape, 1994. Neng-Hsien Ho, James. Past. For soprano, flute, and double bass, 1995. Neuwirth, Olga. Nova Mob. For six voices and six cassette recorders, 1997. Nicholson, George. The Arrival of the Poet in the City. For narrator and seven musicians, 1983. Nilsson, B. und die Zeiger seiner augen wurden langsam zuruckgedreht. For soprano and alto soli, women’s chorus, loudspeaker group, and orchestra, 1959.

186

Appendix C

Nimomiya, Reiko. Seven Haiku Poems by Soseki Natsume. For voice and piano, 1984. Nono, Luigi. Il Canto Sospeso. For soprano, contralto, tenor soli, mixed choir, and orchestra, 1956. ———. La Fabbrica Illuminata. For soprano and four-channel magnetic tape, 1964. ———. Ha venido, canciones para Silvia. For soprano solo, six soprani, and chorus, 1960. ———. Omaggio a Gyorgy Kurtag. For contralto, three players, and live electronics, 1986. ———. Sara Dolce Tacere. For eight voices, 1960. Nordheim, Arne. AftonLand. For soprano (or tenor) and chamber ensemble, 1988. ———. Tres lamentationes. For choir, 1985. Norgard, Per. Libra. For tenor, guitar, two choirs, two vibraphones, and auxiliary wind instruments ad lib, 1973. ———. Seadraft. For soprano and chamber ensemble, 1978. ———. 6 Danske Korsange. For chorus, 1991. Oehring, Helmut. Self-Liberator. For music theater, 1994. ———. Vorspiel und Gesang, nach Worten von F. J. Strauss. For mezzo-soprano and five players, 1988. Ogdon, Will. By the Isar. For soprano, alto flute, and double bass, 1969. ———. Three Statements. For chorus, 1960. ———. Un Tonbeau de Jean Cocteau (III). For actor, soprano, two players, and slides, 1976. Ohana, Maurice. Messe. For soprano, mezzo-soprano, two choirs, and chamber ensemble, 1977. ———. Quatre Choeurs. For children’s voices, 1991. Oliveira, Willy Correa de. Exit. For soprano and percussion, 1978. ———. Kyrie. For choir, 1976. ———. Materiales. For soprano and percussion, 1980. Oliveros, Pauline. Lullaby for Daisy Pauline. For large group and tape or as a solo, 1980. ———. El Relicario de los Animales. For female voice and chamber ensemble, 1979. ———. Sonic Meditations. For ensemble, 1974. ———. Sound Patterns. For choir, 1964. ———. Three Songs. For soprano and piano, 1957. Olson, Tawnie. Le Revenant. For voice and piano, 2011. Ornstein, Leo. Song I (no words). For voice and piano, 1928. Orton, Richard. Mug Grunt. For three male performers, 1978. Osborne, Nigel. I Am Goya. For bass-baritone and four instruments, 1982. ———. Terrible Mouth. An opera, 1973. ———. Tracks. For two choirs and orchestra, 1990. Otte, Hans. Alpha-Omega II. For sixteen voices, 1965. Ovcharenko, Halyna. Invocation of Rain. For four percussionists and authentic voice, 1996. Pablo, Luis de. Al son que tocan. For voices and mixed chamber ensemble, 1975. ———. Pocket Zarzuela. For mezzo-soprano and five instruments, 1978. ———. Surcar Vemos. For soprano solo, 1986. Paccione, Paul. Song from Catullus. For solo voice, 1977. Pagh-Paan, Younghi. Flammenzeichen. For solo woman’s voice, 1983. ———. Hin-Nun. For six female voices, 1985. ———. Hwang-Too. For five male voices, 1998. ———. Mein Herz. For a female and male voice, 1991. Penderecki, Krzysztof. Cantata. For two choirs and orchestra, 1964. ———. Dies Irae. For soprano, tenor, bass, and orchestra, 1967. ———. Dimensionen der zeit und der Stille. For a forty-part chorus of mixed voices, percussion groups, and strings, 1961. ———. Ecloga VIII. For six male voices, 1972. ———. Lacrimosa. For soprano, mixed choir, and orchestra, 1980. ———. Die Schwarze Maske. For opera, 1986. ———. Stabat Mater. For three choruses, 1962. ———. Te Deum. For four solo voices, two choirs, and orchestra, 1980. Perle, George. Sonnets to Orpheus. For double chorus, 1974. ———. Two Rilke Songs. For voice and piano, 1941. Petrassi, Goffredo. Laudes Creaturarum. For narrator and six instruments, 1982. Pignon, Paul. Say. For five vocalists and electronic sounds, 1975. Plowman, Lynne. Shimmering Glimmering. For twelve female voices, 1995. Porter, Bern. The Last Acts of St. Fuck You. For sound poet, 1988.

Appendix C

Pousseur, Henri. Canines. For female voice and piano, 1984. ———. Echoes II de Votre Faust. For mezzo-soprano and three instruments, 1969. ———. Phonèmes pour Cathy. For solo voice, 1966. ———. pour Baudelaire. For solo voice, 1984. ———. Vocalise. For six different voice types and piano, 1979. Powell, Morgan. Darkness I. For voices and instruments, 1968. ———. Loneliness. For violin, harp, trombone, tuba, and mixed choir, 1969. ———. Old Man. For voices and instruments, 1968. Preissing, Christopher. Bull. For speaker, tape, brass, congas, and dancer, 1990. ———. Enigmatic Game. For soprano and stereo tape, 1990. Price, William. A Play on Words. For solo singer and voice quartet, 1997. Rabe, Folke. Joe’s Harp. For chorus, 1975. Rakowski, David. A Loose Gathering of Words. For soprano and five players, 1993. ———. Three Songs on Poems of Louise Bogan. For voice and piano, 1989. Ramsier, Paul. The Low-Note Blues. For chamber ensemble with narration, 1983. Rands, Bernard. Ballad I. For mezzo-soprano and chamber ensemble, 1970. ———. Canti del Sole. For tenor and chamber ensemble, 1983. ———. Canti Lunatici. For soprano and orchestra, 1981. ———. Metalepsis 2. For mezzo-soprano, choir, and chamber ensemble, 1971. Rapaport, Paul. Prelude: De Spiritu Sancto. For soprano solo, choir, and microtonal synthesizer, 1993. ———. Songs of Fruits and Vegetables. For chorus, 1987. Raxach, Enrique. Nocturno del Hueco. For choir, chamber ensemble, and tape, 1990. ———. Paraphrase. For alto and eleven instruments, 1969. Redgate, Roger. Vers-Glas. For fourteen amplified voices, 1990. Reich, Steve. The Desert Music. For chorus and orchestra, 1984. ———. Mein Name Ist . . . . For tape, voices, and orchestra, 1981. ———. Music for Mallet Instruments. For mallet instruments, voices, and organ, 1973. ———. Tehillim. For women’s voices and chamber orchestra, 1981. Reimann, Aribert. Entsorgt. For baritone solo, 1989. ———. Die Gespenstersonate. An opera, 1983. ———. Tre Poemi. For baritone and piano, 1985. Reynolds, Roger. Blind Men. For voices, brass, percussion, and piano, 1966. ———. Compass. For cello, contra-bass, tenor, bass, and electronics, 1975. ———. The Emperor of Ice Cream. For voice piano, percussion, and contra-bass, 1963. ———. The Red Act Arias. For orchestra, chorus, and eight-channel tape, 1997. ———. Voicespace I: Still. For solo voice, evt group, and electronics, 1975–1980. ———. Voicespace II: A Merciful Coincidence. Music theater for three voices and electronics, 1976. ———. Voicespace III: Eclipse. Electro-acoustic vocal work, 1979. ———. Voicespace IV: The Palace. For bass-baritone, quad sound, and stage, 1980. ———. Voicespace V: The Vanity of Words. Electro-acoustic vocal work, 1986. Richards, Eric. Wingsets. For baritone, chorus, and instruments, 1973. Riegger, Wallingford. Music for Voice and Flute (or Oboe). For voice and flute (or oboe), 1950. ———. Ye Banks and Braes o Bonnie Doon. For voice and piano, 1951. Riemann, Aribert. John III, 16. For mixed choir, 1975. Rihm, Wolfgang. Abgesangsszenen. For mezzo-soprano, baritone, and orchestra, 1979. ———. Die Hamletmaschine. For music theater, 1986. ———. Holderlin-Fragmente. For voice and piano, 1977. ———. Jakob Lenz. A chamber opera, 1978. ———. Mit geschlossenem Mund. For eight voices, 1982. Riley, Dennis. Cantata V. For chorus, harp, piano, and percussion, 1991. ———. Five Poems of Marilyn Hocker. For soprano and three players, 1986. ———. Summer Music. For medium voice, flute, and guitar, 1982. Riley, Terry. Chorus 193, the Mexico City Blues. For chorus, 1993. Rochberg, George. Fantasies. For voice and piano, 1971. ———. Songs in Praise of Krishna. For soprano and piano, 1970. ———. Tableaux. For soprano, two actors, small men’s chorus, and twelve players, 1968.

187

188

Appendix C

Roche, Maurice. Circus. For speaker, 1972. Rodriguez, Mauricio. Voix. For solo voice, 2005. Ros, Stefano da. Anche la Dolce Punta Dolce. For solo voice, 1996. ———. Semi di Suono. For women’s chorus, 1993. ———. Vaporoso vetro. For unspecified performer, 1996. Roussakis, Nicholas. Night Speech. For speech-chorus and two players of instruments, 1968. Routh, Francis. Vocalise. For soprano and four players, 1979. Rugeles, Alfredo. Canto a la Paz. For mixed choir, 1976. Ruoff, Axel. Notturno. For two four-part choirs, 1986. Saariaho, Kaija. From the Grammar of Dreams—Five Songs. For soprano and mezzo-soprano, 1988. Samuel, Gerhard. The Relativity of Icarus. For singer/narrator and chamber ensemble, 1971. Sary, Laszlo. Cantata no. 1. For soprano, chorus, and four instruments, 1968. ———. Mutations of the Sounds of Speech I II IV. For voices and strings, 1978. Scelsi, Giacinto. Canti del Capricorno. For soprano, 1962–1972. ———. Perdus. For soprano and piano, 1937. ———. Sauh I and II. For two female voices, 1957. ———. Sauh III und IV. For four female voices, 1988. ———. Tre Canti sacri. For eight voices, 1958. Schafer, R. Murray. Adieu Robert Schumann. For winds, brass, percussion, piano, strings, prerecorded piano, and voice, 1980. ———. From the Tibetan Book of the Dead. For flute, clarinet, soprano solo, chorus, and tape, 1973. ———. Gita. For two horns, three trumpets, three trombones, tuba, and mixed choir, 1967. ———. Jonah. For actor/singer, mixed choir, actors, children, and flautist, 1979. ———. Loving. For solo voices, celeste, piano, accordion, percussion, harp, double bass, and tape, 1965. ———. Patria II, Requiems for the Party Girl. For chorus and chamber ensemble, 1972. ———. Wizard Oil and Indian Sagwa. For speaker and clarinet, 1982. Schaffer, Boguslaw. Howl. For speaker, ensemble, and tape, 1959. Schat, Peter. For Lenny, at 70. For tenor and piano, 1988. ———. Het Vijfde Seizoen. For soprano and ten instruments, 1973. Schnebel, Dieter. amn. For sixteen solo voices, 1958/1966. ———. Contrapunctus VI. For voices, 1985. ———. d t 31, 6. For fifteen solo voices, 1958. ———. fur Stimmen. For five choir groups, 1973. ———. Glossolalie 61. For three (or four) speakers and three (or four) instruments, 1961. ———. :!(Madrasha ii). [(1970). Neufassung]. For eighteen solo voices, 1958/1967–1968. ———. Motetus I. For two choirs, 1991. Schoenberg, Arnold. Ode to Napoleon. For string quartet, piano, and reciter, 1944. ———. Pierrot Lunaire. For voice and chamber ensemble, 1913. Schtschedrin, Rodion. Mnogija Leta. For choir, piano, and percussion, 1991. Schuller, Gunther. The Power within Us. For baritone, narrator, chorus, and orchestra, 1971. Schwitters, Kurt. Ursonate. For voice(s), 1922–1932. Sciarrino, Salvatore. L’Alibi della parola. For four male voices, 1994. ———. Aspern-suite. For soprano and chamber ensemble, 1978. ———. Efebo con Radio. For voice and orchestra, 1981. ———. Tre canti senza piretri. For seven voices, 2000. ———. Vanitas. For voice, cello, and piano, 1981. Sculthorpe, Peter. Island Dreaming. For mezzo-soprano and string quartet, 1996. ———. Sun Music. For voices and percussion, 1966. Searle, Humphrey. The Photo of the Colonel. For voice and orchestra, 1968. Seiber, Matyas. Three Fragments. For narrator, chorus, and chamber ensemble, 1957. Serocki, Kazimierz. Niobe. For two narrators, choir, and orchestra, 1966. ———. Symphony No. 2, Symphony of Song. For soprano, baritone, choir, and orchestra, 1970. Serra, Luis Maria. Disenos. For choir, 1969. Sessions, Roger. When Lilacs Last in the Dooryard Bloomd. For soprano, alto, baritone soli, chorus, and orchestra, 1974. Shallenberg, Robert. Lilacs. For mixed chorus, 1967. Shapey, Ralph. O Jerusalem. For soprano and flute, 1975. ———. Psalm I. For soprano, oboe, and piano, 1992. Shchedrin, Rodion. Der versiegelte Engel. For choir, soli, two boys’ voices, and flute, 1988.

Appendix C

189

Shearer, Allen. Five Poems of Wallace Stevens. For baritone and piano, 1989. Sheng, Bright. Three Chinese Love Songs. For voice, viola, and piano, 1988. Shephard, Richard. Let Us Now Praise Famous Men. For choir, organ, and trumpet, 1983. Shere, Charles. Tongues. For poet, live electronics, tape, and chamber orchestra, 1978. Sikorski, Tomasz. Prologi. For female chorus, two pianos, and chamber ensemble, 1964. Smalley, Roger. Missa Brevis. For sixteen solo voices, 1967. Smith, Stuart Saunders. . . . and Points North. For percussionist-narrator, 1992. ———. In Bingham. For solo speaking voice, 1985. ———. Nightshade. For voice or violin and two percussionists, 1991. ———. Series One: Music for Small Groups. For narrator and five brake drums, 1971. Spahlinger, Mathias. Sotto voce. For mixed choir, 1974. ———. verfluchung. For three voices and percussion, 1989. Stäbler, Gerhard. Belfast Breakfast Songs. For voice, 1996. ———. Drüber. For eight active screamers, cello, synthesizer, and tape, 1973. ———. mit Wachen sinnen. For choir, 1987. ———. Winter, Blumen. For countertenor solo, violin solo, viola solo, cello solo, or contra-bass solo with accessories, 1995. Stockhausen, Karlheinz. Carre. For four orchestras and chorus, 1960. ———. Kinntanz (vom Samstag aus Licht). For euphonium, percussionist, and synthesizer, 1989. ———. Litanei 97. For chorus, 1997. ———. Luzifers Abschied. For male chorus, organ, and seven percussionists, 1982. ———. Mikrophonie II. For choir, hammond organ, and four ring modulators, 1965. ———. Stimmung. For choir, 1967. Stollery, Pete. Myth. For four amplified voices and live electronics, 1986. Straesser, Joep. an die Musik. For mezzo-soprano and string quartet, 1991. ———. From the Chinese Restaurant. For mezzo-soprano and three players, 1989. ———. Musique pour l’Homme. For orchestra and voices, 1968. ———. Ramasasiri. For voices and chamber ensemble, 1968. Stuppner, Hubert. Palinode IV. For mixed choir, 1979. Sublette, Ned. Embarbussaments. For four speaking voices, 1974. Subotnick, Morton. Two Life Histories. For voice with ghost electronics and clarinet, 1982. Swayne, Giles. Cry. For twenty-eight amplified voices, 1980. Takahara, Hirofumi. Night. For singer and three players, 1978. Takemitsu, Toru. Coral Island. For soprano and orchestra, 1962. ———. Grass. For male chorus, 1982. ———. Songs I. For chorus, 1992. ———. Stanza I. For soprano and five players, 1969. Tanaka, Satoshi. Enban no Gogatsu. For soprano and piano, 1989. Tavener, John. Cain and Abel. For solo voices and orchestra, 1966. Tenney, James. Thirteen Ways of Looking at a Blackbird. For bass voice, winds, and strings, 1971. ———. Voices. For female voice and multiple tape-delay system, 1982. Terzakis, Dmitri. Lieder ohne Worte. For solo voice, 1994. Testi, Flavio. New York, oficina y denuncia. For chorus and orchestra, 1964. Themerson, Stefan. St. Francis and the Wolf of Gubbio. An opera, 1972. Tipei, Sever. Happy and, for Sally Because She Asked for It. For performer, tape, and piano, 1974. ———. Portrait of the Artist as a Young Woman Killing Herself with a Coup de Telephone in MI 48105. For four female voices, 1975. Tippett, Michael. Byzantium. For soprano and orchestra, 1990. ———. King Priam. An opera, 1962. ———. New Year. An opera, 1989. ———. The Vision of Saint Augustine. For baritone, chorus, and orchestra, 1966. Ton-that, Tiet. Images lointaines II. For soprano and orchestra, 1980. Torikai, Ushio. Aun No Koe. For four male soloists and Buddhist monk’s chorus, 1995. ———. SEI. For women’s voices, 1984. Tredici, David del. The Last Gospel. For solo female voice, choir, rock group, and orchestra, 1984. Trojahn, Manfred. Aubade. For two soprano solo voices, 1987. Tsubonoh, Katsuhiro. Conjunction for One Performer with San-gen. For san-gen, 1987. Turnage, Mark-Anthony. Lament for a Hanging Man. For soprano and five players, 1983. ———. Twice through the Heart. For mezzo-soprano and sixteen players, 1996.

190

Appendix C

Ung, Chinary. Spiral II. For mezzo-soprano, tuba, and piano, 1989. ———. Tall Wind. For soprano and four players, 1970. Van Brink, Matthew. Forward Thinking Singing Backwards. For choir, 1998. Varese, Edgard. Nocturnal. For soprano, bass choir, piano, and orchestra, 1961. Vayo, David. Mother Goose Rhymes. For chamber choir, 1991. Vercoe, Barry. Digressions. For chorus, orchestra, and computer-generated sounds, 1969. Vercoe, Elizabeth. Herstory II. For soprano, piano, and percussion, 1979. ———. Nine Epigrams from Poor Richard. For voice and tape, 1986. Vetter, Michael. Overtones: Voice and Tambura. Two-LP set. Mainz: Wergo Spectrum, 1983. Vries, Klaas de. Areas. For choruses and orchestra, 1980. Walker, George. Lilacs. For voice and orchestra, 1995. Ward-Steinman, David. . . . and Waken Green. For medium voice and piano, 1983. Weber, Joseph. Transformation of the Brothers into the Sun and Moon. For computer and voice, 1990. Webern, Anton. Kantate, op. 29. For soprano solo, choir, and orchestra, 1938–1940. ———. Zwei Lieder. For choir and chamber ensemble, 1928. Weir, Judith. The Consolations of Scholarship. For mezzo-soprano and chamber ensemble, 1981. Wellesz, Egon. Vision. For soprano and orchestra, 1982. Wernick, Richard. A Prayer for Jerusalem. For mezzo-soprano and percussion, 1975. Westergaard, Peter. Mr. and Mrs. Discobbolos. A chamber opera, 1966. Winsor, Phil. Kyrie. For chamber chorus, 1987. Wishart, Trevor. Red Bird. For six voices and tape, 1979. ———. Vox I. For four voices and tape, 1980–1982. ———. Vox II. For four amplified voices, stereo tape, harmonizer, and delay system, 1984. ———. Vox III. For four voices and electronics, 1986. ———. Vox IV. For four voices and tape, 1987. Wuorinen, Charles. The Celestial Sphere. For chorus and orchestra, 1980. ———. Twang. For mezzo-soprano and piano, 1989. Xenakis, Iannis. Akanthos. For soprano and chamber ensemble, 1977. ———. Chant des Soleils. For choir and chamber ensemble, 1988. ———. Kassandra. For baritone, psalterion, and percussion, 1987. ———. Medea-senecae. For six instruments and male chorus, 1967. ———. N’shima. For two amplified peasant voices, two amplified horns, two trombones, and amplified cello, 1975. ———. Nuits. For twelve voices, 1968. ———. Oresteia. For baritone, adult and children’s choirs, and chamber ensemble, 1992. ———. Pour Maurice. For baritone and piano, 1982. Yannay, Yehuda. Coheleth. Environment with mobile choir, microphones, wireless microphones, and voice-controlled filters, 1970. ———. In Madness There Is Order. For solo voice and synthesizers, 1988. Yat-kha. Tundra’s Ghosts/Wanderer’s Charm. For throat singer, Central Asian folk instruments, keyboards, drums, and percussion, 1993. Yuasa, Joji. Projections on Bashos Haiku. For chorus and vibraphone, 1974. ———. Questions. For chorus, 1978. Yun, Isang. GAGOK. For voice, guitar, and percussion, 1972. ———. Geisterliebe. An opera, 1966. ———. Om Mani Padme Hum. For soli, choir, and orchestra, 1964. ———. vom Tao. For chorus, percussion, and organ, 1983. Zaimont, Judith Lang. In the Theater of Night. For high voice and piano, 1987. Zender, Hans. Denn Wiederkommen. For narrator and string quartet, 1991. ———. Schubert’s Winterreise. For tenor and chamber orchestra, 1993. Zonn, Paul. Shadows of an Orange-Leaf. For soprano and chamber ensemble, 1971.

Index

abuse (vocal), 130–31 acoustic correlates, 156–57, 158–60 air pressure, 103, 121, 135, 138, 149–51; subglottal pressure, 134, 137, 150, 162 air volume, 135, 145, 149–51, 165 airflow, egressive and ingressive, 3–6; lunged and unlunged, 6–8; prominence, 8–10; circular, 119 Anhalt, Istvan, Alternative Voices, xxvii articulation and resonance, 157–60 arytenoids, 86, 97, 128, 151, 153 asymmetry of vocal fold vibration, 22, 25–27, 96, 124, 137, 145 Baldwin, Michael, Various Terrains, 142–43 Barnett, Bonnie, Aspects of Vocal Multiphonics, xxviii Bijme, Greetje, Why? Bye!, 27, 102 biphonation, 25–27, 101–3 Bless, Diane, xxviii Blonk, Jaap, xxviii, 25; damped asymmetries, 41; Facial: Flab, 111; Facial: Sabb, 102; Geen Krimp I, 124; Geen Krimp IV, 128; Kolokol Uma, 31; Labior 111, 120, 124; Lautgedicht, 104; Rhotic, 143–44 boy soprano, 40 breathiness, 21–22 bronchi, 150 Brooks, William, xxviii; Madrigals, 3, 50–51, 69, 130; Tracce, 19, 53, 67 Cassidy, Aaron, A painter of figures in rooms, 135 castrato, 41 chant (imitated-Tibetan), 96–101 Chase, A., Aspects Involving the Performance of Contemporary Vocal Music, xxviii Childs, Barney, xxviii; Music for Singer, 60 Christi, Ellen, Passage to Womanhood, 23 Clark, Elizabeth, Emphasizing the Articulatory and Timbral Aspects of Vocal Production in Vocal Composition, xxviii communication, underlying bases, 164–65 complex and unstable oscillations, 127–28 consciousness, 149, 161, 164, 166 countertenor voice, 40

damped phonation, 41 DeBoer, Amanda, Ingressive Phonation in Contemporary Vocal Music, 4–5 Dehaan, Daniel, R., Three Études for Solo Voice, 7, 53, 57, 69, 73, 81, 108, 111–12, Dharmoo, Gabriel, Vaai Irandu, 8, 40, 48, 139 diaphragm, 149–51 disorder (voice), causes and treatments, 130–32 Dubreuil, Bernard, xxiv, 62 Dutton, Paul, ummm, 26–27 Edgerton, Michael Edward, Anaphora, 21, 33, 37, 114, 116–17, 125, 129, 139; Cataphora, 27, 32, 42, 105; Friedrich’s Comma, 74, 80, 140; The Hidden Thunder of Screaming Souls, 4, 128–29; Keltainen huone, 9, 57; Kut, 141; A Marriage of Shadows, 20, 27, 29, 38, 106, 137; Mountain Songs, 88; The Old Folks at Home, 144–45; prå a, 29; Taffy Twisters, 55, 133 Edgerton model of articulation-filter, 52–59; map, 52; nasal modification, 57–59; pharyngeal modification, 59; placement variation, 57; three-stage principle, 56–57; twostage principle, 53–56 Edgerton model of articulation-turbulent, 70–92; body oscillation, 89; cheeks, 85–86; dental, 74–79; epiglottis, 85–88; external drumming, 90–92; head oscillation, 89; labial, 70–74; pharynx, 88; saliva, 88; soft palate, 86; tongue, 80–84; uvula, 86 egressive versus ingressive airflow, 5 Einbond, Aaron, Without Words, 6 end of breath (going into the reserve capacity), 11 esophageal speech, 33–34, 104 exercises, breathing, 12–14 expiration, airflow, 150 external filters, 64–65 extra complex, xxvii, 26 extra-normal voice, function, 161 falsetto, xxxii, 27, 35, 40, 60; falsetto chant, 96–97 filter, 47–66; IPA, 47–51; Edgerton model, 52–66 forced blown, 109, 127–29 frication, 8 191

192

Index

Geyer, Leo, Sedna, 5 glissandi, xxxii, 36, 42–43 Globokar, Vinko, Airs de voyage vers l’interieur, 111 glottal cycle, xxxii, 5, 17, 23, 90, 129, 155, 157 glottal stops, 19 glottal whistle (M4), 28 Green, Anthony, B A, 10, 59, 64, 76, 82, 89–90, 141 growths (benign and malignant) 130–31 Hadzajlic, Hanan, Freezing Moon, 18–19, 104, 128 Halvorsen, Arne, 120 Harizanos, Nickos, The Bells, 47 Heinke, Jan, 41–42 Hinds, Stuart, 62 Holmqvist, Kay, Liquid Structures, 5, 7, 11, 20, 25, 48, 54, 59, 76, 81, 88, 108, 111, 112, 121, 125 Homler, Anne, Signals, 27, 102, 124 Hopson, Holland, Nine Tas, 20 Hykes, David, 64 hyoid bone, 151 infection and inflammation, 130 ingressive versus egressive airflow 5; ingressive chant, 101 inspiration, 150 international phonetic alphabet, 48–50, 68–70 Johnson, Evan, A general interrupter to ongoing activity, 136 Kallman Syndrome, 40–41 Kavasch, Deborah, Introduction to Extended Vocal Techniques: Some Compositional Aspects and Performance Problems, xxviii Kuehne, Almut, xxiv, xxix Khubeev, Alexander, Noir, 47 Kim, So-Hee, 42–43 Kokoras, Panayiotis, Hiss and Whistle, 73 Korea, 42–43 Kourliandski, Dmitri, Voice-Off, xxix, 18, 24, 67, 85, 134 larynx, 151–56 London, Edwin, Psalm of These Days II, xxviii, 38, 106, 109 lungs, 149–51 M4 (glottal whistle), 28 Mabry, Sharon, Exploring Twentieth-Century Vocal Music: A Practical Guide to Innovations in Performance and Repertoire, xxviii mechanics and register shift emphasized, 36, 41–42 Minton, Phil, xxviii, xxxiii, 25–27, 102, 140; Moss + Minton: Helden Tenors, 102 Miranda, Fatima, in Principio, 28, 41; la Voz Cantante, 41, 102 modes of vocal fold vibration, 36, 111, 120–21, 137–38, 155, 161–62 Moss, David, Minton + Moss, Helden Tenors, 102

mucosal wave, 154 multidimensional, 133–36, 140–45 multiphonics, xxvii, 5, 17, 25, 27, 32, 58, 95–126, 138–40; three or more, 120–25; unvoiced/unvoiced, 112–20; voiced/ unvoiced, 104–11; voiced/voiced, 96–104 muscles of the larynx, 153 Namtchylak, Sainkho, Lost Rivers, 128; Night Birds, 37; White Food, 102 nasal, 38–39 Neubauer, Juergen, untitled, 29, 102 neuromuscular disease, 130–31 Newell, Robert, Writing for Singers in the Sixties, xxviii nonlinear dynamics, 136–38, 161–64 Olson, Tawnie, Le Revenant, 22 onset/offset, 19 open/close ratio, xxxii, 17, 23–24, 156–57 oral modification, 47–57, 60–64 oscillation, 36, 42 Ovcharenko, Halyna, Invocation of Rain, 23 P’ansori (Korea), 42–43 perturbation analysis, 160 pharynx, frication, 106 Prevention, against vocal injury during extreme vocal use, 130–32 Price, William, A Play on Words, 56, 90 psychogenic conditions, 131 Rademacher-Wingerath, Angela, xxiv, xxix rasp, 129–30 register, 35–36; color, 39–40; glissandi, 42–43; mechanics of shifting emphasized, 41–42; operatic Fach classification, 36; oscillation, 36–39, 42; rasp, 127, 129–30; scientific information, 154–57; unusual tessitura, 40–41 Rehfeldt, Phillip, xxviii reinforced harmonics, 60–64 respiration, 149–51 Rodriguez, Mauricio,Voix, 40, 65, 135 scaling, 140–45 Schipper, Elke, Frequenzgang III, 111 Schnebel, Dieter, xxvii–xviii; madrasha II, 111 Scott, “Little” Jimmy, 41 Source, 151–57 source-filter theory, 158 spectral analysis, 156, 159, 162 Stäbler, Gerhard, Drüber, 129 Strohbass, 40 subglottal vibration, xxxii, 31, 32, 104 subharmonics, 97, 133, 137–38, 145 Sultana, Parween, 19 Sundberg, Johann, xxviii, xxxiv, 14, 43–44, 65, 92, 126, 147, 167–68

Index

supraglottal oscillation, 31–33, 97–98, 103–4, 128, 162 Švec, Jan, 26, 98–99 Tenney, James, 134 Tibetan chant, 32, 40, 63 timbre, color, xxix, xxxii, 5, 8, 17, 36, 39–40, 57–58 tissue composition and viscosity, 152–53 Titze, Ingo, xxviii trachea, 150–51, 155–57 Tsuruta, Kinshi, 39 Tuvan throat singing, 60–64; Kargyraa, 31 Uhlig, Rebekka, xxiv, xxviii, xxix, 32, 129 Unamunos Quorum, 100

vocal folds: asymmetry, 25–28; breathiness, 21–22; damped phonation, 23; glottal whistle (M4), 28–29; laryngeal manipulation, xxxii, 17; modes, 26; mucosal wave, 152, 154; muscle composition, 98, 151, 153; onset/offset, 19–21; open-close ratio (pressed to loose), 23–24; ratios of length and thickness relative to register, 36; source characteristics, 154–57; unvoiced, 18–19, 69, 95, 104–20; vocal fry, 22–23; voiced, 19, 95–111; vibrato/tremolo, 24–25 vocal violence, 131–32 Ward, Paul, 101–3 whistle register, 29, 40–41 Wishart, Trevor, On Sonic Art, xxvii–xxviii, 6, 53; Vocalize, 10; Vox 3, 111 Xhosa, 32, 40, 63, 97, 138

vibrato: frequency, 24; intensity 24 viscosity, 152–53

193

Zender, Hans, Fragmente (Canto V), 111

About the Author

Michael Edward Edgerton is a composer whose work elides the boundaries of complexity with practical applications of physical and perceptual models. Since the mid-1990s, he has been pioneering work with multidimensionality and nonlinear phenomena applied to sound production and composition. Michael’s compositions have received prizes and recognition from Kompositionspreis der Landeshauptstadt Stuttgart, 2007 (first prize, Tempo Mental Rap, #72, 2005); Composition Contest of the Netherlands Radio Choir, 2007 (semifinalist, Kalevi Matus, #58, 2000); 5th Dutilleux International Composition Compétition, 2003 (sélection, 1 sonata, #70, 2004); 31st Festival Synthese Bourges, 2001 (sélection, The Elements of Risk in Creation, #59, 2001); MacDowell Club, 1996 (first prize, Unspoken Crime, #09, 1988); Friends and Enemies of New Music, 1993 (selection, Net/Byrinth: Rec. Study 1, #15, 1991); Midwest Composers Symposium, 1989 (selection, A Penny for the Young Guy, #3, 1986); National Federation of Music Clubs, 1987 (third prize, Ai, #5, 1987; honorable mention, Dwellers of the Southwest, #2, 1986); and Michigan State University Orchestral Composition Contest, 1986 (first prize, The Final Diary of a Branch, #1, 1985). His music has been performed by AuditivVokal Dresden, Ekmeles Ensemble, Ensemble Ars Nova, Kairos String Quartet, Stockholm Saxophone Quartet, Quartet New Generation, and Works-in-Progress Ensemble and soloists Almut Kühne, Andreas Fröhling, Angela Rademacher-Wingerath, Chatschatur Kanajan, Gary Verkade, Jan Heinke, Jeffrey Burns, Mats Möller, Matthias Bauer, Philippe Arnaudet, Rebekka Uhlig, Stefan Östersjö, and Timo Kinnunen, among others. Michael is engaged with research of voice, acoustics, and perception. His work with the extra-normal voice is internationally known through compositions, performances, journal publications, and this book.

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