Textbook of Wildlife Management [Third Edition] 9789354663307

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Textbook of

Wildlife Management for Students of Undergraduate and Postgraduate Courses in •Wildlife •Forestry •Veterinary Sciences and

Candidates Preparing for Various Competitive Examinations Third Edition

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Textbook of Wildlife Management

Importance of Wildlife and Forest

Textbook of

Wildlife Management for Students of Undergraduate and Postgraduate Courses in •Wildlife •Forestry •Veterinary Sciences and

Candidates Preparing for Various Competitive Examinations Third Edition

SK Singh PhD Ex-Professor and Head Department of Wildlife Management Faculty of Forestry Birsa Agricultural University Kanke, Ranchi, Jharkhand

CBS Publishers & Distributors Pvt Ltd New Delhi • Bengaluru • Chennai • Kochi • Kolkata • Mumbai Bhopal • Bhubaneswar • Hyderabad • Jharkhand • Nagpur • Patna • Pune • Uttarakhand • Dhaka (Bangladesh)

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Disclaimer Science and technology are constantly changing fields. New research and experience broaden the scope of information and knowledge. The authors have tried their best in giving information available to them while preparing the material for this book. Although, all efforts have been made to ensure optimum accuracy of the material, yet it is quite possible some errors might have been left uncorrected. The publisher, the printer and the authors will not be held responsible for any inadvertent errors, omissions or inaccuracies. eISBN: xxxx Copyright © Authors and Publisher Third eBook Edition: 2020 All rights reserved. No part of this eBook may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system without permission, in writing, from the authors and the publisher. Published by Satish Kumar Jain and produced by Varun Jain for CBS Publishers & Distributors Pvt. Ltd. Corporate Office: 204 FIE, Industrial Area, Patparganj, New Delhi-110092 Ph: +91-11-49344934; Fax: +91-11-49344935; Website: www.cbspd.com; www.eduport-global.com; E-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] Head Office: CBS PLAZA, 4819/XI Prahlad Street, 24 Ansari Road, Daryaganj, New Delhi-110002, India. Ph: +91-11-23289259, 23266861, 23266867; Fax: 011-23243014; Website: www.cbspd.com; E-mail: [email protected]; [email protected].

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Representatives Hyderabad Pune Nagpur Manipal Vijayawada Patna

Importance of Wildlife and Forest

to my wife, sons and daughters-in-law

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Textbook of Wildlife Management

Importance of Wildlife and Forest

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Preface to the Third Edition

W

ith great pleasure I acknowledge the appreciation shown by the readers for the previous editions of this book. I have been encouraged to bring out this new edition which is revised as well as enlarged to include the fresh information. The comprehensive revision of this book is in the light of the growing sales and encouraging feedback from the readers. Based on all the suggestions and the feedback, I am delighted to place before you the thoroughly revised, enlarged and updated third edition of this book. Covering some important chapters concerned with biology and ecology of wildlife, an effort has been made to elucidate principles, concepts and terms associated with each topic with its role being played in the ecosystem as well. As such, the book discusses the developments in science and techniques in the field of wildlife management. Apart from these, the effort has also been focused on the appendices serving updated information in the various sectors of wildlife, and thus the readers will find the book more informative as well as fruitful in gathering advanced awareness in such scientific field. I am glad to mention that in this edition I have included two new chapters, namely, “Phytogeographical Regions (Plant Distribution/ Botanical Provinces)”, and “Biomes”, and added three new appendices to give the readers deeper insight into the issues involved, empowering them to create and enhance their wisdom in this context. Valuable suggestions are always welcome for further improvement of the book. SK Singh

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Textbook of Wildlife Management

Importance of Wildlife and Forest

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Preface

T

eaching in the field of wildlife management is not very old and can be said a new branch in the Indian Universities. For perfect and progressive studies of any field, teaching and research should run side by side. But before going towards the research wing, the basic and fundamental knowledge of the subject concerned is a must. For this purpose, it is a very progressive approach of the Government of India as well as the State Governments of our country laying emphasis on opening branches of Wildlife Management. Taking into consideration its importance, the Government of India has set-up Wildlife Institute of India at Dehradun, which is a pioneer in the field of its own kind. Presently, the subject is being taught in various technical universities including it as a core subject of forestry science and even independently. It is in progress day-by-day. It is very essential nowadays to understand the important roles played by the wild animals. They are the integral part of the ecosystem as a renewable natural resource involved in the maintenance of food chains and food webs, keeping ecological-balance in nature and providing hygienic conditions for the existence of all organisms including human beings. It is a challenging task for us to cause awareness among the majority of the public, nay in each and every citizen of the country in this respect so that wild animal species may be preserved, conserved and propagated scientifically and judiciously throughout the country. They should be managed not only up to optimum-density but also the desired level beyond the carrying-capacity for getting revenue by harvesting them. To achieve these objectives, teaching and research into the subject should be given top-priority and, hence, its inclusion in the syllabuses at various levels from school to the university will be very helpful in attaining the goal. Since, this is the new approach to this field particularly in teaching, there is an acute shortage of teaching materials and books that can serve the students’ purposes as per their course curricula. It is my feeling that students and teachers are facing difficulties as the materials are found hither and thither in a zigzag way. Such a thought actually inspired me to write this book so that the students may get rid of such problems. I have tried my best, perhaps, and laboured a lot in covering almost all parts of the course curricula for both the undergraduate and postgraduate students of the Indian Universities in the field of Wildlife Management. Not only this, but also to the best of my effort, they have also been arranged chapterwise systematically in such a way that they are linked together so that the readers may grasp the subject matters in a lucid and smooth manner as I believe in the thought that “some books are to be tasted, others to be swallowed, and some few to be chewed and digested”. It has been written in simple language, as far as possible, for the purpose of easy apprehension and understanding for each and every type of students. It will be a matter of great pleasure, if the book becomes helpful in benefiting the students to enhance their knowledge, depth of the subject and career-building.

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Textbook of Wildlife Management

I am extremely grateful to my wife and sons who always inspired me for such a great, hard and difficult effort and provided enough patience throughout the long, writing period. It is their encouragement that enabled me to complete such a holy work. I am also indebted to my relatives, friends and all well-wishers whose good wishes helped me in fulfilling the mission. My faculty students’ request for writing a book for the benefit and proper guidance of all the students cannot be forgotten as it made me enthusiastic, giving bright rays of inspiration to move ahead on the path. Sincere thanks are also due to Professors SC Prasad, K Sinha, KK Thakur and RP Sinha for their assistance. Lastly, I do believe there may be some shortcomings/drawbacks, for “to err is human” as Alexander Pope says in his Essay on Criticism. I will, therefore, be genuinely happy if those shortcomings/drawbacks are brought to my notice by my esteemed readers so that by getting touches of improvement the book may turn classic one day. SK Singh

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Introduction

To her fair works did Nature link The human soul that through me ran; And much it grieved my heart to think What Man has made of Man.

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— William Wordsworth

ature is very clever and full of miracles. It maintains and manages each and everything (living and non-living) on this planet earth very wisely, nicely, smoothly and systematically. In course of time, many plants and animals originated and many others vanished as a natural phenomenon. Existence of such creatures depends mainly upon two factors, viz. nature (force of natural selection) and use/ disuse of natural resources by man, presently the supreme creature ruling the planet and manipulating the ecosystem deliberately or ignorantly as per his own will to fulfil his selfish and short-sighted desires. For long, man has been pursuing such activities to obtain his comforts but mostly to achieve his greedy desires on unscientific pattern without thinking of the consequences. Wildlife is one such victim suffering a lot. Nature has gifted a rich heritage of wildlife to our country. We are very fortunate in this field, but due to the unscientific management in the past, deforestation, merciless and reckless huntings, smugglings, greed for making easy money, illiteracy, poverty, the tremendous growth in the human population and simultaneously the unawareness among the masses about the benefits of wild animals have depleted the wildlife population, bringing them to an alarming stage. Today, several species of our wildlife are facing the threat of extinction. In such a state of affairs, the country must earnestly take appropriate steps to increase them at least up to optimum-level. For this, protection, preservation and propagation are indispensable. Though national and international rules and regulations in this field are operative, no doubt, more strictness is required in this regard, especially from the functional point of view. “To save our wildlife is to save our country”, as it is a renewable natural heritage in bountiful, beautiful and glorious forms. It is the need of the hour and we must realize it before it becomes too late and the wildlife reaches the stage of annihilation, at which neither nature nor coming generations will forgive us. Particularly educationists, intellectuals and governing bodies have to come very forward to bring about a revolution of awareness among the masses to conserve the wildlife so that the human race may live in a healthier environment leading to eco-balance. Love and care of wildlife should be a part and parcel of our life and a sense of these things has to be instilled in every person’s mind; otherwise, the day is not far when the whole system will be ruined, and all our efforts will go in vain. The necessity of such an interest is all the more important to avoid disastrous effects on the wildlife of the country and ultimately world over.

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I should like to conclude this brief introduction with some inspiring lines from ST Coleridge’s ‘The Rime of the Ancient Mariner’: He prayeth best, who loveth best All things both great and small; For the dear God who loveth us, He made and loveth all.

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Contents

Preface to the Third Edition

vii

Preface

ix

Introduction

xi

1.

Importance of Wildlife and Forest

1

2.

Natural Resources and their Conservation

9

3.

Wildlife Values

19

4.

Wildlife and its Management

26

5.

Population Management/lmprovement/Manipulation

41

6.

Habitat Management/Improvement/Manipulation

77

7.

People’s Management

89

8.

Wildlife Ecology

92

9.

Census

126

Conservation, Preservation, Protection and Categories of Wild Animals

152

10.

11. Sanctuary and National Park

170

12. Projects

191

13. Classification

200

14. Zoo-geographical Regions (Animal Distribution)

214

15

Phytogeographical Regions (Plant Distributional/ Botanical Provinces)

234

16. Biomes

243

17

Distinguishing Characters of Certain Wild Mammals

251

18. Ideal Habitat and Management of Certain Wild Animals

262

19. International and National Organizations Concerning Wildlife Conservation

267

20.

Wildlife Plans

282

21.

Wildlife Act

289

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Appendices Appendix I

Some important Facts, Events, etc

357

Appendix II

Full Form of Some Abbreviations

362

Appendix III

Zoological Names of some Wild Mammals

365

Appendix IV

Some Important Endangered and Extinct Wild Animals of India

369

Appendix V

National Parks of India

373

Appendix VI

Wildlife Sanctuaries of India

377

Appendix VII

Biosphere Reserves of India

394

Appendix VIII

Community Reserves in India

396

Appendix IX

Tiger Reserves of India

399

Appendix X

Elephant Reserves in India

401

Appendix XI

Protected Areas of India

404

Appendix XII Appendix XIII

Animal, Bird, Tree and Flower of Indian States Crocodile Breeding Centres of India

406 408

References

411

Index

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1 Importance of Wildlife and Forest

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ildlife comprises all living organisms (plants, animals, micro-organisms) in their natural habitats which are neither cultivated/domesticated nor tamed. But in its strictest sense, it includes uncultivated mammals, reptiles, birds and fishes, etc. which are generally hunted.

A. IMPORTANCE OF WILDLIFE

If we view wildlife from close quarters and juxtapose our observations and all the major disciplines, we simply cannot believe how important wildlife is. We may nail down the following cardinal points: 1. Ecological Balance: Wildlife maintains nonetheless balance of nature through: a. Regulation of population of different species by self-regulation and feedback, b. Food chains or passage of food and energy through series of populations comprising producers, consumers and micro-organisms, and c. Natural cycles or circulation of inorganic nutrients between biotic and abiotic environments, prevention of leaching and run-off. Thus it preserves the environment as a self-sustaining system. It balances population and maintains food chains and natural cycles. 2. Gene Bank: The most direct relationship of preservation of wildlife to human progress is its significance as gene banks for breeding programmes in agricultural, animal husbandry and fishery. Wildlife serves as a gene banks for breeding improved varieties in agriculture, animal husbandry and fishery. Plant and animal breeders have been able to produce high-yielding and disease-and-stress resistant varieties which form the backbone of modern agriculture. Average life of a crop variety is 5–15 years. More application of fertilizers, irrigation and pesticides cannot raise production unless a variety of a crop or of an animal has the genetic potentiality to respond to improved inputs. To develop such varieties, a very wide range of plants or animals has to be screened and selected. Scientists have been constantly examining the wild relatives of crop plants for the presence of useful genes that can be introduced to breeding programmes. Hence, gene bank maintenance is essential. Let us see how this point has held well in practice. i. Some old rice varieties from Kerala saved rice cultivation when Nilaparvata lugens (brown planthopper) attacked all modern rice varieties. 1

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3. 4.

5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11.

Textbook of Wildlife Management

ii. Wild rice (Oryza nivara) provided the resistance to the grassy stunt virus which has threatened rice cultivation in 1970s. It was incorporated in IR-36 by Dr Khush and others. iii. In potatoes, resistance to late blight has been incorporated from Solanum demissum, mosaic virus and leaf roll virus from Solanum acaule, mosaic virus Y from Solanum stoloniferum damping-off and nematodes from Solanum spegazzini. The production of high-yielding, disease-resistant crops, livestock and fish cannot continue without the wild relatives of the cultivated varieties. This is because of pests and pathogens evolve new strains; climates change; soils vary; and consumers’ demand change with time. Since the average life of a crop variety is only 5–15 years, new varieties are constantly being produced to meet the changing demands. We cannot predict which species become useful to us in the future. With increasing knowledge and skills, man is busy finding new uses for the traditionally used species. If penicillium had been eliminated from the earth before man could discover its antibiotic properties or Cinchona had become extinct from Peru before quinine was discovered, some of the severest infectious diseases would have continued to savage the world. Man is the only species who has widely used the hidden values of a wide range of species around him. He is aware that the rich diversity of organisms today is the product of natural evolution stretching unbroken through 3.5 billion years. A species once lost cannot be retrieved. Therefore, it would be unethical to be responsible for the destruction of a species. We have an evolutionary responsibility to conserve biological diversity for our descendants. Plant Propagation: Pollination in certain plants is performed by wild animals like birds; insects, etc. and thus helps in plants propagation, which is very essential. Cleaning of Environment: Scavengers and decomposers wild animals (like vultures, eagles, jackals, hyaenas, etc.) as well as micro-organisms, which feed upon dead animals, convert them into different nutrients and release energy back to the nature increasing fertility of the soil. They do very important work of cleaning the environment; otherwise what the fate of this planet will be, can be assumed. Scientific Importance: For research purposes and studies of anatomy, physiology, ecology, evolutionary aspects; wild animals are used, which help in saving human life. Soil Erosion: It is prevented by plant cover, litter, mixing of litter by movement of wild animals and conversion to spongy humus by micro-organisms. Control of Pollution: Plants absorb pollutants minimising the pollution of the environment, while wild animals specially scavengers and decomposers clean the environment. Perennial Fresh Water: By maintaining climate and removing pollution, wildlife protects and conserves perennial fresh water resources as well as other water bodies. Maintenance of Climate: Wildlife helps too much in maintaining temperature, etc. of the climate. Recreation: Wildlife (plants and animals both) has recreational values. Experimental Animals: Monkeys, rabbits, guinea-pigs, rats, etc. are used as experimental animals for research and teaching purposes.

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12. Economic Importance: Timber, firewood, paper, gum, resins, tannins, several drugs, essential oils, spices, lac, silk, honey, hair, feathers, guano (the dung of seafishes used as manure or the manure made from fish), leather, musk, ivory, etc. are obtained from wildlife. Besides these, benefits are also obtained from: i. Tourists ii. Exports iii. Hunting of surplus stock iv. Procurement of food materials v. Hide, ivory, etc. after death of wild animals; though nowadays it is legally banned and not in practices. 13. Potential Uses: Just as all present day cultivated/domesticated plants and animals are derived from wildlife; new foods, beverages (A beverage is a type of plant product used by everyone daily which contains an alkaloid called caffeine having the stimulative action in the human body, e.g. tea, coffee, cocoa, etc. It is also fragmented product of the plant), drugs and other useful products may be obtained in future from wildlife. B. IMPORTANCE OF FORESTS

Forests are extensive self-sustained wooded tracts of land with a biotic community predominated by woody vegetation consisting of trees and shrubs with a close canopy. A forest is a biotic community, predominantly of trees, shrubs or any other woody vegetation usually with a closed canopy. Forests vary a great deal in compositions and densities and are distinct from meadows and pastures. Woodland is closer to human habitations possesses an open canopy and is managed and maintained by human beings. Forestry is the branch of science which is connected with establishment, protection, management and exploitation of forests. Forests are of immense importance to the life and prosperity of human beings and of nations. Forests and woodland provide a rich variety of goods useful to both affluent industrial societies and the rural poor. They give the following benefits: i. Timber: Wood is the major forest produce. The timber and sawn-up wood (saw dust) obtained from forests are used as basic material for building houses particularly in rural areas. Wood, on the other hand, is used as a temporary structural support for the construction of buildings and bridges. It is a raw material for making doors, windows, furniture, poles, posts, mine props, railway sleepers, carts, ploughs, tool handles, matches, sports goods, etc. It is also a raw material for the manufacture of paper, rayon and film. ii. Fuel Wood/Fire Wood: In developing countries, heaviest demand on forests is for fuelwood. More than 1500 million people depend on wood to cook and keep warm. The world consumption of wood for fuel is estimated to be more than 1000 million m3. This is well over 80% of the total use. About 58% of the total energy used in Africa and 42% in South-East Asia comes from fuelwood. In Gambia, a family spends 360 women days/year to gather fuel wood; while in Sahel 25% of the household budget is spent on fuel. iii. Economical Uses: a. Minor/Major Forest Produce (MFP): It includes all forest products other than wood. Its contribution to the economy is not negligible. Bamboo, paper, rayon,

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Textbook of Wildlife Management

food, essential oil and perfumes, tannins, gums, resin, dyes, camphor, spices, ritha and shikakai, drugs, tendu leaf, cork, rudraksha, animal products (lac, honey, wax, tassar and muga silk), horns, hides, antlers, ivory are the items of economic value. b. Support in Economy: Forests play a vital role in the life and economy of all the tribes living in their laps. They provide food (tubers, roots, leaves and fruits of plants and meat from animals), medicines and other products of commercial use, which forms a viable forest based subsistence pattern. iv. Ecological Uses: a. Protection of Biodiversity, Land and Environment: i. Forests are large biotic communities. They provide shelter and sustenance for a large number of diverse species of plants, animals and micro-organisms. ii. They protect the environment. They prevent erosion of the soil by wind and water. Trees provide shade which prevents the soil from becoming too dry and friable during summer. b. Moderating and Moistening Effects on Climate: They also check the velocity of rain drops or wind striking the ground and reduce dislodging of soil particles. The root system of plants firmly binds the soil. c. Retention of Subsoil Water and Increase in Rainfall Frequency: They improve the quality of the soil by increasing its porosity and fertility by contributing humus to it. The forest soil absorbs water during rains like a giant sponge and does not allow it to evaporate or run-off quickly. This ensures a perennial supply of sub-soil water in springs and wells. Thus, the hill slopes with forests cover in the catchment areas conserve water and gradually release it into streams, rivers and subsoil springs. Forests increase atmospheric humidity by drawing sub-soil water and sending it out in the air during transpiration. The increased humidity helps plants and animals to survive in a warm season by making it cool and pleasant. d. Pollution Control: They play an important role in reducing atmospheric pollution by collecting the suspended particulate matter and by absorbing carbon dioxide, etc. e. Aesthetic Value: They have great aesthetic value. There is hardly any part of the earth where people do not appreciate the beauty and tranquillity of forests. Having been forest-dwellers in their remote past, people have a deep evolutionary attachment to their abode. This fond has passed into gratitude and worship, which is reflected not only in social customs and rituals but also in art, literature and music. f. Laboratory for Education and Research: They are also of great educative value. They are nature’s laboratories which have immensely contributed to the study of and research in various branches of fundamental and applied sciences. g. Shelter of Wildlife: People have realised their past follies of hunting wild animals for sport. There is a global effort to abstain from indiscriminate killing and preserve wildlife. Reserve forests are now centres of enlightenment and recreation. C. DEFORESTATION

It is removal, decrease or deterioration of forest cover of an area. To deprive the environment of forests is deforestation and, hence, causing shrinkage of forest area.

Importance of Wildlife and Forest

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Deforestation is a formidable threat to the economy, quality of life and future of the environment. According to an estimate, forests in India have dwindled from about 7,000 million ha in 1900 to 2890 million ha in 1975 and likely 2370 million ha in 2000. Tropical rain forests, which form the most important and productive forest types in the world, have been reduced from 1600 million ha to 938 million ha. One of the dangerous consequences of the deforestation might be an extinction of 10% of the estimated 10 million species of plants and animals by the year 2020. As a result, we will be deprived of important seeds, specimens of drugs derived from plants and animals. a. Causes of Deforestation: The main causes of deforestation in India are: i. Explosion of human and livestock population causing cultivation, settlement and encroachment in forest area by the rapidly growing human population. ii. Increased requirement of timber and fuel wood. iii. Expansion of crop land (conversion of forest into agricultural field). iv. Enhanced grazing (over-grazing). v. Construction of roads along the mountains which cover nearly 30,000 km in ecologically fragile areas. vi. Industries, mining, quarrying, irrigation and agriculture. vii. Jhuming (shifting cultivation) prevalent in early stages, even now in some 30 million ha. viii. Increased demand for fuel, wood, wooden crates, paper, board and newsprint have led to large scale tree felling. In India, availability of fuel wood is 58 million tonnes/year against requirement of 157 million tonnes. ix. Forest fires. x. Human establishment. b. Consequences of Deforestation i. Change in Climate: Deforestation results in reduced rainfall, increased drought, hotter summer and colder winter. The air quality too has been adversely affected arising pollution by deforestation. Hence, the consequences of deforestation are scantly rainfall, erratic rainfall and draught. All these have serious consequences on agricultural output. This may lead to malnutrition, starvation, diseases and death. An example of the undesirable effects caused due to deforestation, we can take the area of Cherrapunji in Meghalaya. This area used to have a large and dense forest cover and used to record the highest rainfall in the country. But in recent years, there has been such a relentless deforestation of this area that only a few trees have been left standing. This has resulted in the adverse changes in the climate. The rainfall in this area has become erratic. ii. Soil Erosion: Soil is exposed to insolation, dries up and gets eroded by wind and water. Due to deforestation, water-holding capacity of the soil is decreased. Ground water level has gone down. iii. Flash Flood: They occur during rainy season due to accumulation of eroded soil in river, etc. iv. Siltation: Rainy season rivulets bring eroded soil and deposit the same on beds of reservoirs (reduces storage of water and power generation) and rivers. v. Drought: There is very little water in rivers during dry season causing drought. Deforestation has caused intensified soil erosion, accentuated floods and drought and loss of precious wildlife and has led to deterioration of economy and quality of life of the weaker sections of the society. For example, shrinkage

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Textbook of Wildlife Management

of forests has resulted in such acute scarcity of fuel wood that gathering it takes 360 women days a year per family in Gambia. In the Sahel, fuel budget constitutes 25% of the household budget. In India, particularly in the Himalayan region, shortage of firewood and water has been causing serious misery among the womenfolk. There is a serious apprehension that time is not far when the cost of food would be far less than the fuel needed to cook it. vi. Danger to Wildlife: Due to deforestation, many species of wildlife have become exposed to dangers of extinction.

Fig. 1.1: Consequences of deforestation

D. CONSERVATION OF FORESTS

The maintenance and upkeep of forests is called forest conservation. Conservation of forests aims at management of forest in such a way as to maintain them at the optimum level and derive optimum sustainable benefit for the present as well as future generation. The Indian Forest Policy aims at 60% forest covers in hills and 20% in the plains. For this, sustained efforts are made for afforestation and reforestation. The plantation movement or Van Mahotsava has been carried out in India since 1950 whereby both the government and private agencies perform tree plantation during July and February every year. Other measures for the preservation of forests are as follows: i. Weeds, damaged tree, crowded trees, diseased trees, etc. should be removed. ii. Extraction of timber should not interfere with watershed protection. Tree-felling should be matched by tree-planting programmes. Sustained Yield Block Cutting should be followed. Cutting is allowed only in invulnerable forests at a rate which is equal to their regeneration capacity. iii. Forest fire must be prevented.

Importance of Wildlife and Forest

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iv. The use of firewood should be discouraged to reduce pressure on more valuable natural forests. Other sources of energy, such as bio-gas, should supplement firewood. v. Modern and scientific management practices, such as optimization of silvicultural and nutritional requirements, including use of irrigation, fertilizers, bacterial and micorrhizal inoculations, disease and pest management, control of weeds, breeding of elite trees and use of tissue culture techniques should be adopted. vi. Massive afforestation should be undertaken to cover large areas of land with appropriate types of trees. vii. Prevention of scraping and litter removal. viii. Control of weeds. ix. Pesticides. x. Fire fighting equipment. xi. Census. xii. Supervision and surveying. xiii. Economy in extraction and use of timber. xiv. Watershed protection. xv. Alternate source of fuel for villagers. xvi. Every piece of barren land should be planted with trees. xvii. Control-grazing. xviii. Other forms of forestry such as: a. Social Forestry: It means raising quick growing multipurpose plants in common village land to meet the requirements of fodder, firewood and small timber. b. Urban Forestry: It is plantation of fruit, flower and shade bearing plants in urban areas to reduce pollution and the ultimate yield of wood. c. Agro-forestry: It aims plantation of multipurpose trees/ shrubs/horticultural plants/grasses along with crops to stabilise the soil and meet the needs of the fodder, fruits and timber of the community. The Union and State Governments have launched several afforestation programmes as part of the forest conservation action. The Social Forestry Programme was started in 1976. It seeks the use of public and common land to produce firewood, fodder and small timber for the use of the rural community to relieve pressure on existing forests needed for soil and water conservation. The programme includes raising, planting and protecting trees with multiple uses (firewood, fodder, agricultural implements, fruits, etc.) for the rural community. The Agro-forestry Programme consists of reviving an ancient land use practice where the same land is used for farming, forestry and animal husbandry. The Urban Forestry Programme aims at planting trees for aesthetic purposes in urban settlements. Flower and fruit trees are planted along the roadside, private compounds and vacant land to add colour and mitigate the harshness of the urban environment. Experts believe that in order to sustain agriculture and maintain the quality of the environment, at least one-third of a country’s land should be under forest.

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Textbook of Wildlife Management

This requires action at all levels—individuals, the community and the government. There has been several people’s movement in recent times in India such as the Chipko Movement (Tehri-Garhwal area, Uttarakhand) and the public agitation to prevent the construction of a hydroelectric project in the Silent Valley region. Protection of precious forests, especially in the ecologically fragile areas, should be supplemented by efforts to plant and regenerate forests. xix. Over-grazing by cattle, horses, sheep, goats, etc. should be prevented. When grazing is a must, it should be moderate. Only those plants should be introduced in grasslands which can regenerate in shorter time. xx. Forests should be protected against insects, pests and diseases. xxi. Cutting and uprooting of forests should be made a punishable crime. xxii. Forest nurseries should be established on large-scale basis. xxiii. People should be made aware of the impact of forests on their life through advertisements, lectures, speeches, radios, televisions, etc. Forest conservation and wildlife conservation are closely interwoven. A forest is a biotic community made up of the total population of its living things, both plant and animal. Any management practice affecting any part of such a community may well affect other elements either for good or for evil. Many of these interrelationships are still not clearly understood; enough is known, though to indicate the close tie-up between forestry and the preservation and management of wildlife. Management plans must take cognizance of both. The two cannot be separated.

2 Natural Resources and their Conservation

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ndia is rich in biodiversity including the wildlife. Its wildlife includes rare animals like the lion in Gir forests of Gujarat, elephants in Kerala and Assam jungles, rhinoceros is found in Assam and northern West Bengal. The Bengal tiger of Sunderbans is really ferocious to look at. Rewa in Madhya Pradesh is known for the White tigers. Gaur or Indian bison is another big animal common in central parts of India. The Rann of Kutch has the wild ass. Rajasthan has cranes and Indian bustard. The country has a large species of deer and antelope. It has crocodiles and gharials in rivers and salt water. There is a large variety of monkeys, snakes and other reptiles. Tortoises are also very common. Besides these animals, it has very large varieties of birds and fishes. Tiger is our National Animal and Peacock is our National Bird. Many of these species have become rare. Some are almost on the way to extinction. With growing population, forests are recklessly cut down. The hunger for cultivated land, for building, big dams and hydel power projects have snatched the homeland of wild animals. Many people kill them for fun of hunting. Indian Cheetah and other so many animals have become extinct (in recent years). It is high time that we give up our arrogance and carelessness towards the wildlife. The Government has set up several sanctuaries, national parks, projects, etc. Hunting of animals is prohibited so that they may thrive in peace. Such sanctuaries and national parks have now become centres of tourists’ interest. They are a source of income and employment to a large number of people, serving domestic and international tourists. 1. NATURAL RESOURCES

Our nature is bountiful. It has variety of plants, animals, minerals, fuels, water, soil, etc. on which man is dependent for his daily needs and luxuries. All such substances used by man for sustenance and welfare are called resources. Man is dependent on plants and animals. Plants and animals in turn are dependent on natural substances like air, water, soil, minerals, etc. All such resources existing in nature are called natural resources. 2. ENERGY FROM SUN

The sun is the main source of energy for the earth. Green plants use this energy to prepare food for all other organisms on this earth by the process of photosynthesis. 9

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Thus, green plants convert solar energy into chemical energy which is stored in plants. Animals also get their energy from plants. Therefore, all living organisms directly or indirectly depend upon the sun as the source of their energy. 3. MAN REQUIRES MORE RESOURCES

The man appeared on this earth only about a million years ago. In the beginning, his needs were few because his culture, knowledge and other faculties were not fully developed. Then, he gradually started gaining superiority over other organisms by virtue of his intelligence. Man has mastered the art of fulfilling some of his basic needs by artificial methods. He soon learnt the art of controlling and modifying the environment for his comforts. With the advancement in science and technology, his standard of living, his needs gradually started increasing. He made tools to fight and hunt wild animals. He learnt techniques of cultivation and started growing food for himself. He also started domesticating useful animals for milk, wool, meat, eggs, etc. He cleared forest to make houses, cities, industries, roads, bridges, dams, agricultural fields, etc. The greatest achievement in the progress of man was the development of languages and the methods of transport and communications. With these developments, which other organisms could not develop, man started utilizing natural resources much more than other animals for his advantages and welfare. 4. TYPES OF NATURAL RESOURCES

Natural resources are of two types: A. Renewable natural resources. B. Non-renewable natural resources. A. Renewable Natural Resources: Renewable resources are those which are regenerated through natural cycles. For example, oxygen in the air is regenerated through photosynthesis by the plants and fresh water is renewed through the water cycle. Therefore, air and water are renewable resources. Sun, plants, animals, wind and soil are other renewable resources. There are chances that these renewable natural resources may exhaust after some time. This is because of the limited availability of substances in nature. B. Non-renewable Natural Resources: Non-renewable resources are those which are not replaced in the environment after their utilization. Metals, coal, natural gas, minerals, etc. are non-renewable resources. Man has to be very careful in using these resources so that he may obtain the maximum benefit from them. This is because these resources are limited in quantity and are not renewable.

Fig. 2.1: Types of natural resources

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i. Water as a Renewable Natural Resource: Water is a renewable natural resource and vital for all life. There is no substitute for water. Man uses water not only for drinking but also for a number of other activities like bathing, cooking, washing, irrigation, power generation and also as a means of transportation. Our water requirement is fulfilled entirely by nature. We get water through rainfall and from oceans, rivers, canals and wells. Whenever the water cycle in nature is disrupted, the ecological balance in nature is disturbed. Water is often wasted during its use. The rivers and canals near the big cities get polluted due to industrial wastes or sewage which is thrown into them. Indiscriminate felling of plants by man to satisfy his greed has also upset the water cycle in nature. This has resulted in water shortage. Water is renewable only if it is protected against wastage, pollution and if a thick cover of forest plants is maintained. ii. Soil as a Renewable Natural Resource: Soil is also a renewable natural resource. Man depends on agriculture for food, clothing, medicine and many other necessities. Land is also being used for industrialization and urbanization. We know that the surface of the earth is limited and so is its soil. Random and excessive cutting down of trees, quarrying for minerals and ores followed by heavy rains leads to washing away of the rich top soil necessary for plants. It may even lead to landslides causing great damage to man. Growing crop after crop of the same type without replenishing the nutrients that are used up results in the land becoming useless for cultivation after a few years. If plants do not grow on the land, soil tends to be washed away by rain or wind causing soil erosion. It is clear that land is good for agricultural purposes when it is fertile and land is fertile when it is covered with or surrounded by trees. For agricultural’ purposes, man has altered the texture and fertility of large tracts of fertile land and made the land unfit for cultivation and finally converted them into desert areas. The Thar Desert, for example, is entirely a man-made desert. At one time it was so thick with forest that Emperor Akbar went hunting there. Soil is a renewable resource only if it is protected from erosion and if suitable amount of organic matter is added to it from time to time. Barren soil cannot renew itself as it remains exposed to natural forces which cause erosion. iii. Forest as a Renewable Natural Resource: Forests are one of the most useful renewable resources. They are our national wealth. They provide the best habitat for various kinds of wild animals. Forests are a must for the survival of animals. They purify air, control pollution to some extent, regulate the climate, control floods, prevent soil erosion and maintain soil fertility. We also get numerous useful products like wood, rubber, gum, resin, honey, bee wax, medicinal plants, bamboo, lac, timber, etc. from plants. One of the most important uses of forest is that it helps in maintaining the ecological-balance of a place. Deforestation, over-grazing, forest fires, and several pests and diseases have destroyed our forests. Forests are renewable resource only if man takes care to replant the trees which he cuts down. iv. Wildlife as a Renewable Natural Resource: Deforestation and indiscriminate hunting has led to a depletion of wildlife. Wildlife includes all plants and animals that are not domesticated, but in strict sense, they are the undomesticated animals specially mammals, birds, reptiles, and fishes which are generally hunted. Wildlife is very important. Killing of one species may cause considerable disturbance in

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the food chain and food web and thus may upset other species. In the long term, these changes may also affect man. Snakes, for example, are feared by most and are therefore killed indiscriminately. All snakes are, however, not poisonous. They play a key role in the balance of nature by acting as predators of rats and mice. Killing a large number of snakes leads to an increase in the population of rats and mice. Rats, in turn, damage crops and eat-up stored grain. Ultimately, this affects man. Due to over-exploitation of forests, many plants and animals have become extinct. The Cheetah, the Sikkim stag, the mountain quail, the pink-headed duck, etc. are examples of wild animals which have become extinct in India in recent times. Some species of cranes, bustards, partridges, pigeons, doves, hornbills, Kashmir stag, swamp-deer, etc. have either become exceedingly scarce or are threatened with extinction. Wildlife is renewable only if indiscriminate hunting and deforestation is prevented. Hence, it is clear from the above that most of the renewable resources are exhaustible and care needs to be taken about their utilization. 5. CAUSES OF DEPLETION OF RESOURCES

The main causes of depletion of resources are as follows: i. Overpopulation: The demand for natural resources is increasing as the human population is increasing at a tremendous rate. ii. Urbanization: More and more cities and towns are coming up for providing shelter and other basic necessities for the ever increasing human population. This has resulted in the depletion of some resources. iii. Industrialization: Several new industries are being established in rural as well as urban areas to generate employment and to produce consumer articles for daily use. This has resulted in over-exploitation of our natural resources. iv. Deforestation: Deforestation means large scale cutting down of forests. The depletion of forests has also reduced the other renewable resources like soil, water and wildlife. v. Mining and Quarrying: Unscientific mining and quarrying for the extraction of minerals and ores have also depleted resources. vi. Over-grazing: Over-grazing by cattle in general and sheep and goat in particular increase soil erosion. vii. Intensive Agriculture: Repeated growing of the same crop year-after-year and excessive use of fertilizers and pesticides reduces soil productivity and makes the soil sick. viii. Insecticides: Pollution of environment, rivers, ponds, dams and oceans by insecticides and waste products of the industries have depleted wildlife. ix. Forest Fires: Forest fires not only destroy vegetation but also wildlife. x. Plant Pests: Some bacteria, fungi, viruses, insects, pests and diseases cause great damage to the forests and other field crops. xi. Hunting: Many species of plants and animals have become extinct due to indiscriminate hunting. xii. Pollution: Pollution of air, water and soil is also depleting natural resources to a great extent.

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xiii. Soil Erosion: Carrying away of top soil, which is rich with nutrients, by water or wind is called soil erosion. This causes damage to soil as well as plants. xiv. Natural Forces: Natural forces such as landslides, earthquakes, floods, ice and snow also cause damage to plants, animals, soil, water, etc. xv. Sewage and Town Refuse: Improper disposal or treatment of sewage and town refuse also disturbs the ecological balance in nature. xvi. Dams and Canals: Construction of dams, canals and other water reservoirs also causes depletion of resources. 6. CONSERVATION OF RENEWABLE NATURAL RESOURCES

Man’s progress in the present days in this world is directly dependent on renewable natural resources. If we wish to make steady progress, we should conserve natural resources so that they last longer for human welfare. It is, therefore, necessary that natural resources are used judiciously. Conservation is defined as the judicious and wise use of natural resources without wasting them and replacing them whenever possible. Thus, these resources can be utilized without causing any ecological imbalance. We should use only what is necessary. A. Conservation of Soil

The conservation of land or soil is known as soil conservation. It is done by: i. Prevention of Soil Erosion: Soil erosion can be prevented by the following methods: a. Trees should not be cut down unless absolutely necessary. Only a few trees should be cut down at one time and whenever possible trees should be planted (afforestation). Plants like bamboos and other suitable species should be planted. These plants help as soil binders by not allowing top soil to run down with the flow of water. The roots of these plants hold the soil firmly together. b. Trees should be planted in rows. Trees planted in rows act as wind-breakers. They break the force and speed of a strong wind and prevent it from carrying away the fertile top soil and help to prevent wind erosion. c. In agricultural fields, there should be proper irrigation and drainage system so that top soil is not washed away with the flow of water. d. On slope of hills, contour-farming or terrace-farming should be practiced to prevent direct loss of top soil, due to water running down the slopes. e. Agricultural land should not be left unused for a long time to prevent wind erosion. Cultivation of crops should be a regular feature. ii. Preservation of Soil Fertility: Soil fertility can be preserved by the following methods: a. The same crop should not be grown year after year. This results in the depletion of essential elements of a particular type in the soil. Different crops should be sown in different seasons. The practice of crop rotation should be followed. It consists of growing a pulse crop or a leguminous crop alternately with any other crop. This is because the root nodules of leguminous plants contain the bacteria rhizobium which has the capacity to fix atmospheric nitrogen. b. Green manure or synthetic fertilizers should be added to the soil to replace what is taken up by plants as nutrients.

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c. Agriculture Development Officer or Gram Sevak should be consulted for the type of fertilizer to be used for different crops. B. Conservation of Water

There are two main methods for conservation of water: i. Maintenance of the Water Cycle: a. Healthy forests are essential for facilitating rainfall in various regions. Therefore, the water cycle will depend on the preservation and planting of trees. b. The water in swamps, marshes, tanks and lakes must be carefully guarded. Wetland areas should not be filled with mud and reclaimed as land as they play an important role in the water cycle. ii. Prevention of Water Pollution: a. Industrialists should be advised not to empty their industrial wastes directly into lakes and rivers. If at all the waste is to be poured into running water or lakes, the waste material should be treated and filtered out. b. Ship and oil tankers should not dump their oil in the oceans. c. The organic wastes from cities (sewage) should not be allowed to pollute the surrounding water. Special sewage plants should be made to bring about oxidation of sewage. Finally, the water free of sewage should be released into rivers or lakes. C. Conservation of Forests

See for details in Chapter 1. D. Conservation (Preservation) of Wildlife

Conservation is defined as the management of human use of the biosphere so that it may yield the greatest sustainable benefit to present generation while maintaining its potential to meet the needs and aspirations of future generations. It is scientific management of wildlife so as to maintain it at its optimum level and derive sustainable benefit for the present as well as future generations. The conservation of wildlife is directly related to healthy and better forests. Wildlife conservation includes protection, preservation, perpetuation of rare species of plants and animals in their natural habitats. Conservation of living resources has three specific objectives: i. To maintain essential ecological processes and life-supporting systems. ii. To preserve the diversity of species or the range of genetic material found in the world’s organisms. iii. To ensure sustainable utilization of species and ecosystems which support millions of rural communities as well as major industries. Thus, conservation of living resources is a complex operation which is specifically concerned with plants, animals and the micro-organisms; and with those non-living elements of the environment on which they depend. See also Chapter 10 under head “Conservation”.

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1. Conservation Strategies

Wildlife conservation as well as its propagation through the proper management techniques is a must. Sanctuaries, national parks, biosphere reserves, projects, etc. have been created for exclusively protecting the wild flora and fauna in all parts of the world as a part of broad wildlife management prospective. Scientists representing 100 countries of the world have evolved a comprehensive World Conservation Strategies (national and international conservation strategies) for the judicious use of resources. Some of the steps proposed to save the existing species of the wildlife are as follows: i. All efforts should be made to preserve the species that are endangered throughout the range. The species that are sole representative of their family or genus should receive special attention. An endangered species should be given priority over a vulnerable one, a vulnerable species over a rare one and a rare species over other categories. All the threatened species be protected. Priority be given belonging to monotypic genera, endangered over vulnerable, vulnerable over rare and rare over other species. ii. Prevention of extinction requires sound planning and management of land and water uses. The wildlife should be protected both in their natural habitat (in situ) and in zoo and botanical gardens (ex situ). The threatened species be provided with both in situ conservation (under natural habitat in forest/national park/sanctuary/biosphere reserve) and ex situ conservation (in zoo/botanical garden/biological garden/arboretum/ channelling into trade). iii. As many varieties as possible of food crops, forage plants, timber trees, livestock, animals for aquaculture, and their wild relatives and microbes should be preserved. Priority should be given to those varieties that are most threatened and are most needed for national and international breeding programmes. All the possible varieties, old or new of food, forage and timber plants, livestock, aquaculture animals and microbes be conserved. iv. Each country should identify the habitats of wild relatives of the economically valuable and useful plants and animals and ensure their preservation in protected areas (sanctuaries, national parks, and biosphere reserves). Wild relatives of all the economically important organisms be identified and conserved in protected areas. v. The critical habitats (the feeding, breeding, nursery and resting areas) of the species should be safeguarded. vi. In case of migratory or wide-ranging animals, a network of protected areas should be established to preserve the habitat of the species. Resting/feeding places of migratory/wide-ranging animals be protected. vii. If a species migrates or ranges from one national jurisdiction to another, bilateral or multilateral agreements should be made to set up the required network. Exploitation of the species and pollution of the environment along the migration routes should also be regulated. For migratory/wide-ranging animals, pollution and exploitation should be controlled. Bilateral and multilateral agreements be made where required. viii. Unique eco-system should be protected as a matter of priority. Only those uses which are compatible with their preservation should be permitted.

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The national protection programmes have to be coordinated with the international programmes, particularly the Biosphere Reserve (unique ecosystem) programme of the UNESCO’s Man and the Biosphere Project and National Parks and Protected Areas of International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN). The international network of Biosphere Reserve Programme aims to conserve and use the diversity and integrity of plant and animal communities for the present and the future within natural ecosystem. This would safeguard the genetic diversity of species and their continuing evolution. National Wild Life (Protection) Act enacted in India in 1972. Wildlife protection strategies formulated in India in 1983 and protection programmes integrated with international programmes. Wildlife Institute of India was located at Dehradun, Uttarakhand. Indian Board for Wildlife (IBWL) was established in 1952. Unique ecosystem be preserved on priority basis. ix. The productive capacities of exploited species and ecosystems have to be determined and it has to be ensured that utilization does not exceed those capacities. Industries, communities and countries that are overexploiting the living resources they depend on, should be convinced that they would be better off if utilization is kept at a sustainable level. The reproductive capacity of the exploited species and productivity of the ecosystem be determined. Exploitation should not exceed the same. x. International trade in wild plants and animals has to be regulated to appropriate legislative and administrative measures. International trade in wildlife should be highly regulated. India is a signatory to the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) of Wild Flora and Fauna. Our late Prime Minister, Smt. Indira Gandhi addressed in her inaugural speech of World Conservation Strategy in 1980: “The interest in conservation is not sentimental one but the rediscovery of a truth well-known to our ancient sages. The Indian tradition teaches us that all forms of life—human, animal and plant—are so closely interlinked that disturbance in one gives rise to imbalance in the other... Nature is beautifully balanced. Each little thing has its own place, its duty and special utility. Any disturbance creates a chain reaction which may not be visible for sometime. Taking a fragmentary view of life has created global and national problems. See also Chapter 10 under head “Conservation”. 2. Protected Areas in India

India is richly endowed with various biogeographical provinces, ranging from the cold deserts of Ladakh and Spiti to the hot deserts of the Thar; the temperate forests in the Himalayas to the lush green tropical rain forests of the low lands. India is also endowed with large fresh water bodies such as the Wular and the Manasbal lakes in Kashmir, the Chilka in Orissa and the Kolleru lake in Andhra Pradesh and the rugged and rich coastline and coral reefs of the Deccan. To protect, preserve and propagate these varied natural bounties; the Government of India passed Wild Life (Protection) Act in 1972 under which national parks and

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sanctuaries could be created. Creation of biosphere reserves has also been put into practice since 1986. Protected areas are ecological/biogeographical area where wildlife is conserved by maintaining habitats, natural resources and preventing poaching. They are delimited to protect biological diversity, i.e. cold desert (Ladakh and Spiti), hot desert (Thar), Wetland (Assam and NE states), saline swampy areas (Sunderbans, Rann of Kutch), mangroves, temperate forests, subtropical forests, tropical forests, tropical wet evergreen forests, tropical moist deciduous forests, tropical dry deciduous forests, tropical thorn, coral reef, etc. Protected Areas include national parks, sanctuaries and biosphere reserves. a. National Parks: They are areas which are strictly reserved for the betterment of the wildlife. They are the areas maintained by government and reserved for improvement of wildlife. Cultivation, grazing, forestry-operation and habitatmanipulation are not allowed. b. Sanctuaries: In a sanctuary, protection is given only to the fauna and operations such as harvesting of timber, collection of MFP and private ownership rights are permitted so long as they do not interfere with the well-being of animals. They are tracts of land where wild animals/fauna can take refuge without being hunted. Other activities like collection of forest products, harvesting of timber, private ownership of land, tilling of land, etc. are allowed. c. Biosphere Reserves: During the past few decades, the concept of biosphere reserves has been evolved by the Man and Biosphere Programme (MAB) of the UNESCO. India has identified certain areas to be declared as biosphere reserves. Of these Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve including parts of Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu was declared in 1986. In a biosphere reserve, multiple land use is permitted by designating various zones. There is the Core Zone (where no human activity is permitted), the Buffer Zone (where limited human activity is allowed) and the Manipulation Zone (where a large number of human activities would go on). In a biosphere reserve, wild population as well as traditional lifestyle of tribals and varied domesticated plant and animal genetic resources are protected. Biosphere reserves are multipurpose protected areas which are meant for preserving genetic diversities in representative ecosystems by protecting wild populations, traditional lifestyle of tribals and domesticated plant/animal genetic resources. There are some 243 biosphere reserves in 65 countries of the world. In India 14 potential sites were identified in 1979 by Core Advisory Group. Each biosphere reserve has a: a. Core Zone:

No human activity is allowed.

b. Buffer Zone:

Limited human activity is permitted.

c. Manipulation Zone:

Human activity is allowed but ecology is not permitted to be disturbed.

d. Restoration Zone:

Degraded area for restoration to near natural form.

National parks, sanctuaries and biosphere reserves would be the last refuse (shelter) for wild plants and animals in the coming years.

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3. Wildlife Organizations

There are several organizations engaged in conservation of wildlife at national and international levels. Some of them are mentioned below out of which some have been described in details in Chapter 17. i. International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN). ii. Man and Biosphere Programme (MAB Programme). iii. United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). iv. Worldwide Fund for Nature (WWF). v. Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). vi. Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO). vii. United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). viii. Indian Board for Wildlife (IBWL). ix. Wildlife Preservation Society of India (WPSI). x. Central Arid Zone Research Institute, Jodhpur, India (CAZRI). xi. Crocodile Breeding and Management Training Research Institute (CBMTRI). xii. Tiger Conservation Society (TCS). xiii. Zoological Survey of World (ZSW). xiv. Botanical Survey of World (BSW). xv. Zoological Survey of India (ZSI). xvi. Botanical Survey of India (BSI). xvii. International Council for Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN). xviii. International Council for Botanical Nomenclature (ICBN). xix. Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS). xx. Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun (Wll). xxi. Global Tiger Forum (GTF). 7. CONSERVATION OF NON-RENEWABLE NATURAL RESOURCES

Since non-renewable resources cannot be replaced once they are exhausted, we should use these as sparingly as possible. Among these the important ones are minerals, coal and oil. Alternatively, we should search for such sources of power generation which will not be exhausted, i.e. wind and solar energy. Industries which recover and recycle waste materials should be encouraged because they play a major role in conserving natural resources. Wasteful use of resources should be discouraged. After recognizing the impact of human interference causing changes in the environment, every citizen should try to conserve the natural resources and the natural environment. Only then can man hope to lead a healthier life in future.

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3 Wildlife Values

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s discussed in previous chapter, wildlife is a renewable natural resource and we have got them as the natural heritage in varied and magnificent forms maintaining balance of nature. But unfortunately, the disappearance of wildlife over the country or world is as destructive as the removal of such thing which is essential for the human life and culture and hence it concerns the entire people world over. Wildlife has positive as well as certain negative values. Among the positive values; the aesthetic, cultural and economic values may be enumerated both in wild state and in captivity. Among the negative values are destruction of the properties, carriers of disease, predation and so on.

A. POSITIVE VALUES

i. Ethical Value: The origin of mankind has distinguished them from other creatures mainly through three characteristic features such as capacity of distinguishing between right and wrong, sense of reasoning, love and regard of beauty. On the basis of these features, human beings claim themselves as superior to other beasts. Therefore, in regard of these ethical values, we human beings are bound to think that there is no right on our part to kill or destroy the other living creatures of the nature including wildlife. Our ancient philosophers, religious priests, books and sculptures have marvelously stated and advised in the direction of protection and conservation of wildlife. They have inculcated the general mass to bring the sense of love and co-existence to the wild animals. Throughout India, edicts carved on rocks and iron pillars by the Emperor Ashoka depict a king’s duty. Twenty-three centuries ago, he very well-defined not only to protect the citizens and punish the guilty but also to protect the wildlife. In Hindu mythology, wild creatures have been respected and regarded as position of protection and conservation through religious myths, sentiments and moral. Panchtantra indicated full of love for wild animals which made powerful impact on the common masses of that very period. The renowned ancient king maker and philosopher “Kautilya” in his “Arthshastra” has given a vital and important coverage of “Abhayaranya” or sanctuary where the wild’ animals could roam without any fear. Rama was helped by Hanuman against Ravana, the symbol of injustice. Even in Christianity, Francis of Assisi loved and spoke to protect wild animals. Restrictions 19

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were imposed by the Jain and Buddhist kings against killing of wild animals. In almost every religion, it is always wrong to kill and take the life of an animal. In scientific sense, Aldo Leopard in his book “A Sand Country Almaric” has stated that “land ethic does not prevent the management and use of animal but it does affirm their right to continued existence.” Hence, to respect and protect wildlife is the part of our duty in life. ii. Cultural Value: Wildlife consists a part of our national heritage in glorious varied forms as a natural gift. Therefore, it is our moral duty to preserve, conserve, and propagate them to handover as such to the coming generations. Mankind learned and is learning many arts of living from them as a source of inspiration and adaptation. It is noticeable that bat might had been instrumental in the discovery of radar and ultrasonic scientific discoveries for the modern man. Lion and tiger are given as example of bravery in our country, which is not possible if they got extinction from the earth. Hence, it cannot be denied that if we want to keep intact our culture and enrich it further, we must realize the importance of wildlife. Thus, the various forms of wild animals of our country and world over should be preserved and propagated. The learning and knowledge about these animals is the part of our culture which play vital role in our art, literature, mythology and modern science. iii. Ecological Value: The most fundamental reason for the preservation of wildlife is its ecological significance. All animals, terrestrial or aquatic, play their role in the maintenance of balance of nature as an intangible value. Ecology is the “relationship between the living things with their environment”; and since the wild animals are the part of the nature, they form a complex relationship with it through the dynamic ecosystem and life-support system. There are two components in an ecosystem, viz. abiotic and biotic. Abiotic component includes all minerals, gases, water, etc.; while biotic component includes all the living things of the nature, plants as well as animals. Green plants are autotrophs means they manufacture their food own releasing oxygen and called producers or autotrophs. Animals have no such natural device and thus depend upon the plants directly or indirectly for energy uptaking and called consumers or heterotrophs and lastly decomposers including bacteria and microorganisms consume dead and rotten flora and fauna. In this way, there is direct interrelationship between autotrophs and heterotrophs. All the abiotic and biotic components of the ecosystems are closely interlinked with each other, and there is continuous flow of energy from the abiotic to biotic components through the different trophic levels which are represented by a pyramid. There are several units of ecosystems such as forest ecosystem, grassland ecosystem, pond ecosystem, marine ecosystem and so on. These all are surviving on the same principles comprising all the components of ecosystem, though forming different communities. Thus, if any component of the ecosystem is disturbed deliberately or otherwise, it results disturbance of work of the ecosystem which is called natural imbalance causing disastrous and calamitous situations for nature and for man himself also because he is the part of the overall ecosystem. The life in nature depends upon the dynamism, structure and stability of the ecosystem. Wild animal occupies the position of consumer in the cycle of ecosystem. As stated earlier, wild animals feed upon the plants which produce food in nature from sunlight and carbon dioxide in presence of chlorophyll through the process

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of photosynthesis. Such plants are known as producers of the ecosystem. The animals which feed directly upon the plants are herbivores and called primary consumers such as deer, rabbit, elephant, etc. The second category of wild animals are carnivores which prey upon these primary consumers called secondary consumers and tertiary consumers, as the case may be; such as tiger feeding on deer and snake on rat, and this chain continues till it reaches top level consumers which are then decomposed by decomposers such as bacteria and micro-organisms into the abiotic components and thus again continuing the cycle. This is called a foodchain. The food relations are not always so simple, rather it is complicated and many organisms behave differently in their food habits. Trophic relationship between organisms of any ecosystem is not always in simple chain like fashion but forms complicated network. This net like trophic interrelationship is called food-web. In a food-web one organism may be linked with the several others in an interlocking of different food-chains linked into a network fashion. Thus, the role of useful activities of wild animals is very vast and the list is a long one. It is important and is almost invisible to the normal observer. A few examples are sufficient to illustrate their role and status of essentiality. The seasonal migration of wild animals and birds helps in the development of vegetation through dispersal of seeds which they eat and defecate at different places. Selective feeding habit of certain species is also an important factor in plant dispersal and survival. Sandal in South India is spread by bird and likewise the “triphala” or Indian medicine (Terminalia belerica, T.chebula and Emblica officinalis) by deer. Other important acts of wild animals can be noticed in cross-pollination In certain important species like semal, ficus, etc. Most of the insects and birds perform the job of cross-pollination. It increases the diversity of geneticrecombination and viability of the plant vegetation, the producer component of the ecosystem. Not only this, some wild animals and birds are natural scavengers such as kite, vulture, crow, jackal, hyaena, etc. and thereby help in clearing the environment and keeping it in hygienic condition. Hyaena also acts as natural regulator as it attacks the weak animals when they lack the power of resistance. The control of disease-carriers; whether insect, bird or mammal, is another important activity of wildlife. Bilharzias, a deadly tropical disease caused by a species of fluke, has been checked by biological control measure by controlling the number of certain aquatic snail which is the host of the parasite fluke for a certain period of its life-cycle. The control of insects, birds and animals harmful to crops is another important aspect of wildlife and man has learnt to employ the agents like natural predators and parasites of such pests. A good example is that of the weevil which was threatening the Hawaiin sugar crop was controlled by breeding and releasing of a fly which was found parasite on the larvae of the weevil. In Fiji, the coconut moth was removed by a parasite ichneumon wasp which lays eggs in the larvae of the coconut moth acting as parasite. In India, the biological control through their parasites of the insects of teak defoliator Hyblaea puera and teak skeletonizer Eutectona machaeralis have been successfully controlled. The useful activities of wildlife are not confined to the free state (wilderness zone) only but in captivity their role is also important. The performance of trained animals in circuses and the animals, birds and reptiles in zoo/safari/biological park have their own significance both as peoples’ entertainment and in stimulating an interest in wildlife creating emotion of love and sentiment of their preservation and propagation.

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Therefore, for keeping the earth as a viable platform for healthy life and alive natural activities, it is essential to recognize and apprehend the importance of wildlife. It should be preserved wisely and scientifically than before for rectifying and rehabilitating the ecological balance to prevent further devastation in it; because since long wanton destruction of the habitat of wildlife by reckless cutting of trees, conversion of forest land for other purposes and ruthless killing of wild animals had threatened the ecological balance changing the environment such as degradation of land, soil erosion, reduction in water level, landslides, floods, extinction of so many species and other such various climatic anomalies putting a question mark on the survival of human race itself as man himself cannot survive against the law of nature being a part of the ecosystem. iv. Scientific Value: The role of wildlife in the advancement of fundamental sciences like comparative anatomy, embryology, physiology, ecology, etc. is very important. Large number of research workers are engaged all over the world in conducting scientific studies on the wild animals to achieve different scientific aims and objectives. When any drug for any disease is invented, the research of its effects and side-effect is first carried on the wild animals before applying on human body. In this way, we have been able to learn and learning the body structures and functions of different animals and their evolutionary trend and relationship with each other as well as how they interact with the nature. Had Rhesus monkey not been in natural heritage, we would have not known about Rh factor in human blood, likewise Chimpanzee had helped us in conducting sereological protein tests. Studies on the animal behaviours have opened the eyes of the psychiatrist making them easier to treat the human mind. Some of the wild flora and fauna are also of medicinal values which have benefited us directly or indirectly. Musk pod of musk deer and rhinoceros horn are of great value of medicine. The fat of tiger or hornbill is used for curing rheumatism. Snake herom is used for preparing antiherom for snake bite. Hence, it is clear that if wild animals, especially scientifically important species, are preserved and propagated; they will certainly help in human welfare. They will also generate foreign exchange by exporting specific species for research purposes and hence maintaining gene-pool. But many of the scientific findings could not come in light due to lack of learning and unscientific killing of the wild animals. For getting scientific goals, as stated earlier, every year many animals sacrifice themselves for our cause. This should be compensated by preserving and propagating them by managing and applying scientific technologies. v. Aesthetic Value: Our country has got vast, varied and colourful natural heritage of wildlife. Some of them are simple and beautiful, some are majestic and powerful while some others are magnificent and bountiful. Such mere beauty of the wildlife has a direct impact on human mind and compels us to preserve these excellent forms of beauty of the nature at any cost. While we are passing through the age of polluted life cutting the availability of free air, wildlife inhabiting in nature, national parks and sanctuaries provide us refresh air and relaxation in tension. In the context, our late Prime Minister, Jawahar Lal Nehru, has quoted “Life would become very dull and colourless if we did not have these magnificent animals and birds to look at and to play with. We should, therefore, encourage as many sanctuaries as possible for the preservation of what yet remained of our wildlife.” Also our Late Prime Minister, Smt. Indira Gandhi, had quoted “A threat to any species of plant and animal life is a threat to Man himself.”

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Recreational forestry is becoming fast popular day by day in most of the countries of the world. People are in search of to find time from the busy routine of their modern life to get some moments of pleasure and mental peace with wildlife. Such facilities have been evolved to fulfil the various demands of the people in national parks, biological parks, zoos, safaris, etc. India has great potential and opportunity of such aesthetic value of its wildlife. It requires only efforts and interests in this direction. vi. Commercial or Economic Value: As we know, wildlife is a natural renewable resource; it has great economic value. Throughout the world, many people are earning through trade in the field of wildlife and its products; though presently it is legally banned in our country due to its alarming status. However, the fishes are as big as any other modern industry in respect of employment and income. Wild animals, in the developed countries, are a source of tremendous economical gain linking with the tourism industry. In developing countries like India where adequate wasteland and rich variety of wildlife is available; the wildlife tourism can be made a big source of income. This is the reason that throughout the world, especially in USA and other developed countries, the value of wildlife is measured in economic yardstick. Therefore, it is important to create more and more reserves, national parks, biological parks, zoos, safaris, etc. from economical point of view. Trade in our country in certain items like musk, ivory, rhinoceros horn, crocodile skin, fur of monkey, rabbit, bear, tiger, etc. has threatened these animals causing their merciless hunting and reaching them on the verge of extinction. The trade in wildlife and its products is very profitable. As in past there has been no uniform regulation of the trade throughout the country and no legislation existed to control and enforce uniform law over the country, Wild Life (Protection) Act was enacted in 1972. Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) regulates and controls the trade on international basis. Studies in some countries like Africa and others have shown that in marginal lands and the lands which are unsuited as pasture, wild animals are found to be more productive and profitable than the domesticated animals. Dasmann (1964) has opined that many wild animal species would prove more profitable, if domesticated, and more useful than rearing many other domestic animals in the same environment. Hence, our policies should be in the direction of commercial value of wildlife to be exploited beyond its optimum level without interfering natural balance and at the same time also preserving the rare and threatened species under the objectives of wildlife management. vii. Game Value: Wildlife has immense game value to hunt for sport. Our kings and emperors were famous for hunting and creating reserves for the purposes. For example, Dachigam reserve (now national park) was exclusively used as hunting reserve by Maharaja of Kashmir, Bharatpur bird sanctuary was the reserve of Maharaja Bharatpur. At Betla in Jharkhand state, now functioning as Betla National Park and Tiger Project, there was tradition to get award by the Maharaja counting the hunted wild animals. Many European hunters have created stories in this field all over the world in their ruling period. But this resulted merciless and unscientific mass killings of certain important and majestic wild animals. In USA and other developed countries, many people spend huge money in hunting

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and fishing. Many are getting revenue through hunting and fishing industry by selling fire arms, fishing tackle, camping materials, etc. Government is raising its fund by providing licenses. In India, hunting is not allowed after 1972 Wild Life (Protection) Act and its amendment in 1991 and is now totally banned as the situation and status of wild animals is alarming. However, fishing can be encouraged as a sport, as it has still wide scope in our country. The positive values of wildlife can be divided into two categories, viz. nonconsumptive or intangible and consumptive or tangible. The ecological and ethical are intangible while others are of tangible values, as we get direct benefits in the form of food, money and enjoyment from these. B. NEGATIVE VALUES

Wildlife has also certain negative values such as destruction of properties, predation and as carriers of various diseases. Wild animals like deer, wild ass, elephant and other herbivorous animals destroy the crops in agricultural field. The damage is counted more in the countries where agriculture is the prime occupation and living standard is very poor. Carnivores like tiger, panther, lion, etc. sometimes become cattle-lifters and cause hardships for the villagers. There is also loss of human life up to a great extent by the man-eater carnivores. But this is all man-made problems as we have encroached upon their any kind of habitat. Deforestation followed by fragmentation and grabing of corridors in the forest was always in practice in past and even continued especially in developing countries. Some of the wild animals act as carriers or reservoirs of certain diseases such as rabies, etc. However, the positive values of wildlife can be far outweighed than the negative values. There is the role played by every species (animal, bird, reptile, aquatic or amphibian) in the maintenance of natural-balance which is intangible and almost invisible. It can be seen in very simple example; reduction of food of tigers and leopards by the destruction of deer results in making them cattle-lifters. The hippopotamus in Africa is silently and invisibly connected with fish-culture as its faeces deposited in the water of lakes and streams help in the formation of phytoplankton which is the food of the tilapia, an indigenous fish of that continent used widely and suited in fish farming. The biological control measures adopted in France, England and Australia to exterminate rabbits by the introduction of a viral disease Myxomatosis, although resulted in increased crop yield, however, it deprived fox, stoat and weasel of their food making them to attack poultry birds. Before the creation of Albert National Park, the population of antelopes was maintained by controlled hunting of their predator, lions. But when the park was created and shooting was prohibited, the population of lion increased tremendously. At the same time, stopping of burning resulted in more dense vegetation. All these resulted that the antelopes could not escape from the lions and antelopes began to decrease sharply in numbers being almost nil. On the other hand, the population of lion also became scarce in lack of natural food. To classify the wild species of a country on the basis of as to whether they are harmful (thereby justifying their control) or the reverse may be disastrous and misleading if not justified perfectly and scientifically. It is indisputable fact that every species has its place in nature playing its own role. Though the population (numbers) of individual species may be static or dynamic in the ecosystem, the interactions of

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one species with another is of great importance in maintaining that balance as per nature’s plan which is so essential to the man and his crops, his health and ultimately his survival.

^^bZ'k okL;a bn~ loZA ;fRdUp txR;k txr AA rsu O;Drsu HkqathFkk%A ek x`/ dL;fpr~ /ue~AA** μb'kksifu"kn~

“This universe, is the creation of the Supreme Power, meant for the benefit, of all His creations, Individual species, must, therefore, learn to enjoy its benefits, by forming a part of the system, in close relation, with other species. Let not anyone species, encroach upon the others rights.”

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4 Wildlife and its Management

I

t is very essential to understand and get conception about wildlife, its management and conservation. The fundamental knowledge about them is must before taking forward steps for applying technology in the field of wildlife management. A. WILDLIFE

In broad sense, wildlife includes whole fauna and flora found in wilderness zone (natural habitat). According to Indian Board for Wildlife (IBWL), 1970: “Wildlife is the whole native and uncultivated fauna and flora of a particular country.” According to Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972: “Wildlife includes any animal, bees, butterflies, Crustacea, fish and moths; and aquatic or land vegetation which form part of any habitat”. In this definition, the word “animal” has come which according to the same Act means “Animals include amphibians, birds, mammals and reptiles and their young, and also include in the cases of birds and reptiles, their eggs.” Again in the same definition, the word “habitat” has come which according to the same Act means “Habitat includes land, water or vegetation which is the natural home of any wild animal.” Again in the same Act “Wild animals” means “Any animal found wild in nature and includes any animal specified in Schedule I, II, III, IV or V wherever found”. According to Indian Forest Records (1965) ”Wildlife are living things that are neither human nor domesticated and are applied specially to mammals, birds, reptiles and fishes which are hunted.” Hence, in broad sense, wildlife includes whole flora and fauna found in its natural habitat (wilderness zone) which embraces all living organisms. But in strict sense, it includes animal, birds, amphibians, mammals, reptiles, bees, butterflies, fish, their young and eggs and their habitat (i.e. land, water and vegetation which are their natural home). But again in the strictest sense, wildlife includes mammals, birds, reptiles and fishes which are uncultivated (not domesticated, not tamed) and generally hunted. 26

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B. WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT

We know that wildlife is a renewable natural resource and hence, with proper management and care or under normal natural circumstances, will reproduce itself. Natural resources are the things provided by nature to human for their use. Natural resources can be subdivided into renewable and non-renewable resources. It also draws a line between those that are constantly and continuously restored or reproduced by ongoing natural processes and those that cannot, viz. living or nonliving. For example, coal, minerals, and petroleum are non-living or non-renewable natural resources and if exploited at an increasing rate, they are likely to end more sooner, thereby never to reoccur in the near to distant future. On the other hand, wildlife is renewable natural resource; and with proper management and care or under normal natural circumstances, will reproduce itself. As long as this earth remains intact, we can continue to hunt. However, the boundaries between the two resources are not fixed and determinate all the renewable and non-renewable resources depend upon the complex cyclic flow of non-living and living materials through the ecosystem. All the renewable resources depend upon this flow of nonliving materials for sustaining life. If the flow of nitrogen, phosphorus, carbon dioxide, water, air and iron are abruptly stopped, the renewable resource also can no longer be regarded as renewable. Thus, here is the importance of ecosystem and balance of nature and it forms the main principle of our conservation and development strategy. The protection of environment or the nature is itself linked with the future of human race. So, the scope of wildlife management is very vast. From the viewpoint of an economist, wildlife management includes efficient utilization of the natural resources to the maximum human benefit, through the process of scientific studies of the population of these animals and their habitat pattern. In fine, we can say that wildlife management is the judicious use of the wildlife resources towards the attainment of scientific, ecological, economical, ethical, aesthetic and recreational objectives for the benefit of human beings and for the improvement of nature, upon which all the components of ecosystem depend. It also includes planning and studying of habitat and behaviours of wild animal’s population. Thus, wildlife management is the science and art of manipulation of structure, dynamics, and relations of the wild populations, its habitats, and the concerned people in order to achieve specific human goals by means of wildlife resource. According to “Wildlife Management Techniques” a book edited by Robert H. Giles (1984) “Wildlife Management is the science and art of changing the characteristics and interactions of habitats, wild populations, and such in order to achieve specific human goals by means of wildlife resource. These goals may frequently be sportrecreation, but may also include or be restricted to aesthetic, economic and ecological goals. Those working in the area of wildlife management are ultimately involved in the manipulation of the complex man-land-animal triad”. Further Giles (1969) expanded on Leopold’s definition by stating “Wildlife Management is the science and art of changing the characteristics and interactions of habitats, wild animal population, and men in order to achieve specific human goals by means of the wildlife resource”. According to Indian Forest Records (1965), “Wildlife Management is a branch of conservation which handles wildlife as a renewable natural resource. Concerned primarily with production, it also undertakes control measures that will preserve a species or hold its population in bounds. Wildlife forms an integral part of the land and hence wildlife management involves a type of land-use.”

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On ecological basis, “Wildlife Management is an ecologic science, the relation of an organism to its environment including other living things that co-inhabit the same basic resources of soil, water, vegetation, and atmosphere”. The scientific approach of wildlife management includes the observation, hypothesis and application of the tested principles of the hypothesis for the better management objectives. The art of Wildlife Management includes the natural aspects of it, which directly emanates from our subconscious mind and hearts and which work on the scientific observations and mould them in such a way that more human desires are satisfied. The scientific method is a widely accepted and recognized approach to Wildlife Management. The six basic components of scientific methods are: i. Observation: Firstly, it is to observe the things clearly. ii. Hypothesis: Based on the observations, some tentative conclusions are drawn and explanation for the observation are made. The hypothesis is a statement of the problem whose essence is a general principle or relation of cause and effect. iii. Test of the Hypothesis: The hypothesis is tested scientifically. iv. Religion and Science: The basic difference between religion and since lies in the fact that religion gives innumerable wrong hypothesis, whereas science only gives tested and correct one. v. Interpretations of results. vi. Conclusion and reporting of the results. All these are kept in mind when scientific research is carried on wild animals. From Gile’s definition, it is clear that there is slight difference in objectives between wildlife conservation and wildlife management. In wildlife conservation, the objective is that the wildlife is to be conserved in such a way that it may remain in the nature in peak status. The benefits meeting through the wildlife are met in this condition also but to get the benefit is not the main objective rather the main objective is to maintain natural balance. In wildlife management, there is conservation of wildlife but along with this they are also managed in such a way that they can meet the specific objectives of human-beings. Hence, in wildlife management, the wildlife resource is managed along with conservation in such a way that the specific benefits may be obtained from them. The definition of Giles is vast and denotes towards the broadness and difficulties of the subject (wildlife management). Hence, it is essential to clear the different components of the definition. According to him, Wildlife Management is the science as well as art. It is the science up to the boundary in which there is long time detailed studies and observation of life and ecology of wildlife to get scientific records, to formulate principles and research is carried out; and on these basis the system of management is evolved (estimated) in such a way that by applying these at different places, the specific goal may be achieved. But when this theoretical knowledge or the system based upon this is used along with the different technologies of land-uses and human-behaviours; the art of wildlife management starts. Different wildlife managers at different places on the basis of applying their capacity of art can get different types of results. The definition also says that wildlife management is done for the specific goals of human beings. Therefore, it is essential that the benefit, which is expected from the wildlife, should be already fixed and then the planning of management should be planned so that the specific goal may be achieved; otherwise the

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management will be aimless and its evaluation will be also impossible. There is also an important part of the definition that though the management is to be done for wildlife but there are two aspects of wildlife such as its habitat and related people. The main objective of the Wildlife Management is to establish favourable and lovely balance among these three aspects (wildlife, habitat, and people) by manipulating their structure, dynamics, and relations. These three aspects are wildlife population itself, its habitat (which includes food, water, space, cover, shelter, etc.) and related people who remain in and around the habitats or often come there. Requisite manipulation or change is essential for successful management of wildlife by seeing that as to what type of attitude the people have towards wildlife. In brief, it can be said that in wildlife management, the planning or project for the improvement in wildlife status and for enhancement in its population, can be formulated by thinking the total ecosystem of wildlife and doing requisite favourable manipulation in it so that specific goal may be achieved. Hence, it is clear that there are three aspects of wildlife management, viz. wildlife itself (wildlife population), its habitat and the related people. The management or conservation of wildlife is possible only by establishing the relations among all these three components and for this the managers should have detailed knowledge about the structure, dynamics and relations of these components. These aspects or components have been dealt in coming Chapters in detail. C. NEED OF WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT/CONSERVATION

The life on the earth is a delicate balance of nature. Plants convert carbon dioxide of the air and water into organic matter with the help of chloroplasts in the presence of sunlight. Herbivores derive their energy from the plants and the carnivores in their turn from the herbivores. There are also organisms called decomposers which release the energy back to nature, thus completing the cycle. We can, thus, see that producers, consumers and decomposers form food chains. The various foods chains and cycles constitute the life support systems essential for the survival of the living world. Any major alteration in any one of these, results serious disturbance in the balance of nature leading to annihilation and may threaten the very existence of man himself on this planet. Hence, to sustain life, renewability of the resources and life support systems should be maintained for endless duration, which in turn, demands an understanding of the ability of the species to adopt themselves to the changing environment and to integrate these considerations in the development of any planning process. This, in essence, is the crux of wildlife conservation. In ancient years, the wildlife in India were found sufficiently; but due to enormous growth in human population, deforestation started for converting forest land into agricultural purposes and subsequently the habitat of wildlife started shrinking and shrinking and their population depleted and being depleting. The period of Second World War was the most devastating period for wildlife as the wildlife were killed mercilessly wherever the militaries got shelter. Following are the main reasons causing depletion in wildlife population: i. Conversion of forests into agricultural fields. ii. In ancient ages, hunting was done wantonly, recklessly, mercilessly and unscientifically. iii. Creation of forest roads as well as allowing the hunters with their automobiles. iv. Use of firearms in hunting and hunting were not done selflessly.

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v. Evergrowing human population causing pressure on the habitats such as deforestation, encroachment of habitats, followed by fragmentation as well as shrinkage of habitats and so on. vi. Destruction of natural corridors and unavailability of artificial corridors. Natural corridors almost everywhere have been grabed by humans. vii. Increase in livestock, grazing by them in forest areas resulting loss in food and shelter of wild animals as well as infection of diseases. viii. Establishment of industries in forest areas, querring of mines, etc. ix. Pollution of environment, rivers, water reservoirs and ocean by insecticides, polluted gas and water from industries as by-products. x. Use of insecticides on large scale in agricultural fields. xi. Misuse of licensed firearms. xii. Lighting of fire by the local people inside the forest. These factors not only depleted the number of wildlife but some became extinct, some are threatened and some are on the verge of extinction. Their number has come to such a stage that the benefits meeting by them is nowadays negligible. Hence, wildlife management is the technique related to wildlife conservation itself through which the wild animals can be propagated as the natural renewable resource on the earth. Therefore, before choosing the management- techniques, it is essential to keep in mind the prime aims and objectives of the management as well as the target species. The planning of wildlife management work may be classified into the following four steps: a. Wildlife Census: First of all, it is necessary to find out the present status of the wild animals in the particular habitat. To access the number of each and every species (population) available in the habitat is very important. This is done through the census of the area (habitat). It is impossible to decide the management technique/ techniques to be applied in the habitat without such knowledge. b. Measurement of Productivity: The productivity of the species is determined and then compared to its standard productivity to find out the present situation as whether its productivity is normal, below or above the level. For the purpose; natality rate, mortality rate, environmental resistance, interrelationship between prey and predator, carrying capacity, hunting and poaching, intra specific and interspecific behavioural aspect, available quantity of food, water and shelter, availability of main and buffer food-species, decimating factors, etc. are thoroughly studied to access the present condition of productivity of the species concerned. If the productivity of species is found below the standard productivity, the respective decimating factor is to be found out due to which such condition has come and its control measure is to be applied to bring the productivity at the standard level. Such controlling measures are generally habitat improvement, enhancement of carrying capacity of the habitat, to increase natality of the species, to minimize decimating factors of the habitat, etc. Thus, measurement of productivity of the species and its comparison with standard is helpful in applying proper management technique. c. Diagnosis of Control Measures: From management point of view, it is very necessary to access the factor/factors which is hampering in the growth of population of the species such as decimating factors or the scarcity of food, water and shelter. Simultaneously, to get its remedy by searching its controlling measure/

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measures and its application is very important so that the population may reach to the desired level. The diagnosis of the control measure and its application gives progressive result to go in the forward direction in the field of wildlife management. d. Treatment: Treatment means the application of the controlling measure/measures to overcome the problem of the limiting factor/ factors after its diagnosis. Such factors may be decimating factors like diseases, predators, etc. or the scarcity of the basic needs like foods, water or shelter. Hence, diagnosis of the damaging factor and application/treatment of its control measure is the important tool in the aspect of wildlife management. D. AIMS OF WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT

The aims and objectives of wildlife management as such will vary from locality to locality, and probably from decade to decade or time to time. The needs of wildlife and the possibility of a successful restoration programme determine the local specific objectives. However, in general, the objectives can be described under the following heads: i. Preservation of Species: At places, where a sharp decline of a certain species has been observed, this becomes the prime objective. It has been commented that “Man can easily destroy but cannot create any new species, therefore, he should be reluctant to destroy that which he cannot possibly restore no matter how desperate the need be.” The various special projects like Project Tiger, Project Hangul, etc. are based on these objectives. In such a case, all the management efforts are focused on one species or a set of species to be preserved. ii. Maintenance of Population of Useful Species: In recent years, the major wildlife management tasks are based on the maintenance of populations of useful species. This forms a wholistic approach in which care to preserve a faunal complex is taken. The obnoxious animals/vermins are exterminated to facilitate the population growth of useful species. Management of various National Parks and Sanctuaries are based on this objective. iii. Stabilizing of Decreasing Population of Certain Species: Since the earliest successful domestication of animals, man has combated the predators which preyed on his flocks and herds. Likewise, crude attempts at cultivating crops brought him into direct conflict with grazing and fruit eating wild animals. So, man has always attempted to the best of his ability to decrease local populations

Fig. 4.1: Steps of Wildlife management

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iv.

v. vi.

vii.

Textbook of Wildlife Management

of “destructive or harmful species”. Such age old human manipulations have resulted into an imbalance of various populations in wild community. So under this objective, the efforts are directed towards stabilizing the affected populations to bring a balanced situation in the community of wildlife. Limiting Utilization of Annual Productive Capacity: Perhaps this is the most difficult objective to achieve and in fact in our country this has no where been adopted. This actually regulates the annual revenue from the various wildlife. This involves management of populations in a way to obtain an annual sustained production. The examples are commercial farming of deer and fishes and other animals. Conservation of Biodiversity: To conserve natural biodiversity; maintenance of vast, healthy and productive wildlife population, as far as possible, is essential so that genetic resources may remain protected. Maintenance of Habitat: To cognize wildlife and its habitat so that both may fulfil their interdependency and complement each other reaching at peak position (climax). Strengthening Human Life: To enhance the richness and quality of human life so that man may get happy, healthy and prosperous life.

E. PROBLEMS IN WILDLIFE CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT

Forests are unlocked property, it is vast and open and hence vulnerable for theft, hunting, killing, poaching and so on. Therefore, before going towards conservation or management of wildlife, it is essential to think over the problems facing in this direction which are mainly as follows: i. Vast Habitat and Distribution: Wildlife habitat and its distribution are not restricted only inside the forest but also encompasses the neighbouring rivers, water reservoirs, agricultural fields and, hence, its conservation becomes difficult due to such vast areas. ii. Economical Problem: Due to vast habitat area, its conservation/ management requires heavy fund. iii. Enormous Growth in Human Population: It results conversion of forest into agricultural fields, hunting of wild animals for foods, etc. iv. Enhancement in Cattle/Livestock Population: Increment in human population and livestock goes side by side which causes adverse effect on wild population. v. Short-sightedness of Human Beings: Pollutants as insecticides, by-products of industries in the form of gases and water pollutants, querry of mines, etc. inside forest and such other activities result or resulting habitat shrinkage as well as death and diseases among the wild animals. vi. Selfishness of Human Beings: Hunting, poaching, killing, smuggling, etc. of wild animals have been hampering and suffering them a lot. vii. Unawareness Among General Masses: Majority of people are poor and illiterate. They are unaware about the importance of wildlife and its role in ecosystem. They are not fully aware that wildlife is very much essential for eco-balance and is ultimately essential for human life. viii. Lack of Scientific Knowledge Related to Wildlife: Generally people or majority of the people do not understand about ecological and scientific value of wildlife and, hence, they do not hesitate to hunt or kill them. They are unable to

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apprehend about loss made related to wildlife and its consequences. It is essential to keep knowledge about the structure, dynamics and its relations with wildlife population, its habitat and the people. F. HISTORY OF WILDLIFE CONSERVATION/MANAGEMENT

The history of wildlife conservation in India is as old as the origin of man on this earth planet. Our saints were always anxious that man should not interfere with the nature. They always taught to adopt the doctrine/inculcation of “vfgalk ijeks/eZ%” and thus to save wildlife. Hence, when human civilization was in its earliest stage, the relationship between wild animals and humans was harmonious and complementary taking enjoyment and benefiting each other. Wild animals and man maintained a balance between its necessities and the use of natural resources by him. But in span of time, due to industrial revolution, technological innovations and scientific advancement, the traditional lifestyle got thorough change throughout the world and started to exploit the natural resources with accelerated speed to meet the demands of new materialistic life. It can be said that the period of Second World War was the most devastating period for wildlife because the soldiers wherever halted exploited and spoiled them. Afterwards, the human population started to increase as explosion since few decades demanding developments in various spheres resulting directly or indirectly ongoing disturbances in the natural resources/ecosystems in India. The rapid growth of cities, construction of dams, hydroelectric powers, buildings and roads, encroachment and conversion of forest lands for agriculture, mining operation, ruthless killing and hunting of wild animals are the main reasons of direct disturbances in our ecosystems. Such shortsighted activities imbalance the nature creating problems for the survival of wildlife and destruction of habitat of the animals. A large number of beautiful and important wild animals got extinction which will never reappear on this earth. The extinction of the majestic and fastest creature, i.e. Cheetah from India; many other beautiful animals like lion, brow-antlered deer, slow loris, lesser panda, etc. are on the verge of extinction along with several rare and threatened species. Thus, a renewable resource (wildlife) of vital interest is being vanished and depleted. We know that, from wildlife status point of view, Tropical Rain Forests produce luxuriant vegetation upon which most of the wild animals of the world survive. But due to destruction of these forests; wildlife lost its habitat, deteriorated and many species became endangered. India is a vast tropical country and naturally it has a great variety of flora and fauna. The geographical variations and distinctions ranging from rain forests of Assam to the snows of the Himalaya and the deserts of Rajasthan, from deciduous forests of Central Highlands to the mangrove swamps of Sunderbans, have their own typical and specific faunal coverage. These floral and faunal varieties have played and also playing key role in the development of human culture and civilization. In the earliest stage, wildlife was a source of food, cloth, tool, religious belief, etc. and at that time more or less an equilibrium was maintained between man and the wild creatures. With the development of agriculture, some species were domesticated for the purpose, others were hunted for their meat, horns, skins, etc. Under the advancement of human civilization, industrialization and modernization, his needs increased more and more. Modern technology started to exploit the various resources of the ecosystem carelessly and ceaselessly, without having the idea of its devastating consequences. Thus, the relationship and interaction between man and wildlife began to change with great speed resulting deterioration in the quality of the environment/ecosystems.

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Wildlife in India has passed through three phases, viz. mythological phase, exploitation phase and conservation phase. i. Mythological Phase: It was the first phase in which wild animals were getting priority of protection through the religious myth and sentiment. There are many stories and instances in this regard. King Pandu in the Mahabharata was cursed by the hind deer for shooting her stag in mating; Rama was helped by Hanuman against Ravana, the flying of deer hunted by Kalidas to the safety of the rishi’s ashram, the eight celestial points of the compass being supposed to be guarded by Indira’s elephant, lion is one of the many incarnations of God Vishnu, the tiger has place being mentioned in the later Vedic texts, the mangoose noticed in the Mahabharata as a teacher of wisdom to King Yudhistra, the deer is always associated with God Brahma and the constant companion of God Mahadeva, the wild boar is referred to as the “Boar of Heaven”. Some thirty different mammals are mentioned by name in the samhitas (the four principal Vedas). It is of much interest for the world to know that the earliest measures taken for the protection and conservation of animals come from India. All these protective measures have secured safety for wildlife in the Indian thoughts. Kautilya’s “Arthshastra” refers to the Abhayaranya or Forest Sanctuary where animals could roam about without any fear. The first approach in changing direction is found at the time of Emperor Ashoka because in his Fifth Pillar Edict of 3rd century BC we find the first laws to protect fish, birds and forests strictly and the mammals like bats, monkeys, rhinoceros, porcupines, tree squirrels, barasinga stags, brahmini bulls and all four-footed animals were not utilized or eaten. There was also provision of punishment to the guilty persons as per the law. ii. Exploitation Phase: After mythological phase, the age of exploitation entered in which the wildlife experienced ever-increasing pressure. The Moghuls were great hunters of animals and birds though having keen interest in nature and their concept of management was majorly the game. In the British period, hunting was going on for the pleasure of kings and princes as a tradition. This era of exploitation continued with increasing intensity of India’s population and more forest land was cleared for cultivation. We had the maximum development and expansion of man’s needs at the expense of wildlife and its habitat following “grow more food” compaign. Even the early years of independence shows no lessening of the pressure on the wildlife rather increased to provide the landless with land and to make India self-sufficient in cereals removing food problem. Hence, it is clear that there was an abundance of wildlife in India before British rule in settled and balanced condition. The depletion started from about the middle of the 19th century with the increase in the number of sporting weapons and development of rifles in 1840 and 1860. The early British army officers, tea planters and civil servants were the main hunters and exploiters. The Second World War was the most dangerous period for the harassment of wild animals by the soldiers as well as the ruling kings and princes. iii. Conservation Phase: The third and the most vital phase of India’s wild animals has come with the general renaissance since the attainment of independence. It is a period of conservation and propagation of wildlife following the world movement for husbanding its natural resources judiciously and scientifically. It was realized that man must keep balanced relationship with the national heritage to achieve the natural resources in perpetuity. For the purpose, education among the people of the world in this direction were also enlightened. Jean-Paul Harroy,

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Secretary-General of the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) has put it “the concept of inter-relations is particularly relevant in the observation of biological equilibrium for the naturalist, especially if we wish to interfere in such delicate balances, must be imbued with the idea that all phenomena are actually one phenomenon and that an abrupt change in of the factors in play can only have profound repercussion on the complex whole, even if he has not been able to anticipate the repercussions in his imaginations.” The wildlife conservation movement in India may be summarized as such: a. First effort was taken by BNHS (Bombay Natural History Society) resulted as Wild Birds and Animals Protection Act, 1897. b. The 1935 movement: Punjab gave the lead making separate Game Warden, Fauna Committees in Districts, etc. c. Prewar period: Government of India’s Conference in Delhi 1935, Wildlife Convention to be signed by all states. Formation of Hailey National Park in Uttarakhand; Jim Corbett and Hasan Abid Jaffry’s Association for the preservation of Wildlife in Uttarakhand; Planters’ shooting and fishing clubs in Bengal and South India. d. The war period: Destruction of Wildlife by the armies stationed in India. e. Postwar period: The 1951 Conference in Delhi, decision to give wildlife a place in India’s new National Forest Policy of 1951. f. Postindependence period: The Indian Board for Wildlife (1952), Government appointed board for advisory purposes. The Wildlife Preservation Society of India (1958), for publicity and propaganda and as a “Watchdog” on behalf of wildlife. Wildlife (Protection) Act was framed in 1972 and subsequently being amended time to time. In Indian condition, any management plan for its wildlife must take into account the prevailing political and economic climate, which is mainly governed by the marginal status of agriculture in the country. Therefore, the idea of wildlife as a crop should undoubtedly find a place in forest management in India. The problem behind it in the country is to save the fauna from disappearing or being reduced to the point of “no-return” while at the same time ensuring to the cultivator adequate protection from crop damage and carnivorous animals. Since wildlife is an integral part of the land and, hence, must share in the various forms of land utilization. In this way, wildlife also demands place in agricultural tracts under land use planning concept, though this aspect poses itself in our managed areas, i.e. the reserved and protected forests. In India, the main impact on wildlife is on the cultivated and grazing lands where the existing contradictions must be resolved because today in the country it appears to be a major clash between wildlife-use and human-use of the land for cultivation. We know that animal’s life depends directly or indirectly on plant life for its continued existence and the studies of such interdependence involves study of botany, zoology and animal ecology. Wildlife management is thus concerned with laws and their enforcement and is related with public administration. Further, it can be said that as an applied animal science, wildlife management is a form of practical or applied zoology and the relationship which wildlife management relates with zoology is similar to that which forestry has with botany. Wildlife ecology has the same relation to wildlife management that silvics has with silviculture.

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The dynamic form of wildlife management, known as environmental manipulation, defines as the improvement of the environment based on biological principles which requires sufficient knowledge and research in the concerned field. It is based on the principle that favourable conditions for wildlife can be created by artificial operations of a dynamic nature applying wildlife management techniques. Though, it is essential that the cultivator should have proper liberty to defend his property from wild animals, it is equally essential that there should be certain areas or reserves where the shooting of wild animals is regulated and where the laws for their protection are rigidly enforced. Of course, the creation of such reserve or national park will support in bringing the best status to the wild animals. It is essential to draw the attention of the people of the country in the direction of the magnificent heritage, gifted by nature, to realize the necessity for preserving and conserving them for their own benefit as well as for the coming generations. To fulfil the mission, education will play vital role in bringing better position than what we are at present. Hence, it is needed to create such public opinion in our country on the subject of wildlife protection because today such opinion is not popularized and hardly exists in some quarters that are also not so active due to lack of proper interest and sufficient teaching. However, the condition may be said to be improving on account of the growing awareness among the population world over. Nowadays, the status of wildlife in different parts of the world is different depending upon the socioeconomic conditions of societies of the different nations. The developing countries including India, who have just emerged from the colonial rule, are facing with the vital problems of poverty, illiteracy and over-population. In majority of the Asian countries, the status of wildlife is not satisfactory. In India, condition is unsatisfactory, no doubt, but steps are being taken in progressive direction to preserve, conserve and propagate whatever we have. The success depends upon the sound socioeconomic condition, education, literacy, population-control and awareness towards nature and its benefits. It is interesting to know that how we have gradually adopted development towards the protection of wildlife. At the turn of the twentieth century (British period), people were having the idea that wildlife was inexhaustible and therefore had pride in boasting the number of trophies secured. But afterwards, British rulers took attention realizing the importance of conservation of wildlife and enforced various Acts like the Rhino Protection Act, the Elephant Protection Act, the Arms Act, etc. from time to time to save them and other wild animals from ruthless killings. But the history of the modern wildlife movement really starts from the International Conference for the Protection of Nature held at Paris in 1931 which led to the formation of International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN). However, in India, the first concrete step towards wildlife conservation was taken soon after independence in 1952 with the setting up of Central Board for Wildlife which was subsequently renamed the Indian Board for Wildlife (IBWL). Soon most of the states also followed it up. But in spite of the formation of these boards much could not be achieved; as those concerned with conservation, worked in isolation and being far from the mainstream of planning process. To restrict and regulate the thriving global trade of endangered species, India became a party to the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) in 1976. In recent years many of the International bodies like International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN), Worldwide Fund for Nature (WWF) and International

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Council for Bird Preservation (ICBP), etc. have come up for the purpose of safeguarding, conservation, management and creation of awareness, and India is a member of all these bodies. Apart from these, many non-governmental organizations are also busy in this mission and imparting their valuable roles. Now, the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 is the primary legal document to control the wildlife all over the country. It has seven chapters and sixty-six sections and provides for the protection of wild animals. The most important contribution of this Act is the controlling of hunting of wild animals and guiding formation of national parks and sanctuaries. The Act is amended time to time as per need and betterment of wildlife at national level. The wildlife conservation efforts got a tremendous boost through the provision of this Act. Many rare and endangered species were saved from extinction as well as trade in wild animals was brought under strict control and watch. The Act amended in 1991 through which there is now total banned on hunting of wild animals in our country. In addition, many projects like lion project, tiger project, crocodile breeding project, elephant project, etc. have been set up to conserve and propagate nicely the threatened wild species. For effective conservation of wildlife, three basic needs such as adequate food and water, place of refuge, and place to breed in safety should be fulfilled. To achieve this, the following measures are in practice: i. Reserved forests, national parks and sanctuaries are left unexploited; where total unexploitation is not possible, the cutting operation of the forests is done in limited blocks at a time. ii. Growing of a single variety of plant is discouraged as far as possible; instead mixed vegetation is encouraged. iii. Natural opening of the forests, waterholes and riversides are guarded against poachers. iv. Controlled-burning of grassland, to increase forage and to preserve organic materials in the soil, is done in blocks with unburnt area in between. v. Provisions for dust-baths and artificial salt-licks are made in the forests for maintaining the normal health of the animals. vi. Grazing of domestic livestock are dangerous to wild animals, as the latter can never compete successfully with domestic stock. Moreover, the domestic stock may be responsible for transmitting several contagious diseases. Hence, grazing by domestic stock in protected areas is avoided as far as possible. vii. Cultivation near the sanctuaries is also avoided to prevent ecological hazards due to pesticides. viii. Scientific studies by qualified personnel on threatened species of animals are encouraged in order to assess and improve their status, even by breeding them in captivity and rehabilitating them in suitable habitats. Several such measures have been undertaken and are operative but many more are needed to check the decline of wildlife and to create conditions in which it can flourish with its diversity in natural habitats. But nothing would be fruitful without the educational and publicity programmes for a change in the human outlook, especially in the new generations who are the builders of future society and custodians of the nature. As stated earlier, there is a general lack of knowledge in the field of conservation of nature and the values and benefits of wildlife in our country. Nature has been treated as a milch cow. Anything

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useful to man is exploited indiscriminately and inevitably leading to its depletion, sometimes beyond redemption. In true sense, the word “ecology” remained in the dictionary and as a fashion in scientific circles for several decades and could not find place in modern development. Actually, economy should be mitigated by ecology to halt such declining trend. To sum up, the only permanent solution to the problems of protection of wildlife, which is a part of the macro problem of protection of biosphere and its component ecosystems, lies in proper understanding of the living world and in the reorientation of the human outlook in proper and progressive direction. G. WILDLIFE AS LAND USE/LAND USE PLANNING/MULTIPLE USE CONCEPT

The present world, especially developing countries including India, is facing problems of over-population, poverty and illiteracy. There is tremendous growth in human population at a very fast pace and consequently causing depletion of natural resources day-by-day. The land and the natural resources are limited but the numbers of mouths to feed are going up and up. Under such circumstances, it is really very difficult task to protect, propagate and strive for place to the wildlife. Thus, realizing the conditions of various sectors of our country particularly socioeconomic life, the wildlife must be managed and guided by the efficient and intensive land use concept. We should propagate the wildlife through the concept of various ways by educating and motivating the public taking economical benefits from the wildlife, the renewable natural resources, for the common mass. This is possible through the concept of multiple use of the land. Hence, multiple use concept means that the resources not only keeping in only one use, should be utilized or used in multiple uses or directions so that maximum productions or benefits may be taken from it. The soil is the most important renewable natural resource of this earth. We cannot imagine life without it. If soil is used only for agriculture, horticulture and forestry, there will be only one type of production at a time; but if it is utilized for multiple uses, we will get more than one production at a time. For example, if in the lands suited for agricultural crops, the fast growing trees (forest crops) are planted on bunds (which remain vacant), then we will get fuel wood, fodder for livestock, wood for agricultural implements, poles, etc. in addition to the agricultural crops. It along with this tree planting on bunds, some game birds like quails, partridge, jungle fowl, etc. which are harmless to the agricultural crops and live in agricultural fields are reared or left there; then after sometimes the villagers may be allowed to hunt them taking fees. In this way from agricultural fields, in addition to agricultural crops, benefits may be taken as fuel wood, fodder, wood timber, hunting, etc. also. The land is classified on the basis of the fertility and texture of the soil. On this very basis, the land is divided and distributed into various sectors such as agriculture, horticulture, forestry and so on for its proper utilization. The last type of land which is unfertile, degraded, marginal and which cannot be used for any other purpose should be merely ear-marked for wildlife including forest. Applying modern wildlife management techniques on such land, we can get benefits through tourism; trade in general and scientific field, etc. and at the same time preservation and propagation of wildlife will also be achieved. Thus, it will serve the purposes of conservation of rare and threatened species, soil and water conservation, and enhancement of our economy up to a certain extent. Since wildlife is also a kind of land use as a renewable crop; soil, water, air, etc. are needed for them. If this land use is also kept separate like other land uses (agriculture, horticulture, etc.), there will be problem in meeting the land for

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them as land is limited and upon this the first priority is of agriculture to feed the human beings (to solve food problems of mankind). The lands which are not suitable for agriculture and horticulture, they are lastly used for forestry and wildlife. But when there is scarcity of agricultural/horticultural lands, wherefrom the land will come for wildlife. Under such circumstances, seeing the importance of wildlife, it may be linked with other land uses in such a way that the revenue from the main land use may be meeting and simultaneously the wildlife may also be conserved and propagated imparting benefits to the mankind. Developed countries have already taken steps in this direction and wildlife is viewed as a land use and most of the wildlife in these countries are seen in the individual farms, trade centres, national parks, sanctuaries and zoos. It shows the outlook of developed countries towards the wildlife. Similar sectors of economic activities in India can be identified in each area of the country depending upon landuse pattern. The selection also depends upon the potential and type of wild fauna present in that particular area. For instance, breeding of suitable birds should be encouraged in certain area which should be closed for a certain period and then opened up so that people may be allowed hunting, if necessary, and government may get revenue. Similarly, trade may be dealt in silk, lac, feathers, wool, fats and oils, wild meat, etc. if individual farms are set-up. Along with main land uses like the agriculture and forestry, wildlife as land use may be linked as follows: i. In Forestry: First of all, the forest should be divided as per the objectives such as protected forest, production forest, less productive and in the form of rivers and nallahs. Therefore, the forest area which is not so important from timber production point of view is very much important from wildlife management point of view and should be the main objective for wildlife in such area. The forest area which is important for timber production point of view, wildlife management may be less important. But this area may also be managed which can meet the demands of wildlife propagation without hampering forest production. ii. In Agriculture: In villages, there are some barren and degraded lands, village roads, rivers and nallahs which are not suitable for agricultural crops. In such areas, management should be done in such a way that it may suit for certain wildlife. Bushes may be grown in degraded and barren lands. These will help as shelter for small wild animals, birds, etc. as well as will provide fodder for livestock. In such areas, game birds like partridge, quails, jungle fowls, etc. may be grown which will give revenue after some time by allowing hunting through paying fees. Apart from this, pisciculture may also be developed in ponds of the villages to get handsome revenue. Hence, in our country, there is ample chance to link wildlife as land use with the other land uses on the basis of the multiple use concept by understanding wildlife as important land use for nature, environment, eco-balance and ultimately human life. It involves a challenging task of wildlife resource mobilization, efficient land use and integration of wildlife economics with the basic planning objectives. This prospective should form a part of our overall developmental strategy so that we can save, preserve, conserve and propagate our remaining national valuable wildlife heritage up to the mark. In a nutshell, it can be said that we must divide the land into several categories depending upon the quality of land and its uses for various purposes such as agriculture, horticulture, forestry, etc. The land, which is unfertile, degraded and

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where the land cannot be used otherwise for any other purpose, should be exclusively utilized for wildlife. By applying modern management techniques, we can get economical profit from such kinds of lands by promoting tourism, scientific trade and other related business. It will serve the twin purposes like conservation of rare and threatened species as well as conservation of soil and water, and thus dragging our economy towards prosperity. Overall, in our country, there is urgent need of different sectors/departments like forestry, agriculture, veterinary, watershed management, fishery, soil-conservation, etc. to be interlinked in order to come together and work in full collaboration for finalizing and suggesting the proper utility and suitability of the particular piece of land so that each and every piece of land may be utilized in proper way to avoid future anomalies or complications and in getting balance in every walk of human life.

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5 Population Management/ Improvement/Manipulation

1. POPULATION

The group of individuals of each species forms its own population. Population is, therefore, an assemblage of individuals of a particular species growing or living together in one habitat and show many important group properties such as density, rate of birth (natality), death (mortality), competition and associations among members of same species (intraspecific) or different species (interspecific), etc. or, “The number of individuals of a species living in an area is called population of that species”. More accurate from wildlife point of view, it may be defined as “Productivity added to the number of original individuals is the population.” Population depends upon the interaction of two forces, viz. breeding-potential (capacity to produce offspring irrespective of their survival to maturity) and environmental-resistance (various factors existing in the environment which resist the expansion of species such as predation from enemies, unfavourable weather, diseases, starvation, accidents and non-breeding; and expressed as P = BP – ER where P: population, BP: breeding-potential, ER: environmental-resistance). Populations show a tendency to rise rapidly in the early stages then more slowly, finally reaching a stable level. This is known as “S” or Sigmoid curve of population. Thus, population plays an important role and controlling factor in the field of wildlife management. The modification done in the population as per the requirement and benefit to the wildlife is called Population manipulation. Manipulation is also done, from wildlife management point of view, to meet specific human goal through the wildlife resource by changing structure, dynamics, and relation (interactions) among three aspects (wildlife population, its habitat and related people) by establishing favourable and lovely balance these aspects. This, it can be said that manipulation may be for the sake of wildlife itself, or, to get specific human goal. Apart from these, the dynamic form of wildlife management which is Environmental manipulation, is the improvement of the environment based on biological principles which require sufficient knowledge and research in the concerned field. It is based on the principle that favourable conditions for wildlife can be created by artificial operations of a dynamic nature applying wildlife management techniques. 2. COMMUNITY

It is association of organisms living naturally in the same area and whose members are in varying degrees interdependent. 41

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The overall combinations of organisms share a common habitat in the development of communities where organisms and populations of different species interact between themselves and with their physical environment to form an ecosystem. Community is a larger unit than the population and it acquires many characteristics that are not found in its constituents, i.e. organisms and the populations. Communities differ from place to place and at the same place at different times. 3. ANIMAL BEHAVIOUR

A. Inter and Intraspecific Relations: Animal behaviour is related with the field of wildlife management. In each animal, there is basic drive through which it shows all types of behavioural responses resulting the survival of the animal. The survival of an animal depends upon the obtaining food, protection against adverse climate and to escape mortality from diseases, parasites and predators. But the survival of animal populations depends upon the build up of successful pair, birth of youngones and making them self-independent. Due to such basic drives, each species shows some specific pattern of behaviour which is characteristic of that species. The factors that affect an animal are called stimuli or agents that cause changes in the activity of the organisms and the changes are called responses. The animal is constantly receiving stimuli from its environment and is continuously integrating and filtering those stimuli important at the time. Response is made to them in different ways. Stimuli may cause conflicting responses also such as when a prey sees predator, it has a tendency to remain hidden or to run-off. Animals receive stimuli from their environment through several means including sound, sight, mechanical forces (touch) and chemicals (scent, taste, and internally secreted hormones). Behavioural responses are of three kinds: i. Major Behavioural Response: It is apparent to see such as run-off, fly-off, courtship, eating, etc. of the animal. In such behaviour, the purpose of the animal is seen clearly and the response is resulted accordingly. ii. Minor Behavioural Response: In such response, the animal is watched carefully. For example, keeping any part of the body (ear, tail, head, etc.) in specific direction is the symbol of particular response. iii. Internal Behavioural Response: Such response is due to chemical secretion inside the body such as hormone, etc. As we know, environment has two components, viz. abiotic (gases, water, etc.) and biotic (plants and animals). Abiotic components of the environment influence the structural and behavioural characteristics of the animals, plants and other forms of life. Biotic factors are the results of interactions among the different organisms of the same or the different species. In the ecosystem, no living organism can live in isolation and all the organisms are closely interlinked and interdependent on each-other for obtaining the food, shelter, protection and other requirements. Animals of one species are linked with animals of the same species or with the animals or plants of the different species and vice versa. If the interrelationship or interaction is in between the organisms of same species, it is known as intraspecific relationship; and if among the organisms of different species, it is called as interspecific relationship. The interspecific relationship may be of three kinds such as: a. Neutralism where none of the species are affected. b. Symbiosis where both the partners are benefited and neither species is harmed (further divided into Mutualism and Commensalisms), and

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c. Antagonism in which one or both the species are pitted against each other (divided into Antibiosis, Parasitism, Predation and Competition). Intraspecific and interspecific relations may be classified into three categories: i. Competition: Competition results when two animals are after the same component of their environment when the supply of that component is limited. Food and reproduction are the two main requirements of the animal. For these two needs, there is competition in the animals at different times. As far as food is concerned, there is no competition in herbivorous animals neither interspecific nor intraspecific because they (cheetal, sambhar, blackbuck, etc.) graze together in herds and do not quarrel for food or move/migrate to other places in case of scarcity of the food. But on the contrary in carnivores, the situation is different; when the food is limited, the largest strong and aggressive animal takes the food and the weaker ones is fled away by it as well as sometimes even killed. For example, tiger sometimes kills the panther to grab the prey hunted by the panther. The hiding of prey killed by tiger or panther is a kind of competition. Sometimes, the young tiger or lion is fled away by its own old parents in the scarcity of food. Generally, after being satisfied, tiger/lion permit its species to take food from its killed prey. In breeding, there is great intraspecific competition. There is even fight among males to find estrus female and there are cases of blood shedding. Breeding-competition is useful as it gives chances to produce genetically improved offspring. There is also competition among the animals for social hierarchy. For this, they show strongness. The length and size of horns and antlers are helpful in such cases, and if not decided, fighting occurs. In fowl, there is unique system to get social hierarchy. It is done by pecking, The strong fowl compels to surrender the weaker one by pecking. They are arranged serially according to strongness and called Peck-order. For details see a head under subhead “Formation of Peck and Social Hierarchy.” ii. Co-operation: Co-operative relation is that in which the animal of the same species or different species co-operate among themselves. To make herd in herbivores is example of such relation. At the time of grazing herd of deer, one or two members remain alert by seeing to and fro to identify any type of danger and give signal to the whole herd to run and escape following them. The co-operation between monkey and cheetal is famous in this regard. The herd of cheetal graze beneath the tree upon which monkey is eating the fruits. The deer (cheetal) eat the unused fruit fallen on the ground. Apart from this, the monkey even emits special sound to escape to the cheetals in case predators like tiger or panther is seen. Likewise, bird (mayna, etc.) sitting on the back of cheetal eats ectoparasites. iii. Neutral Relation: This is a relation in which a member has no relation with other members of the same species. But such relation is difficult in wild animals because this would seldom occur under natural conditions. Though, after mating season, male deer generally depart from the females, however, in that period also they form herd of some males. Hence, neutral-relation generally is not seen in nature. In addition there are other types of behaviour such as Play behaviour that is characteristics of most animals. Deer will frolic running in circles for no apparent reasons, butting heads and doing other things that have no apparent significance. Play is the most useful in establishing social bonds, teaching prey-capture techniques and effective copulation-postures. It is difficult to determine how important play is for survival but it is clearly a natural part of the life of many animals.

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Thus the degree of competition, co-operation or neutrality between the animals depend on a number of factors, and the complexity of these factors in space and time indicates the dynamic character of wildlife ecology. Home-range, territory, etc. are the outcome of such relations. Species whose population are dwindling may ultimately reach an extinction threshold, where a minimum number is required for survival. This is the biological minimum number. If this minimum number decreases below this extinction threshold, the rebuilding of the species is impossible and extinction of the species results which is known as critical limit for a particular species. On contrast, if the number of a population is more than the carrying capacity of the habitat or has obtained optimum density or subsistence density or has come to the stage of stability; their harvesting is very essential before/after reaching such stages for the proper growth of the species; otherwise, the individuals will either die through decimating factors of the environment or through the predators. Such harvesting will enable the species for getting the chance to reach again to the balancing stage. Such surplus number of the population liable to harvest is called shootable surplus, through which we get revenue from wildlife crop. B. Prey and Predation (prey and predator relationship): The fundamental requirements of animal life are food, water and shelter and the satisfaction of the instinctive needs of the species in regard to the latter is the most important. For instance, some species of birds favour trees or short grasses while others favour high trees standing above the level of the main forest. If this condition is not provided or if they are modified in some ways, as by allowing the grass to grow high or by removing the dominant trees, the particular species will shun the locality. Plants through photosynthesis produce food material which is absorbed by animals that are plant eaters. These in turn, when they are preyed upon by meat eating animals, pass the energy on to the latter; generally from a smaller and more numerous prey to a larger and fiercer, though possibly less numerous, predator. Exceptions in this regard are the wild dog and the wolf, which though small make up in fierceness and packstrength enable them to overcome much larger prey and even the big carnivore. It is well known, for instance, that the tiger fears the wild dog. The series of energy transfers is called food chain because of the linkage of one to the other; food chains rarely exceed four or five links and end in a predator which has no enemies. The top link in a food chain is generally controlled by territorial demands or requirements of space or territory for growth and development of the individual of the species and this territorial demand is strongest in predators. The several food chains of an animal community constitute a food web. In an association, the elements are intimately connected and depend on one another. Destruction of the “balance” can be achieved by the destruction of one element and the same principle holds true for food chains. Snakes prey on the field rats which is an enemy of food crops; the hawk attacks certain birds which live on spiders, which in turn live on aphids or plant lice which damage fruit trees. Thus, elimination of snake, hawk or other animals may start a chain reaction which in the end recoils on man who is responsible for upsetting the “balance”. Thus, prey-predator relationship is a kind of relationship of eating and being eaten of one species by another species existing universally among the animals of all kinds of ecosystems. Both predator and prey regulate the population size of each other and ultimately regulate their own populations. For example, the population of predator like tiger increases gradually at the cost of prey population such as deer; but with the rise to some extent in tiger population, there would be a decrease in deer population

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leading to reduction in predator population for want of sufficient food and as it decreases, then prey population rises with decreased population. Hence, there is an oscillation of rise in predator and fall in prey population on one hand and fall in predator and rise in prey population on the other hand. Such happens in all dynamic biological phenomena, but there is some time difference in the periodicity of rise of one and fall in another population and there is no synchronization in such rise and fall. a. Predator: An animal which preys on other inferior or weaker animals. Such phenomenon is called predation. b. Prey: An inferior or weaker animal which is preyed upon by a predator. An animal that may be seized by another to be devoured. Predators have an important role in regulating “balance of nature”. Predatorprey relationship is intricate. When the number of prey of particular species starts downing, the predator starts to prey another prey species. Thus, the predation or the preying of one animal upon another for the sake of food, is merely a step in the energy cycle of food chains. Herbivores are excluded from it. If predation does not exist, the biological pressure or expansion of an organism would soon result in giving no room for other life. Biological pressure is doomed to dissipation against environmental resistance and the multiplication of a series is automatically controlled by predation and disease. Every species has both advantages which enable it to survive and weaknesses which permit other animals to exist. Predation varies with the number of animals in excess of the capacity of the environment to support them, that is, with the fluctuation between biologicalpressure and environmental resistance. Predation losses increase with the buildingup of environmental resistance and decline with the decrease in environmental resistance. The same holds good for changes in the biological-pressure. Predation may be classified in the following types: i. Chance Predation: It is casual and is of no importance. The prey species is temporarily at a disadvantage and is seized by a predator. ii. Habit Predation: Under a stable habitat over a wide range, predators feed regularly on surplus individuals and this does not normally affect the population density. iii. Sanitary Predation: When diseased, crippled, parasitized individuals are taken up by predators. iv. Sucker-list Predation: When mentally and physically deformed individuals are eliminated by predators. When predation departs from the normal phenomenon or losses among the less vigorous and instead takes place among the more vigorous classes, a weakness or breakdown of the environment is indicated, as if when only the best bulls are taken by a tiger. The disturbing effects of predation are beneficial in that they force the prey species to find a new and sometimes better range. They definitely contribute towards maintaining the vigours of the stock. c. Upper Limit and Lower Limit: The Upper limit is the size of food that predators can normally eat and is determined by ability to overcome the prey. The lower limit of the food of a predator is the size below which the animal is not compensated for the

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time spent on predation. The calorific values of individual foods has, in the process of evolution, determined the quantity of food eaten which in turn is adjusted to the size of animal, its activity and its metabolic make-up. Herbivorous foods have fewer calories than animal’s foods and therefore require a larger digestive system. d. Bergmann Principle (Bergmann’s Rule): The number of calories required varies with animal bulk. Cold weather foods may be more concentrated and hot weather foods more moisture producing. Young animals require more food than adults and active animals require more than sluggish ones. There is a tendency towards increase of size in cold climates and in the same species the representative from a northern or colder climate will be smaller. This is a reflex of the need for conservation and radiation of heat and is called Bergmann Principle. Wild animals require several times the calorific requirements of man, which are about 15 to 20 calories per day for each pound of the body weight. The food requirements of the system of a particular species are adjusted to its digestive ability of its “instinctive selection pattern”. It has been established that animals are able to recognize difference in foods. Hence, according Bergmann’s rule, geographical races of a species inhabiting cold region are much larger in size than the races inhabiting warmer region. This rule suggests that as the temperature decreases from the equator towards the poles, the body size of the individuals living there increases in size can be explained by considering that the larger animals have a less surface area per unit of weight than the smaller one and, therefore, the proportionate loss of heat by radiation is less than in smaller animals. In animals living in warmer areas, the smaller size of the body is more suited to these animals. The rule is well supported by the wildlife found in cold and warmer areas. The largest bears are the polar bears found in far north, while the smaller black bears have a smaller size. e. Principles of Predation: The principles of predation may be stated as follows: i. The term predator does not necessarily denote a destructive animal. ii. Generally, predators live on annual surplus produced by a prey species. iii. Except in special circumstances, no predator except man is capable of exterminating a prey species. iv. The most destructive predators, when occurring only sparsely, can have little effect upon the total numbers of desirable prey species. v. A reduction in the number of predators on a given area does not necessarily mean a reduction in predator pressure on a specific prey animal. vi. Herbivorous animal population tends to increase towards self-destruction, if not held in check by various counter forces. For example, hoofed animals and rodents are inclined to over populate their habitat when effective controls are absent. The end result of this over-population is usually a “crash” brought on by starvation, disease or emigration. Predation may be considered a beneficial service for most prey species of this type. Predators may be an important factor in the survival of some prey species. vii. The net effect of predation upon a particular prey species is measured, not in terms of its per cent occurrence in the predator’s diet, but rather in terms of number lost to predation in relation to the total population of the prey species. viii. Availability, above all else, governs the diet of the most predatory animals.

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ix. Predator control may benefit a desired species on areas where other environmental conditions are favourable for increase, specially when the numbers of the prey species are well below the normal. x. The need or value of predator-control in game management is proportional to the intensity of the game-harvest. f. Problems in Predator Control: Problems in regard to predation and predator control are: i. There is a need for a proper definition of the word predator and a better identification of predators to be classified as truly destructive and requiring control. ii. Control efforts need to be specific for the target predator. iii. The cost of predator control to protect livestock has often cost more than the livestock is worth. iv. Emphasis should be upon control or alleviation of the damage, rather than upon control of predators. v. There is a need for the recognition of the many values of the predators. vi. There is need to provide people with biological information concerning the benefits and values of predation and the need for caution and careful direction in control. In nature, the biological balance represents the evolutionary adjustment between breeding potential and environmental resistance. The breeding potential always tends to press upwards against environmental resistance and it is normal for there to be a tendency towards increase in population. Productivity tends to decrease with increase of abundance and to increase with decrease of numbers. 4. COMMUNITY LIFE, HERD LIFE, PECK AND SOCIAL HIERARCHY, EMOTION OF LOVE AND SENSE OF PRIVACY, COMMUNICATION CHANNELS, AND COURTSHIP & ROMANCE IN WILD ANIMALS A. Community Life

Is it justified to call “wild animals” to live together with the same pattern of love and affection as we have? Lion to whom we regard as terror of the forest; is often called the innocent creature by the naturalist because if the beasts like lion, tiger, panther, elephant, etc. are supplied/provided constant adequate food would most probably give up hunting or harming being humble creatures. It is the hunger and scarcity of food in the habitat which leads them to strangulate the feable ones and satisfy their requirements. Even the men, who are the superior most in mental arena, often turn violent if not looked after properly and kill each-other for food, caste superiority, social dominance and other factors having so many isms; then what’s about wild animals when they are not cared and looked after properly rather are killed mercilessly and their natural homes (habitats) are encroached and destroyed by us causing more and more scarcity in their basic needs, viz. food, water and shelter. Why then, carnivores and other big mammals like elephant, etc. are blamed for slaughter? Almost all the species in wilderness zone live together in groups or herds or pecks consisting individuals of the same species. The number in a herd varies with the species, environmental condition, climatic condition, spatio-temporal distribution of basic needs and other factors. Such habit of groupism might have developed for the sake of unity and co-operation to keep away the foes or due to the love and affection among

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the individuals of the group. It has been observed that even the rats have a stable social organization with accepted rules for property rights, courtship, mating and rearing of the families. There are also superiors and inferiors within the herd/peck. For superiority, the animals have to compete other members of the herd, for example, a territory within which the animals herd stays and does not allow any intruder to move into such territory, but unity and co-operation lie out on the onset of the main breeding season when pairs settle down to family cares. The wild animals have to contend not only against inanimate factors in their surroundings but also against in their animate environment. An individual has to compete for its food with fellows of its own or other species (intraspecific and interspecific). It has to struggle against enemies and parasites. There is then an interdependence and interrelationship among animals living together in a particular habitat/area such as in a forest, or mountain, or desert, or water, or swamp, or marshy land forming an animal community. The individuals within the community are bound together by common interests. They influence each other’s lives, and by their separate activities contribute to the maintenance of the community as a whole. The relationships between the members of the community depend largely upon the food and its distribution. The chain of food starts from the plants which form the basic food of animals. In an animal community, plant eaters form the basic, the most numerous class. They form the foundation upon which the communal organization is built up. These plant eaters provide food for and make possible the existence of carnivores. Living within the community, as a group apart, there are also animals which earn their livelihood as scavengers feeding on remains of other animals. Besides, there is a sector of weaker creatures which are unable to find food for themselves, live as parasites upon their hosts. Finally, there are decomposers feeding on dead/dying tissues and thus cleaning the environment by removing pollution and making its suitable as well as viable to live in. Within the community, every individual plays an important and vital role. For instances, the plant eaters (herbivores) act as a check on the too exuberant spread of plant life. The role of flesh eaters (carnivores) is to control over increase of these herbivorous species. In this way, through feedback mechanism, can be said that “to eat or to be eaten” is the question in animal society. The number of individuals/species living in a community is not fixed and fluctuate with time and season as well as change in surroundings. But the margin of increase/decrease established by the law of eating and being eaten, is kept within narrow limits unless disturbed by external factors such as floods, prolonged period of droughts, epidemics, human interferences, etc. I. INTERRELATIONSHIP IN WILD ANIMALS

As stated above, the wild animals are bound together by common interest and, thus, they live together in a particular type of habitat because they find in such a habitat conditions which are best suited to their needs. The relationships that exist between the natives of an ecosystem are those between the members of a species and those between the members of different species. There are prey-prey relationships, predatorpredator relationships and prey-predator relationships existing in the ecosystem. To examplify the above fact, the following relationships may be quoted: a. Relationships of Cats (Family Felidae) with other Carnivores: Carnivores are preyed upon and destroyed by fellows of their own and other species. Tiger, the supreme in its forest, must fear by another tiger. It also fears and avoids man, but competition with its own kind is the more intimate factor. Panther is destroyed at

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its kill by tiger or by more powerful rivals of its own species. Even it is deprieved of its right to a meal by wild dogs and hyaenas. Tiger or panther drags its prey under cover to eat without interference. Besides hunters, there are scavengers such as wild dogs, jackals, hyaenas, vultures, crows, etc. ready to appropriate food of top carnivores. b. Relationships of Cats (Family Felidae) with Herbivores: The carnivores like lion, tiger, panther and others play very important role in keeping and maintaining the forest ecosystem in balance. When the numbers of herbivores increase overwhelmingly, the carnivores prey upon them and check their numbers. Likewise, the numbers are maintained and balanced in other ecosystems through food chains/food webs. c. Interfamily Relationships in Family Canidae: It is seen that in India, there is little rivalry between different species of the family. For instances, wild dogs hunt in forests, whereas wolves in open country, foxes seek smaller prey though wolves and foxes live in the same animal communities, and the jackals have scavenging trade. Here, a question arises in regard of the rivalries between animals of the same species, and between different pecks of wild dogs or different pecks of wolves. It is said as Chinese proverb that “two tigers cannot share the same kill” means each tiger hunts in its own territory making a better division of food reducing competition. But what’s about such territorial adjustment between pecks of wild dogs of the same forests, or, whether one peck establishes hunting right over its territory and resent the intrusion of another, or, members of the species prey on each other, are not known still perfectly. It is observed that wolves course foxes, jackals attack domestic dogs or, domestic species attack the wild. And, hence, it seems that there is a bond of recognition between various members of the family. It is often found that interbreeding between the wild and tame species takes place, and that is why, wild dog does not attack jackal or hyaena respecting them as blood brothers. In this way, family bond may be said as more tight than that of inter family. d. Interrelationships of Family Canidae with other Members of the Community: Interfamily relationship is arised and governed mainly by the question of food and competition for it. Again apart from size, it also depends on the type of habitat chosen by other animals like carnivores. Thus, each type of habitat consists its characteristic animal community. For instance, in Peninsular India, wolves do not compete food with tigers and they live in separate animal communities. This is the reason that the wolf lives with animals of open country or desert and the tiger with forest communities. In its own territory, the wolf’s chief competition for large prey is the panther. But the situation with the wild dog is different. It lives in forests where tiger, panther and other carnivores compete with it for large prey; because a peck of wild dogs, if hungry and sufficient in numbers, never hesitate to attack a panther, a bear, or even a tiger. Sometimes, tigers are killed by wild dogs. Therefore, the availability and supply of food greatly affects the relationship between the members of the community especially of family canidae. e. Relationships of Deer (Family Cervidae) with other Herbivores: The relationships of cervidaeans with other herbivores which are not their enemies differ from species to species and, hence, it is species-specific. Cheetal are, perhaps, the most tolerable and sociable among the deer. They are seen associated with swamp deer, blackbuck, nilgai and even with pigs where they inhabit the same area. Sambhar hinds associate with swamp deer but not the stags. Langurs/monkeys are the special

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friends of cheetal. Deer and wild cattle gather under trees, where monkeys are feeding, to eat the leaves and fruits dropped wastefully by the monkeys which also produce warning signal for them for the arrival of predator. B. Herd Life

In hoofed animals, herd life is a form of safeguard. When many herds are listening, scenting, or keeping a lookout, the danger of being attacked by enemy or predator is reduced to a minimum. Consequently, a number of individuals gather into groups for defensive reasons. Among the deer, bison and wild pig, the females and their youngs live in suitable herds. The adult stags, bulls and boars form separate male groups in approximately equal members. But at rutting season, these clubs of males break up and each male must conquer his harem a new, often at the cost of bitter battles with members of his own herd, which has now became his rivals. C. Peck And Social Life

a. Formation of Peck: Under social behaviour in certain wild animals, there is sociallife in the species like fox, jackal, wild dog, elephant, etc. originating from prolonged association of parents and youngs. The family life continues to live and hunt together. Such collective strategies of wild animals save them from the attack of top carnivores or enemy. In this connection, it forms a peck. In times, two or more pecks may join forces to form quite a large assemblage. In India, this happens generally during the hot and rains. With collective efforts, the bigger prey can be secured and the younger generation gets a better opportunity to find mates. But with the coming of the main breeding season, the big assemblage dissolve and pairs settle down to family cares. In this way, in gregarious/flocking species, a social system has been set up headed by a leader based on dominance and showing the most powerful in strength. Such condition is called Peck or Pecking order. b. Social Hierarchy: There is also competition among the wild animals for Social hierarchy. As stated earlier, for this they show strongness. Generally, the size of horns and antlers in the deciding criteria, but if not, lastly fighting occurs. There is another unique system in regard to social hierarchy in fowl done by pecking. The weaker fowl is compelled to surrender by the strong fowl by means of pecking. Being arranged serially according to strongness and known as Peck Order. The classical example of such behavior is seen in deer by the battle of stags. As mentioned earlier, many hoofed animals form large herds occupying extensive areas, but without ranging the land at will. On the contrary, modern research observed that each herd stays within invisible but rigid boundaries in its territory. Moreover, no individual can wander around the herd’s domain as it pleases. It must submit to the strict hierarchical order of the herd, and obey the rules and customs of the species which has superiors and inferiors. Studies show that small herds call the animals at the top of the hierarchy. In such a society (herd), the individuals have been ranked as the Alpha animal, the next in rank the Beta animal, and so on down to the lowest in the herd as Omega animal. But this herd hierarchy is complicated by the sex life. In the herd of mixed sexes; the males high in rank mate with females low in rank and the chosen females automatically climb the social ladder. On the other hand, males low in rank have fewer opportunities for pairing than do their superiors. If they mate with a female higher in rank, it is only a hasty and stolen pleasure which does not at all promote them in rankings. The part played by herd’s rank in sex life is more conspicuous among apes than among hoofed

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animals. The higher ranking animals in mixed herds are by no means always males. Among deer or cattle, the lead animal may be a female which has won her position in fights with other females. Moreover, the alpha animals by no means secure their positions at the head of the herd, and they must always be prepared for rebellions which may overthrow them. The ranking is dynamic energy of the individual which may rise in it, but may fall also. In case of blackbuck, the males fight fierce battles to acquire the higher hierarchical order/rank. This results physical injury leading to the loss of horn. Low grunts of challenge are emitted by the bucks during rut. They raise their heads so that the horns touch their backs, eye glands swell and open up, and they start about with a chin up stiff-legged gait. The males in rut are ever ready for a fight. When one of them succeeds in establishing its supremacy, the loosers move to another area to test their strength. These bouts are a natural process in selecting mating partners. The best males mate with the best females so that only animals with great physical fitness are born and added to the herd. Further, the leader of the herd is generally an old and over vigilant female. D. EMOTION OF LOVE AND SENSE OF PRIVACY

a. In Lion: The lions live in family which is called pride and are unusually available as patient fathers. They allow their offsprings to tug at them, bite them, pluck their manes and pull their tails, and in general tyrannize over them but without losing their tempers. If the tumbling kittens behave too much nuisance, they stand up quietly, shake themselves, and retreat to a quieter place. The lion engaged in intercourse with mate, if privacy disturbed by the other fellow, become frightened to the intruder and may kill such fellow. The weaker rival, as a rule, soon adopts a characteristic posture, as is the case with fish and bird. The lion does not allow disturbance in its privacy, but as a whole, they do not kill each other except by mistake. b. In Polar Bear: This bear is more sociable than other species of beer, but forms loose community rather than coherent peck. It feeds on seal meat in the wild. The pregnant polar bear stuffs on seal blubber which conclusively affects fat and vitamin content of her milk. During the polar winter, the she-bear holes up in an ice cave, snowed in, and here drops her cubs usually two in a litter. During this period, the she-bear lives on her stored fat and also nourishes the cubs. The family emerges out of the cave in the spring. The mother feeds and cares for them till the following year. Till the young ones need protection, the she-bear does not allow mating and remains desertification. c. In Elephants: Though the bull elephants are aggressive in nature, but they maintain their territory, tender as chivalrous and loving husbands. They show affection towards one another. Just as man uses his hands for caressing and grasping, the elephant also uses its trunk serving as hand for affectionate exchanges. Elephants have longest gestation period (about twenty months) showing affection for their young. The baby elephant in its small size, usually stays under the mother’s body between her legs. Other elephants also take care and look after the babies by feeding them and warming with their bodies. The childless female elephants also perform other duties. Ascent is attained by overcoming through contests with near equal in rank, either by bluff or by actual fighting. Maurice Burton observed in African elephant that a pregnant elephant alongwith some other female elephants separated from the herd. The pregnant elephant concealed herself in the thicket of the jungle to get privacy for the purpose of delivery while other females were guarding her in

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front of the thicket. After sometime, the guarding females rejoined the herd. Afterwards, the pregnant female reappeared with a newborn elephant calf. It is clear that the elephants always prefer privacy for private performance like mating, delivery and so on. E. COMMUNICATION CHANNELS

It is established fact that there are various means of communication between individuals of wild animal population (species) particularly those living in aggregation/group/herd/peck such as lion, tiger, deer, wild dog, ape, monkey, etc. The individual emits particular sound for particular purpose like love, pleasure, mating, anger, fear, danger, to bring the members of the herd or troop together, for caution and warning, and so on. In this manner, they give specific signal through producing specific vocal sounds for specific purpose to lead smooth mode of life and safety. Apart from these, some specific behavior is also found which denotes specific motive. For example, in apes and monkeys, their habit of fur-picking is a kind of amative carers of courtship. Its repeated indulgence shows powerful bond and a means of social communication between members of a group. The apes have a vocabulary of special vent to their feelings. In case of family felidae, the cats are much more limited in their language having less need being unsocial in habit. But on contrast, the lion is the most social and vocal in nature. Cats have a variety of sound expressions for different emotions. The grunting cough sound denotes a charging tiger, cat like yowl is of a dying tiger, loud hissing sound notices angry or frightened tiger, sambhar-like keek indicates a hunting tiger, and high pitched musical sound (loud deep-throated roar) repeating at short intervals by the tiger is the mating call of tiger to call the tigress. In family canidae, there are sound like whine, growl and snarl by which an individual gives expression to fear, anger and other emotions. The weird cry sometimes given out by a jackal is commonly associated with one in attendance on a tiger and such animal is called Pheal. The cry is an expression of fear but not necessarily associated with the presence of a tiger. There are calls which assemble a peck of wolves or wild dogs. There are directive sounds given to the hunt by the leaders of the herd when pursuing prey. Besides these calls in canadaeans, there are also calls associated with sex and mating by which males and females communicate. Among the family bovidae; in gaur and other wild oxen, the sense of smell is perhaps keenly developed. The strong body odours given out by many of these animals must be a means by which member of a herd keep together. Many of them are equipped with special scent glands which serve the purpose of communication channel. All the typical sheeps have a face gland (in male) situated in a shallow depression of the skull, just below the eye. In urial, the foot glands give out semifluid secretion. The secretion of these foot glands by scenting the ground, over which sheep and goat pass, enables members of a scattered flock to ascertain the whereabouts of their fellows. Likewise, all male deer (except musk deer) have face gland which serves the purpose as stated above; while the male musk deer has musk and caudal glands emitting scents to attract the females. Trumpets of the elephant is well demarcated. On the basis of field experiences, it has been observed in elephants that if pinna are in moving condition but trunk and tail are in normal position, the animal is in normal mood; but it is frightened if the tail and trunk are twisted and moving but pinna are static. It has been seen in Savannah that the elephants suddenly came out together, which were hidden from each other in the long thick grass, without making any audible sound. It was concluded by the researchers that the elephants use a secret language which is not audible to human ear because the language was caught on a tape recorder when

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played at a high speed. It was concluded that due to presence of thick shrubs or grass in the forest, higher frequencies easily get absorbed but the lower ones are not affected. Therefore without seeing each other, the elephants can keep in touch even if they are at distant. F. COURTSHIP AND ROMANCE IN WILD ANIMALS

Love and romance permits not only in man’s nature but even in the lives of wild animals (beasts, etc. of the land, birds, etc. of the air, and fishes, etc. of the water). Each of these groups differs in courtship behavior. Courtship may be defined as a special behaviour patterns which form the normal preliminaries to mating. It includes all forms of action executed by members of one sex to stimulate members to the other sex to sexual activity. The studies of courtship shows that courtship is required only where active co-operation of the sex is needed and sperm discharged in economised, and it is only when the reflex machinery of pairing is under the control of higher centres in the brain. a. In Fishes: In majority of fishes, no courtship appears to exist. Courtship with striking adornment displayed by the males is found only in a few fishes with internal fertilization or with peculiar breeding habits. In some fishes like Top minnows and Cave fishes, fertilization is internal and the males are often brightly coloured and armed with special prolongation of ventral fins or tail. For instance, in Sword tail, the handsome breeding males swim excitedly round the females, occasionally giving them a dig with their long tail. In Stickbacks, the display of bright colours assumed by the breeding males seem to have a sexually stimulating effect on the females. b. In Amphibians: The anurans (frogs and toads) have no display courtship since the fertilization is external. However, the meeting of the sexes for embracement of females by the males is facilitated by the croaking of the males which has certainly a sexually stimulating function. In urodales (tailed amphibians), fertilization is internal and courtship is not infrequent. It usually consists of the male rubbing himself against the female discharging the secretion of special scent glands. When it reaches its highest pitch the breeding males, which are usually brightly coloured, dance round the females in striking postures while fanning the scent emitting from their special glands with the help of their tails. The males of these species deposit their sperm in spermatophore and this must be picked up by female for its fertilization. It has been seen that females are quite irresponsive to the presence of isolated spermatophores but it feels bound by some peculiar inner compulsion to pick them up when stimulated by the male’s performance. c. In Reptiles: Courtship in some forms of modern reptiles is such a widespread prelude to mating that it seems to be characterized many extinct groups as well. The males of some freshwater turtles, like Red-eared turtle when courting, orients himself in the water so that it is directly in front of the female and facing her. With his forefeet close together, the male vibrates his claws against her head. If the female is receptive, she swims forward slowly while the male backs away and finally the female sinks slowly down. The male then mounts her from behind, clutching her shell with its forefeet. This is followed by copulation. The males of some terrestrial turtles, viz. Gopher tortoise begins courtship by extending its neck and bobbing its head up and down. The courted female may bob

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its head in return. The male advances and nips at the female’s shell, head and neck and then circles the female as it turns away from the male. As soon as the female shows signs of response, the male mounts her shell from the rear and begins a series of pumping moments that bump the near of his shell against the ground. Males of smallest box turtles also nip at the females’ shell, head and neck, and in addition, but against her shell with his rear claws. Male crocodilians bellow during the mating season, but it is not known whether this sound attracts receptive females or warns other males. It is assumed that the sound emitted by the pitcher-like structure situated on male’s head, produces resonance which attracts the opposite sex partner (female) for mating. The American alligator, which copulates in water, grasps the female’s neck with his jaws and slips the end of his body under the female to facilitate copulation. Lizards have a rather elaborate courtship pattern usually involving displays and posturing by the males, which often have distinctive patches of colour or their sides or on their throats. The male bobs up and down before the female by bending and straightening its limbs. This usually exposes the patches of colour which varies with the species. Males of some species, such as Green anole, have throat dew laps that are expanded during courtship exposing brightly coloured skin. If the female seems receptive, the male approaches and straddles her back or legs with his jaws. Just before copulation, its tail is bent under the females. The courtship pattern of snakes are simpler and usually consists of the males’ crawling over the back of the female and often adopting every curve the female body tails. In some types, like water snakes, the male rubs its chin against the female’s back, the male frequently nudges the female with its head. When the male of a King cobra crawls on the back of a receptive female, it flicks its tongue against the female repeatedly, with its head raised a few inches above the female. During the procedure, the female holds her head and neck off the ground and spreads her hood. The male nudges her head and neck with his snout and finally lifts the rear of her body with his tail. Up to this point, the courting pair crawls slowly forward but ceases to move when the climax is reached. d. In Birds: Among the birds, courtship is the most universal and striking. To bring the sexes together and ensuring coition requires even more elaborate stimulation in birds than other animals because of their great mobility and the fact that the male cannot grasp the female. The breeding of birds is mostly a seasonal phenomenon when the gonads develop. The changes in their behavior with the ripening of the gonads vary greatly with the species. The actual procedure of display is varied as any other feature of bird’s life. In the simplest case, the display serves to bring the sexes together to enable recognition and at a later stage as a stimulus to copulation. The song is one feature of the elaborate business of display and courtship. Songs and displays are responsible for many secondary sexual characters in which the male and female differ. For example, a male peacock spread his beautiful feathers to the full and occasionally vibrating its quills to produce a rustling sound, turning from side to side before his mate (female); the beautiful plumage of male peacock or pheasants and attractive combs and wattles of Turkey are displayed before the female in a manner which is clearly stimulant to copulation; a Barn-door cock with dropped wing and a special call circling close round a hen, gives indication to be ready for coitus.

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Generally in nonavian vertebrate species particularly in mammals, the female is showy and fancy to attract the opposite sex. But in birds, where the sexes differ in coloration, it is the male who is the more showy provided with special plumage or comb and who takes the initiative adopting more passive role in the display and courtship ceremonials (except in the case of polyandrous species where the normal conditions are reversed). In birds, where the sexes are outwardly alike in colour and shape (as in Larks, Pipits, water birds, etc.), they apparently recognise each other’s sex only by mutual response and performance to each other’s behaviour by going through various actions such as head-shaking ceremony and so on. In many birds, courtship and coitus include ritual feeding of the females by the male. This is proved by the fact that the female, like Robin will not feed herself when food is all around, but will beg the male to give to her. Other aspects of the courtship may show this reversion to infantile behavior. During courtship the birds, like grebes and divers present weeds to their males; while penguins give stones, and warblers offer twigs or leaves to their mates. In all such cases, the objects presented constitute nestling materials and it appears that occurrence of such association is to be found between the pleasurable breeding activities of nest building and courtship. For the purpose of courtship; the males of the fast flying falcons fly straight to their mates, the goldeneye drake raises a jet of water with its feet, while Grebes and divers and various diving ducks use their diving powers to appear from below the surface in striking poses close to their mates. e. In Mammals: The frequency and duration of courtship is more or less completely absent in case of mammals. The reason behind it seems to be the fact that the reproductive activities in mammalian female are very strictly controlled by means of hormones and at certain periods when ova are shed from the ovary, the sexual instincts are strongly stimulated, and the female may readily mate with almost any male. However, in most mammals, since the female preference counts for so little, the winning of females by battle will secure them as mates and consequently size and strength, weapons of offence and defence are the chief secondary sexual characters. In monkeys and apes, there appears the tendency, which reaches its climax in civilized man, of emancipation of female’s sexual emotion from the strict cyclical control of hormones and allowing them free play at others times than at oestrus. The mating season is extended over most of the year, and the animals are found ready to pair at other periods of menstrual cycle than oestrus. In such circumstances, it would be expected that the stimulation by courtship and display would once more be of biological importance and as a matter of fact male eutherians particularly cervidaeans, felidaeans, probocidaeans and primates do show a number of striking sexual adornments like scent glands, mane, tusks, trunk, pheromones, bright coloured hairs of face, beard, moustache, etc. Thus, it may be concluded that in courtship behaviour pattern in different vertebrates, generally three elements are recognised such as sexual stimulation, threat to other males, and mutual stimulation while rearing a family. One may thus infer that if there were no romance leading to courtship, life would have been a wasteland and tasteless. As discussed above regarding animal behavior, etc., it may be said that what an organism does in an environment is known as its behavior which can be observed as a response elicited by the organism to stimulus received from an environment or from within. The studies of animal behaviour is called Ethology. The above stated facts

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connected with behavior of the animals as well as their community and social life, emotion, communication, and courtship may be summarized as follows: i. Cost Benefit Analysis: When the investment of a particular behaviour helps in terms of gain. For example, the dance of a peacock will attract mates but simultaneously it might attract the attention of the predator also. ii. Predator vs Prey: The tiger (predator) remains active in the early morning and late evening because its prey (for example, deer) would also be feeding then being less alert. iii. Competition for Resources: When stronger individuals remain near the resources and weakers are driven away. For instance, certain macaque troops would remain inside the forest and weaker ones would be driven towards the edges because of the competition for the resources. iv. Living in Groups: It is an anti-predatory strategy or for help in finding mates. For example, wild dogs stay in groups so that they unitedly hunt down a prey. v. Sexual Conflicts and Sexual Selection: Such behavior indicates the choice or preference for a mate, generally exercised by the female. The example may be taken as a cheetal stag which has larger antlers than another male has better chance to mate; a female Baya weaver would select that male which has made the best nest. vi. Parental Care: Such behaviour is found in so many animals but not in all. For example, the elephant has elaborate parental care which sometimes includes the help from other relatives of the mother. In snakes, King cobra makes a nest for its young ones. vii. Mating System: Such behavioural pattern of mating comes in the forms of monogamy and polygamy. For example, Baya weaver is polygamous while Saras crane is monogamous. viii. Co-operation, Selfishness and Altruism: Such behaviour helps in propagation of the species. For example, in case of wild dogs, the relatives of the parents show altruistic behavior by taking care of the young ones; while a male tiger does not help the female in rearing the cubes. ix. Communication (Signals): This behavior helps in obtaining mates, or guarding territory, etc. For instance, a tiger would declare its territory by claw markings and urine sprays on some prominent trees. Frogs and toads call out loudly to attract the mates in rainy season. 5. POPULATION STABILITY/STRUCTURE

In nature, the stability of any wildlife population depends upon the balance of bioticpotential (the maximum growth rate of wildlife population which is obtained in ideal favourable condition of the habitat) and environmental resistance. If biotic potential is optimum and the environmental resistance is in the same ratio, wildlife population becomes static (there will be neither growth nor loss). But if biotic potential is of high quality and environmental resistance is less, the population will increase always. On the contrary, when biotic potential is less and environmental resistance is more, there will be declination in the population. In other words, it can be said that when these two opposite forces remain in balance, the population remains static; and when they become imbalanced, there is gain/loss in wildlife population depending upon the condition. Also see Chapter 8 under head “Population Structure and Population Cycles”. A. Harvest for Population Stability: Wildlife is a renewable crop of the land. Like any other crop, it can be increased if properly managed or may become scarce or disappear, if not adequately cared for. The usual purpose of management is to

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produce the largest possible crop of game for harvesting, compatible with other important land uses such as agriculture and forestry. For scientific management, wildlife biologists are employed to study the life histories of important game species and their actual relationship to each other and to their surroundings. The results of their studies provide a firm, factual basis for administrative action and the management practices to be introduced. The wildlife crop may be divided into two categories such as: a. Breeding Stock: Which must be large enough to produce an abundant crop for the next year. b. Biological Surplus: Which can and should be harvested annually. The production of this crop depends upon many factors mainly as: i. Protection of the Breeding Stock: Wildlife has three main enemies like man, natural predator and disease. Hence, good management requires the effective control of hunting and trapping. Natural predators also take a share of the game crop but normally they take mostly the eggs or young ones and the foolish or sick individuals and, thus, maintaining natural balance as per the carrying capacity. Disease can also reduce the amount of wildlife, but is seldom a serious cause of loss except when a species becomes over-abundant or is concentrated in large numbers in particular areas. ii. Proper Regulation of the Annual Harvest: In every country, wildlife has decreased markedly in abundance with the advance of civilization until hunting was effectively controlled and regulations enforced. Wildfife conservation means wise use of wildlife. Thus, the purpose of game laws should be to permit the maximum possible harvest of the annual crop without depleting the breeding stock on which next year’s production depends. iii. Good Food and Shelter for Wildlife: Food and shelter are two prime requisites for life, both for animals as well as humans. Each species has its particular requirements for food and shelter which is different from any other. Tiger, leopard, wild boar, jungle fowl, partridges and quail may all occupy the same jungle, but except in search of water, they seldom are found in abundance in exactly the same type of vegetation and topography. When the precise reasons for this have to be found out, the manager will know what small changes to introduce in the management of the forest so as to produce more of one species or the other. It is known, however, that second growth forests containing many species of trees, shrubs and with weedy patches or openings here and there, produce a much greater abundance of wildlife than do dense, extensive forests largely made up for one or two species. It is also known that a hundred acre cultivated field all of one crop and containing no weedy or jungle patches will produce less partridges than ten, separate tenacre fields surrounded by hedges, irrigation ditches or jungle. Hence, one of the first steps in wildlife management is to arrange for an annual census of game in abundance. One of the main duties of wildlife staff should be to conduct periodical census or species in respective areas. B. Population Dynamics: Population dynamics is the studies of analysis of the changes in the numbers of animals in wildlife population at a particular time. In true sense, such changes in population are not so simple because the growing members in the population start breeding attaining adulthood. In such conditions, the growth rate in population is just like compound interest.

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C. Population Curve/Growth Form: To study the change in wildlife population, generally, it is represented in the form of population growth curve or growth-form. Suppose, in a favourable condition but empty space, one pair of birds is kept with the assumption that it produces two youngs (one male and one female) per year. In this way, in one year the number will be four, in second year eight, in third year sixteen and so on. Hence, in the beginning, the growth rate of the population is slow and in later years (time), it is faster and faster. But a time comes when it reaches at the climax. This climax comes when the population becomes at par with the carrying capacity of the habitat. After this, environmental resistance starts and under decimating factors, the growth in number of animal becomes seized. If the number of the animal becomes more than the carrying capacity of the habitat, then firstly there will be loss and afterwards due to balance in birth and mortality, the number will be almost alike. If there is balance in biotic potential and environmentalresistance, the population growth curve will be like sigmoid nature assuming that the carrying capacity of the habitat remains alike. It is an ideal condition and by comparing this, the condition of any other wildlife population may be assessed. Such sigmoid curve cannot be obtained, if biotic-potential is not systematized or if the population number is not dependent upon the carrying capacity of the habitat, etc. Hence, the curve of population may be of the following types: i. Sigmoid Curve (Sigmoid growth form): In this type, population has a tendency to rise considerably rapidly in the early stages. Later on, this rapid rise slows down until a stable level is reached. Since the shape of the graph of this stage comes like “S” (sigma), is called sigmoid curve or Sigmoid growth form as shown in Fig. 5.1.

Fig. 5.1: Sigmoid curve

ii. Flat-type Curve (geometric growth form): In this type, population is more or less static, i.e. there are no notable rises or falls. Its graph is flat, viz. “J” shaped and hence also called “J”-shaped growth form as shown in Fig. 5.2. iii. Irruptive-type Curve: In this type of curve, there is a sudden upward rise as a result of favourable conditions. iv. Fluctuating-type Curve: In such type of curve, there are slow rises in the curve by periodical slow declines. D. Annual Fluctuation in Number: When any wildlife population at any habitat becomes established, it should not be understood that there is no fluctuation in the number of the animal. In real sense, in that place where carrying capacity is almost static, there is also annual and seasonal fluctuation in the number of animal as per the availability of food, inherent endocrine cycle, plant phenology, breeding season, etc.

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Fig. 5.2: J-shaped growth form

E. Turnover Rate: When it is said that wildlife population is static, it does not mean that it is totally inactive because in each population birth and death is continued and hence new members come in place of matured and old ones. The rate at which new individuals come in place of old ones, it is called turnover rate. It is generally expressed in the beginning of breeding-season in percentage of young ones in respect of total number of the animal. For example, if 100 animals of a species are living in any year before beginning of breeding season (or at the end of hunting season) there are 75 young ones and 25 adult, then the turnover rate of that species will be called 75%. The turnover rate is the symbol of productivity of a wildlife population. If the turnover rate is high, then the productivity of that population is high and as a result the yield will be more from that population. F. Manipulation (for harvesting purposes): The fluctuation in the number of wildlife population results gain and loss to the wildlife manager as well as society. When the number rises, there is more yield which is gain (benefit); but when the number decreases, there is less yield which is not only loss but also hamper the necessities of the society. Hence, it is essential that the number of wildlife population should be kept in such high stage that it may give maximum yield and there is minimum possibility of losses. This is called “Wildlife population Manipulation”. In other words, population manipulation is that work through which the number of wildlife population may be kept at such high stage by minimizing the fluctuation in population so that the yield (benefit/gain) to be harvested from the wild animals may be taken maximally on sustained basis. To achieve this objective, the condition of the habitat and wildlife population is studied deeply. By improving both of them, the density of the population and turnover rate are enhanced as well as it is also tried to minimize the sources of losses by studying the relations between the wild animals and humans of that very habitat. For this, it is necessary to execute the programme (project) preparing the requisite changes in the relations among structure of wildlife population and its (population) dynamics. It must be assessed time to time observing the result. Manipulation may be categorized in the following kinds: i. Manipulation in Population Structure: For this purpose, there should be study on the distribution of available species of a particular area. It should be tried to minimize the vermin species, if available. General predators should not be considered as vermin because they are an important link in the food chain. The meaning to say is that the ecosystem should not be hampered on the basis of vermin animals. The animals which are on the verge of extinction should be conserved and the animals should be introduced/reintroduced which are extinct from that area.

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a. To bring normalcy in the ecosystem, the wildlife manager should focus on that animal which is to be managed. For this, there should be studies on the density, age-distribution and ratio of males and females after getting census of that species. b. By studying the age-ratio of wildlife population, the manager should increase the density of the population as well as he should do such changes so that there should be maximum number of breeding animals (breedingstock). For the purpose, the puberty age may be brought sooner by nutritious food and medicines.There should be also ban on hunting of such animals by observing body shape and position of horn/antler. This will give another benefit improving age-weight ratio and getting more meat due to killing the old animals. c. The manager should also study on the nature of forming male-female pair in the population assessing whether the male makes pair with only one female in a year or from more than one female. The improvement in malefemale ratio can be brought by studying the nature of pairing. If male forms pair in a year only with one female, the male/female ratio should be equal. If males are more in number, they should be introduced (migrated) in such places where its number is less. If females are more in number, the males should be introduced, if space available, from other places. If one male forms pair with different females, the breeding capacity of the adult males should be increased by providing nutritious food, etc. so that they can breed successfully the total adult females. If the ratio of male-female is to bring unequal, the females can be made temporarily neuter or the males may be migrated elsewhere. ii Manipulation in Population Dynamics: In order to manipulate population dynamics, affects on the birth-rate, mortality-rate and migration are to be considered properly. a. To manipulate birth rate; male-female ratio, age-ratio and the breeding capacity of males and females are affected because the crowd in community or population also affects the birth rate of young ones due to imbalance between scarcity of sufficient nutritious food per animal and adrenalpituitary system. Hence, these factors should also be taken into consideration. b. To manipulate mortality rate; there should be studies on the factors such as breeding potentiality, productivity, decimating factors, etc. due to which the mortality rate is affected and then such factors may be increased or decreased as per the objectives of the management. Therefore, to decrease the mortality rate, the factors due to which mortality is being caused, should be minimized/controlled. For example, the animals should be healthy and free from the disease so that they can resist the attack of worms, germs and parasites; for this, they should be managed not be come in contact with the livestock to avoid infections. To avoid the possibilities of accidents, the forest should be managed and protected from fire by control burning and creating fire lines. Hunting should be controlled/regulated. But if the mortality rate is to be increased; then only hunting factor, out of all other mortality factors, should be encouraged. In this way, the population dynamics may be controlled by affecting the causing factors of the mortality.

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c. Migration (movement) in the animals also affects the population dynamics. Hence, if the number of the animals is to be increased at a particular area, the migration of the animal from that area should be prohibited by fencing it. Along with obstacles, the habitat should be managed attractively to check migration; for example, if the migration of animal is due to scarcity of water, the habitat should be managed with waterholes, etc. To increase the number of the animal, it may be introduced by bringing from other places. On the contrary; to decrease the number, migration should be encouraged or some animals may be caught and sent to the other suitable places. iii. Manipulation in Relations among Factors of the Population: The manipulation of the animal population may be done in many ways. For each condition, a new technique may be applied but its application depends upon the sentiments of the related people of the society, knowledge of wildlife manager, availability of the fund to execute the programme, skilled labourers, natural condition of the animal species and the capacity to be effected by the treatments done in that habitat. The project/programme should be framed keeping in mind certain things like available sources and animal population, habitat and sentimental as well as natural boundaries of the related human society so that output of the result may be optimum. G. Introduction or Reintroduction for Population Stability: As stated earlier; in nature, the stability of any wildlife population depends upon the balance of bioticpotential and environmental resistance. If biotic potential and environmental resistance balances each other, wildlife population becomes static. But if biotic potential is more and environmental resistance is less, the population will increase and vice versa. Hence, it is clear that when these two opposite forces remain in balance, the population remains static; otherwise, there is gain/loss in wildlifepopulation as per the situation. Today, many wildlife species are threatened by continuing habitat destruction, reduced geographical range, low total numbers and severe fragmentation of population. If these endangered species are to escape extinction, imaginative and dynamic management measures are required in order to reverse the processes of decline and set their populations on an upward trend in the context of restored ecological balance. In cases where stricter protection and removal of deleterious influences such as domestic grazing, etc. appear inadequate, rehabilitation management by introduction or restocking may be called for. These measures are particularly suggested in cases where it is necessary to improve the distribution of a species by establishing new populations or where a severely decimated population will go extinct unless its number can be artificially boosted. Reintroduction means the transplanting of individuals of an animals or plant into an area within its normal geographical range, from which it has disappeared or become locally extinct within historic times, usually as a result of human activities. Restocking (reintroduction) implies the movement of individuals into an area of native habitat where numbers of that species have been severely reduced with the object of building up a viable population. It should be noted that introduction, which is the planting of a species in an area outside of its normal geographical range, is accompanied by many ecological hazards and should not normally be contemplated as a rehabilitation measure. The introduction of an exotic species in an area is invariably fraught with difficulties and may be inherently dangerous to the local fauna and flora. In Mysore, the attempt to introduce European Fallow deer and Angora rabbits proved a failure, mainly

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supposed that light coloration were against them when it came to escaping from natural enemies. On the other hand, several examples of the too successful introduction of an exotic species can be cited such as introduction of rabbit in Australia from Great Britain became the biggest pest of the country (Australia), red deer introduced into New Zealand from Scotland have multiplied so rapidly that they became a serious pest to plantations and had to be kept down by shooting, the mangoose introduced into the West Indies resulted in such rapid increase in its numbers that nothing was safe from it, and the cheetal introduced into the Andamans by Bonnington in 1918 became a menace to forest regeneration and plantations. One of the notable attempts to introduce exotic into India was by late Maharaja Scindia of Gwalior to introduce African lions into his forest in 1920 keeping three pairs at Sheopur near Shivpuri enclosed within high-walled enclosure and fed only on live cattle so that they might not lose their ability to kill game (wilderness character). But after releasing them in pair, the first pair came back to their temporary home and fell victims to tiger which used to haunt the area attracted by the roaring of the lions. Another pair developed cattle-lifting habits and had to be destroyed. The others wandered away and nothing definite was known of their fate. Thus, they were altogether unsuccessful nature of the experiment. The consensus was that the lions were unable to survive in areas where the tiger was originally established. Hence, the need for systematic ecological studies, population surveys, mortality and breeding data, predator-prey relationship facts, etc. in order to ascertain the real conditions and circumstances governing their decline, is very urgent and essential. A scientific approach is essential for sound wildlife management in which the improvement of game habitat is one of the most important measures, if we are to succeed in our handling of the problems of dynamic manipulation of species. Individuals for reintroduction or restocking usually come from one or two sources. i. They may be obtained by capturing from a healthy or over-abundant wild population in another part of the species’ range which is referred to as translocation. ii. Alternatively, the reintroduced stock may be supplied from a captive source such as a zoo or a special captive breeding/release programme for that species. An example of translocation is provided by the recent reintroduction of Great Indian Rhinoceros into Dudhwa National Park, UP, from wild caught stock in Assam and Nepal. The Government of India Crocodile Breeding and Management Project assisted by UNDP/FAO illustrates a large captive breeding/release programme. a. Aims of Reintroduction

i. The general aim of reintroduction or restocking may be to increase total numbers of a species in the wild so as to improve the genetic base on which future populations may be built. Clearly, this aim will only be fulfilled by the release of captive-raised stock. ii. In case where all remaining members of a species are in a single population, reintroduction may be employed to increase the number of separate selfperpetuating populations, thus spreading the survival risk from calamities such as fatal epidemic disease, a destructive cyclone or fire, etc. The single species population of the Asiatic lion in Gir provides an example. Genetically, a number of small population increase the opportunity for local adaptation which may contribute to ultimate survival. Genetic-drift can be countered by occasional exchange between populations.

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iii. In order to ensure adaptive interaction of a species with the broadest possible spectrum of ecological factors and promote genetic vigour, it is desirable that its populations should be widely distributed throughout its original geographical range.Thus, reintroduction may be employed to create new populations in parts of the range from which the species has totally disappeared. One aim of the translocation of rhinos from Assam to Dudhwa was to re-establish the species in the central part of its former range, thus counter-balancing the present overconcentration of rhino populations in the eastern extremity of a range which originally extended from the Hindu Kush to Burma. iv. Further aim of reintroduction may be to restore an animal to a community in order to redress imbalance resulting from the vacation of its niche when it disappeared from the area. For example, the decline of the swamp deer in Dudhwa appears to be partially due to the absence of a bulk feeder in the grazing succession to facilitate its access to the preferred early growth stages low in the grass sward. By reintroducing the rhino, which trims down taller growth stages, it is anticipated that the swamp deer will benefit from a restoration of ecological balance in the grazing community. b. Principles of Reintroduction

Once it has been decided that a reintroduction programme appears to be the best rehabitation method for a particular species, the following scientific principles to be applied are important since neglect of these principles have resulted in some reintroduction disasters both in India and elsewhere. i. The site chosen must be within the known geographical range of the species from historical times, thus ensuring the suitability of climate, mineral and parasite regimes and other broad ecological factors. ii. Causes of earlier extinction in the target area must be precisely established and their current absence and inability to suddenly reappear ensured. These may include management malpractices as well as ecological factors. The banning of set nylon fishing nets, in which crocodiles drown from waters in which captive bred stock are released is an example. iii. Type and quality of management are important. National park status usually being preferable to sanctuary status for a reintroduction site. Reintroduction of the species in question must be compatible with management plan objectives. iv. In addition to the absence of negative factors, the quality and quantity of suitable habitat available in the proposed area must be carefully evaluated bearing in mind the possibility of changes since extinction took place. v. It should be ensured that animals cannot wander out of the target area. vi. The attitude of local people to the new species should be evaluated and education programme should be arranged, if it is felt necessary. vii. Stock for reintroduction should be of the closest available race or type to the original population in the area. viii. Attention must be paid to the size and composition of groups released. ix. Known local diseases should be guarded against by inoculation where appropriate, prior to release. x. Follow-up of released animals is a vital long-term measure to monitor such factors as distribution in relation to food and water supply, health, numbers and reproductive success. Only by regular monitoring can, the effectiveness of a

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reintroduction, be assessed and any problem detected in good time, so as to allow appropriate remedial action to be applied. Inadequate long-term follow-up appears to have been responsible for the ultimate failure of the reintroduction of Asiatic lion to Chandraprabha in Uttarakhand. c. Potential use of Reintroduction in India

The present situation with a number of Indian endangered species suggests reintroduction as an appropriate management approach. i. Reintroduction of Great Indian Rhinoceros into Dudhwa National Park has already been taken up by the Government of India. ii. The Manipur Brow-antlered deer (Sangai) which is highly endangered subspecies consisting of a single population in Keibul Lamjao National Park swamp, there is an urgent need for a better understanding of the species ecology for the establishment of additional breeding populations. iii. The Pygmy hog, a highly endangered ungulate of North-Eastern India, has already been subjected to attempts at captive-breeding/release. iv. The Asiatic lion which has been confined to the population in the Gir, is another Indian large mammal vulnerable to the problems of single population. Recognizing the need for a second “home”, the IBWL approved reintroduction in Chandraprabha sanctuary in Uttarakhand and a group of three animals released there in 1958 multiplied to eleven by 1965 but after this suddenly disappeared. There is, thus, still a passing need to establish several breedingpopulations with its studies. It is not easy to successfully translocate large cats and a much larger area than Chandraprabha, with ample wild prey, will have to be identified in order to minimize risks to domestic stock. v. There has been revived interest in reintroducing Cheetah to India which is extinct from the country around 1950. Since, it is impossible to obtain stocks of Asiatic race, the closely related African Cheetah will probably form the basis of translocation programme. vi. The rare snow leopard is yet another large cat which requires rehabilitation in the wild. vii. Among India’s endangered birds, captive-breeding/release programmes are already in an experimental phase for several species of pheasant and the whitewinged wood duck. viii. There is plan to restock freshwater turtles in the Ganges. d. Ecological Principles to Consider in Introduction of Exotics

i. Every habitat tends to be full: Though in nature, there are a few vacant spaces in natural communities, however, the communities tend to change so completely in the habitats that they will no longer support the animal. Thus, the space alone does not constitute a vacancy. Nature usually has provided and stocked her habitats. Hence, such thing regarding vacancy/space is to be studied before introduction/reintroduction. ii. Each species of animal has a specific set of tolerances: All animals have evolved as per the environmental demands to suit, interact and meet the impact of their environments through morphological, physiological and behavioral adaptations. When they are put into situations in which they are not adapted, they will die.

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Hence, ecological homologues are probably good candidates for introduction. (An ecological homologue is an animal or plant with an identical counterpart often found on another continent. Such animals are often look-alikes, have the same habits and occupy very similar habitats). But in place of introducing homologue, efforts should go towards improving conditions for the native form. iii. Plastic species have higher possibilities: Generally plastic species have higher probabilities of succeeding in habitats unlike their own than non-plastic forms. (A plastic species is one that has large variation in its appearance as indicated by large numbers of races). iv. Competition is the inevitable result of stocking closely related forms in the same habitat: When there is limited or in short supply of the resource in the environment, the result of individuals of the species will be either elimination of one of the species or perhaps an adjustment in their numbers so that some kind of equilibrium is reached where both populations operate at low numbers. Usually one or the other fails. The native species can usually be figured to have the advantage in such a competitive situation because it evolved in place and is the result of a part of that environment. Hence, the greatest probability is for failure of the introduced species in competition between closely related animals. v. Animals from complex to simple communities have higher chance: Animals taken from complex to simple communities have higher probabilities of success than reverse transfers. (The successful introductions of animals and plants into farmlands are much simplified in form and in numbers of living organisms. Natural communities are much more complex than farmlands). e. Translocation of Wild Animals

Nature is very clever, bountiful and full of miracles. It maintains and manage many things whether living or non-living on this earth planet. Existence of natural resource depends upon nature as well as way/art of uses of these things by man who is presently ruler of this earth being supreme creature having top power of intelligence and manipulating the ecosystem as per own desires fulfilling his self and shortsighted need. We know that people have been around major changes on earth and among the greatest changes, wild animals are involved. Hunting culture developed and man invented more and more effective weapons and human beings had important role in this connection having disruptive effect on the species wherever moved on. In the process, new species tried to adjust and adopt in new environments creating considerable disturbance. For instance, English sparrow and starling, brought into North America, have taken long time to settle in with the assumption that many native birds were displayed causing extinction. The early explorers, adventures and huntergatherers travelled almost all countries of the world having relationship with wild animals and plants and invariably struck by the plentiful wildlife on which they depended for food and people hunted the animals regularly. Such people are not dependent on the resources of one ecosystem or few local ecosystems. But in due course, through organized colonialism and trade, we started to draw such resources to many ecosystems; and today through technological advancement and industrialization, people are drawing the resources of the entire world being able to destroy species and ecosystems without filling its consequences because they have power to move elsewhere for support/benefit. The relationship with wild animals began to change, perhaps in new Stone Age, with the rise of demonetisation following agricultural growth. With the rise of early

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civilization and clearing of lands for agriculture, the distinction between wild and tame species was marked. In this way, a new relationship developed and wild animals became the field of more hunting, killing, sporting and excitement for food, defence of cultivated lands and other necessary purposes. As the consequences, the cause of extermination of species started and many species became extinct, many brought on the verge of extinction or to the level of extinction threshold. Then, their conservation and management was realized and movement started in this direction for taking the benefits from wild animals in a planned way in perpetuity on sustained basis. But attack on wildlife has not come to an end. The fighting and killing is going on and condition is at alarming stage nowadays in most of the countries of the world. No living thing exists by itself. The aphorism that “Nature abhors a vacuum” tells a biological truth for every liveable place has life. Each unit of land and water tends to produce its own quota of living things. The quantity and type of life vary greatly depending upon the food, water and cover, temperature and other factors. On every piece of land and water, there are numerous forms of plants and animals forming biotic community, varying from simpler to advance groups. All these have great role to play in maintaining the biotic community in the concerned ecosystem. Each plant or animal including human-being exists as a part of living community either in form of ectoparasite or endoparasite or independent. Each is a part of an ecosystem that includes not only living species but the nonliving environment also upon which each depends. Each species depends for its existence on external air, temperature, etc. within tolerable range. Each must take food that ties it in turn to a whole range of other living species each feeling on or being fed on by other species. There is no time when any person, or animal, or plant is not in process of interacting or interchanging with all the different factors and processes of the ecosystem. A biotic community is the complex of living species that occupy a particular area, large or small, and in consequence interact with one another. The complexity of wildlife population regarding its behaviour and development during evolution may be well understood by evolutionary strategies which contribute to their survival in a particular habitat adapted themselves for survival. The species being on peak of the food chain has more or less stable environment and does not need much care for survival but devote much energy in reproduction and feeding of young. They generally have big body size (big carnivores and herbivores). They can increase abundantly and expense considerable energy in intraspecific interactions and protection. Hence, we cannot protect or manage just one species, because whatever we do for it, will affect or effect all other species to which it interacts with. Since all living communities and ecosystems are complex, we learn and understand to deal with the complexity. For instance, the cutting of trees in a forest does not only remove trees but it changes the conditions of life for all other forest species; some disappear, other increase, and interactions among them are modified. If seed-eating species like insects, rabbits, mice, deer become too numerous, they will slow down or prevent growth of forest trees from growing back in that area at least until they find unfavourable conditions to their own abundance and begin to decline in number. Likewise, spray of weedicides or insecticides affects not only the target species but the entire community existing within the soil, above the ground or moving through the area. It is obvious that any habitat can support only limited number of population of a species as per carrying capacity and not beyond that. So, increase in population beyond limit cannot be sustained by the habitat. Hence, three conditions come into picture in the habitat, viz. the number of individuals of a species which are actually supported by a habitat, the upper-limit of population growth in a habitat above which no further

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increase can be sustained, and the number of individual of population that can be maintained by a habitat in healthy as well as vigrous conditions. The exploitation of individuals of a population should be operative increasing beyond second condition (subsistence density) to maintain first and third conditions, otherwise decimating factors will come in operation and the population will fall down or diminish. Therefore, the greatest concerning field for population is the habitat which is being greatly destructed more or less worldwide. Not only this, but habitat-destruction is also followed by habitat-fragmentation and the situation is showing more and more grief for, particularly tropical forests are getting more devastating condition. Among the natural resources, sun and air are beyond our control, though air can be polluted but locally and temporarily. Soil and water are affected in any way directly or indirectly. Likewise, plants and animals (wildlife) are affected disastrously and it can be said that wild animals are the main victim of interferences caused by human beings. When human utilizes wild species for food, commercial purpose or game, that species immediately goes under pressure adding difficulties in surviving and maintaining existence. Such pressures, varying in intensity, ultimately effect greatly in reducing the population. Now, it is the demand of the hour to repair the damage as far as possible and put natural constructive processes to work. The proper action in the field of wildlife management including programmes towards reforestation/ afforestation, soil conservation, etc. For the welfare of mankind, wildlife management along with other conservation measures should be taken as challenging task putting accurate knowledge to achieve aims and objectives. Nature has gifted us rich heritage of wildlife as renewable natural resource but deforestation, merciless hunting in unscientific manner, smuggling, habitat destruction, etc. have depleted the wildlife population bringing them to an alarming stage. Unfortunately, today several species of wild animals are facing threat of extermination. For this, to bring them at least up to optimum level, protection and propagation are indispensable. It is need of the time to save them from reaching towards annihilation so that we can restore eco-balance and get benefits from them in sustainable manner in perpetuity. Love and care of wildlife should be a part of our life so that human race may not live only in healthier environment but his existence may also remains on this planet as he is also part and parcel of the ecosystem. The necessity of such an interest is all the more important to avoid disastrous effects on wildlife of the country and ultimately world over because human is dependent for his daily needs upon plants, animals, minerals, water, soil, etc. which are all natural resource whether it is renewable or non-renewable. Wildlife, in strict sense, is the undomesticated animals living in wilderness zone. They provide us tangible as well as intangible benefits maintaining ecological balance through food chain. Killing or extinction of even one species may cause considerable disturbance in food chain and food-web and thus may upset other species including human beings. Hence, existence of human race will come under question mark in the long term. Wildlife is renewable only if indiscriminate hunting and habitat destruction is prevented. If we wish to make steady progress, we must conserve and use judiciously the natural resources so that they may last longer for human welfare. Wildlife has ecological, scientific specially in the field of medical sciences, commercial or economical values if managed and used properly in scientific pattern. Therefore, Wildlife Management is the efficient utilization of the natural resources (wildlife) to the maximum human benefit through the process of scientific studies of the population of these wild animals and their habitat pattern. It is an ecological science relating an organisms to its environment including other living things that co-inhabit the same

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basic resources of soil, water, vegetation and atmosphere. Today, there is need of wildlife management/conservation due to the following reasons: • Conversion of forests into agricultural fields. • Reckless hunting in unscientific way specially done in past. • Creation of forest roads, dams, etc. • Excavation of mining. • Smuggling to earn cheap money. • Establishment of industries in forest areas. • Pollution of environment, rivers, water, reservoirs and ocean particularly by insecticides, polluted gas, and industrial byproducts. • Tremendous growth in human population causing pressure on wildlife habitats more and more, resulting imbalances in food chain/food web and overall ecological systems. These factors not only depleting the number of wildlife population but also some became extinct, some are threatened and some are on the verge of extinction facing the stage of extinction threshold. Their number has come to such a stage that the benefits meeting by them is nowadays negligible. Hence, to apply scientific technologies related to wildlife conservation or management through which wild animals can be propagated as the natural renewable resource with the prime aims and objective such as: • Preservation of species. • Maintenance and stabilization of important species. • Enhancing annual productivity. • Conservation of biodiversity. • Maintenance of habitat. Efforts, in this regard, have been started nationally and internationally including GOs and NGOs approach like CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora), WWF (World Wide Fund For Natures), IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources), IBWL (Indian Board for Wildlife), BNHS (Bombay Natural History Society), WPSI (Wildlife Preservation Society of India), GTF (Global Tiger Forum), and so on. Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972 came first in India after independence which is time to time being amended as per benefit of the nation and wildlife. National Parks, sanctuaries and various projects have been created and motive is ahead for the purpose of in situ conservation. Biological Parks, etc. are established in the direction of ex situ conservation. World Conservation Strategies and Wildlife Management Plan are the outputs of conservation measures through nationally and internationally. If we have aim to maintain or restore wild animals, we must provide a sufficient place to live and survive them, viz. habitats suited for them, so that we can take tangible as well as intangible benefits from wildlife natural resource by ways of protection, conservation and management on the basis of density and carrying capacity. Before translocation/introduction of the particular species, it is a must to investigate the basic need (food, water and shelter) to be properly available in the new translocating habitat for the proper growth and adjustment of the target species. Wildlife managers and others concerned with the field must pay attention towards the management/manipulation of wildlife habitat and its population for the proper and adequate growth of the species. The primary aspect of the studies is to gather information about the population and its characteristics of the species concerned

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because such observations denote status of the species related with more or less other aspects of wild animals like basic needs (food, water and shelter) of the habitat. It may be said that the population has over and above features and characteristics of the individuals to be measured and described including sex-ratio, age-ratio, density, growth-form/population-dynamics or structure, natality, productivity, mortality, breeding potential, breeding age, stress, diseases, turnover rate and so on. Further, studies of habitat by estimating carrying capacity enables us in knowing about biological surplus, shootable surplus, predation or prey-predator ratio, starvation, biotic potential, etc. By studying wildlife population, we may come to the conclusion to increase the population of threatened species or to decrease which is acting as pest and also to determine for harvesting the population in a way to get sustained yield. Wildlifers sometimes involve introducing/translocating or reintroducing the wild animal into a habitat that is unoccupied since long time or underpopulated with the view to increase or safeguard a particular species in a particular habitat assuming that the habitat is favourable providing food, water and shelter to increase the population. If the numbers of the species in the habitat is low in relation to the availability of basic needs (food, water and shelter) and predaters are not too abundant, the new population (translocated individuals) can be almost free from mortality for a time because with the abundance of basic needs, the natality-rate can be high and will approach the biotic-potential. However, with small initial stock even with high rate of increase, the total numbers will remain low for some period. Thus, the initial changes in population may not show much evidence for succeeding the introduction but size of breeding population and annual young crop begin to grow upward. When limits of the environment/habitat are approached, mortality can be expected by the decimating factors as scarcity of food, weakened by deficiencies, vulnerable to diseases, stress posed by intraspecific or interspecific, predation and consequently also decrease in natality. In this way, when population comes closer to the capacity of the environment/habitat, there is greater influence of decimating factors and resultantly population-growth curve will start to fall down and, when eventually the level point where birth-rate and death-rate are in balance, denotes the capacity of habitat sustaining the number of population of that very species being the population growth curve of sigmoid nature (s) as the characteristic feature. The logistic equation for such happening has been given by Pearl and Reed (1920) as follows: ΔN/Δt = rN (K – N/K) Where, N = Total population t = Time r = Maximum potential rate K = Carrying capacity ΔN/Δt = Increase in numbers per unit of time (change in N over change in t) There are certain assumptions (though they are hardly true in nature) in this formula that: a. There is complete density-dependence in mortality, means there is straight relationship between increasing density and its unfavourable effects (environmental resistance/decimating factors). b. There is continuous natality and mortality. c. Every individual in a population is the same.

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The stability of any wildlife population depends upon the balance of biotic-potential (the maximum growth rate of wildlife population which is obtained in ideal favourable condition of the habitat) and environmental resistance. If biotic potential is optimum and environmental resistance is in the same ratio, wildlife population becomes static (there will be neither growth nor loss). But if biotic potential is of high quality and environment resistance is less, the population will increase and vice versa. In other words, it can be said that when these two opposite forces remain in balance, the population remain in balance/static; and when they become imbalanced, there is gain/loss in the population depending upon the condition. For the purpose of population stability, consideration and understanding of the following steps are necessary. • Protection of breeding stock. • Harvesting for population stability. • Proper regulation of annual harvest. • Management of basic needs, viz. good food, water, shelter and cover. • Studies on population dynamics and growth form. • Annual fluctuation in number. • Turnover rate. • Manipulation in population structure, habitat and other factors. As stated above, the stability of wildlife population in nature depends upon bioticpotential and environmental resistance. Today, majority of wildlife species are threatened by continuing habitat destruction, reduced geographical range, low total numbers and severe fragmentation of habitat as well as population. If these endangered species are to escape extinction, imaginative and dynamic management measures are required in order to reverse the processes of decline and set their populations on an upward trend in the context of restored ecological balance. In cases where stricter protection and removal of deleterious influences appear inadequate, rehabilitation management by introduction or reintroduction or restocking may be called for. These measures are particularly suggested in cases where it is necessary to improve the distribution of a species by establishing new populations or where a severely decimated population will go extinct unless its number can be artificially boosted. Introduction which is the planting of a species in an area outside of its normal geographical range, is accompanied by many ecological hazards and should not normally be contemplated as a rehabilitation measure. Reintroduction means the transplanting of individuals of a species into an area within its normal geographical range from which it has disappeared or become locally extinct within historic times, usually as a result of human interference. Restocking (Reintroduction) implies the movement of individuals into an area of native habitat where numbers of that species have been severely reduced with the object of building up a viable population. Individuals for introduction/translocation/restocking usually come from one or two sources. a. They may be obtained by capturing from healthy or over-abundant wild population in another part of the species range. b. They may be supplied from a captive sources such as zoo, biological park or special captive breeding/release programme. Introduction of Great Indian Rhinoceros into Dudhwa National Park in UP from Assam and Crocodile Breeding and Management Project assisted by UNDP/FAO having captive breeding/release programme, are the examples of translocation.

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Aims and Objectives

i. To increase total number of a species in the wild so as to improve the genetic base on which future population may be built. This aim will only be fulfilled by the release of captive raised stock. ii. In case where all remaining members of a species are in a single population may be employed to increase the number of separate self-perpetuating populations, thus spreading the survival risk from calamities such as fatal epidemic disease, cyclone, fire, etc. The single species population of Asiatic lion in Gir provides an example. Genetically, a number of small population increase the opportunity for local adaptation which may contribute to ultimate survival. Genetic-drift can be countered by occasional exchange between populations. iii. In order to ensure adaptive interaction of a species with the broadest possible spectrum of ecological factors and promote genetic vigour, it is desirable that its population should be widely distributed throughout its original geographical range. Thus, introduction/reintroduction may be employed to create new population/populations in parts of the range from which the species has totally disappeared. One aim of the translocation of Rhinoceros from Assam to Dudhwa was to re-establish the species in the central part of its former range, thus counterbalancing the present over-concentration of rhino population in the eastern extremity of a range which originally extended from the Hindu Kush to Burma (Myanmar). iv. To restore an animal to a community in order to redress imbalance resulting from the vacation of its niche when it disappeared from the area. For example, the decline of the Swamp deer in Dudhwa appears to be partially due to the absence of a bulk feeder in the grazing succession to facilitate its access to the preferred early growth stages low in the grass sward. By reintroduction of rhino, which trims down taller growth stages, it is anticipated that the swamp deer will benefit from a restoration of ecological balance in the grazing community. Principles

Once it has been decided that introduction/reintroduction appears to be the best rehabilitation method for a particular species, the following scientific principles to be applied are important since neglect of these principles have resulted in some such effort being disasters both in India and elsewhere. a. The site chosen must be within the known geographical range of the species from historical times, thus ensuring the suitability of climate, mineral and parasite regimes and other broad ecological factors. b. Causes of earlier extinction in the target area must be precisely established and their current absence and inability to suddenly reappear ensured. These may include management malpractices as well as ecological factors. The banning of set nylon fishing nets, in which crocodiles drown from waters in which captive bred stock are released is an example. c. Type and quality of management are important. National Park status usually being preferable to Sanctuary status for a reintroduction site. Reintroduction of the species in question must be compatible with management plan objectives. d. In addition to the absence of negative factors, the quality and quantity of suitable habitat available in the proposed area must be carefully evaluated bearing in mind the possibility of changes since extinction took place.

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e. It should be ensured that released animals (individuals) cannot wander out of the target area. f. The attitude of local people to the new species should be evaluated and educational programme should be arranged, if it is felt necessary. g. Stock for reintroduction should be of the closest available race or type to the original population in the area. h. Attention must be paid to the size and composition of groups released. i. Known local diseases should be guarded against by inoculation where appropriate, prior to release. j. Follow-up of released animals (individuals) is a vital long-term measure to monitor such factors as distribution in relation to food and water supply, health, numbers, and reproductive success. Only by regular monitoring can, the effectiveness of translocation, be assessed and any problem detected in good time, so as to allow appropriate remedial action to be applied. Inadequate long-term follow-up appears to have been responsible for the ultimate failure of the reintroduction of Asiatic lion to Chandraprabha in Uttarakhand. As far as ecological aspect of introduction of exotics is concerned, following principles should be considered: i. We know that every habitat tends to be full, because “Nature abhors a vaccum”. Though in nature, there are few vacant spaces in natural communities, however, the communities tend to change so completely in the habitats that they will no longer support the animal. Thus, the space alone does not constitute a vacancy. Nature usually has provided and stocked her habitats. Therefore, such thing regarding vacancy/space is to be studied before introduction/reintroduction. ii. Each species of animal has specific power of tolerance. All animals have evolve as per the environmental demand to suit, interact, and meet the impact of their environments through morphological, physiological, and behavioral adaptations. When they are put into situations in which they are not adapted, they will perish. Hence, ecological homologues are probably good candidates for introduction. But in place of introducing homologue, efforts should go towards improving conditions for the native form. (An ecological homologue is an animal or plant with an identical counterpart often found on another continent. Such animals are often look-alikes, have the same habits and occupy very similar habitats.) iii. Plastic species have higher possibilities of survival. Generally plastic species have higher probabilities of succeeding in habitats unlike their own than non-plastic forms. (A plastic species is one that had large variation in its appearance as indicated by large numbers of races.) iv. Competition is inevitable result of stocking closely related forms in the same habitat. When there is limited or in short supply of the resource in the environment, the result of individuals of the species will be either elimination of one of the species or perhaps an adjustment in their numbers so that some kind of equilibrium is reached where both populations operate at low numbers. Usually one or the other fails. The native species can usually be figured to have the advantage in such a competitive situation because it evolved in place and is the result of a part of that environment. Hence, the greatest probability is for failure of the introduced species in competition between closely related animals. v. Animals from complex to simple communities have higher chance of success. Animals taken from complex to simple communities have higher probabilities of success than reverse transfers. The successful introduction of animals and plants

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into farmlands are much simplified in form and in numbers of living organisms. Natural communities are much more complex than farmlands. The introduction of exotic species is a complicated aspect and requires much consideration and studies. Scientists/biologists almost all over the world realize that introduction of a foreign species in the wild is an unwiseful step. Such feeling is based upon a sentimental objection to mixing a foreign/exotic element with the native fauna or flora as well as unfavourable and unpredictable biological/environmental effects on the introduced individuals and vice-versa. New exotic species invade new territories causing changes for the native species resulting unfavourable condition for them. That is why, introduction should be always strictly regulated. The introduced species, deliberately or undeliberately, find oftenly very much their liking condition and become so abundant as to affect man’s interests adversely. For example, rabbit in Australia, North American muskrat in Europe, English sparrow and European starling in USA are the species which have caused unanticipated trouble. At many places, to replace native forms, foreign game birds and mammals have been widely introduced but after expanding much money and attempts, most of the results were found failure. Weed seeds, introduced with cultivated plants, become widely distributed. Exotic insects increase rapidly and become established in absence of parasites and predators and become seriously harmful to man’s interests. Majority of the cases of introduction in case of mammals have been found failure or useless. However, somewhere it has been found successful also. For example, the wild horse introduced in the sixteenth century from African grasslands to American grasslands (both grasslands having almost similar niches) spread rapidly through the grasslands of North and South America; the Burro adapted readily to the American arid lands; in New Mexico and Texas a number of African species have been introduced and have fitted in with a little difficulty. But, of course, there is danger in such introduction of exotics because their niches may overlap those of native species and lead to their disappearance. In fact this has been oftenly found and being found in so many areas. The pressure on a niche caused by human interference or otherwise resulting elimination of a species also manipulates simultaneously the niche characteristics which causes great hindrance/obstacles in reintroducing naturally or artificially, the same species from elsewhere. For instance, the Pacific sardine, a small plankton-feeding fish of the coast of California, was once greatly reduced due to heavy fishing pressure as well as oceanographic changes and even after relieving fishing pressure, sardine could not recover but anchovy, a similar plankton feeder, moved in to take over this niche. In Antarctica, the blue whale feeding on krill, a small crustacean, were reduced to near extinction by heavy whaling pressure. Though, enormous increase in other krill feeders like crab eating seal, smaller minke whales and various sea birds (krill eaters) were found but the blue whale has not come back even after relieving whaling pressure. Hence, introduction of an exotic species in an area is invariably fraught with difficulties and may be inherently dangerous to the local fauna and flora. In Mysore, the attempt to introduce European fallow deer and Angora rabbits proved a failure, mainly supposed that light coloration were against them when it came to escaping from natural enemies. On the other hand, several examples of the too successful introduction of an exotic species can be cited such as introduction of rabbit in Australia from Great Britain became the biggest pest of the country (Australia), Red deer introduced into New Zealand from Scotland have multiplied so rapidly that they become a serious pest to plantations and had to be kept down by shooting, the Mongoose introduced into the West Indies resulted in such rapid increase in its numbers that nothing was safe from it, and the Cheetal introduced into Andamans by

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Bonnington in 1918 became a menace to forest regeneration and plantations. One of the notable attempts to introduce exotic into India was by late Maharaja Scindia of Gwalior to introduce African lions into his forest in 1920 keeping three pairs at Sheopur near Shivpuri enclosed within high-walled enclosure and fed only on live cattle so that they might not lose their ability to kill game (wilderness character). But after releasing them in pair, the first pair came back to their temporary home and fell victims to tiger which used to haunt the area attracted by the roaring of the lions. Another pair developed cattle-lifting habits and had to be destroyed. The others wandered away and nothing definite was known to their fate. Thus, they were altogether unsuccessful nature of the experiment. The consensus was that the lions were unable to survive in areas where the tiger was originally established. Potential use of reintroduction in India may be as follows in the present situation with a number of Indian endangered species with an appropriate management approach: i. Reintroduction of Great Indian Rhinoceros into Dudhwa National Park has already been taken up by the Government of India. ii. The Manipur Browantlered deer (Sangai) which is highly endangered subspecies consisting of a single population in Keibul Lamjao National Park, there is an urgent need for a better understanding of the species ecology for the establishment of additional breeding populations. iii. The Pygmy hog, and highly endangered ungulate of North-Eastern India, has already been subjected to attempt at captive-breeding/release. iv. The Asiatic lion which has been confined to the population in Gir, is another Indian large mammal vulnerable to the problems of single population. Recognizing the need for a second “home”, the IBWL approved reintroduction in Chandraprabha sanctuary in Uttarakhand and a group of three animals released there in 1958 multiplied to eleven by 1965 but after this suddenly disappeared. There is, thus, still a passing need to establish several breeding populations with its studies. It is not easy to successfully translocate large cats and a much larger area than Chandraprabha, with ample wild prey, will have to be identified in order to minimize the risks to domestic stock. v. There has been revived interest in reintroducing Cheetah to India which is extinct from the country around 1950. Since, it is impossible to obtain stock of Asiatic race, the closely related African cheetah will probably form the basis of translocation programme. vi. The rare Snow leopard is yet another large cat which requires rehabilitation in the wild. vii. Among India’s endangered birds, captive-breeding/release programmes are already in an experimental phase for several species of pheasant and the whitewinged wood duck. viii. To restock freshwater turtles in the Ganges. ix. Other herbivorous/carnivorous species which is felt to restock in the particular suitable habitat. Before translocation/introduction/restocking of the animals, following procedures must be followed: a. Sex and age ratio of the translocating individuals should be fixed in respect of the species concerned. b. Physical condition of the individuals should be observed and judged regarding their health position, etc.

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c. Genetic check-up (genotype) should be found out by the authorized and reputed institute/organization to confirm the species’ genetic configuration. d. Tuberculine test for the disease tuberculosis should be tested from the authorized clinic and, if possible, tests for other vulnerable diseases may also be tested for reliable considerations. e. Thorough check-up and observation from all the corners such as health, genetic, disease, etc. should be followed. f. At the time of translocation, individuals should be tagged with monitoring device (as individual marking method of census) such as Radio Collar, etc. for their proper and exact monitoring and whereabouts. g. If the individuals, especially herbivores, are to be translocated from ex-situ environment like biological park/zoo, etc., they should be first segregated from its herd in a separate enclosure having natural food for a few months inside the ex-situ habitat itself away from human-interference providing sufficient space as per the number of the individuals avoiding supplied food so that they can take their food by own from the environment and develop wilderness character. It is called “Segregation” aiming natural feeding by the animal. After translocation of the individuals, they may be kept in a large enclosure, if needed, in the wild habitat of translocation for few months and so calling as “Soft Release” to provide protection from human interference, intraspecific intervention, infection, etc. Afterwards, the enclosure is to be removed so that the individuals may roam in the entire wilderness zone to stabilize themselves. h. After translocation, the studies of translocated individuals on health, animalbehaviours (regarding inter and intraspecific mixing, etc.), feeding habits, preferred food, productivity, decimating factors particularly disease, stress (particularly inter and intraspecific/environmental), human interference/biotic pressure, preypredator relationship/condition, etc. must be carried out and remedial measures should be applied for. i. Regular monitoring and studies is necessary in respect of all the factors as well as basic needs (food, water, shelter, and cover) of the animals (translocated individuals). Translocation is usually undertaken as extreme ‘last resort’ measure in the rehabilitation of a threatened species. 6. IN-SITU AND EX-SITU CONSERVATION/MANAGEMENT

This has been discussed in Chapter 10 under subhead “Methods of Conservation”. 7. MANAGEMENT OF VERMIN POPULATION

Vermin is obnoxious, injurious, mischievous or disgusting animal of small size and common occurrence and difficult to control. These include various insects (flies, lice, bed-bugs, etc.), various mammals (rats, etc.) and sometimes birds (hawks and owls, etc.). In wildlife management, the term is restricted to mammals and birds which are injurious to crop, wildlife, etc. Generally applied to such mammals as rats, mice and such pests, but sometimes animals which become too numerous and cause destruction are declared as Vermin such as wild dogs and crows. Among common species of vermin in India are wild dogs, pigs, leopards, hyaenas, civet-cats, porcupines, etc. In fact, the list is quite large enough to ensure adequate protection to man and his

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animals. The Schedule V of Wild Life (Protection) Act, is enlisted exclusively vermin species subject to be changeable (inclusion/exclusion) time to time. A species declared as vermin may be shot or destroyed at sight but it does not mean that once classed as vermin is always vermin. The criterion is the harm done and vermin lists should be subject to modification and revision. A species may be classed as vermin in some areas or for certain periods and may then be taken off the vermin list, such conditions indicate an improvement in the situation. The leopard, for instance, is classed as vermin in almost the whole of India, though undeservely so in the opinion of some authorities, but there is no reason why it should everywhere and always remain as such. In any case, it is necessary to distinguish between an individual which is a persistent marauder and one which occasionally preys on domestic cattle, pigs or poultry-booth of them may belong to the class of predator but both do not deserve to be classified as vermin. Control of vermin (which preys on birds or animals) is one of the important features of habitat-control and improvement as well as conservation of the breeding-stock. In Changa Manga mulberry and sisoo plantations (in Pakistan) game-birds were successfully introduced. However, the jackal came up as a serious menace as it started destroying young and nesting birds.The problem was solved by control of jackal. In the same way, it is possible to control the destructive mammals such as martens, mongooses, jungle-cats and civet-cats, etc. all of which prey on young and nesting birds. In some areas, payment is made on the production of dead animals which prey on the favoured animals. However, this method has proved to be defective as under this payment was made for parts of dead animals also. The villagers used to produce different parts of a single dead animal and claim payments separately. Moreover, some over-zealous people disturbed the habitat in their search for the predator. Hence, the bonus-system or payment of rewards for production of the dead animal or its parts is of limited value and direct control measures are advocated. Whatever methods are employed to destroy crop-raiders, predators or vermin; the minimum requirement is that they should be first judged that whether its good is outweighed by the harm it does or not. The method, applied for destroying, should be efficient and within the limit of human treatment of animals. Man must be always mindful of his unlimited powers over the rest of creation and exercise those powers judiciously with moderating attitude. For instance, the application of virus disease, myxomatosis, to control the rabbit in Europe and England was much criticized because the infected rabbits suffered a lot wandering as about half blind and deaf with swollen bodies and faces before dying showing inhuman approach of mankind.

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6 Habitat Management/ Improvement/Manipulation

F

or the existence of an organism basically three factors, viz. food, water and shelter are required. The particular place and the environment which is the most suitable for the species is called “habitat” for that particular species. Hence, for wild animals also these basic requirements play important roles in their growth and propagation. Since, all these basic components are exclusively related with their habitats, the management or maintenance or manipulation of the habitat is a major component of the wildlife management. This is the prime responsibility of the wildlife manager. It cannot be ignored as wildlife habitats are presently undergoing tremendous changes primarily by the man for his needs, encroachment of forest land for grazing and agricultural purposes due to mushroom growth in human population, constructing roads and cities, etc. Therefore, man’s manipulation of environment for his needs or greedy needs is the most prevalent factor affecting wildlife habitat and as a consequent the wildlife populations. The man’s use of these natural resources in his own way unscientifically caused bad impact on the wildlife. Hence, habitat management/improvement/ manipulation and its preservation is as important as wildlife conservation. The wildlife manager must identify those factors which affect the habitat, specially which do not design or implement for wildlife, and understands the interrelationships between the animal and the habitat. For instance, in USA it has been observed that the dense old growth forests may be disastrous to the spotted owl’s nesting and feeding requirements while it greatly increases preferred forage food for elk. There are many examples for the manipulated environment to be beneficial or detrimental to wildlife. It is the responsibility of wildlife manager to judge how such practices should be modified to enhance habitat-diversity for proper growth and propagation of wildlife. Thus, habitat manipulation acts as an important controlling factor in the field of wildlife management. The modification done in the habitat as per the requirement and benefit of the wildlife especially for food, water and shelter in the area is called habitat manipulation. From wildlife management point of view, manipulation is also done to meet specific human goal through the wildlife-resources by altering structure, dynamics, and relation (interaction) among the three aspects of wildlife management, such as wildlife population, its habitat, and related people by stabilizing favourable and proper balance among these aspects. In this way, it can be said that manipulation may be for the sake of wildlife itself, or, to get specific human goal. Besides these, the dynamic form of wildlife management, which is also called Environmental manipulation, is the improvement of the environment based on biological principles which requires 77

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sufficient knowledge and research in the concerned field. It is based on the principle that favourable condition for wildlife can be created by artificial operations of a dynamic nature applying wildlife management techniques. Before starting manipulation, it must be judged that whether there is necessity of manipulation in the particular habitat or not. In case of area, it is very difficult at the present age to enhance it and so it will be better to protect the available area from its further shrinkage. In this way, the emphasis should be given on the management and modification in food, water and shelter components in the existing area of the habitat. In general, the habitat management has basically two objectives: i. To maintain quality habitat to be existed in a natural ecosystem. ii. To provide quality habitat where it is deteriorated or where limiting factor/factors have developed. The following principles of habitat management should be followed: a. The project should be framed after thorough studies and justification in accordance with the needs of wildlife. b. The practices must be evaluated for their effect on other natural resources, land uses, etc. Therefore, the proposed practices should not be against the benefits of other species and natural resources along with the target species. c. It should be specified clearly the objective such as to maintain as it is, or to improve, or to alter completely the existing habitat. d. The improvement practices must simulate natural conditions/ ecosystem perpetuating native flora and fauna. e. If tree plantation is needed, the topography of the area must be cared for. f. Manipulation should be designed following topographical characteristics of the area. g. The project should be practical and economical. h. The project must be evaluated at intervals to access its effects and results as well as to determine whether the objectives are being fulfilled or not. It should not be forgotten that the faulty habitat manipulation gives harmful and disastrous result in lieu of good and beneficial output. Regarding the necessity or essentiality of food, water and shelter as basic needs of wild animals has been described in Chapter 8 in detail. Here, we will discuss about the various major artificial measures adopted for the habitat improvement/ management/manipulation for proper supply and availability of food, water and shelter as follows. 1. FOOD IMPROVEMENT

In general, the plants of any place are the resultant of climate, soil, moisture and biotic factors of that very place. Hence, these factors determine the quality and quantity of food of the habitat. For instance, due to the effects of climate and soil, the forests and vegetations are quite different in Rajasthan hot desert and Ladhakh cold desert and subsequently the wildlife (wild animals) in both the places are quite different according to the suitability (see also Chapter 8 under head “Food”). For the manipulation, the projects should be designed to improve the habitat for wildlife; seed mixtures should be used rather than straight browse or grass plantings. Native ranges containing a wide choice of grass, browse, etc. usually support the most abundant wildlife population. Therefore, habitat management projects should be

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designed not only to increase the quantity of grass, browse, etc. but to provide a wellbalanced variety as well. Hence, to access the condition, quality and character of the existing plants and their improvement in a habitat, is primary basic steps of wildlife management. Before the management/manipulation of the habitat, it is important to find out or access the necessities of the all types of plants available in that habitat. For example, some animals eat only fruits and seeds, some depend upon grass, and some take grass and leaves of the bushes. In this way, their requirements are different and, therefore, the condition of the habitat or the animals depends upon each other. Judging the situation of the habitats, it is essential to manipulate them as per the needs of the wildlife. For the purpose, control-burning and control-grazing are must through which germination of the seeds and growths of the plants are assured. Likewise, afforestation and introduction of fodder species, wherever needed, are essential taking into consideration the suitability of the wild animals. The above objectives should be brought about following the principles such as: a. Reduction of other competitive plants to allow moisture and soil nutrients for the planted seeds. b. Elimination or control of grazing by livestocks. c. Terrain and soil should be suitable to support the desired forage species. d. Plantation of adopted species and strains. e. Plantation of mixture (mixed species) because it supports different species on the site conditions to which they are best suited. f. Use of sufficient seeds to ensure a stand. g. Proper planting and coverage of seed is essential. h. Seeding and plantation should be in proper time. i. Control-burning and control-grazing. Food is the most important basic need of the animal. Hence, “improvement of food production” is the most frequently used technique to manipulate the habitat of wildlife. This may be accomplished by: i. Production of Edible Fruits and Seeds: The fruits and seeds of many plant species are eaten as preferred food by so many herbivorous wild animals including birds. Therefore, conservation and propagation of such plants are very essential. Their plantation is also important measure for the production of such edible parts. Such fruit species should be saved by providing protection to them and propagated by removing unwanted competitive vegetations found around them. ii. Production of Grazing and Browsing Food: We know that choice of food is different for different kinds of wild animals as well as there are some particular foods which are not preferred by them. Particularly, herbivorous animals graze and browse on so many plant species but among them all are not so energetic and of good quality. Therefore, such plant species which have good quality as food for wildlife in the habitat should be accessed and judged very carefully. They must be protected and propagated to fulfil the demand of the required wildlife. Unwanted plant species should be removed for their proper growth. But in this practice, there should be judicious approach because each and every species has its own importance in the ecosystem. Hence, at the time of management practices, it is necessary to take careful decision especially in connection of retaining and removing the plant species in view of propagating the target species. Sometimes, it happens that the preferred food plants come on the verge of extinction due to heavy grazing and browsing; and the unwanted vegetations or weeds get

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enormous growth being less damaged in grazing/browsing. Therefore, it is necessary to take scientific and judicious step in this regard depending upon the situations and objectives. Production/Creation of Pasture Land: The areas inside the forest or neighbouring the forest which are suitable for pasture lands should be created for the purpose as well as the pasture lands which have become damaged due to over-grazing should also be improved. In such areas, seeding of suitable grass species and plantation of browsing species should be done as per the need of wildlife. As per the requirement in such areas, control-grazing should be adopted and even grazing may be banned for certain required period for the proper growth of the vegetation. Control Grazing: The practices of control-grazing must be preferred area-wise, phase-wise and period-wise. Such periodical grazing will be helpful in proper growth of the vegetation and germination of the seeds and production of the sufficient food quality. Control Burning: Mostly herbivorous wild animals prefer new delicate succulent parts of the vegetation. It is more nutritive to the animals and also liked too much. Old and hard plants including bushes become unpalatable and, hence, lessens the carrying capacity of the habitat. In such condition, control-burning is essential to regain new delicate plants. But in such practices, care should be taken to avoid burning of wild animals and other valuable plants species. Burning should be avoided also in the areas where even long and old grasses are liked, though not by all, but certain wild animals such as bison, etc. In certain areas, even burning does not help in germinating delicate palatable grasses. Hence, before applying control-burning practices, it needs thorough studies and observations in respective habitat for the target species. Insect Control: To maintain food chains and food webs of the ecosystem and its natural balance in habitat, it is essential to keep the population of each species up to the optimum level. In this view, the insect population is an important link in the food chain providing feeding to the insectivorous birds and animals. The races of insects are to be maintained, otherwise the existence of the animals depending upon them comes in danger. For the purpose, all dead and dying trees should not be removed. They should be retained as such in certain ratio so that the insects living on such trees may survive keeping ecological balance. If situation is adverse, the predators of insects will perish and the population of insects will grow enormously and then epidemic condition will arise. As the consequences, insecticides (chemicals) are to be used to control them which is disastrous to the wildlife as well as causing environmental pollution and, hence, not feasible every where and every time in the forest area. That’s why;“ integrated pest management (IPM)” technique is preferred nowadays. Overall, as the preventive measure, at least five snag trees per hectare should be left in every area at the time of silvicultural operation in the forest. Artificial Feeding: Though the artificial feeding to the wild animals should not be preferred because the animals lose their wilderness characters in getting such food and become like pets; but some time in pinch-period or in adverse natural condition, artificial-feeding becomes essential to save them, specially the target species.

In this respect, salt lick is very much important. It is placed where salty or sulphurous earth, mud or water is found on the surface and wild animals habitually

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resort to eat, lick or drink the stuff. Natural salt-licks are available in the jungle in the form of almost flat hilly rocks made up of licking soil mixed with NaCl. But in some places, it is found in scanty and so artificial salt licks are supplied to the wild animals to make up the deficiency. Artificial salt licks are made by mixing the normal salt (NaCl) with the licking soil in the form of balls or in rectangular shape and sun dried. It is supplied to the wild animals inside the jungle as the supplementary nutrients generally near the waterholes or other suitable places so that the animals can lick it and remove the deficiency. It may also be placed near the spaces where the animals are not visiting for grazing so that they may be attracted towards it and can graze and grow in the untouched areas. Thus, the sighting of the wild animals may be increased by the artificial feeding, salt-licking, etc. in the desired areas and in this way their population may be enhanced. 2. WATER IMPROVEMENT

The requirement of water is one of the basic needs of wild animals, though its consumption varies in accordance with the species concerned. Some species require it daily, some at intervals while some do not. But majority require it daily (see also Chapter 8 under head “Water”). Therefore, the availability of water source (waterholes) in the habitat is very essential throughout the year. If it is not found in sufficient quantity, the wild animals will be unable to live in that particular habitat, their number will deplete and even cases of death will occur. Hence, water affects density of the animal’s population and, therefore, the management and maintenance of waterholes is an important tool in habitat improvement in the field of wildlife management. Generally, it has been seen that even after the availability of sufficient food and shelter; there is insufficient number of the species or occurrence of death in the habitat showing the reason of lacking of sufficient waterholes. Such occurrence is apparent in pinch period specially in the summer. To be big in size or quantity of the waterholes is not very essential; but its distribution and numbers in the habitat matter a lot. For instance, if there is very less number of waterholes in the habitat; there will be great pressure and gathering of wild animals around it causing hard intra and interspecific competition among them. Near the water source, there will be crowd of the animals beyond its carrying capacity. There will be over-utilization of food and shelter around it, causing its destruction; while the other parts of the habitat will remain untouched or under-utilized. As the resultant, the animals will come under psychological pressure due to over-crowding hampering their productivity. This will also cause diseases due to dirtyness of the waterholes being more and more utilized beyond its capacity and, thus, the whole populations of the area may vanish. Only existence of a population is not so important rather its growth and propagation in proper direction is essential and important. Therefore, management of evenly and properly distribution of waterholes in sufficient numbers throughout the year in the habitat is very essential. Keeping this view, there should be at least one waterhole in each home range for the animals which require water daily or regularly; for others, it may be at distant places serving their requirement. The proper management of waterholes in sufficient number increases the carrying capacity of habitat and its proper utilization as a whole. For the purpose, maintenance of natural waterholes and development of artificial waterholes are must. Following are the methods of improving waterholes for wildlife:

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a. Maintenance of Natural Waterholes

Natural waterholes can be maintained and improved as follows: i. Natural Waterholes: Natural waterholes are often found in nallas and rocky areas where run-off water is accumulated in depressions. At times, such holes can be improved by deepening the catchments or by trenching run-off water directly to the basin. The arrangement should be done to make it available to the wildlife. The improvement techniques of the natural water sources should be done under the guidance of experienced and expertized persons, otherwise the result may lead to damaging stage. ii. Seeping: Somewhere in natural condition, it is seen that water is coming out drop by drop through a particular space. Such water cannot be utilized by the wildlife. Such water can be collected in a artificially made ditch/tank by applying devices like through hollow bomboo or pipe catching those seeping water. Such collected water will be beneficial and utilizable to the wildlife serving their purpose. b. Development of Artificial Waterholes

Artificial waterholes are developed by adopting following measures: i. Reservoirs and Ponds: These may be formed by building a dam directly across a drainage/nallah or by enclosing a depression on one side of the drainage and also by constructing a diversion-ditch into the resulting basin. ii. Water Catchments: Many type of self-filling watering devices may be designed and developed for the use of wildlife called “water catchments” in general. These are designed differently as per the need of the different species of wild animals. iii. Other Water Developments: The habitat manager may construct waterdevelopment devices such as tanks, wells, tube-wells, hand-pumps, etc. with the connection of water reservoirs according to the requirement and suitability of the habitat. c. Soil and Water Conservation

From habitat improvement point of view, it is important to take care simultaneously for soil conservation and water conservation. It is essential to maintain eco-balance of the habitat as soil is the prime natural base for the development of vegetation. Soil is one of the factors determining the kinds and growth of the plant of a place as stated earlier for which water is also essential. Hence, their conservation is the conservation and propagation of forest, plants and all types of vegetations, and ultimately to the wild animals. By planting suitable tree, fodder, grass and other species in the habitat; soil and water should be conserved. This will play dual purposes such as conservation of soil and water as well as solving water and food problem of wildlife. In addition, formation of check-dams and other suitable devices are also necessary to prevent soilerosion and run-off water. d. Wetland Development

Particularly for certain birds, wetland and shallow water are required as their habitats. Deep water is required for the fishes; but for the aquatic birds, marshy land and vegetation inside the reservoir are needed for their roosting and perching. Therefore, its development is very much essential for developing the habitat for the aquatic birds. This is the reason that in vast water reservoir the number of birds in deep water area

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is very few, while on the bank and shallow-water area they are found in large numbers. Such area is also ideal place for migratory birds. Hence, the development of wetlands and the reservoirs is too much essential. Such areas should be free from effluents or byproducts of the factory and siltation. The water level in the reservoir should not be alike throughout the year so that the aquatic plant may grow on the moist banks or in shallow water very well. For the purpose, check-dams should be built in the deep reservoir and minimally there should be 15–45 cm water level area in the half of the total basin area. The aquatic habitat has been and being damaged and polluted too much. The unused products of the factories, sewage of the cities and towns, garbage, etc. are dropped in such habitat. The wetland is also being converted into human habitation and, thus, such areas are dwindling day-by-day hampering the habitat of wildlife. Such practices must be stopped and the following measures should be adopted for its management: i. In the reservoirs and waterholes, the devices like check-dams, etc. should be made to lessen the water level as per the need of the aquatic birds. ii. If the waterholes are not shallow and purposeful to the birds, the artificial nesting should be formed and installed along the banks of the water source. Such nesting as shelter should be placed at the height of one metre from the water level and apart from the bank at the distance of 20 metres with the intervals of 100 metres. iii. In the vast and deep reservoirs and lakes, mount of mud near the banks having height of 2 m with 3 m diameter at certain intervals should be built in summer season. Upon the mounts, plantation of aquatic vegetation and trees should also be done. These mounts will submerge partially under water in rainy season and will serve as shelter and cover for the aquatic birds. Such practices should also be done in such other water source areas where water remains collected in the ditches in the form of sumps after rainy season and so on. 3. SHELTER IMPROVEMENT

Shelter or cover is also a basic fundamental need like food and water for wildlife and acts as a limiting factor for them as described earlier. Shelter varies differently for different kinds of species and, hence, it is species-specific in case of wild animals (see also Chapter 8 under head “Shelter”). Therefore, the management technique should be accessed and applied as per the need of the target species. Moreover, it should be tagged, if possible, with the food improvement technique as the food plants may be suitable covers also for the animal. Hence, selection of food plants and its improvement should be done carefully and wisefully. The various artificial measures for shelter/cover improvement are as follows: a. Development of Natural Shelter: We know that in nature, there is cycle of plant succession. The phenomenon is continuous and contiguous process in its own way unless and until it is manipulated by the human beings. As stated broadly in Chapter 8, we can judge and access the stage of succession which is the most beneficial for the particular wild animal or the target species. The management should be like that particular stage and can be retarded or retained for longer desired period so that it may be helpful for the target species for its proper growth and propagation. In this way, the desired shelter/cover may be obtained for wildlife. In real sense, the process is tagged with the food improvement, and hence needs thorough studies and research for the purpose before implementation. For

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instance, if an open meadow forest is converted into dense forest by planting suitable trees, this will be better cover to the cheetal in comparison with black buck and will be the most suitable for the sambhar. On contrast; if meadows are built up by clearing unwanted bushes, etc. in a dense forest having insufficient meadows, it will be better cover for cheetal in comparison with the sambhar. Hence in general, it can be concluded two cases in natural cover development such as: i. If the plant succession is in favourable direction for the target species, then it should be enhanced in the habitat by applying measures such as fire protection, control grazing, plantation of suitable species, if required and so on. ii. If a particular stage of succession itself is beneficial for target species, then measures for manipulation should be applied to retain that particular stage of the succession such as felling, grazing, control burning, changes in the silvicultural operations, etc. b. Development of Artificial Shelter: Before going towards artificial cover, it is necessary to ascertain the actual necessity of the target species in respect of the shelter means what type and how much cover is needed for that particular species. Whether they are in need of roosting or nesting or protecting cover and in what quantity? Hence, accurate selection of particular required cover, its quantity and places are the prime factors from improvement and management point of view. However, the following artificial measures are being applied in general for cover improvement purposes: i. Plantation of Trees (afforestation/reforestation): Generally plantation of trees for shelter purposes is not needed in the jungle, but if it is required then the evergreen shade and fruit trees should be preferred for plantation so that they may meet the demands of food and shelter for wildlife even in the pinch period. Such plantation is required in the forest which has become degraded due to various reasons as gap planting to fill-up the gaps inside it. The choice of tree species should be selected as per the suitability of the climate, topography, soil etc. of the habitat and mixed-plantation of the indigenous species must be preferred as far as possible because wild animals of the habitat are genetically habituated for such species. But if necessary, the fast growing species may also be planted to get the result in the shortest period. Simultaneously, it is also to be cared for that all the gaps should not be planted. Some gaps should be left as open meadows as ideal habitat for certain wild animals. ii. Caves and Rock-cliff Shelters: There should be thorough investigations and observations of all the caves and rock-cliffs which are serving as shelters and which are not serving as shelters for wildlife. Such shelters which are presently serving as shelters should be improved, if needed. Such caves, etc. which are not being used as shelters, must be observed minutely to find out the factors and obstacles due to which they have been abandoned by the wild animals and such factors must be removed so that they may be suitably used as shelter by the animals. There should not be felling at least around 100 metres of the caves and cliffs because felling in such area gives devastating result for wildlife shelter. Waterholes should be managed near such shelters. In short, it can be said that the limiting factors of such shelters should be removed and managed them to be suitable for the wild animals. iii. Development of Brush-piles: Some small animals and birds require their shelter in bushes. They use them as their roosting and nesting covers. Therefore,

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such covers should be accessed in the habitat and, if needed, must be developed artificially. For the purpose; the branches of fallen trees, cutting of bushes left during formation of beat-line, fire-line, blocks, etc. and such other left-out parts of the felling practices should be used to form artificial brush to serve as shelter by the desired wild animals. Such unwanted materials should be collected and dumped at certain places at least 2 m height having 6 m diameter. In the bottom, thick branches should be placed to serve as platform at least of 15 cm. height. In the middle of the brush, a pole should be placed and covered around by leaves and twigs as loose-heap. Such brush-pilling serves ideal cover for certain animals as well as also helps to come out grasses and bushes inside it after sometimes. Such cover is used by certain birds especially for gallinaceous birds. The developments of such brush-piles are very much helpful in providing ideal shelter for certain wild animals enabling them to enhance their growth. iv. Development of Travel-route Cover: We know that the wild animals are mobile and move in search of their food, water or shelter from one place to another. During such migration, they need shelter in the route. Therefore, such travel-route cover should be protected and developed wherever needed specially near the waterholes. Covers near the waterholes are mostly required to rest by the animals; otherwise, it has been seen that the waterholes which are devoid of covers are not used by the animals. Hence, protection and the development of travel-route covers play an important role in wildlife propagation. v. Artificial Nesting: Wherever required, the artificial nests in the form of baskets of variable shapes made up of wood should be hanged. Such nests are generally required for the game birds in the area which is devoid of vegetation. In the forests, such devices are often not needed, however, may be arranged wherever and whenever required. vi. Modification in Silvicultural Operations: Generally the silvicultural operations are recommended and practiced in view of getting more and more timbers. In such operations, the ideas of wild animals and their protection as well as propagation are ignored. Hence, there is need of modification in the rules and regulations of silvicultural operations/practices. These modifications should be on the basis of the priorities of the land use and other factors of the habitat. However, the following general facts must be considered in silvicultural practices: a. Felling of shade and fruit trees should be stopped as far as possible. b. There should be always mixed-species plantation to meet the various foods chains of various wild animals. c. The felling of coups should be in such a way that they may give maximum core effects to the wild animals resulting highest interspersion and juxtaposition for them. d. After felling and trading operations, the left out parts of the trees should be arranged in the form of brush-piles to provide shelter for certain small wild animals and birds. e. There should not be felling, etc. at night to maintain the privacy of wild animals. f. As far as possible, the interference at the waterholes should be avoided. g. There should not be interruption near the riparian zone as well as shelters like caves and rock-cliffs.

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h. The trees having youngones and eggs in the nests should be left untouched, and besides these at least 10 more trees should be left unfelled at certain distances for the purpose of roosting cover. i. At least, five snag trees per hectare should be left for protection and propagation purposes of wild animals. 4. FIRE MANAGEMENT

Fire management is an important component of habitat management. It is the most disastrous in the forest as it results in much harm to the wild flora and fauna. It causes damage to the habitat of the wild animals destroying its food and shelter, forest crop, regeneration, productivity of forest and soil. Hence, wildlife is caused excessive loss by the fire by burning their eggs, young ones and the habitat. As a result, the equilibrium of the nature becomes upset. Fire may be intentional or natural. Actually, all forest fires are man made so as to facilitate grazing, collection of forest produces, etc. But fire is not always harmful, if it is done in controlled condition for the purpose of removing tall and old grasses to bring fresh grass growth for the herbivorous animals. Fires can both kill as well as stimulate new growth and thus checks natural succession which depends upon the frequency and intensity of burning. Somewhere, specially in moist areas, it gives favourable result for the herbivorous animals while in other places, particularly in dry regions, does not. Grazing is an alternative measure to find the new grass growth in meadows. In this respect, various experiments at different places show different results, though more favourable in case of controlled burning in India. However, cutting of grasses is found more favourable than that of control burning in intensive areas, but it is not feasible and economic in extensive areas and here control burning is said to be favourable. In short, it may be said that it needs thorough studies and experiments in the habitat concerned before coming to a conclusion and finalizing the strategies of firemanagement. The aspect of the management may be summarised as follows: a. Wild fires should be stopped as far as possible. If required, it should be done only. b. In moist grasslands, some burning is required and needs care so that soil does not get dried up. c. Arid and semi-arid habitats should not be burnt. Needs of removal of grasses, bushes, woody plants and unwanted vegetations should be done through cutting in such areas. d. If burning is prescribed in an area, it should be done on a pre-planned patch-work system, viz. phase-wise in small area. e. During burning, conservation of the area must be cared for. f. Overall, there is need of thorough research and studies on fires and its effect in a particular area before prescribing it as we lack adequate knowledge about it. g. Wildlife manager in one area may develop different fire policies as per the necessity. Thus, fire management in India in case of wildlife has two aspects such as suppression of fire and use of fire as a tool wherever necessary depending upon local climate, topography, vegetation and biotic factors. The policy should be based mainly considering harmful effects on regeneration, loss of food and shelter of wildlife, damage to small or young animals including birds,

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soil-degradation and its erosion, etc. The management of fire has broadly two parts which are as follows. A. Preventive Measures

i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi.

Goodwill of the local people in preventing fire. Early burning before summer season to prevent uncontrolled fire in summer. Education of the masses to prevent fire. Ban on the activities causing fire. Legislative measures to stop intentional fire. Forecasting of burning days: An organization should be set up which will forecast the dangerous burning days in the area by monitoring all the conditions which cause the occurrence of fires like temperature, humidity, wind, etc. vii. Fire lines/fire breaks: It is an old practice in preventing the fire in the forest with the object to restrict the outbreak of fire in manageable area bounded by strips for checking the progress of fire. In other words, these are the cleared/burnt strips of land inside the forest so as to prevent fires from crossing over from one part to the other part of the forest. Fire lines are made before the onset of the summer. Fire lines are of four kinds such as: a. Forest road which acts as a strip free from burning materials. To obtain specified width, lines on either side of the road are also cut which is normally 4 to 5 metres. b. Specific planned fire line consists a principal fire line of 30 to 40 metres width with subsidiary lines of lesser widths parallel or running across the principal line. In hilly areas, the principal fire line runs along the base of foothills following the contour and also below to the plain area. c. Cutting and cleaning of compartment boundaries also act as fire lines. d. Stream beds act as natural fire lines. viii. Watch Towers: Watching and timely detection of fire and its communication is an important strategy in fire prevention as well as in controlling it. To appoint fire-watchers at least during the fire season is necessary who communicate to the assigned station about fire outbreak. They should be equipped with modern communicating equipments like wireless-sets/mobile-sets, etc. Most tiger reserves are making use of wireless sets as well as watcher-messenger-aidedsystem. There must be watch towers at proper distances inside the wildlife habitat having suitable visibility by sitting on them. This serves dual purpose like surveillance of fire incidents as well as mishappening with the wildlife such as hunting, poaching and other illegal activities occurring inside the forest. For example, in Betla National Park (Palamau Tiger Reserve) of Jharkhand State has marvellous fire watching system operating since 1976. Here, sufficient watch towers have been built located at top high hills covering the entire park area. These are manned throughout day and night during fire season. During the daytime fire is detected by smoke and the watcher identifies the area of occurrence and communicates to the respective stations (sub-set, beat, range and headquarters) accordingly. During night, a powerful torch with coloured papers is used giving signals like “Red” means fire is on; “Blue” means fire is in adjoining jurisdiction; ”Green” means all clear. Besides it, Morse like code is used to convey the “block and compartment under fire”. Such signalling is visible between adjoining towers and the concerned station.

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B. Remedial Measures

i. Quick communication: Wireless sets/mobile sets, etc. should be provided to all the blocks, range and headquarters so that outbreak of fire may be communicated without delay. ii. Quick action: Proper and quick action is required if outbreak of fire occurs. iii. Availability of labourers: There should be prior arrangement of sufficient numbers of labourers to control fire. iv. Arrangement of water: Water should be easily available near the location of the fire-fighting squad. v. Arrangement of tools: Only water does not help to extinguish fire and mud has to be thrown on the fire to control it. For the purpose, hand tools are needed for cutting grasses and bushes, digging earth, making ditches, etc. vi. Locally developed techniques for combating fire serves well. vii. Proper fire policies should be made after thorough investigation of the particular habitat. Hence, fire management is one of the most important management techniques to achieve the goal of habitat improvement. Protection of the habitat from fire or quick and efficient action taken at the time of fire outbreak gives excellent successful result in wildlife propagation.

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7 People’s Management

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n the previous chapters, it has been discussed in the definition of ”Wildlife Management” that to obtain specific human objectives from wildlife resource, the determination and action are taken for the manipulation in the structure, dynamics and relations of the wildlife population, its habitat, and the related people. It is, hence, clear that there are three components of wildlife management such as wildlife population, its habitat, and the related people. The conservation and management of the wildlife is possible only through establishing co-relation in all these three components. To get such co-relation, the wildlife manager should be well-knowledged about the structure, dynamics, and relations of these three components. The growth or propagation in wildlife cannot be done until there is proper studies and knowledge of each component regarding the present situation, the causes of such situation, the causes depending upon their natural growth and out of these factors or causes which are responsible and effective for their growth, etc. In the absence of these knowledge, the manipulation and improvement is not possible in respect of its condition and corelation with other components. Therefore, the studies of structure, dynamics and relation of these three components are the pillars or basic things of wildlife management. Hence, it can be said that out of three components, the people’s management is the third important component in the wildlife management cycle. In true sense, the people are so important component that if other two components are manipulated favourably, even then there will be no beneficial result if people are not favourable or in affirmative direction. Therefore, to run the wildlife management smoothly, it is very much important to manipulate the people in suitable direction. Before managing the people, they are analyzed. First of all, they are divided into age-classes and then there should be studies in each age-class as per their interest in wildlife, their ideas for its conservation and implementation, their economic status, etc. Their economic status plays important role in the wildlife conservation as poverty compels them to do offence towards the wild animals. From age point of view, the people may be divided into three categories such as: a. The persons up to 20 years age. b. The persons between 20 and 50 years age. c. The persons above 50 years age. 89

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Fig. 7.1: Interrelationship and interactions among different components of wildlife management (diagrammatic).

The persons up to 20 years age are mostly students. They can be motivated very well as they develop their ideas once, will persist for the whole life. Hence, the youngs and youths of such age-class should be motivated maximally about the importance of wildlife and awareness may be created in their hearts regarding loveliness and kindness towards wild animals. From the very young stage, they should be visiting wild animals in the jungles, biological parks, sanctuaries, national parks, etc. to bring awareness among them. Speeches, debates, essay competition, pictures on wildlife, etc. should be arranged by the wildlife experts in the schools and colleges. Such types of works should not be only restricted in towns or cities but must be extended to rural areas. The persons attaining 20–50 years of age may be categorized into three subcategories, viz. the persons who are busy in their daily domestic work and are not anxious for wildlife; those who are intellectuals and naturalist and have interest in wildlife; and others are those persons who do offence like hunting and poaching, etc. to the wild animals. Out of these, the first type of persons are generally more in number and they are so busy and do not observe the harms which are going on the environment and wildlife. They should be motivated creating consciousness so that they being more in number, will also motivate the third type of people who are harming the wildlife. Such persons should be dealt with separately in the town and rural areas as per their difficulties. There should be arrangement of speeches, pictures, visit to national parks/sanctuaries, etc. lessoning them about the importance of wildlife, its relation with the ecosystem and environment, their effects on the existence of human life and so on. Villagers should be preached specially as they have the bad ideas towards wild animals thinking that it is harmful to their agricultural crops and as such wild animals are their enemies. Hence, comparing uses and losses performed by the wild animals, they should be convinced that actually the wild animals are not their enemies rather friends and benefactors. They should be fully convinced that losses made by the wild animals is very less in comparison to the benefits obtained from them, the survival of wild animals is very important and essential for eco-balance performing role in food chain and food web and for the existence of human life. The agricultural crops are damaged by them up to a certain extent, no doubt; but in absence of wild animals the proper growth of their crops are not possible because, for example, insectivorous birds eat voraciously insect pests and thus not only save the crop but also enhance its yield. In this way, the wild animals are the friends of the villagers and losses caused by them may be treated as negligible in respect of the benefits pertained by them. The persons harming the wildlife should be first persued to protect the wild animals, and then should be punished as per the law if they do not obey the rules. The people above 50 years age should also be motivated to be acknowledged creating awareness towards the wildlife so that they may tell interesting favourable

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stories to protect and save the wild animals to the youngs of their descendants (new generations). Hence, they will be like pillars to create interest and awareness among the new generations. In brief, it can be said that by the help of the extension media like radio, television, stories, essay, newspaper, cinema, etc. each person of the each category of the people may be motivated and awarded. It is strange in human history that the man has very little knowledge about the nature and exploited the same, while he himself is an essential and integral part of it. In real sense, the most obstacle in the field of wildlife management and conservation is the unconsciousness of the people towards the wildlife. Hence, it is essential to procure knowledge through studies and research about wildlife and its relation with human beings. Such knowledge should be extended to the general mass. Without spreading such ideas, the studies and research done in jungle, laboratories, etc. will be of no use. It should be taken as challenge on mass-scale so that each and every citizen may understand its importance and participate in protection, conservation and propagation motives. Such motives should include the following objectives: i. To give logical and comparative ideas before the general mass regarding interrelations of wildlife, soil, water and the people. ii. To teach the general mass regarding recreational, economical, scientific and religious importance of wildlife. iii. To promote land use planning system, multiple land uses and to find out the ecological way-out in land uses. iv. Necessity of the proper utilization of wildlife resources in general mass. v. To apprehend the principles of wildlife management and eagerness to implement the same. vi. To support such activities which are suitable and helpful for wildlife in the system of land and water utility. vii. To gather knowledge and difficulties regarding wildlife-utility among the people through related institutions and agencies, and to find out the remedies of such constraints. To get success in the mission, the wildlife manager should also take help from the researches done in the field of social sciences. Since motivational research has been proved effective in many fields, the result of such research work may be studied and applied also in the field of wildlife to create interest and love among the general masses for protection, propagation and conservation of wildlife. So, in fine, it is now essential that the wildlife manager should apply human ecology, anthropology, social science, sociology, economics, political science, etc. to get favourable and suitable motives of the people of different categories towards the wild animals.

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8 Wildlife Ecology

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n this earth planet, any species or organism cannot live alone and, hence, there are associations among them organizing communities. They have also functional relationship with the external world, viz. the environment. This structural and functional system of the communities and their environment is called ecological system or ecosystem. The term ecology (Oikos-house, Logos = study) is the study of organisms in their natural house, viz. habitat and is defined as “the study of plants and animals in reciprocal relationship with their environment.” The theme of the ecosystem is that there is continuous interactions between plants, animals and their environment in their habitat to produce and exchange materials. For the purpose, there are mechanisms for continuous absorption of material by the organisms for the production of organic materials and release and conversion of the organic material into organic form and this process is known as cycling of material. The energy required to all these work is obtained from sun (solar energy). But this is the miracle of the nature that except green plants, no other organisms are capable of taking the solar energy and converting it into chemical energy by means of photosynthesis. Thus, the plants are called producers and others are consumers (among consumers, herbivorous are primary consumers and subsequently depending upon them are secondary, tertiary consumers and so on). Hence, living and non-living systems are involved in the continuous flow of energy and cycling of materials through the non-living and living components. The flow of energy is based on trophic or food and feedingstructure of the ecosystem flowing from the sun to green plants to herbivores and then to different levels of carnivores. Therefore, the system is a dynamic one where change is taking place always. Regarding the components of the ecosystem, it is broadly of two types, viz. biotic (living organisms such as plants and animals) and abiotic (non-living materials of the environment like water, minerals, gases, etc.). Depending upon the habitat, the ecosystem is named grassland ecosystem, forest ecosystem, pond ecosystem, lake ecosystem, river ecosystem, marine ecosystem, etc. In all ecosystems; the producers and consumers are decomposed finally after decay or death by the micro-organisms called decomposers releasing the organic and inorganic materials back to the nature to be utilized again by the living organisms and thus nutrient cycle runs. This is the self-regulatory mechanism in the ecosystems as checks and balances and known as homeostasis. It is controlled by feedback mechanisms such as 92

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positive feedback (the mechanism which allows growth) and negative feedback (which prevents over-growth) and, thus, state of equilibrium is maintained.

Fig. 8.1: Trophics of an ecosystem

It is clear that the solar energy is trapped by chlorophyll of the green plants, carbon dioxide is taken by the atmosphere and by the process of photosynthesis, they (green plants) produce energy-rich organic compounds as their food and hence, also called autotrophs or producers. The producers (plants) are eaten by the herbivores and in turn they are eaten by carnivores in a particular ecosystem and thus, called heterotrophs or consumers. This series of organisms fixing energy, eating and being eaten, or transfer of energy from one level to the other, necessary for their survival, is known as food chain. This feeding system is not always so simple chain like but is complicated because many organisms behave differently in their food habits forming complicated network. This net-like food interrelationship is known as food web. Such relations are very delicate and complicated and clearly shows the interdependency and interrelationship among the all living organisms including human beings in the nature showing intraspecific and interspecific relationship. Delinking of the chain or missing (extinct) of such chain creates disastrous condition resulting imbalances in the ecosystem and danger to the survival or existence of the species. Hence, food chain came into existence by linking the different interconnected links of the chains of energy transfers. At the time of energy flow (energy transfer) from one link to another link, the total energy is not transferred but lost up to certain amount. To make-up such loss of energy, there should be more links on the lower level and less on the upper level. The unnecessary imbalance in the food chain/food web affects the whole biosphere (Figs 8.2 and 8.3). In course of evolution of the organism on the earth, atmosphere (the mixture of gases like oxygen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, etc. around the earth is called atmosphere) and environment (the factor resulted by the organisms due to the interactions of its

Fig. 8.2: Food chains (a) Grassland ecosystem, (b) pond ecosystem, (c) forest ecosystem

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Fig. 8.3: Food webs (1) Grassland ecosystem, (2) marine ecosystem

habitat with the biotic and abiotic components living there with which the organisms have interrelation of direct or indirect activities, is called environment) came into picture and due to their interactions, the flow of energy is running continuously. The particular place and the environment which is the most suitable for the species is called habitat of that particular species. On contrast, the status or position of a species occupying within the ecosystem or community is called its ecological niche. In other words, it can be said that the functional aspects of a species at the place of occurrence is called ecological niche of that species, or the location and function of an organism in the context of its ecosystem is called its ecological niche. The ecological niche is the structural adaptation, physiological response and specific behaviour and thus, is the sum total of physical, chemical, physiological and biotic factors that an organism bears during its existence. Hence, habitat may be called address of the particular species while niche as profession. During organic evaluation, each species evolved and occupied a particular niche and where niches are similar, species of similar function will evolve even in widely separated areas. For example, the grassland ecosystem of Australia and India, though having different kinds of species such as Kangaroo and Bison respectively, is of same type of niche. The biotic group created by the total species population at a particular area is called biotic community. This bioticcommunity of its habitat acts as an ecosystem mixing with abiotic components. Though, there are differences among the organisms (flora and fauna) in different ecosystems (realms), but even they have certain similarities among them if their climatic conditions are almost similar. For example, the many fauna of Palaearctic region exhibits similarity with Neoarctic region. Thus, the vast areas having similar flora/fauna as well as climate, is called biomes. Biomes have been broadly divided into Hydrophytic (Plankton, Nekton and Benthos) and Terrestrial (Tundra, Desert, Pasture and Forest). In real sense, biome was recognized on the basis of flora; and faunal regions (realms/zoogeographical regions) on the basis of animals. But, afterwards, it was found similarity in certain areas both in flora as well as fauna. Such similar areas are named biotic province. In organic evolution, the formation of an ecosystem took very long time. It is of two types, viz. primary biotic succession and secondary biotic succession. In the beginning of the evolution, when there was no sign of organism, organic evolution started slowly

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and slowly and primary biotic succession took place. Even now the land left by the glacier and volcano, primary biotic succession is taking place. The next is secondary biotic succession in which ecological evolution takes place where damages occur in the climax ecosystem due to natural calamity like fire, storm, flood, etc. Secondary succession takes less time than the primary succession because here climatic condition, soil, source of plants, etc. remain already available and very soon climax ecosystem is obtained. The secondary biotic succession is very helpful from wildlife management point of view; because in the course of reaching climax ecosystem, the particular stage or stages may be ideal condition or favourable condition for the particular wild animal in which it will flourish and develop marvellously, but may extinct or destroy in the stage of climax ecosystem. Hence, by recognizing and assessing such condition for the target wild animal species, we can retain such favourable stage by artificial means for the benefit of that particular species. For example, in the fire accident, the situation of climax ecosystem becomes reverse and secondary biotic succession starts. In this position, new grasses come out profusely and abundantly which is favourable condition for certain wild animals. If such condition is brought about every year by the control-burning to create grassland ecology retarding reaching climax ecosystem, it can enhance the population of certain such target animals. Such condition cannot be brought only by fire but also by the biotic (organisms) introduction which can change the situation up to desired level. It needs investigations and assessment thoroughly for the purpose. In this way if we want to maintain or restore animals, we must be prepared to leave them a place to live. That place to live is what we mean by habitat (a place and an environment suited to a particular species). Habitat management do benefit wildlife can mean anything from complete protection of remote areas to drastic disturbance of vegetation to create those successional stages favourable to certain species. In all habitats, there is a limit to the number of animals of any one species that can be supported. That limit is known as the carrying capacity of that habitat. The question “What determines carrying capacity?” is as easy to answer as it might seem. Certain obvious factors are involved such as the right kind of food and the quality of food available; the presence of water for most animals; the right kind of soil for some species; the necessary topography like mountains, plains, lakes, streams, etc. which are in general term known as cover meaning arrangements of land and vegetation suited to nesting, resting, hiding, flying and all other various activities the species perfoms. But we cannot know all the factors, even for the human species. It is possible to confuse habitat with ecological niche. One has been described as the animal’s “address” and the other as its “profession”. The two terms are not that easily separated, since the animal’s profession is carried out only at a particular “address”. For example, the habitat for a meadow mouse may be a meadow, but the mouse uses it in a particular way, creating a niche within it that does not necessarily involve all the components of the meadow environment. The meadow may be a habitat for a hundred species, but the meadow mouse niche within it is fully occupied only by meadow mice. There are only a certain number of species for meadow mice in a particular meadow, and when these are filled, the carrying capacity for meadow mice has been reached. There may still be space for other species that use the meadow differently such as badgers, pocket gophers, jack rabbits and so on. The term habitat is sometimes also confused with the geographic range of a species. Geographic range is a broader term indicating the map area in which a species occurs. But one expects to find a particular species only in suitable habitats within a geographic range. The particular range of a species is determined generally by climate, vegetation and

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topography to which the species can become adapted. Often a species is capable of living within a much broader geographic range that it actually occupies. Its place of origin, ability to travel, or the presence of barriers that it is unable to cross may result in its occupying a much smaller space that it has the potential to occupy. Human occupancy of the earth has changed the ranges of may species, expanding some and contracting others. At the same time, species themselves are not fixed entities, but are evolving and changing, developing the capacity to occupy environments differing from those used in the past. All species tend to press on the boundaries of their geographic ranges, sending colonists to occupy new areas as the carrying capacities of their original habitats are exceeded. Many years ago Justus Liebig, a chemist studying plant nutrition, devised the concept of the Law of minimum. In this, he stated that the growth of a plant is dependent on the amount of foodstuff which is presented to it in minimum quantity relative to the needs of the plant. To extend this beyond nutrients, in proportion to the needs of an organism, the requirement that is present in minimum amount is a limiting factor. Thus, if all other requirements are present in adequate amounts but water is scarce, water will be limiting factor for wildlife. In such a situation, it would be of little use to increase amounts of food or cover. Water must be supplied. Liebig’s concept applied to those chemical foodstuffs needed for plant growth. Other workers, such as Victor Sheldford, have pointed out that too much as well as too little of a particular requirement may also limit the abundance or distribution of a species. There can be too much water in an area as well as too little. Sheldford postulated the theory called Law of tolerance. According to him, all environmental factors have a tolerable limit, the critical minimum and critical maximum. The range between these two is known as Limit of tolerance. If for a particular species, the tolerance exceeds its limit, the species will disappear from that particular area, as long as such condition exists. But before this range is crossed on either side and the limit of tolerance are reached, there is stress upon the animals and called zone of physiological stress. As stated above, Stracey has also described in the way that there is a biological minimum and if the numbers decrease below this minimum, the rebuilding of the species is impossible and extinction results. This is known as critical limit for the particular species. In other words, it can be said that when there is a gradual decline in a population of a certain species, a stage may come when the numbers go down below a minimum level of population needed for survival of the species. The minimum level or the critical level is known as extinction threshold. Eugene Odum has combined the ideas of previous writers in a statement that any organism requires a complex of environmental conditions and has a range of tolerance to any one of them. Any condition that near or surpasses the limit of tolerance for that organism becomes a limiting factor for it. Often it is difficult to identify a single limiting factor because an entire complex of conditions is involved. Thus, in one area a lack of escape cover may prevent populations from maintaining themselves above a certain level. Cover could be said to be limiting factor. However, if predators or hunting were removed, cover would no longer be limiting factor. If more food or water were available within easy reach of existing cover higher populations could also be supported. Any one of these factors could be called limiting factor, and if one were improved, populations might increase. However, further analysis of the situation might reveal that soil nutrients were limiting the growth of food or cover plants, and this lack could not be solved by planting alone. The search for limiting factors can thus become similar to the chase by a dog of its tail. Although there is little doubt that search for and the removal of limiting factors has served to increase wildlife populations, a wildlife manager should remind periodically that a total ecosystem is

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always involved. By concentrating on a single species and its limiting factor, one can lose sight of the interactions with all other species and the entire system. For example, species A is common but not abundant and is limited by factor A. Increasing factor A increases species A. But species A is preyed on by species B, which also eats species C and D, which are less abundant than A was originally. When there are more A around, species B increases in abundance to take advantage of its more individuals of species C and D, which are then reduced to a critically low level. One could go on tracing more possible interactions resulting from an increase in factor A, but it is hoped that this is sufficient to indicate that oversimplified single species approaches to wildlife will not necessarily produce desirable results. As mentioned above, generally it is difficult to identify a single limiting factor because presence and absence of an organism or a group of organisms in an ecosystem depends upon a complex of factors and entire complex of conditions involved. Therefore, the approach towards the limiting factor should cover all the aspects of the ecosystem and a single species approach may not be helpful in proper understanding of the various interactions in population, factors, habitat, etc. From wildlife management point of view, we should follow wholistic concept of the ecosystem. As we know that for proper development and propagation of the wild animal, there should be proper distribution of the basic needs (food, water and shelter) in the habitat. There should be also the proper spatio-temporal-distribution of these fundamental requirements (food, water and shelter) which play necessary and important factors in the habitat. Since, the availability and distribution of these basic needs vary in the habitat in different times and distance in quality and quantity, the number, density and distribution of wild animals in the habitat depend upon the fact that these basic components (food, water and shelter) are available at which time and at how much distance. Since, in an area or habitat, the factors like geographical feature, terrain, aspect, elevation, soil, climate, etc. are responsible for the vegetative and animal composition (biotic community); the interaction of this biotic community affects ultimately the habitat and vice versa. In the same habitat, due to aspect, terrain, etc. the vegetative composition remain changing throughout the year and, thus, the variation (diversity) in the vegetative composition is the symbol of the variation (diversity) of the habitat. Such variations in the vegetation/habitat meet the requirements of the animals in different ways in different seasons and time. Hence, the variation of habitat denotes the carrying capacity of the habitat. The carrying capacity of the habitat increases if the variation of habitat increases and vice versa. In this context, the following terms are important to understand: i. Edge effect: The boundary line of two or more than two different types of habitat is called edge which is generally formed by micro-climate, aspect, soil or abrupt physical changes. On the either sides of such edge, a belt is found or formed which has characters and vegetations of both the habitats, and called ecotone. The ecotone is narrower than its adjacent habitats. Thus, the ecotone is the juncture of two different vegetation type habitats (areas). The diversity of vegetation in ecotone is very beneficial and attractive for certain animal species as well as this diversity invites different types (varieties) of animals because of meeting their requirements. This is the reason that in this area, there is more density and variety of animals. The arised or created effects and attractions by such diversity of the ecotone upon the animals, is called edge effect. In such region, due to edge effect, there is favourable condition for their basic needs finding different kinds of vegetations within their reach in sufficient quantity. Hence, by increasing the area of ecotone, the edge effect will increase and subsequently the number of wild

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animals will also increase. That is why, the areas in the sides of afforestation adjacent to the dense forest, roads inside the forest, etc. become suitable for the wild animals and enhance their population and density due to vegetational diversities because wild animals get their food and shelter from at least any one of the plant communities. ii. Juxtaposition: When different types of habitats are situated side by side in such a way that they are capable to meet the different requirements of the animal population throughout the year, in such condition the measurement of proximity of different habitats is called juxtaposition. In this way, if the animals face limiting factor/factors or pinch period in a habitat in a particular period of the year, they fulfil their requirement from the other adjacent habitat and, thus, the animals meet their needs throughout the year for their survival and proper propagation. In other words, it can be said that to fulfil the requirements of the animal populations, one habitat is fulfiller of the other in different time and in this way the animals get their entire requirements within their cruising radius. iii. Interspersion: The distribution of the basic requirements (food, water and shelter) in a habitat plays very important role for the animals. If these requirements are within the cruising radius of the species, it will be easily available for them; otherwise they cannot survive and propagate very well. They cannot enhance their population in well-mannered way, if these requirements are situated far away or beyond the cruising radius; then such habitat will be unable to nurse the optimumpopulation of the species and create unfavourable conditions for them. Hence, to sustain and propagate more and more population, it is necessary to reduce the mobility, that the interspersion of the fundamental requirements should be available within the cruising radius of the species. This is the reason that the number of wild animals is less in a vast forest area of similar habitat than smaller areas having different kinds of habitats. So, the mixture of small units of different types of habitats and their proper distribution is called interspersion of those units. The ecotone having more number of different kinds of habitat units is called better. Hence, juxtaposition is a measure of proximity of different habitats; and interspersion is the symbol of terrestrial position of these habitats; while edge effect is the special effect found in the ecotone of these habitats (belt on the either sides of the boundary line of these habitats). Hence, juxtaposition is a stage, interspersion is a position and edge effect is an effect created by such stage and position. As stated earlier, the ecosystem is the outcome of two components, viz. biotic and abiotic factors. Therefore, the ecological factors are falling under two categories such as biotic or living factors and abiotic or physical factors. In the context of wildlife, it can be dealt as follows. BIOTIC FACTORS OR LIVING FACTORS

It includes living organisms such as plants and animals as well as other forms of life. These factors are the resultant of the interactions and interrelations of the same species (intraspecific) or different species (interspecific) because, in the ecosystem, all organisms are interlinked and interdependent on each other and none can live alone or in isolation for getting their basic needs like food, water and shelter and protection. Not only this, but the animals of one species are related or dependent upon the animals of the same species and vice versa. Such interdependency exists without considering kind and size, such as big animals or plants are associated with small insects or parasites. Such association is intraspecific (between same species) and interspecific

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(between different species). The interspecific relationship is further divided into parasitism, mutualism (neutralism), symbiosis, commensalism, predation, etc. See also Chapter 5 under head “Animal Behaviour”. ABIOTIC FACTORS OR PHYSICAL FACTORS

Broadly, the physical factors which has affected and affecting the fauna and flora of an ecosystem can be divided into two parts, viz. medium and climate. Mainly there are six media where animals and plants live which are soil, light, temperature, water, air and parasite living in or on the body of other organism (host). Here, we will discuss about soil, light, temperature and water in detail. A. SOIL

The soil, which is formed by weathering of rocks associated with organic matter and the living organisms, is the most essential medium for the survival of plants and animals. It contains various types of nutrients, minerals, water and gases and support for the plants (producers). Thus, it is essential for the sustenance of any form of life. The dead part of the organism is decayed and transformed by the decomposers dwelling in the soil and contribute also in the soil formation particularly humus and continue the energy nutrient cycle also. The vigour and hygiene of health of the wild animal depends upon the presence and absence of the minerals in the soil. The mineral rich soil supports more to the wildlife than poorly aerated and acidic soil. The animal develops in the particular soil containing materials needed for it; for example, snails are found in the soil which is enriched in calcium required for their shell formation. That is why, flora and fauna are different in different types of soil. The soil which is slightly acidic or neutral is generally well-suited for most of the plants and animals. Therefore, status and kinds of wildlife has direct relationship with the soil condition of an area or habitat. On good soil, vegetation is luxuriant and nutritious resulting good size and number of the herbivores and subsequently optimum number of carnivores are found there establishing dynamic and viable ecosystem maintaining proper food chain. Any deterioration, naturally or artificially, changes the characteristics of the soil leading the change in food, shelter and status of wildlife in reverse direction. B. LIGHT

Light is also an important factor in influencing growth, behaviour and distribution of flora and fauna. The most important work in this field is the phenomenon of photosynthesis. The green plants (producers/autotrophs) trap sunlight and act as factory for producing food materials maintaining food chain of the ecosystem. The amount of light received by an organism depends upon the intensity and duration of light. The duration of light to which an organism is exposed to receive, is called photoperiodism. The effect of light controls various activities of wild animals such as: i. Effect on Metabolism: The intensity of light effects the metabolic rate of the animals resulting the phenomenon like hibernation, aestivation and diapause in certain species like amphibians, reptiles, insects, etc. as per the intensity of light in the different seasons. ii. Effect on Growth: Since there is relation between metabolism and growth, the light influences the growth of the animal as per the rate of the metabolic activities.

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For the growth of plants, light is very essential while certain animal may die or survive in presence or absence of light. iii. Effect on Reproduction: In certain animals, especially birds and mammals, gonads and ultimately reproduction is stimulated by light. To the intensity or illumination of light, different kinds of animals response in different ways. Sexual activities, migration, etc. depend upon the duration of light in certain animals and thus their breeding seasons are also different. Likewise, plants are also effected by the relative length of daylight. iv. Effect of Photoperiodism: As discussed above, the length of day and night light affects reproduction, behaviour, migration, hibernation, aestivation, etc. of the animals. Hence, photoperiodism influences the various activities of the animals. Perhaps, the sense organs are stimulated by the photoperiodism and required physiological changes occur in the animals to response to the desired performance. v. Other Effects: Light is also responsible for changing the colour of the skin of certain animals. Mimicry is the example of that which is a kind of protective measure to suit in the environment. Eyes of certain deep water aquatic animals are enlarged while nocturnal animals, as in owls, have enlarged eyes to see in night. In certain lower animals, locomotion is influenced by light known as photokinesis. Butterflies move in day period while moths in the night. C. TEMPERATURE

Temperature is also one of the important factors controlling distribution and behaviour of the animals. Like light, it also controls the various activities of the animals like reproduction, embryonic development, migration, diapause and other metabolic activities. The temperature at which the body activities, physiological and metabolic, are at maximum is called optimum temperature. As per the capacity of tolerance of temperature by the animals, they are of following types: i. Eurythermal: The animals which can tolerate wide range of temperature such as mammals, etc. ii. Stenothermal: The animals which can tolerate narrow range of temperature like pisces, snakes, etc. iii. Poikilothermic or Cold-blooded: The animals whose body temperature varies/ fluctuates with the changes in temperature of the environment such as pisces, amphibians, reptiles, etc. iv. Homoiothermic or Warm-blooded: The animals whose body temperature does not fluctuate with the changes in temperature of the environment and are able to regulate and maintain the body temperature at a constant level like birds and mammals. The effects of temperature upon the animals are as follows: a. Effect on Metabolism: Temperature influences metabolism of the animals by influencing the enzymatic activities of the body. Increase or decrease of temperature, up to a certain limit, increases and decreases enzymatic activities and subsequently the metabolism of the animals. b. Effect on Reproduction: Like other factors, temperature also affects the activities and behaviour on reproduction of the animals. It also controls or induces sex-cells maturation and their liberation in certain animals. The outbreak of grasshopper, sex-ratio of rotifers, production of fertilized and unfertilized eggs in daphnids are governed by the temperature or period of temperature.

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c. Effects on Growth: Growth and development of animals are also effected and controlled by the temperature. It affects them at the different stages of their lifecycle. d. Effects on Distribution: Specially cold-blooded and warm-blooded animal’s distributions are related with the temperature. The animals having narrow range of tolerance of temperature are restricted to the specific areas only, whereas the animals having greater range of tolerance of temperature are widely distributed. e. Effect on Structure and Behaviour: Temperature is also responsible for animal’s structure and their behaviour such as the animals living in colder region have more life span than the warmer areas. There are certain theories in this regard like: i. Bergmann’s Rule: According to this, the animals living in cold region are much larger than the warmer region. For example, the largest polar bears are found in far north in cold climate, whereas the smaller black bears are living in warmer climate. Furthermore, it is well known that of a given speices, the races which inhabit desert areas are always pale or sandy-coloured, whereas those living under the influence of heavy rainfall, in well-wooded or humid tracts, tend to be darker in colouration. It is assumed that the reduced force of ultraviolet rays due to water vapour suspended in the air may account for the darkening. See also Chapter 5 under head “Bergmann Principle”. ii. Gloger’s Rule: The rule says that the temperature together with light and moisture governs the colour of many animals. In warm humid climate, majority of birds and mammals are darker than the animals living in cold or dry climate. iii. Jordan’s Rule: Temperature has apparent control on the number of vertebrae in certain species of fishes. The fishes living in low water temperature have more vertebrae than those living in warm water as found in cool fish. iv. Allen’s Rule: As per this rule, the tail, neck and other external parts of the animals living in colder parts are compact as well as shorter in comparison with the animals living in warmer parts. For example, the ear sizes of three different species of fox (Arctic fox, Red fox and Desert fox) have different sizes of the pinna. Their ear sizes (pinna)) is found increasing from arctic to desert fox. Arctic fox has smallest ear size, Red fox has bigger and Desert fox has the biggest size. It is assumed that the shorter ear size will reduce the area of exposure and, thus, help in reduction in loss of heat from the body. D. WATER

We know that water plays an important role in the existence of the living organisms and comes under basic need of the animals for all types of metabolic reactions of the body. Even various animals have adopted for aquatic life (fresh water or salt water). The animals which can tolerate narrow fluctuation of the salt concentration is called stenohaline and which can tolerate wide range is called euryhaline. Of course, all the animals, whether aquatic or terrestrial, require water. On the one hand, there are various aquatic adaptations in aquatic animals; on the other hand, there are various adaptive features to conserve water in the animals living in dry and desert places. For such particular mode of life, animals have developed morphological, anatomical and physiological adaptations.

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Thus, water acts as a limiting factor for the animals living in any ecosystem. Any factor, which approaches or exceeds the limits of tolerance, is said to be limiting factor. If in a particular habitat, the scarcity of food, water or shelter arises at any stage or time, then it is called the limiting factor for that particular thing of that habitat. For example, the scarcity of food will be limiting factor for food, scarcity of water will be limiting factor for water and likewise scarcity of shelter will be the limiting factor for shelter and so on. The period in which limiting factor arises is called pinch period. In case of aquatic animals, oxygen acts as a limiting-factor because it is in scarce in water but the same is not as a limiting factor for the terrestrial animals where it is in abundance. The distribution of water also determines the carrying capacity of a habitat. By creating more waterholes in an area, carrying capacity can be enhanced. The wildlife is more concentrated at the watery areas. Besides this, relative humidity also determines the occurrence of specific vegetation as well as distribution and availability of the animals. It is clear that the animals depend upon the vegetation for food and the vegetation is dependent upon the water and its distribution. Hence, the ecological factors, abiotic and biotic, act as limiting factors with respect to that organism/species. It is the established fact that the amount of a substance below or above the certain limits may also limit the abundance or distribution of a species. For example, carbon dioxide is necessary for growth of green plants through photosynthesis. Small increase in its concentration increases the rate of plant growth, but if the concentration is increased significantly, it becomes toxic. Sheldford (1913) postulated the theory called “Law of Tolerance”. According to him, all environmental factors have a tolerable limit, the critical minimum and critical-maximum. The range between the critical minimum and critical maximum is known as “Limit of Tolerance”. If for a particular species, the tolerance exceeds its limit, the species will disappear from that particular area, as long as such condition exists. But, before this range is crossed on either side and the limits of tolerance are reached, there is stress upon the animals and called “Zone of Physiological Stress.” Generally, it is difficult to identify a single limiting factor because presence and absence of an organism or a group of organisms in an ecosystem depends upon a complex of factors and entire complex of conditions involved. Therefore, the approach towards the limiting factor should cover all the aspects of ecosystem and a single species approach may not be helpful in proper understanding of the various interactions in population, factors, habitat, etc. For wildlife management, we should follow wholistic concept of the ecosystem. BASIC REQUIREMENTS OF WILDLIFE

A. Food: Food is the most important basic requirement to get energy and subsequently for proper growth, breeding, propagation and other metabolic activities. The green plants manufacture their food by own by the process of photosynthesis and, thus, called autotrophs. The animal communities do not have such type of mechanism and, thus, have to depend upon others called heterotrophs. In this respect, the consumers like herbivorous animals depend upon plants (producers) deriving food energy from them and, in turn, carnivores ultimately trap their food and energy from them. In this way, food chain and food web have been formed and ecological balance is maintained as stated in detail earlier. Though, each animal requires nutritive elements but the food requirements of all the animals are not alike. The different species are differently adopted for their food as per their environment or habitat and, thus, have different kinds of food

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habits to suit in a particular environment. That is why, some foods are edible while others are non-edible. A particular food may be edible for a particular species, whereas it may be non-edible for others. Therefore, quality and quantity of food available in the habitat affects a lot to the number and status of the wild animals. Hence, the assessment of characteristics, quality, quantity and status of the vegetation available in the habitat and its improvement is an important and primary stage of wildlife management. The necessity of food may be divided into two categories: i. Physiological Need: Some animals fulfil their required nutrients by eating the plants itself; while in some animals, like ruminants, it is synthesized by certain bacteria, etc. found in their digestive tract which make it available in useful forms of elements for the body. In some special period, such as in pregnancy and milking period, the females require more food or some special food than the normal period for proper growth of the foetus and young ones. ii. Psychological Need: As per food habit, there is adaptation in the digestive system of the species and they prefer the food in that manner. For example, herbivores become instinct towards vegetarian food while carnivores towards non-vegetarian food. Deer becomes tempted to see grasses, whereas tigers will not. For the sustenance of life, the animals consume different types of food in the variable seasons and in this way their food choice may be said as primary, secondary and so on. Thus, the food may be categorized in the following kinds: a. Preferred Food: The most tasteful and liked food is called preferred food of the species. b. Staple Food: After preferred food, the staple food comes in the series. Generally, this food is important for the living of the animal being available for long time. c. Emergency Food: When there is scarcity of staple food, the species depends upon certain food which is neither so tasteful nor nutritive and called as emergency food. Such food cannot sustain the animal for a long period because it induces malnutrition. d. Stuffing Food: The food which is totally non-nutritive and is consumed by the animal only to fulfil its stomach is called stuffing food. Such food is taken in by the animals when there is no alternative. e. Miscellaneous Food: Sometimes, certain animals take unusual food which is not in their habit. For example, sometimes bark eaten by sambhar and cheetal, grass by tiger (as found in its pellet sometimes), etc. Pinch Period: The period in which the food is not sufficiently available and causes trouble to the animal, is called pinch period. This period may be for other basic requirements also such as water, etc. The period varies as per the habitat, climate, country, etc. The management part is very essential and plays important role for such period. Selection of food by the animals depends upon the following factors : i. Availability: The selection of food by the animal depends upon the season and period of the habitat. It depends upon the fact that in which season or period, which type of food is available, and how much labour is to be done to procure it by the animal; because season is responsible for the

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availability and quantity of the food in a particular habitat. Hence, the food, which is easily and sufficiently found in a season, is consumed in enough quantity by the animal. It can be said that plenty of food is directly related with its consumption. ii. Palatability: Palatability of food for animal is related with its taste, easy availability and digestibility, etc. iii. Physiology: Physiological reasons as stated earlier is also responsible in the selection of food as per need of the animal. iv. Habit: Since its evolution and habit, the animal selects its food accordingly as it is capable of digestion as well as has habitual instinct for such food. Hence, by considering all these situations, it can be said that the quantity and quality of food serve a lot in the survival and propagation of the animals. For their survival, different kinds of animals take different kinds of food as per their adapted habit and habitat. For example, some species survive by eating seeds of the plants which is very nutritive while some are living on grasses and leaves of the trees, some are habituated on dry grasses and leaves, some take tender leaves and grass while some prefer hard grasses and so on. Some are grazers, whereas some are browsers. All these depend upon the condition of the habitat and adaptations of the animals. Climate, soil and other natural as well as biotic factors are responsible for outcome of the condition of the habitat to which the animal adapts it accordingly. The aquatic animals have developed various adaptations morphologically as well as physiologically, terrestrial animals have also modified and adapted themselves to suit their living environment and the desert animals have likewise adaptations in all means to conserve water and reducing the loss of water less and less for their survival. In each and every type of environment and habitat, the animals are having adaptations to be suited and survive nicely. As such, among the Animal Kingdom (heterotrophs as a whole), there are different categories of animals having different kinds of food habits by nature, such as some are herbivores, others are carnivores, and some are scavengers, predators, parasites, decomposers and so on. Such arrangement, made by nature, is greatly helpful and essential to spread each and every kind of species by getting chance to fulfil their respective needs for proper survival and propagation. Same is the case for water and shelter required differently by different kinds of animal species. Such phenomena provide and give proper and adequate chance to inhabit different species in a habitat surviving nicely and properly. On contrast, if there had been similar type of choice of basic needs (food, water, and shelter) for all types of species, it had been difficult and impossible to survive each and every species because of grabbing and utilizing whole basic requirements available in the habitat by certain species only leaving no food, water and shelter for others. Selection of food, its quality and quantity, palatability, etc. all these depend upon the conditions and adaptations of the habitat and the species concerned respectively. See also Chapter 6 under head “Food Improvement”. B. Water: Water is another basic requirement of the wild animals. It varies with food, weather, environment, habitat and the animal’s ability to conserve it. Since water is essential for metabolic activities, it is required up to a certain extent by the animals for their survival, growth and propagation. All animals preserve metabolic water. The desert animals conserve water to exist indefinitely on metabolic water

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and for this they have various adaptations in their morphology as well as physiology. Water conservation is also provided for by habits, such as the nocturnal or burrowing habit that escapes from diurnal heat and low humidity by the adaptations like possession of chitin, scales as the morphological protection and excretion of dry faeces as physiological adaptations. Thus, the necessity of water is different in different types of animals. The size of the waterholes is not so important for wildlife rather its proper distribution in the entire habitat throughout the year is very important. Its spatial distribution/spatiotemporal distribution and availability with sufficient numbers have great importance for the survival and propagation of the animals. If the number of waterholes is very few, there will be crowd and pressure of the animals around it and hard competition will arise for the survival and will not be utilized properly by them. On the other hand, if it is properly distributed throughout the area, it will sustain the total animals as per the carrying capacity. Therefore, management of water sources or waterholes plays an important role in the field of wildlife management. Also see Chapter 6 under head “Water Improvement”. C. Shelter: The place or area which gives protection and serves other biological needs of the species, is known as shelter. It can be divided into cover and space. i. Cover: Covers are those vegetation or plants which save the animals from causal factors and provide safety, resting, shade as well as protecting from adverse environmental effects. The cover can be classified as: a. Escape Cover: Where the wild animals escape themselves to protect from predators or hunters. Its shape and size depend upon the size of the animals. b. Nesting Cover (breeding cover): Here the birds hide themselves for breeding, laying and nursing the eggs. Likewise, the larger animals also require such cover to deliver the litters. Its size and shape also depend upon the size and requirements of the animals. c. Shelter Cover: It is that cover which protects the animals from the problematic season, etc. It may be bushes or the trees in accordance with the size of the animals. d. Roosting Cover (resting cover): The cover under which shade the animals take rest after taking the food and use as perch. This may be bush, tree or cave. ii. Space: There should be sufficient space for living of the animals. Therefore, space is the important characteristic of the habitat. Without it, the animals cannot survive. Space is multi-dimensional. It is not only horizontal, but also includes vertical dimension. The horizontal dimension requires sufficient space as per the need of the animals like home range, territory, etc. in vertical dimension in any field, the wild animals are living in six-seven levels such as at the peak height vulture, etc. fly; then eagle, crows, etc.; then other birds fly and live on the trees; below them some birds and animals like small birds, squirrels, monkeys, etc. live on the branches of the trees; just above the ground, some animals dwell in the bushes and grasses; on the ground, the terrestrial animals like small and large mammals roam; and lastly inside the soil, wild soil dwelling animals live. In lack of sufficient space, the animals come under stress and there is crowd in the habitat and ultimately leading towards the diseases, casualty, hampering in courtship and mating, improper supply of food, water and so on.

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Hence, proper management of the habitat is to provide proper and sufficient basic requirements of the animals (food, water and shelter) as per the carrying capacity is the most essential and important primary objective of wildlife management. See also Chapter 6 under head “Shelter Improvement”. BIOLOGICAL BASIS OF WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT

For proper understanding of wildlife and its scientific management, it is essential to know the biological background of the species. To keep the knowledge of animal population and its habitat is the fundamental for wildlife management. Unfortunately, the action of human beings for their own benefit is continuously shortening food chains, reducing the number of wildlife and substituting new ones for the old. Therefore, the balance of nature is doomed as man-influenced balance and the ecology of any species is being more and more man-made ecology. Hence, the inherent biological characteristics of a species that favour or hamper management efforts should be the basis of scientific wildlife management. There should be objective to access and employ natural biological principles called “biological basis of management”. The environmental factors or ecological factors may be beneficial/ benign factors for the species such as food, water and shelter; or may be decimating factors such as hunting, accidents, enemies, etc. The balance is the outcome of these both factors and so the objectives should be to ascertain these influences by studying the species. For this, understanding of the following terminologies is essential in the field of biological basis of management. 1. Density: The number of animals per unit area is called as density. The unit area may be of any type such as 1 square km., 100 acres or any similar area. But generally, 1 sq. km. is taken as a unit. It can be expressed by the formula: D – P/A Where

D = Density P = Population A = Area Through the census, the density of a species in a particular habitat is determined. It is very important from wildlife management point of view because it shows the present status of the species in the particular habitat and accordingly habitat manipulation is done. So, density is the basis of habitat improvement/ manipulation. If density of a particular species is less in the habitat, the number of species is to be raised by applying scientific management and technologies providing conservation; and if density is more, it is to be minimized by reducing the number selecting the appropriate and suitable measure such as migration, harvesting, etc. Density of an area is always variable due to introduction and reintroduction, migration, birth and death, etc. of the animals. Since, it is very difficult task to access the accurate estimation of the species during census as well as estimation of the area in which species is dwelling; therefore, the exact calculation of the density is difficult and so it is estimated and guessed up to a certain confidential limit. Therefore, density (census) of an area must be estimated at regular interval at a fixed time and subsequently should be linked with food, water and shelter of the habitat and should be managed accordingly. Biomass is also considered for a species of a particular area specially in case of comparing densities of two different types of species. Biomass is the total weight

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of the population of a species living in an unit area. In other words, the weight of the total animals (population) of a species of an unit area is called biomass of that population for that particular area. Thus, on the basis of biomass, we can get the relative-density of different species in different areas. Biomass of the wild animals can be compared as standing-crop of the forest and the productivity can be compared with the increment of that forest-crop. Density = Number of species (population) per unit area. Biomass = Density x average weight of population = Total weight of population of a species in unit area. Density can be categorized in the following types: i. Absolute Density: The number of a particular species found in an unit area, is called absolute density of that area for that particular species. Since, the number is variable with the time due to mortality, birth, etc; the absolute density should be treated with the time. ii. Subsistence Density: It is that density when the number of species reaches at such a stage of the carrying capacity at which the population can only be subsisted in the habitat. It means that they can sustain only their lives upon enough quantity of basic needs (food, water and shelter) found in the habitat but cannot grow well due to scarcity of the sources for good health and proper growth. Actually, such condition is disastrous because even minor environmental fluctuation causes adverse effects on the animals lessening their fecundity and results in heavy mortality as they have no resistance in their bodies. iii. Optimum Density: It is the density in which the number is found at par with the carrying capacity of the habitat. At this stage, the species gets optimum or sufficient quantity of its basic needs (food, water and shelter) in the habitat and grows very well and has breeding capacity of the highest level. Such density should be maintained by the help of hunting, migration, etc.; otherwise there is acute chance of increasing the number due to favourable environmental condition of the habitat and to reach the stage of subsistence density resulting disastrous condition. iv. Security Density: It is that stage of density of the species at which it remains protected or safe from the predators and hunters. In course of prey-predator relationship, a stage of “threshold of security” comes keeping the species safe and secured and there is no danger of extinction of species even in adverse condition. The escape cover plays an important role in this respect. But in absence of predators and hunters, there is chance to reach such density towards subsistence density. Hence, optimum number for such species should be maintained for keeping under security density. v. Tolerance Density: The maximum number of a particular species which can be sustained or born by a particular habitat is called tolerance density of that habitat. This may also be called “saturation point” of that particular species for that particular habitat because this is such a stage beyond which no further number of the species can be sustained by the habitat. This density may be like to subsistence density; but the difference is that in subsistence density the basic factors or needs (food, water and shelter) are available in the habitat, while in tolerance density these factors play an important role due to intraspecific competition. Hence, tolerance density is applied mostly in territorial animals.

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2. Saturation Point: Generally, it is observed that throughout the range of an area of a species, the maximum density remains the same and is independent of the environmental factors as well as fundamental requirements (food, water and shelter) available. This maximum density is known as saturation point which is a function of psychological pattern on the animal and not a function of the land. This is the lowest limit of the number of the species which permits itself to be crushed or destroyed limiting the possible number of breeding individuals in that area. 3. Migration: The phenomenon of regular movement of a species from one place to the other and back is called migration. It is the most common in birds and also occurs in certain insects like locust, fishes, elephant, etc. The migration of Siberian crane from Russia to Bharatpur (Rajasthan, India) is world famous. Migration is influenced to the organism in search of food and shelter in the adverse season and scarcity in the native habitat. Depending upon the distance, the migration may be local (when the distance travelled is not very large) and distant (when distance travelled is very large). The fixed route and distance is adapted every year by the migratory organisms which is interesting and miracle phenomenon. Though, a lot of research is going on in this field but till now the exact reason of governing the phenomenon of migration is not very well known. Some examples of migration are as follows: i. Locusts migrate in swarms from one country to another. Likewise, grasshoppers migrate in the same fashion. Their migration is perhaps governed by the sun’s rays at its right angle as well as direction and speed of the wind. ii. Elephants migrate in herds from one jungle to another in search of food. Such herd migrates along the Himalayan foothills from Nepal to Uttarakhand to the Jharkhand area. iii. The Siberian cranes migrate from North Russia to Bharatpur of Rajasthan State of India during winter season and return back to their native place during the summer. iv. Many high attitude animals of Himalayas during winter migrate to the lower altitudes and return back in summer. v. Certain fishes migrate upstream in Himalayan rivers for a long distance for better living condition. 4. Dispersal: In dispersal, some individuals of a population leave the habitat and move to another place permanently. They do not come back to its native habitat. Such condition arises when the population of a species becomes more than the carrying capacity of the habitat or due to intraspecific competition. Hence, migration is caused due to adverse condition of the habitat in respect of climate and basic needs (food, water and shelter) and come back again getting favourable condition and so is temporary one; while dispersal occurs due to arising excess number or intraspecific competition and is permanent. Hence, dispersal is the movement of individuals of a population into or out of an area. The status and position of distribution of the individuals of a species in the particular habitat, is called “dispersion” of that population. It is of following types:

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i. Random Dispersion: It is such dispersion in which the individuals are supposed to be distributed in similar way (alike) throughout the area. The possibility of their distribution is found alike in every unit of the area. ii. Uniform Dispersion: When the distribution of the individuals of the species is found uniform throughout the area. In comparison to the random dispersion, its distribution is more regular. iii. Clumped Dispersion: When the individuals are distributed in the form of clumps. Generally, the wild animals are found in nature in such type of dispersion specially birds, male deer, female deer, monkey, etc. Dispersal is of two types: a. Emigration: When the individuals of a population move out from its habitat and settle in another area, is called emigration (movement out of an area). The actual reason of such occurrence is not known because sometimes it is observed that it occurs even in favourable conditions. b. Immigration: When the individuals of a species move into an area leaving its original habitat, is called immigration (movement into an area). It generally occurs due to intraspecific competition. The population of a species in a habitat may increase (immigration) or decrease (emigration) as a result of dispersal. Dispersal is a favourable phenomenon for the survival of a species maintaining the race avoiding intraspecific-competition and scarcity of basic requirements. 5. Natality: The rate of birth in a population is called natality. It is expressed in two forms. a. When it is expressed in the number of new births in unit time, it is called natality. For example, if in a year, 1000 youngones have been born in a population, the natality rate will be 1000 per year. b. When it is expressed by the number of birth given by per breeding female in unit time, it is known as specific natality. For example, if 1000 young ones have been born by 50 breeding females in a year, the specific natality rate will be 20 per year per breeding-female. Natality is one of the important factors affecting population dynamics of the wildlife. It depends upon the gestation period, breeding age, male-female ratio and density of the species. It also depends upon the availability of the fundamental requirements (food, water and shelter) of the species. Natality of a species is based on the following characteristics: i. Size of Clutch or Litter: The number of eggs or young ones given in one delivery by the breeding female is called litter. It is genetic character of the species and is generally fixed. ii. Length of Breeding Season: The growth in the number of individuals of a species also depends upon the gestation period of the species, means how many times per year the species is able to give birth of its offspring. If gestation period or breeding season is short, it will give more births and vice versa. iii. Number of Litters per Year: The number of individuals of species also depends upon the number of litters occupied per year by that species, means how many youngs are being born per litter per year by the species. If the number is less per litter, it is obvious that their number will be less.

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iv. Sex-ratio and Mating Behaviour: The number of individuals in the population of a species depends very much upon its sex-ratio and the nature of mating behaviour. If the species is monogamy having equal sex-ratio, there will be maximum growth-rate. In polygamous species, if the number of females is more than that of males, there will be more production of youngs. But if the condition is not as mentioned above, the result will be reverse in both monogamy and polygamy. 6. Fertility and Facundity: Fertility refers to the bearing of youngones that is “occurrence of births”. Facundity is used to indicate the capacity to bear young ones. 7. Gregariousness and Flocking: Many species have character and tendency to live together in groups or herds. Such tendency of living together in groups is called gregariousness as found in deer, birds, monkeys, elephants, etc. On contrast, the animal living singly is called loner or solitary as found in lion, etc. Flocking is the indicator of gregariousness. The largest flock occurs among migratory birds and smallest among sedentary birds. Flocking is found the lowest in breeding-season for easiness and lessening competition in mating. In the predatory birds, flocking is generally avoided for the purpose of successful hunting. In the cold latitudes, flocking is of longer period as it starts earlier and ends later. The influencing and regulatory factors of flocking is though not very clear, but it is supposed to be governed by three factors such as: a. Psychological factor. b. Age factor as some species like cheetal flock in accordance with the age-classes. c. Sex factor as in some species similar sex flocks together. Generally, different types of species do not flock each other but during breeding season or winter season mixing may take place. Such mixing or flocking also depends upon the habitat which determines the sharing of ecological facilities found in it through degree of competition among the animals or groups of species adjusting the overlapping needs (food, water and shelter). In some gregarious/flocking species, a social system has also been set-up headed by a leader based on dominance and showing the most powerful in strength, for example, elephant, etc. Such condition is called “peck” or “pecking order”. For detail, see Chapter 5 under subhead “Formation of Peck and Social Hierarchy”. 8. Edge Effect, Interspersion and Juxtaposition: These have been discussed earlier in this chapter. 9. Prey and Predator Relationship: It has been discussed in Chapter 5. 10. Intra and Interspecific Relationship: This has been mentioned in Chapter 5. 11. Home-range and Territory: It is observed that the movement or roaming area of every individual of a species is generally fixed and demarcated in the habitat throughout of its life. It arranges its basic needs, viz. food, water and shelter within this area and always remains familiar with it and protects itself very well from enemies and adverse conditions; and so the animals do not like to move outside the area. Such area is called home range of the animal (individual). Thus, home range is the area over which the individual roams without the tendency to exclude others from it. Deer, rabbit, rat, etc. are the best example of it. In majority of the species, there is tendency of every individual to demarcate an area in its habitat from which it tends to exclude other individuals of its own kind,

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and such area is called its territory. Generally, male makes such territory to exclude other individuals of its own species for easy approach of mating with the female such as tiger, lion, etc. But sometimes in place of single individual, there may be group of individuals also in forming its territory. The behaviour and tendency of forming territory is called territorialism. Territory has various biological functions. It limits the number of individuals to get sufficient quantity of their food, water and shelter; minimises intraspecificcompetition avoiding over-crowding and so on. Territory becomes more effective at the time of breeding season. At this stage, there may be quarrelling between males of two territories for the purpose of mating with the females and invader/invaders are generally fled away or succeeds the individual which is more powerful. In home range, there is no tendency of individual to exclude others, while in territory, exclusion is must and the area of home range is larger than that of the territory. Within one home-range, there may be many territories. The territory of a particular individual remains always within its home range and is protected from the entry of other individuals of the same species. 12. Biological Surplus: When the number of a species or community in an ecosystem, after performing its function in that ecosystem, becomes surplus; it is called biological Surplus. Thus, this surplus may be resultant of one species or a number of species or community. For example, when in an ecosystem, the numbers of prey is more than the required for the sustenance of the predators, give rise to biological surplus. 13. Breeding Potential: Breading potential is the capacity of the organism to produce offsprings irrespective of the number of their survival to maturity. Thus, it measures the reproductive capacity of the species and is more or less theoretical concept of its ideal conditions specially reproduction rate, breeding capacity, etc. of that particular species. For example, in a pair of bird, the female lays 20 eggs in a season and lives by two laying seasons per year, then: Number of individuals at the end of 1st laying = 20 + 2 = 22 Number of individuals at the end of 2nd laying = 242 (11 × 20 = 220 and 220 + 22 = 242) (Assuming male–female ratio 1:1 at 1st laying). It was also assumed in the example that the entire eggs hatched, all the youngs reach to maturity and all the pairs reproduce. 14. Biotic Potential: Biotic potential is that maximum growth rate of a population which is attained in the most ideal favourable condition of the habitat. It is the condition in which density of the population is found in such a position when the availability of basic needs (food, water and shelter) is more than enough in the habitat, mortality is comparatively less and natality rate is at peak. In such conditions, the species attains maximum growth rate is called biotic potential of that species. But since such condition is generally impossible in nature, and so to assess the idea of biotic-potential of a species, its status is estimated in a particular area bearing possible favourable conditions. (See also Environmental Resistance.) 15. Environmental Resistance: A number of factors of the environment causing obstacles in the biological expansion of a species, is called environmental resistance. Such factors resist the growth and survival of individuals and control its biological

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pressure resulting mortality. These factors are unfavourable weather, diseases, accidents, predation, enemies, non-breeding, etc. The environmental resistance checks over-growth of a species acting as a break for the youngones to reach maturity and, thus, maintains ecological balance and food chains in the habitat; otherwise a particular species getting the most suitable conditions will only be over-populated spreading all over the area, and in such case there will be no food and shelter for the other species. The nature balances all these implications through the factors of environment resistance. If biotic potential is optimum and environmental resistance is in the same ratio, wildlife population becomes static. But if biotic potential is more and environmental resistance is less, the population will increase and vice versa. Hence, it can be expressed as: BP∝

1 ER

P∝

BP ER

Where, BP = Biotic potential ER = Environmental resistance P = Population 16. Stability: As stated above, in nature, the stability in population of a species mainly depends upon the balances between biotic potential of the species and the environmental resistance. If these two factors are at par, the population will be static, means there will be neither gain nor loss in it. But, if the biotic potential is at peak and environmental resistance is comparatively very less, the population will grow more and more continuously and vice versa. In other words, it can be said that when these two factors are at balance, there will be stability in population; and if these two factors are imbalance, there will be gain or loss in the population as per the case. 17. Turnover Rate: Stability does not mean that the population of the wild animals (species) is totally static and inactive, because in each population birth and death of the individuals are going on. In this way, the old and adult individuals are replaced by new ones. The rate at which old individuals are replaced by new individuals (offspring) in a population of the species, is called turnover rate of that population. Generally, it is expressed in term of percentage of the young ones in comparison with the total number of the general individuals of the population in the beginning of breeding season. For example, if a species is having 100 individuals and in beginning of breeding season/hunting season of a year, there are 80 young ones and 20 adults, then the turn over rate of that species will be 80%. Turnover rate of a population is the symbol of its productivity. If the turn over rate is high, the productivity of that population will be of high level giving maximum yield. 18. Survival: Since wild animals are free ranging, their death is not so apparent and visible always. In such cases, assessment of natality rate/mortality rate is a very difficult task and is not so perfect. Hence, increase/decrease in the population of a species is estimated by the resultant of birth and death of the particular species

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21.

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which comes in light in the form of its survival. Hence, survival is the number of individuals of a species which are alive as a result of births and deaths. Actually, survival of a species is the key for wildlife managers. It is important from management point of view because this is the number (survivors) for which management is to be done. For the purpose, survival curve of the population of particular species is also formed for its studies. Extinction Threshold: If there is gradual decline in the population of a species, a stage comes where the minimum number is required for its survival and this stage is called extinction threshold of that species. This number is biological minimum. Below this minimum number, the rebuilding of the species is impossible and results extinction of that species which is known as critical limit of that particular species. Productivity: The actual reproduction attained by the species is called its productivity. Hence, the rate of growth at which mature individuals are added in the population, is called productivity of that population. The natality rate or growth rate of a population is actually not the measurement of productivity. But productivity is the number of rate of growth of the matured individuals in unit time which are either capable of breeding or harvestable. Hence, productivity includes growth form of the living population along with its natality rate. The productivity of the animals is known as secondary productivity while the growth rate of new organic matters brought about by the plants in an ecosystem is called primary productivity. Population: Productivity added to the number of original individuals is the population. It depends upon a number of factors but chiefly on two factors such as breeding potential and environmental resistance. Population is the outcome of mainly balances and imbalances of these two forces. Population (P) = Breeding potential (BP) Environmental resistance (ER). In general, population may be defined as an assemblage of individuals of a particular species growing or living together in a habitat and show many important group-properties such as density, natality, mortality, etc. or, the number of individuals of a species living in an area is called population of that species. See also Chapter 5. Growth Form: It has been described in Chapter 5. Population Structure and Population Cycles: The ratio of different age-class and sex-class of the individuals of a population is called population structure of that population. This affects directly not only growth rate of the population but also determines its growth form. Hence, the formation of population structure of a species is only possible on the ratio of the number of age and sex of the individuals available in that population at particular time. If at a particular time in a population, the number of males is more than the females, the chances of survival of a particular sex is less in comparison to the other sex. If in a population the number of young individuals is more, then it indicates that the productivity is more but mortality is high (they are not surviving). In general from populationgrowth point of view, it can be said that in polygamous animals, the number of males should be less than females; while in monogamous animals, the number of males and females should be in 1:1 ratio. The population structure may be of the following forms based on male-female ratio:

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i. Expanding Population: If male-female ratio is good, viz. males are less than females or in 1:1 ratio, such population will show expanding or increasing trend as shown in Fig. 8.4.

Fig. 8.4

ii. Stable Population: The ratio is found in good condition but has come to the stable stage as shown in Fig. 8.5.

Fig. 8.5

iii. Declining Population: When the ratio is not regular but in zigzag condition with the span of time and in declining position as shown in Fig. 8.6.

Fig. 8.6

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iv. Irregular Population: When the ratio is found very much irregular in the span of time but not in declining position as shown in Fig. 8.7.

Fig. 8.7

In most of the species, the male-female ratio is found 1:1 or the number of males is less than that of females so that one male mates more than one females and in such cases growth rate is maximum. The increase or decrease in the number of individuals of a population is caused by increase or decrease in the carrying capacity of the habitat due to natural or artificial reasons. But in many populations, it is seen that without the changes in the carrying capacity of habitat, there is fluctuations (increase or decrease) in the number of individuals of the population. The reason behind it is not known very well. On the basis of such fluctuations, the population has been divided into three categories: i. Stable Population: When the fluctuation in population is minor at a time, it is called stable-population because the population comes to its original form in the last of the year (when adverse condition is over) bearing minor fluctuation of adverse climatic factors such as rain, weather, temperature, etc. as shown in Figs 8.8a and 8.8b. It is also called flat curve as stated in Chapter 5.

Fig. 8.8a

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Fig. 8.8b

ii. Cyclic Population: When there is abrupt fluctuation in the population at a time, it is known as cyclic population as shown in Fig. 8.9 and such incidence is called population cycle. Population cycle is rhythmic in character. Such incidence causes local increase or decrease of population without change in range.

Fig. 8.9

The population cycles occur greatly in some species. It is of two types: a. Macrocycles: When there is abrupt violent fluctuation in the population due to devastation of habitat (vegetation/food, shelter, etc.) by flood, draught, very hot/cold weather, etc.; it is called macrocycles. It is generally found in herbivorous animals. b. Microcycles: When there is abrupt minor fluctuation in the population, called microcycles. It is generally found in carnivorous animals. Cyclic population may be categorized in two types: i. Annual Cyclic Population: Such fluctuation occurs once in a year when the breeding or delivery period comes in favourable condition and

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coincides with the growth season of the plants (vegetations). In such condition, there is abrupt increase in the population due to high productivity; but again due to changes in the climate death rate increases and the population becomes normal reaching at its original form as shown in Fig. 8.10.

Fig. 8.10

ii. Periodic Cyclic Population: When the fluctuation in a population persists for more than a year, called periodic cyclic population. The duration of such fluctuation has been seen up to many years as shown in Fig. 8.11. The fluctuation is seen very clearly in very large area and often in the temperate forest where very simple food chains, lowtemperature and low rainfall are found.

Fig. 8.11

iii. Irruptive Population: When the fluctuation in a population occurs uncommonly with irregular amplitude at irregular time intervals, it is called irruptive population as shown in Fig. 8.12. In cyclic population, the time intervals as well as amplitude are generally fixed while in irruptive population both are uncertain and irregular.

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Fig. 8.12

24. Carrying capacity: The number of individuals of a population (species) which an area/habitat can carry or support during the pinch period is known as carrying capacity of that habitat for that particular species. All numbers produced in excess of the carrying capacity are obviously subject to loss. There is tendency in every species to grow in numbers beyond the carrying capacity but the decimating factors/environmental factors seize such tendency checking species abundance from exceeding the optimum number and density of the species in that particular habitat. Since reproduction adds many new individuals through breeding-potential and productivity of the species, we can ensure their maximum survival if we keep the total population below the carrying capacity or balancing the herd with available range. Thus, carrying capacity is a concept which relates a specific area to a particular species. To understand carrying capacity very well, we can suppose a particular habitat as a ball in which certain population (number of individuals) of a species is growing. This ball may also be suitable and favourable in respect of food, water and shelter for a fixed number of individuals for a particular species. Beyond this number, due to productivity, etc. there will be increase in number of individuals in the population of that species and thus crowd inside the ball will arise. To minimize this crowd, there will be intraspecific competition as well as adverse effects posed by decimating factor/environmental factors and ultimately excess numbers will die or migrate. Therefore, just before reaching such stage, the surplus numbers of the individuals of a population are to be harvested; the situation will be normal and the species will again grow up to that stage. In this way, harvesting will be useful for getting revenue and saving the individuals from dying uselessly. The carrying capacity is variable as per the season or time. When the season is of marked adverse conditions (adverse climatic factors such as cold, hot, etc.), the carrying capacity will drop accordingly during unfavourable season; and when the favourable season is reached, the carrying capacity will rise. In this way, fluctuations in population take place. Generally, wild animals are accustomed to this annual fluctuation of carrying capacity bringing their young to the beginning of season of high carrying capacity (favourable condition). If the habitat ball grows

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means the concerned habitat increases its capacity, the population also expands accordingly through reproduction, productivity and growth to keep it in full. Though, the carrying capacity is the attributes of a species habitat, it is being increased with the seasons and may also be increased by proper management or manipulation of the habitat to suit the increasing number or density of the species brought about by its productivity. Whenever, it is not possible or done artificially, there is no chance to survive the excess number of individuals which are beyond the carrying capacity. In this way, carrying capacity controls the population density, and therefore density, biomass, productivity, mortality, carrying capacity, etc. are altogether linked to each other. The consideration of all these factors is needed primarily and positively on priority basis during applying management/ improvement/manipulation techniques in the field of wildlife. Carrying capacity has been defined by different scientists with more or less variations according to the time. Some of them are as follows: a. According to Leopold, carrying capacity of a habitat is that maximum number of the wild game animals which can be sustained by that particular habitat. In this way, he has given emphasis on the food component of habitat but has not emphasized the decimating factors of the habitat. b. Tripancy has stated referring deer that on the basis of the availability of food, the carrying capacity of a particular habitat depends upon mainly on two factors, viz. age and composition of the population. In this way, he has also emphasized on the importance of the food and not others. c. Hogdan and Hunt have defined it referring a kind of weaver bird stating that carrying capacity at a particular time is the matter of the available food, water and co-existence of one family with the other. They supposed it as an output of the habitat and species linking with the social behaviour/co-existence. d. According to Howard, et.al., the carrying capacity is that minimum number of a population of the species which are made enabled to survive themselves by a particular ecosystem in a particular time (usually one year) in minimum favourable environmental condition. e. Dasmann discussed carrying capacity as “Assuming that a species can find the necessary combination of climate, substrate, and vegetation to permit it to occupy an area, the number which can then be supported in that area are determined by the amount and distribution of food, water and shelter in relation to the mobility of the animal. A flying bird can use an area in which these elements are widely separated, a small ground dwelling mammal would need to find all of its requirements in a small space. None of these general requirements is simple in itself. Each species requires a particular kind and combination of food. Food in the broad sense, grass, shrub or tree is not enough. The kind, distribution, quantity, and quality are all important and the needs of an animal will vary with the reason”. f. Pearl and Reed have postulated a curve on the basis of their data which is known as “Pearl-Reed Curve”. Since the curve is of “S”-shaped, it is also called Sigmoid curve. It has been expressed by the formula such as: ΔN (K − N ) = rN ΔP K

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Where N = Total population r = Maximum potential rate of increase (number of growth per individual in unit time) K = Carrying capacity ΔN = Growth in population (N) in unit time AP

In the above formula, there are certain assumptions that: i. the increasing density of the population has direct relation with the adverse factors. ii. natality and mortality are always acting uniformly, iii. each individual of the population is the same. Since the assumptions made above are not always possible in nature, therefore, the equation is not practically useful to find out carrying capacity. Method of Estimation of Carrying Capacity

The carrying capacity of a habitat is carried out in the following steps: a. First of all, the total area of the habitat and the area of vegetation found within the habitat are estimated. b. After this, the amount of the vegetation found in the pinch period of the habitat is calculated by transect or sampling or any other suitable method and, in this way, the total amount of the vegetation in one year is found out. Hence, the total amount of vegetation available in a year on the basis of pinch period is calculated. c. Afterwards, on the basis of food consumed in one day by one individual of the species, the total quantity of food consumed by individual animal required for one year is calculated. d. On the basis of amount of food in one year for one individual and the total amount of food (vegetation) available in one year (as calculated); the number of individuals are calculated to be sustained in a year in that habitat and, thus, carrying capacity is estimated. In some countries like USA, Africa, etc. another method is used to solve the purpose. It is estimated in the term of biomass of the herbivorous animals of the habitat (biomass is the total weight of the population in unit area of the habitat). It means that the total weight of all the herbivores available in the area (habitat) is found out and then biomass per kilometer is calculated, as an average in unit area. This method is used specially in comparing with the other habitats. Demerits: There are certain demerits in finding the carrying capacity from the method stated above which are as follows: i. Carrying capacity is estimated generally in the jungles where vegetations have been already damaged due to grazing, etc. and its status is not found in good condition. In such condition, carrying capacity cannot be calculated accurately. ii. In the estimation of carrying capacity, it is supposed that all types of herbivorous species feed total parts of the vegetation but this is not the reality. It has been found that the herbivores graze in vast area and take selected

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grasses only at selected places. They also sometimes prefer the tender leaves only and, hence, do not graze in the places where grasses are found easily and abundantly but go to the places where they get it of their own choice. iii. In carrying capacity, fruits and seeds are not considered while some herbivores prefer and consume them too much. Therefore, it is essential and important to find out the choice of food of the animal before estimation of carrying capacity. iv. In carrying capacity, the repellants and disturbances which are faced during the feeding of the animal are not considered. Sometimes, it has been seen that deer become nocturnal due to acute disturbances. v. Shelter is also not considered in carrying capacity. Thus, it may be said that presently in our country, carrying-capacity is not calculated/estimated correctly or accurately because methodology is not very perfect and up to mark. 25. Shootable Surplus: The number of individuals of a population which are in excess to the carrying capacity of the habitat, is called shootable surplus. We know that in the population, a stage comes when birth Rate (natality rate) and death rate (mortality rate) become equal (subsistence density or optimum density) due to carrying capacity of the habitat or due to decimating-factors/environmentalfactors of the habitat, and then the growth of the population is checked. Hence, before starting such condition or on the occurrence of such condition, if the excess individuals of the population are harvested then they will again grow properly through its productivity reaching the stage of balance, otherwise they will perish. Therefore, the excess number of individuals beyond the carrying capacity of the habitat liable to be harvested is termed shootable surplus which must be harvested. In this way, we can get revenue as well as efficiently managing the habitat in proper scientific manner. 26. Mortality and Decimating Factors: We know that there are so many reasons of the death of an organism. Out of these, the very old age covering the individual’s life-span is the most important. At this stage, mortality comes naturally in each and every organism at which the cells of the body become exhausted, inactive and functionless and there is physiological break-down. In such conditions, the total metabolic activities become seized and ultimately the organism dies. It is the natural death of the organism. Thus, mortality is the natural sure and certain rule and phenomenon for every living creature/organism. The number of individuals of a population dying in unit time (usually one year) is called its mortality rate. But due to decimating factors, or, environmental factors or over-production, or, excess number beyond the carrying capacity of the habitat, there is uncommon death of the individuals which is unnatural death. Such death occurs before the old age of the organism (before covering the full length of age/life-span). The decimating factors play very important role in regard of unnatural death of the organism. In other words, the factors responsible for such death are called decimating factors. Hence, decimating factors play very important role in determining the direction and speed of the population dynamics of a species. Population growth may be raised by decreasing mortality rate (minimizing decimating factors) and by increasing natality rate. Therefore, the objective of wildlife management is to minimize the effects of such decimating factor/factors to reduce mortality rate. The various decimating factors are as follows:

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i. Wildlife Diseases: Several diseases are the important decimating factor in case of wild animals. A lot of loss is caused by them. It is very difficult to diagnose and treat the disease in wild animals because they are free ranging animals. The diseased animals hide itself in very remote or core-area of the jungle being incapable and unsafe loosing its protection and resistance. However, preventive measures must be taken to check epidemic condition and to save the population. After getting the symbols of disease in the individual, proper actions should be taken for its treatment. In this respect, modern technologies evolving day-byday for identifying individuals and its health-checking should be applied. The staff of the field should be trained in this regard. Some of the important diseases found in wild animals are: a. Foot and Mouth Disease (FMD): This disease is caused by Picorna virus mostly among the hoofed animals (specially in artiodactyla). It is an infectious disease followed by cattle grazing in the jungle. Wild boar, cheetal, sambhar and gaur are the most sufferers of this disease. Symptom: The body temperature increases by 2° to 3°F, mouth and tongue are full of wounds (mouth-ulcer) and there is too much salivation. Infection goes to others by the salivation. The foot near the hoofs is affected. The casualty in youngs is more than the adults. Control: Vaccination, as preventive measure, in cattles should be done, particularly to those which are visiting forest areas for the purpose of grazing, to check the infection in wild animals. As remedial measure, the case should be reported to the veterinary doctor for proper treatment. The appropriate measures should also be applied which can cure the disease. b. Rinderpest: It is caused by Paramyxo virus (Morbilli virus) as epidemic in ruminants such as cattle, cheetal, sambhar, gaur, wild buffalo, etc. It is also infected in the wild animals through the cattle. Symptom: The symptoms are excess fever up to 106° F, watering through eyes and nose, intestinal ulcer, diarrhea, bleeding with faeces, etc. The diseased animal should be separated by the other individuals of the herd because it would generally die within fifteen days. It is spread by the faeces, pus of the wound, urine, etc. Control: The diseased animals should be watched and the dead animals should be buried immediately preferably mixed with potassium permanganate, lime and phenyl to avoid its spreading through scavengers. Vaccination, as preventive measure, in the cattle is very essential and veterinary doctor should be reported for proper treatment. c. Anthrax: This disease is caused by Anthracis bacteria called Bacillus anthrasis. There is enlargement of spleen in this disease in the mammals. Symptom: This is dangerous disease because its symptom is convulsive only from a few minutes to a few hours. Bleeding through mouth, nose and anus, and vulva in females. Swellings are on certain places of the body which rupture with oozing black blood. The diseased animal may die within three days. It is very infectious disease and spreads very rapidly. Man is also infected by this disease and so the treatment of such disease should be through knowledgeable and experienced doctor. Control: Proper treatment should be done. The dead body of the animal should be buried to avoid its spreading through the scavengers.

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d. Brucellosis: It is caused by the bacteria called Brucella. It is found in cattle, cheetal, sambhar, etc. including man. Infection is caused by food, water and wound. Tumor in the joints arises in this disease and foetus is also damaged. e. Botulism: It is a kind of paralysis caused by the consumption of poisonous food made by the bacteria known as Clostridium botulinum. In severe condition, heart attack is caused due to paralysis and the animal dies. It is very common in aquatic birds all over the world. Outwardly, it is observed that there is continuous tearing and all of sudden the flying bird drops and dies immediately. f. Tuberculosis: This disease is found in the wild animals also like human beings. It is caused by the bacteria which is called as Bacterrium tuberculosis. This bacteria remains alive for several years in the soil or dead body and infects through the food, water or air going inside the body of the animal. Infection is very common at dirty and crowded habitat and in weak animals/ population. It is common in monkeys. Symptom and Control: Liver is damaged. Apparent weakness and cough. Waterholes should be clean. The diseased animal should be kept separately. g. Rabies: It is very dangerous infectious disease caused by Rhabdo virus particularly Lyssa virus. It is infected by biting the diseased animal. It is found in warm-blooded animals. It is very common in pet dogs and street dogs and also found in wolf, jackal, fox, jungle cat, mongoose, etc. Symptom: The infected animal becomes furious like mad showing salivation and hydrophobia. In tailed animals, it becomes erect. Ultimately, the patient is attacked by paralysis and death occurs within a few hours. Control: In pet animals, vaccination of antirabies as preventive measure is must. In wild animals, oral vaccination, specially in carnivores, can be given. h. Distemper: It is found generally in the carnivorous animals which are caused by Paramyxo virus. Symptom: Fever affecting central nervous system, watering through eyes and nose, cough, swelling in eyes and toes, dermatitis, etc. Infection is caused through the materials oozing out from eyes and nose. Control: Vaccination, as preventive measure, should be done in caged animals followed by proper treatment to the diseased animal. i. Haemorrhagic septicaemia: It is an infectious disease arising due to impurities of blood. It is found in young hoofed animals like deer, boar, sheep, birds, etc. It is common in the animals eating dirty food and water. Symptom: High fever, redness in eyes, throat swelling and hoarse voice, intake of food and water stops, dullness, etc. Death occurs in a few days. Control: Vaccination, as preventive measure, and proper treatment as remedial measure. j. Black quarter: It is also an infectious disease generally found in young hoofed animals just after rainy season due to the consumption of dirty and stagnant water. Symptom: High fever, redness in eyes, laming condition either fore or hind feet, dullness, and loneliness. Control: Vaccination, as preventive measure, and proper treatment as remedial measure.

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k. Babesiosis: This disease is caused by Protozoan Babesia felis. The disease is transmitted mostly through tick bite among feline (Family, Felidae, viz. tiger etc.), canine (Family Canidae, viz. dog, etc), cattle, etc. Wild animals especially Felidaeans and cattle are most sufferers of this disease. It is also called Red Water disease and Tick Fever disease. Symptom: High fever, red urine (coffee colour), restlessness, diarrhea, loss of appetite and weakness. Control: Hygienic shade, separation of infected individual. Proper treatment as remedial measure. Predation: It has been described in the Chapter 5 Adverse Climate: Casualty occurs in wild animals due to adverse climatic conditions such as very hot weather, excessive rainfall and cold, flood, earthquake, volcano, etc. When such conditions become beyond the tolerance/resistance capacity of the animals/species, unnatural death are caused. The population having excess number than the carrying capacity is more liable to such deaths because they are unable to bear even minor changes in the habitat having less resistance. By increasing carrying capacity as well as basic needs (food, water and shelter) through habitat manipulation, such deaths can be minimized. Accidents: Accidents in wildlife occur generally due to fire, flood, earthquake, road-crossing, etc. which cause their death. In forest fire, many wild animals, their young ones, eggs and shelter are burnt. Therefore, the proper management and care are needed to check such accidents to protect and save wildlife. Poisoning: In general, the wild animals avoid to take in poisonous materials during feeding because they have developed natural instinct in this respect. But poisoning through man is much more dangerous causing casualty in the wild animals. Such incidence is found common in our country to be done for saving agricultural crops, cattle and other domestic commodities. The cases of poison killing of carnivores, herbivores including elephant are heard oftenly done by villagers. It is very essential to control such activities legally as well as through persuasion and mass consciousness. Simultaneously, habitat manipulation in accordance with population of the species for its sustenance is also very much essential and necessary to check and control the damage and causalty caused by the wild animals. Human Interference: The exploitation of forest as well as wild animals can be said to be main reason of all sorts of problems. Greedy persons are always busy in taking benefits illegally from the forest causing its damage and habitat of wildlife. Some people inhabiting forest areas also indulge in such illegal activities. As a result, both forest crop as well as wildlife crop are now at alarming condition, and we are passing through the age of danger. Hence, proper hard rules are required to control such illegal activities, but at the same time alternatives should also be provided to the people residing inside or neighbouring the forest to nullify or minimize the pressure on the forest and wild animals. Tourists/visitors should also take care of wild animals. They should not do any such activity which hampers and disturbs the animals and their private life. They should avoid teasing them so that the animals can move and roam freely and fearlessly. It is a kind of offence also. Illegal Hunting: Man is doing illegal hunting of wild animals which is always unscientific. Generally, such hunting is done by smugglers, local people living inside/neighbouring the forest and other greedy persons for their own benefits

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causing heavy loss in wildlife populations. Unless and until such activities are stopped, we cannot do proper wildlife management and achieve our goal. There will be neither proper improvement/manipulation of the population nor habitat, if such illegal activities are going on. viii. Stress: It is generally observed that after obtaining optimum-density or subsistence-density in the population, loss in its number starts due to being in excess number than the carrying capacity of the habitat, although enough availability of food, water and shelter is found in that habitat. A kind of stress is imposed on the population to counterbalance the nature for bringing eco-balance in the ecosystem resulting death of certain excess numbers of under stress population. The actual reason of such stress is not known but it is supposed that such stress and ultimately death comes due to intraspecific competition and excess contact among them in which adrenal-pituitary-system is disturbed arising endocrine imbalance. In such condition, there is excess secretion of hormones causing imbalance in feedback mechanism and death of the individuals. Therefore, to minimise such stress, it is necessary to find out the most suitable measure, as per the situation and circumstances, to apply in the concerned habitat for that particular population of the species, such as either exploitation of excess numbers of the population, or translocation of those excess numbers of the population, or increase in carrying capacity of the habitat through proper management technique/techniques and so on. ix. Starvation: Sometimes obstacles arise in the feeding of the animals due to certain reasons or changes in the habitat such as change in plant growth in pinch period, etc. Such conditions hamper the animals in fulfilling their food requirement and compel them to go on starvation. If such condition prolongs, the animals become very weak and ultimately die. The case of starvation is generally found in the carnivorous animals (predators) which are dependent on the herbivores. The reduction in number of herbivores (prey) ultimately causes death of the carnivores under starvation. Hence, all such means must be tried to avoid such conditions which bring starvation as decimating factor. x. Movement: The casualty in wild animals is also caused by their movement activity. Wild animals are not static at one place rather they are free-ranging. During its movement, sometimes the individual or the whole population leave original habitat and migrate to another area in which death of certain individuals occurs. It can be concluded that if the population density of a particular habitat is less than its carrying capacity, there will be growth in the population of that particular species by raising its natality rate and productivity because each and every individual will get food, water and shelter sufficiently. This growth will continue up to the bioticpotential of the species. But when condition goes beyond this level, the habitat will be unable to sustain the unlimited numbers of the individuals of the population and so decimating factors will start to act against its growth and biotic potential resulting increase in its mortality rate. In such stage, environmental resistance minimize its natality rate. In this way, biotic-potential acts in the direction of the growth of the population while decimating factors, viz. environmental resistance act in the direction to its death as well as minimizing its natality rate. In the interactions of these factors, when there is a stage of balance, it is called the stability of the population but when there is imbalance among these factors, gain or loss in its numbers is found. When the biotic potential of the species is more than that of the resistance, there will be growth in the population and vice versa.

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9 Census

W

e know that there are three components of wildlife management, viz. wildlifepopulation, its habitat, and the related people. By co-ordinating and interacting of these three, conservation and management of wildlife is possible; and to establish this, there should be broad knowledge to the wildlife manager regarding structure, dynamics, and relation of all these three components in detail. The manipulation and co-ordination/interactions among these components as well as improvement in the conditions of wildlife are not possible; unless there is knowledge of present situation of these components, what is the reason of such situation, what are the factors on which its natural growth depends and which are the factors affecting those reasons and so on? Hence, the studies of structure, dynamics, and relations of all these three components is the basic fundamental of wildlife management. Population of wildlife is one of the major components among these basic components. To get the knowledge of structure of wildlife population, it is must to get the knowledge of the available wildlife species in the related area or habitat. For this purpose, the inventory is prepared for all the species present in that area/habitat and called species inventory. Though the management is different for the different species, but for the successful management, not only the knowledge of that particular species is essential but the knowledge of all the species found in that area is essential because the wildlife community of an area is formed by all the total species found in that particular geographical area. In wildlife management, the collective studies of animals is done rather than the individual studies because the total wildlife species make the ecosystem of a particular area/habitat; and unless there is the knowledge of the effects/affects of the particular species (target species which is to be managed) upon the whole ecosystem or vice versa, the management cannot be successful. For instance, if the density is not so high, there will be propagation in animal’s population; but if the density is very high, the propagation will be seized and sometimes extinction of that species is also possible. In real sense, the propagation of the population is the measurement of the quality of the management. It can be said that for the wildlife management, first of all, there must be detailed knowledge of that particular species which is going to be managed as well as the general knowledge of all (total) species found in that particular area/habitat. For the above said purpose, census of the respective species is done. The objective which is not only to ascertain the number of the particular species but also to get the 126

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knowledge about its density, sex-ratio (male-female ratio), age-ratio and adult-young ones ratio; so that on this basis the indication of the health, increment or decrement of that particular species-population may be obtained. For instance, if after the census of a species, the data was procured like one year old male and female plus young ones as 55%, it is clear that the future of this species is very good, means there will be proper propagation in the population in coming years because this class (one year old male and female plus young ones) will be adult in the coming years; but on the contrary, if such data is 20%, it is not good sign for future of the species. Hence, census plays very important and key role in wildlife management techniques. It may be defined as “the enumeration or counting of a particular species in a particular area/habitat in a particular time as well as dividing them into age and sex classes, etc. is called wildlife census”. It is also called wildlife inventory/species inventory/population estimation/game survey. The main objective of the census is to find out the density of the population of the species and to procure basic data for its management. Wildlife population is not always static. Its number increases/decreases at different places means the number of the same species varies from place to place. It also changes yearly and even in different seasons of the year. Hence, only one census is not fully informative from its management point of view, and that is why, census should be regular and periodical and only then it should be analyzed so that the number of the species-population may be accurately obtained in different seasons and situations. Though census is the primary step of the conservation and management of the wild animals, it is a tuft and hard work because the animal population is scattered in the whole area/habitat due to few in number and also the animals try to hide themselves. IMPORTANCE OF CENSUS

i. It gives an idea of population of particular species of a particular habitat at a particular time. ii. It gives the sign that whether any species is facing extinction threshold or not. It means census ascertain the status of population of a species telling about it to be surplus/rare/endangered/extinction threshold, etc. iii. Census is one of the major parts of the wildlife conservation and, thus, it may be said that census is the key of wildlife management techniques. iv. It gives us an idea of individual population, whether they are increasing or decreasing, and if so, at what rate? v. It also gives the idea of species population in different seasons and situations and years which are essential from management point of view. vi. It helps in the scientific management of wild animals. vii. Census also helps in finding out the growth rate, longevity, and movement, etc. of that species. viii. It also gives the idea of carrying-capacity of the habitat for the concerned species. ix. If there is estimation of every year population, the graph of the species numbers against years can be plotted and, thus, trend of growth can be easily estimated. x. The growth rate for a particular period of a year can be found out. xi. The growth rate (r) can be estimated for a particular time (t) by the help of the formula rt = log t 1 – log t 0 (t = t 1 year – t 0 year), and if “r” is known, then particular time “t” can also be calculated.

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xii. The area-wise or habitat-wise density can be displayed on graph, table, map, etc. to take valuable guidelines for applying in wildlife techniques/management. xiii. Since in census, there are descriptions of area, date, time, census method applied, sampling percentage, etc; it is very valuable basis and documents helping in finding out the methodologies and techniques to protect and propagate the particular species. The scientific management of the animal population of an area calls for an estimate or census of the number of animal, that the area can support. Any removal or introduction of individuals of a species must be preceded by a knowledge of their specific needs and to what extent the area in question provide or can provide for them. Before we proceed to harvest animal from an area, we should have an idea of the stock of animals on which the removal may be based on the principle of a sustained-yield and the breeding-stock is not destroyed or endangered. For this, a survey or census of the abundance of the species based upon direct observation, selective trapping, sampling, recording of signs, or even of the abundance of closely associated species, is necessary. Once the abundance of animals in an area has been established with reasonable accuracy, the recuperative power of the species is to be determined and an idea of the surplus, or yield, that may be safely harvested/gained. Only then we can proceed to harvest the surplus and even then with due precautions which may involve close seasons, limited bags and control of weapons and methods. Abundance of animals is designated in two ways: i. Absolute Abundance: It is ascertained by numerical counts on definite areas, viz. total counts. ii. Relative Abundance: It indicates the abundance in terms of related elements such as the number of animals per trap night; per hour or per mile. It is also recorded by objectives like rare, common or very common, though this method of recording is less reliable than that based on a fixed unit. Absolute abundance is recorded as “so many animals on an area”, whereas relativeabundance would be “so many animals in a unit of area”. Frequency of Occurrence: It is a form of relative abundance useful in indicating how widely a species is distributed. For example: In a fixed-unit count, an individual of a species observed once in 10 hours would be recorded as 0.10 an hour; if once in 10 miles, 0.10 a mile as ‘’frequency of occurrence” and “relative abundance” both. ä In 10 hrs number observed is 1 individual â In 1 hr number observed = 1/10 = 0.10 individual. If one individual was observed in 10 days, the species would be given a “frequency of occurrence” of 0.10 and a “relative abundance” of 0.10 a day. ä In 10 days number observed is 1 individual â In 1 day number observed = 1/10 = 0.10 individual. On the other hand, if 100 individuals were seen on one of the 10 days, “frequency of occurrence” would be 0.10 but “relative abundance” would be 10.00. ä In 10 days number observed are 100 individuals â In 1 day number observed 100/10 = 10 individuals (relative abundance) ä 100 individuals are seen in 10 days ä 1 individual are seen 10/100 = 0.10 day (frequency of occurrence)

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Census is essential to ascertain population status of a species in an area. A census may not be confined merely to sampling but it may include both the main species on which information is desired and the related species. It is desirable to include ecological factors as well. A census is a definite enumeration and is always recorded in numerical terms. In wildlife management practice, the main season for carrying out census may be the breeding season, which generally coincides with the summer, or the cold weather. In America, censuses are generally done before and after the hunting season, when the animals are killed during the season can be estimated; a late winter census is also taken to show the survivals after the winter. For field studies, controlled or fenced areas may be necessary. When the intention is to prevent wild animals from going into the fenced area, it is known as an exclosure; when the intention is to keep animals from going out of a fenced area, it is known as an inclosure. Islands in a lake serve as inclosures. The watching of animals and birds from close quarters is possible only from a blind or hide, which is a structure built to conceal the observer. Such blind may be on the ground or in trees. Blinds or hides should be made as larger and as comfortable as possible to permit of a reasonable amount of blind comfort during watching; but since the animals become suspicious of large blinds, the observation holes should be as small as possible. For birds, generally nesting census (to ascertain the number of birds nesting) and brood census (to indicate the number of young birds) are taken. In India, census of birds is likely to be more difficult than census of animals because of the difficulty of getting team of knowledgeable ornithologists. In any method of census, the accuracy depends upon the skilled staffs (enumerators). It is seen that if the staffs are not well-trained, the result or accuracy of even in high quality method becomes unsatisfactory or not up-to-mark. Therefore, it is essential trained and skilled staffs to be engaged in census for getting successful result. Census of wildlife is broadly based on two types: 1. Direct Count: It may be complete or partial (proportionate) such as: a. Total Count Method: In this method, all the individuals in a given area are directly enumerated. Such an operation is costly and time-consuming and difficult to accomplish it for birds and mammals. b. Incomplete Count Method: Only a part of the population is directly enumerated. It is commonly used in counting fish, a sample of the fish in a fishery being caught, weighed and counted and the result applied to the total weight of the rest of the fish. 2. Indirect Count: It is always proportionate such as: a. Indirect Count Method: It employs signs such as nests, regurgitated food, pellets, faeces, shed antlers, etc. The size of the animal population is judged from the relative abundance of these signs. b. Marking Method or Tagging Method or Hunting Record Count Method: In this method, a number of animals are caught, marked and released; and afterwards more animals are caught. The ratio between the number of marked and unmarked animals caught gives the estimate of the population. This method is also useful in tracing the growth rate, longevity and movements, either local or migratory birds, animals and even fish. Marking may include the use of coloured flexible plastic bands which are pinned or sewn through the skin, usually between the shoulder blades; light metal or plastic rings around the leg; or even paint which is daubed on the bird. The latter can be applied, where it can come into contact with the feathers of the bird but this may sometimes result in the bird deserting its nest. Also see a head “Hunting Record Count Method”.

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Fig. 9.1

The census methods which are used commonly and conveniently may be classified as follows: 1. DIRECT COUNT OR VISUAL COUNT: It may be divided into two types: I. Total Count: In this method, all the individuals of the species of the area/habitat are enumerated. This method gives correct result but it can be done only in limited area having good visibility, because in large area its execution is very difficult. Due to invisibility, there are chances that some animals or part of the area are left out. It also needs heavy expenditure and large number of labourers. Though it is supposed that in this method, all the individuals of the species have been counted but there is no such measurement or proof at this stage that whether all the individuals have been enumerated definitely or some of them have been left out. In real sense, sample count method is more reliable giving more accuracy. Hence, total count method is not so popular and is used only in the special areas for special animals or birds such as: • The area where census is essential on foot. • There is dense forest, undulating or steep hilly areas. • The area is not very large. This method of census should follow the following criteria before adoption, such as: • The area of enumeration (census area) should not be very large. • The species to be counted should be of the large size so that they can be easily visible and recognizable. • The number of enumerators should not be very less, otherwise it will take more time and in such case there is chance of duplication in counting the animals; but if the number of enumerators are very large, there is chance of disturbances in the area during enumeration activities. • The staff, engaged in enumeration work, should be well-skilled, trained and knowledgeable.

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• This method is not suitable for the small, shy natured, solitary, secretive and nocturnal animals. In this method, first of all, the total area is divided into different “compartments or blocks” of size not more than 2 km. These compartments should be numbered. The area with boundary and compartments with number should be mentioned on topo-sheet. If needed, the total area may be divided into different parts due to its enlargement taking the boundary like big river/hill, etc. The census team should be skilled and trained and provided with the map of the area, watch, binocular, prismatic compass, census sheet, etc. Before starting the census, the key species to be enumerated should be determined; and according to these species, the route and interval or space (patti) between two parties, etc. should be fixed (for big animals, the patti may be wider; whereas for smaller animals it is less, from visibility point of view). The enumerating team may be single or more, called “single team census” or “multi team census” or “line drive census”. The single team requires less number of staff, whereas the multi-team requires more numbers. In the team, there must be at least one staff like forest guard who is familiar with the area. In single team, during the census on either side of the enumerator, assistants will walk in the route on such distances that they may see and hear the enumerator. They will note down on the Field Note Book Proforma regarding the different species seen, with its number and time including their age and sex. The starting and closing time is also to be mentioned in the Proforma. The multi team is like the single team census but it is more accurate consuming lesser time because more than one census teams are employed in the census area. In single team, only one census team performs the enumeration work in the whole area by moving after one block to another; but in multi team more than one census teams are employed performing their duty after one block to another. For the purpose, a base line along the length of the census area is made by the help of prismatic compass. This base line may be treated any forest road or fire-line, if available. Now, on this base line, census teams are kept on the equal distances which may be at a distance of 20 m to 100 m depending upon the situation of the forest; such as if the forest is thick, it may be 20 m, if of deciduous condition then 50 ml and for open-thin forest it may be taken as 100 m. This distance also depends upon the key species. Now, all these teams will start census at the same time towards the census area along the angle of 90° of the base line (taking reading by the prismatic compass). The reading and record will be taken in the same way as in single team but it is notable here that the census team of the border line will not count the animals found outside the census area. In one census area, there should be minimally 10 and maximally 20 teams. The teams should be in well contact so that it may communicate its adjacent team and the space (distance) should be maintained throughout. The length of the track of the each party may vary because the starting time of all the teams being the same, the finishing/closing time will vary but the walking speed should be more or less the same of all the teams; otherwise the same animals will be counted by the other team also and, hence, will be enumerated twice and so on. Summarizing all the census sheets of the different teams, the total number of the population (specieswise) for the whole area is calculated. Total count method can be divided into two types: a. Spatial Count: In this method, the counting is done at a particular time for the entire area. It is performed by anyone by the following methods:

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i.

Drive method or Beat method: It is one of the most common methods of census. Men walk across the area in a line and count the birds and animals that cut back through the line to one side and enumerators are stationed at vantage (fixed) point to count birds which fly out of the census area. The main count consists of the birds or animals which cross a cleared line on which observers are posted. In this method, the animals and birds are driven from their hidden places in the area of census. There are some persons in this drive-party and some others will sit on the trees in the different places of the compartment. Due to driving, the animals come in front of them and move

Fig.9.2: Drive method at a time in the whole area.

Fig. 9.3: Drive method in different parts of the large area (one after the other).

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in forward direction while the birds fly off. The flying birds are recorded and the passing animals are recorded by the enumerators sitting on the trees at a fixed point of the compartment like crossing the border line or any other clear patty of the compartment. To avoid double counting, it is to be noted that the animals will be recorded by the enumerators passing only one side, left or right. The work is done in each block and is finished in a single day for the whole area to avoid possibility of mixing of counted and uncounted animals. Precautions are also taken for avoiding the double counting of the animals from one block to another and so the enumerators are also kept at the borders of the area which is to be censured (the other area where census has not been done yet) so that the counted animals may not move towards the uncensured area. This method has been applied in U.S.A. in case of deer and birds successfully. ii. Visual Method: This method is applied in the area which is totally open or where the total animals of the area come collectively at a open place at a particular time. In such cases, the animals are counted by approaching near to them or by the help of binocular. For instance, at Kanha National Park in a pasture area, the cheetals of the entire area get together in groups in the month of July and swamp deer in the month of March/April and thus, they may be counted for a fewadays repeatedly and then final result may be obtained. iii. Aerial or Photographic Method: If the area is open and the animals are found in groups, they may be counted by air flying in small aeroplane. If the species is of small size such as birds, etc. and their number is large, their photographs may be taken by the aeroplane and its number may be enumerated in the office by the help of their snaps. b. Temporal Count: This is the method of census of a fixed area at a fixed time. In this method, the whole area is supposed to be limited at a fixed point or area where the animals are counted crossing in a fixed time or period. Such census is adapted for the migratory animals that-cross from one habitat to another. For counting such species; they are enumerated, in the migratoryseason, at a clear migratory route like National Highway or such other path. But to observe the migratory route very well and count the total animals is particularly not possible; and, hence, this method is not so much satisfactory or reliable as the spatial method. II. Sample Count Method or Partial Count Method. Sample count is that method of enumeration in which the representative samples are chosen in the area. In the sample, the animals are counted by “total count method” and, on this basis, the total number of the animals (population) in the whole area is calculated statistically (by multiplying the whole area to the density of the population of the sample area). In total count method, all the individuals of the population in an area are counted; but it is generally not possible to count all the individuals on a large area and, therefore, in forestry “partial counts” (equivalent to the partial enumerations), are employed. For the purpose, “sample area method” is adopted which gives reasonable accuracy. Like other kinds of sampling, care should be taken in the selection of the sample or census plot so that it should be true representative of the area. The selected sample area should include all types of habitats in representative quantities of the region, and when this is not possible, separate sample areas for each type of habitat

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are advisable. Randomising sample plots (random sampling) is also necessary. The most common sample-plot is the “quadrat” whose size and shape may vary. The extended quadrat or linear-quadrat has the advantage of covering many different types of covers and aspects. Another sampling device is the “transect” which is merely a line running with a compass in such a manner as to include representative areas. A transect is convenient for quick sampling in large area, remote regions and in rough country. But the sample count method is difficult also because in this method abstraction is to be given to the statistical assumptions and, hence, requires knowledge of statistics. From census point of view, some terms are defined as follows: Sample: A small group or fraction taken from the “aggregate of population” to whom we want information, is called “Sample” of that population, and the methodology of forming such sample, is called “Sampling”. Hence, in sample count method, the counting is done only in sample areas and this result is extrapolated for the whole area. For the purpose, the density of the population in sample plots is calculated, and then total population for the whole area is obtained by multiplying into total area; or may also be obtained by summing up the numbers of the animals of all the sample plots in the total area. Sampling Fraction: The measurement of the intensity of sampling is called sampling fractions. Hence, it is the ratio of the area of the samples where census was carried out and the total area to be censured (from which sample plots were chosen). Sampling Fraction =

Area of sample where census wascarriedout Total area

Sampling Percentage = Sampling fraction × 100 Sampling Methods: In sample count method, the total forest or area, where census is to be carried out, is called “Universe”. This universe or total area is divided into small units which are called “Sampling units”. Now, within these sampling units, some of them are selected/chosen by any one of the sampling methods as the representative units, which is collectively called “sample”. For example, suppose the total area is 10,000 ha where census of a particular species is to be carried out. This total area is divided into 1000 units, each unit containing 10 ha area which is called sample unit or sample plot. Now, within these 1000 units, through statistical sampling method, 50 units are chosen as the representative and collectively known as “sample”. Hence, the area of sample will be 500 ha containing 50 units or sample units bearing 10 ha area each. In these sample units by total count method, the number of desired species is enumerated. Now from this counted number in the sample, the approximate total number of the desired species in the total area (here 10,000 ha area) is calculated statistically. The “Confidence limit” of the result is also calculated statistically. In the above example, sampling percentage will be:

500 × 100 = 5% 10,000 Thus, we see that this method is comparatively more reliable and consuming lesser time but needs statistical knowledge. Sampling methods or formation of sample are as follows: i. Random Sampling: It is that type of sampling in which each and every individual of a population has free opportunity and chance to be selected (randomly) in the sample. Hence, in this method of sampling, the sample units/plots for the purpose

Census

ii.

iii.

iv.

v.

135

of sample are chosen randomly. For example, if the total area is 10,000 ha and sample unit area is 1 ha; then the total number of sample units will be 10,000 which are numbered. Now 5% sample units are to be selected means 500 sample units are to be chosen as representatives. For the purpose, 500 sample units will be chosen through lottery or picking up randomly any number out of 10,000 sample units. Thus in this method, each sample unit has equal opportunity and chance to be selected/chosen as the sample unit for the sample. But this method is not suitable for census of wild animals because of the following reasons: • Wild animals are not randomly distributed in nature. • In the census area, each and every block or compartment or unit is not identical due to uneven distribution of so many factors such as waterholes, food, shelter or cover, roads, mosaic of habitats, microclimates, edge-effect, juxtaposition, etc. Hence, the animals are not evenly distributed throughout the area and subsequently vary in different sample units. Therefore, the census adopted by random sampling method will not be accurate and up to mark. Probability Sampling: This method may be applied in case where the possibility of inclusion or noninclusion of each individual in the sample is known. The sampling is done on this very basis. Hence, it is clear that this method is not suitable in wildlife census. It is non-random sampling. Systematic Sampling: It is a kind of non-random sampling. In this method, the sample units are selected on the preplanned pattern and generally the models of the units are based on the regular interval. Sample units may be in the form of part of the land area or as transect (patti) of certain fixed width. For example, if the area is divided into 20 m wide transects (patties) and among these each 10th transect is to be enumerated; it is systematic sampling. The aerial census by aeroplane in the large areas is also a kind of systematic sampling. But in this method, there is chance that certain sample units may be either very rich in the population due to” riparian zone, etc., or may be very poor due to dryness, etc. In such cases, the calculation of the population will not be up-to-mark. Hence, this method is not suitable for wildlife census. Two-stage Sampling: In this method, some sample units from the whole area are chosen; and then again among them, some sample units are chosen; and then again among them, some sample units are chosen. Since in this method, sample units are selected twice, it is called two-stage sampling method. But this method is also not suitable in wildlife census. Stratified Sampling: It is that method of sampling in which the whole area, first of all, is divided into different dissimilar strata and then sample units are chosen randomly in those different strata as per the proportion of each stratum area. Hence, it is called stratified sampling or stratified random sampling.

Since, in this method, the area is divided into different strata as per the status of the animal and then sample units are selected from each type of stratum according to the area; the result of census for the whole area will be more precise and accurate. From wildlife census point of view, this is the best method among all the sampling methods because in nature the dispersion/distribution of wild animals is different due to different factors and subsequently their number significantly varies from place to place or area to area. Hence, among all the sampling methods, “Stratified Sampling Method” is the best for wildlife census.

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In this method, following methodologies are adapted: • The whole area is divided into different strata on the basis of diversity. • From each stratum, one sample is selected randomly. The area of the sample should be of optimum size to get more accuracy in the result. The small size sample will also increase the number of sample units which will help in getting the precise and accurate result. The sample size should be minimally 0.1 (10% sampling percentage) and maximally 0.25 (25% sampling percentage) of the area. • Population mean is estimated statistically. Stratified Counting or Sample Count Method is of following two types: a. Block Count or Stratified Block Count Method: In this method, following steps are followed: i. First of all, the whole area is divided into different small parts on the basis of the nature of the habitat and the density of the animal species. A compartment may be treated as a division (part) but if the density of the animal differs within it, the compartment should be divided into parts as per the necessity. The map of the area along with the parts (divisions) is traced out. ii. Now, each part is demarcated as per its stratum. The allotment of the stratum is done on the basis of forest density, dominating species, etc. For example, dense forest, open forest, pasture area, etc. may be different types of strata. iii. Now, the total area of each stratum is obtained by adding the areas of the parts/compartments/divisions of the each stratum. iv. Afterwards from each stratum, some representative compartments/parts/ divisions are selected randomly as sample plots/sample units consisting of 10% area (or, as per preplanned choice) of the total stratum area. v. Now, census is carried out in these sample units by direct count method. vi. Now, the density in each sample plot for each species is obtained (by dividing the obtained number of the species in the sample plot by the area of the plot). In this way, the density in each plot for each type of species is obtained and then the average density of each species in each stratum is calculated. Now for each stratum, the population (number) of each species is obtained by multiplying into the total area of the stratum with the average density of the species and then 95% confidence limit is found out (Table 9.1). vii. The whole data is noted down on the chart (Proforma) for different types of species. For example: Suppose there are three strata in the census area like A, B and C on the basis of dense forest, open forest and pasture area respectively. If total area of census

= 600 km2

Area of Stratum A

= 200 km2

Area of Stratum B

= 200 km2

Area of Stratum C

= 200 km2

Sample Size

= 10%

â Area of Sample in each stratum

= 20 km2

â Area of total samples in all three strata

= 60 km2

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If area of each sample plot in each stratum

= 2 km2

â Number of sample plots in each stratum

= 10

â Total number of sample plots in all three strata

= 30

Hence, ten sample plots will be chosen randomly from each stratum and census will be carried out in these sample plots by direct count method for different types of species and are noted down in the chart. Suppose, number of cheetal is to be calculated. For the purpose, the Mean Density from the chart in each stratum (from 10 sample plots in each stratum in this example) is found out like 10.04, 6.93 and 4.33 in A, B and C stratum and confidence limit as ± 0.84, ± 0.66 and ± 0.78 respectively (Table 9.1). Therefore, the population of cheetal will be as follows: Stratum A → (10.04 ± 0.84) × 200 = 2008 ± 168 Stratum B → (6.93 ± 0.66) × 200 = 1386 ± 132 Stratum C → (4.33 ± 0.78) × 200 = 866 ± 156 Total

= 4260 ± 456

â Total population of cheetal in total area = 4716 or 3804 It means the population of cheetal in that area as 95% situation will be either 4716 or 3804. In the example, sample size is 10% and if it is taken 20% then precision and accuracy will be more because in this case the number of sample plots will be more and subsequently confidence limit will be less. The population may also be calculated statistically which will be more accurate and reliable in the following way: Population Mean YST =

Σ Nh Y h N

Where Nh = No. of observations stratumwise (N1 = 10, N2 = 10, N3 = 10)

Y h = Sample-mean stratumwise (Y1 = 10.04, Y2 = 6.93, Y3 = 4.33) N = Total number of observations (30) â Population Mean YST = =

(10.04 × 10) + (6.93 × 10) + (4.33 × 10) 30 213 30

= 7.1 per square km

( )

=

Sw × 1− θ N

( )

=

Sw N

Now, S YST

â S YST

(since sample size is 10% therefore the value of θ will be 0.1 which is negligible and the value of 1 − θ will be equal to nearly 1)

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where S ( YST ) = Standard error of population mean YST Sw = Pooled standard deviation for population mean YST n = Total number of observations. Sw =

( )

â S YST

Sum of mean × sum of squares of observations Degree of freedom

=

ΣΣx 2 d n−1

=

Total of Column 6 of Table 9.1 (n1 − 1) + (n2 − 1) + (n3 − 1)

=

6.07 + 2.47 + 4.71 9+9+9

=

0.49 = 0.70

=

0.70 30

= 0.128

â Population of cheetal = (7.1 ± 0.128) × 600 = 4260 ± 77 â Total population of cheetal in total area = 4337 or 4183 Table 9.1: Block count method Description of Census

Density of Species Sample-plotwise and Stratumwise

1. Sum of Observations (Σ X) Σ X = X1 + X2 + X3 + ... 2. Sample Mean = ( X ) X = Σ X/n

No. of Stratum A Obser- (Dense Forest) vations Sample Density (n) plot per sq. no. km. (x)

Stratum B (Open Forest)

Stratum C (Pasture Area)

Sample- Density plot per sq. no. km. (x)

Sample plot no.

Density per sq. km. (x)

1

5

10.60

200

6.50 301

3.40

2

8

10.00

205

7.50 306

3.60

3

1

9.70

210

6.70 309

5.00

4

14

9.00

218

6.20 312

4.00

5

19

10.50

222

6.60 318

4.50

6

22

8.40

228

7.50 325

3.70

7

48

10.50

230

6.50 348

5.00

8

60

11.10

235

6.80 352

4.80

9

80

10.60

238

7.70 355

3.80

10

95

10.00

240

7.30 365

5.50

100.40

69.30

43.30

10.04

6.93

4.33 (Contd.)

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Table 9.1: Block count method (Contd.) Description of Census

No. of Stratum A Obser- (Dense Forest) vations Sample Density (n) plot per sq. no. km. (x)

3. Sum of squares of Observations (Σ X2) Σ X2 = x21 + x22 + x23 +... 4. Square of sum of Observation (Σ X)2 5. Mean of squares of sum (Σ X)2/n 6. Sum of squares of Deviations (Σ X2 d) Column (3–5) Σ X2 d = Σ X2 – (Σ X)2/n 7. Standard Deviation (SD) SD=√ Σ X2 d/(n–1) 8. Standard Error (SE) SE = √ SD/n 9. Coefficient of Variation (CV) CV = SD/X 10. Confidence Limit 95% (CL) CL = SE x t

Stratum B (Open Forest)

Stratum C (Pasture Area)

Sample- Density plot per sq. no. km. (x)

Sample plot no.

Density per sq. km. (x)

1014.08 10080.16

482.71 4802.49

192.19 1874.89

1008.01

480.24

187.48

6.07

2.47

4.71

0.82

0.52

0.72

0.28

0.22

0.26

0.08

0.07

0.16

± 0.84

± 0.66

±0.78

The value of “t” depends upon degree of freedom i.e. (n – 1). Its value may be noted from the chart. When Degree of Freedom (n-1)< 12 but > 1 then the value of “t” is between 2.20 and 4.30 and when (n – 1)> 12 but< 50 then the value of t is between 2.20 and 2.10. Hence, the value of “t” may be taken as 2.10 for more than 10 observations. Here, the value of “t” has been put as 3.0 for convenience as in the example (n – 1) is equal to 9 and the value will be the same in all the three strata because in all (n – 1) = 9. b. Transect Count or Stratified Transect Count Method: It may be divided into following two methods: i. Road Count Method: This is also a kind of sampling method. This method is generally used to find out the trend of growth in population number because this method is very easy and convenient to access the trend of abundance or compare the number of species counted in different times in the same area in the same ecological situation. If vehicle is used in this method, it is called “transportbased transect method”. In this method, transect sample is chosen. For the purpose, treating any compartment or block as sample, the area of patties (transect) on either side of any forest road (inside the census area) is chosen as transect sample. Such selection should be in such a way that: • The chosen forest roads represent truly all the representative areas. • The length of the forest road is in the ratio of the representative area. • The ecological condition of the edges of forest road is alike the area through which it is passing.

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• The visibility of all the available animals is similar in the transect • The visibility of all the animals up to normal distance is similar in the transect. Population of the species in the census area is calculated by multiplying the density into the total area. Density =

Number of animals seen Length of transect× width of transect

To fulfil the above objectives; in the whole census area, so many forest roads like net should be constructed passing from all types of habitats and strata. Such road should not be chosen where there is frequent plying of vehicles because dust settled on the flora on either side of such road minimizes the density of the animal population while it is more in inner side of the road. Besides this, due to edge-effect and cuttings for fire-lines also minimizes population density and, hence, different types of forest roads as samples should be chosen for different types of strata. The time of the census should also be considered at which the key species are maximally active, for example, it is appropriate for deer and antilopes at 6 to 9 morning and 5 to 7 evening. The speed of the vehicle should not be more than 15–20 km/hr. Regarding visibility, it is difficult and not uniform in dense forest in comparison to the open and grassland. There is also not uniform visibility in nature inside the forest even after taking different widths of transects in different types of forests. Hence, these possibilities should be viewed and thought at the time of fixing transect width. It is of two types: a. Fixed Width Transect: When the width of the transect (patty) on either side of the road has already been fixed, it is called fixed width transect. Since in forest, the sighting from one place to another changes due to so many reasons, this method of transect width is not suitable. b. Open Width Transect: In this method, the animals are counted on both sides of the forest road (transect) up to the distance of visibility (sighting distance) and its angular distance (radial distance/angular sighting distance) from the enumerator is also noted down. This angular distance of the animal from the enumerator is converted into perpendicular distance. On the basis of mean of at least such 50 observations, optimum distance for each species is found out (after which sighting distance starts decreasing). This optimum distance of that species will be mean perpendicular sighting distance. At the time of counting, the animals will be counted only within this distance (mean perpendicular sighting distance) in the transect and others beyond this distance will be left out. The calculation of the population of a particular species will be on the basis of its number found within this perpendiculardistance. Hence, this method is called open width transect/indefinite Width Transect and is suitable for the wildlife census in the forest. Hence, on the above basis, the number of species is counted in each sample (transect) and then mean density is calculated; and by multiplying this into the

Fig. 9.4: Different distances in transect-count.

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total area of the census, the total population of a particular species is obtained. Compass may be used for angular reading and binocular may be used to observe the animals. Mean density D =

N L× 2 × r

Where N = Number of particular species seen in transect L = Length of transect in km 2 = Multiplier for either side widths of the transect r = Mean angular sighting distance in km Angular distance and perpendicular distance depend upon the topography of the area but maximum animals are seen at the angle of 30° or 60° and the average of both the angles is about 1.6. â r = 1.6 X (where X = mean perpendicular distance) After finding mean density, the total population of a particular species is obtained by multiplying the density into the total census area. ii. King Method and King Greed Method: This is also a type of sampling method under direct count method in which population is estimated supposing the transect as the basis. This method is simple, accurate as well as changeable in accordance with the species, land topography and local necessities. This method is very useful in case where there is no road and census is to be done on foot. In this method, number of animal is calculated per unit area of the total transect samples on the basis of the animals observed at Angular Sighting Distance calculating “r” in each transect-sample as per the procedures and formula described in Road Count Method. The estimation of total population is then also calculated as per the formula described in the Road Count Method. Radial distance is noted by the help of compass reading. Binocular may also be used to observe the animals. The length of one transect should not be more than 10 km. If the enumerator is passing on foot, then the distance is measured by his pace (generally the average distance of one pace is equal to 0.8 m). In Greed Method, the whole area is divided by parallel greed-lines at fixed intervals (usually at 20 or 40 m intervals). Each greed is treated as a sample plot. The enumerators count the animals moving along these lines by the help of compass or the pointed trees, already marked for the purpose along the lines. Then total number of the animal is calculated. This method is more useful in counting the birds but it is not suitable in the area where animals are found rarely, the preferred foods of the animals are at only certain places and there are elevational variations in the vegetation. 2. INDIRECT METHOD OR INDEX COUNT METHOD: It has been divided into following types: a. Pug Mark Count/Track and Trails Method/Track Method: As a natural phenomenon, the pug mark of each individual of a species is different from that of the other individuals in certain respect. It means each and every individual of a species can be recognized on the basis of its pug mark and, hence, they can be counted in a certain area. The pug marks of some animals like tiger, lion, leopard, etc. are so specific and characteristic that they can be counted accurately on the

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basis of their pug-marks. Not only this, but their pug-marks also have certain morphological differences in respect of male, female as well as cubs; and, therefore, they are enumerated as such. So, on the basis of morphologicaldisfiguration of the foot-print, individuals can be counted. This, reading of signs or tracks of animals is essential in wildlife management because correct reading of signs is necessary for correct interpretation of evidence. In general, it is common that animal leaves sign or its passing like foot-prints in sand, mud or snow; the dropping of dung or faeces; the regurgitation or indigested food by birds in the form of pellets; the trails left by large animals in grass or jungle; blood-trails left by wounded animals; the signs of nibbling of grass and leaves; the rubbing-off of the bark of saplings by the antlers of deer to remove the velvet, etc. For the first time, Nicolson applied this method in 1934 at Palamau (Jharkhand State); afterwards Dharm Kumar Singh and Sankhala in 1967 did certain modifications in this method, but Sarofraj Choudhary in 1971 valuably modified it and invented a simple instrument like “Tiger-tracer”. H.S. Pawar (1980) studied this method deeply and made it popularized. Thus, this method has been invented and progressed in India itself. The pug-marks or foot-prints of many larger animals are enumerated by understanding their characteristics such as: i. The foot-print of a male carnivore like lion or tiger can be distinguished from that of the female by the more rounded impressions of the individual pads of the male and the more pear-shaped or pointed impressions of the female. In case of tiger, generally the left hind foot-print is traced (if it is not available, then right hind foot-print) because fore-feet are identical (square) in both male and female as they are used for attacking the prey and, hence, cannot be differentiated. On contrast, the hind foot-print in both the sexes are of different kinds, viz. in male, the right-angled quadrilateral made by the lines traced outwardly the foot-print is found square-shape, while in female it is rectangular. When the tiger is in normal movement, the hind feet are placed on the fore feet itself. Since the foot-print of fore feet is comparatively larger and, hence, the tracing (on tracing plate) of hind foot-print inside the fore footprint should be taken carefully. But when the tiger is in motion or in running condition, the hind feet are placed somewhat ahead from the fore feet and in this situation the foot-prints of hind and fore-feet are separate; and in such condition the tracing should be after careful observation. The tracing should be repeated five times for accuracy. The length of the stride (from the apex of fore left middle finger to the apex of hind left middle finger) should also be noted down repeating five times. Though tiger moves solitarily, but at the time of courtship there are many foot-prints together with tigress and cubs; and in this condition, the tracing of foot-prints should be taken separately (tiger, tigress and cubs) observing carefully. In addition, the Plaster Cast by Plaster of Paris should also be prepared and kept for more information and further investigations. Before starting, the area should be divided into different beats/units as per convenience. The place, where foot-prints are to be traced, should be cleared one day before in evening/night to avoid previous foot-prints. Such

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spots should be chosen where there are chances of clear tracks (signs) of foot-prints like muddy portion near waterholes, sandy soil, ant-hills, moist places, etc. If required, sprinkling of dust or sand across the track or smoothening by sand on the path may be done so that the animal will be forced to leave sign of foot-prints upon them. The tracing of foot-print on tracing-paper by the help of tracing-plate should be taken parallel to the foot-print to avoid Parallax error. Since the fifth finger is elevated from the ground, so the prints of only four fingers remain on the ground.

Fig. 9.5a: Foot-print of Tiger

Fig. 9.5b: Foot-print of Tigress

ii. The foot-prints of male, female and cub of the lion can be differented by the criteria like: a. If the difference between length and width of foot-print is less than 1" then it is male; and if more than 1" then it is female. b. If the length of the foot-print is more than 5" then it is male; or if length is 4½" – 5" then it is female. c. If the measurement of pad is more than 3½" then it is male; and if it is less than 3½" and approximately 3¼" then it is of female. iii. The pug-mark of a tiger cub can be distinguished from that of a panther by the proportionately larger size of the individual toe-impressions of the former. Panther is also found in area of tiger and its foot-print is alike tiger cub. But it is to be remembered that the foot-print of a adult panther is not larger than the foot-print of six months old tiger cub who always remains with its mother up to this age. Hence, if such small foot-prints are not available along with the foot-prints of tigress; then such small foot-prints belong to panther. iv. The tract of a hyaena can be differentiated from that of a panther by the larger impressions of the toe-pads and the imprints of the toe-nails of the hyaena. v. The difference between the foot-prints of a pig and a deer can be recognized from the depressions left by the two rudimentary toes at the back of the cleft-hoof in case of the pig. vi. Otter’s track will show the webbing between the four toes. vii. Mangoose’s track can be distinguished from that of a civet-cat by the clawimpressions of the former. viii. Jungle-fowl’s track is similar to that of a pea-fowl but smaller with the hind toe at a backward angle. ix. Non-poisonous snake has speed to capture its prey and so its track is comparatively straight than that of poisonous snake. x. The passing of a porcupine can generally be recognized by the fine lines made by the dropping quills of the animal as it drags them along the ground.

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xi. The number of animals in a herd of spotted-deer (cheetal) can be roughly estimated by counting the number of foot-prints between two parallel lines drawn 30" apart at right angle to the direction of the foot-prints and dividing the number by two (for the distance between the hind and front hooves of a cheetal generally having average-size of 30"). xii. The impression of the rear foot of a tusker elephant is pear-shaped while that of a makhna (tuskless) male is more rounded. To distinguish the various sounds of the animals is also for their particular significance and importance; for example: • The grunting cough sound denotes a charging tiger. • The cat like yowl is of a dying tiger. • The high pitched musical sound notices a tiger calling to its mate. • The loud hissing sound is the symbol of an angry or frightened tiger. • The high sambar like “keek” is for a hunting tiger. • In elephant (on the basis of field experience), it is found that i. If pinna moving forward and backward, trunk and tail in normal position; the elephant is in normal mood. ii. If pinna static, tail twisted and moving, trunk twisted and moving up and down, the elephant is in frightened mood. For detail, see Chapter 5 under subhead “Communication Channels”. b. Dung/Pellet Count: Dung count method is actually useful to know the availability, non-availability or abundance of wild animals in a particular habitat especially mammalian species. Counts of pellets, droppings and other faecal materials for their enumeration have been made for a number of species such as deer and other large ungulates, rabbits, small mammals and in certain cases of birds. But the most widespread Pellet-count method is for deer. In U.S.A., this method is applied since many years in counting deer and rabbit, etc. Though in tropical countries, like India, this method is not very useful because the pellets are destroyed soon by dung-beetles, decomposers or rains; however, in winter season this method gives some valuable data in comparing and counting the population. In this method, for counting the number of a particular species, the density of the particular species is found out on the basis of discharged pellet-groups and then this density is multiplied by the total area to estimate the total population. For the purpose; first of all, the number of pellet-groups defaecated in one day (24 hours) by one individual of the particular species is found out which is treated as the “Standard-rate of Defaecation” or, “Standard Defaecation-rate”. Afterwards; in an unit area, the number of pellet-groups discharged by the individuals of the particular species in a particular time (generally in one month, viz. 30 days) is found out and then dividing this number by Standard Defaecation rate, the density of the population is calculated and subsequently total population (by multiplying density with the total area) is estimated. Standard error (S.E.) and confidence limit may also be calculated from the data to get more accuracy in the result as stated in Table 9.1. In this process, stratified sampling method is applied; and generally in each stratum 10 transect-lines are made aparting 200 metres and on each line 5 sample plots (each having 30 m × 2 m size) at 50 m intervals are chosen. In each transect (in 5 sample-plots), number of pellet-groups of the species is noted down and then average value for all 10 transects (50 sample

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plots) dividing total number by 10 is calculated which will be the average number of pellet-groups per transect (in 30 m × 2 m × 5 = 300 sq.m. area) of that stratum. Further, density and total number of animal (species) in total area is estimated. For more accuracy, Standard Error (S.E.) and Confidence Limit may also be put in the calculation.

Fig. 9.6: Transecting and sampling of pellet count method.

There are certain assumptions of this method such as: i. The pellet-groups of different species are different, for example, there are differences in the structures of pellet-groups of cheetal, sambar, black buck, barking deer, chausingha, etc. But the pellets of adult cheetal and young sambar, barking deer and chausingha are almost alike and needs expertisation to distinguish between them. ii. Pellet-groups may be counted separately. But some species like nilgai defaecates at the same spot for several days and, in such cases, the pellets may be counted for different days on the basis of new and old considering its colour and so on. There are some demerits also of this method like: • The pellet-groups are destroyed in some seasons specially in rain, etc. • Pellet-groups are destroyed by insect attack like dung-beetles, decomposers, etc. • The nature of food and age of the animal affects the number of pellet-groups per day per animal. Example 1: If in 50 sample-plots, each having 0.006 ha (30 m × 2 m = 60 m2), the number of pellet-groups of deer has been found 135 in 30 days, then the number of deer in each sq km (per sq. km) is to find out (supposing one deer in one day makes 15 pellet-groups). Number of pellet-groups of 1 deer in 1 day = 15 (Defaecation rate) Total area of 50 sample-plots

= 0.006 × 50 ha = 0.3 ha

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Number of pellet-groups in 30 days in 0.3 ha area of 50 sample-plots â Number of pellet-groups per ha

= 135 = 450

Number of pellet-groups made in 1 ha in definite period â Number of animals per ha = Number of pellet-groups made by 1 animal in definite period 1 deer in 1 day makes 15 pellet-groups â 1 deer in 30 days makes 450 pellet-groups (15 × 30 = 450) â Number of deer in 1 ha = 450/450 = 1 â Number of deer per sq. km. = 1 × 100 = 100 1 ha = 100 × 100 sq. m. = 10000 sq. m or, 10000 sq.m. = 1 ha or,

or,

10000 sq. km = 1 ha 1000 × 1000 1 sq. km = 1 ha 100 1 ä sq. km consists 1 deer 100 1 1 1 â 1 sq. km = ×1= × 100 1 100

= 100 deer Example 2: In a particular stratum of the census area, 10 transects (transect-lines) have been made keeping 5 sample-plots on each line of 30 m × 2 m size. If the total number of pellet-groups of cheetal in all 10 transects is 78 in the period of one month (30 days) and the defaecation-rate of cheetal in 24 hours is 15; then the density of cheetal in that stratum will be as follows: Total number of pellet-groups in 30 days = 78 â Average number of pellet-groups in 30 days in 1 transect = 78/20 = 7.8 Area of sample-plots (5) of 1 transect = 30 × 2 × 5 sq. m = 300 sq. m. â Number of pellet-groups in 1 sq. m in 30 days = 7.8/300 â Number of pellet-groups in

1 sq. km (1 sq. m) in 30 days = 7.8/300 1000 × 1000 7.8 1 × 1 300 1000 × 1000 1 1000 × 1000 78 78000 × = = × = 26000 1 1 3000 3

â Number of pellet-groups in 1 sq. km in 30 days =

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â Number of pellet-groups per sq. m in 1 day = 26000/30 In 1 day (24 hours) 1 cheetal discharges 15 pellet-groups (defaecation-rate). 26000 â Number of cheetal per sq. km. = = 57.77 30 × 15 (Density of cheetal in the particular stratum) â Density of cheetal per sq. km. = 57.77 or

Average number of pellet-groups in 30 days in 1 sample-plot (30 × 2 sq.m.) = 78/50 = 1.56 â Number of pellet-groups in 1 sq. m. in 30 days = 1.56/60 1.56 × 1000 × 1000 60 = 26000

â Number of pellet-groups in 1 sq. km. in 30 days =

1 sq. m. = ä

1 sq. km. 1000 × 1000

1 sq. km. contains 7.8/300 pellet groups 1000 × 1000

â 1 sq. km. contains =

7.8 1 × = 26000 pellet groups 300 1 1000 × 1000

Likewise, the density of other strata may be found out and average density may be calculated and then finally by multiplying it into the total census area; the total number of the species may be estimated. For further accuracy of the result, Standard Error (S.E.) and Confidence Limit may also be computed in the calculation. c. Hunting Record Count Method: This method is actually applicable in the countries where there is no ban on hunting as well as there is control and record on hunting. Since, in India, there is ban on hunting of wild animals, this method is not applicable. At first, Lincoln (1930) applied this method for water-birds and is supposed an important achievement in the field of census for estimating population of the species specially for birds. That’s why, it is also called as “Lincoln Index Census Method” or “Marking Method or Tagging Method”. It is based on marking of birds or animals and later on counting of marked individuals caught or killed in hunting. It is expressed by the formula: Total population = Total caught or killed animals

Total marked animals Total marked animals among caught or killed

Lincoln noted that the number of marked or banned birds killed annually was in certain percentage of the birds marked or banned annually over a period of years. Hence, if 10% of the marked animals are killed/caught, the total population should be approximately 10 times than the total number of animals killed/caught by the hunters.

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This method is subject to many possibilities of error, one of which is due to the difficulty of proper mixing or distributing the marked animals. Hence, there are certain assumptions to use this formula such as: • that the mortality is the same for both marked and unmarked animals., • that the marked individuals do not lose their marks. • that the marked individuals are caught/killed at the same rate as the unmarked. • that all marks are recognized and returned to the investigators. • that the requirement is insignificant during the operation. d. Call Index Count/Trend Count/Auditory Count: This method does not indicate the density of the animal but denotes tendency of the density/abundance of the wild species in a particular area. The sound of the wild animal related to its courtship, danger, etc. indicates its presence in habitat area but the absence of the sound does not mean its actual absence in that area because the sound/call of a particular species varies according to the time and the season. However; in this method, sound of the animal is used as a instrumentation/indicator and becomes the basis of its count or abundance, and in real sense this method is useful to estimate the abundance of a particular animal in particular habitat. Since in mating season, the male bird calls its opposite sex which varies and minimises as per the time and season as well as females and juvenile birds generally do not give such calls; hence, there counting is not possible. Even then, this method may be useful for special-population-estimation as well as in comparative studies and not for temporal basis. Generally, the population-estimation through this method is done for the birds like quail, partridge, pheasants, jungle fowl, saras, parrot, cuckoo, hornbill, etc. This method is not useful for mammals. The method of counting is adopted as in Transect method of stratifiedsampling and the call of the bird is audited and noted on the base line by the observer team and then perpendicular distance is found out and ultimately density is calculated by the formula. 3. MISCELLANEOUS COUNT. There are some methods of counting which cannot be included in direct or indirect count method and, hence, called miscellaneous Count method in which some important methods are as follows: a. Waterhole Count: This method is mixture of Indirect (Index) and Direct methods because here waterhole is used as an index while animals are counted individually directly. Actually, this method is used to find out abundance or trend of abundance but also used for population-estimation. This is the most useful in summer season because in this season there is minimum number of waterholes which facilitate to count the individuals in lesser time. We know that the animal visits the waterhole for drinking purpose at least once daily. In this method, the privilege is taken of this habit of the animal. Hence, if the frequency of the water-taking is known for the key species; the number of population of that very species may be estimated by dividing the total number of individuals counted at different waterholes by the frequency. For the purpose, all waterholes of the total area in summer season are surveyed. The hide is formed at every waterhole and the enumerator team approaches there in full moon night in the evening before sunset. Every team counts and notes down the number of the individuals from 6.00 PM to 6.00 AM,

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and if possible, its sex and age are also mentioned. Finally, the number of individuals (total population) of the species may be found out by compiling the data of all the waterholes. There are certain assumptions in this method which are mainly as follows: • that each individual comes certainly at the waterhole for drinking purpose within the counting period. • that there is direct relation between the total population of the species and the individuals are seen at certain intervals at each waterhole. • that at each waterhole, the enumerator team is present and they are able to count them. • that the frequency of water-taking is known for the key-species (means that how many times, an individual of a species visits the waterhole within 24 hours). b. Ratio-based Count: In this method, the known number of individuals are mixed in unknown number of species-population (the population which is to be counted); and then by sampling method, the number of known and unknown individuals are counted in sample. There should be precaution that the animals which are to be mixed in unknown population should be such that the sighting is at par with the unknown population. The total population of the key-species is estimated by the formula as follows: i. There is one method in which the domestic animals are mixed in the unknown population of the key-species and then the numbers of domestic and wild individuals are counted in at least 10% of the total census area as sample. The total population may be enumerated by the formula: Total population of key species = Total number of domestic individuals mixed

Number of individuals of key species in sample Number of domestic individuals in sample

ii. There is another method in which some individuals of the key species itself are marked and left for mixing; and then in sample, both the marked and unmarked are counted. The total population is found out by the formula: Total population Number of individuals in sample = Total marked individuals Number of marked individuals in sample

This method is the most suitable for small size mammals. For counting the big size animals by this method, the marking in the individuals within that very species is searched out and the total population is counted. In this way, the method is called “Sighting and Resighting Method”. c. Kill-evidence Method: The killing method of the predator may indicate the trend of its presence and abundance. For example: i. The tiger kills its prey with its teeth on the neck (it is generally believed that tiger kills by giving a smashing blow on the neck, it is incorrect; tiger kills with its teeth). ii. The tiger starts its feeding from the haunches and will not burst the paunch or stomach, and often moves its kill to some distance away. iii. The leopard kills by biting through the throat.

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iv. The leopard, which is called a dirty feeder, starts its meal at the anus of the dead animal. The way of concealing the kills by the different predators is also important such as: • The tiger sometimes hides its kill with leaves. • The leopard may take the kill up to the forks of the tree. In Indian conditions, any exhaustive and expensive census method is not likely to be acceptable, because here the management of wildlife as a commercial crop is subordinated to the task of conserving the ruminants and controlling its injurious elements. However, idea and trend of census of important species are as follows: i. The larger carnivorous animals such as lion, tiger and leopard can be counted by the track method which can be combined with the method of baiting and counting. Lions specially can be counted over kills or baits as they have the habit of congregating at kills. ii. Animals like cheetal, sambar and barking deer which inhabit light to heavy tree forest can be counted by the drive method. For sambar and swamp deer, privilege may also be taken of their habit of roaring in the rutting or mating season. They are gregarious and can be counted easily in grassy fields or blanks in morning or evening. The sexes can be estimated through the habit of the males moving in groups. iii. Bears can be counted at ant-hills and also by track method and by direct count method, viz. observing them when they emerge from their dens in the evening or return to them in the morning. iv. For animals of the drier and open type of forests such as Indian gazelle (chinkara), Indian antelope (blackbuck), nilgai, etc; aerial-census combined with ground counts is useful. Certain species like chinkara and four-horned antelope (chausingha), which are of a secondary nature, may be counted by observing their scrapes or beds. v. For hog beer, living in high grass, the drive count method utilizing elephant is useful. vi. For mouse deer, which haunts dense jungle or rockly hill slopes, short drives and silent beats are useful. vii. Wild pigs move in families and can be counted as they are gently driven across a cleared line. viii. For rhinoceros, elephant, bison and wild buffalo, which inhabit heavy jungle, the direct count combined with track method give good result. Rhinoceros congregate near cultivation at certain times of the year and, hence, can be counted on full moon night or from the elephant riding during the day in the area adjoining crops. In the hot weather when the grass has been burnt, aerial survey combined with ground counting may be useful. Elephants move in certain regular beats according to the availability of fodder and in the dry season are never far from water, may be counted directly. Bison feed regularly in certain area and can be counted easily under such circumstances. Nowadays in developed countries, Individual Marking of the animal is in progress in order to get the most meaningful data, breeding-management, maintenance of sufficient genetic diversity, behavioural management, national and international cooperative breeding programmes, scientific management, health care, etc. But unfortunately, in our country, such methods of individual identification have not been

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adopted in general due to being very expensive and lack of proper skillness. There are several methods of individuals marking such as natural marking, permanent deformities, cut marking, tattooing, branding, dyes and paints, computer chips/transponders (It is the recent electronic marking which can be injected into the animal with a syringe. It is easy to insert, undetectable, useful to identify even stolen animals and life long. It lies dormant until activated by a transmitter reading device or scanner. However, it is very expensive and the animal cannot be identified from a distance which may be overcome in future by the advancement in electronic field.) Since all marking methods have their positive and negative points, the basic rule is to select the method that works in the best way and easier to use for the species. By identifying the animal individually, we can study the animal in detail and manage them scientifically by applying proper management techniques.

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10

Conservation, Preservation, Protection and Categories of Wild Animals

F

rom wildlife management point of view, the following terms are applied for their proper understanding and application. Since independence in India, various legislations have been framed out but due to inadequate enforcement and lack of proper co-operation by the general public, still it is far from satisfaction. A. CONSERVATION

Conservation embraces the positive and dynamic science of ecology (the study of living processes and their interdependences on each other and their habitat). According to Noel Simon, conservation means “the maintenance of a reasonable number of members of every species from the largest mammals to the smallest invertebrates in their own habitat without destroying that habitat”. Again according to Indian Forest Record (1965), conservation means “planned management and wide use of natural resources, so as to prevent over-exploitation, destruction or neglect, i.e. wildlife conservation. Originally the term was used to denote strict preservation leading to locking-up of resources and prevention of their use. This meaning has become antiquated. In a broader sense, conservation implies the field of knowledge concerned with the co-ordination and practical application of data from the science with a view to increasing and sustaining the availability of natural resources”. In broad sense, conservation is defined as the management of human use of the biosphere so that it may yield the greatest sustainable benefit to present generation while maintaining its potential to meet the needs and aspirations of future generations. However, in strict sense as stated in Chapter 4, wildlife conservation denotes that wildlife is to be conserved is such a way that it may remain in the nature in peak status and to get the benefit is not the main objective but maintain natural balance, while in wildlife management along with the conservation of wildlife they are to be managed in such a way that they can meet the specific objectives of human beings. a. Biodiversity (Conservation of Biodiversity)

It is now recognized world over that biological diversity is an insurance for food and ecological security. Biological diversity is threatened by encroachement on natural ecosystems by the activities of the evergrowing human population. Creation of new species and elimination of a few others are the results of organic evolution. Extinction 152

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of a species is also a part of the natural process. But with the gradual emergence of human beings as a major evolutionary force, people have increasingly exploited the wildlife rather callously. The rate of decline has been particularly rapid in the last one hundred years without any corresponding renewal. It is estimated that about 25000 plant species and 1000 vertebrate species and subspecies are threatened with extinction world over. These figures do not include invertebrates like molluscs, insects, corals and innumerable other forms of life, which are invariably vulnerable. It is believed that at least 10 per cent of the living species are in danger. The most serious threat to the wildlife comes from habitat destruction. Habitats, which protect wildlife, are being converted to human settlements, harbours, dams, reservoirs, corplands, grazing grounds, plantations and mining sites. The introduction of exotic species over exploitation, and international trade in increasingly scarce commodities of wild orgin, manily from developing countries, are other causes of destruction of many species. The rare species of plants and animals have been categorized for conservation purposes by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN). We know that life on this earth planet exists in variable forms. The animals are found from invisible bacteria to large mammals, whereas plants range from tiny grasses to big trees. Not only this, but life is also found from depth of the ocean to peak of the mountain, from intense heat of the desert to the freezing cold of polar region, and from underground and grassland to the thick forest. Thus, biodiversity (short form of biological diversity) refers occurrence of diverse forms of animal and plant life in a particular area and environment. In other words, it can be said that it is variability among the living organisms from all corners including terrestrial, aquatic (freshwater and marine) and ecological set-up/ecosystem in which they are existing. It also refers diversity within the species, between the species and of the ecosystems. Hence, it denotes totality of genes, species and ecosystems of a region reflecting richness of fauna and flora of a specific region. Thus, biodiversity is the sum total of the diversity in the biosphere in terms of number, variety and variability of all living organisms. The brief definition of biodiversity has been given by IUCN, UNEP (1992) such as “the totality of genes, species and ecosystems in a region”. The term like biodiversity was first of all coined by Walter G. Rosen in 1985. Importance/Role of Biodiversity: As we know, man is dependent on nature and ultimately upon biodiversity. We get and fulfil our requirements of life from them directly or indirectly in the form of natural resources or artificial resources which are derived/descendants of the natural resources on the basis of our skills. Thus, biodiversity is the source of our food, medicines, drugs, fuel, fibre, gum, rubber, timber and so on. The advantages/importance rendered by biodiversity may be categorized mainly in the following types: i. Source of food: Biodiversity provides us numerous edible plants and animals as food as well as natural resources for agriculture, forestry, livestock, fishery, etc. It is the source for breeding to get new improved varieties. Besides these, many insects carry out pollination and many other wild animals act as agent of biological pest control and also help in growing plant species. ii. Source of Medicine: Biodiversity is the great source of different kinds of medicines to save our lives. It is rich in having active substances of medicinal properties. About 50 % drugs are of plant origin. For instance, penicillin, quinine, morphin, aspirin, tetracycline, streptomycine, cocaine, etc. are the products of plants. Many valuable medicines which are being used by the mankind are manufactured by the body products of wild animals.

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iii. Aesthetic and Cultural value: Biodiversity has great value in respect of aesthetic and cultural value for human being. Many beautiful wild plants and varied bountiful animals are the source of joy and jovious, wonder, beauty and recreational value for man. Certain animals and plants are demarcated as national pride and cultural heritage. Wildlife, bird watching, biological park, safari, ecotourism, pet keeping, etc. are the notable examples of the aesthetic values of biological diversity. iv. Genetic reservoir: All improved useful and valuable varieties of plants and animals for man have been derived from native (natural) plants and animals for the welfare of human race. Today in modern age, we are always busy in science to invent new improved varieties of crops and animals including livestock as well as medicines from the large and immense gene-pool of diversity for the sake of mankind. v. Ecological value: Biodiversity has important ecological value playing great role in eco-balance. Biological diversity is very much essential for stable and healthy ecosystem and environment. Interaction among different species (intraspecific and interspecific among flora and fauna) is necessary for maintaining food chain/food web, energy transfer, feedback mechanism (positive and negative both) to keep the ecosystem in equilibrium and stable state. Biodiversity serves as a natural effective instrument to ensure optimum utilization of biotic and abiotic resources in balanced way. Loss of even a single species in the ecosystem causes negative result due to lack of alternative and leads towards devastating condition rising ecological imbalance. Hence, maintenance of gaseous composition in the atmosphere, water cycle, mineral cycle, climate control, etc. are the contribution, or better say, governed by biodiversity giving healthy, hygienic and pollutionfree atmosphere on the earth planet which is directly linked with the existence of human lives who are part and parcel of the ecosystem. Types of biodiversity (hierarchical levels): Depending upon the numerous varieties of living organisms and their complicated interrelationship, the biodiversity has been categorized mainly into three hierarchical levels such as: i. Genetic diversity: The variation or diversity of genes (genetic make-up) within the same species is called genetic diversity. Since each and every species has a fixed number and set up of chromosome and, hence, even a slight variation/change/ difference in genetic organization within a species evolves varieties, races, strains or new species. Such changes may be in positive or negative direction depending upon the suitability to the environment and/or usefulness to the mankind. However, a species having large number of races/strains/varieties is considered to be rich and diverse in genetic constitution because it has better adaptability in the changed environment. Therefore, if an organism possesses more and different varieties of genes (genetic diversity), it will suit and adapt very well to its environment. Likewise, the organism having lower genetic diversity results in uniformity with low adaptive value and such organism fails to adapt in changing environment. Thus, it is clear that genetic diversity responds well the Force of Natural Selection and leads towards evolution of new species. ii. Species diversity: The number and varieties available in a particular area/region is known as species diversity. Generally, number of species in a particular typical area is proportional to the area in which they live. If greater is the size of the area, greater is the number of species per unit area. For example, suppose in an area there are two species of birds having each two individuals, while in other area

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there are three species of birds each having four individuals alongwith insects, whereas in another area there are four species of birds each having four/five individuals and also other species like insects, reptiles and mammals. Then, it is obvious and clear that the last third one area as stated above has the highest species diversity. To maintain stable species diversity, ecological balance is a must and loss of even a single species (fauna or flora) results consequences for the ecosystem leading to ecological imbalance. iii. Community and Ecosystem diversity: We know that community is a group of populations of different species in an area and includes all the populations of plants, animals and micro-organisms in that particular area. Therefore, community and ecosystem diversity refers to the diversity of ecosystem in respect of number of ecological niches and trophic levels which results in food chain, food web, nutrient cycle and energy flow to sustain the life. Depending upon the availability of abiotic resources as well conditions of the environment develops its own characteristic community and ecosystem of living organisms. Different types of forests, grasslands, ponds, lakes, rivers, pools, seas, oceans, etc., represent diverse ecosystems each having characteristic biotic community. At the community level, three types of ecosystem diversity are classified, such as. • Alpha diversity: It is the diversity of organisms from the same habitat, and the organisms are evenly distributed throughout the habitat. It is generally called within community diversity. • Beta diversity: Somewhere different communities exist within a certain range of habitat along the environmental gradients like altitude, depth of water bodies, moisture content, temperature, ecotone, etc. In such condition, a species may change its habitat as per its requirement under environmental compulsions. Subsequently, organism/organisms from different habitat/habitats (from the same geographical areas) may share it or exchange the places. Such diversity is known as Beta diversity or between community diversity. • Gamma diversity: The diversity over a vast expanse or area of habitat covering a particular geographical region like mountain range, wetland, grassland, etc. is called Gamma diversity. In this diversity, the number of niches, trophic level, food chains, food webs is more and very wide. A key tone species remains dominant in such diversity and the diverse communities, because of their vast and extended habitats, cope well with any type of environmental stress/change. The richness of wealth of biodiversity at global level is enormous and in varied forms. There are incalculable varieties of plants and animals reflecting diversity and species richness in the world, but the number of flora and fauna identified and described so far is much less than the actual number present. The known number of species of plants and animals, all put together, is about 2 million while the predicted number is about 50 million. Hence, so many more are still to be identified. Moreover, the complete information about micro-organisms like bacteria, virus, protists, etc. is lacking behind. Therefore, more studies and research is required in this field. The Indian subcontinent is exceptionally rich in biodiversity (flora and fauna). The Western Ghats and North-East regions are unique habitats for high floral and faunal richness. Many species especially of plants have their origin in Indian subcontinent. It is one of the 12 Mega diversity zones of the world. It has great diversity of natural ecosystems from the cold and high Himalayan ranges to the sea coasts and from west northeastern green forests to dry northwestern arid deserts as well as different types of forests, wetlands, islands, and oceans. It also consists fertile river plains and high

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plateaus and several major rivers including the Ganges, Brahmaputra and Indus. Therefore, India shows great diversity in climate, topography and geology having very rich biodiversity, and is one of the most significant in the world. Though, it has only 2% of the total landmass of the world but contains about 6% of the world’s known biodiversity. It is divided into different biogeographical zones and biotic provinces. Almost all the major ecosystems of the world are represented in India. As per an official estimate, India contains about 45,000 plant species and 82,000 animal species representing about 7% of the world’s flora and 6.5% of world’s fauna respectively. About 62 % of the plant species are endemic to India. But unfortunately, there is also heavy threat upon biodiversity causing its loss/destruction. Among these, the major causes are destruction and encroachment of habitats by ever-growing human population, increased never-ending human desires, illiteracy, poverty, natural calamities (like earthquakes, tsunami, flood, drought, epidemics, etc.), pollution, ecological imbalance, exotic species and so on. Hence, it is demand of the time/hour to conserve, protect and propagate the biodiversity to save earth planet and existence of human life so that we may offer a natural gift as heritage to our coming generations like healthy and pollution-free ecosystem and atmosphere to live in. Keeping the above views in mind, UNESCO’s Man and Biosphere Programme (MAB) at international level has started to establish Protected Areas (National Parks, Sanctuaries and Biosphere Reserves) all over the world to deal with the conservation of ecosystems and natural genetic resources. In addition, in 1988 Norman Myers first time developed the concept of Hot Spots of biodiversity to designate priority areas on the earth for in situ conservation which faces serious threat from human activities and supports a unique biodiversity with representatives of evolutionary process of speciation and extinction. It is the geographical zone or ecological niche with a large number of endemic species. He identified 25 hot spots zones in the world, two of them (North-East and Western Ghats) being in India. The chief criteria for determining hot spots are, firstly, the number of endemic species which are not found anywhere else in the world and, secondly, the degree of threat to the endemic species as a result of loss of habitat. These hot spots are very rich in biodiversity, possess unique habitats and are most threatened reservoirs of floral and faunal life on earth. Among 25 areas as hot spot zones in the world, 16 belong to tropics and 9 made up of islands. Roughly about 20% of the world human population reside in these hot spot zones. These hot spot zones are: • • • • • • • • • •

Tropical Andes Mesoamerica Caribbean Brazil’s Atlantic forests Choco/Darien Brazil’s Cerrado Western equator Central Chile California floristic province Madagascar Eastern arc and coastal forest of Tanzania/Kenya • West African forests • Cape floristic province

* * * * * * * * * * * * *

Succulent Karoo Mediterranean basin Caucasus Sundland Wallacea Philippines Indo-Burnia South-Central China Western Ghats/Sri Lanka South-West Australia New Caledonia New Zealand Polinesia/Micronesia

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Thus, it is clear that all life supporting systems come from the environment to survive living organisms on this planet and, therefore, deterioration/degradation/ imbalance of ecosystem/extinction of species in the biodiversity will threaten ultimately the very existence of mankind. So; conservation and planned management of biodiversity, to get sustained benefit from them, is a must. Fortunately, in this connection not only National but International organizations are also very actively working in respect of conservation of biodiversity as well as preservation of genepool of the species. In this regard, the role of IUCN (WCU), MAB, WWF, and CITES are notable. The Earth Summit held in 1992 (3 to 14 June) at Rio de Janeiro, Brazil resulted into a Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) which came into force on 9th December, 1993 with the following key objectives: • Conservation of biological diversity • Sustainable use of biodiversity, and • Fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising out of the utilization of genetic resources. It made significant milestone in the history of global environmental relations. India was the first country to sign CBD and the 48th to ratify it in February 1994 with the opinion that the country will gain much from the CBD and since then India has taken effective steps in conservation efforts by setting up biosphere reserves, national parks, sanctuaries, tiger and other projects, biological parks, etc. all over the country. The article 48A and 51A of Indian constitution has been amended for protection of environment, and laws/acts have been enacted like Environment Protection Act (1986), Air Act (1981), Factories Act (1948), Water Act (1974) Insecticide Act (1968), Forest Act (1980), Wild Life (Protection) Act (1972), Biological Diversity Act (2002), etc. to protect the environment and biodiversity. Majorly the categories like Endangered (E), Vulnerable (V), Rare (R), and Threatened (T) have been identified (see a head in the chapter for details). The IUCN now called WCU (World Conservation Union) maintains a red database at the World Conservation Monitoring Centre (WCMC). From time to time, this database is translated into popular document and published as Red list or Red Data Book of species that are facing the risk of extinction. According to IUCN 2000, there are 113 endangered plant species and 54 animal species. In India, Botanical Survey of India (BSD) published a Red Book for endangered plant species which should be provided with conservation. b. Objectives of Conservation of Wildlife

There are three specific objectives of conservation of biodiversity or wildlife as follows: i. To maintain essential ecological process and life-supporting systems (air, water and soil). ii. To preserve the diversity of species or the range of genetic material of world’s organisms. iii. To ensure a continuous use of species, in fact ecosystem, that support rural communities and urban industries. Thus the conservation of wildlife has broad objective, not only concerned with biotic (plants, animals and microorganisms) but also with abiotic factors. Therefore, conservation of biodiveristy is a complex operation which is specifically concerned with plants, animals and microorganisms and with these nonliving elements of the environment on which they depend.

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c. Conservation Strategies

Scientists representing 100 countries of the world have evolved a comprehensive World Conservation Strategy for judicious use of resources. Some of the important steps are as follows: i. Preservation of species which have been marked endangered. ii. Sound planning and management of land and water uses. The wildlife should be protected both in their natural habitat (in situ) and in zoos and botanical/ biological gardens (ex situ). iii. Preservation of as many varieties as possible of food crops, forage plants, timber trees, livestocks, animals for agriculture and their wild relatives and microbes. Priority should be given to those varieties that are most threatened and most needed for national and international breeding programme. iv. Each country should identify the habitats of wild relatives of the economically valuable and useful plants and animals and ensure their preservation in protected areas. v. Safeguarding of the critical habitats (the feeding, breeding, nursery and resting areas) of the species. vi. Establishing a network of protected areas for migratory or wide ranging animals to preserve the habitat of the species. vii. If a species migrates or ranges from one national jurisdiction to another, bilateral or multilateral agreements should be made to set up the required network. Exploitation of the species and pollution of the environment along the migratory routes should be regulated. viii. Unique ecosystems should be protected as a matter of priority. Only those uses which are compatible, with their preservation, should be permitted. ix. The productive capacities of exploited species and ecosystems have to be determined and it has to be ensured that utilization does not exceed those capacities. x. International trade in wild plants and animals has to be regulated to appropriate legislative and administrative measures. d. Methods of Conservation (in situ And ex situ Conservation/Management)

Methods of conservation of faunal and floral species are broadly classified into two methods such as in situ conservation and ex situ conservation Thus, we have two approaches to conserve genetic diversity such as in situ and ex situ. I. In situ conservation is the conservation of component of biological diversities, ecosystem, and natural habitats and the maintenance and recovery of viable populations of species in their natural habitat/surroundings (In case of domesticated or cultivated species, it is the conservation in the surrounding where they have developed their distinctive properties). The antonym of ex-situ. II. Ex situ conservation is the conservation of component of biological diversity outside the natural habitats. The antonym of in situ. [In vivo: Experiment of organisms under natural condition within intact living organisms. The antonym of in-vitro.

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In vitro: Experiment on organisms or portions thereof in glassware or culture, growing under artificial condition. The antonym of in vivo.] In India, we are practicing several methods of in situ conservation in the field of wildlife management by creating protected areas like sanctuaries, national parks, biosphere reserves, sacred groves existing in India from times immemorial which are densely wooded areas set aside on religious grounds. There is a religious belief in the local population that any damage to these grounds will invoke the wrath of a supernatural force. The philosophy of non-violence which is ingrained in the Indian culture is an all embracing concept in conservation in which no harm should be unnecessarily inflicted on any creature whether it be human, animal, or plant, etc. It is not possible, however, to institute gene-sanctuaries for every economic or threatened species. Another method of in situ conservation is the reintroduction of critical species (fauna and flora) or groups of comparable habitats after careful population biology studies are made. In situ conservation is the most appropriate method. This approach includes protection of total ecosystems through a network of protected areas. The common natural habitat (protected areas) that have been set for in situ conservation of wildlife includes national parks, sanctuaries, biosphere reserves, several wetlands (mangrove, coral reefs, etc.), sacred groves and lakes. There are techniques of ex situ conservation such as in captivity, zoo, zoological garden, zoological park, biological park, safari, seed bank, botanical garden, pollen bank, embryo bank, arboretum, tissue culture, genetic-engineering, etc. If and when genetic engineering is successful, it would definitely widen the gene-pool. However, this technique should not be followed at the expensive of more traditional, time-tested and super methods; because the known devil is better than unknown angel. One disadvantage of ex situ conservation is that only a small number of lines which may represent a small fraction of the total genetic variability can be preserved. One way to mitigate this is by appropriate sampling techniques based on enough information on life form, breeding and pollination systems. Therefore biotechnology, biosystematics and population- biology studies are necessary. The primary aim of ex situ conservation is to protect and propagate endangered species to safeguard and conserve their genepool. Ex situ conservation involves cultivation of rare plants and rearing of threatened animal species in zoological/biological/botanical gardens and preservation of the plant species in the form of seeds in seed banks, etc. by means of tissue culture techniques. Individuals of the species are maintained in artificial condition under human supervision. These methods include maintaining gene-banks, pollen preservation and the most useful is the cryopreservation by which tissue culture and germ-plasm conservation are made. Thus, methods of biodiversity conservation may be presented given in Fig. 10.11. Needs: Protection of the environment and life-support systems is interwoven with conservation and it has to be integrated into rural development particularly in the tropics because if the tropics, the cradle of evolution, turn to wasteland, the human future is in jeopardy .There is also social aspect of this work. We know that conservation is needed in the tropics and subtropics in the tribal belts. The person who is in the commanding position to help is a tribe member or villager living inside or in the vicinity of the centre of diversity. For long-term success, it may be worthwhile to make him aware that he has an important role and that he can help humankind by preserving species diversity. In the Central Himalayas, women villagers started a movement “Hug the Trees” and “Chipko Movement “. They do not allow contractors to fell the trees. This movement has produced miraculous results.

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Fig. 10.1: Methods of biodiversity conservation

B. PRESERVATION

On contrast to the conservation, preservation is concerned with the strictest protection of a species almost without regard to the consequences. According to Indian Forest Record (1965) “Preservation is to save and maintain the wild animals against injury or destruction as well as keeping them safe and undisturbed from private or public use”. C. PROTECTION

It means guarding the wild species against danger or injury. Partial protection of certain species is achieved by enforcing close seasons (closed for hunting, fishing, etc.) and restricted shooting. Total protection is achieved by constituting sanctuaries or by legally prohibiting the killing or maiming of a particular species at any time and in any place. Generally, the term protection is used now, only when in referring to species or places which are totally closed to being used in any way, and it implies as lockingup from use. D. EXTINCTION OF SPECIES

Creation of new species and elimination of a few others are the results of organic evolution, and extinction of a species is also a part of this natural process. Hence, extinction is a “biological reality” because no species has as yet existed for more than a few million years evolving into something different or dying out completely. But with the gradual emergence of human beings as a major evolutionary force, people have been increasingly exploiting the wildlife rather callously. As many as 500 million kinds of plants, animals and micro-organisms have made this planet as their home since life began over 3.5 billion years ago. Today, there are more than 30 million species alive. The rate of decline has been particularly rapid in the last one hundred years without any corresponding renewal. As stated earlier, it is estimated that about 25,000 plant species and 1000 vertebrate species and subspecies are threatened with extinction. These figures do not include invertebrates like molluscs, insects, corals and innumerable other forms of life which are invariably vulnerable. It is believed that at least 10% of the living species are in danger.

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There are three kinds of extinction processes: i. Natural extinction: Due to change in environmental conditions, some species become disappeared while some are evolved in accordance with the changed environmental conditions. Such disappearance/extinction of species in the geological past is called natural extinction. ii. Mass extinction: There are evidences that in several geological periods of earth, so many species became extinct in mass due to catastrophes occurring in millions of years, and hence the phenomenon is called mass extinction. iii. Anthropogenic extinction: Such extinction of species is caused due to human interference because the never ending desires of man is depleting and disturbing biodiversity and ecosystem severely causing extinction of species. Since such extinction occurs in a short period of time, it is damaging and hampering our ecosystem very seriously and rapidly resulting ecological imbalance and environmental pollution. Certain species also known become susceptible to extinction which may be characterised as follows: a. Large body size b. Heavy body leading to immobility (enormous body growth leads to extinction) c. Small population size and low reproductive rate d. Feeding at upmost trophic level in food chain/food web e. Fixed migratory route and habitat f. Localized and narrow range of distribution g. Sluggishness and dullness in habit h. Low fecundity and natality rates having poor propagation a. Extinct Species

Stracey (1963) opined to be biological minimum numbers below which the rebuilding of the species is impossible and extinction results, known as the critical limit for the particular species. Hence, very important matter which needs special attention is the need for preserving and propagating our living resources in scientific manner. Extinct refers the species (fauna and flora) which were available or found in past but became disappeared and presently not found. Hence, extinct species are the species that are no longer known to exist in wild, though it may survive in cultivation. According to CITES, a species is said to be extinct, if it is not definitely known in the wild during the past 50 years. It may be locally, countrywide or worldwide due to the unscientific management, destruction of habitat, merciless and reckless hunting and so on. Extinction results ecological hazards, imbalances in ecosystem and food chain/food web ultimately hampering and affecting present and future generations of the human beings. Examples of extinct species are as follows: i. Extinction of cheetah from India (the last authentic record in India is of three males wantonly shot together in Korea, Bustar in Chhattisgarh State in 1948). ii. Two-horned rhinoceros from India. iii. Pink-headed duck. iv. Mountain quail. v. Dodo bird from Mauritius, etc.

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b. Extinction Threshold

The minimum number in a population of a particular species of animals, below which the population numbers are too few for rebuilding the species, then extinction results. When there is a gradual decline in the population of a certain species, a stage may come when the numbers go down below a minimum-level of population needed for survival of the species. This minimum level or the critical-level is known as the Extinction threshold. As mentioned earlier, according to Stracey (1963) “there is a biological minimum and if the numbers decrease below this minimum, the rebuilding of the species is impossible and extinction results. This is known as critical limit for the particular species”. As stated, about 25,000 plant species, 1000 vertebrates and 10% invertebrate species are in danger of extinction. c. Causes of Extinction/Depletion

i. Hunting: Large-scale destruction of the wildlife for food, safety and pleasure started with the use of fire as a means of hunting. It is believed that man-made forest fires have caused the extinction of several species in the past. With the advent of firearms and acceptance of hunting as a sport, needless killing of wild animals assumed dangerous proportions. Disappearance of Dodo (Didus ineptus), a unique bird of Mauritius, and the cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) from India are recent calamities. A number of orchids and medicinal plants have disappeared. ii. Destruction of Habitats: The most serious threat to the wildlife comes from habitat destruction. It has been destroyed due to: • Establishment of new human settlements, croplands, grazing grounds, quarry in mining sites, etc. • Deforestation caused by jhuming, felling of trees for timber/firewood, fire and over-grazing, etc. • Conversion of forest into agricultural land. • Damages of forest/grasslands by acid rain. • Pollution of waterbodies killing aquatic plants and animals. • Building of roads and rails through ecologically fragile areas. • Construction of dams/reservoirs destroying habitats of wildlife and block spawning and migration of certain fishes. • Evergrowing human population causing encroachment of habitats, corridors, and so on. Hence, the most serious depletion of wildlife comes from habitat destruction. Habitats which protect wildlife, are being converted for human settlements, harbours, dams, reservoirs, crop-lands, grazing-grounds, mining-operations, etc. Environmental pollution and deforestation have also resulted in the degradation of important habitats. Migratory animals are particularly vulnerable to destruction of habitats because disturbance at any point of their migratory routes affects them. Some of the dams are blocking spawning, migration of fishes by inundating the habitats and by altering the physical environment. Sometimes, a habitat may be damaged without significantly changing its physical appearance. The California Condor, the largest flying bird of today, is a shy scavenger. It is

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not only the victim of many human activities but also its habitat has been severely affected by human cleanliness. The carcasses of the livestock, which form its food, used to be left in the open in the past, but are presently buried or burnt by the farming community. The introduction of exotic species deliberately or inadvertently has affected many native species by imposing new factors in competition for food and space, predation, habitat destruction and degradation, transmission of diseases and parasites. The native species of fish of fresh water and of islands are specially affected by the introduction of new species. For example, exotic trout and bass endangered many species of fish in the U.S.A. Goats and rabbits introduced in the islands of the Pacific and Indian Ocean have destroyed the habitats of several plants, birds and reptiles. The American chestnut trees found in the coastal areas of the U.S.A. have been devastated by a fungus (blight) introduced from China. Over-exploitation is a serious threat to the wildlife. Over-fishing is seriously depleting the marine living resources and significantly affecting the fresh water ones. Many species of fish and molluscs, whales, sea-cows and sea-turtles are facing total extinction as they are caught by mechanical devices for the sea food industry. International trade in increasingly scarce commodities of wild origin, mainly from the developing countries, is the cause of destruction of many species. The use of hides and skins (for luxury), of fur and leather in industry, of exotic meat and fish for special cuisine are serious threats resulting in the dwindling of species. The use of a wide range of animal and plant products for the pharmaceuticals, perfumes, cosmetics, aphrodisiacs and decoration souvenirs and as specimens for museums collection and the trade in live plants and animals are other dangers. Cleanliness: Vultures and Kites feed on carcasses. Since the carcasses are being buried or burnt now, the population of largest flying bird, California Condor (Gymnogyps californianus) has started declining. Migratory Routes: Changes in settling areas and routes of migratory animals result in their going astray and perishing. Exotic Species: Exotic species or species introduced from outside (often requiring specific environment) produce ecological imbalance due to removal of biological control such as: a. Goats and rabbits introduced in Pacific and Indian Ocean islands have destroyed habitats of reptiles, birds and plants. b. Eupatorium odoratum replaced Tectona grandis in N.E. India. c. Lantana camera in forests of Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh. d. Parthenium hysterophonus (introduced in 1956) has replaced herbs and shrubs in open spaces. e. Chestnut Blight (Endothia parasitica) from China has damaged chestnut tree in coastal areas of U.S.A. f. Water Hyacinth (Eichhomia crassipes). Low Facundity. Industrial and Environmental Pollution. Economic Considerations: Scarce commodities are always in demand, i.e. exotic meat/fish, hides/skins, rare animals/plants.

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E. ENDEMIC SPECIES

Endemic species is a species which is found in a particular natural habitat beyond which it is unknown. In other words, the plant and animal species confined to a region and having originated there (or, a species which occurs continuously in an area). India has a large number of endemic species such as Elettaria cardamomum, Ficus religiosa, Butea monosperma, etc. in plants and Narcodum hornbill, nicobar pigeon etc. in case of animals. We know that the distribution of a species or taxa is dependent in ecological and geographical factors as well as the age of the species. Some of the species have wide range of distribution, known as cosmopolitan; while some (or, most of the species) of the species are restricted to a small region, called endemic and the phenomenon is known as endemism. The distribution of young species is narrow in the beginning and spread in its area in course of time, these are called Progressive or Expanding endemics. When the old species due to gradual dwindling in its population become restricted to a small region, and called Retrogressive or Contracting endemics. If a species had extensive distribution in past but has become restricted to a narrow region in the present time; such endemics of ancient origin are called Relic or Conservative or Ancient or Paleo-endemics. Even among endemics, some are restricted to very localized area and known as Local endemics. Sometimes, a few mutants appear here and there which do not compete successfully and subsequently disappear very soon and called Pseudoendemics. Endemism may be due to poor adaptability of a species or taxa to a wide range of ecological conditions. It may be also due to geographical barriers (like sea, mountain, etc.), geographical revolutions, geographical and climatic changes, natural calamities, etc. F. THREATENED SPECIES

A threatened species is the one that is liable to become extinct if not allowed to realize full biotic-potential by protection from exotic-species/human-exploitation/habitatdeterioration/depletion of food and so on. G. FREE-LIVING ANIMAL

Any of the multicellular organisms belonging to the Kingdom Animalia. All animals are eukaryotes, with each of their cells having a nucleus containing DNA. Most animals develop from a blastula and have a digestive tract, nervous system, the ability to move voluntarily, and specialized sensory organs for recognizing and responding to stimuli in the environment. Animals are heterotrophs, feeding on plants, other animals, or organic matter. The first animals probably evolved from protists and appeared during the Precambrian Era. H. CAPTIVE ANIMAL

Animals that live under human care or in captivity. Captivity can be used as a generalizing term to describe the keeping of either domesticated animals (livestock and pets) or wild animals. This may include, for example, farms, private homes and zoos. Keeping animals in human captivity and under human care can thus be distinguished between three primary categories according to the particular motives, objectives and conditions. I. DOMESTICATED ANIMAL

Any of various animals that have been tamed and made fit for a human environment. Domestication or taming refers to the process whereby a population of animal or plant,

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through a process of selection, becomes accustomed to human provision and control. The most common form of domestication is artificial selection by humans. Humans have brought these populations under their care for a wide range of reasons such as to produce food or valuable commodities (wool, cotton, silk, etc.) for help with various types of work (such as transportation or protection), for protection of themselves and livestock, to enjoy as companions or ornamental plant, and for scientific research, such as finding cures for certain diseases. Animals domesticated for home companionship are usually called “Pets” while those domesticated for food or work are called “Livestock” or “Farm animals”. J. FERAL ANIMAL

A wild or untamed animal, especially one having reverted to such a state from domestication. Pertaining to an animal that comes from domesticated stock and that has subsequently taken up like in the wild. Domestic species that has gone wild. The term feral refers to any type of animal or plant that was once domesticated but has now reverted to the wild. Domesticated animals become feral when they are released, abandoned, or if they escape from human captivity. A feral animal not only include the once domesticated individuals but also any offspring that animals may have or will produce after they have become feral. (Literally, feral means “gone wild”). Feral also refers a domestic animal that was lost or abandoned and has reverted to a wild state, or that was born outside to a stray (tame) or feral (wild) mother and had little or no human contact. Adult feral cats usually cannot be tamed and are not suited to living indoors with people. They live outside in family groups called colonies that form near a source of food and shelter. Feral cats can survive almost anywhere and are found worldwide. Feral animals may threaten our rich biodiversity, adversely affect our landscapes and waterways, and often have severe economic and social impacts. Most feral animals in any particular region arrive there due to human activity. In order for them to become feral, they must be able to survive in the habitat independently. For this reason, exotic pets do not normally survive long enough to be deemed feral. Feral animals commonly include livestock such as goats and pigs and house pets like dogs and cats. When these animals are left to fend for themselves, they almost always cause a problem either for people or the natural environment that they have come to inhabit. These feral animals are known as “invasive species” when they impact the environment and/or pets when they become a problem for their estranged human companions. Feral cat populations may very well be the most abundant form of invasive species in the world. Cats, which were once endemic only to Africa, have made their way to every continent in the world. Currently, there are only a few small islands that do not have cats inhabiting them. Because of their success at reproducing, feral cats make up large groups which are called Feral Cat Colonies. These colonies can become extremely numerous. Although avoiding of human contact, feral cats often congregate near the restaurants, dumpsters and residential garbage cans in search of leftover; a burden felt by many who have to deal with them. In addition, a feral cat colony often becomes too large to support each member and the cats become ill from starvation and disease. Many animal advocacy groups work with municipalities and others to reduce feral cat populations in a human way. Some of their strategies include rehabilitation of

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fierce feral cats to prepare them for adoption, catching and neutering feral cats to reduce future populations and then relocating them to an area where they will have a lesser impact. Feral goats are another animal that is considered destructive and dangerous to the environment in countries where they have been introduced such as Australia and Ecuador’s Galapagos Islands. With a few natural predators, feral goats reproduce profusely and ravage the unique vegetation in the ecosystems. This not only endangers plant life but also the native animals that rely on the vegetation for sustenance which are not able to successfully compete with the goats. These countries have implemented progressive strategies to eradicate feral animals in their conservation efforts. Every animal that humans have introduced to Australia, with the exception of sheep, has become feral. This includes horses, cattle, goats, pigs, donkeys, camels, water buffaloes, dogs, cats, rabbit, foxes and mice. These animals are accused of damage, including: • Damage to wetlands and waterholes due to wallowing-trampling and rooting by buffaloes and pigs. • Soil erosion caused by eating off the vegetation and trampling the soil with hard hooves. • Competing with sheep and cattle for feed. • Competing with native animals for feed and habitat. • Damaged to fences, particularly by horses. • Eating tree seedlings and preventing regeneration. • Killing livestock and native animals. Large populations of animals in an area can cause problems. For example, in times of draught the bodies of very thin wild horses can be seen around dried up waterholes. Rabbits can eat out all the available feed and die of starvation. These animals suffer terribly before they die, and this alone is good reason for keeping their population under control. Some people can become quite hysterical on the subject of feral animals. They blame them for just about every environmental problem in Australia and want them eradicated by any available method. It is very important to bear in mind a few facts to counter this hysteria such as: • some scientists have admitted that there are very few good studies of the actual impact of feral animals. • humans have cleared most of the native forest and introduced huge number of sheep and cattle, so it is hypocritical to blame feral animals for all the habitat destruction and degradation. Nevertheless, millions of feral animals every year are killed by cruel methods. This approach is not effective because the surviving animals will continue to breed, and before long the population will be back to where it was. The killing then starts all over again. The killing methods also cause enormous suffering, not only to the animals being targeted, but also to any other animal unfortunate enough to eat poisoned bait or to step on a trap. Feral animals have feelings just like any other animal, including the pet cats and dogs people lavish so much attention on. It is completely wrong to disregard these feelings just because an animal has been labeled “pets” or “vermin”. Feral animals should be protected from cruelty just like other animals. Feral cat caregiver: A compassionate human who feeds feral cats, performs TrapNeuter-Return, and provides long term care and monitoring for adult feral cats that are returned. Caregivers are men and women of all ages from all walks of life. Most of

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the leading feral cat organizations were founded by caregivers whose commitment to feral cats grow to encompass entire communities. Feral Colony: A group of free roaming living in a specific geographic area. Prior to the implementation of Trap-Neuter-Return, feral colonies consists of both stray (trap) and feral (wild) of all ages, from kittens through adults. After Trap-Neuter-Return is completed, a feral colony consists exclusively of feral adults. Feral Kitten: Any kitten born outdoors to a stray or feral mother. Most feral kittens can be socialized if the process begun when they are only a few weeks old. Socialization requires that the kittens be confined for a short period of time during which they are talked to and gently held and petted for increasing periods until they come to trust the human-animal bond. Generally, socialization is easier in case of younger kitten. K. CATEGORIES OF WILD ANIMALS

The rare species of plants and animals have been categorized for conservation purposes by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) which has its headquarter at Morgis, Switzerland. It maintains a “Red Data Book” about the threatened species. See also “Biodiversity” described earlier in this very chapter. Its classification is based on the following criteria and even one criterion is sufficient to assign the category: i. The present and past distribution, viz. on the basis of distribution of the species (past/present/continuous/discontinuous). ii. The decline in the number of population in course of time. iii. Abundance and quality of natural habitat, and iv. The biology and potential values of the species. The following categories have been identified for the purpose of conservation. a. Endangered (E): The species (or taxa) which are in danger of extinction and whose survival is unlikely if the causal factors continue to be operating. These are some species whose numbers have been reduced to a critical level or whose habitats have been so drastically reduced that they are deemed to be in immediate danger of extinction. The species is facing danger of imminent extinction due to reduction of habitat, abundance of predator/pathogen/pollutant. Very few in number. For example, Asiatic wild ass (Asinus hemionus khur) in Rann of Kutch, Indian lion, Musk deer, etc. Its exact meaning is difficult to understand, since each species has its own particular requirements for survival. Generally, the word is applied to any species whose total population has been reduced to a number of individuals, very near the minimum number required for that species to sustain itself. In other words, if the population were to become much smaller, the species would probably become extinct. The minimum number itself varies from species to species, being higher in the more social mammals and lower in the more solitary ones. And other factors are also often considered in determining whether a species is endangered such as condition of habitat, frequency of decimating factors, and protective measures in effect, etc. The Species Survival Commission of IUCN collects information on endangered plant and animal species throughout the world. It also publishes lists of those species and tries to encourage action to aid in their preservation. Its publication,

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d. e.

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known as the Red Data Book, is the official checklist for endangered wildlife. A loose-leaf-collection, that is periodically updated, contains information concerning the nature of the threats to a species’ continued survival, that species’ habitat, distribution, population, proposed conservation measures and measures already in effect, and exact status, viz. endangered, vulnerable, or rare. Vulnerable (V): The species (or taxa) likely to move into the endangered category in the near future, if the causal factors continue to operate. These are species whose populations have been seriously depleted and whose ultimate security is not assured and also those whose populations are still abundant but are under threat throughout their range. Abundant population at present but threatened with depletion in number due to some factor/factors like DOT in bird population. Rare (R): These are species with small populations in the world. These are not at present endangered and vulnerable but are at risk. These species are usually localized within restricted geographical areas or habitats or are thinly scattered over a more extensive range. They are species with naturally small population, either localized or thinly scattered, which are always at risk from pests/pathogens/predators/exotic species. Threatened (T): The term “threatened” is used in the context of conservation of the species which are in any one of the above three categories, viz. endangered, vulnerable, or rare. Out of Danger (O): The taxa formerly included in one of the above categories but which are now considered relatively secure because effective conservation measures have been taken or the previous threat to their survival has been removed. Intermediate (I)/Indeterminate (I): The taxa that are suspected of belonging to one of the first three categories, viz. endangered, vulnerable or rare, but for which insufficient information is currently available. The species which is insufficiently known, or whose information is not completely known is denoted by (K). Further in 1994, IUCN introduced new Red Data categories which are as follows: Extinct (Ex): A taxon is extinct when there is no reasonable doubt that the last individual has died. Extinct in the Wild (EW): A taxon is extinct in the wild when it is known only to survive in cultivation, in captivity or as a naturalized population (or populations) well outside the past range. Critically Endangered (CE): A taxon is critically endangered when it is facing an extremely high risk of extinction in the wild in the immediate future. Endangered (EN): A taxon is endangered when it is not critically endangered but is facing a very high risk of extinction in the wild in the near future. Vulnerable (VU): A taxon is vulnerable when it is not critically endangered or endangered but is facing a high risk of extinction in the wild in the medium-term future. Lower Risk (LR): A taxon is lower risk when it has been evaluated, does not satisfy the criteria for any of the categories critically endangered, endangered or vulnerable. Taxa included in the lower risk category can be divided into three subcategories:

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i. Conservation Dependent (CD): Taxa which are the focus of a continuing taxon-specific or habitat-specific conservation programme targeted towards the taxon in question; ii. Near Threatened (NT): Taxa which do not qualify for conservation dependent, but which are close to qualifying for vulnerable; and iii. Least Concern (LC): Taxa which do not qualify for conservation dependent or near threatened. m. Data Deficient (DD): A taxon is data deficient when there is inadequate information to make a direct, or indirect assessment of its risk of extinction based on its distribution and/or population status. n. Not Evaluated (NE): A taxon is not evaluated when it has not yet been assessed against the criteria for critically endangered, endangered and vulnerable. Rescue of such Species: By any means, if population of a species is depleted, the loss is tremendous causing ecological imbalances and extinction of the species may take place if the situation has reached to the stage of critical limit. Some species do not even reproduce if its number becomes very low as in Guppie (fish), Gobbins will not breed if its number is less than 5 as well as it also dies if temperature becomes – 5°C. Sanctuary, national park, biological garden, zoological garden, zoological parks, biosphere reserve, project, etc. offer valuable possibilities for the rescue of the species specially for threatened/rare with extinction. These areas give facilities to nurse-up the species, to a stage safer for it, to be released into the area designated for it. The species, which have reached the critical-stage, get best opportunities and protection in such areas.

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11 Sanctuary and National Park

W

ildlife is a vital part of the life-support systems for the human race. Hence, existence of all life forms is essential for the maintenance of delicate ecological system. Sanctuaries and national parks have been created which are the final insurance against the total disappearance of species. The original idea of a sanctuary in India was closing of shooting block for shooting and it is declared as such by the conservator of forests from time to time. But now as per the modern conception of a sanctuary as a part or whole of government forest permanently closed to shooting and in some cases prohibited to forest exploitation, grazing and other such revenue operations. The definition of National Park which was evolved in 1933 in London Conference on African Fauna is the one which is universally accepted. According to it, a National Parks is an area: i. Placed under public control, the boundaries of which shall not be altered except by competent legislative authority. ii. Set aside for the protection and preservation for all time of wild animal life and wild vegetation for the benefit, advantage and enjoyment of the general public; and iii. In which hunting of fauna or collection of flora is prohibited except under direction of the park authority. In England, national parks are mostly areas or sites of great natural beauty or a historical or archeological importance. In Europe, they are preserves of natural wildlife, while in America they are mainly areas of outstanding scenic beauty and remarkable natural phenomena. In Africa, they are almost entirely faunal in character. In India, the emphasis so far has been on the faunal character, and the shape that the present movement is taking is to convert certain sanctuaries or suitable reserves or protected forest, where there is sufficiency of wildlife and beautiful scenery, into national parks. These areas are expected to be really worthy of being called national parks and must justify the appellation; both from the scenic and faunal aspects. In the former respect, India probably has the advantage over many countries as most of her sanctuaries are set in beautiful surroundings and have varied types of vegetation with an adequacy of wild life. The sanctuaries and national parks are called “protected area (PA)”. Every national park must have the minimum requisites of fauna, flora, scenery, etc. and in the case of sanctuary which is to be up-graded, there must be basic needs and 170

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essentialities from management and protection point of view. Provision should be made for core-zone, buffer-zone and legal boundary. The ideal approach should be “non-intervention by human agency” except in special circumstances such as maintenance and research. There must be improvement of basic needs like food, water and shelter. Attention must be given towards fire, salt-licks, watch-towers, roads, etc. A national park before coming into its existence in India, it must be confirmed that the area is of such importance and status to deserve the same. Administration of the area must be improved and simultaneously illegalities such as poaching, hunting, killing and unauthorized grazing, etc. should be eliminated. There should be adequate size of the park, well demarcated boundary, core-zone and buffer-zone. Both sanctuaries and national parks may be formed out of reserved or protected forests. There should not be extraction of forest produce or other forms of revenue operations which are disturbing to wildlife. To provide privacy to the animals, it must have an Inner sanctuary (Abhayaranya) or Core-zone/Sanctum-sanctorum where no disturbance is allowed. In addition to sanctuaries and national parks, there should be certain areas in which wildlife is to be protected; such as places like in and around towns and sacred places, near lakes and in catchment areas of river, etc. In addition, such protection is necessary to enable a species, which is on the verge of extinction, to re-establish itself. Such areas or species must be declared as “protected” either temporarily or permanently as per the situation. From management point of view, the first essential for sanctuaries and parks is the preservation of the environment, to avoid destruction/disappearance of the wildlife within it. There should be no exploitation of forest in these areas. They should be accessible to the public giving every facility to enjoy the experience of seeing wildlife at close quarters such as rest house, roads, paths vehicles, elephant-riding, watchtowers, etc. Protection of the boundaries of sanctuaries and parks is an important requirement both for protection and non-disturbance of wildlife within the areas. For this purpose, creation of core and buffer zones is necessary against cultivation, grazing, shooting, hunting, poaching and other kinds of illegal activities. The core area should be large enough for animals to remain completely undisturbed. Preventive inoculation of cattle in the surrounding areas of sanctuaries and parks against infectious diseases is essential in the interest of wildlife. In this connection, exclusion of grazing from sanctuaries and parks is necessary to guard against such epidemics. Indigenous flora must be cared for and they should be preserved and protected as far as possible, because markable changes may come bringing unsuitable ecological condition after their removal or negligence. Apart from these, scientific management of sanctuaries and national parks is must to achieve the goal within short time. The undisturbed viewing of wild animals depends up to a large extent on the degree of protection as well as freedom. In addition, added and improved attractions of food, water and shelter, as the basic needs, along with palatable grasses, salt-licks, fire control, etc. should be provided and manipulated accordingly. By getting such suitable conditions, the animals can be prevented from migrating from area even in the unfavourable period. By such means, it is possible to attract, retain and propagate the animals in a sanctuary or park. There should be permanent and qualified staff for management and enforcement of the rules and to guard against poaching, etc. in the sanctuaries and parks. The basic objective of the management of parks and sanctuaries is to improve, maintain, preserve and protect the environment in and around such areas; so that the natural fauna and flora may occupy their proper natural habitat and

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to live and flourish up to optimum level. For the purpose, protection of forest areas, soil conservation, watershed-management, continuous watching and strict security of wild animals are essential factors. However, the management principles are not similar in all the national parks and sanctuaries because it depends upon the purpose of formation of the particular national park or sanctuary; for example, some of the parks and sanctuaries have been created specially for protecting and preserving rare and endangered species such as Gir National Park and so on. Therefore, there should be compromising approach for maintaining forest-operations and objectives of national parks and sanctuaries. Hence, sanctuaries and national parks have been created exclusively for protecting the wild fauna and flora in all parts of the world including India as a part of broad wildlife management prospective. Such approach had been adopted even before the independence by creating sanctuaries in the forms of shooting blocks, game reserves or hunting reserves by the Provincial Government or by the native rulers in their respective areas. In 1936, the first National Park in India was created and named Hailey National Park in Uttarakhand, now known as Corbett National Park. Under the Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972 the State Governments/Central Government are empowered to declare any area as sanctuary or national park as per the procedure laid down for the purpose of protecting, propagating or developing wildlife or its environment. SANCTUARY AND NATIONAL PARK

Sanctuaries and national parks are the final refuge of wildlife and constitute an insurance against the total disappearance of species. SANCTUARY

“It is an area where killing and capturing of any species of birds or animals is prohibited except under orders of competent authority and whole boundaries and characters should be sacrosanct (free from outrage) as far as possible” (IBWL, 1952). The Board (IBWL) has further clarified the position by stating that while the management of sanctuaries does not involve suspension or restriction of normal forest operations, it is desirable to set aside a completely sacrosanct area within a sanctuary to be known as “Abhayaranya”. It has also indicated that sanctuaries should be made accessible to the public. In these ‘’Ashrams” of wildlife, destruction of the wild animals is prohibited by laws. These areas will be from nurseries of wild animals to replenish areas with depleted stock from time to time. According to Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972 under Section 18 “The State Government may by notification, any area to be a sanctuary if it considers that such area is of adequate ecological, faunal, floral, geomorphological, natural or zoological significance, for the propose of protecting, propagating or developing wildlife, or its environment”. After declaration of an area as sanctuary, the Collector shall enquire into and determine the existence, rights of persons, within the limit of the sanctuary and act for its settlement. No person is allowed to move freely inside the sanctuary without the permission of the authority. The permanent residents also have to help the authorities against offences. The Chief Wildlife Warden may permit any person to enter or reside inside the sanctuary for the purpose of studies on wildlife photography, research work, etc. Such permission may be cancelled by him or other authorised authority. Inside the sanctuaries, carrying of weapons without permission, setting fire

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or candle any fire or leave any fire burning, use of explosives and chemicals are strictly prohibited. The competent authority can take proper steps from management point of view for the security of wild animals and may regulate, control or prohibit grazing or movement of cattle or fishing in the interest of wild animals. NATIONAL PARK

“A national park is a relatively extensive area: (1) In which one or more ecosystems have not been physically altered by human exploitation and occupation, where plant and animal species, geomorphologic sites and habitats are of special scientific, educational and recreational interest, or where the natural scenery is of great beauty; (2) Or eliminate exploitation or occupation of the entire area in the briefest possible time and to effectively complete respect for the ecologic, geomorphologic or aesthetic features which lead to its establishment; (3) Where visitors are allowed and special condition for inspirational, educational, cultural and recreational purposes” (IUCN). “An area dedicated by statute for all time to conserve scenery, natural and historical objects of national significance and wildlife, and where provision is made for the enjoyment of the same by the public” (IBWL). According to Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 under Section 35 “Whenever it appears to the State Government that an area, whether within a sanctuary or not is by reason or its ecological, faunal, floral, geomorphological or zoological association or importance, needed to be constituted as national park for the purpose of propagating or developing wildlife therein or its environment it may, by notification, declare its intention to constitute such area as a National Park”. From the definition, the difference between sanctuary and national park viewing Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 shows that the sanctuary should be natural or of zoological significance, whereas a national park should be of zoological association or importance. After declaration of an area as national park, the collector shall enquire and settle the rights of the person. All types of destruction, exploitation, damage of habitat and removal of wild animals are strictly prohibited inside the national park. However, from management point of view, permission may be given for such activities in the interest of wild animals by Chief Wildlife Warden after getting prior approval of the State Government. But under no circumstances, grazing of cattle is permitted inside the national park. No. alteration of the boundaries of a national park shall be made except on a resolution passed by legislature of the concerned state. While the principles underlying a wildlife sanctuary and national park are essentially the same, viz. maximum protection, the fundamental difference is that a sanctuary is created by order of a competent authority, who may be the Chief Wildlife Warden/ Chief Conservator of Forests or Minister of State; while a national park is created and correspondingly can be abolished, mutated or changed only by the Legislation of State. The status and degree of permanency and protection is, therefore, much higher in a national park than in a sanctuary. Differences between Sanctuary and National Park

a. Sanctuary is declared by the State Government under Section 18(1) of Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972, whereas national park is declared under Section 35(1) of the Act.

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b. In sanctuary, the boundary is demarcated approximately at the time of its declaration; while boundary is well-defined and accurate in case of national park at the very time of its declaration. c. In case of sanctuary, the claim of rights of land of the people is settled after its declaration; whereas in national park, the same is settled before its declaration. d. The alteration in boundary of the sanctuary may be done by the order of State Government; but on contrary, in national park, such alteration may be done only after passing through the Legislative Assembly of the State Government (though the same rule has been amended for sanctuary also in Amendment Act, 1991). e. In sanctuary, grazing or movement of the cattle may be permitted for the benefit of wild animals, but in national park, it is not permissible. f. In sanctuary, the Chief Wildlife Warden may pass his order after getting concurrence of the State Government to kill or catch the certain wild animal for the welfare of wild community and he is also empowered to dismiss his order; but in case of national park, such order is governed by the State Government itself and then the Chief Wildlife Warden issues the concerned order which cannot be dismissed by him. g. In sanctuary, fishing may be allowed; while it is not permissible in national park. h. It can be said that “in sanctuary, all permitted except prohibited; while in national park, all prohibited except permitted”. Hence, national park is more strict, protected and advanced step towards wildlife conservation than sanctuary. Aims of Establishment of National Parks and Sanctuaries (Protected Areas: PAs)

The sanctuaries and national parks (protected areas) are established with the view to: 1. Adequate representation of bio-geographic diversity. 2. Proper geographic distributions of PAs across prominent wilderness belts. 3. Setting-up new PAs rationalizing boundaries of existing ones so as to meet the imperative in the above 1 and 2. 4. Overcoming management deficiencies in PAs. 5. Promoting corridor values (conducive to movement of major mammals and long terms, long ranging gene-travel of all species of flora and fauna) through forests and multiple use areas that lie between PAs in a given wilderness belt. 6. Establishing a monitoring mechanism to access the viability of network of PAs. Management of PAs:

i. Proper management plans. ii. Trained personnel for management planning and implementation. iii. Special programmes for endangered species and ecosystems such as project, biosphere reserve, gene-pool, etc. iv. Ensuring compatibility between PAs and surrounding multi-use areas by promoting eco-development and control of animal damage in the latter. v. Generation of a sound scientific database for management planning. vi. Establishing techniques through well-planned utility-oriented wildlife research.

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Wildlife Management outside PAs

All forests including those being formed under programmes of social forestry and wasteland development are potential wildlife habitats. With appropriate adjustments, which are possible without prejudice to the primary objectives and economic returns, it is possible to provide significant supplemental wildlife habitat and movementcorridors for wildlife. This entails the following facts: i. Evolving compatible wildlife management techniques so as to accord with silvicultural requirements of such areas. ii. Promoting wildlife habitats in pre-selected mini-core units between distant PAs in the same forest belt. iii. Effective anti-poaching and enforcement or trade regulations. iv. Promoting knowledge of wildlife habitats among forestry personnel and other agencies concerned with the management of government forests and multipleuse areas. v. Promoting awareness for wildlife conservation among public at large and especially among young people forest side communities and decision makers. SAFARI PARK

An enclosed park where wild animals are kept uncaged in the open providing natural habitat on view to the public. Zoo

An area set aside for the exhibition of wild animals, which are maintained in cages and artificial enclosures in such a manner as to restrict their freedom almost completely. Zoological Garden

A place which aims at showing as large a number of mammals, birds, reptiles, fishes etc. as possible, usually with a confined area in or near a city or town, for the recreation and education of the public and to provide material for scientific study. The animals are usually kept in cages or restricted to small enclosures. Zoological Park

This is a zoo without bars. The animals are comparatively free and are exhibited in the natural surrounding as far as possible, with the barriers and restrictions, hidden or camouflaged from view (Zoological park can be constituted only where sufficient land is available and are best sited on the outskirts of cities.). Buffer Zone

Area with suitable width around or adjacent to the sanctuary/park within which no shooting, other than that required for legitimate crop protection, will be permitted and within which no professional grazers will be allowed to establish cattle pens. Here facilities for camping of tourists are provided. Transitory or Intermediate Zone

Where wildlife come out for brouse and graze, and where visitors are allowed to go and see wildlife. In this zone, harvesting and MFP collection operation are controlled

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by the order of Chief Wildlife Warden under Act 33 of Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act. Core Zone

Where all forestry and harvesting operations are prohibited and even entry is restricted except for population studies and scientific investigations. Identification of core areas should be immediately done in all sanctuaries/parks before it is too late to preserve the natural habitats. It should be 20% to 30% of the total area and include in them the “Natural Biosphere Reserve” and “Eco-type Forests” (Biotopes of special ecological value and concern) to preserve the natural ecosystems and the virgin environments covering our indigenous flora and fauna in totality because habitat preservation is as important as wildlife conservation. Sanctum Sanctorum

It is an inner sanctuary (sanctuary within the sanctuary) or portion of a wildlife sanctuary or national park in which no forest operation or management is allowed, and in which sometimes no entry by visitors is allowed in order to prevent any kind of disturbance to wildlife (literally, the most holy place). ECO-TOURISM

The World Tourism Organization (WTO) estimated that there were more than 693 million international travellers in 2001 and predicted that tourist arrivals will grow by an average of 4.1%. per year over the next two decades. Eco-tourism is increasing in the travel and conservation world through an evolutionary process. While ecotourism has its roots in nature, wildlife and outdoor recreation, recent concepts of eco-tourism lay greater emphasis on its primary role in conservation education. Nature areas and their landscape, flora and fauna with accompanying cultural elements are emerging as major attractions. Eco-tourism refers to travelling to relatively undisturbed or uncontaminated natural areas with the specific objective of studying, admiring and enjoying the scenery and its wild plants and animals, as well as any existing cultural manifestations found in those areas. Nature tourism travel is emerging as the fastest growing segment in tourism accounting for nearly 20% of all international travel. Wilderness recreation has to ensure responsible travel and in the process, conserve environment and improve the well-being of the local people so as to sustain the tourism potential in such locations. Though tourism is at present pursued in most of the protected areas (PAs) only as an incidental activity, its role in support of management is increasingly being realized. As the visitor’s satisfaction largely determines his willingness to remain in the tourism area for a longer duration or a return to the area again, a questionnaire survey to assess the visitor’s satisfaction should be conducted and accordingly management should be improved, if justified. Eco-tourism supports wildlife conservation by exposing diverse categoreis of tourists to the magnificent wild animals. The tourists come from a wide cross-section of society and help to generate favourable public opinion towards biodiversity conservation. A zone of 54 sq.km has been set aside to promote eco-tourism in a controlled way so that it has no ill-effect on the forest ecosystem.

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Description of some National Parks 1. CORBETT NATIONAL PARK (PROJECT TIGER): Total area: 520.80 sq. km. Year of establishment: 1936 Location: Himalayan foot-hills (Bhabhar tract) in National and Garhwal districts of Uttarakhand State. Headquarter: Ram Nagar Altitude: 400–1100 m above MSL Latitude: Between 20° 25’N and 29° 40’N Longitude: Between 78° 45’E and 78° 5’E Climate: Annual temperature variation between 4° and 46°C. History: Originally in 1936, this was declared as Hailey National Park (under United Provinces National Park Act) after the name of Governor of United Provinces Sri Malcolm Hailey, who took keen interest in its development. This is the first National Park of this sub-continent. After independence, it was renamed Ram Ganga National Park in the name Ram Ganga River which is the sole perennial source of water for this park. Further, to honour Jim Corbett, a famous hunter and naturalist, who played a pivotal role in its development, the park was renamed Corbett National Park in 1956. Corbett used to live at Kaladungi, a nearby village. In 1973, the National Park was declared as Tiger Reserve to afford special protection to the tigers of this park. The actual functioning of Tiger Reserve started from 1974. The Corbett Tiger Reserve is roughly a trapezoidal valley in the South Patli Doon below the Central Himalayan foot-hills with its long axis more or less west to east. The western two-thirds of the area in the Pauri Garhwal district and eastern one-third in Nainital. The highest peak in this Tiger Reserve is Kanda Peak (1210 mts) situated in north-west of reserve. Sources of water: Ram Ganga river is a perennial source besides a large network of nallahs, hill-streams and waterholes which remain full during monsoon and some winter water but dry up during summer. Fauna

Mammals: Herbivores: Elephant, sambhar, nilgai, coral, cheetal, para, barking deer, wild boar (omnivorous), etc. Carnivores: Tiger, panther, wild dog, jackal, red fox, black bear, sloth bear (omnivorous), common otter. Indian civet, palm civet, mongoose, long-eared hedgehog, shrew, etc. Eight kinds of bats have been reported from this park. Hare, northern palm squirrel and porcupine are also common. Birds: Peacock, jungle-fowl, partridge, water-birds like ducks, falcons, coots, dab chicks, naktas, king fishers besides some carnivorous birds like hawks, vultures, etc. Many migratory birds also visit the ram ganga river during winter. Reptiles: Crocodiles (Muggar) and gharial, common monitor-lizard and some lesser-lizards, soft-shelled tortoises. Snakes: Python, Cobra, Viper, Water-snake, Boa, Cat-snake, Wolf-snake, etc. Management: Major efforts in management include protection and improvement of the habitat. Though park’s habitat is self-sufficient for the existing fauna, however,

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time to time the various operations like fire protection, development of grasslands and maintenance of existing waterholes are done. The park remains closed for tourists during rainy season. Tourist Season: 15th November to 15th June 2. BETLA NATIONAL PARK (TIGER RESERVE)

Total area: 1026 sq. km. It is situated in the western part of Chotanagpur plateau in Jharkhand State stretching from the edge of Netarhat hill range in the south to Auranga River in north and from Latehar Sarju road in the east to the border of Madhya Pradesh in the west. It lies between latitude 23°27' and 23°54’N and longitude 82°52' and 84°26' E. There are 45 revenue villages and 10 forest villages. The need to conserve wildlife was realized and a portion of this tiger reserve was developed. In 1962 an area of 249.16 sq. km. received attention and some water-points and watch-towers were constructed, but the habitat was not protected and felling of trees and bamboos continued till the creation of Tiger Reserve which was declared on 4th June 1974. The Tiger Reserve as now constituted comprises most of the forests of Daltonganj South Forest Division and is 1026 sq. km. in extent. The basic concept of Project Tiger is total environmental conservation in an adequately large faunal area as free as possible from human disturbance and for this, core-area of 201 sq. km. was carved out which is primitive forests almost in the middle of the Reserve. Further, it was declared as National Park in 1986. History: History shows that these forests were subjected to Jhumming till 1949, so the forests were badly exploited for commercial and other purposes. The forests were open to grazing all through the year. The estimated cattle-population of this area was approximately 30,000.00 Forest fires were another important factor which has done considerable damage to these forests. Mostly the fires are caused by the Mahuapickers. Past Management of Wildlife: These forests were very rich in wildlife and the history shows that rewards were kept for killing wild animals such as Rs. 25 for full grown Tiger, Rs. 5/- for Leopard and Wolf and Rs. 2.50 for a Bear. The emphasis was then laid more on the destruction than for saving the animals. A census of tiger population in an area of 299 sq. km. of this area by WJ. Nicholson of Imperial Forest Services in 1934 was reported as 32 tigers, viz. an average one tiger per 9.3 sq. km. At the time of tiger reserve declaration, the population density of tiger was 1 tiger per 33 sq. km. Topography: Undulating track. Important hills are Murhar, Netarhat, Huluk and Gulgul (Highest 1140 m). Climate: Summer maximum temperature 48°C (1978) and winter temperature minimum 3°C. The temperature shows clear variation with the quality of forests. Rainfall: Average annual rainfall is 1189 to 1382 mm. In 1966 there had been a severe draught. Water Position: Main rivers are Koel with its three tributaries Auranga, Burha and Pandra. Most of these dry up during summer creating acute shortage of water. In wet months, the entire reserve is traversed by small riverlets and channels. Geology (Rock and Soil): Main rocks of this reserve are laterite, quartzite, gneiss, gondwana, amphibolites, etc. The soil is shallow sandy loam which becomes more clayey when shale is present. Alluvial soil is found in villages.

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Forests: The forests of this reserve are dry peninsular sal, northern dry mixed deciduous forests, dry bamboo brake, moist peninsular high and low level sal, etc. Some areas bear secondary moist deciduous forest and aegle forest. As a result of Jhumming, some grassy blanks are also present in this reserve. Tiger Niche: Tiger prefers cool secluded corner of the forest usually a nallah-bed under thick shade. During daytime, it prefers to live in dimly lit caves. In this reserve, the territory for each tiger is approximately 10 sq. km. Wild Animals

Mammals: Preys: Common langur (Presbytics entellus), red-faced monkey/Rhesus macaque (Macaca mulatta), hare, Indian porcupine, elephant (tuskless breed), gaur, nilgai, sambhar, cheetal, braking deer, wild boar, etc. Predators: Tiger, leopard, wolf, jungle cats, wild dog, mongoose, small civet, palm civet, etc. Scavenger: Jackal and Hyaena. Tiger: Palamu was noted for its tigers in the 18th century, but due to shooting and poisoning their number went down as low as 22 in the reserve when it was established in 1974. Due to protection of their habitat their number has now gone up. Elephant: The elephants found in the reserve are mostly of tuskless breed. They generally live in Betla from August to March and then move to southern portion of the Reserve. They have damaged Betla Bamboo Forest extensively. Leopard: They are expert at climbing trees and prey on many animals. Limiting Factors i. Fires: During mahua season ii. Grazing iii. Exploitation: Illicit felling iv. Human disturbances v. Mining, etc. vi. Army exercises vii. Poaching viii. Diseases: Mouth and Foot Diseases (MFD) specially Management • Ban on all forestry operations • Habitat manipulation • Fire Protection: Maintenance of fire lines, fire watch towers, control buring, etc. • Effective protection against poaching, grazing, etc. • Catchment treatment • Improvement of grasslands for cheetal, etc. • Tourism/education, museum (nature interpretation centre) 3. KANHA NATIONAL PARK (PROJECT TIGER)

Location: It is located in the Sylvan Maikal Hills in Mandla and Balaghat districts on the Satpura ranges in Madhya Pradesh state. The park has unique wildlife habitat in the finest natural form. The park has been named from the old Kanha village which is encompassed by vast rolling meadows.

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Landscape: Evergreen sal forest interspersed with rolling meadows is in the valleys below. The spacious grassy table tops on hills, the mixed forests with dense bamboos are on the hill slopes. Numerous meandering streams flowing the park give pleasant natural look with the ideal habitat to the wildlife. Area: 940 sq. km. Visiting Season: The Park is open from 1st November to 30th June. Fauna: The important wild animals found in this park are tiger, panther, cheetal, sambhar, nilgai, gaur (Indian bison), langur (Presbytis entellus), barasingha (swamp deer), barking deer, blackbuck, wild pig, wild dog, Jackal, etc. The Barasingha found here is called “Branderi”, hard ground variety of barasingha, namely Cervus duvauceli branderi. This variety of barasingha is found only in this very park. History: 1933 1955 1962–70 1974 1976

Sanctuary created with 250 sq. km. Declared as National Park. Area brought to 446 sq. km. Brought under Project Tiger. Area extended to 940 sq. km. as core area and 1005 sq. km. as buffer area.

Special Features of Park

i. 22 villages were relocated outside the park settling them with all infra-facilities. It was very praiseworthy and progressive approach in the field of wildlife management. ii. Comprehensive ecosystem-conservation. iii. Poaching, livestock grazing eliminated and fire accidents brought to minimum. iv. Barasingha (Swamp deer) named Branderi saved from extinction. v. Tiger population enhanced under Project Tiger. vi. Management backed by fruitful research. vii. Involvement of communities in conservation efforts. viii. “Park Interpretation Programme” was introduced for the first time in India and probably in Asia. This programme was introduced with the view to educate and make propaganda about the whole intact natural condition (ecosystem); besides to give emphasis or highlight on Project Tiger so that general mass may understand the value of nature and ecosystem and ultimately be cautious to conserve the nature, wildlife, environment and food chain. By the interpretation programme, they will be able to know that the presence of tiger, as the top carnivore, is the climax of the ecosystem indicating that such area has sufficient quantity of vegetation to provide food for herbivores on which tigers (top carnivore) are alive. In this way, the presence of tigers in sufficient number as per the carrying capacity of the habitat indicates that in such place the foodchain and food web of the ecosystem is naturally balanced and has entirely perfect undisturbed environment. It is the main aim and objective of any naturalist or wildlife manager to conserve the nature and, hence, the Project Tiger is a programme to protect the tiger in its natural-environment. ix. There is sufficient management of the basic needs of wildlife (food, water and shelter) here.

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x. There are more than hundred patrolling camps to strengthen the park management. xi. The modern technologies, particularly from wildlife management point of view, are applied here to run the park smoothly. In this regard, the output of fruitful research work are also applied. xii. Keeping in view for future abundancy of population of wildlife, the core areas outside the park have been also created like “small sanctuaries” in which certain population of the animals has been kept and those core areas (small sanctuaries) are connected with the main park so that it may fulfil as a continuous zone to migrate the surplus population to come from and go into the core areas. This will also solve the problem of inbreeding among the animals as well as diverting (migrating) them in different places. 4. SUNDERBANS NATIONAL PARK (TIGER RESERVE)

Location: West Bengal Area: Tiger Reserve: 2585 sq. km. (out of 4262 sq. km.) declared in 1973. National Park: 1330 sq. km. (which was earlier core area of tiger reserve. Within this sanctum sanctorum 124.40 sq. km. area was preserved as primitive area to act a gene-pool). This is the first National Park in West Bengal state. The national park has an ideal set up, i.e. outwardly, it is strictly preserved core and well demarcated buffer and multiple-use zone so that the sanctum-sanctorum is spared of any biotic impact. The mangrove forests occurring at the mouth of Ganga-Brahmaputra river system in lower Bengal is known in this part of the country as Sunderbans. The mangrove vegetation or “Mangals”, as they are collectively known are characterized by species which have high tolerance for saline environment. They display several adaptations like breathing roots or pneumatophores, stilt roots (for support), salt excretory glands, vivipary and other similar features. Mangrove swamps characterize the estuaries of many of the Indian rivers which drain into the Bay of Bengal. In India, the most well-known mangrove forests are found in the Sunderbans delta of the river Ganges where both Brahmaputra and Ganges join into the Bay of Bengal. Here the river has divided itself into hundreds of streams to form narrow creeks. In between these creeks, the mud flats of the delta region lie which are periodically flooded through tidal inundations by the sea. Large quality of silt are brought down by the rivers each year and deposited into the sea engulfing more land from the shallow sea. Water-logging, humidity, salinity and regular inundations are the salient features of this habitat. It can be divided into three zones: (a) The low or the freshly formed land which remains mostly below the tidal level (b) the slightly higher land which is frequently inundated by salt-water and (c) the higher ground generally above the tidal level. The animal community in these mangrove forests make the environment very much complex. At low tide, the exposed mud flats in the lower portions are invaded by small crabs and fishes. The fishes have special adaptations which make them largely independent of water. They are the mud skippers or semi-terrestrial gobies. They can leap with a flick of the tail or even swim across the mud or water but normally move slowly crawling on their pectoral fins, but back in the water they revert to the normal fish mode of swimming and respiration. The most peculiar of mud skipper is its ability to climb up the roots of mangrove trees which presents the strange sight of tree-

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climbing fishes. Crowds of small active crabs settle over the mud-flats as the tide recedes. The males of land crabs and fibber crabs are the most famous having huge brightly coloured claws. All these crabs live in guarded burrows. As soon as the tide recedes, they emerge rolling out balls of mud and sand between their burrows. These are their escape holes into which they hide if danger threatens in the form of storks, herons, monkey or domestic ducks. At high tide, they retreat into their holes and block out the entrance to keep out the water trapping an air bubble which enables them to breathe. One small crab, the Dorippe, had association with another animal’s species, the sea-anemone (symbiosis). On its back, the dorippe has two pairs of legs modified as little claws that carry an oval plate on which a small sea-anemone lives. The association is mutually beneficial as the anemone gains a firm base for attachment and also benefits from the scraps of food dropped by the crab, and in return, the crab gains protection from the anemone because it has nasty ting which discourages the predators from attacking this combination. Above the mud-flats on the mangrove trees themselves live numerous weaver ants which make their nests in trees by weaving together five or more leaves with their fine silken thread. This nest, guarded by black soldier ants, houses the colony’s strange green queen. Columns of red workers scavenge over ground and bushes for food. In the higher region of the mangrove, the fauna changes and typical land animals like spotted dear, pigs, monitor lizards and monkeys characterise the area. Earlier, rhinoceros, swap deer, gaur were also a feature of Sunderbans but now they do not exist in the area. Two worldwide endangered species, viz. the Olive ridley-turtle and the Estuarine-crocodile occur in this area. In case of estuarine-crocodile, conservation measures like captive breeding and its release and protection in the wild are in practice. Likewise, hatching of olive ridleyturtle eggs in the hatcheries and releasing the same in the sea are also done for proper propagation. Thus, the mangrove fauna is represented by a variety of mammals (the tiger as supreme), birds, reptiles, fishes and crustaceans. Numerous phytoplanktons and zooplanktons occurring in the water build up intricate food web in basic stratum. The most interesting animal of the Sunderbans is the Sunderbans tiger which has adapted so marvellously to this strange habitat of high salinity and periodic inundation leading an amphibious life. They sustain their life even on fish and crab besides on the normal prey of spotted deer and wild boar. The most peculiar trait of the Sunderbans tiger is its tendency to man-eating. It is believed that all Sunderbans tigers are man-eaters and every year a large number of fishermen, honey-collectors and other villagers fall prey to these tigers. The tigers are known to swim in the creeks and climb into boats to take their prey in thick bushes to ambush the honey collectors. This peculiar trait of man-eating has not been ascertained as yet; however, it is assumed that this may be due to inadequate protection of fisherman in fishing in narrow boats or collecting honey inside the forest or may be due to ecological correlation between its saline-habitat including fisherman and the saline food habit of the tiger. The Project Tiger authorities have undertaken a lot of steps and experiments like Tiger Guard Gear (for protection of wood-cutter and honey-collector who when under this fiberglass armour suit are less liable to injury from a preying tiger). Compensation is also paid to the next kin of killed/injured person by tiger. An experiment has also been taken by setting up dummies of wood-cutter, honeycollector and fisherman with electricity charged wires in places known to harbour confirmed man-eaters. It is expected that while attempting preying on these dummies, the tiger will get an electric shock and will desist from attacking human beings in future. There are instances that dummies were attacked and the tiger retreated in pain after receiving the shock but still man-eating by the tiger is going on.

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Thus, the mangrove-ecosystem is a rich reservoir of renewable-resources. The resources used in the mangrove-ecosystem are numerous. A large quantity of fuel, timber, fishes; honey, bee-wax, etc. are harvested annually from the buffer area. The strictly protected core-area of the park acts as the safe propagation ground for fauna and flora. The chances viewing of a tiger, crocodile, birds, etc. in the midst of rivers in dense forest are worth seeing for tourists. 5. GIR NATIONAL PARK (GIR LION PROJECT)

Location: It is situated in the Saurashtra peninsula of Junagarh district of Gujarat State. Status of Area: This project was initiated in 1972 which was earlier declared as sanctuary in 1965. In 1974, the adjoining forests of Amreli district was included. An area of 140.40 sq. km. in Jamwala and Chhodavadi ranges consisting mainly of teak open scrub forest of Gir was declared under it in 1975 and an additional area of 118.31 sq. km. was included in it, and thus the total area increased under this National Park to 258.71 sq. km. All the Maldharis were shifted outside from the national park core area and all forestry operations therein were completely banned. Main Species: Asiatic Lion: Panthera leo persica Other Fauna: Panther, striped hyaena, sambhar, nilgai, cheetal, four-horned antelope, chinkara, wild boar and crocodiles. Description of Main Animal (Lion)

The Asiatic Lion is a gracious looking animal with a pale yellowish-brown to sandygrey coat devoid of any marking. A light or dark coloured mane adornes the head in the male. The tail has a long tassel of hair at the end. The cubs are marked with spots and stripes. An adult measure 270–300 cm in total length and the female is slightly smaller. Mating-season is October/November and gestation period is about 116 days. Two-three cubs are produced in a litter generally. It is gregarious top carnivore and lives in small families known as Pride. Status of Lion: In recent past, Asiatic Lion used to roam over a vast stretch of Northern and Central and Central portion of this subcontinent. But due to irrational killing coupled with its habitat destruction for various.purposes, a stage came when the total number went down to only 15 and nowadays this magnificent feline is found only in Gir Forests of Gujarat. Habitat and Prey Animal: Its habitat includes mainly Dry Teak Forests and Open Scrub Jungle. Major herbivores forming its food-base are deer and antelopes found in this national park. Major Guidelines for Management of the Park

i. To conserve the Gir habitat; if possible, improve its health and quality, increase its area and retain its aesthetic values. ii. To propagate wildlife of every kind for its own sake and specifically, the endangered lion. iii. To generally exclude all exotic forms of plant and animal life and preserve all non-human elements of the existing ecosystem in their natural relationship to one and another. iv. To reserve or minimise human-interference within the ecosystem.

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v. To provide recreation for tourists. vi. To recast the working plan in the interest of wildlife habitat and watershed conservation rather than silvicuitural revenue. vii. To make it a model of ecologically sound practices for similar areas. viii. To protect the habitat from over-grazing and lopping. ix. To improve the lot of Maldharis and their settlement outside the sanctuary. x. To unify control of all aspects under a single authority with suitable training in the field of management of wildlife, nature reserve and national parks. 6. BANDIPUR NATIONAL PARK (TIGER RESERVE)

Location: It is situated at a distance of 80 km from Mysore City in Mysore district of Karnataka State (Highway between Mysore and Ooty). It lies between North latitudes 12°3’30" and 12°54’17" and between East longitudes 76°7' and 76°52’40". Total Area: 874.20 sq. km. In the beginning the Project Tiger area was 690 sq. km. After twelve years, the remaining area was included as buffer area of this Tiger Reserve in 1985. Project Tiger as a Central Sector Plan scheme was initiated in 1973-74 in Bandipur National Park. The main objective behind creation of Tiger Reserve was to ensure maintenance of viable population of tigers in their natural environment and to preserve such areas as part of our national-heritage for the benefit of education and enjoyment of present and future generations. Bandipur Tiger Reserve is managed on sound principles using the latest wildlife management techniques and demonstrates the important ecological, educational, scientific and cultural achievements. Terrain: Terrain is undulating and broken by chains of rolling hills with vast stretches of valleys that are sprinkled with meadows and seasonal water courses. The highest peak is in Hind Gopalaswamy Hills with a height of 1454.50 m above sea level and the lowest point in the reserve is along the Waranchi Stream at 780 m above sea level. Major Rivers: The reserve is drained by the Kabim, Nagu and Moyar rivers and by Bavali, Moolehole, Kekkanahalla and Waranchi streams. The Moyar cuts into a picturesque gorge known as “Moyar Gorge” surprisingly grand and incomparably beautiful. The view from the “Mysore Ditch” with 260 mts. vertical fall present the most extensive pricturesque landscape with the famous Nilgiri mountains and backdrop. This is the only gorge found in South India. Floristic Composition: The reserve consists of southern tropical moist mixed deciduous and southern tropical dry deciduous forest types. Teak forms the dominant vegetation with some other valuable trees like rosewood, sandalwood, laurel, yellow teak, kydia and bamboos. This well-preserved reserve occupies the rain shadow areas of the Western Ghats and has always been a treasure trove of wildlife. The ecosystem diversity is manifest in the variety of fauna. Faunal Composition: Mammals Herbivores: Cheetal, muntjac, sambhar, chausingha, gaur, wild boar, elephant; mouse deer, black-naped hare, sloth bear, langur, bonnet macaque, giant squirrel and flying squirrel. Carnivores: Tiger, leopard, wild dog, jungle cat, small indian civet, toddy cat, common mongoose and striped neck mongoose.

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Reptiles: Crocodiles, snakes and monitor lizards. Aves: The avifauna is varied and rich, notably pied hornbill, green pigeon, woodpeckers, drongoes, bee eaters, king fishers, pea fowl, jungle fowl, partridges and quails. Extent of Reserve: The extended Bandipur Tiger Reserve over 865.73 sq. km. comprises: • Wilderness zone (core zone) of 523 sq. km. • Buffer zone of 260 sq. km. • Tourism zone of 82 sq. km. and • Administrative zone of 1.0 sq. km. Equal status of the treatment have been extended to all the zones. Some forest areas of buffer-zone which were found improved in floristic composition are elevated in status and included in wilderness zone. Management: The management staff includes park wardens, foresters, park guards and park watchers. Each park guard/watcher is in overall charge of a sector comprising an area of 800 to 850 ha. These are in all 118 sectors. Each park guard is provided with an assistant known as trekker who accompanies him during visits. They are also responsible for fire-fighting during fire-seasons. The reserve has antipoaching-squads and antismuggling-squad who are supervised by park guards. Each squad is provided with necessary fire arms. Some of the squads are equipped with trained elephants for perambulation in difficult terrain and along the inter-state borders of Kerala and Tamil Nadu. The Reserve has a network of compartment boundaries and view lines which also act as fire lines. Every park warden has been provided with the fast moving vehicle for quick transportation of men and equipment. There are check-posts located on two highways which pass through the reserve. There are wireless stations located at vantage points supported by mobile units which form effective communication unit to take quick action for preventing any unlawful activity in the park. Stoppage of Grazing: All the local livestock have been shifted outside the park since 1976, thus, a complete ban on grazing has been achieved. This has helped in improving the habitat to a great extent. However, some occasional illicit-grazing still continues during which some livestocks are killed by the wild carnivores resulting into annoyance to the cattle owner which leads poisoning of wild animals. Sometimes, poisoning of wild animals outside the park is also reported. Relocation of Villages: Forest villages, namely Gundre and Banur, which were inside the Reserve, have been successfully relocated elsewhere outside. As many as 41 families with their 120 heads of cattle were shifted out during 1978-79 at the cost of Rs. 60,000. Nearly 410 acres of land was cleared in the district jungle outside the reserve and each family was allocated 4 acres of land in addition to the payment of adequate compensation. Protection of Habitat for Development

Project: Effective measures have been taken to prevent conversion of forests for any other non-forestry purposes. Management Plan: Management plan for the Project Tiger was prepared and published in 1974 which envisaged sound management and improvement of habitat, water, etc. Habitat Manipulation: Many effective prescriptions have been applied for the development of habitat.

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Animal Population Trends: From the census figures, it is clear that the population of tiger and many other major wild animals have shown rising tendency. This rising tendency underlines effectiveness of sound management practices applied in the Park. Interpretation Centre: An Interpretation Centre, present in the Park, is responsible for the publicity, extension and education work to raise consciousness in the common mass. There is a nice children’s library also to educate the growing generations. Improvised Scaring Devices: Some cracker devices are fixed and concealed to scare the wild animals for preventing their passing out of the Park area. 7. BANNERGHATTA NATIONAL PARK

Area: 104.27 sq. km. (wilderness-area) Location: Situated in Karnataka state Just 22 km from Bangalore. Bannerghata National Park was created in 1974 to protect local fauna and flora and to provide a place for recreation. The wilderness area comprises enfolding Dry Thorny Scrub and Dry Deciduous Scrub Jungle. The Park proper contains a Miniature -zoo with three Safaris, Picnic areas, Life-size Prehistoric Dinosaur Models and Reptile Park. Water Source: Suvarnmukhi river is the main hydrant. Lion/Tiger Safari: Some lions and lionesses have been kept roaming free in an enclosed area of 15 ha. A few tigers are also kept in this enclosure separately. The habitat consists of open jungles with a few rock out crops. The entire area is safely fenced. Visitors can move inside the safari only in a close minibus of the Park. No one is allowed to get down from the vehicle. Private vehicles are not allowed to enter the safari. Regular supply of food and water is the responsibility of trained staff of the Park. Herbivore Safari: Total area under this safari is 48 ha and it contains a large number of herbivores like gaur, cheetal, sambar and barking deer. Visits inside this safari are permitted only in park’s vehicle. The safari contains bush, green-cover of palatable tree and forage species, which forms sufficient food-base for the existing livestock. Reptile Park: This Park contains a large number of reptiles kept in separate sunken pits. Each species is kept separately with a label displaying the details of the species. Poisonous and non-poisonous snakes, rare varieties of tortoises and lizards are the main attractions. 8. KAZIRANGA NATIONAL PARK

Total Area: Initially when it was a sanctuary, its area was 166 sq. km. but the area of National Park was increased to 849.79 sq. km. Location: It is located in Sibsagar district of Assam State about 217 km. from Guwahati. Fauna: Great Indian one-horned Rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis), wild buffalo, tiger, leopard, elephant, gaur, cat, mongoose, Otter, civet cat, wild boar, swamp dear, hog deer, sambhar, langur, python, pelican, partridge, floricans, hoolock and a number of migratory birds during winter. Main Animal: The great Indian one-horned rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis): It is one of the largest of all existing rhinos. Male may reach over 6' (180 cm) at the shoulder.

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The average height is about 5’8" (170 cm). The record size of horn is 24" (61 cm) but 8" (203 mm) is the average. Gestation period is 16 months. Distinctive Characters: The skin of this massive creature is divided into great shields by heavy folds behind the shoulders and in front of the thighs. The front fold (shoulder) does not continue right across the back which is a distinctive character of this rhino. With its grotesque built, long boat-shaped head, its fold of armour and tuberculated hide; the animal looks like a monster of some bygone age. Distribution: Formerly it was extensively distributed in the Gangetic plain but today restricted to parts of Nepal and West Bengal in the north and Assam. In Nepal, it is found only in the isolated areas of the plains. Habits: Though it prefers swamp and grasses, it is also found in ravines and low hills. The animals are solitary in nature, though several may occupy the same patch of jungle. Its food chiefly consists of grass. As evident from the census reports, the habitat is nice for the existing fauna and the population of Indian Rhino has shown steep rise to an extent that some animals have been introduced in Dudhwa National Park. Bird Island: There is small island surrounded by water and some shore-land. Rare birds like Painted storks, Adjutant stork, Sarus, Crane, Demoiselle crane, Darter and a variety of ducks including Brahminy duck and the Bar-headed goose are kept here. Other Animal Attractions: Other animals kept in this park in separate enclosures include Leopard, Golden langur, Common langur, Lion-tailed and Assames macaques, Gharial, Mugger, etc. The park also owns elephant both young and adults. Elephant rides are offered to the children only. Park/Zoo Rules

Prohibitions: Littering, teasing or feeding the animal. Carrying pets. Using any musical instruments, making noise. This is a nicely managed small park where the main objective is to create awareness regarding wildlife resource among the common mass. For the purpose of publicity and education, the park authorities arrange video-film shows and special lectures, etc. in addition to the facilities organizing native campus. Through safaries, the park ensures close watching of the magnificent cats (lion/tiger). The reptile park, bird island and the several separate animal enclosures, offer a good opportunity of identification and habit studies of various animals kept there. The facility for recreation not only provides enjoyment but also acts as a very effective means of mass -communication through which one can learn lot of details regarding wildlife resource of our country. 9. KEIBUL LAMJAO NATIONAL PARK

Location: It is situated at the south-eastern corner of the Loghtak Lake in Manipur State. Total area of this National Park is 40 sq. km. Status: This was officially gazetted as Sanctuary in 1968 and on 28th March, 1977; it was declared as a National Park after extinguishing all the agricultural and fishing rights within its area. Main Species: Manipur Brow-antlered deer or Thamin (Cervus eldi eldi) locally called “Sangai”. This is perhaps most localized mammal sub-species in the world. It is

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also called “Dancing Deer” due to its locomotion on Phumdi looking as dancing posture. Other wild animals are hog deer, wild goat, water-birds, etc. Description of Thamin/Sangai/Dancing Deer: It resembles sambhar in general body shape. Standing height varies from 115 to 120 cm. at the shoulder but the female is little smaller than male. Antler measures 107–120 cm in length and has extremely long browtine, which joins the main beam in such a manner that the two form a continuous curve at right angle to the pedicel. Its hair is coarse in summer and shaggy in winter. The colour of male is dark-brown in winter and fawn in summer; the female is light fawn and young is spotted. Body weight of adult is found 90–110 kg. Gestation period: 8 months, only one fawn at a time is produced. Status of Sangai: It officially became extinct in 1951, but a few years later was reported to be existing in the swampy area of the habitat. In 1954, the total number was reported to be 100 (Tikader). As per aerial census conducted on 28th February, 1977; the total population consisted of 18 deer (6 stags, 8 hinds and 4 fawns). Habitat: Apart from the tree hills of Pabot, Toya and Chingio, the remainder of the Park is one vast moran of floating organic matter called “Phum or Phumdi”. Phumdi consists of decayed vegetation of varying thickness of 1 to 4'. It floats upon the water of the lake, the level of which varies with the season. During the driest months of February to March, some of the phumdi especially along the edge of the park, rests on the hard ground below. With the onset of the monsoon, the major portion of the Park gets covered with water and the animals seek refuge on the hills. When Sangai moves on phumdi, it looks like in dancing posture and hence called “dancing deer”. Among the grasses, lshing kombong (Saccharum latifolium) is a favourite food of Sangai. Though, the Sangai has adopted itself admirably to the Phumdi habitat but it prefers the hard-areas and hilly-ground also. Hog deer are the next largest group of competitor of Sangai in the areas. Limiting factors • Although the national park has a large area but the Sangai-habitat never exceeds 6 sq. miles which is rich in phumdi. So any further decrease in Phumdi is bound to affect the Sangai-population. • Illegal cuttings of grasses in the National Park reduce considerably the existing fodder which itself is insufficient for the herbivores present. • Illicit grazing in the area is causing damage to the habitat. • Illicit fishing in the national park area causes a lot of disturbances to the Sangai population. • Poaching, of course, is another limiting factor but has been minimized due to the intensive protective measures in the area. • A very significant new limiting-factor is the construction of Coffer Dam which will permanently raise the water of Keibul Lamjao to the level of 2525, about MSL and there would be no seasonal fluctuation in water level which was good for Sangai. The dam will change the entire ecology of the area, the effect of which can be ascertained by a detailed study. As the rutting season of the deer is during dry periods when water table is at the lowest level and larger portion of phumdi remains settled on the hard ground; construction of dam will prevent settlement of phumdi which will affect the rutting as well as reproduction of Sangai.

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Conservation Measures: a. Habitat manipulation mainly by planting palatable grasses. b. Ban on poaching, fishing and illicit-grazing, etc. c. Captive-breeding and release in natural habitat. Note: Three sub-species of Brow-antlered deer are found.

i. Manipur Brow-antlered deer (Cervus eldi eldi) called Sangai/Thamin/dancing deer. ii. Another Brow-antlered deer named Thailand Brow-antlered deer (Cervus eldi sianensis) has become extinct from Thailand and is represented in Combodia. Very small population is on the verge of extinction. iii. Another species found in Burma becoming rarer each year. 10. DACHIGAM NATIONAL PARK (PROJECT HANGUL)

Area: Total area is 141.00 sq. km. Location: It is situated in Jammu and Kashmir state. In 1970, the Hangul Project was taken up by the IUCN/WWF and was declared as National Park in 1981. Main Animal: Kashmir Stag or Hangul (Cervus eiaphus hunglu). It is a large deer which measures 120–130 cm in standing height at the shoulder and 230–232 cm in length of the head and body. Each antler has generally 5–6 tines or sometimes more; the second tine considerably exceeds the first tine in length. Length of antler along outside curve is 128 cm and girth is 23 cm. Its coat colour varies from light to dark brown with white rump-patch or caudal-disc which extends for a short distance over the tail. The sides and limbs are paler and the chin and ears whitish. The body colour fades during summer. Its body weight is approximately 204 kg. Gestation period is 6 months. Distribution: Hangul is found in the northern side of Kashmir valley (at present restricted to Dachigam) and north of Chamba (Himachal Pradesh). Habit and Habitat: It occurs singly or in small herds of 2–18 individuals in dense forests or in the ravines of lower Dachigam at elevations between 1750 and 3650 m. During winter it collects into large herds and moves to lower elevation. The stag sheds its antlers around March and new ones get perfection by September. The rut starts by mid-September and ends by the end of October. The stag establishes harem. The young is born in April–March. Several females give birth in the vicinity of each other. Territoriality had been reported only in male during rut-period. Habitat includes scrub and savannah forests. Status: Factors such as wanton destruction of habitat, cattle grazing and extension of cultivation, human interference in its natural habitat, etc. have caused depletion in the population of the Hangul. From an estimated number of 3000 in 1940, its number ran down between 140 and 170 in 1970; however effective implementation of the conservation plan, the population has increased considerably. Other Animals: Black bear, brown bear, leopard, musk deer, serow pheasants, etc. National Park: It is roughly rectangular in shape approximately 22.5 km long and 8 km wide. The entire area is divided into two sectors, lower Dachigam in the west and the upper Dachigam in the higher reaches in the east, comprising about 2/3rd of the total area. Mountain ranges, enclosing national park, is great Zanskar range which forms north-west branch of the Central Himalayan axis. The folds of this range are

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thrown into a number of undulations enclosing narrow gullies and broader flanked gullies, locally known as Nar. The two steep rides: One arising from Harwan Reservoir with peaks between 600 and 3000 m and north-east of Newthed rising to 4000 m from the natural boundaries of Dachigam. The riverine portion is almost completely fenced to enclose forest. Climate: Dachigam experiences a very irregular climate with large interyearly variation in the precipitation, length of dry period and season of their occurrence. The average climate is sub-Mediterranean with a bixeric regime having two spells of dryness one in June and the other in September-November and high precipitation during cold season. Limiting Factors: i. Habitat: Habitat of this herbivore includes poor type of Scrub and Savannah which show considerable fluctuation due to climatic changes. ii. Predation: Four large predators, namely Himalayan Brown bear, Himalayan Black bear, Leopard and Snow leopard (reported from Upper Dachigam only) have acted as limiting factors for Hangul. iii. Poaching: Till 1975, it was a major factor and afterwards suitable measures had been taken to control it to a great extent. Disease: Viros John’s disease has been found in case of captive-animals which was found to be common in sheep-population of Dachigam, may act as lethal if it is spread in wild-population. Disturbances by Man: Mating of the hangul has been found to be affected by human disturbances. Management: The management efforts include the following effective steps: • Prevention of sheep-grazing. • Prevention of wood-cutting. • Proper conservation and protection measures and, above all, habitat-improvement by planting ecologically suitable fodder species.

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A. PROJECT TIGER

Tiger is our national animal. It is found in diverse habitats and in different parts of the country. Tiger is at the apex position as top carnivore of the complex food chain in most of our forest ecosystems. Hence, its status indicates the state of health, dynamism and the functioning efficacy of the ecosystems. Further, it can be judged by the status and position occupied by the tiger in it. Over the years, the overexploitation of the forest areas, merciless hunting, unscientific management, etc. reduced the habitat of tiger as well as leading to a rapid decline in its population to a precariously low level. Tiger conservation has, therefore, been in India not only as an effort to save an endangered species but also with equal importance as a means of preserving biotopes. Project Tiger has been inspired by such an approach. The Indian Board for Wildlife (IBWL) set up a Task Force for studying the condition of tiger population and its status. On the recommendations of this Task Force, Project Tiger was initiated as a Central Sector Scheme in 1973 with 9 Tiger Reserves (total area: 13017 sq. km.) located in different habitat types in 9 different States, but two more reserves have since been subsequently added to it constituting 11 Tiger Reserves in 10 different States of the country (total area: 15,800 sq. km.). But this number is not the last and increasing always. The main aim of the project has to conserve and improve the natural-habitat of the tiger under different habitat types. The management strategy had been to identify the limiting factors of the habitat and to seek to mitigate these by proper management and development. The management practices and strategies in the reserves are controlled in such a way that all the limiting factors of habitats are removed. The steps to be taken in this direction are intensive anti-poaching drive, fire prevention, elimination of cattle grazing, soil conservation, water management, eradiation of weeds, noninterference by human activities, relocation of human habitation and so on. Systematic management plans conforming to this approach have been prepared for each Reserve and, within their framework, some flexibility has been introduced by having Annual Plans of Operations based on progressive results of techniques and operations year after year which are moulded on the basics of results obtained each year. However, building principles of management of each Reserve are as follows: • To conform the concept of biosphere preservation, to eliminate all forms of human exploitation and disturbance from the core zones and progressively minimise these in the buffer zones. 191

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• To limit the management to the repairs of the damage done and to restore the ecosystem to its natural functioning as possible. • To build up the habitat by mitigating limiting factors arising out of abuse and overuse and, thus, to build up the wildlife populations to the level of intrinsic carryingcapacity of the habitat and to prevent it from going beyond this stage. • To stop all forms of human interference and exploitation of the resources from the core zone and reduce in buffer-zone (in each reserve a core zone of 300 sq. km. is defined and a surrounding area of considerable extent are earmarked as buffer zone). Forestry operations and cattle grazing are completely stopped in core zones. In the buffer-zone, these are being progressively reoriented and also curtailed to suit the wildlife needs. Villages are relocated from the core zone and where necessary also from the buffer zone. • To rehabilitate the nature by taking suitable steps so that the damage done to the ecosystem is restored. • To avoid all anthropomorphic considerations, research facts about the habitat and wildlife are used to monitor the ongoing changes in flora and fauna. The project started initially as a Central Sector Scheme and the expenditure incurred by the states were provided by the Central Government till 1979-80. After this, the project had been given the status of Centrally Sponsored Scheme and the Centre and the States are sharing cost on a 50:50 basis. The Worldwide Fund for Nature and Natural Resources (WWF) is also extending financial and technical help. The overall administration and the progress of execution of the project is overseen by a Steering Committee appointed by the Government of India under the Chairman, Indian Board for Wildlife (IBWL). The execution of the project is done by the State Government and in each reserve, a Field Director does this with a team of suitable technical and field personnel. The Chief Conservator of Forests of State is responsible for the proper execution of the project. At the Centre, the Inspector General of Forests is directly responsible for the project, whereas the Director, Project Tiger conducts and coordinates the functions. Achievements: The achievements of Project Tiger are: i. Protection: In order to ensure effective protection through speedy mobility; the reserves have been provided with vehicles, jet boats, camels, etc. as per their requirements. The road network is also improved. Main access routes are controlled by manned or unmanned gates. In interior locations, outstation patrolcamps have been located from where field staff carries out intensive antipoaching patrols all over the reserve. A well-knit communication-system has also been installed comprising in wireless-sets and/or telephone-lines as an effective aid in communication of messages related to anti-poaching, fireprotection and animal-monitoring. These measures have proved very effective. ii. Fire Protection: Effective fire-protection has been successfully achieved in the reserves. Fire-breaks are maintained over the length of several thousand running kilometers besides footpaths, roads, etc. Several fire observation towers (watch towers) have been installed. iii. Disease Control: To prevent cattle diseases into wild population, inoculation of the cattle of the surrounding villages against contagious diseases has proved great help in preventing and controlling the epidemics in wild animals.

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iv. Shifting of Villages: Even the interior reserve areas had village settlements hindering in the development of the reserves. Their relocation outside the reserve was a delicate problem and involved not only sentiments but also humanitarian considerations. Hence, a well thought out plan was designed for finding out suitable and better agricultural lands. Complete facilities of new houses, drinking water, schools, etc. were offered with a promise of entire cost on shifting and rehabilitation to be borned by the project. This, along with sincere and intensive persuasion, met with the desired success. v. Water Development: The old waterholes were designed to be suitable for wild animals. Minimum need-based number of waterholes were developed. Construction of small dams, tanks, digging of seasonal waterholes, deepening of wells with pump and windmills fitting were done. vi. Grazing Control: Grazing had been completely stopped in the core areas and restrictly permitted in the buffer areas of the reserves. Cattle-camps inside the reserves have also been moved out. This greatly reduced the grazing incidence boosting the growth of leaves and fodders. vii. Habital Improvement: Besides raising check-dams; gully-plugging and contourtrenching have been carried out to discharge the twin functions of soilconservation and sub-soil water conservation. Eradication of unpalatable weeds has been done for improving the pastures in the over-grazed areas. A number of new waterholes have been also built up in some reserves. Complete protection from hunting, poaching, fires and grazing along with habitat improvement work have developed the environmental conditions along with propagation of wild animals and wide dispersal of prey and predator populations. This significant achievement is particularly encouraging because it meets the primary objective of the project. viii. Research: Various researches are carried out for improving the managementtechniques. ix. Population Estimation: As a result of effective protection and improvement in the habitat condition and capacity, there had been markable increase in population of all the species. x. Study Tours and Training: The staffs are sent on national and international tour and training in other national parks and reserves of repute for making their skills up-to-date. The success of project has been found tremendous and almost all aspects of the objectives have been achieved. Adequate results were obtained by controlling the grazing and fire; and through water management and habitatimprovement. The population of the tiger in all the reserves has increased considerably. Hence, there is need for reinforcing the project by enlarging the existing Tiger Projects/Reserves and constituting more reserves. B. PROJECT LION (GIR LION PROJECT)

The lion stands as top carnivore in the food chain of the ecosystem. The Indian race of lion (Panthera leo persica) is found only in the Gir Forest of Junagarh district in the Saurashtra peninsula of Gujarat State in the whole Asian continent and, hence, also called “Asiatic Lion”. Another race of lion (Panthera leo) is found in Africa and called “African Lion”.

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Though this race was previously ranged through similar semi-arid tract from Greece to North-East India roaming over vast area of northern and central portion of Indian sub-continent up to the Narbada river in south; but today it is only restricted in the Gir Forest of Gujarat State. Even in this very forest; due to merciless hunting, conversion of forest into agricultural land, uncontrolled cattle-grazing and spreading of infectious diseases through them, pressure of maldharis inside the forest, etc. hampered the habitat of this magnificent creature too much and subsequently declined its population reaching to the endangered stage. Observing the situation of Gir forest, it was discussed at the technical session of International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Recourses (IUCN) in New Delhi in November, 1969 towards the conservation of Asiatic Lion and its habitat and following resolutions were passed. i. The ecosystem of Gir Lion Sanctuary is progressively degenerating due to overgrazing of livestock entering inside the sanctuary. ii. Due to cattle grazing and browsing, the population of wild animals such as cheetal, sambhar, nilgai, and four-horned antelope, wild boar, etc. depleted and have become rare which are the natural preys of the lion. iii. Natural regeneration of trees decreased being very sparse. iv. Due to non-abundance of natural preys, the lion turned themselves as cattle lifters. v. As a result of the above reasons, the habitat of lion became unsustainable reaching the animals at critical stage. A number of wildlifers and ecologists all over the world were consulted to solve the problems and the Project Lion was initiated in 1972. The State Government gave guidelines to the Forest Department in management such as: a. To conserve Gir habitat, improve its health and quality as far as possible, increase its areas and maintain its aesthetic value. b. To encourage every kind of wildlife for its own sake specially the endangered lion. c. To exclude exotic plants and animals and preserve non-human elements of the ecosystem. d. To minimise human interference within the ecosystem. e. To provide recreational area for visitors. f. To modify working plan in the interest of wildlife, its habitat and watershed conservation rather than silvicultural revenue. g. To protect the habitat from over-grazing and lopping. h. To resettle the maldharis outside the sanctuary. i. To be controlled under a single authority in the field of management. j. To secure full co-operation of legislators, public and maldharis. k. To make it as a model of sound ecological practices for the similar areas. The above guidelines of the project were implemented in the same year. The area of the sanctuary was increased from 1265.1 to 1412.12 sq. km. in 1974. The central corezone of the sanctuary covering an area of 258.71 sq. km. was declared as National Park. Many other fruitful and effective practices were done like: • Fencing of periphery of the sanctuary by dry rubble wall of 1 metre height as the protective measure. • Raising of live hedges on either side of the rubble wall to prevent entry of cattle and illegal activities.

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Construction of barricades along the water sources to prevent entry of cattle. Providing check-posts across the road. Shifting of ail maldharis from the sanctuary and their resettlement outside it. Enhancement in areas of the sanctuary and national park.

Through the above practical practices and approaches, marvellous results were achieved and the population of lion began to increase year after year. C. ELEPHANT PROJECT

The project was started officially in 1991-92 but launched in 1993 by the Central Government to afford protection to the elephant. The census of elephant started in 1993. Nowadays, two species of elephants are found: 1. Indian Elephant (Elephas maximus) 2. African Elephant (Loxodonta africana) Indian elephant is comparatively smaller than the African and its pinna is also smaller. Indian elephants are distributed in Uttar Pradesh/ Uttarakhand, Bihar/ Jharkhand, West Bengal, Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Orissa, Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Karnataka. The elephant shows number of adaptations and variations. Canine teeth are absent. Incisor absent expect the second pair in the upper jaw which develops into tusks. The males have large tusks while in females they are scarcely protrude a few inches. In some males, the tusks are no longer than in females and these tuskless males are called Makhnas. Trunk or proboscis is the development of combined and lengthened nose and upper lip as a device for securing food and water. It has very poor visual power but very strong smell and audio power. It is found in herd. An adult elephant eats generally three quintals per day. It is totally herbivorous animal taking different types of grasses, juicy herbs, green leaves, twigs of the trees and its favourite food is bamboo and banana. They prefer to live in the forest where bamboo is found abundantly. They drink water daily and also require sufficient water for taking bath in pond, river, etc. They pour soil or soil-dust on their body through the trunk just after taking bath to avoid scratches over the skin in summer season (hot season). Elephants were extensively used as beast of burden, as transportation vehicle, and so on. In spite of these, they have been hunted for their tusks as ivory materials and export also. Hence, elephant catching was popular and an economic operation. As a result, its population declined very sharply. Protection of the elephant began with the Elephant Preservation Act of 1887. To make more effective, Elephant Project was started for protection and propagation of the animal with the general objectives: i. To identify the limiting factors of the habitat and to remove it by the management. ii. Systematic management plans. iii. To eliminate human exploitation and disturbance. iv. To build up the habitat to mitigate limiting factors. v. To build up the habitat by planting and propagating the favourite food plants of the elephant.

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To check the further depletion of its population, it is considered under the project that: • the habitat should be managed by applying scientific technologies to suit the animal as a shelter fulfilling their requirements. • there should be sufficient waterholes for the animal in the habitat. • there should be wild-path (corridor) of required width inside the jungle connecting one forest to the other so that the elephant can move and migrate smoothly. • Since the corridors of the elephant have been encroached/damaged at large; it is necessary to maintain the existing natural corridors, and simultaneously creation and maintenance of artificial corridors is must as a challenging task for the welfare of the elephant. • the law should be strictly followed regarding ban on hunting and trade of tusks of the elephant and should be modified time to time as and when required to make it more effective. • the habitat in all respects (foods, water and shelter) should be managed properly and scientifically as per the requirement of the time and place. Thus, through the project, habitat should be managed in such an effective manner that the elephant may take shelter peacefully inside the jungle which is its naturalhabitat; and in this way, we can check their hindrance, invasion, migration, etc. towards the village and agricultural fields. By managing the habitat in good and scientific way providing the sufficient facilities, the animals will be bound to live properly in their natural home without harming and killing the man and the crops, which is happening nowadays oftenly giving much tension and worry to our society and the government. Protection of agricultural crops against elephants is admittedly a difficult matter but it is worthwhile noting here the various methods that can be employed in this connection. a. Elephant-Proof Ditch: This must be about 8' to 9' wide-at the top and with steepy sloping sides meeting at the bottom in a V-shaped which must be at least 6' below the level of the ground. If the earth piled on the inside edge and a line of quickgrowing thorny trees like erythrina and semul are grown close together on the top and several strands of barbed wire fixed to them on the inside, the whole will be as nearly elephant-proof as anything can be. In the stockades constructed in Assam for catching elephants, such V-shaped trenches are dug on the inside of the enclosures and are effective in preventing even big elephants from applying their weight against the wall. b. Another method adopted from Burma is the planting of numerous sharpened bamboo stakes inclined at an angle on the outside of a trench-ridge protection wall. c. The use of fires, crackers, masals, etc. is another useful methods of scaring the elephants away from agricultural fields and villages. D. CROCODILE BREEDING PROJECT

In India, there are three species of crocodilians such as: i. The Mugger or Freshwater Swamp Crocodile (Crocodylus palustris): It has average adult size of 3.5 m inhabiting rivers, pools, ponds, village tanks, lakes, swamps and reservoirs.

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ii. The Gharial (Gavialis gangeticus): It is the sole living member of the family Gavialidae. It has unique long snout. It has large body size of more than 7 m. It is a riverine species found in large rivers like Ganga, Brahmaputra, Mahanadi, Kosi, Gandak, etc. of the north Indian Himalayan-fed river systems. iii. The Salt water or Estuarine Crocodile (Crocodylus porosus): It grows more than 7 m and is restricted to the coastal mangrove area in the salt water (sea). Unfortunately, all the three species have passed through large-scale hunting for their skins resulting decline worldwide in the post-war period largely due to demand for hides by the luxury leather market. The problem continued around poaching and destruction of the remaining crocodile-resource by fishery activities either direct or indirect, lethal effect of set nylon nets being used in fishing, disappearances of habitat of the sand-banks (which is essential for gharial nesting) replaced by concrete embankments, loss of riverine-habitats by dam construction for irrigation or hydroelectric schemes. As a result, these crocodilian species came on the verge of extinction. Under the situation, Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 listed these species under Schedule-l which affords total protection. Project Crocodile Breeding and Management arose as the report given by FAO expert, Dr. H.R. Bustard in 1974 stating “Only management will restore the crocodile quickly and it appears that without management the gharial will become extinct”. The actual project was undertaken from 1st April, 1975. It was pointed out that the population of crocodiles, which include a high level of fecundity as well as long reproductive life, could rapidly build up their numbers under effective control and sound management practices. It was, therefore, important to protect the eggs and hatchlings under the Work Plan which comprised the following objectives: i. To continue the task of locating the best crocodile areas within the country. This phase had, to a large extent, been carried out during the mission. ii. Collection of eggs as soon after laying as possible and transporting them to a central protection area for hatchery incubation, rearing the resultant young until they were of a size for release back into the wild. iii. To build up to required level of technical competence in order to achieve the above mentioned second objective. iv. To locate, set-up, and manage a network of sanctuaries in ideal habitat for all three crocodilian species. v. To build up additional expertise not only in the operation of crocodile sanctuaries but also in the management of wildlife sanctuaries throughout the country. This approach was accepted by the Government of India and the consultant was invited to implement the proposed Project. The work started on April 1, 1975 in Orissa. Gharial eggs were collected and hatched for the first time in captivity in the world at Tikerpada, Dhenkanal district, Orissa in June, 1975. A small batch was also hatched at Kukrail near Lucknow in the same year. The Tikerpada hatched gharials were successfully reared for subsequent release back into the wild. At the same time, a Saltwater Crocodile Project was initiated in the tidal mangrove forest at Bhitar Kanika, Cuttack district, Orissa and a Mugger Project and Captive Breeding Project were also initiated, the latter for captive-breeding of all three species were located at Nandankanan Biological Park, Orissa. These all projects were started by the Government of India under the help and guidance of FAO and UNDP. The Head Office of the Project is at Hyderabad. The project has main functions such as:

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i. Conservation and Management of Crocodiles and Development of Sanctuary: For the conservation of crocodile/mugger, their eggs are collected and hatched and reared in sanctuaries and released in rivers after attaining proper length. With the development of the husbandry centres, steps have been taken to gazette and manage sanctuaries in ideal habitat areas for all three crocodilian species into which individuals reared in. Various husbandry centres could be released when they attain a length of 1.2 m. The first sanctuaries to be gazetted in the country were Satkoshia George Sanctuary and Bhitar Kanika Sanctuary, both in Orissa; Tristate Chambal Sancturay of Madhya Pradesh-Rajasthan-Uttar Pradesh and the Katerniaghat Sanctuary in northern U.P. (Uttarakhand). With the exception of Bhitar Kanika, declared for the saltwater crocodile, these sanctuaries were all for gharial, which due to its critically endangered status, was given prime attention during the early stages of the project. The management of sanctuaries is, of course, a long-term task but immediate steps were taken to try to cut down disturbances which resulted in the loss of many animals (for instance, fishing with nylon gill-nets was immediately banned in all four sanctuaries mentioned above to implement protection and to make a start on implementing management plans). ii. Release: Young crocodiles of size 1.2 m are released back into ideal areas of the natural-habitat in small batches in early spring. Selected areas are specifically managed in the sanctuaries. The methodology of release is important for their future survival. It includes the following cases: a. Location of Release: Ideal habitat areas should be located where they will be free from disturbances. b. Timing of Release: It is important that the release should be carried out at a time when water levels are low so that the young crocodile can gain on intimate knowledge of their future home range prior to the onset of the monsoon floods. The ideal time in south India is early February and this may be delayed by 4–6 weeks in the extreme north of the country. iii. Training: The staff of the sanctuary are trained for proper breeding and propagation of different species of crocodiles of the sanctuary. Rehabilitation of Crocodiles: Crocodiles breed in the end of winter. In the end of March or in the first week of April, the pregnant female makes 10–15 circular ditches of radius 30–50 cm in the sand of the river’s bank. Out of these 10–15 ditches, she lays whole of its eggs in one ditch and covers all the ditches by sands. The aim to construct more than one ditch is to protect the eggs from predators like jackals, etc. At a time, the female lays up to 100 eggs. Male and female crocodiles also watch the ditch in the night. Under the effects of heat and moisture of the sand, the embryos develop and hatch in 60–70 days (incubation-period) duration. The timing of hatching of youngs from the eggs is acknowledged by the female by hearing special sound emitted by them. On hearing such sound, the female takes out the youngs by removing sand of the ditch. The youngs are removed by the female from the unhatched eggs also by breaking it. After this, the female brings the youngs into the water keeping them on its back and looks after them till next breeding-season. But even taking so much care, large number of youngs are eaten by fishes, jackals, birds and crocodiles itself and very less number of youngs survive in nature. To minimize the loss of young ones, the digging of ditches by the females are watched. Every year in the middle of February, the field staff of the Crocodile Project go away to the remote stretches of rivers in an attempt to locate new breeding groups of animals.

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The nests are then located systematically and guarded constantly. After one month of the laying, the eggs are removed from the ditches and packed in sand in wooden boxes and transported to the rearing centres very carefully without disturbing the orientation of eggs as found in the nest. For this, the lower surfaces of eggs are marked at the time of removal from the nests. After their transportation from the wild, the eggs are placed in sand-filled cubicles of 1 m × 1 m × 1 m size at 30 cm depth hatchery. The temperature and moisture of the sand of the hatchery is kept at par with the natural sand. The most important factor for ideal incubation is the maintenance of moisture and temperature at the required level. The babies hatch after 60–70 days. At the time of hatching, there comes sound and, in such condition, the sand of the upper part is removed. When the babies come out from the eggs, they are kept in the small pools filled with pure water and are provided with fishes. The pools are cleaned every third day and sand is also cleaned around the pools. The youngs come out of the water for basking on the sand and go to the water when heat is more. According to the season, they are supplied the fishes as food 2 to 5% of their weight. Being cold-blooded animal, they take less food in the winter and more in the summer. As per this theory, they are provided fishes of 2% in winter, 3% in March, 4% in April and 5% in May of their weight. At the age of three years, they attain length of about 2 metres and 20 kg weight. At this stage, they are released in the rivers keeping 1:3 ratio of male and female. Gharial rehabilitation started in 1977 with the release of 26 individuals into Mahanadi River, Orissa. The first release of mugger took place on 7th February, 1977 with 4 individuals released at Ethipothalla, Andhra Pradesh. The first saltwater crocodile release occurred in Bhitar Kanika Wildlife Sanctuary in Orissa on 27th April, 1977. Differences between Indian Crocodile and Mugger i. The snout of crocodile is longer, whereas it is comparatively smaller and triangular in mugger. ii. On the proximal part of snout in male crocodile, there is a pitcher-like structure and that’s why it is called “Gharial”. Its function is not best known but assumed that it produces resonance-sound to attract the opposite sex for the purpose of mating. The mugger is devoid of such pitcher-like structure. iii. The maximum length of crocodile is found up to 10 metres but the mugger is generally of 3–4 metres and maximally up to 6 metres.

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13 Classification

T

he animal kingdom includes more than ten lakh animal species. They are different in shape, size behaviour, life-cycle, etc. Some are unicellular and microscopic, while others are multicellular and huge. Some are devoid of skeleton (bones), while others possess skeleton. In such cases, it is very difficult to study them. To remove such difficulties, the scientists have laboured hard and classified them on the basis of similarities and dissimilarities. First of all, they divided them into two major groups, viz. sub-kingdoms such as invertebrata and vertebrata. Afterwards, groups divided into different phyla (Singular, phylum) and subsequently, further, divided into order, family and lastly into genus and species. These all classifications have been done according to the evolutionary trends for better apprehension. Each species has been named by a definite scientific name (zoological name) on the basis of binomial nomenclature to be recognized worldwide. From wildlife management point of view, the vertebrate group is important which has been divided into mainly five classes such as Pisces (fishes), Amphibia, Reptilia, Aves (birds) and Mammalia. Out of these, mammals are the most important in the context of wildlife.

PISCES

Fishes are cold-blooded craniate, primarily adopted for aquatic life; with paired fins supported by dermal fin rays, and with gills born on true gill-arches. Characters i. They are clod-blooded (poikilothermic) craniates which are more completely adapted to aquatic life than any other craniate. ii. The body is streamlined to facilitate the passage through water. iii. The skin is covered with scales, dermal denticles or bony plates. iv. The tail is muscular and is used for propulsion. v. The paired limbs are absent. Instead, paired pectoral and pelvic fins are usually present together with median and anal fins. They are supported by bony dermal fin-rays. They regulate the swimming. vi. The endoskeleton may be cartilaginous or bony. vii. The alimentary canal is specialized with very short pharynx and definite stomach. In bony fishes, there are many caecal appendages connected with the 200

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alimentary canal. In many, the gut ends in cloaca, whereas in others distinct anus lies in front of the genital and urinary apertures. Paired nostrils are present which do not open into the pharynx except lungfishes and lobbed-finned fishes. There are no external and middle ears. Only internal ear is present having three semi-circular canals. The lateral line system is prominently developed. The organs are lodged in closed canals, sunk beneath the surface. The heart is venous with one auricle and one ventricle. It pumps the venous blood to the gills for aeration. Renal and hepatic systems are present. The respiratory organs are gills, born on gill-arches. They open outside by gillslits which may be covered by an operculum (Teleostomi). The gill-slits are never more than seven pairs. Usually only five pairs are found. Accessory respiratory organs may be present. There are ten pairs of cranial nerves and the kidneys are mesonephrous. Sexes are separate and the development is direct. Gonads possess true ducts. Amnion and allantois are absent in the embryonic stage.

Broadly, the fishes are classified into cartilaginous fishes (Chondrichthyes/ Elasmobranchi) and bony fishes (Osteichthyes/Teleostomi). There are a large number of fish species (about 20,000) and here some important Orders are mentioned: l. Pleurotremata (sharks): It includes all sharks and dog fishes. They are marine and carnivorous. Example: Scoliodon, etc. 2. Siluriformes (cat fishes): They are without exoskeleton of scales. They live in the mud of ponds, water reservoirs, pools, etc. Example: Clarias, heteropneustes, wallago, freshwater shark, etc. 3. Cypriniformes (carps): It is the largest order of fish. Its origin is supposed in our country. The speciality of these fishes is that the teeth are found in their neck instead of mouth. Example: Labeo, catla, barbus, cirrhina, etc. AMPHIBIA

They are amphibious tetrapods with moist, soft skin and without external scales. Characters i. They are aquatic or semi-aquatic, i.e. amphibious in habit. Even when they live far away from water, they come to the water to deposit their eggs. They were the first vertebrate who could lead a terrestrial existence. ii. They are confined to the torrid and temperate zones. In the temperate zones, they hibernate during winters. iii. The skin is soft, moist and glandular which possesses no exoskeleton; if scales are found they are hidden in the skin. iv. Paired fins are absent; if present, they are not supported by skeletal support. v. The limbs are present which are pentadactyle or five-toed. vi. The skeleton is mostly bony.

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vii. Skull possesses two occipital condyles, with which the skull articulates with the first vertebra. The pectoral and pelvic girdles are very strong. viii. The heart is three-chambered, the auricle is completely divided into right and left auricles. ix. The aortic arches are symmetrical on the two sides. There are ten pairs of craninal nerves. x. Lateral-line organs are wanting in the adult. xi. The collumella auris is present. xii. The functional kidney of the adult is mesonephrous. xiii. There are no copulatory organs in the male. xiv. Most of the species undergo metamorphosis, the young ones living in water respire by gills. They later disappear in the adult except in some lower amphibians where they are retained throughout the life. xv. There is no amnion and allantois. Amphibians lay the eggs once in a year. The female visits to the water for laying the eggs which are thousands in number. From the eggs, tadpole larvae hatch out which respire through the gills like fish. In young stage, they are vegetarian but the adults are insectivorous. Amphibia includes frogs as the chief species. REPTILLA

Reptiles are amniotes with dry and scally skin. Characters i. Cold-blooded, terrestrial craniates with two pairs of pentadactyle limbs. ii. Skin is dry, rough, and non-glandular, usually with epidermal scales or scutes. iii. Skull possesses one or more temporal vacuities and single occipital condyle. iv. Parasphenoid is reduced or absent. Sternum is highly developed. v. Heart is imperfectly four-chambered with two auricles and a partially divided ventricle. The latter is completely divided in crocodiles. vi. The aortic arches are symmetrical. vii. RBC are nucleated, biconvex and oval. viii. Renal portal system is reduced. ix. Respiration always by lungs. x. Central nervous system is advanced with an increased cerebrum. xi. Twelve pairs of cranial nerves. xii. The lateral line system is entirely absent; but the eyes, nose and ears are better developed. xiii. Kidneys are metanephric. xiv. Fertilization is internal. xv. Eggs are large with much yolk; they are always laid on land and never in water. xvi. Segmentation is meroblastic, foetal membranes (amnion and allantois) are present in development. There is no metamorphosis. Its important Orders are as follows: 1. Chelonia (Testudinata): It includes all types of aquatic and terrestrial tortoises. 2. Squamata: It includes all types of lizards.

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3. Ophidia (Serpentes): It is largest Order of reptiles. It includes all types of snakes. Snakes feed on insects, frogs, birds, fishes, eggs and even other snakes. 4. Crocodilia: It includes crocodiles (Gharial and Mugger). AVES

They are amniotes with feathers, scales persist on legs and feet bearing claws, the anterior appendages modify for flight in most birds (craniates) but in ratites, vestigial or absent. Aves are called “glorified reptiles”. Characters i. Aves are warm-blooded (stenothermic) bipeds. ii. The epidermal exoskeleton is represented by feathers and a few scales on the legs similar to those of the reptiles. iii. The fore-limbs are modified as wings. The hind-limbs are attached forward to balance the weight of the body. iv. The endoskeleton is mostly spongy containing air cavities so that the body becomes light. The bones of the skull undergo early ankylosis. Only the lower jaw, quadrate, columella and hyoid are movable. There is only one occipital condyle. The premaxillae is large and form most of the beak. In modern birds, there are no teeth. v. Most of the vertebrae have heterocercal centra. The cervical vertebrae have small ribs fused with the transverse processes. The thoracic vertebrae are joined together. A fused synsacrum is formed by the union of lumbar, sacral and a few caudal vertebrae. The terminal vertebrae usually use to form plough-shaped pygostyle. vi. There is well-developed sternum with the keel. In flying birds, the clavicles are usually well-developed and are connected by an interclavicle to form furcula. vii. Ribs are provided with uncinate processes. viii. The fore-limb has only three digits. ix. The three metacarpals are fused and there are only two separate carpals, others fuse with the metacarpals to form the carpo-metacarpus. The thumb is often clawed. x. The pelvic girdle is fused with the sacrum throughout its length. The ilium is long and extends far in front and behind the acetabulum. The pubis and ischium are directed backwards and there are neither the pubic nor ischiatic symphyses. xi. In the hind limb, the fibula is incomplete and almost united to the tibia. xii. The proximal tarsals are fused with the tibia to form a tibio-tarsus. The distal tarsals are fused with second, third, and fourth metatarsals to form a tarsometatarsus. The first metatarsal is free. xiii. In the digestive system, the gullet is dilated into a crop and the stomach is divided into a glandular proven triculus and muscular gizzard. Rectal caeca are present at the junction of the intestine and rectum. A cloaca is also present. xiv. The non-expansible lungs are provided with air-sacs which may extend into the bones. The trachea has bony-rings. A special vocal organ in the form of syrinx is present. xv. The heart is four-chambered; the right auriculo-ventricular valve is muscular. There is only right aortic-arch. The renal portal system is not well-developed. The red blood Corpuscles (RBC) are oval and nucleated.

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xvi. The brain has large cerebellum and cerebral hemispheres and the optic lobes are laterally displaced. The eyes are usually large and have sclerotic plates and pecten. The olfactory organs are poorly developed. The auditory organ has large curved cochlea. xvii. The kidneys are three-lobed. The ureters open into the cloaca. There is no urinary bladder. The right ovary usually atriphies while the right oviduct is rudimentary. xviii. Birds are all oviparous and lay large eggs containing large amount of yolk and albumen. xix. They have double shell membrane and calcareous shell. During development, the embryo develops embryonic membranes such as amnion, allantois and yolk sac. There are about 8700 species of birds in the world. Some important Orders are as follows: 1. Struthioniformes (ostriches): This Order includes true Ostriches found in the plains and deserts of Africa. They lay very large eggs. Example: Ostriches. 2. Pelecaniformes (pelicans, cormorants, darters): These are large aquatic birds. Example: Pelicans, cormorants, darters. 3. Ciconiiformes (storks, herons): They mostly live in marshy places having great power of flight. Example: Storks, herons. 4. Phoenicopteriformes (flamingoes): It includes large sized and long-legged marshy birds feeding on fishes. Example: Flamingoes. 5. Anseriformes (ducks and swans): They are aquatic and have broad and depressed beak. Example: Ducks and swans. 6. Falconiformes (falcons and hawks): They have sharp-edged, strong, and curved beaks, hooked at the extremity. Toes adapted for perching and bear powerful claws suited for seizing and tearing the prey. They mostly feed on small birds or mammals, but vultures feed on dead animals (carrion). Example: Falcons, vultures, kites, hawks, eagles, buzzards. 7. Galliformes (Game birds): The Order includes mostly terrestrial birds which scratch ground in search of grains, insects, etc. Example: Peacock, Jungle-fowl of India (Gallus gallus), etc. 8. Gruiformes (rails, coots, bustards, cranes): Most of them are shore-birds frequently the edges of rivers and lakes having weal power of flight. They feed on fishes, reptiles, molluscs, etc. Example: Rails (Gaillinula, Amaurornis), coots (fulica atra), bustards (Ostis, Neotis), cranes (Sarus crane, Antegone antegone). 9. Cucuiliformes (cuckoos): They have long-pointed wings. Beak is gently curved and deeply cleft feeding on fruits. They usually build nests. Example: Koel (Eudynamis) which lays its eggs in the crow’s nest where they are incubated. 10. Coraciiformes (bee-eaters, king-fishers): They are mostly tropical with bright plumage. Their anterior toes are united. Example: Bee-eaters, king-fishers.

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11. Piciformes (woodpeckers): This Order includes strongly build and wood-boring woodpeckers which hunt on insects from under the bark of the tree. The beak is hard, chisel-shaped and powerful. Example: Woodpeckers. 12. Psittaciformes (parrots): They are arboreal in habit. It is cosmopolitan but is mainly found in warm climate. It mainly feeds on fruits. No nests are made. Example: Parrots, cockatoas, etc. 13. Strigiformes (owl): It includes owls which are nocturnal hunting small mammals like squirrels, rats and mice. Example: Owls. 14. Caprimulgiformes (goat-suckers): They are nocturnal and owl-like in appearance. They inhabit forests and prey on insects during flight. Example: Caprimulgus (found on the plains throughout India and Ceylon). 15. Micropodiformes (humming birds): This Order includes humming birds which are very small birds feeding on insects. Example: Micropodus (Indian swift), cypsilurus (Palm swift) humming birds found in India. 16. Pterocletiformes (grouses): These are commonly known as sand-grouses and have immense power of flight. They are usually found in dry sparsely wooded sandy semi-desert plains. Example: Grouses. 17. Columbiformes (pigeons): The Order includes pigeons which are grain or fruit eating birds with weak and slender beak. Example: Pigeons. 18. Turniciformes (quails): It includes small birds like bustard quails. Hind toe is absent. They feed on seeds, tender-shoots and insects. After laying the eggs, the female goes in search of a fresh mate so to make the maximum use of the breeding season and the eggs are left to be incubated by the male. Example: Turnix. 19. Passeriformes (crow): This Order includes more than half of the total number of living species. The feet are adapted for perching as three of the toes are directed forwards and one backwards. Many species built elaborate nests. Example: Crow, etc. MAMMALIA

They are amniotes with hair and mammary glands. Characters i. Mammals are warm-blooded animals with a hairy covering. The hair are of epidermal structures which serve to prevent the loss of heat from the body. The hair may form a thick covering for the body or may be sparse. Hair are never entirely absent. They are scanty in Sirenians and Hippopotamus and absent in Cetacea in which they are restricted to embryonic-stage. ii. The skin has sweat glands and sebaceous glands. In the female, milk-giving mammary glands develop as specialization of skin glands. iii. The skeleton of mammals shows a few characteristic points. The bones of the skull are firmly united by sutures which generally persist. Only the lower jaw,

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iv.

v.

vi. vii.

viii.

ix. x.

xi. xii.

xiii.

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the ear ossicles and the hyoid are movable. There are two occipital condyles as in Amphibia. The prefrontals, postfrontals, quadratojugals, supraorbitals and basipterygoid are absent. The lower jaw on each side consists of a single bone which works on the squamosal. The hyoid consists of a median basihyal and two pairs of bones connected with it. The anterior horn is composed of three segments—the ceratohyal, epihyal and stylohyal. The posterior horn consists of a thyrohyal which connects the basihyal with the thyroid cartilage. The vertebrae have terminal ossification or epiphysis. The centra of the vertebrae have flat or slightly rounded faces. There are usually seven cervical vertebrae. The coracoid is usually represented by a small process from the scapula and sometimes by a small ossification in the glenoid cavity. The sternum includes a presternum with which the clavicles articulate, a mesosternum divided into segments with which the sternal parts of the ribs articulate and xiphisternum which is cartilaginous. The acetabulum is usually completely ossified. The digits in the fore and hind limbs are never more than five but are often reduced. When the digits are reduced, there is usually an elongation and fusion of the metacarpals and metatarsals to form the common bones. While walking, the whole of the lower surface of the hand and the foot may rest on the ground (plantigrade) or only the two distal joints may rest on the ground (digitigrade) or only the last joint in each limb (unguligrade). There are also intermediate conditions like semiplantigrade and semidigitigrade. There is generally a distinct neck between the head and the trunk. The vertebral column is in most cases prolonged into a tail. A complete muscular partition or diaphragm separates the chest-cavity containing heart and lungs from the abdominal cavity. The diaphragm is of great importance in respiration. The alimentary canal ends separately from the urinogenital aperture. The dentition is heterodont, having four different types of teeth. The brain shows a bigger grade of evolution. The cerebral hemispheres have usually the convoluted surface and always cover the optic-thalami and opticlobes and in higher forms the cerebellum as well. The commissural system is well developed being specially represented by a large corpus callosum except in monotremes and marsupials in which the anterior commissure is large and the corpus is absent or very small. There is also an important set of longitudinal fibres called the forenix. Another characteristic of mammals is the differentiation of an area of cerebral cortex which has been called the neopallium which is the reception area of optic, auditory and other stimuli, the area of associate memory and of attentive manipulations. The heart is four-chambered and there is only one aortic trunk on the left side. The red blood corpuscles (R.B.C.) are non-nucleated and appear as slightly biconcave discs, circular in outline. There is no renal portal system. The lungs are invested by pleural sacs, lying in the chest cavity. Within the lungs, the branchial tube fork repeatedly into finer and finer branches. At the top of the trachea, there is a complex larynx with the vocal cords.

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xv. The kidneys are generally compact and rounded bodies. The ureter, except in monotremes, open into the bladder. The outlet or urethra of the bladder unites in the male with the genital duct to form a urinogenital canal. In the female, except in monotremes and a few others, the urethra and the genital duct open into common vestibule. xvi. In the primitive mammals, the testes are abdominal but in the majority they descend permanently into a single or paired scrotal sacs lying behind the penis. xvii. The ovaries are small. Except in monotremes, the genital ducts of the female are differentiated into fallopian tubes which catch the ova, the uterus where youngs develop, and vagina which ends in the urinogenital aperture. In monotremata, the two ducts are simple and open separately into the cloaca. In metatheria, there are two uteri and two vaginae. In eutheria, the uterine regions are more or less united and the vaginal regions are always completely fused. xviii. In prototheria, the eggs are large and rich in yolk. In others, they are small and without any yolk. In monotremes, the cleavage is meroblastic while in others it is holoblastic. xix. There are two foetal membranes—the amnion and allantois—both of which share in forming the placenta of eutherians. xx. Monotremes are oviparous, the marsupials bring forth their youngs prematurely after a short gestation, while in eutherians a true allantoic placenta may be present which provides nourishment to the developing embryo. xxi. Practically in all the mammals, the youngs for a longer or shorter period are dependent upon the milk secreted by the mammary-glands of the mother. Class mammalia has been divided into three sub-classes like Prototheria, Metatheria and Eutheria: 1. S.CI. Prototheria (Monotremata): They are very small group of primitive egg-laying mammals restricted to Australia and the neighbouring island of Tasmania and New China. Example: Ornithorhynchus, Echidna. 2. S.CI. Metatheria (Marsupialia): With the exception of the American Opossum, all the marsupials are the native of Australia. They have marsupium or brood-pouch in which immature young born is kept and fed with milk by the mother. Example: Opossum, Banded ant-eater, kangaroo, etc. 3. S.CI. Eutheria: They are provided with true allantoic placenta and the embryos are retained in the uterus till an advanced stage. From wildlife point of view, the important Orders of Eutherians are as follows: i. Insectivora: They are the most primitive small eutherians. Example: Hedgehog, moles, shrews. ii. Chiroptera: These are the only mammals possessing the power of flight. The fore-limbs are modified as wings. They have been divided into two Sub-orders: a. Microchiroptera: It includes insectivorous and carnivorous bats. Though they are comparatively smaller in size but some are bigger in size even than megachiroptera. Example: Horseshoe bat (insectivorous), vampire bat (carnivorous).

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b. Megachiroptera: They are vegetarian bats (fruit eaters) and generally larger in size. Example: Flying-fox bat, short-nosed fruit bat. iii. Edentata (Xenarthra): They are arboreal mammals passing their whole life among the branches to which they hang. They are solitary, nocturnal, vegetarian animals being sluggish in nature and are found in South and Central America. Example: Sloths, etc. iv. Rodentia: The rodents are represented in all parts of the world. They are typically vegetarian. The incisors are chisel-shaped. There are no canines and there is a space known as diastema, between incisors and premolars. Example: Squirrel, porcupine, rat, mice, rabbit, etc. v. Carnivora: This Order is considered a highly specialized offshoot of insectivora. It includes more than 600 species. They are carnivorous in nature feeding on animal diet and the most typical forms of prey and devour the warm flesh of other animals. Most are fierce animals with keen senses and quick intelligence. The teeth are always rooted and canines are strong and sharp. The incisors are small and always three on each side in each jaw. The last premolar in the upper jaw and the first molar in the lower jaw have blade like cups called caranassial teeth. The important Families are: a. Felidae: It includes the most specialized forms and exclusively adapted for a flesh diet. The canines are large and the molars are reduced to 1/1. The caranassial teeth are well-developed. The limbs are digitigrade and claws retractile. Example: Lion, tiger, leopard (panther), snow leopard, cats, leopard cat, flying cat, jungle cat, desert cat, caracal, cheetah (now extinct from India), etc. b. Viverridae: The family includes old world forms like civets. They are comparatively small in size and have long head and body with pointed muzzle. Most of them have a scent gland beneath the tail. Example: Civets (small Indian civet, common palm civet or toddy cat, Himalayan palm civet), etc. c. Herpestidae: They are like viverridae but the difference is that they attack on prey openly and directly while the animals of felidae and viverridae families do not attack their prey openly but by hiding. Example: Mongoose. d. Hyaenidae: Four digits in the fore and hind limbs. Claws short. The family is represented by hyaena of Africa and South Asia. Only striped-hyaena is found in India. Its front body is bigger and strong but the posterior part of the body is weak and that is why it is unable to kill its prey and feed on the carrion of the prey killed by other carnivores. Example: Hyaena, striped-hyaena. e. Canidae: Digitigrade, claws are not retractile. The paroccipital processes are long. Legs are long and slender. The caecum is small. Example: Wolf, jackal, dog, fox, etc. f. Ursidae: Five digits in fore and hind limbs. The molars have broad tuberculated crowns and are used for grinding. Caecum is absent. They have omnivorous diet. Example: Sloth bear, brown bear, black bear, etc.

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g. Mustelidae: They have in general a long neck, slender flexible body and short limbs. Example: Otter, Badger, Weasel, etc. vi. Ungulata: This is the largest order which includes all the hoofed-mammals. They are herbivorous. It is divided into two Sub-orders such as Artiodactyla and Perissodactyla. A. Artiodactyla: They have even number of digits in both fore and hind limbs. The premolars and molars are unlike and are generally bunodont or selenodont. The stomach is complicated and caecum is small. It has the following important Families: a. Hippopotamidae: The skin is very thick with a few hair restricted to the snout, head, neck and tail. They spend the day in the rivers and lakes and at night come on land for grazing herbivorous. There is no caecum. Example: Hippopotamus. b. Suidae: The important animal of this Family is wild boar which is found in the whole India. Nostrils are terminal and the snout is mobile. There are four digits but only the third and the fourth reach the ground while the animal walks. Example: Wild boar (bears and pigs). c. Giraffidae: The family is represented by Giraffe. The tall animal is notable for elongated cervical vertebrae (neck) and long limbs. Herbivorous animal. Example: Giraffe. d. Bovidae: This is the largest family of Artiodactyla including all wild and domestic cows, oxes, buffalos, bison, sheep, goats, antelopes and gazelles. Each hoof is divided into two parts. The fifth and second digits may be absent. They are herbivorous and, hence, their teeth are adapted for the purpose. The upper incisor teeth are absent. The stomach is divided into four parts. The horns are not deciduous and persist throughout the life. They are usually present in the both sexes though larger in males. The horns are made up of two parts. One part is internal (core of bone) and arises from the skull bone and the other outer part is the cover and hollow (hollow-sheath) which can be detached from the internal part. The horns may be erect, semilunar or wrinkled but do not have branches. The family has been divided into following Sub-families: i. Bovinae: It includes domestic as well as wild cows and allies. Example: Cow, ox, buffalo, Indian bison (Gaur), wild buffalo, yak, etc. ii. Caprinae: It includes wild and domestic goats and its allied. Example: Goat, sheep (Ibex, Markhor, Tahr, Nayan, Bharal, Shapu or Urial), etc. iii. Antelopinae: They resemble with bovinae and caprinae but have some specialities. It is supposed that two offshoots like bovinae and caprinae evolved from antelopinae stalk. Example: Antelopes (Tibetan antelope or chiru, blackbuck or Indian antelope), gazelles (chinkara or Indian gazelle), etc.

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iv. Tragelaphinae: They differ from antelopinae bearing comparatively smaller horns without rings as well as females are devoid of horns. Example: Blue bull, four-horned antelope (chowsingha). v. Rupicaprinae: These are the animals between caprinae and antelopinae. Example: Goral, serow, etc. Differences between antelopinae and bovinae No. Antelopinae

Bovinae

1.

The horns are generally long, more or less cylindrical, and often lyre-shaped and marked with prominent rings.

The horns are neither so long nor ringed.

2.

The internal bony parts (core-bone) of the horns are entirely solid.

The internal part of the horn is honeycombed with air-spaces (porous) as in oxen, goats and sheep.

3.

Generally have a fissure beneath each eye in which lachrymal gland is found. Outwardly the gland takes the form of a vertical slit of black and nearly hairless skin opening into a deep hair-lined, perforated pocket into which the secretion of the underlying gland exudes.

There is neither such fissure nor lachrymal gland.

4.

In antelopinae (except gazelles), large inguinal glands are found between the hooves supposed to be a means of communication.

In bovinae, such glands are absent.

5.

The horns may or may not be present in females.

The horns are generally present in both the sexes.

Differences between antelopes and gazelles No. Antelopes

Gazelles

1.

Beneath each eye, there is a fissure in which lachrymal gland is found.

Such fissure and gland is absent.

2.

The horns may or may not be present in females.

Horns are found in both sexes, though sometimes absent in females as exception.

3.

Horns are cylindrical, pointed at tips, lyre-shaped and with prominent rings.

Horns are though seems to be erect by front view in appearance but they are actually “S”-shaped which can be observed by side view. In males horns are rough, and smooth in females. Horns are ringed.

4.

There are inguinal glands between the hooves.

Such glands are not found.

5.

There is no tuft of hair on knees.

A tuft of hair growing on knees is the characteristic of gazelles.

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e. Cervidae: This is commonly known as deer family. The upper canines are usually present in both sexes. The horns present are called antlers which are deciduous and usually confined to the males which are the outgrowth of the frontal bones. There is no gall bladdar except musk deer. Example: Deer (spotted deer or cheetal, swamp deer, barking deer, hog deer, mouse deer, musk deer, brown-antlered deer, hangul, etc.). B. Perissodactyla: They have odd (uneven) number of digits in both fore and hind limbs. They are herbivorous. Premolars and molars teeth form a continuous series with broad transversely ridged crowns. The stomach is simple, the caecum is large and sacculated. There is no gall bladder. There are no horns. The two important Families are: a. Equidae: They have only one (third) as the functional digit. Tail is long and hair begin from close to the base of tail or half way down. The incisors are chisel-shaped. Example: Horse, ass, wild ass, zebra. b. Rhinocerotidae: They are large heavy ungulates, shy and nocturnal fond of living in water and mud. They are herbivorous. The skin is very thick with scanty hair. One or two median horns grow as huge waste from the snout and forehead. In India, only great one-horned rhinocerus is found as the representative of this family. Example: Rhinoceros. Differences between cervidae and bovidae No. Cervidae

Bovidae

1. Like antelopes, there is fissure beneath each eye having Lachrymal gland.

Such fissure and gland is absent.

2. They possess antlers

They possess horns.

3. The antlers are solid.

The horn consists of two parts, a hollowsheath or outer cover and an internal core of bone (bone-core) arising from the skull.

4. The antlers shed and regrow periodically/ annually.

The horns are permanent and persist throughout the life.

5. The antlers are usually present only in males.

The horns are found generally in both sexes.

6. The antlers in early stage (newly growing) have outwardly velvet sheath which is cast off on maturity through rubbing by the animal.

No such velvet sheath is found on the horns in early stage or any stage.

7. Regrowth of antlers occurs.

Regrowth of horns does not occur.

8. Generally antlers are ramified.

Generally horns are not ramified.

9. The canine teeth are present usually in the upper jaw.

There are no incisor teeth in the upper jaw.

10. There is no gall bladder (except Musk deer.)

It is present constantly.

11. The lateral digits on all four feet are fully developed.

The lateral digits on all four feet are less developed than cervidae.

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Differences between cervidae and antelopinae No. Cervidae

Antelopinae

1.

They possess antlers.

They possess horns.

2.

The antlers are solid and usually found only in males.

The horns, like bovidae, are formed of two parts, viz. internal bone-core and outer cover-sheath and sometimes found in females also.

3.

The antlers shed and regrow periodically/ annually. The newly growing antlers are covered with velvet sheath which become dry on maturity and are cast off by the animal through rubbing.

The horns are permanent persisting throughout the life and no velvet structure is found at any stage.

4.

There are no prominent rings on the antlers.

There are prominent rings on the horns.

5.

There are canine teeth in upper jaw.

There are no canine teeth in upper jaw.

Differences between horns and antlers No. Horns

Antlers

1.

The antlers are entirely solid which are the outgrowth of the frontal bones, except temporary covering of skin (velvet-sheath) at newly growing stage.

The horns are formed of two parts, viz. an internal bony structure (bone-core) arising from the skull bone and an outer hollow cover (cover-sheath) which can be detached from the internal part but not shedding naturally.

Generally found in male only. They are found in Family Cervidae of Order Artiodactyla

2.

Generally found in both the sexes.

3.

They are found in Family Bovidae of Order Artiodactyla.

4.

They are permanent persisting throughout the life.

They are shed and regrow periodically annually generally after the rutting season but shedding differs from place to place and locality to locality.

No velvet sheath is found on horns in the growing, stage or at any stage.

The newly growing antlers are covered temporarily with skin having velvet-sheath which becomes dry on maturity and is cast off by the animal through rubbing.

5.

Generally, antlers are ramified. 6.

Generally, horns are not ramified.

7.

Regrowth does not occur.

8.

No branching.

Regrowth occurs. Generally branching is found.

vii. Proboscidea: The long mobile proboscis (trunk), the characteristic dentition, the large and massive body are the distinguishing features of this Order. Proboscis is a muscular expansion of the nose and bears the nostrils at its tip. The skin is strong and the hair are scanty. The facial region is short. The skull is large being adapted to support the trunk as well as tusks and to afford a broad insertion for

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the large muscles. The bone contains air sinuses which are continuous with the nasal passages. The legs are large and pillar-like and not bent at the knee. The pinnae are very large (fan-like) and eyes are small. They are herbivorous. All the canine teeth have been lost, and all the incisors except the second pair in the upper jaw which have developed in tusks (solid ivory). The premolars are small and shed yearly. The molars are very large. The Order has only one Family Elephantidae including living Asiatic and African elephants. Example: Elephants. viii. Sirenia: They are sluggish animals with massive heavy bones, a plumpy body with sparse hair on the thick and tough skin. They are adapted to aquatic life having fish-like form. Example: Dugong, Manatee. ix. Cetacea: It comprises whales and dolphins adapted to aquatic life having fishlike body. A thick layer of fat is present beneath the skin (adipose tissue) which prevents the loss of heat and diminishes the specific gravity. The hair is restricted near the mouth as a few bristles. Example: Whale, dolphin. x. Primates: This Order is the most advanced in the trees of organic evolution and includes monkey, apes and man showing the advanced intelligence. The thumb is opposable. From Indian wildlife point of view, the two Families are important. a. Cercopithecidae: The sternum is long and narrow. The snout or muzzle is often dog like. The foramen magnum is directed backwards. The arms are shorter than the legs. There are usually cheek pouches. The caecum is conical and without a vermiform appendix. Example: Macaque (monkey), langur, proboscis monkey, Indian monkey, African Babboon, Mandrill (noted for the bright colours of the face and hips of the males), etc. From Indian point of view, the Macaque and Langur are important. Macaque is comparatively stronger and has cheek pouch in which food is stored for sometimes. Macaques are of different kinds; but those which are found in North and Central India are red-faced and called Rhesus Macaque. Langurs are comparatively bigger in height but thin and have no cheekpouches. They are also found in different kinds but the most common langurs are black-faced in the whole India except western-desert. b. Simiidae: The sternum is short and broad. The arms are longer than the legs. The apes tend to walk on the edges of their feet. There are no cheek pouches. The caecum has a vermiform appendix. They are tailless. Example: Gibbon, gorilla, chimpanzee (ape). In India, only a single species of gibbon/ape is found which is hoolock or white-browed gibbon in the forests of Assam. Like all apes, they are tailless but distinctive in the great development of the arms which are much longer than the legs.

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14 Zoo-geographical Regions (Animal Distribution)

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he population of a species can establish and survive only if the range of conditions, under which species or individual can thrive (its ecological valence), is consistent with the sum of the conditions prevailing in that very area/region. Hence, the presence or absence of an organism (plant or animal) in a particular region is determined by ecological as well as historical factors of that very region. It can also be said that animals and plants are the living indicators of the characteristics of their environment. Their ranges of distribution mark the places in which the environmental-conditions are the same or found similar. Not only this, but the evolution and distribution of the species also show geological evolution as well as course of global changes in climate of various parts of the earth. The studies of present and past geographical distribution of organisms on the earth is called Biogeography. Thus, it can be said that through the studies of biogeography, we can know how and from where the organisms come to occupy the habitat and established there. Studies of distribution of animals in this context is known as zoo-geography and that of plants is called phyto-geography.

Though the animals are found everywhere in the world, but the species of the animals are confined on land and water to a particular range. This range is known as “Area of distribution of the species.”. Such horizontal-distribution on land, water and islands in different continents is called geographical distribution and its studies is known as zoo-geography. The realms found in the distribution, are called zoo-geographical realms or zoo-geographical regions. It is necessary for interpreting the range of species properly in detail, the conditions required for the species to live, exit and grow. Therefore, the science of zoo-geography has both ecological and historical aspects because these both factors are intimately interlinked helping each one to illustrate the other. Thus, the environment of the earlier times is regarded as the history of the organisms concerned up to a great extent. Besides it, the history also gives light upon the long-term processes of the evolution of the species and its interactions with the environment through which they were formed and evolved. The history also clears the effects of the past events upon the distribution found presently. On the basis of the pattern of distribution, zoo-geographical regions have been divided mainly into three parts as follows: 214

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1. CONTINUOUS DISTRIBUTION

The animals found in every part of the world are said to be cosmopolitan or continuous in distribution. Such animals are able to adjust themselves to a wide range of climatic variability and are successfully adapted to different types of habitats. Rats, bats, cuckoos, hawks are worldwide and represent the extreme of continuous distribution, less extensive in the range though still it is continuous in the crow family. These animals are very active and agile and can migrate over long distances and overcome natural barriers. Cosmopolitan animals found uniformly distributed are referred to as Eurytopic while those which are restricted are called Stenotopic. The former can cope with all kinds of environments and exhibit generalized adaptive characteristics, whereas the later have developed specialized adaptive features for a particular environment. 2. DISCONTINUOUS DISTRIBUTION

When the animals of the same species or closely related species are found to be present in particular localized area widely separated with or without any continuity, these animals are said to have discontinuous distribution. There are numerous examples of discontinuous distribution. Among the invertebrates, Peripatus which is the connecting link between Arthropoda and Annelida, is present in tropical America, tropical Africa, New Zealand, East India and Indo-Malayan regions. Among the vertebrates, the lung-fishes of the Class Dipris are the classic example of discontinuous distribution. Its genera Protopterus is found in Africa, Lepidosiren in marshes of South America, and Neoceratodus in the rivers of Australia. Among birds, the flightless birds Ratifoe exhibits discontinuous distribution. The group consists of five genera each of which is confined to an isolated island having no interconnection. The Kiwis are restricted to the damp forests of New Zealand, Emus in the grassy plains and open forests of Australian region, Rheas are confined to plains of Argentina and South Brazil, whereas Ostriches are restricted in burning deserts of Africa and Arabia. Most notable discontinuous distribution is exemplified by the Marsupial mammals which are exclusively confined to South America and North America, Kangaroo in Australia and New Zealand. Among marsupials, opossum is the sole exemption. Among other mammals, elephants and antelopes are distributed discontinuously. These animals are found profusely in Africa but are absent from Brazil in South America where similar environmental condition exists. The causes of discontinuous distribution can be explained on the basis of fact that the animal forms, which present discontinuous distribution at present, might have been uniformly, evenly, and continuously distributed within a wide range previously. The present status may be the results of changes in the earth-crust, or in the environmental-condition, or by the invasion of the animals of different varieties. Due to all these activities, barriers were created which prevented the intermingling and migration of some species or the some groups of animals. Gradually, some of the groups perished and the population got divided into isolated groups. Further, it may be explained by assuming that distant and far-off places, which have some animal’s groups or genera at present, might have been connected together in past by some physical structures such as land bridge between the islands and sea bridge between the seas. These bridges allowed the animals of islands and seas to mix and migrate. Gradually, the bridges, which were the connecting links, disappeared due to change in geological time and due to this the groups of animals were divided into isolated areas.

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3. BIPOLAR DISTRIBUTION

In the polar regions, number of species are found to inhabit only in the Arctic and Antarctic waters with no representation in the intermediate oceans, and such interesting pattern of distribution is known as bipolar distribution. It is mostly exhibited by invertebrates and lower vertebrates like shark fishes. Factors Affecting Distribution

The factors which guide distribution of animals in diverse habitats in different areas and localities and control the movement, migration and dispersal of these animals are known as Barriers. Animal exhibits complicated pattern of distribution due to barriers. For instance, Britain and Japan are separated by thousands of miles have almost indentical fauna, whereas Lambok and Bali are very close to each other but have totally different faunal life. Barriers, which prevent the normal distribution of the animals, can be divided into following categories: i. Physical Barriers: When the physical structure like big mountains, rivers, lakes, seas, etc. prevent the migration of animals of land and water; such obstacles are called physical barriers. The topographical features like high mountain ranges are the barriers for terrestrial animals. Their effectiveness increases if the range runs parallel to the equator, as Himalayan range in India and Alps in Europe. On the north side of the Himalaya are the snow covered mountain peaks while on the southern side are the hot plains of India. The fauna in these two zones are quite different. The fauna which are north of Himalaya are similar with that of Europe and contain gibbons, while the fauna to south of Himalaya are similar to Africa and contain tiger and elephant. The difference is explained on the basis of Himalayan barriers. When the mountain range runs north to south, the influence on animal is less such as North and South America where the mountain runs at right angle to the equator (north to south). The Sahara and other great deserts also act as barriers for terrestrial fauna and flora. Due to the presence of Sahara desert between the North and South Africa, the plants and animals life is totally different from each other. The big rivers, giant streams and oceans act as the most important barriers in the distribution of terrestrial animals. The big rivers like Ganga and Brahmaputra with their many tributaries hinder the distribution of wild animals in India. The land mass act as barriers for the aquatic form of life, and likewise the great bodies of water act as a barrier for the land animals. Further, the salt concentration in the water and land also act as obstacle in migration and dispersal. Small areas of saltwater act as absolute barriers for fishes and amphibians. For example, at the Pacific Coast many freshwater streams flow parallel to each other and end in the sea, but each stream has its species or subspecies of fishes. Similarly, snake, though good swimmer, fail to cross large bodies of saltwater with the expection of sea snake. The presence and absence of vegetation is most effective barrier for the wildlife and it affects the distribution and dispersal of wild animals. Since the terrestrial wildlife is unable to live without forest, the concepts of vegetative barriers assume considerable significance seeing the present depleting status of the wildlife. Due to habitat destruction, many of the wild animals have failed to survive in the adverse habitat conditions and became extinct. Monkeys and other forms of arboreal life depend upon the forest trees for all their requirements of food and protection.

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ii. Climatic Barriers: The extremes of temperature, light, and moisture act as barrier for the animals together with other abiotic ecological factors. The extremes of temperature act as limiting factor for the distribution of animals, especially coldblooded animals. In warm-blooded animals like tiger, lion, elephant, deer, antelope, etc. the effect is not significant but has its slight effect. Tigers are generally found in abundance in the warmer parts of the country cold hilly tracts of Himalaya. Generally, the vegetation is different in different temperature zones and it controls the distribution of animals who feed on a particular kind of diet. For example, red tree mouse (Phenacomys longicandus) lives on a diet of fir-needles and rests in fir-trees which are found only in cold temperature zone and, therefore, the mouse is restricted to that particular area only. The excess as well as lack of humidity acts as a barrier for the dispersal of animals. In the excessive moisture-prone areas where due to moisture heavy and thick forests are-developed, only particular kinds of animals are found. Similarly, in desert areas only those types of animals can survive which are adapted for the drier climatic conditions through water retaining devices such as tough and thick hide, water bags, hygroscopic skin, thorns, etc. Since light controls the growth of vegetation and, therefore, indirectly acts as barriers for the animals. iii. Biological Barriers: The biological barriers are created due to the liking of some animals for special kind of food and shelter. If the particular food is not present in an area, the area will be a barrier for that species. Further, presence and absence of predators and other enemies and competitors may also act as a barrier. The sedentary habitat of some animals makes them confined to a particular area. The inherent instinct of home range or territoriality among the tigers and other animals also act as barriers, and can be said to be the biological barriers.

Zoo-geographical Distribution of Animals

Based mainly on historical-cum-geographical factors, the first attempt to depict the biological communities of animals on the map and description of their distribution was made by P.L. Schaler (1858) and was further developed by A.R. Wallace. They divided the world into six Zoo-geographical regions. Wallace recognized that animaldistribution characterised by marked differences between regions whose boundaries were sometimes well-defined but more often blended gradually between adjoining regions. Thus, the fauna of North America and Northern Eurasia were more similar than Northern and Southern Asia. He also opined that there must have been a centre of origin for all the species and similarities in between the two regions are the results of interchange of the species through land bridges or water ways. Gradually, the bridges perished and the land masses got separated. Major difference between regions is due to the long period of isolation. For example, Australia represents the most distinctive and unique fauna in the world and it is because it was cut-off from the rest of the world by ocean barriers over millions of years. The native mammals of Australia are mostly marsupials such as Kangaroos, Opossums or monotremes like Echidna and Platypus. The Oriental and African regions have many similarities and both have lions, leopards, elephants and rhinos but each group is represented by different kinds of species which is because they were separated long ago.

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According to Schaler and Wallace, the six zoo-geographical regions are as follows: SI. Regions No.

Areas

1.

Neoarctic

North America and Greenland (but in floristic terms Florida, Southern California and the Mexican Highlands belong to the Neotropical Kingdom).

2.

Palaearctic

Eurasia without India but with Iceland, the Canary Islands, Korea, Japan and Northern Africa.

3

Ethiopian

Africa, South of Sahara.

4

Oriental

India and Indochina as far as the Wallace line, which runs through the Strait of Macassar between Borneo and Celebes and the Lombok Strait between Bali and Lombok.

5

Australian

Australia, New Guinea and Islands east of the line named for Richard Lydekker.

6

Neotropical

South and Central America, including the Antilles.

Udvardy in 1975 had modified the faunal region of Wallace by taking into account both the plants and animals life. It can be shown as below in summarised way: Realm

Wallace’s Term Region

Areas

Palaearctic

Palaearctic

North Asia, whole of Europe, Mediterranean Africa.

Neoarctic

Neoarctic

North America above tropic, Greenland, Mexican Plateau.

Africa Tropical

Ethiopian

Africa south of Sahara, Madagascar and south of Arabia.

IndoMalayan

Oriental

India, Ceylon, Burma, Indochina, Siam, Malaya, Sumatra, Java, Philippine, Celiba and Sunda islands.

Australian

Australian

Australia, New Zealand and Tasmania.

Neotropical

Neotropical

South America, Central America, West Indies, South Mexico.

Antarctic

—

Antarctica and Subantarctica, New Zealand.

Oceanian

—

Islands of South Pacific westward through New Guinea.

1. PALAEARCTIC REGION

The areas of this region extend to whole of the Europe, China, Japan, Africa, North Sahara, Siberia, Mediterranean, Manchuria, Asia north of Himalaya and north of Arabia. The region is surrounded by sea from three sides, viz. West, North and East; and on the southern side by Sahara and Himalayas. It has got a continuous connectinglink with its two neighbouring regions of Ethiopian and Oriental. The climate is chiefly temperate having arctic tinge in it. It includes both wet forest lands and dry open steppe land, large area of coniferous forest and some tundra. Thus, great degree of climatic variability is exhibited and variations in the fauna are also found as the natural rule.

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Fauna

The fauna is dominant and rich in warmer areas; diminishes northward, and ultimately in arctic area only some fresh water fishes or Rana species (frog) are found. The fauna of Palaearctic region exhibits similarity with fauna of Neoarctic region and a number of genera and families are common to both the regions. It clearly supports that there might have existed some land-bridges in between the two regions during earlier times. Palaearctic region possesses 33 families of mammals, 68 of birds, 24 of reptiles, 10 of amphibians and 13 families of freshwater fishes. Fishes

The freshwater fishes include many species of Cyprinids, a few localized catfishes, cobitridis choundis, etc. Amphibians

They are varied and rich and include Rana, Toad, Hyla, Necturus, Proteus, Siren, etc. The Giant Salamanders are found both in Palaearctic as well as Neoarctic regions. Reptiles

The region is poor in reptilian stock and there are a few species of snakes. True vipers, Asian pit-vipers and colubirds are the only snakes found in this region. In northern portion, however, Trionyx and Tertudo, Alligator of China, Naranus, Chamdan and Sand Boas, etc. are found. Birds

About 53 families of birds are represented by the region and about 17 families are widely distributed and are also met in other regions of the world. The bird species found include Hawks, Herons, Storks, Bucks, Loons, Rails, Grebes, Wrenks, Cuckoos, King-fishers, Wood-peckers, Shallows, Crows, Finches, Warblets, Old world flycatchers. Hedge-sparrows are exclusively confined to this region, whereas Parrots are absent. Mammals

Out of 33 families of mammals found, only two are endemic. The important mammalian fauna include moles, shrews, pandas, pigs, rabbits, squirrels, deer, number of dog and cat families. Palaearctic region has further been sub-divided into: i. European sub-region ii. Mediterranean sub-region iii. Siberian sub-region: The families of Yak, Musk deer and Moles are exclusively confined to this sub-region. iv. Manchurian sub-region: Great Panda, Tibetan Langurs, Chinese Water-deer are confined in this sub-region only. 2. NEOARCTIC REGION

The geographical limits of neoarctic region comprises North America above tropics, New Foundland and Mexican plateau, and Greenland. It is connected by a narrow strip with Central America and from all other sides is surrounded by the sea.

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The climatic conditions are varied and extreme, and similar to Palaearctic region. It has extensive mountain ranges in the west running to north to south. There are coniferous belt, deciduous forests in the eastern part of North America and grasslands in the central part and also the arid zone in the south-west part of North America. Fauna

Fauna of this region are transitional and represent the mixture of Palaearctic and Neotropical regions. There are about 26 families of mammals, 49 of birds, 21 of reptiles, 14 of amphibians and 24 of fishes. Fishes

13 genera of Cyprinidae, Cat fishes, Sturgean, etc. Amphibians

Tailed amphibian such as Axolotal, Ambystoma and Siren are notable. Among tailless are Rana, Bufo and Hyla. Reptiles

Quite varied are found in abundance having a mixture of tropical American groups and Palaearctic. The common reptiles are Musk Turtle, Crocodiles and Alligators. Lizards include Geekas, Ophisaurus. Heloderma is found only in south-west Central America. Snake includes the Pit-vipers, Cesal snakes and Rattle snake. Snappingturtle, Heloderma and Musk-turtle are endemic to this region. Birds

There are 49 families of birds, of which 32 are widely distributed and present mixture of neotropical and palaearctic regions. The common birds are Pelicans, Grebes, Vultures, Rails, Cranes, Cuckoos, Gulls, Pigeons, Owls, Herons, Hawks, King-fishers, Humming-birds, Wood-peckers, Wax-wings flycatchers. Mammals

Most commonly found mammals are Rabbits, Shrews, Moles, Squirrels, Beavers, Cats, Bats, Bears, Deer, Flying squirrels, Tree porcupines, Star-nosed moles, Canadian porcupines, Long-legged bats and American badger which are the exclusive form of mammals found in Neoarctic region. 3. ETHIOPIAN REGION

It includes Africa, South of Sahara, Madagascar and South Arabia. All other sides are surrounded by sea except the land link with northern Palaearctic region. The climatic condition is tropical and due to this there is lush growth of evergreen tropical rain forests. Fauna

This region is very rich and colourful in its fauna. The birds and mammals present great degree of affinity with the Oriental region, while the fish, amphibian and reptile resemble with Neotropical and Oriental regions. There are about 161 families of terrestrial vertebrates in this region.

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Fishes

Carps, Cat fishes, Cyprinodants and Cichlids, Protopterus of lung-fishes, Archaic Bichris and a few Cat-fishes are exclusive of this region. Amphibians

Only tailless amphiba are represented by the families Bufonids, Ranids, Rhaephonids and Caecilians. Rana and Bufo are absent. Tailed amphibia are also absent. Reptiles

It includes Crocodiles, Turtles, Lacertid and Agamid lizards. Chandeon is almost exclusive. Pythons, Colubirds, Typhlops, Viperids and Leptotyphons represent snakes of this region. Birds

The most exclusive birds of the region are Ostriches. Helmet birds, Hammer-headed birds, Pitta and Mouse-birds. The common birds are Herons, Hornbills, Cuckoos, Weavers, Storks, Goat-suckers, Parrots, Larks, Pigeons, Bee-eaters, Finches, Bustards, etc. There are 67 families of the birds found in this region and out of which 53 are worldwide. Mammals

There are about 38 families of mammals in this region, out of which about 10 families are exclusive and the rest are shared with Palaearctic or Oriental region. Most widely distributed mammals are bats, shrews, rabbits, squirrels, dogs and cats. The Oriental mammals present here are quite different from that of Oriental one and include lemurs, loris, apes,” elephants, rhinoceros, etc. The exclusive families include hippopotamus, giraffes and rodents. In addition, species of zebra and other large number of antelopes are unique to this region. The species of bear, deer, goat and sheep are entirely absent in this region. 4. ORIENTAL REGION

It includes the entire Indian sub-continent, Indochina, Philippines and South China. The region abounds varied climatic conditions. The region is represented by tropical rain forests in Burma, Indochina, North-east Asia and Southern parts of India. Temperate climate includes northern part of India. Fauna

The fauna of Oriental region exhibits considerable affinity with Ethiopian region and the resemblance is so great that some zoo-geographers have preferred to put both these regions into one region under the name Palaeotropical region. The families of the region are widely distributed. Fishes

Dominated by Carps and Cat-fishes. Other fish families include Cobitidae, Osteoglossid, Notopteridae, Cypriniformis and Anabantidae.

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Amphibians

Mostly tailless amphibians such as Rana, Bufo, Hylids and Rhaeophosids are numerous. Salamanders and Caecilidus are also found. Reptiles

All the important genera of snakes like Python, Vipers and Pit-vipers, Colubirds, Typhlops and Leptotyphops are widely present. Among lizards, Chanebons, Varanus, Agamids are present. Crocodilus polustris and Gavialis gangeticus are found in India. Turtles are represented by Trionychids, Testudinius and Eumydine turtles. Birds

Pigeons and pheasants are very numerous. There are 66 families, out of which 52 are widely distributed. Eurylaemidae (Peacock) is the only one exclusive bird family. Birds found are Peacock (the National Bird of India), Woodpeckers, Hornbills, Parrots, Honey guids, Sunbirds and Finches. Mammals

Mammals include four exclusive families of Hylobatiodae (Gibbons), Tarsidae (Tarsiers), Galeopithecidae (Flyling-lemurs) and Tupaiidae (Tree-shrew). There are 30 mammalian families in this region. The most common mammals are Shrews, Rabbits, Squirrels, Dogs, Mustelids, Cats, Bovids, Civets, Hyaenas, Pigs, Porcupines, Apes, Pangolins, Elephants, Rhinoceros, Old World Monkeys, Moles, Bears and Deer are found widely distributed; though interestingly enough, these animals are absent in Ethiopian region. In the perspective of earth’s history, the present position of India is of recent origin and it forms a part of the Oriental region in zoo-geographic classification. Tens of millions of years ago, India was not even part of Asia. It was an island-continent, edging slowly northwards towards Asia across a vanished ocean which also isolated Africa from Eurasia. All that remains of the vanished ocean, referred to as the Tethys, are the Mediterranean, Black and Caspian seas. Geological movements, about 15 million years ago, joined the landmasses of India and Africa with Asia and Europe resulting in the formations of the Himalayan massif in Asia and the Alps and the Caucasus mountains in Europe. Land-bridges were also established between Africa, Europe and Asia. Faunal changes apparently took place over the three continents during the Caenozoic period, wherever climatic and ecological limitations favoured such exchanges. Though the exact nature of such exchanges is not clear, fossil remains in the “Siwalik” throw a great deal of light on the North Indian fauna during the tertiary period. Amongst the giant creatures existing, were the Mastodons, and some eleven species of Elephants. Along with them lived the Siwalik Bison, Buffalo, Ox, Tamarau as well as the recent African elements such as Hippopotamus, Giraffe, and Chimpanzee, etc. Rhinoceros of varied kinds and the magnificent four-horned ruminant, Siva therium also lived there. The presence of these animals indicates that the area was covered with savannah and woodlands and had African links. There was a total eclipse of some forms which left no descendants while some forms evolved into others, and some escaped by chance and are still thriving today. The Asiatic Lion, Striped-hyaena and the Antelopes can be said to be the relics of the past. Most exciting of all Siwalik discoveries, are a few jaw-fragments of Ramapithecus, a very primitive Hominid Ape belonging to

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man’s own family. For some years, archaeologists have thought that Ramapithecus may have been directly ancestral to man, but more complete remains of the animal from East Africa suggest that it may be only another curious sideline of ape-evolution. The present physiography and climate of India together with the great faunal changes that took place during the late Pliocene period have imparted to its flora and fauna, a wide variety of habitats, each supporting its own distinctive type of flora and fauna. Looking at the relationship between the animals, it has further been divided into four sub-regions. a. The Himalayan Mountain Systems

The fauna of Himalayan sub-region resemble of both the Oriental and Palaearctic regions. The animals such as Tiger, Leopard, Bear, Wild pig and Snow leopard are found on both sides of Himalaya in the Palaearctic and Oriental regions. It seems that these animals might have migrated to India in the distant past through narrow passageway presented by the flood-plains and the gorges of the Brahmaputra-Ganges river systems or the early stages of formation of the Himalayan massif, which at that time did not form the unsurpassable barrier as found today. It is to be noted here that the geological structures of Himalaya are of recent origin and in the past was not barrier to animal movements as it is today. Distribution of fauna and flora is affected by the influence of altitudinal changes and amount of rainfall. Hence, much of the high altitude fauna of this area extends over the whole complex of mountain ranges and is typical of both the Oriental and Palaearctic regions. In addition of the influence of altitudinal change on ecology, there are marked east-west variations due to decrease in monsoon rainfall towards the west. Himalaya of eastern region receive heavy rainfall and practically no snowfall except in very high altitude; which has resulted in profuse growth of tropical fauna and flora are also different, having similarities with the Chinese fauna of Palaearctic. In the western Himalaya, rainfall is less and climate is temperate with heavy rainfall; thus the flora differs both in physionomy and structure and the fauna is also very different having affinities with the Chinese fauna of the Palaearctic. Thus, there are altitudinal as well as east-west variations in this region. The fauna of Himalayan Mountain Systems have been further divided into three sub-zones, each with its characteristic assemblage of animals such as Himalayan foothills from the eastern frontiers of Kashmir to Assam, the high altitude regions of western Himalayas from Kashmir including western Ladakh to Kumaon, and the eastern Himalayas. i. The Himalayan Foothills: The Himalayan foothills consist of Tarai, Bhabar and Siwalik ranges in the south. The Bhabar tract consists of thick boulder deposits where the water-table is very low and the conditions are relatively drier. The Tarai region consists of thick deposits of fine silt, the drainage is poor and the watertable is high. The natural monsoon forest extends well into this region. This Tarai region is characterised by tall grassy meadows and savannah vegetation. Here, sal is the dominant species. This is one of the richest areas for the typical big mammals of Northern India. Tiger, Elephant, Sambhar, Swamp deer, Cheetal, Hog deer, Barking deer, and Wild boar are all around in this area. Panther and Wild dog are the co-predators followed by Hyaena and jackal as the scavengers on the remains of the tiger-kill. Both black and sloth bears are found in this area. Amongst the rodents, Porcupine is the most prominent animal The Great Indian One-horned Rhinoceros, which once ranged all along the Himalayan foothills, is now confined to a few pockets in

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Assam and Nepal Tarai and is considered a rare species. Another animal is the Wild Buffalo which is the largest bovid in the world. The only other habitat where this great bovid now exists is in the Godavari catchment of the States of Madhya Pradesh, Orissa (where now reported to be extinct) and Andhra Pradesh. The Gaur (India Bison) is also found sharing the habitat with rhinoceros and wild buffalo. Brow-antlered deer is another rare species found in this region confined to Keibul Lamjao National Park in Manipur. This deer lives on a floating mass of vegetation deposits called “phumdi” and due to its locomotion on floating habitat, has been named “Dancing deer” by the late E.P. Gee. This deer is probably being the most threatened deer in the world. This area also supports some animals found nowhere else in the Oriental region such as the Gangetic gharial, the sole representative of the family gavialidae, occurs in the Himalayan tributaries of the river Ganges. Apart from these, the Hispid-hare and Pigmy-hog, thought previously to be extinct, were rediscovered in 1971 in Manas National Park of Assam. Again in Manas National Park, E.P. Gee was able to find the existence of a new species of monkey, the Golden Langur, which is now named after him Presbytis geei. This langur is of golden-chestnut colour in winter and paler during the summer but the youngs are practically whitened. They exist in some localized patches on either side of the Manas River in India as well as Bhutan. ii. The High Altitude Regions of Western Himalayas: It consists Kashmir and western Ladakh to Kumaon regions. This region occupies the higher altitudinalzone from 1500 m to about 2500 m having coniferous forests at the lower level and alpine scrub at the higher level. Rhododendron, dwarf hill bamboo and birch forests mixed with alpine pastures extend above the pine-belt up to the snow-line extending up to the cold-desert plateau of Ladakh in the extreme north-west. These higher reaches above the coniferous-belt represent the alpine-zone. The climate is. temperate and low rainfall with heavy snowfall. The pine-belt mostly acts as a transition zone for the rich fauna of the alpine zone in the higher altitude. During winter, when environment in the alpine zone becomes extremely cold, a number of species move down in this region; and with the summer thaw, the alpine pastures again turn green and become the grazing-grounds of most of these animals. The animals found in this part of the Himalaya are adapted to intense cold and harsh conditions of the climate. Their coat is thick in the winter and thinner in the summer and the seasonal coats are often such differently coloured that they merge with the background and conceal the animals. The interesting feature is that all the animals, except the two antelopes (Chiru and Tibetan-gazelle), are sharp-eyed and adapted for climbing the rocks (sure-footed rock climbers). The family bovidae is well represented in the higher altitudinal part of Himalaya. Three species of Wild Goats occur in the Indian Himalaya such as Tahr (called Himalayan Tahr), Markhor and Ibex. Tahr has short horns set close together on top of the head, roams in the highest coniferous forest, gregarious in nature, grassing in herds and sentinels mount a look out for possible danger. Markhor lives higher on the rocky slopes and cliffs above the tree-line. It is the finest of all goats with long horns shaped like thick and heavy cork-screws. The fur of markhor is rich reddishbrown turning to grey in winter. Like all wild goats, it is an amazingly agile climber. In winter, it retreats to lower slopes where forage is more plentiful and even climb along the branches of evergreen oaks to browse its leaves. The Ibex is found in the Western Himalaya. But unlike tahr and markhor, which are limited to the Himalaya, ibex has a much wider range inhabiting mountainous regions all over Central Asia

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from the Himalaya to the Altai and extending westwards as far as Spain. The ibex lives mainly above the tree-line grassing between rocky cracks and on meadows just below the snow-line. Among the wild sheeps, there are also three species typical of the western Himalaya such as Nayan or Great Tibetan sheep, Bharal or Blue sheep and Shapu or Urial. Nayan is the largest species of wild sheep and extends from Ladakh to Tibet. It has magnificent horns which curve round in the sweep making more than a complete circle. The Bharal occurs in the western Himalaya extending to Sikkim and Nepal. It has characters intermediate between the sheep and goat. It is found at the altitudes of 3600 m to 5000 m and feed on the rich abundant grass on the alpine meadows. They feed in herds during summer except the old males which forage at higher elevations. During the rest of the year, the ewes congregate in small groups round the male. Their colour of slaty-blue merges perfectly with the rocky outcrops of their habitat and it is difficult to spot them if they are motionless. The Shapu is the smallest of the wild sheeps and inhabits grassy mountain slopes usually below the tree line. It has probably contributed to the stock of domesticated sheep. The largest bovid, the wild Yak is found in Ladakh and Tibet, though it has been domesticated for centuries by the people of the area. They are black with long black horns and a little white on the muzzle. Two kinds of antelopes, Chiru and Tibetan-gazelle, complete the list of Himalayan and Tibetan bovids. Both graze on the high cold plateau regions in Tibet and adjoining areas. The Chiru has swollen muzzle which may be an adaptation for breathing cold and rarefied air. One of the typical animals of high altitude, cold desert regions of Ladakh and Tibet is the Wild Ass Hence, it is also called Cold Desert Wild Ass. Two deer are characteristic of the Western Himalayan high alpine-zone, viz. Hangul or Kashmir Stag and Shou or Sikkim Stag. The Hangul is the local representative of the European red deer and is confined to the Dachigam National Park of Jammu and Kashmir State. The Shou is another race of red deer (much larger than the hangul) which occurs in the Chumbi valley in Tibet and Sikkim. The Musk deer is another deer which inhabits the high altitudes bordering the tree-line. This deer is much valued for its musk-pods collected from the males and used in the manufacture of high level perfume. Apart from these, many smaller mammals live above the tree-line. The typical among them is Marmot. The Himalayan or Bobak Marmot is a stoutly built animal having short bushy tail and very small ears. Marmots live in a large colony. They dwell in burrows and feed on grass around the burrows. In autumn, they drag dry grasses into these burrows and hibernate in this warm bedding. They become active in spring and youngs are born. In the high mountains of Kashmir, little Woolly Flying Squirrels live which are clumsy creatures capable of gliding like its other relatives. Pikas or Mouse Hares are found in the mountains at altitudes from 2500 m to above 4000 m. Though, they are similar in appearance to guinea pigs but belong to the rabbit and hare family. These small mammals get suitable climate by burrowing underground. Though there are a few species in the alpine-zone, but the food-chain is apparent and well-balanced. There are predators among birds and mammals. The Himalayan Golden Eagle preys on marmots, snow cocks and snow partridges; and the little Tibetan Weasel feeds on birds and their eggs. The most beautiful animal is the snow Leopard having a long thick coat of smoky-grey with black rosettes. It is smaller than the average panther and is mainly solitary and hunts at night. It preys on wild sheep,

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goat and musk deer and follows them up and down the mountainous slopes on their seasonal migration. The other predators include Wolf, Fox, Black and Brown Bears, smaller cats like Pallas cat. Among the birds, the region has a number of pheasants like Himalayan Monal pheasant, Western Tragopan, Satyr Tragopan, Koklass, Whitecrested Khalij and Cheer Pheasant. Pheasants have the most attractive plumage and are hunted for their meat as well as feathers. Griffon Vultures, Lammergiers, Choughs and Ravens are the scavenger birds which follow man as well as wandering yak or wild sheep wherever they roam. iii. The Eastern Himalayas: It consists regions of Sikkim and to the east up to NEFA (North East Frontier Agency) having seven sister states like Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Assam, Nagaland, Tripura, Mizoram and Manipur. The forests of this region are dense, semi-evergreen to evergreen at the foothills of the Eastern Himalaya. The character of vegetation changes at altitudes of 1525 m to 1830 m; oaks, magnolias, laurels and birches covered with moss and ferns replace sal, silkcotton trees and giant bamboos of the foothills. At about 2745 to 3660 m, coniferous forests of pine, fir, yew and junipers are found. There is an undergrowth of scrubby rhododendrons and dwarf bamboos. The boundary between temperate and tropical forests of lower altitude and foothills is not sharply defined. Due to high humidity and much higher rainfall; lichens, mosses, orchids and other epiphytes cover the tree trunks. The temperate-belt occupies much higher altitudes than in the west. Snowfall is less common. The animal life (fauna) in the temperate region is different from the Western Himalaya and is characterised by the presence of India-Chinese fauna. The Red Panda, Hog Badgers, Ferret Badgers, Crestless Porcupines are typical species of this area. Three kinds of Goat-antelopes, which are relatives of the European chamois, also occur in the Eastern Himalaya such as Serow, coral and Takin. Serow has black coat, large ears, white beard and a grayish mane. It lives mostly in the Eastern Himalaya in forests around 2000 m and also extends into the tropics in Malaya and Sumatra where it occurs at lower altitudes on steep limestone outcrops. Goral is a smaller goat found throughout the Himalayan range both in the Western and Eastern Himalayas living on rugged grassy hill sites and on rocky grounds near the conifer forests. It is remarkably agile on the precipitous clifts and screes. It is a favourite game—animal of the sportsmen visiting Himalayan hill resorts like the chamois in Europe. Takin is the largest goat and characterises the Eastern Himalayan forests near the tree-line. In summer, large herds graze above the tree-line but in winter they break up into smaller groups and migrate to grassy valleys lower down the mountains. b. The Peninsular Indian Sub-region

This sub-region was once linked by the continuous woodland savannah with the Ethiopian region of North Africa. Desert barriers now separate the two areas but the faunas retain certain similarities with the animals such as the lion, cheetah, leopard, hyaena, jackal and many species of antelopes. Peninsular India is the true home of the Indian fauna. Most of the Indian wild animals are found in this part and it comprises the Deccan plateau extending northwards into the flood plains of the Indo-Gangetic basin and westwards into the Great Thar desert of Rajasthan. Hence, two broad zones in this sub-region can be categorised such as Peninsular India characterising tropical deciduous woodlands extending into the drainage basin of the Ganges river system and the Desert Region of

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Rajasthan or the Thar connecting saltflats of Little Rann of Kutch as well as desert fringe. i. Peninsular India and The Drainage Basin of Ganges: This is the home of tropical moist deciduous to tropical dry deciduous and scrub vegetation depending upon the variations in rainfall and humidity. The northern and eastern extensions having relatively higher rainfall have sal as the predominant species while the southern plateau is characterised by teak as the principal species. The Western Ghats and the Central Belt, lying to the west of it, is a region of very high rainfall and is characterised by evergreen vegetation; its flora and fauna being akin to the evergreen rain forests of north-eastern India. In the drier north-western portions, bordering the Rajasthan desert and the Aravalli hills, the trees are more scattered and thorny scrub species predominate. The forest gives way to more open savannah habitat. The areas are also subjected to recurring fires and grazing which have resulted artificial spread of savannah at the expense of the monsoon forest. Waterholes or perennial pools of water are the common feature of the deciduous condition. The open and deciduous nature of the forest, with a large number of trees being of low height, make conditions more favourable for herbivorous ungulates. The seasonal nature of food-supply also favours larger ungulate species that can build up reserves to tide them over the long lean months. The area, therefore, has the potential of supporting a high ungulate biomass. The larger inhabitants of the Indian deciduous forests are animals that are more widely spread in the rain forest. Elephant, Muntjak (Barking deer), Sambhar and Wild Boar occur in both habitats. The Gaur, the huge characteristic bovid of Central India has its counterparts in rain forests of Malaya, where it is called Seladang. India has also its own species of Mouse Deer closely related to those of South-East Asia. In addition, peninsular India has several species of deer and antelope that do not occur in the rain forests further east. The most attractive of these is Cheetal deer which is both grazier and browser and has a high breeding-potential. A smaller relative-stockier of this deer is the Hog Deer, but it prefers swampier meadows and is found more in the tarai belt of the Himalayan Foothills. Another deer which shows preference for moist river valley meadows is the Swamp Deer or Barasingha which is a large deer and the stag has five antlers containing up to 12 points. A subspecies of this deer, hard-ground Baransingha (called Branderi), is now confined only to the Kanha National Park in central India (Madhya Pradesh). The Sambhar is the largest of all Indian deer and has a very wide range of distribution ranging from the thorny scrub forest of eastern Rajasthan to semi-evergreen forest in eastern India and from the foothills of Himalaya in the north to the tip of the Indian Peninsula in the south. It lives in small herds, mostly nocturnal and mainly browser. Antelopes and other bovids are present in the Indian Peninsula. One woodland species of Indian antelopes called Four-horned Antelope (Chowsingha) has the unique distinction of having two pairs of horns, two small horns at the front and two larger horns at the back. Two large antelopes, Nilgai and Blackbuck, also inhabit the open habitats in the deciduous woodlands but are more characteristic of the semi-desert and arid areas. Chinkara (Indian Gazelle) is the smallest of the antelopes which lives in small parties and prefers more open habitats. There are three main predators of the Indian woodlands such as Wild Dog or Dhole, Leopard and Tiger. The Dhole also characterizes the rain-forest environment. The Indian Leopard belongs to the same species as those that inhabit the

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rain-forests but they are generally spotted rather than the melanic or black panther form of south-east Asia. The most famous animal of forests of Peninsular India as well as the Himalayan Foothills is the Tiger. It is India’s “National Animal”. Though believed to have its origin in the Palaearctic realm, the Indian Tiger or Royal Bengal Tiger as it is more often called, is recognized as the sub-species (Panthera tigris tigris) among the 8 races of the tiger that are recognised all over its range of distribution in the Palaearctic and the Oriental regions. The other two big Savannah cats of Peninsular India, the Cheetah or hunting Leopard and the Lion also had their origin outside India in the Ethiopian region. The Cheetah is the fastest moving land animal (up to 100 km per hour). Unfortunately, the cheetah is now extinct in India. The last reliable mention of a live wild cheetah was made by K.M. Kirkpatrick who reported seeing one on the road near Chandragiri in a low hill tract in the heart of South India on the night of 28-29 March, 1952 while he was out driving. The Asiatic Lion like its African cousins is an animal of the open savannah. It is slightly heavier in built than the African. The youngs are spotted, the adults have bigger tail tufts and the males have shorter manes. Unlike the tiger which is a solitary animal, lions are social animals. They live in family groups called “prides”. Hunting is mainly done by the females. The lion once had wide range of distribution throughout Western and Central India going across to Persia, Arabia and the Middle East; but now it has disappeared from all its previous range and is confined to a small pocket of the Gir forests (Gir National Park) in the Junagarh district of Gujarat State in Western India in the whole Asiatic continent and that’s why called as Asiatic Lion. Two other carnivores of African origin are the Striped Hyaena and jackal. Both are scavengers, feeding on the remains of tiger-kill, waiting for the bigger predators to move away so that to feed on the remains. The Elephant which has a wide distribution in the Himalayan tarai is missing from most of the Central Indian plateau particularly the states of Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra but reappears in Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu and extends into Ceylon. The biggest bovid of the Indian region (together with the Wild Buffalo) is the Gaur (Bos gaurus). It has an extensive range covering the entire central Indian plateau and extending north-eastern direction along the foothills of the Himalaya spreading to Burma and Malaya. In Malaya, it is called Seladang. The range of gaur in India is now confined to the Central India Plateau, Chhotanagpur area of Jharkand and parts of Orissa; in the South, it extends into the Western Ghats. Bandipur-Madhumalai National Park in the states of Karnataka and Tamil Nadu is the most famous for gaur. ii. The Indian Desert: The Thar desert of Rajasthan, just east to the Indus Valley, is the main desert of India and is linked through the land tracts of Sindh and Baluchistan in Pakistan to the deserts of Arabia and the Middle East. The Thar or the Indian desert is the area lying west of Aravalli ranges and just east of the Indus Valley. Ecologically, this may also include the salt-flats of the Little Rann of Kutch which lie to the south-west of Thar desert. The rainfall in the desert areas is less than 250 mm per year and the ecology of the area is completely different from the rest of the Peninsular India. Many of the animals of the Indian desert have historical affinities with the Ethiopian realms. Water is the single biggest problem in the desert. The only sources of water are the oasis or desert-springs which are ground water reservoirs coming to the surface through artisan wells, or the natural exposure of the water bearing strata. Large desert wastelands stretch for mile after mile without any sign of water. Daytime temperature raises very high reaching 48°C or more while in night falls to freezing point.

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In this way, both plants and animals face the problem of maintaining the water balance of their bodies under these highly adverse conditions and, hence, for its conservation have been variously adapted to life under such condition. Plants have reduced transpirational-losses through various modifications of plant parts. Desert trees are mostly thorny with highly reduced leaf-surfaces. Roots go deep in search of water. Many plants have modified stems; leaf surfaces have become thick and oily. Cacti and succulents are the principal plant species in the desert. Animals in the desert have become specialized in many ways. A large number of desert mammals are burrowing animals that live underground. The extreme temperature variations measured at the surface of the desert do not persist to any great depth, and a burrow one metre underground enjoys a fairly constant temperature of about 30°C. Thus, by living underground; high temperature variations are easily avoided. Desert vertebrates also have remarkable physiological adaptations to conserve water. They have efficient kidneys which secrete highly concentrated urine and specialized intestines that remove water from the faecal material before it is excreted. Rodents represent the largest group in the mammalian fauna of the desert. The Indian desert Gerbils are burrow-dwellers. They are pale grey mouse like rodents with long tufted tails and live together in small colonies. Their extraordinary adaptation is their ability to live on perfectly dry food with no water at all. All their body fluid is derived from metabolic water. The largest mammal of the Indian desert is the Asiatic Wild Ass. It lives in the south-west of the Thar Desert on the saltflats of the Little Rann of Kutch. Hence, it is also called Hot Desert Wild Ass or Asiatic Wild Ass. Another ungulate of this region is Blackbuck. Amongst carnivores, the Desert Cat and Caracal and a sub-species of Red Fox known as Desert Fox inhabit in the desert regions. Reptiles are also well represented in the desert such as Snakes, Lizards (Agamids, Lacertids and a variety of Geckos) and Tortoises. They being cold-blooded can adjust to the desert heat by adjusting their exposure to the sun and shade according to temperature. They avoid exposure by seeking outshade, or burrowing under the sand. These reptiles excrete most of their nitrogenous waste as uric acid in the form of a thick white paste so that they lose little water in this way. Among birds in the desert, is the famous and beautiful Great Indian Bustard. It can fly quite well but prefers to run on the ground. This large bird inhabits in the desert-fringe consisting of extensive stony grasslands. It is omnivorous eating seeds as well as insects and even small vertebrates when it can catch them. c. The Tropical Evergreen Forests or Indo-Malayan Sub-region (The Tropical Rain Forest Region)

This sub-region consists of heavy rainfall zones. This consists of the entire NorthEastern India (Khasi-Jaintia hills and the lower Himalayan slopes as well as embracing areas of Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Meghalaya, Nagaland and Tripura) and the Western Ghats region in the south including the Malabar Coast. The Nilgiri and offshoot of the Western Ghats rise precipitously to form densely forested evergreenvegetation known as Sholas. Sholas, similar to those of the Nilgiri, occur in the Annamalai and Palni hills also and other South Indian regions. The rain forests of Western Ghats and the Eastern Himalayas consist of very dense and lofty trees with multiple of species occurring in the same area. Giant trees stretch up towards the sun. Buttress roots, mosses, ferns, epiphytes, orchids, lianas and vines, herbs, shrubs and fungi make up this region as the most diverse habitat. Dipterocarpus spp. predominate in these forests and this type of

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vegetation is often called Dipterocarp Forests. The rain forests can be divided into three horizontal layers. The emergent trees in the upper-storey constitute the top canopy which receives most of the sunlight. Below this is the middle-storey of trees of slightly lower height composed of species which are tolerant of shade and the young saplings of the taller dominants. The lower-storey is almost bare with only a few seedlings of palms, cardamom, and ginger plants. On the ground, there is carpet of fallen leaves and decaying wood with occasional tangles of canes forming impenetrable cane-brakes. The rain forests of India are so rich in its flora and fauna that these are considered as the richest gene-pool available to us. Though destroyed a lot, Silent Valley of Kerala and the rich orchid-belt of North-eastern Himalayas in Arunachal Pradesh and Sikkim are famous for protecting them as virgin. Within this rich environment, animals of all kinds live. On the ground, only big herbivores such as Elephants and solitary deer like Barking Deer can survive. But most of the species in this region are tree-dwellers. Among those, the most prominent are the group of non-human primates. The North-East region of Arunachal Pradesh and Assam is inhabited by the Hoolock Gibbon (which is the only ape found in India at present), the Golden Langur (an animal discovered in 1950 by the late E.P. Gee in the forests of Manas Reserve), the Capped Langur or Leaf Monkey, the Assam Macaque and the Pig-tailed Macaque. In the south, the most prominent primate of evergreen forests is the Lion-tailed Macaque. The other primates of this region are Nilgiri Langur and Slender Loris while the Slow Loris inhabits in the forests of NorthEastern India in Assam. Nilgiri (Shola forest) provides also the main shelter to Elephant, Gaur and other large animals. The high level forests of the Nilgiri also have affinities with the high altitude forest of Assam ranges. Many trees and animals found in these high shoals are common to both areas. Characteristically, Himalayan animals such as Tahr (called Nilgiri Tahr), Pine Marten and European Otter occur in Nilgiri. Bats are widespread group of flying mammals dwelling in these tropical rain forests. Other climbing and tree-dwellers characteristic of this region are the Giant Squirrel and Civets. The Binturong and Red Panda (both rare) are the characteristic of the evergreen forests in the eastern region. A number of climbing animals have evolved gliding-mechanisms and are particularly characteristic of these forests such as Flying Squirrel, etc. The other characteristic species of the Western Ghats are the Nilgiri Mongoose, Striped-necked Mongoose, Malabar Civet and Spiny Mouse. d. The Wildlife in Andaman and Nicobar Islands

The Andaman and Nicobar Islands lie in the Bay of Bengal on a curve between Cape Negrais in Burma and the westend of Sumatra. The islands have the flora and fauna which are typical representatives of the islands. The climate is tropical and receive both southwest and northeast monsoons. These islands are the home of tropical rain forests. Giant dipterocarpus, terminalias and Andaman padauk characterize these forests. The wildlife of Andaman is similar with the wildlife of Burma, whereas the Nicobar fauna are similar to Malaysia. There are about 35 species of mammals, a number of interesting reptiles and variety of marine fauna. The notable mammalian fauna are glory of Bats (16 species) and Rats (13 species); while ungulates and squirrels are completely absent which are characteristic of the surrounding regions and other islands. Carnivores are characteristically absert in Andman and Nicobar Islands. The Andaman Pig is one of the large mammals found in Andaman which is smaller than one found on the

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mainland. The Crab-eating Macaque, Palm Civet and various species of deer are found here. Most of these deer species like Cheetal, Barking deer, Hogdeer and Sambhar were introduced into the Andamans during 1920; and except sambhar, all survived to varying degrees. The Palm Civet also introduced in these islands has survived in the most places and has become a serious pest to poultry and crops like banana, cocoa, coffee, etc. Among the important marine mammals found around the islands are the Dugong (after which the Dugong Creek in Little Andaman is named), the False Killer Whale and the Dolphin. There are 240 species and sub-species of avifauna (reported by Humayun Abdul Ali) in which there are 92 migratory, 32 residents and 112 resident endemic species. Among the endemic species are such rare species like the Narcondum Hornbill, Nicobar Pigeon and Megapode which has Australian affinities and incubates its eggs by placing them in an earthern mound. The other interesting birds found in the area are white-bellied sea-eagle, white-breasted Swiftlet and number of fruit Pigeons. In the tidal-creeks and the mangrove-swamps all along the coastal areas of the Andamans and Nicobar, resides Saltwater Crocodile and Turtles (in which Green Turtle is common and breeds in profusion on South Sentinel Islands). The Robber or Coconut Crab has reported on the South Sentinel Island which is the only arthropod included in Schedule-1 of Wild Life (Protection) Act 1972 being rare and endangered species. A number of lizards inhabit in these areas in which the largest is the Water Monitor. The Green Lizard is also peculiar to these islands. There are about 40 species of snakes among which the poisonous species include Cobra, Viper, Coral and Sea-snakes. Python can be found in the Nicobar group. 5. AUSTRALIAN REGION

This region contains Australia, New Zealand, Tasmania, New Guinea and other islands. This region is completely isolated and has no link with any other region of the world. In this region, both tropical and temperate climatic-conditions are found. The northern part of Australia and New Guinea are tropical while Tasmania is temperate; the interior areas of North Australia are arid. Fauna

This region has unique faunal significance but the region is very poor in animal population and the most interesting thing is the absence of higher mammals. Marsupials and Monotremes are found only in this part of the world. Fishes

Osteoglossids and Neoceratodus are found. Amphibians

Hyla and Rana are found in this region while tailed amphiba are absent. Reptiles

Among snakes, Python and Biting tiger-snake are found in abundance. Other reptiles include Crocodile, Turtle, Geekos, Varanus, Typhops and Colubrids.

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Aves

About 58 families of the birds are found in this region, out of them 44 are widely distributed. Of these 12 families are exclusive of this region. The common birds are Trogan, King-fishers, Hawks, Pigeons, Cuckoos, Parrots, etc. The families of parrots, cuckoos, loris and pigmy-parrots, wood-swallows, flower-peckers and megapodes are shared with Oriental region. The exclusive families include Cassowaries, Enius, Megapodes, Honey-suckers, Scrub-birds, Flower-peckers, Bell-magpies, Owlet frog marth, Bower birds, Legendary birds of paradise. The most important bird of New Zealand is the flightless Kiwi. Mammals

In the Australian region, there is complete absence of higher placental mammals and sole representation of Monotremes and Marsupials constitute the peculiarity and uniqueness of the region. Among monotremes are Echidna and Ornithorhynchus. Among marsupials are Dasyurus, Perameles, Bandicoot, Opossum, Wombat and Phascolomys. In addition, there are Mice, Australian Dogs and Squirrel. 6. NEOTROPICAL REGION

This region consists of South America, Central America, tropical low land of South Mexico and West Indies. The general climatic condition is tropical; the southern part of South America has temperate zone. Due to the tropical climate, extensive evergreen forests are found in the Amazon Valley while in Argentina and Saveinna tracts have drier patches and in the Western South America sub-desert conditions are found. Fauna

In this region, out of 155 families of the terrestrial vertebrates, about 39 are absolutely endemic. The region has both distinctive and varied fauna. Fishes

There is complete absence of Cyprinidae in this region. The region is dominated by Cat-fishes, Gymnoitids and Electric-fishes. One genera of Lung-fishes (Lepidosiren) showing discontinuous distribution is present. Amphibians

The most common in tailless amphibians are Hyla, Rana, Bufo and Pipa. There are 14 families of amphibia. Reptiles

Varieties of reptilian fauna are present in this region and include Crocodiles, Alligators, Turtles and Tortoises. There are 15 families of Lizards in which Helodermidae, Anadiadae, Chircocolidae, Cercosauridae and Iphisiadae are peculiar. But the families Varanidae and Agamidae are absent. Aves

South America is called “Bird Continent” on account of the diverse presence of birds. There are about 67 families of birds of which about 23 families are restricted and two

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others are confined to this region only. American Ostrich (Rhea) and Tinamus are endemic to this region. The common birds are Storks, Barets, King-fishers, Herons, Woodpeckers, Ducks, Pigeons and Plovers. Mammals

There are about 32 families of mammals in this region. The Opossum marsupials are present and Sloths, Armidallos, New World Monkeys, Rabbits, Deer, Squirrels and New World Porcupines as well as 11 families of rodents are commonly found in this region. Moles, Hyaenas and Hedgehogs are absent in this region.

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15

Phytogeographical Regions (Plant Distribution/Botanical Provinces)

A

s discussed in previous chapter “Zoo-geography,” the studies of migration and distribution of plants is called Phytogeography or Plant geography. In this respect, Alexander von Humboldt is known as father of phytogeography who also wrote his first book on the subject in 1806. According to Campbell (1926), the prime theme of phytogeography is to discover the diversified flora of different areas of the earth in present as well as past with their resemblances in widely separated land. As per definition given by Wulff (1943), phytogeography is the study of distribution of species on the basis of their present and past areas and the elucidation of origin and history of development of floras, whereas Leon Croizat (1952) opined phytogeography as the study of migration and evolution of plants in time and space. Croizat also gave concept of genorhietron which involves evolution of plants during migration. Evolution of plants on the earth planet have been occupying new areas either through immigration or emmigration by means of dispersal of spore, seed, bud, bulbils, etc. by various agencies like wind, water, insects, animals, man, etc. The plants moving to the new areas has to acclimatise through adaptation. Thus, migration involves transport and establishment of organisms from one place to the others. The place where the plant or taxon first evolved and from where it dispersed to new places is called “Centre of Dispersal” or “Centre of Origin” of that taxon. Migration is hampered by different types of barriers such as climate (temperature, wind direction, moisture, day length, etc.), physiography (mountain, ocean, sea, water body, slope, aspect, elevation, altitude, latitude, etc.), edaphic (soil texture, soil nutrients and moisture, etc.), biotic (affinity of plants to animal, associations, etc.) and reproduction (the plant losing sexual reproductive power in new environment). In this way, the ecological factors play important role in the establishment of plants on land and water. As far as distribution is concerned, the area of distribution of a taxon involves the regions where plants of that taxon exist. The taxon, which are found all over the world in all continents, is called Cosmopolitan and hence such taxon have wide ecological amplitude. The taxon which have restricted distribution (may be in one continent or only in one locality), is called Endemic. The taxon, which is uniformly distributed in the area, is known as continuous distribution; whereas the taxon which is found in isolated patches of areas widely separated apart is called Discontinuous distribution pattern. For example, Meher Homji (1967) described the discontinuous pattern of distribution of Rhododendron and festula spp. on Himalayas and Nilgiris. He concluded that in geologic past, the Deccan plateau was much elevated and climatic condition 234

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was favourable for many taxon which were spread as continuous pattern of distribution in Indian sub-continent from Himalayas to Nilgiri. But in course of time, Nilgiri hills became cut off as isolated parts on Deccan plateau and lost the elevation due to erosion and climate of plateau also changed because of physiographic changes. As the resultant, Rhododendron spp. was entrapped on Nilgiris and this plant could not survive in the intervening space like Deccan plateau and Gangatic plains and, hence, its existence became as discontinuous distribution in place of continuous distribution. Another example of discontinuous distribution in case of fauna is of Dipnoian fishes (lung fishes) in Garhwal Himalayas and Satpura ranges of Vindhya studied by S.L. Hora (1949-50). He postulated hypothesis about these lungs fishes that occurrence of these fishes in fast flowing streams of Himalayas and Satpura shows direct connection of Himalayan stream with Narmada waters via Assam Hills but Tethys area formed barriers between the two mountain systems. As per evidences of geology and meteorology, Vindhya was much elevated receiving plenty rainfall in past with almost similar ecological condition as wet Himalayan regions (Eastern Himalayas) and, thus, migration of fauna and flora was possible from South to North or vice versa. The connecting link between the two mountain systems were Assam hills (Khasi, Jaintia series, Parasnath) and Chotanagpur series. The fast flowing rapid streams on these ranges provided suitable ecological condition and niche and these fishes migrated from Himalayas to Satpura stream. Similar phenomenon is found with Rhinoceros. The recent findings of fossils of Rhinoceros and other marshy animals in Narmada valley show that in past Vindhyas was also with similar ecological conditions as now found in Eastern Himalayas and Assam regions where Rhinoceros is existing. In this way, discontinuous distribution of flora and fauna occurred in the above regions on Indian sub-continent. J.W. Willis (1915) explained in his hypothesis (though not accepted universally) that in tropics distribution of plant species took place correlated with age and area occupied by the species concerned. Species which evolved earlier occupy greater areas than those evolving later in evolutionary trend. Study of phytogeography is mainly concerned with two components. Firstly, static and descriptive plant geography comprising floristic and vegetational data and secondly, interpretive plant geography to know dynamics of migration and evolution of plants taking conception of its ecology, genetics, taxonomy, evolution, paleontology, geology, etc. Regarding concepts and principles in the studies of phytogeography, Good (1931), Mason (1936) and Cain (1944) have suggested the following modern aspects to study plant geography. A. Principles Concerned with Environment: It is studied under following subheads: i. Climatic Control (Primary): Climatic control is primary factor in the distribution of plants. In a region, climatic condition is the extremely significant than other factors. ii. Climate has Varied in the Past: Due to variation or changes in climatic condition in past; so many plants disappeared, some evolved, phenomenon of discontinuous pattern of distribution and so on took place. Direction of movement/migration and relation between land and waterbodies were also affected. iii. Relation of Land and Sea Varied in Past: Land, seas and oceans during Mesozoic and tertiary periods were totally different than the present age. There were only two land masses like Lauratia in North and Gondwana in South which splited later on during the period of continent formation like today. As the resultant, both flora and fauna became separated and occupied new land

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masses/continents being apart by the oceans. In the process, land bridges connecting two land masses served as migratory routes for flora and fauna. For example, the fossils of fauna like dinosaur, and in case of flora like palm, fern and angiosperm show the evidence of existence of such organism both Lauratia and Gondwana land masses. Thus, cases of discontinuous distribution plants and animals arised and changed climatic conditions such as temperature, moisture, wind direction, oceanic currents, mountains, etc. acted as barriers in the migration of flora and fauna. iv. Edaphic Control (Secondary): Different types of soil on different land masses on plains and mountains give rise to different kinds of vegetation and also resulting different types of animals as per their food habits. Different types of plants exist in different types of soils in accordance with the suitability and adoptability such as calcifobes, and calcicoles, halophytes, psammophytes and so on. v. Biotic Factors: Plants and animals are universally interdependent, and hence they coexisted. Dispersal, pollination (and hence its existence) and migration of so many plants depend solemnly upon the animals and insects. For instance, the short grass prairies in North America occurs due to grazing activity, and therefore, plant succession is arrested by the animals activity. There are also some valuable timber species in India whose pollution is only possible by the insects, and hence, the propagation and existence of such floral species is dependent upon the faunal species. vi. Environment is Holocoenotic: The environment which consists so many factors has wholestic effect/influence on the vegetation of a place. Different factors of the environment act collectively on the vegetation at a site giving rise to the existing of the plant species. According to Alle and Park (1939), the environmental factors act collectively and simultaneously and the action of one factor is qualified by the other factors. B. Principles Concerning Plant Responses: It is dealt under the following aspects: i. Tolerances Limit Range of Plant Distribution: The tolerance of a species in an area plays vital role in its distribution. Tolerance of any large taxonomic unit is the sum of tolerances of its constituent species. Each plant species reproduce and exist successfully within a definite range of climatic and edaphic conditions. For instance, the long-day plants, dispersed to a region with short-day photoperiod, will not reproduce sexually and their distribution will be restricted. ii. Tolerances have Genetic Basis: Tolerance in a plant species is directly related with its genetic constituent. Such genetic change in a species comes through mutation or by hybridization either naturally or artificially. For example, so many varieties of rice, maize, wheat, etc. have been evolved through breeding by changing genes to grow in willful wide ranging environmental conditions to be suitable in the world and so on. In nature also hybrid plants are produced having increased tolerance invading new areas. iii. Different Tolerances have Different Ontogenetic Phases: It is found that different types of tolerances occur in different phases of a plant. Generally, seeds and mature plants have more tolerant capacity to temperature and moisture variations than its seedling phase. Lack of drop of water in a fern prothallus arrests its fertilization and movement of antherozoid to the archegonium and thus entire life cycle is checked, while mature fern plant is capable of growing under very dry condition.

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C. Principles Concerning Migration of Flora and Climax Condition: Plant distribution is greatly influenced and controlled by migration. It depends upon the following subheads: i. Migrations have Taken Place in Past: In mesozoic and tertiary periods, migration took place on large scale on the earth planet as revealed by the fossils records and paleoecological evidences. ii. Migration Results from Transport and Establishment: The plant species multiply through reproduction and establish in suitable environment. Migration is considered to be completed at the stage when the plant is fully established in a new area. The plants are dispersed through spores, seeds, bulbils and other types of propagules. In the process of migration, the plant is first of all dispersed in new geographical area and propagules establish there when finds suitable environment. D. Principles Concerning Perpetuation and Evolution of Flora and Climax: It comprises the following subheads: i. Perpetuation Depends upon Migration and Evolution: Perpetuation of a plant species depends upon two factors. Firstly upon ability of species to migrate, and secondly upon its variation (adaptation) to suit in new environment as well as transmitting such adaptation to the next generation. ii. Evolution of Flora and Climax depends upon Migration, Evaluation and Environment: The flora, in changed environment coming through migration, tries for long term to be adjusted in new climatic condition. In due course, genetic changes (adaptations) are brought about in its genetic constituents to suit in change environment and then it develops and stabilizes there. In this way, evaluation of this species takes place reaching to the climax stage. Misra (1963) described that migration is an orderly process, the dispersal follows a set pattern and through a proper understanding of the centre of origin and ecological requirements of a taxon, the routes of migration could be worked out. In this context, Leon Croizat (1952) considered migration of modern angiosperms from south to north and worked out centre of origin and migratory routes of several families and groups of plants. In general, he concluded that: • angiosperms evolved during pre-cretaceous period on southern land mass of which the modern remains are the Antarctica. • Gondwana was a pre-cretaceous continent, now being covered by the Indian Ocean. During the Tertiary period, Gondwana broke up into Africa, South Asia, Malaysia, Australia and West Pacific Islands. • Gondwana had connections with South America, Caribbian and parts of North America and Europe. • without these assumptions, the plant migration in geologic past could not be considered possible. • the idea of land bridges is meaningless as the consideration of plant migration along these complicates the issue. The idea of Wandering Poles is also meaningless. • plant migrations were orderly and took place many times. • through studies of biogeography, we find insight or organic evolution influenced by time and space.

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L. Croizat also concluded “Centre of origin” and “migration routes” of modern angiosperms such as: • All the angiosperms had migrated from south to north latitudes on the present land masses from three regions which is termed as Gates of Angiospermy like African Gate, Western Polynesian Gate and Magellanian Gate. • All the above three gates, were connected to an ancient land mass. • African Gate played an important role in plant dispersal from two centres, namely Gondwanic triangle including Madagascar area, and Africo-Antarctic triangle including Netal-Kergulen. • Gondwanic triangle was the migration centre for tropical and sub-tropical plants, whereas Africo-Antarctic triangle was the migration centre from temperate plants. • Western Polynesian Gate had also two migration centres for the warm and cold plants. • Neocaledonian centre for tropical plants. • Macquarian centre for temprate plants. • Magellanian Gate was of lesser importance, and through this Gate the plants migrated from south to north in the New World. Besides the above three main gates, Croizat also suggested two secondary migration centre from the plants migrated. These are Kalaharian and Nigerian centres of Africa, and Roraiman, Ozark and Appalachian centres of America. Croizat also described the migration routes of several species of plants like that • modern angiosperms evolved in southern latitudes in Jurassic period. • in Jurassic and early Cretaceous periods, the migration of plants occurred mostly; and during Tertiary period, migration was very slow. Thus, Criozat even concluded that “Floating continent”, “Land bridge” and “Holarctic origin of angiosperms” complicate the matter and such ideas are wrong because fossils and paleoecological evidences are not in support. In this way, angiosperms migrated on the earth from one region to other regions through Gates of angiospermy and Centres of migration along thirteen main routes (seven from African gate, two from Polynesian, one from Magellanian and three from secondary routes) as described above. It is also to be noted that tropical plants migrated following coastal regions and plains, whereas temperate plants migrated through elevated lands and mountains. It may be summarized as below: A. From African Gate: i. Through Gondwana triangle for tropical and sub-tropical plants. 1. Madagascar to Peru-Tanganyka-Amazon-Brazil 2. Madagascar to Fiji-Malaysia-Coral islands ii. Through Africo-Antarctic triangle for temperate plants 3. South Africa to Europe and North America 4. Altai mountains to Central Asia 5. South Africa to Australia-Tasmania-New Zealand 6. Kalahari to Brazil-Caribbean- Parts of North and South America 7. South Africa to Madagascar-Bolovia

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B. Through Western Polynesian Gate: 8. Neocalodinia to New World-Coral islands-Philippines-California and Bolivia. 9. Neocalodinia to Old World-Coral islands-Malaysia-India-Iran-Mediterranean lands in Europe and Africa. C. Through Magellanian Gate: 10. Chile-Mexico-North America-Hawaii D. Through other secondary routes: 11. Mediterranean lands to Mexico via Caribbeans through 3rd, 4th and 12th routes 12. South Atlantic to North Atlantic through 5th, 6th, and 7th routes 13. West Africa to Burma and Philippines PHYTOGEOGRAPHICAL REGIONS OF INDIA

India is fortunate in the sense that almost all types of climates are found in this country and subsequently different kinds of flora and fauna are available as per climatic zones. India is lying between 6° and 38° N latitudes. Since almost all types of climates are found in Indian sub-continent, the vegetation ranges in varied forms from alpine to equatorial types. As far as Phytogeographical regions of India are concerned, the description of Clark (1898), Hooker (1907), Chatterjee (1939) and Mani (1978) are prominent. They have derived India into following Phytogeographical regions: Clark

Hooker

Chatterjee and Mani

1. Western Himalayas

1. Western Himalayas

1. North-West Himalayas

2. Eastern Himalayas

2. Eastern Himalayas

2. Western Himalayas

3. Malabar

3. Malabar

3. Central Himalayas

4. Plains of Indus

4. Indus Plains

4. Eastern Himalayas

5. Gangetic plains

5. Gangetic plains

5. Malabar

6. Coromandal

6. Deccan Plateau

6. Indus Plains

7. Assam

7. Assam

7. Gangetic plain

8. Maldive

8. Central India and Deccan Plateau 9. Assam 10. Andaman

1. North-West Himalayas Region: Mani (1978) separated North-West Himalayas as from Western Himalayas as a separate region. This region consists of the Himalayas west of Sutlaj forming Kashmir Himalayas. The foot hill region comprises the vegetation such as dry tropical thorn scrub. At 900 to 1700 m elevation, Pinus roxburghii is dominating tree and at higher elevations Quercus, Rhododendron, Batula-Juniper association is found. At 3000 to 3100 m elevation, alpine and steppes occur with Euphorbia royleana and several other xerophitic shrub species. The majority of the species of this region have migrated from Mediterranean and Central Asia in the Indian sub-continent.

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2. Western Himalayas: This region includes Kumaon-Garhwal portion of the Himalayas. The vegetation consists of subtropical and alpine type flora from base to higher altitudes on the mountain and it seems that they have migrated from Mediterranean, Central Asia and Indochina. The flora of this region may be divided into the following three groups. a. In the plain area and up to 1500 m height, subtropical type vegetation occurs along with Shorea. Delbergia, Anogeissus, Acacia, Zizyphus, Cassia, Euphorbia spp., etc. From 1000 m to 1500 m on the mountain, Pinus is found but shrubs are absent in these stands. b. From 1500 m to 3500 m elevation, temperate vegetation is found. Pinus and Cedrus spp. are found up to 1500 m height, whereas Querus and Rhododendron are available at higher altitudes. Pinus gerardiana occurs on drier hills. c. Above 3500 m elevation, mostly alpine vegetation like Rhododendron, Betula, Juniper spp. are found in grassy meadows. 3. Central Himalayas Region: This region includes Nepal Himalayas north of Uttarakhand. It is some more moist than Western Himalayas and, therefore, it comprises more broad-leaved species than the West Himalayas. However, the zonation of vegetation on the elevation in this region resembles with that of the Western Himalayas. At the lower elevations, species like Bamboo, Ficus, Phoenix, Pandanus, etc. are found, whereas at 1500 m height Rhododendron, Quercus, etc. occur. Hence, the vegetational formation consists of tropical, subtropical, temperate, xerophytic steppes and alpine categories. 4. Eastern Himalayas Region: This region includes Himalayas extending up to NEFA situated in slightly southern latitude than Western Himalayas. The snow line is 300 m higher than Western Himalayas and rainfall is much more in this region. The vegetational zonation of this region may be categorized as follows into three belts: a. Tropical and subtropical vegetation extending from base to 1800 m height. The dominating species are Dalbergia, Acacia, Terminalia, Albizia, Dendrocalamus and Palm showing more evergreen condition. Epiphytes are also co-existing. b. Temperate vegetation extending from 1800 m to 3700 m height. Vegetation from 2500 m to 3000 m consists mostly broad-leaved deciduous species like Quercus, Michelia, etc. and on higher elevations Juniperus, Cryptomeria, Tsuga, etc. are found. c. Alpine vegetation are found on more than 3700 m height where scattered Juniperus and Rhododendron species are common in meadow lands. Thus, in this region, temperate plants are dominating resembling Chinese, Japanese and Malayan plants. 5. Malabar Region: This region includes Western Ghats and Kerala state. It is wet and consists of thick forest of Dipterocarpus, Sterculia, Tectona, etc. species and along the coast mangrove forest is also found. 6. Indus Plains Region: It includes drier regions of Haryana, Rajasthan and Kutch. These regions are very hot during summer and the annual rainfall is also less than 700 mm. Obviously, the vegetation is xerophytic and tree species are mainly Acacia, Prosopis, Zizyphus, Euphorbia, Salvadora, Calatropis, etc. 7. Gangetic Plains: This region includes Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Bengal states. The annual rainfall varies from 700 mm to 1500 mm. In this region, most of the area is under cultivation and forest areas consists of the species like Dalbergia, Acacia, Terminalia., Fugenia, Stercula, Fig, Mango, etc. Apart from these,

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in the delta region in Sunderbans of Bengal state, mangrove forest is found having unique ecosystem in both flora and fauna. 8. Central India and Deccan Plateau Region: This region includes Madhya Pradesh, Chhatisgarh, Gujarat and Tamil Nadu states. Though, this region is hot and dry but Satpura region and portions of Gujarat and Orissa receive higher rainfall and, hence, possess Teak and Sal forests. Plateau region of Deccan is dry and, therefore, support only thorny vegetation alongwith Acacia, Carrisa, Euphorbia, Zizyphus, Emblica, etc. species. 9. Assam Region: This is too warm and humid region and the annual rainfall is received more than 1500 mm. The vegetation is found very rich. The forests are dominated by broad-leaved evergreen species such as Dipterocarpus, Shorea, Dillenia, Musa, Sterculia, Morus, etc.; while on the mountains Pinus khasia and Pinus insularis are found. Epiphytes and all grasses are found abundantly. 10. Andaman Region: This region receives high rainfall and possesses thick forest with main species like Rhizophora, Terminalia, Mimosops, etc. species but most of the areas are under cultivation. In this way, it may be concluded that as per the climatic altitudinal, latitudinal and other natural variations, there are distinct variations in floral zones forming different types of vegetational zonations existing with suitable adaptabilities in accordance with the concerned areas/zones/region demand.

BIOGEOGRAPHICAL REGIONS OF INDIA As stated in the beginning of Chapter 14, biogeography consists of both zoo-geography and phyto-geography and, therefore, biogeographical regions include both animals and plants such as zoogeographical regions and phytogeographical regions which have been discussed in details in the previous chapters. However, from biodiversity point of view in summarized way, India has been given the status of “Megadiversity” and has been divided into ten Biogeographical Zones/Regions as follows: i. Trans Himalayan Zone: This zone lies in the Northen most area of the country around Himalayas. The zone is not related to mountains but it is the area surrounding the mountains. This area is very cold and arid. The only vegetation is sparse alpine steppe and an extensive area consists of bare rock and glaciers. The zone exhibits the characteristic features such as irregular vegetation, richest wild sheep producing quality wool, wild goats being superior in the world from quality and quantity point of view, snow leopard as special animal, migratory birds like blacknecked crane, Great Indian bustard, etc. ii. Himalayan Zone: This zone consists of hilly region having good fauna and flora and exhibiting maximum biodiversity. National Parks have been also created in this zone. iii. Desert Zone: It is the part of Rajasthan state where the great desert of Western India, namely “Thar desert” starts covering deserted zone like Jaisalmir surrounded by sand dunes. The natural vegetation has tropical thorn forests, tropical dry deciduous forests and sandy deserts with seasonal salty marshes, and mangroves in the main estuaries. The flora and fauna show much xerophytic adaptations for survival in Rann of Kutch, wild ass and migratory bird like flamingo are notable.

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iv. Semi-arid Zone: This zone starts from Rajasthan and extends up to some parts of Punjab and Haryana states. In this area, ground water and surface water is very less. Fauna is also minimum and dry xerophytic vegetation is predominant showing xerophytic adaptation. Very few orchids, bamboo and other plants are found. The natural vegetation consists of tropical thorn forests, dry deciduous forests, moisture forests and mangroves. The sandy plains have a few scattered trees of Acacia and Prosopis, etc. v. Western Ghat Zone: It consists of mountainous western zone of south peninsular India consisting of rich fauna and flora with tropical rain forests extending from Konkan region of Maharashtra up to western part of Kerala called Malabar coast of Arabian sea. About 1800 plant species and the most amphibian species are endemic in this zone. The zone shown diversity of forests from evergreen to dry deciduous forests. vi. Deccan Plateau Zone: This zone represents central part of South India having rich fauna and flora, but some areas consists of semi-arid type of vegetation. Since rainfall occurs mainly by the south west monsoon in these areas, limited number of dense forests is found in Deccan: It is notable that many useful and valuable medicinal plants are available in South India such as Rauwolffia serpentine, Cinchona officianalis, Vinca rosea, etc. Deccan plateau is represented in the states of Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Kerala. It is bound by Sathpura range on the north, Western Ghats on the west, and Eastern Ghats on the east. Large parts are covered by tropical forests and tropical dry deciduous forests occur in the northern, central, and southern part of the plateau. vii. Indo-Gangetic Plain Zone: This is very fertile land zone. At the central parts of north India, two famous rivers like Indus (Sindhu) and Ganges flow with their tributaries. Five tributaries like Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas, and Sutlej are the rivers from Indus and tributaries like Yamuna flow in this zone. The four geomorphological plain surfaces are found such as bhabar, terai, bhanger, and khadar. The gangetic plains extend from eastern Rajasthan through Uttar Pradesh to Bihar and West Bengal. The large area is under tropical dry deciduous forest and south eastern end of the plain merges with mangrove region of Sunderbans having especially in both fauna and flora. viii. North-East Part of India Zone: This zone consists of North-East Frontier Agency (NEFA) having seven sister states like Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Assam, Nagaland, Tripura, Mizoram and Manipur. These states of the zone have humid weather and mountainous terrain comprising rich endemic fauna and flora of rare and endangered species. ix. & x. Coastal zone and Islands nearby the coast zone: In these zones, the Eastern Ghats are not as high as Western Ghats and are also devoid of many dense forests. They are characterized by having dry zones with scrub jungle type of xerophytic forests. The Andaman and Nicobar Islands have fauna and flora similar to Eastern Ghats, whereas Lakshadweep Islands exhibit fauna and flora similar to Malabaar coast. The islands on either side of Peninsular India also show rich in fauna and flora replicating like the peninsular type of vegetation in the sea Islands. Thus, the both zones have much similarities in their specialities of biodiversity.

16 Biomes

I

n the previous chapters under Zoo-geography and Phyto-geography, we have come to know about migration, distribution and establishment of fauna and flora through various factors in different regions. The biotic community of the habitat acts as an ecosystem mixing with abiotic components. Though, there are differences among the organisms (flora and fauna) in different ecosystems (realms), but even they have certain similarities among them if their climatic conditions are almost similar. Thus, vast areas having similar flora/fauna as well as climate, is called Biomes. In other words, it may be said that a large unit of climax communities generally representing well-defined climatic zone, is known as Biome. Generally, we confuse with the words ecosystem and biome. There is slight difference between the two. An ecosystem is much smaller than a biome. Hence, a biome can be thought of many similar ecosystems throughout the world group together. For instance, an ecosystem is as large as Sahara Desert and as small as Puddle or Vernal Pool, while a biome consists of all temperate and tropical deserts as a whole of the world grouped together and so on. In real sense, biome was recognized on the basis of flora; while faunal regions (zoo-geographical regions) on the basis of animals but afterwards similarity was found in certain areas both in flora as well as fauna, and such areas are named biotic province (see Chapter 8 for more details). Hence, biome is a large unit of climax communities usually representing well-defined climatic zone (having similar habitat) which is extensive formations of the vegetation. Biomes have been broadly divided into hydrophytic (Plankton, Nekton and Benthos) and terrestrial (Tundra, Desert, Pasture and Forest). The main biomes of the world are: a. Tundra Biome b. Boreal Coniferous Forest Biome c. Temperate Forest Biome d. Temperate Grassland Biome e. Temperate and Tropical Desert Biome f. Tropical Rain Forest Biome g. Tropical Deciduous Forest Biome h. Tropical Savanna Biome i. Wetland Biome j. Marine Biome 243

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a. Tundra Biome: Tundra means marshy and unforested land. It lies north of 60° N latitude or beyond the timberline characterising extremely cold condition which is not favouring tree growth having moist climate and short growing season with low height plants, herbs, and shrubs. Mosses and lichens are common serving as primary producer of food chain. Moisture is available only from the frozen top layer when it melts but the lower soil layer remain permanently frozen which is called Permafrost. Tundra can be categorized in two types. The first is Arctic Tundra lying in the extreme northern latitude and second is Alpine Tundra on mountain top above the timberline means where trees do not grow. The vegetationless icy mountain top totally covered by snow is called Nival zone. In this biome, the temperature varies from 10°C to 20°C in growth phase which comes two to three only in a year. Such temperature variation is more in alpine tundra than the arctic tundra. There is great variation in day-length (photoperiod) as in summer for 23 hours or more, while in winter only 1 to 2 hours. In winter, temperature falls to –40° to –50°C and wind speed is in the range of 50–90 km per hour. The unevenly distributed rainfall is effectively high due to little evaporation. Decomposition rate is very slow and hence soil is rich in organic matter. Histosol contains more than 20% organic matter consisting of bogs, whereas Entisol is coarse textured mixing undecomposed organic matter with top Talik full of roots and permafrost or frozen layer. The top surface plays role of supplying water during summer when ice melts and the depression look as wet meadows, whereas ridges appear like stony wasteland or desert. The phenology of plant is greatly influenced by the temperature and day-length. The dormant buds activate as soon as snow melts, leaves become unfold, photosynthesis maximizes and flowers bloom of bright colour to attract insect pollination which is common in the area. Seeds are generally long-lived having high output. The dominating plant families are caryophyllaceae, compositae, cruciferae, cypraceae, graminae, rosaceae, etc. As far as respiratory utilization of gross primary production is concerned, it is about 30% which is much higher than the tropical plants. b. Boreal Coniferous Forest Biome: The ecotone region between Tundra in north and Boreal Coniferous Forest Biome in the south has characteristically trees of dwarf and twisted nature (as found at the timberline ecotone on the high mountains). In Canada and Alaska boreal forests, there is special kind of uniformly low statured forests are found called as Taiga which means wild, damp and dense forest. Taiga of Canada possesses coniferous dominant trees like Picea glauca and Abies balsamea forming dense stands and shrubs are rare but ferns and lycopods are common on the ground. Besides these, Sphagnum bogs are common on open wetlands. In NorthAmerican Taiga, the top storey trees are Abies balsamea, Betula papyrifera, Populus tremuloides, Picea glauca, P. marina, etc.; in second storey low trees and small shrubs are Alnus crispa, Rosa acicularis, Rubus idaeus, etc. c. Temperate Forest Biome: Temperate zone extends from 30° to 55° latitude covering Himalayas in north India and Nilgiri in south India. The forest in India in such zone occur above 1600 m altitude up to the timberline on the mountain and subdivided into subalpine and montane zones. The Himalayan temperate forests have oaks and conifers. The conifers in the region are in seral or successional stages commonly on northern slopes. The oaks form stable evergreen pure stands on southern slopes. The successional trends starts either from hydrarch condition through salix or from xearch condition starting with lichens and mosses through grasses and Pinus roxburghii ending in the climax oak forest. The southern temperate

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vegetation is chiefly represented by Shola forest or extensive grasses and evergreen forests on Nilgiri and other hills generally above 1300 m altitude. Due to heavy rainfall, the forests are very dense. Between 1000 and 1300 m altitude, tall trees like Balanocarpus utilis Hopea parviflora, Artocarpus hirsuta, Salmalia malabaricum, Hardwickia binnata, etc. form dense canopy. Major climbers are Piper nilghirianum, Hoya sp., Jasminum sp., Dioscorea sp., Thunbergia, etc. In the American temperate forests, tall trees form top storey having about 75 m height are Sequoia, Pinus, Abies, Larix, Picea, Tsuga, etc. Sequoia sempervirens (Redwood tree) which is tallest among all living things crosses 100 m height having life span for 1000 to 2000 years. In the North American temperate forests, the common trees like Pinus, Quercus, Fagus, Liriodendron, Castaenia, Tilia, Acer, Carya are found. Pines are the common tree found around the world in this biome forming pure stands in distinct bioclimatic and edaphic zones. In this biome, forest fire is a very important phenomenon because it regulates secondary succession, vegetational composition and land-use patterns. The temperate forests may be divided into two types of biomes, viz. evergreen biome in which there is continuous leaf falling and canopy is never naked; and secondly deciduous biome in which leaf fall is synchronous generally in March/April causing the trees naked for short period between fall of old leaves and emergence of new ones. On contrary to old belief, the new thin emerging leaves transpire more water than old thick leaves. The deciduous forest is also called Seasonal Forest because in dry (leafless period), its appearance is not like normal forest. Soil in this biome is mostly podzolic type of ash, grey-brown or ash coloured with acidic pH around 5 or 6. It is interesting to note that as we move from tundra to temperate to tropical biomes, the pH slowly increases from highly acidic, to acidic, to neutral, to alkaline types. d. Temperate Grassland Biome: Grasslands are found all over the world in all climates from mesic to xeric and from cold to warm conditions. Therefore, grassland is also most extensive formation of vegetation types. Temperate grasslands keep a wide range of the temperature from -40oC to + 40oC in extreme winter and hot summer. There is great variation in rainfall and subsequently evapotranspiration is also high. The common grasses found in this biome are Panicum, Poa, Bouteloua, Stipa, Sporobolus, Agropyron, Andropogon, Buchloe, Aristida, Festuca, Bromus, etc. Soil is almost neutral chernozem type consisting high organic matter in upper layer followed by clay loamy mineral matter. In tall grasslands, the canopy is very dense giving 5 to 8 Leaf Area Index (LAI). Though, there are a few C4 grasses in temperate zone but it is much less than the tropic zone. The temperate grassland is found in extensive form in North America which is called Prairy. There are tall grass prairies, mid grass prairies and short grass prairies according to height. The natural grassland plains have been largely converted into croplands or into grazing lands. In temperate savanna of Australia, the trees are burnt to develop extensive grassland to meet food demand of large number of cattle for getting cattle products. The dominating grass is graminoids (grasses, sedges and forbs) or nongraminoids like dicot weeds. Savanna is also treated as grassland because the ground is covered by graminoids, but trees or shrubs also grow at regular intervals. In North Dakota in the mixed grasslands the common forbs are Polygonum, Helianthus, Aster and Rosa but grasses are dominant. e. Temperate and Tropical Desert Biome: Desert means general loss of plant life and is usually dry and sandy showing isolated growth of xerophytic plants. Deserts may be divided into cold desert (temperate desert), and warm/hot desert (tropical desert).

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Scrublands have open canopy and shrubs of spiny thickets. There is scanty rainfall. In cold desert, frost and snow are common. In India, a part of Punjab, Rajasthan, Kutch, Delhi and Gujarat possesses such desert with vegetational province. Rainfall is very low, generally less than 70 cm and in certain areas 10–15 cm only. CAM (Crassulacean Acid Metabolism), Succulents are CAM plants. Stomata open during night in such plants which helps greatly in better photosynthetic efficiency. C4 plants are generally adapted plants of desert climate. The common plant species of this area are xeric like Acacia arabica along rivers, Prosopis specigera, P. juliflora, Salvadora oleoides, S. Persica, Tecomella, Capparis aphylia, Tamarix dioca, Zizyphus nummularia, Ephedra, etc. On the hills of Aravallis around Mount Abu, there is more dense vegetation consisting Boswellia serrata (Salai), Sterculia urens, Anogeissus pendula as characteristic trees. On the drier region, the common trees are Butea monosperma, Euphorbia sp. and Acacia senegal. Among the ground vegetation, Calotropis, Panicum antidotale, Tribulus terrestris, Suaeda fruticosa, etc. are found. The efforts of afforestation in desert zone is going on to make them green by raising shelter belts, wind breaks and so on by planting the species commonly like Saccharum munja, Panicum antidotale, Cenchrus ciliaris, Capparis aphylla, Tamarix articulate, Parkinsonia aculeate, Prosopis spicigera, P. juliflora, Acacia leucophloea, A. senegal, etc. In American cold desert, the common species is Artemisia tridentata; while in warm desert Larrea tridenta or Creosote bush are common. Due to poor canopy as well as thin distribution of plants LAI is less than one and productivity is very low. Soil topography in desert area is of different type such as in rocky areas the slopes or valleys have alluvial soil. In bajada (Spanish term meaning to gentle slope rocky desert with coarse alluvium), high plant diversity is found. In Arizona bajada, there are many perennial species wherever texture and moisture are favourably available. Barbour et.al. (1980), bajada soil is called aridisol with poor profile and showing pH as 7–8.5, calcium carbonate layer is known as Caliche in USA which is as Kankar of north India which impedes root growth affecting plant composition. In poorly drained moistured and, highly saline bajada, pH rises 9–11 as we find in usar and reh soil causing desertification and, hence, in such desert soil only highly specialized species thrive. Temperate desert plants shed their leaves either in dry period or in cold winter season. In American deserts, the common species are Ambrosia, Yucca, Encelia, Parthenium, Jatropha, Agave varieties of cacti like Opuntia, Cereus, Pachycereus, etc. are found. f. Tropical Rain Forest Biome: In Indian tropical plains, many kinds of forests are developed and on hills/mountains above 1000 m altitude other types of forests are found. The tropical forests are very dense and multistoreyed having diverse trees, shrubs and lianas in high rainfall to dry and scrub thorny bushes on dry areas. Hence, such forests may be divided into moist tropical and dry tropical forests, as well as subsequently into tropical rain forest biome and tropical deciduous forest biome. Tropical Rain Forest Biome consists of complex form of vegetation in warm and wet climates of the tropics. It is the most majestic having maximum diversity of vegetation comprising very rich life forms of flora as well as fauna. There is great diversity in animals especially in insects, snakes, birds and mammals. Herbs, shrubs, climbers, liana, trees from small to tall and very tall sizes (50 m or more) are found here, and diversity is so high that it becomes difficult to find two individuals of the same species in close vicinity. The tree trunks at base are usually buttressed

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and full of epiphytes, mosses, ferns and orchids. Shrubs, epiphytes, lianas, dense ground vegetation and small trees are adjusted in so many storeys fulfilling the entire ecosystem. In such multistoreyed stands, some very tall or Flag trees grow distinctly above the main canopy and its huge height is supported by buttress. The annual rain fall is very high and spreaded 9–10 months in the year and hence humidity is also very high. Therefore, there is no prolonged dry season and evergreen condition is found throughout the year. Evapotranspiration is high and decomposition is also very high but nutrients are absorbed by higher plants leaving very little in the soil. As such, the soil is poor in nutrient. The biome represents climax vegetation due to sufficient rainfall and sunshine while soil is poor in nutrient. Water drops drip falling from the leaves even it is not raining. On the ground, there are abundant plants of Scitamineae, Piperaceae, Urticaceae, Araceas, Rubiaceae, small palms, cane, bamboos large varieties of ferns, tree ferns, mosses and saprophytee grasses on the ground are almost absent. In India, the biome is found in North-East region in Assam, Meghalaya, Arunachal Pradesh, etc. and in South-Western region in Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Kerala. The dominant tree species are Hopea parriflora, Dipterocarpus indicus, Mesea ferrea, Calophyllum elatum, Artocarpus spp., etc. It is very important to note about these forests that if it is once destroyed, then difficult to recover such wonderful vegetation because soils are very poor. There are so many examples of failure of cultivation/regrowth attempts where once the native trees were cut. Such biome is common in equatorial belt in Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, Hawaii, Amazonia and in Central Africa specially in Zaire basin region. g. Tropical Deciduous Forest Biome: In tropical region, generally leaf-fall starts in March/April just before onset of summer season showing the forest deciduous, whereas in temperate region such condition is found in winter season with snowfall. In tropical deciduous biome, rich diversity of vegetation is found into two to three layers of canopy in the wet deciduous forest and one to two layers in dry deciduous forest. Wet deciduous forest is more productive full of medium and tall trees, shrubs, climbers, grasses and epiphytes, whereas in dry deciduous forest, epiphytes and climbers are less as well as canopy cover is open. In degraded forest and dry habitats, scrublands or thornywoods are found indicating intermediate stage between forest and savannas. In India, particularly in biotically disturbed areas Acacia arabica, A.leucophloea, and A. senegal are common trees with regeneration of nonspiny tree seedling due to protection of spiny plants. Such forest are as bush in Australia and Caatinga in Brazil. In India, in this biome, the common trees are Michelia sp., Emblica officinalis, Syzigium cumini, Odina wodier, Dillenia pentagyna, Artocarpus sp., Dipterocarpus indicus, Hopea sp., Odorata sp., Salmalia malabaricum, Lannea grandis, Terminalia sp., etc. The common timber trees planted in moist and semi-moist regions are Shorea robusta, Tectona grandis, etc. and in dry deciduous region, Anogeissus latifolia, Boswellia serrata, Buchanania lanzan, Diospyros melanoxylon, Ougenia dalbergioides, etc. are common. h. Tropical Savana and Grassland Biome: Grass dominated land is known as Savanna. It may be interspersed with shrubs of trees as in tropics, or may be free from shrubs or trees. Now, Savanna and grassland are often used interchangeably meaning the stands dominated by grasses, sedges and forbs. However, despite the loss of treelife forms, savanna and tropical grasslands give almost equal primary production due to rapid seasonal growth by C4 grasses. In different regions, it is called differently such as in Venezuela (South America), it is called L lanos and in some parts of South

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America as Pampas, in Brazil as Cerrado, in Tropical America as Cattinga, in East Africa as Miambo, in South Africa as Kuroo. According to Wangeri and Sanford (1985), grass covered biomes are found about 80% in South America, 50% in Australia, 42–57% in Africa, and 6–12% in Asia. Savannas have prolonged dry winter and summer season, and short wet rainy season. The grasses support food for grazing animals like deer, antelope, wild ass and domesticated goat and sheep, etc. in India while for zebra and giraffe, etc. in Africa, whereas for Kangaroo, etc. in Australia. In Indian grassland and savanna; the predators like lion, leopard, hyaena, etc. are common; and since such carnivorous animals are not found in Australia, once rabbits were introduced which multiplied in uncontrolled way producing large size of population. The Indian grass covers have been divided by Dabadghao and Shankarnarayan (1973) into the following typesa. Sehima-Dichanthium type: It is found in peninsular South India dominated by mainly two grass species like Sehima and Dichanthium with the association of many other grasses. The shrubs are spiny majorly like Mimosa rubicaulis, Acacia catechu and Euphorbia sp. b. Dichanthium-Cenchrus-Lasiurus type: It is found in parts of Gujarat, Rajasthan, Delhi, Punjab, Uttarakhand and Uttar Pradesh where besides Dichanthium, Cenchrus and Lasiurus several other annual as well as perennial grasses and legumes are found. The shrub species are mainly Acacia senegal, Calotropis gigantean, Prosopis cineraria and Salvadera olioides. c. Phragmites-Saccharum-Imperata type: It is characteristic of sub-humid or humid condition of Gangetic plains with the dominating grass species such as Phragmite, Saccharum and Imperata along with other associated grasses like Bothriochloa pertusa, Dichanthium annulatum and Cynodon dactylon. The main shrub species are Acacia arabica, Zizyphus nummularia and Butea monosperma. d. Themeda-Arundinella type: It is characteristic of humid hilly tracts of Assam, Manipur, West Bengal, Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh and Jammu and Kashmir consisting chiefly Themeda and Arudinella with some other associate grasses. Actually, this type is derived from the forests due to heavy grazing and shifting cultivation. Though it is clear that in this biome, there is almost devoid of tree species but it gives sufficient food support to the grazing wild animals as well as domestic. As stated above, despite of the loss of tree species, savanna and tropical grasslands produce almost equal or sometimes more Net Primary Production as grasses have rapid seasonal growth especially C4 grasses. In this way, this biome also plays important role in ecosystem. i. Wetland Biome: The transitional condition between terrestrial land and deep water body is characteristically called Wetland. It is represented as riverines, flood plains, lakes, paddy fields, Iacustrine marshy lands, palustrine ecosystems, marine backwaters, coastal belts, etc. Wetland is generally seasonal as overlying water in rainy season and dry often in summer. It is unique ecosystem possessing specialized flora and fauna as well as serving as breeding ground for many migratory avian fauna. Since flood plains and marshes are sometimes not easily accessible and, therefore, they serve as a secure place for so many kinds of wildlife. For example, Sunderbans is one of such habitats in the coastal belt of Bay of Bengal. As a whole, wetlands are very productive showing unique ecosystem. In tropical region, due to bright sunshine and warm condition, the primary productivity is found very high

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and biomass is well distributed between the above ground foliage and underground rhizomatous and corneous parts. Wetland is best suited giving very high production for some valuable crops such as rice, typha, phragmite, Euryale ferox (very valuable dry fruit crop grown abundantly in North-Bihar), etc. The major types of wetlands may be categorized into: a. Shallow and seasonal rivers. b. Extensive shallow embankments of flood plains of rivers, springs and streams. c. Marshes, peat fens, bogs and coastal lagoons. d. Low lying lands under agriculture especially paddy fields. e. Pisciculture ponds, shallow lakes, trapa and euryale cultivation ponds and other aquaculture habitats. Thus, wetland serves as unique ecosystem giving shelter to many specialized flora and fauna which cannot survive in other habitats serving as natural gift. But unfortunately, nowadays wetlands are being disappeared in so many parts of the world due to the purposes of dumping of wastes, water pollution, reclamation / encroachment for agriculture, housing, afforestation and so on by the mankind. Some wetlands are becoming polluted by city sewage, industrial wastes; run-off pesticides, insecticides weedicides, agrochemicals, etc. being drained by upland crop fields. Some wetlands are fastly shrinking in depth and area because of siltation and conversion into other usable purposes by humans. Due to application of agro-chemicals like fertilizers, pesticides, herbicides, weedicides, etc. in cultivated wetlands is resulting disastrous condition to the wetland habitats by destroying gene-pools inhabiting in such low-lying ecosystem in both fauna and flora by bringing them to the stage of endangered or becoming extinct very fastly. Same is case with the majority of fisheries and aquaculture waterbodies where maximum flora and fauna are losing their natural identity, diversity and gene-pools day-by-day. j. Marine Biome: It is the largest biome in both area and volume in the world because oceans/seas cover three-fourths of the earth’s surface and store about 97% of the total water. Since marine water contains salinity (salt content) about 3.5% (35 gm) per litre, only the organisms (flora as well as fauna) withstanding the osmotic pressure associated with high dissolved salt content possessing adaptability can survive in this biome. The terrestrial or fresh water organisms including man are unable to find their existence or survival in such biome. The large extensive sea region in the world is called ocean such as Pacific, Atlantic, Indian, Arctic and Antarctic; while seas are Arabian, Boltic and Mediterranean. Marine biome is highly productive particularly coastal shallow marine biomes are very productive which can be divided into Tidal and Neritic zones and Continental Shelfs, whereas away from the coast are oceanic belts divisible into upper surface known as Euphotic zone (epipelagic and mesopelagic zone) and lower Bathyal zone (200 m to 2000 m deep) and Abyssal zone (dark deep). Life is found abundantly in Euphotic zone where planktonic life forms are numerous consisting marine algae (dominated by green, brown and red algae). However, the overall marine Primary Productivity is much lower than the terrestrial biomes but certain marine biome like coral reefs and estuaries are very productive as well as rich in biological diversity. In general, marine biome is the major source of sea foods like fishes, shrimps and edible algae. Apart from the food, marine biomes have huge deposit of petroleum and gases being used by the mankind in large scale. Sea beds are also rich in many kinds of minerals. Such biomes also regulate rainfall and atmospheric

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CO2 balance at global level playing great role in ecobalance. Unfortunately, oceans/ seas are being polluted day-by-day increasing specially by oil and highly toxic chemicals as well as siltation problem coming along with water of rivers. Several national, international and intergovernmental agencies are involved seriously to control marine pollution. The hazardous pollutants have been divided into two types. The highly hazardous pollutants like halogenated organic compounds, tin, mercury and cadmium compounds, radioactive isotopes and carcinogenic materials are Black listed and its discharge is totally prohibited; secondly, the pollutants which are somewhat less toxic are Grey listed such as arsenic, zinc and antimony, cyanides, organosilicon compounds, crude oils, foam forming detergents and surfactants and its discharge is permitted in small quantity only. Therefore, nowadays pollution in marine has become a great problem for us causing ecological imbalance. There is need to make such biome pollution-free from all means coming directly into seas/ oceans or through river water. Hence, under the circumstances, it may be concluded that each and every biome and ecosystem at global level should be free from pollutants and biotic interference including human interference from all corners in both flora and fauna to avoid loss of gene-pool as well as delinking in food chain/food web so that eco-balance may be maintained and organisms may be conserved and protected (from reaching to the endangered category and disastrous condition like extinction-threshold or extinction) and ultimately safeguarding earth planet as well as human life. It is demand and necessity of the hour to take more strict prohibitory steps nationally and internationally before going the situation to annihilation stage.

17 Distinguishing Characters of Certain Wild Mammals

A. TIGER (Panthera tigris)

Tiger is the top carnivorous animal playing a major role in the food chain and thus in eco-balance. The Indian tiger is a rich-coloured (golden-red to yellowish-brown) wellstriped of black colour. Internal part of cheek, neck, abdomen, ears and legs are white. Number of stripes and colour varies individual to individual and its distance also varies according to the age. There is white colour on the upper part of the each eye bearing black pattern which also varies from individual to individual and, thus, it helps in recognising the particular individual tiger. Thus, individual variation is of a great importance (see Colour Plate 1). Tiger has been divided into eight races/sub-species on the basis of geographical distribution having differences in colour, size and shape of the skull and stripes. The sub-species are the Indian (Panthera tigris tigris), the Siberian (P.t. altaica), the Chinese (P.t. amoyensis), the Indochinese (P.t. corbetti), the Caspian (P.t. virgata), the Sumatran (P.t. sumatrae), the Javan (P.t. sondaica) and the Balinese (P.t. balica). The Indian race (Panthera tigris tigris), designated as the typical tiger, is found practically throughout India from the Himalayas to Cape Comorin; except in the deserts of Rajasthan, the Punjab, Kutch and Sind. Its range extends into Burma. In Sri Lanka, tiger is not found. In Indian sub-continent, Royal Bengal Tiger (Panthera tigris tigris) is found. In Riwa (Madhya Pradesh), race of White Tiger is found. Its average length is about 300 cm (10') of male and 270 cm (9') of female having average weight 230 kg of male and 200 kg of female. The origin of white tiger is interesting one. In 1951, a white male cub was trapped in Rewa Forest (Madhya Pradesh State) and was mated with a normal tigress producing three normal litters; afterwards a female from the second litter was mated with its father (the white tiger) which produced four white cubs in 1958. In this way, the further generations were carried on. They have no albinos (pink eyes) but have recessive mutants, stripes are dark brown on a whitish background and bluish eyes. It lives in humid evergreen forests, in dry open jungle, and in the grassy swamps of the tarai; while in the Sunderbans it leads an almost amphibious life in a terrain of trees, mud and water. Three things are essential to the tiger viz. the neighbourhood of large animals upon which it can prey, ample shade to sleep in, and water to quench its thirst. Ordinarily; the tiger hunts between sunset and dawn, but in cold or clouded day with rain it will be up and about. It hunts game of all kinds including elephants 251

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(usually females or youngs), gaur, and buffalo. It preys on deer, nilgai, wild pig, bear and porcupine; and also kills and eats panther and other tiger. In case of hunger, it will eat almost anything like fowl, fish, reptile or carrion. Many, in the absence of game animals or from opportunity, turn to cattle-lifting. The habit may be acquired in age or by following parental example when quite young. The same applies to maneating. It takes water readily and swims with ease in that. Tiger has supersenses of hearing and sight. Its striped body conceals its form as it creeps within striking distance of its prey. It is a pertinent hunter. Although it can reach astonishing speed while charging upon a prey, it cannot sustain such speeds for long because of its heavy body weight. Therefore, it approaches the prey as near as possible before springing on it. Only one in twenty of its hunting attempts succeeds, so well matched are the defences of the prey animals. In India, many tigers seem to mate after the rains (October-November) and the majority of young are born between February and May. Whether the tiger is always monogamous is not known as the tiger with more than one female has been seen. Association between the male and female appears to end when the cubs are born, but there may be some companionship for a varying period after that. Tiger is solitary animal unlike the lion which is social animal living in family (pride). Gestation period is 15 to 16 weeks (4 months) and usually 2–3 but up to 6 cubs in a litter. The cubs wander about their lair, and when about 6 months old accompany the mother in her hunting and may stay with her until 2 years old, and even after she has acquired a new mate. Sexual maturity is attained at 3 years of age by the female and at 4 years by the male. The life span of the tiger is estimated to be about 20 years. B. LION (Panthera leo)

It is top carnivore playing very important role in ecosystem and food chain. The Indian Lion or Asiatic Lion is found today only in Gir Forest in the Junagarh district of Gujarat State in India in the whole Asian continent and, hence, called Asiatic Lion (Panthera leo persica). In Africa, the African lion (Panthere leo) are found besides Asiatic lion. The lion was once found over the whole of Northern and Central India as far South as Narmada. It is now restricted to the Gir Forest of Gujarat (see Colour Plate 1). It lives in scrub forest. It preys on deer, nilgai, gaur, buffalo, etc. In the Gir forest, they prey mainly on game animal and cattle. Its average length is about 275 cm (9'). There is no particular breeding season. In Gir, many lions mate in OctoberNovember and youngs are produced in January-February. The gestation period is about 116 days (4 months). Youngs are produced at intervals of at least 18 months to 2 years. In the meantime, they remain in desertification. Ordinarily, two cubs in a litter are born but sometimes three or as many as five. Sexual maturity 2½ to 3 years in female and in male it is when 5 years old. The lion is a social animal. The male stays with the family and helps to defend the youngs and female gets food for them. It lives in family (pride) up to thirty individuals. The male lion has mane, a more pronounced tuft of hair around the neck. The Asiatic lion has scantier mane than African lion. The colour of the body has brown coat, a longer tassel of hair at the end of its tail, a more pronounced tuft of hair on the elbow joints and fringe of hair on its belly. The mane is light or dark rarely black. Cubs are spotted or striped.

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C. PANTHER OR LEOPARD (Panthera pardus)

It is a carnivorous animal.The Indian Panther ranges over the whole country extending up to Burma and Ceylon (Sri Lanka). Eleven races of panther are found in Asia, three of them occur in India. Average length is 215 cm (7'), female is about 30 cm less. Average weight is 50 kg for male and 40 kg for female. It is short haired with fulvous coat marked with close black rosettes. There may be slight variation in colour in the animals living in hot and cold climates (see Colour Plate l). Panthers are capable to live anywhere and hence unlike tigers, they are not restricted in dense forests and thrive well in open rocks and scrub. They generally hunt at night but can do in daytime also. Their preys are cattle, deer, monkeys, smaller beasts, rodents, porcupines, birds, reptiles, crabs, etc. This big size animals like sambhar, nilgai, barasingha generally escape. Since panthers live near human habitation outside forest areas, generally prey domestic animals. To secure its kill, panther carries a full-grown deer scrambling up a tree in its mouth. Hence, leopards are adapted for climbing trees in which they hide their kills and from where they sometimes ambush prey. Breeding season is throughout the year. Sexual maturity is obtained around 3 to 4 years. Gestation period is about 3 months and generally 2 cubs per litter are born. Life span is about 12–17 years. D. ELEPHANT (Elephas maximus)

With its pendant trunk, its curious dentition, and its great size; the elephant presents distinctive characters which differentiate it from all other mammals. The shortness of the neck and the height of the head from the ground necessitated the development of a proboscis or trunk, a combined and lengthened nose and upper lip, as a device of securing food and water. Its development is accompanied by marked changes in the character and form of the skull which has no snout. The bony part of the face is almost straight. Other physical changes undergone by elephant are seen in the increase in the size and complexity of the teeth, their consequent diminution in number, and the development of a particular method of tooth succession. All the canine teeth have been lost and all the incisors except the second pair in the upper jaw which have developed into tusks. Generally, only the males have large tusks. The tusks of female scarcely protrude or may protrude a few inches. The contour of the tusks varies. They may be widespread, curved, and straight or pointed downwards. In some males, the tusks are no longer than females and called Tuskless or Makhna. Many of these Tuskless males or Makhnas are very large in build with extraordinarily well-developed trunks (see Colour Plate 2). They have great size, development of pillar like limbs to support the enormous weight of the body which again implied the straightening of the limb bones and a change in the angle of their articulation. The foot itself changed its posture or “sole to the ground” and a thick pad of gristle developed beneath each foot and so formed a cushion to receive its share of the weight. The toes embedded in the common mass of the cylindrical foot and encased in a common skin. Their position is indicated externally by broad flat nails which may be fewer than the number of toes. Thus, the limb bones developed into vertical shafts through which the weight of the body is transmitted. The average height of Indian elephant is 9' (2.75 m) of male and about 30 cm less in female. As a thumb rule (based on field experience), the height of an elephant can be

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estimated by its pug mark. The circumference of the pug mark is taken in feet and double of the circumference will be the approximate height of the elephant (unit of measurement must be in feet). The Indian elephant are distributed in Western Ghats, from Mysore southwards, Orissa, Bihar/Jharkhand, Himalayas in U.P./Uttarakhand, West Bengal and Assam in India. It is also found in Ceylon, Burma, Siam (Uttarakhand white elephant), CochinChina, Malay Peninsula, Borneo, Sumatra and Africa. The elephants found in Ceylon are regarded as races, distinct from that found in India. Elephants have very poor sight, but senses of smell and hearing are highly developed more than in most of the animals. Elephants live chiefly in areas covered with tall forests where the ground is hilly or undulating and where bamboos grow in profusion. They are extremely adaptable and may live in steamy humid jungle or in cool elevated forests. Individuals of the various sizes and ages associate in herds which may vary from 5 to 60 or more animals. Herds are believed to be composed of single family. Different herds do not mix but stray females and young males may migrate from one herd into another. When fodder is scarce, the larger herds break up into small parties which reunite when conditions are favourable. In the dry season, the herds generally keep themselves in the denser forests but during the rains they come out into open jungle and frequently enter cultivation. The big tuskers are usually seen feeding at some distance from the main herd. The bulls, when they arrive at a certain age, live as solitaries or two males of equal age may associate together. A solitary bull grazes with a herd when happens to be in the same patch of jungle, and will seek the herd when the urge to mate is on him and deserts again when his desire is satisfied. When undisturbed, the herd pursues a regular and ordered routine, drinking and feeding in accustomed places and lying up to rest in its usual retreat. Elephants sleep during the hot hours of the day being intolerant of the sun, feed early in the morning and evening, and come out after nightfall to feed in open forest or to raid crops, retiring to sleep after midnight. An elephant rests standing or stretched out on its side. The food consists of various kinds of grasses and leaves, stems and leaves of wild bamboos and plantations, all species of crops, and the bark of particular kind of trees. A fullgrown elephant eats from 600–700 lb (270–320 kg) of green fodder a day and consumes 30–50 gallons (150–250 L) water. Male elephants, very rarely females, both tame and wild, on attaining maturity are subject to peculiar periodical paroxysms of excitement. At such times, they are spoken of as being “Musth.” The condition seems to have some connection with the sexual functions. It is probably analogous to the “rut” in deer. It occurs most frequently during the cold season and may be due to ungratified sexual desire. This is not always so, since the society of a female will by no means quell or pacify the animal. At other times, a musth-elephent will seek a mate. The exact breeding-season is uncertain, as most of the youngs are born in late autumn and the period of gestation lasts about 20 months, it is probable that the main breeding season is during the hot weather and at the commencement of the rains. One calf only is born at a time, though in rare instances twins and even triplets are produced. The mother of a young calf is invariably assisted in caring for her young by another female, who takes on the duties of a guardian and is attentive in her care of the calf as the parent.

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Differences between Asiatic/Indian Elephant and African Elephant

Indian Elephant (Asiatic Elephant): i. It has ears much smaller than African. ii. Trunk is relatively smooth ending with only one lip. iii. Tusks are smaller and are seldom found in female. iv. Fore-feet having 5 toes but hind-feet having 4 toes. v. Skin texture is fairly smooth. vi. Height not more that 10'. vii. It has been used by man for countless ages to help in all sorts of work that demand strength (exceptional feature of Asian elephant), whereas African species is rarely used for such work as it is difficult to tame. viii. Distribution ranges from foothills of Himalayas southwards through India and Sri Lanka and eastward through Siam, Malaysia, Sumatra, and Burma. ix. Although there are slight differences between races, the differences are not exceptional. African Elephant: i. It has enormous ears measuring about 9.5' width and 4.5' in height. ii. Roughly corrugated trunk ending with two lips of equal length. iii. Tusk running to a length of over 9' but in exceptional cases 11' and weighing up to 180 pounds each. iv. Both male and female have tusks though the latter are lighter and smaller. v. Skin rough and deeply furrowed. vi. Hind-feet usually only with 3 nails. Fore-limbs 4 to 5 toes. vii. Height is approximately 11' to 12' but the females are a foot smaller. viii. The range of elephants for merely extended over the greater part of Africa but gradually been driven both from south and north and are available only in the central part of Africa more or less south of Sahara and east to west coast. They are numerous in the Nile Valley. E. RHINOCEROS/ONE-HORNED RHINO (Rhinoceros unicornis)

The rhinoceros have massive build, the thickness and solidity of their bones, short stumpy legs each furnished with three toes. The skin is either thinly covered with hair or naked and the heavy hide in places is thrown into deep folds. The nasal bone is enlarged to serve as a support for horn. The horn is formed of a closely-matted mass of horny fibre issuing from the skin. It has no connection with the skull, although a boss of bone in the skull may serve its foundation. The horn grows throughout life and if lost are reproduced. The skin of this massive creature is divided into great shields by heavy folds before and behind the shoulders and in front of the thighs. The fold in front of the shoulders is not continued right across the back, a distinctive character of the one-horned Indian rhinoceros. On the flanks, shoulders and hindquarters; the skin is studded with masses of rounded tubercles. With its grotesque build, long boat-shaped head, its folds of armour, and its tuberculated hide, the animal looks like a monster of some bygone age (see Colour Plate 3).

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Formerly extensively distributed in Gangetic plain, today it is restricted to parts of Nepal and West Bengal in the north, the Dooars and Assam. Though it prefers swamp and grass, the Indian one-horned Rhino is also found in wood jungle, up ravines and low hills. The average length is 6' (180 cm), average height is about 6' (170 cm) with a girth of 11' (335 cm). Average length of horn is 8" (203 mm). It is smaller than the African White Rhinoceros but larger than the African Black. The animal is solitary as a rule, though several may occupy the same patch of jungle. Its food consists chiefly of grass. Breeding takes place at all times of the year. Gestation period is about 16 months. The female attains sexual maturity in 4 years and the male when 7 years old. Ordinarily, one young in a litter. The majority of the rhinoceros in India occur in the Kaziranga National Park in Sibsagar/Nowgong district in Assam. Many legends and beliefs are attached to this animal. In Europe, during the middle ages, its horn was generally believed to have peculiar medicinal virtues. In Nepal, the flesh and the blood of rhinoceros is considered highly acceptable to the manes. High caste Hindus and most Gurkhas offer libation of the animal’s blood after entering its disembowelled body. On Sraddh days, the libation of water and milk is poured from a cup carved from its horn. The urine is considered antiseptic and is hung in a vessel at the principal door as a charm against ghosts, evil spirits, and diseases. These beliefs connected with the rhinoceros are prevalent in varying forms in Burma, Siam and China. They set a great value upon the animal and provide the main reason for its persecution. Thus, with the increase in the use of firearms, the exaggerated value attached to rhinoceros horn, and the superstitious beliefs entertained regarding the magical power of the blood and other parts, and even the urine of the animal; the species stands on the verge of extinction and needs strict protection. F. GAUR OR INDIAN BISON (Bosgaurus)

With its huge head, deep massive body and strong limbs, the gaur is the personification of vigour and the strength. Very striking in gaur is the muscular ridge upon its shoulders which slopes down to the middle of the back where it ends in an abrupt dip. Gaur is the largest Indian bovine. A newly born gaur is light golden-yellow which soon changes to fawn, then to light brown, and so to coffee or reddish-brown, resembling the colour of young bulls and cows. Old bulls are jet black and their body is almost hairless. An ashy forehead and yellowish or white stocking feet complete the livery. The gaur has no white patch behind the thighs (a character well-marked in the tsaine/banteng). The colour of the eyes is brown. In certain lights, as a result of reflection, they appear blue (see Colour Plate 4). Average height 5’10” (180 cm) of male and 170 cm of female. The spread of the horns taken together with their girth is the test of a good head. The average spread of the horn is 85 cm in male and female has slightly smaller and are rounded and have a narrower sweep. An old bull may have over 2000 lb (900 kg) in weight. Gaur is distributed in Western Ghats southwards from south Maharashtra, hillforests of central and south-eastern Peninsula and West Bengal eastwards to Burma and Malay Peninsula.

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Though gaurs come down to low levels in certain seasons in search of pasture, they are essentially hill animals. Forests are essential to the existence of gaur. They come out to graze early in the morning and again in the afternoon. Their foods are chiefly grass but they also browse on leaves and eat the bark of certain trees. They require dense forest that is free from disturbance and have abundant water and forage. They are partial to undulating terrain. When attacked by a tiger, the larger member of the herd form a semi-curcular front, keeping the calves behind and threaten the tiger with their horns. An interesting relationship exists between gaur and elephants and the two are often found together. Gaur cannot reach the tall succulent branches of trees and bamboos. They feed on the branches pulled down by the elephants. In common with many other animals, gaur has the habit of visiting salt-lick spots where the ground is impregnated with salts and other minerals. It is believed that such earth acts as a purgative and rids the animals of internal parasites. Gaur is by nature shy and timid animal. Their defence is their massive size and an acute sense of smell. As with most wild cattle, hearing and eyesight are comparatively poor. The time of mating apparently varies as calves are born at all seasons (according to Schaller, in MP newborn youngs are seen mainly from November to March and the peak of the rut is in March, April, May). Gestation period is not accurately known. It is said that the cow separates from the herd when her calf is born and remains with it for a few days feeding nearby. The herd remains in the vicinity and she rejoins it as soon as the offspring is able to accompany her. The calf becomes generally able to walk after ten minutes of its birth. One calf in a litter. Gaur ordinarily lives in small herds of 8 to 12 animals. Older males live away from the cows except rutting season. The care and upbringing of the young and leadership of the herd is left entirely to the cows. G. BLACKBUCK OR INDIAN ANTELOPE (Antilope cervicapra)

The blackbuck is the sole representative in India of the genus Antilope. Its striking colour and its beautiful spiralled horns, which may reach the shoulder height of the animal, give it an excellent beauty hardly equalled by any other antelope. This exclusively Indian animal is perhaps the most beautiful of all its kind in its attractive natural gift. When young, its coat is a yellowish-fawn and when three years old it commences to turn black. This darkening of the coat varies in intensity. In south India, the adult buck is rarely black, its coat remains a dark brown. Well-matured brown bucks may again be seen in all parts of the country. In general, there is a fading in the richness of tone during the hot weather and an increase in its velvety-lustre after the rains. The horns in male are always present, while they may or may not be present in the female. The horns are generally long, more or less cylindrical and often lyre-shaped. They are commonly marked with prominent rings. In one year old buck, the horns are without spiral, in the second year a large open spiral is developed, and generally the full spiral twists are attained with the dark coat at the end of the third year (see Colour Plate 4). Females attain sexual maturity between the age of 19 and 23 months (about 2 years). Blackbuck breed at all seasons but the main rut takes place between February and March. One or two youngs are produced at a time. The mother conceals them in the grass.

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Blackbucks are usually seen in herds of 20 to 30 though in Rajasthan and Punjab it may be several hundreds. They live in open plains covered with scrub or cultivation. They enter open forests which contain wide expansion of grass. They feed on grass and various cereal crops. Usually, they graze till noon and again in the late afternoon. The leadership of herd is usually vested in an old and vigilant female. A well-grown buck has average height 32" (80 cm) at the shoulder and average weight 90 lb (40 kg). Horns seldom exceed 20" (50 cm) in the south but may reach 25" (65 cm) or more in north India. Blackbuck occurs practically in all the plain areas except along the Indian coast southward from the neighbourhood of Surat. They avoid forest or hill tracts. Note: In Bihar state, Blackbuck is found in Kaimur plateau (Sasaram district) and more in the Arrah district near Ganges river especially in villages Sikroll and Sukarbalia. H. CHEETAL OR SPOTTED DEER (Axis axis)

The cheetal is perhaps the most beautiful of all the deer. Its coat is a bright rufousfawn profusely spotted with white at all ages and in all seasons. Old males (bucks/ stags) are more brownish in colour and darker. The lower series of spots on the flanks are arranged in longitudinal rows. The beautiful antlers have three tines, a long browtine set nearly at right angle to the beam and two branch-tines at the top. The outer tine, the continuation of the beam, is always longer. It may be noted that old stags often have one or more false points on the brow antler where it joins the main beam. Antlers are found only in males as the characteristic of Cervidae (deer family). There is face-gland in male and no gall-bladder as general distinguishing characters of deer. In India, Cheetal are found in the forests at the base of the Himalayas and practically throughout the Peninsula and Ceylon, wherever there is jungle combined with good grazing and a plentiful supply of water. It is unknown in the arid plains of Punjab, Sind, in a large portion of Rajasthan and the countries east of the Bay of Bengal. It is found in Assam in the Goalpara, Kamrup and Darrang districts. It is at its best in the Himalayan foothills, in the jungles of the Tarai, and in Madhya Pradesh. It is favourite prey of lion, tiger and panther. Average height of stag is 36" (90 cm) at the shoulder and weight about 190 lb (85 kg). The average length of antler is 34" (85 cm) but 31" (80 cm) in south India (see Colour Plate 5). They remain in herds of 10 to 30 animals containing 2 or 3 stags but may be met with several hundreds also. They do not avoid the proximity of villages but enter cultivation and frequently associate with many forest animals, particularly with monkeys. Monkey and Cheetal are often seen together. Cheetal feed on twigs and fruits dropped by the monkey and also benefit from the keen eyesight of the monkey which can spot tiger, lion, leopard from far. The monkey, too receive warning of the approach of predators from the wary Cheetal. Cheetal are nocturnal but less than Sambhar and feed till late in the morning and again in the afternoon and lie down during rest period in shade. The time at which the stags shed their antlers varies in different localities. The new antlers are in velvet condition. The rutting-stag has a loud harsh bellow being fierce and combats between the males for the possession of the hinds.

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In Madhya Pradesh, the mating season is at its height in May. In north India, the pairing is during the winter months. Fawns may be met with at any season. Usually, the mother gives birth to a single fawn. Cheetal are prolific breeders and an interval of six months may see the production of a new family. Thus, breeding takes place in all the seasons. Life span is 9–11 years. I. SAMBHAR (Cervus unicolor)

Sambhar is the largest Indian deer having up to 150 cm height at shoulder and weighing up to 320 kg. It is found in India, Burma, Ceylon and Malay. The typical race is of Ceylon named Cervus unicolor unicolor and the Indian race is called C.u. niger. The Malay race C.u. equinus is supposed to extend from Assam. Hence, it is the typical deer of south-eastern Asia. It is favourite prey of tiger, lion, panther, wild dog. A tiger can feed on an adult sambhar kill for 3–4 days. It has coarse and shaggy coat of brown colour. The female is lighter and the old male turns to very dark almost black. In stag, there is mane around the neck and throat. The antlers are stout and rugged. The brow-tine is set at an acute angle with the beam which forks into two equal tines. The antlers fully grow in four years. Casting takes place generally in March-April and new antlers come in May in velvet condition. Average length of antler in 90 cm (see Colour Plate 5). They live in hilly forest sides near cultivation feeding on grass, leaves and wild fruit (herbivorous in nature). They feed mainly at night. Sambhar is oftenly of solitary nature, but sometimes they are in pair or in small herd also. The males fight for territory. Breeding takes place in November-December. After rutting, they live solitary life till breeding-season returns. Gestation period is about 6–7 months and young ones, are born in May-June, generally one young in a litter. The actual longevity is not known very well but it is assumed to be 25 years. J. BARASINGHA OR SWAMP DEER (Cervus duvauceli)

Barasingha or Swamp deer is limited to India. Two races have been recognized viz. the Swamp-dwelling, Cervus duvauceli found in Tarai (Uttarakhand), Assam and Sunderbans having splayed hooves and larger skull; and another is C. d. branderi found in Madhya Pradesh (Kanha National Park) with smaller well-knit hooves. In the Tarai, it lives in marshyland and comes occasionally out of water. In Madhya Pradesh, it lives in grassyland in the forest and less depending upon the water. It has brown-yellow coat. The male has mane and darker in colour. The average height is 135 cm. Two forms of antlers are found. In some cases, the beam takes a backward and then forward curve bringing the points in line with the top of the head. Halfway up the beam, tines are given off at intervals. In other cases, the brow-tine is set at right angle to the beam which grows with an outward curve giving the antlers a wider spread. At the point where it branches, the beam takes an almost horizontal curve and given off a number of vertical tines each of which throws out shoots. 10–15 is the usual number of points and may be more. The average length of antler is 75 cm and has been found up to 105 cm (see Colour Plate 6). They are herbivorous, feeding in morning and evening. They are gregarious in nature. The longevity is not well-known. Breeding season varies in different places. In Tarai, it is at peak in November and in Assam it is at peak in rainy season. In Madhya Pradesh (Kanha National Park), it is at peak in January. Females attain sexual maturity at the age of two years. Gestation period is of six months.

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Both the races are at present in danger as their number is very less and so needs strict protection. K. MUSK DEER (Moschus chrysogaster (moschiferus))

It is a little creature not more than 20" (50 cm) high at the shoulder. The musk deer holds a place between the deer and the antelopes. It is regarded as an undeveloped form of deer which has not progressed with the rest of its family. It is antlerless and has no face-gland in male which are generally present in all deer, but has a gall-bladder which no deer possesses. In some way, it has taken a special line of development of its own. This is seen in its possession of a caudal-gland and a musk-gland in male. The tail of musk deer is peculiar. It is completely buried in the long hair of the anal region and the most part is naked except for a large tuft at the tip and a tuft at the base which covers its upper surface and sides. The lateral surface of the tail bears in its flaccid skin, a narrow slit which is the opening of the caudal gland. The musk gland is situated beneath the skin of the abdomen of the males. When fresh, its secretion has an unpleasant, pungent, urinary odour; but when dry it acquires the scent of musk which has high commercial value and thus induces persecution of the species. From the great development of the caudal and musk glands, it indicates that in this deer the females seek out the males in the breeding season. Musk deer has specially mobile feet, the long pointed central hooves and usually large lateral hooves being well-adapted to give it a foothold on snowy slopes and slippery rocks. The absence of antlers is compensated by the great development of the upper canine teeth projecting below the lower jaw, particularly in the male that is called tusks (see Colour Plate 6). The musk deer wears a coat of thick and bristly hair, almost spongy in structure. The general colour is a shade of rich dark brown speckle with grey. Musk deer range over a wide area in Central and North-Eastern Asia. The typical form M.m. moschiferus is found in Kashmir, Nepal and Sikkim. Musk deer live singly or in pairs and are generally met within birch forest above the pine-zone; and at times they come down to lower levels, always live in thick cover. They scarp out a shallow form in which they lie concealed. They come out to feed in the mornings and evenings. The food consists of grass, lichens, leaves and flowers. Breeding season is believed to be in January and the youngs are born in June and, hence, having gestation period of about six months. L. BARKING DEER OR MUNTJAC (Muntiacus muntjak)

Barking deer range over the greater part of the Indo-Malayan countries and are also found in China, Formosa and Japan. Various races are recognized over this wide range. The Muntjac of north India is M.m. vaginalis. The southern form is M.m. aureus. A third race, M.m. malabaricus, is found in Malabar and extends to Ceylon. The Muntjac of Tenasserim M. feae (Thomas and Doria) is regarded as a distinct species. The coat of the north Indian race is bright chestnut, and bright red form is common in Burma. The antlers are small consisting of short brow-tine and an unbranched beam. They are set on bony hair-covered pedicels which extend down each side of the face as bony ridges, and hence named “Rib-faced deer”. In deer, tufts of bristly hair replace the antlers. Old males are browner in colour. The upper canines of the male are welldeveloped as tusks and are used in self-defence (see Colour Plate 5).

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Height at the shoulder of an adult male is 20" to 30" (50 to 75 cm) and weight about 48–50 lb (22–23 kg). Excluding the pedicel which may be up to 3"–4" (8–10 cm) long, the antler rarely exceeds 5" (13 cm). Average Indian antler measures 2"–3" (5–8 cm), the pedicel 3"–4" (8–10 cm). Antlers shed during May-June. They live in thickly wooded hills. In Himalayas and South India, it occurs up to 5000' to 8000' (1500-2450 m) sometimes even higher. They are seen singly or in pairs or in small families. They remain more or less in thick jungle and come out to graze in the outskirts of forest or in open. They are fairly diurnal in habit. Their food consists of various leaves, grasses and wild fruits. The call from a distance sounds much like the barking of a dog. When alarmed or in fight, they give out a series of short cackling barks. They breed in all seasons. Rutting mainly takes place in cold weather. Usually one, sometimes two youngs are born in a litter at the beginning of the rains (gestation period is about 6 months). M. MOUSE DEER OR INDIAN CHEVROTAIN (Tragulus meminna)

It is very small deer having height of 10"–13" (25–30 cm) at shoulder. It is clovenhoofed, gentle, timid creature and tamed easily. Like other ruminants, mouse-deer have no front teeth in the upper jaw but they differ in having a three-chambered stomach in place of one with four divisions. They have four well-developed toes on each foot, the bones of the petty or side toes being complete; in other ruminants some of these bones are imperfect and wanting. Antlers are not developed. Mouse deer, like musk deer, are furnished with tusks which are better developed in males. The Asiatic Chevrotain is distinguished from the African having true developed cannon bones (see Colour Plate 6). The Indian mouse deer, like all other mouse deer, is a tiny little creature with very slender limbs and high hindquarters. Because of its small size, shy habits and very protective colouring; it easily escapes observation. Its coat is olive-brown minutely speckled with yellow. The flanks are marked with rows of buff or white spots which elongate and pass into longitudinal bands. The lower parts are white. The throat has three white stripes. It is distributed in forested areas of Ceylon and Southern India at elevations up to 6000' (1850 m). It has been reported from Nepal also. The Indian mouse deer shelters in the forest or grassy rocky hill sides. It conceals itself in the crevices of rocks or among large boulders. Pursued by dogs, it shows an amazing ability in climbing up the inside of a hollow standing tree. They come out to feed in the mornings or at dusk. It never dares to go far out into the open, and hides itself when alarmed. In these hides, the female brings forth her youngs, generally two in number at the end of rains or the commencement of the cold season. The males live solitary except during the pairing season. The two Malayan species are the larger Malay Chevrotain (T. napu) and the lesser Malay Chevrotain (T. javanicus). The former is about 28" (70 cm) long and 12" (33 cm) high; the latter is no longer than 18" (45 cm) from the tip of the nose to the root of the tail. The smaller animal has three white stripes on its throat, the larger five. Both species are common in the forests of Tenasserim.

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Ideal Habitat and Management of Certain Wild Animals

A

s discussed in earlier chapters in detail, there are three basic needs such as food, water and shelter for any wild animal in a habitat, but these needs are utilized in different ways by the different species. In other words, it can be said that these requirements are species-specific. Hence, in a habitat, the particular species uses natural gifts of the habitat in its own particular means. The abundance of a particular food or shelter may be very much useful and beneficial for a particular species while they may be useless and unutilizable for others. That’s why, the phenomenon of animal’s distribution as per zoo-geographical regions has occurred suiting them in particular habitat meeting their requirements in better ways. Such acquired character is genetic in the process of organic-evolution of the species concerned. This is the reason for which the habitat-management/improvement is required as per the necessity of the target-species by the wildlife manager wherever and whenever needed. However, from management point of view in general, the following measures may be noted: • • • • • • • • • • • •

Improvement and control of habitat as per need. Conservation of breeding stock. Enhancement of productivity and population of the target species. Control of vermins. Strict regulation/control of hunting and poaching. Increase in carrying capacity of the habitat for the target species. Plantation of required plant species for sufficient food supply throughout the year. Improvement of water and shelter in the habitat. Maintenance of balanced male-female ratio of the species. Control-grazing or banned in grazing of livestock. Fire-control and its management. Proper prey-predator relationship.

1. LION (Panthera leo persica)

It is a gregarious top carnivorous animal leading family life. Though, it has characteristic of territorialism but less than the tiger. It prefers open scrub forest as its 262

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habitat but mixed thorny deciduous forest is also liked. The temperature of the habitat should not be more than 45°C in summer and not below 5°C in winter. It is found presently only in Gir Forest of Gujarat state in our country as well as in the whole Asian continent and, hence, also called Asiatic Lion. The other race is in Africa in the world (see Colour Plate 1). Since it is found only in Gir forest, its management requires too much attention. There should be perfect conservation to enhance its population. The habitat should be improved to raise the carrying capacity for the prey species to meet the full demand of lion so that population may go up in proper direction. There should be total control in grazing of the livestock to fulfil the food requirement of herbivorous prey species. The habitat should be manipulated properly to supply basic requirements of the lions. To save from epidemics, it should be introduced in other habitats which will also help in raising population. 2. TIGER (Panthera tigris tigris)

Tiger is a top carnivorous animal. It is solitary in nature having apparent territory. It is nocturnal predator living in dense forest to get easiness in killing the prey. It lives in all types of forest such as thorny forest, dry and moist deciduous forest, evergreen and semi-evergreen forest (see Colour Plate 1). To raise its population, the habitat improvement is the most important. Pasture lands should be improved raising the carrying capacity of the habitat for herbivorous preys which will ultimately enhance the population of the tiger. There should be control-grazing or ban on grazing, as needed, for livestock. Other basic needs of the target species should be improved in the habitat. 3. LEOPARD OR PANTHER (Panthera pardus)

It lives in almost all types of forest like tiger. Unlike tiger, it kills the small preys. It is unable to hunt big size prey like sambhar, barasingha, nilgai, etc. It is nocturnal in habit (see Colour Plate 1) By habitat improvement, its basic requirements should be fulfilled to enhance its population. For the purpose, the number of its prey species should be increased through proper management. 4. ELEPHANT (Elephas maximus)

It is found in plain and hilly forest generally up to 1500 m elevation but may be up to 3000 m as seen in Burma. Since it needs lot of water for bathing and drinking, there must be perenniel river, lake, etc. in the habitat. For food, there should be bamboo and grass in sufficient quantity. It is migratory in nature in search of food. In rainy season, it descends in open grasslands. An adult elephant consumes about 3 quintals green fodder daily and 30–50 gallons (150–250 L) water (see Colour Plate 2). From management point of view, the habitat should be improved in such a way that it can meet its food and water demands. Sufficient waterholes should be managed and its preferred food species should be planted. Besides these, there should be foreststrip of required width (corridors) connecting one forest to another for the movement of the elephant. Elephants prefer hilly, undulshing terrain where bamboo is abundant. They roam extensively. In summer, they retreat to the denser forest where food, water and cover are plentiful.

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5. GAUR (Bos gaurus)

It is gregarious animal but of shy nature. lt is the largest animal in the world of family Bovidae. It lives in dense forest having meadows. In hilly areas, it is found below 1500–1800 m height. In its habitat, there should be sufficient quantity of grass and fodder trees. Besides these, sufficient quantity of water is also essential in its habitat (see Colour Plate 4). The habitat should be improved as per the need of the animal for food, water, shelter, and salt-licks to enhance its population. Limiting factors of the habitat should be removed. 6. RHINOCEROS/ONE-HORNED RHINOCEROS (Rhinoceros unicornis)

It prefers forest areas having marshy land and tall grasses. It feeds mainly on grasses but sometimes water-hyacinth is also eaten. It also likes agricultural crops and so comes out in such fields (see Colour Plate 3). Management of the habitat, in accordance with the needs of the animal, should be done specially in the connection of food (grasses) and water. The habitat should be improved in such a way that its carrying capacity may bring the animal’s population up to optimum density. 7. BEAR

There are several species of bear in India but the following are important: a. SLoth Bear (Melursus ursinus): It is widely distributed bear in India found in the forest from Himalayan foothills to Sri Lanka in south and Assam in east. It has black or black-brown coat with long and shaggy hair. There is a white V-shaped breast mark. The nails are white. It is nocturnal in habit and comes, out shortly before sunset and forage for whole night eating honey, insects and fruits as main food but also likes maize. When hungry, it also takes carrion. They generally live in places where fallen boulders and rocky outgrowth are found to take protection from hot sun (see Colour Plate 7). b. Himalayan Black Bear (Selenarctos thibetanus): It is found in forested areas of Himalayas moving up to 3000 m height. It has shorter and smoother coat than sloth bear of black colour. It has white or yellowish V-shaped breast mark. The nails are black. It is the most carnivorous in nature and kills sheep, fowl, goats and even cattle; though its main food is honey and fruit. It is expert in climbing the trees and nocturnal in nature, it hibernates in the winter (see Colour Plate 7). c. Brown Bear (Ursus arctos): It is found in the Himalayas above the tree-line. It is a large and heavy animal having coat of hair varying in shades of reddish-brown in accordance with the season. It mainly feeds on grass, roots, insects, fruit and grain but also eats meat killing sheep, goat, fowl, and even cattle (see Colour Plate 7). The management of bears should be as per their required ecological conditions of the habitats to enhance their population. However, the management of sloth bear can be incorporated with that of the tiger and elephant as it shares their habitat. 8. CHEETAL (Axis axis)

Its main habitat is moist deciduous forest but it lives in evergreen and thorny forests also. It feeds on different kinds of grasses, leaves, flowers, fruits, etc. It remains near the waterholes and consumes more water in comparison to the other species of deer.

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For the necessities of water and shelter; cheetal is restricted to live in the forest area having less than 30" (762 mm) rainfall and, hence, prefers the habitat of large meadows mixed with dense forest in between for shelter and so found in open forest of secondary succession. It prefers large open field in the forest and does not live on hills. Edge-effect and Interspersion of the habitat are very much preferred by this species as it gets favourable natural facilities in such conditions. It is found in herd and is the main prey of top carnivores (see Colour Plate 5). The proper management of food, water and shelter in the habitat are the main components for raising its productivity and population. Salt-licks should also be placed for its proper growth. 9. SAMBHAR (Cervus unicolor)

It prefers open dry deciduous forest but also found in dry and moist deciduous forest as well as evergreen forest. It is the largest among all deer species found in India. It lives in small herds and territorialism is preferred more than other deer. Large open field in the forest is less liked by sambhar than the cheetal. Since it is an animal of shy nature, it prefers to live in dense forest and at high hills. It is also the prey of top carnivorous animals (see Colour Plate 5). Management components are like that of cheetal as per its required ecologicalconditions of the habitat. 10. BARASINGHA/SWAMP DEER (Cervus duvauceli)

It is found in moist open grassy fields mixed with marshy lands. There should be sufficient water in its habitat (see Colour Plate 6). Since this species has come up and returned from verge of extinction, its habitat needs much attention and improvement. Limiting factors should be removed and proper management, as needed for its growth, must be cared for. 11. BLACKBUCK (Antilope cervicapra)

It is called Indian antelope which prefers open grassy fields and, hence, found near agricultural fields also. It lives generally outside the forest in herds. It feeds on small grasses. It can live without water for several days and requires little water and, thus, it is not compelled to live near the watersource. Though in general, antelopes require little water, but blackbuck consumes very little water and, therefore, water is not the limiting-factor for this species. It is a gregarious animal and male has its territory (see Colour Plate 4). For its proper growth and propagation, the grassy fields of its preferred grass species should be developed specially in summer season near the boundaries of the forest. 12. CHAUSINGHA/FOUR-HORNED ANTELOPE (Tetracerus quadricornis)

It prefers dry and bushy savannah habitat but also lives in open grassy field near the forest. It is a solitary animal and generally lives in pair. It also requires little amount of water and can remain without it for several days but needs more water than the blackbuck. Hence, water is not the limiting factor for this species also like blackbuck. (see Colour Plate 4). Management, in order to enhance its population, should be done in developing the habitat as per its ecological requirements.

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13. FISHES

Fishes remain in water but they lay eggs in safe places and require food. Fishes are vegetarian as well as non-vegetarian. They are the important aquatic fauna providing food to the human beings. Thus, fishes are a great source of revenue. • • • • • • • •

• • •

From management point of view, following measures should be considered: Identification of migration of fishes. Introduction of suitable and profitable varieties specially in the areas which are devoid of fishes. Regulation and management of fishes in all islands, rivers, lakes, streams, ponds, reservoirs, etc. Monitoring of population at certain intervals. Water should be free from pollution and infection. Cleaning of the habitat is must. Spawning and breeding grounds for certain required fishes should be managed properly. Large number of fisheries should be propagated and maintained. People should be motivated to be engaged in fishery activities for getting revenue through the fish-farming which is more profitable. They should be encouraged for both “Culture-fishery” (fresh-water fishery) and “Capture-fishery” (marine-water fishery). Provision of loan for fish-farming. Training to the rearers. Research in the field.

Above all, in general as stated in earlier chapters, the ideal habitat for wild animals as a whole is that where the basic needs of the animals (foods, water and shelter) are uniformly distributed and dispersed throughout the habitat. The regular and uniform distribution of these basic components facilitates the animals to meet their requirements easily and regularly within their reach throughout the year. Otherwise, there will be overcrowd at certain places causing aggregation and, thus, exerting intraand inter-specific competitions among them. Such condition results a lot of pressure upon the animals due to crowd, competition, dirtiness, etc. and gives adverse effects upon their health, making them feeble and prone to disease; ultimately causing mortality. Hence, only availability in sufficient quantity of food, water and shelter has no sense rather their regular and uniform distribution throughout the habitat in scientific manner matters a lot. Such distribution of the resources favours the animals in proper direction raising their productivity and growth, and finally enhances the number of individuals in the population.

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t is well-established fact that the concern for wildlife is the concern for man himself. All forms of life, viz. human, animal and plant are so closely interlinked that disturbance in one gives rise to imbalance in the others. If species of plants or animals become endangered, they signify degradation in the environment which may threaten man’s own existence. From ecosystem point of view, all organic life on earth are organized as a series of energy transfers called trophic level in a closed system of living and non-living parts in the forms of producers, consumers and decomposers. Producer, consumer and decomposer are linked together in food chain and again various food chains are joined at different trophic levels forming complicated food web. In this intricate web of relationships, the existence of one organism is dependent upon the other. The process of “natural selection” has led to species specialising in the performance of certain functions in the food chains. These are the niches which organisms occupy. The entire trophic structure is delicately balanced on these niches. In these inter-relationships, one form of life is dependent upon the other for its existence and species of plants and animals keep a check on their numbers through such food chains. Destruction of any particular link in the chain or different stands in the web may lead to imbalances which may threaten the existence of man himself on this planet. Nature maintains this vast diversity of animals and plants in a complex organization in which the various life processes of production, consumption and disposal of waste are maintained in well-balanced cycles. Plants and animals constitute the world’s living resources and the various food chains and cycles constitute life-support systems essential for their survival, including the survival of man. These living resources are also renewable. Any process of development by human societies with varying levels of their technology in harvesting natural resources is an intervention in nature and its life-support-system. To be sustainable, it requires that the renewability of the resources and life-support-system is maintained in perpetuity. This, in its turn, needs an understanding of the ability of species to adapt themselves to changing environment and to integrate these considerations in the development planning process. This is the crux for “wildlife conservation”. Unfortunately, due to lack of awareness among the people about the benefits of conservation of wild fauna and flora, selfishness for commercial exploitation as well as ornamental purposes, habitat destruction through deforestation for various purposes, etc. are the main reasons of depletion in wildlife population. Today we are facing the problem of under-populated wild animals resulting rare, endangered, 267

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threatened species and so on. A basic consideration is the balance between mortality and reproduction. Some of the endangered forms are handicapped by having a naturally low reproductive rate. Under optimum conditions, this may be of no great disadvantage, but it can create serious repercussions if normal reproduction is checked by undue disturbance or by such factors as weakening of a species vitality through fragmentation of the population. It has been very correctly said that no natural resource is more sensitive to conservation than wildlife and no natural resource has suffered more from lack of conservation. The human race has a long record of shameful over-exploitation of the earth’s natural resources particularly wildlife and large number of species had been made extinct and endangered. Hence, nowadays alarming condition has come up before us due to depletion of wild animals which haunted all corners of the society like educationists, scientists, public, government officials as well as non-government officials to save wildlife. Therefore, in order to save them, conservation, preservation and protection are required to propagate their population so that healthy and pollution-free atmosphere may give eco-balance on this planet. The wildlife management is the resultant to solve this problem having objectives to maintain ecological balance or to protect the environment by achieving balanced-population of wild fauna and flora by applying scientific technologies. It is interesting to know how we have gradually developed the awareness of the protection of wildlife. At the turn of the twentieth century, the people perhaps with the idea that wildlife was inexhaustible took pride in boosting the killing of animals. But the British rulers began to appreciate the importance of conservation of wildlife and enforced various acts, viz. Rhino Protection Act, Elephant Protection Act, Arms Act, etc. from time to time to save the wild animals from ruthless massacre. However, the first concrete step towards it was taken soon after independence in 1952 with the setting up of a Central Board for Wildlife which was subsequently renamed the Indian Board for Wildlife (IBWL). Most of the states also followed it up. In spite of the formation of these boards, much could not be achieved because of working in isolation from the mainstream of planning process. IBWL is the main advisory board for advising the Government of India regarding wildlife policy in the country. Some of its important achievements are the enacting of Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972; establishment of national parks, sanctuaries and zoological gardens; promoting public interest and education in wildlife and its products; formulation of a national environmental conservation policy; revision of the national forest policy, etc. To restrict and regulate the thriving global trade in endangered species, India became a party to the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) in 1976. Afterwards, many of the international bodies like International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN), Worldwide Fund for Nature (WWF), International Council for Bird Preservation (ICBP), etc. have come up for the purposes of safeguarding conservation, management and creation of awareness. India is the member of all these bodies. For effective conservation of wildlife, there are three basic needs such as: a. Adequate food and water, b. Place of living, and c. Place to breed in safety.

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To achieve these, the following measures are in practice: 1. Reserve forests, national parks, sanctuaries are left unexploited. Where total unexploitation is not possible, the cutting operation of the forests is done in limited blocks at a time. 2. Growing of a single variety of plant is discouraged as far as possible, instead mixed vegetation is encouraged. 3. Natural opening of the forest, waterholes and riversides are guarded against poachers. 4. Control-burning of grassland, to increase forage and to preserve organic materials in the soil, is done in block with unburnt area in between. 5. Provisions for dust-baths and artificial salt-licks are made in the forests for maintaining the normal health of the animals. 6. Grazing of domestic livestock is dangerous to wild animals, as the latter can never compete successfully with the domestic stock. Moreover, the domestic stock may be responsible for transmitting several contagious diseases. Hence, grazing by the domestic stock is avoided as far as possible. 7. Cultivation near the sanctuaries/parks is also avoided to prevent ecological hazards due to pesticides. 8. Scientific studies by qualified personnel specially on threatened species of wild animals are encouraged in order to assess and improve their status, even by breeding them in captivity and rehabilitating them in suitable habitats. Several such measures have been undertaken and many more are needed to halt the decline of wildlife and to create conditions in which it can flourish with its diversity in natural settings. But nothing could be fruitful without educational and publicity programmes for a change in the human outlook, especially in the schoolchildren who are the builders of the future society. There is a general lack of knowledge in the conservation of nature and the value of wildlife in our country. Nature has been treated as a milch cow. Anything of use to man is exploited indiscriminately and inevitably leading to its depletion. Sometimes beyond redemption, unless economy is tempered by ecology, there is no possibility of halting the present trend. The only permanent solution to the problems of protection of wildlife, which is a part of the macro-problem of protection of biosphere and its component ecosystems, lies in proper understanding of the living world and in the reorientation of the human outlook. To find the goals of the above said objectives, government as well as public sector were attracted their attention as an issue of national concern. As a result, government organisations, non-government organizations/voluntary organisations as well as Advisory Bodies actively dedicated to the cause of wildlife conservation.

Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 A comprehensive central legislation was enacted in 1972 called Wildlife (Protection) Act. Subsequently, certain modifications are being made time to time as per the demand of the situation. In 1991, there is amendment particularly for total protection and propagation of wildlife and its habitat. A. GOVERNMENT ORGANISATIONS (GOs)

1. CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora).

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One of the principal causes of the decline of wildlife throughout the world, next only to habitat destruction, is unregulated commercial exploitation. In India, jackal exploited for the fur, musk deer for the musk-pod, and rhinoceros for its horn and so on for fantastic prices in the world market by poachers, traders, and smugglers. The great demand on the international market for rhinoceros horns, musk-pods, crocodile skins, rugs and pelts of different endangered species, monkeys, etc. resulted in poachers and smugglers continuing to engage in their trade with other nations. The international trade continued due to high returns compared to the strict penal provisions adapted by the wildlife legislation (Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972) and there was also little check on imports of such products into other nations. This was a major problem confronting not only India but also other nations which had substantial wildlife resources. In order to prevent over-exploitation of wild fauna and flora through international trade, a Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) of Wild Fauna and Flora was signed at Washington on 3rd March, 1973 and after ratification by ten countries, came into effect on 1st July, 1975. The Government of India signed this Convention in July, 1974 and became a party to it from 18th October, 1976. Under this Convention, the Inspector General of Forests and the Director of Wildlife Preservation are the Management Authorities in India, supported by three Scientific Authorities, namely the Director, Zoological Survey of India (ZSI); the Director, Botanical Survey of India BSD; and the Director, Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute. The representatives of the parties meet every two years to review the Convention and its implementation. Aims and Objectives

i. That wild fauna and flora in their many beautiful and varied forms are an irreplaceable part of the natural systems of the earth. ii. That they are conscious of the ever-growing value of wild fauna and flora from aesthetic, scientific, cultural, recreational and economic point of view. iii. That people and states are and should be the best protectors of their own wild fauna and flora. iv. That international co-operation is essential for the protection of certain species of wild fauna and flora against over-exploitation through international trade. v. That there is an urgency of taking appropriate measures to this end. Keeping the above mentioned objectives in view, the contracting nations of the Convention framed rules and regulations to control the worldwide trade in endangered wildlife and its products. It consists of 25 articles listing endangered, etc. species and rules regarding international trade, etc. In general, the export, import and re-export of any specimen of the species listed in the Appendices require the prior grant and presentation of permits relating to the export, import and re-export subject to the other provisions, restrictions and exemptions under the Convention. 2. GTF (Global Tiger Forum)

India established this association or Forum in March, 1993 in a meeting at Delhi under the Chairmanship of Mr. Kamalnath Choudhary, the then Minister for Environment and Forests, India. It is an international platform to discuss about the protection of tiger population in the world.

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Presently, the tiger is an endangered species as its population is not optimum. Unfortunately, smuggling of tiger skin, meat and bones is going on very fastly. Bones of tiger are used in medicine and wine preparations in China, Taiwan, and other eastern countries. The bones are powdered and sold at very high cost. Such illegal trade has become very difficult to control. If the present trade of hunting of tigers continues; it is sure that within a few decades, tiger will become extinct. Keeping this view, the GTF has been formed by India with genuine and appropriate interest. Objectives

a. International co-operation among the countries where tiger species exist and illegal traffic is going on. b. Voluntary participation and raising of funds. c. To improve the habitat condition and to promote conservation programme. d. To establish new wildlife sanctuaries and national parks. e. To establish special squad to discover illegal hunting and poaching of tiger. B. NON-GOVERNMENT ORGANIZATIONs (NGOs)/ VOLUNTARY ORGANIZATIONS/ ADVISORY BODIES 1. WWF (Worldwide Fund for Nature)

It was set up in 1961 which is the world’s largest voluntary organization. Since October, 1979 its headquarter is at Gland, Switzerland. The Giant Panda is the official symbol of WWF. Previously, it was known as World Wildlife Fund (WWF); but in 1990 it was renamed as Worldwide Fund for Nature (WWF). This organization raises funds for urgent conservation requirements and promoting conservation through the worldwide education campaign and public consciousness. An executive committee, comprising the President and ten members of the Board of Trustee of WWF, is responsible to the Board for the administration of the fund. It supervises for raising and disbursement of funds, etc. The Board can also include influential individual from a wide variety of professions such as science, finance, medicine, art, advertising, trade and diplomates to utilize their talents. WWF depends entirely upon voluntary contributions for raising its fund. It is collected by National Organisations of five continents and through International Headquarters in Switzerland. WWF raises money through: a. Interest on an endowment fund of more than 10 million dollars contributed by 1001 persons from all parts of the world. b. Donations from the general public. c. Contributions from its over one million regular members. d. Grants from several charitable foundations, etc. WWF works in collaboration with IUCN and is supported by UNO, UNESCO, UNEP, and FAO. Conservation objectives are reviewed twice a year by the Conservation Programme Committee, composed of members from leading WWF National Organisations, Trustees and Senior staff of WWF and IUCN. WWF represents a board spectrum of activities. They support conservation projects in their own territories as well as internationally.

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WWF-lndia was formed in 1969 having Board of 8 Trustees with the Headquarter in Bombay and three Regional Offices in Calcutta, Delhi, and Madras. Its functions are as follows: i. It focuses attention of the Government of India and State Governments on the problems of concern in the field of wildlife conservation. ii. It organises Conservation Education Programme both in educational institutions and for general public. iii. It supports research projects on wildlife conservation in India. The foremost being the Project Tiger (1973), Gir Ecological Research Project (1968), Project Hangul (1970), Himalayan Musk Deer Project (1979) and Lesser Cats Project (1981). Besides funds, WWF also provides them vehicles, telecommunication equipment, etc. iv. From publicity point of view, it also publishes bulletin, wildlife posters, calendars, etc. with message on conservation. More than 400 “Nature Clubs” have been set up in four different regions (North, South, East, and West) of India. 2. BNHS (Bombay Natural History Society)

The society was formed as a private organisation in 1983 by seven residents of Bombay. The society is actively engaged in collecting information and specimens of flora and fauna throughout India, Burma, and Ceylon. The society has also become instrumental in focusing official and public attention to the need for proper understanding, conserving, and development of the rich biodiversity of wildlife of India specially through publications, lectures, films, field visits, etc. The society has collected so many rare and endangered fauna. Specimens of flora and fauna are sent to it also for identification and preservation. The society is always busy in carrying research work in collaboration with foreign and other agencies. It has done tremendous work in surveying mammals of India from 1911 to 1923 and ornithological survey as well. An international investigation in the role of birds in spreading arthropod-borne viruses, valuable informations were obtained by ringing two lakhs birds. The society is under the affiliation of University of Bombay (Mumbai) and provides M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees. The society is the representative of IBWL and Wildlife Advisory Boards of many States. It also gives financial assistance for field work in natural history to the workers such as students and the scientists/researchers. 3. WPSI (Wildlife Preservation Society of India)

It is a non-government organisation founded in 1958 at Dehradun by a group of wildlife conservationists realising the alarming condition of national heritage. WPSI was formed in 1994 with the specific aim of providing additional support and information to combat the escalating illegal wildlife trade. The society has established a network of informers throughout India, a comprehensive database on wildlife crimes and a legal cell which pursues the prosecution of important wildlife cases particularly those concerning the tiger. The society assists and liaises with government enforcement authorities to bring about the arrest of offenders and seizure of wildlife products. With field projects and awareness compaigns, WPSI is actively involved in major wildlife conservation issues in the country. It has the following main objectives:

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i. To promote interest and knowledge among the people in the field of preservation and conservation of all kinds of fauna and flora, water and environment. ii. To co-operate with Government of India and States as well as other societies and institutions for the interest of wildlife. iii. To support in enforcing Wildlife (Protection) Act. iv. To promote wildlife tourism. v. To protect, conserve and propagate wildlife in the country, the society has to advise and help the Government and the wildlife administrators in the formation, maintenance and protection of sanctuaries and national parks; preservation of wildlife in general and rare species; introduction of exotic species; rehabilitation of rare species; revision of shooting and fishing rules, etc. ix. To carry on such other activities which will serve the above objectives. x. To establish and maintain museums, libraries of natural history, etc. to promote knowledge in the field of wildlife. xi. Raising of funds to carry out the above aims and objectives. To fulfil its objectives, the society is publishing a journal namely “Cheetal” together with BNHS. The ideas of the society are spreading day-by-day promoting awareness among the people in wildlife conservation. 4. IBWL (Indian Board for Wildlife)

It is the main advisory body for advising Government of India in regard to wildlife policy in the country. It was first constituted in 1952 as an Advisory Body under the Chairmanship of the Inspector General of Forests under the name “Central Board for Wildlife” to suggest how India’s wildlife could be safeguarded. The Board was later re-designated as the Indian Board for Wildlife (IBWL). Now, it has been renamed as National Board for Wlidlife (NBWL). It has the following functions: i. To devise ways and means for the conservation and control of wildlife through co-ordinated legislative and practical measures with particular reference to seasonal and regional closures and the declaration of certain species of animals as protected animals and for the prevention of indiscriminate killings. ii. To sponsor the setting up of national parks, sanctuaries, zoological gardens and parks. iii. To promote public interest in wildlife and its preservation in harmony with the natural and human environment. iv. To advise the government on policy in respect of export of living animals, trophies, skins, furs, feathers and other wildlife products. v. To prevent cruelty against birds and beasts caught alive. vi. To review from time to time the progress in the field of wildlife conservation in the country and to suggest such measures for improvement which are considered necessary. vii. To assist and encourage the formation of wildlife societies and to act as Central Coordinating Agency for all such bodies. viii. To advise the Central Government on any matter that it may refer to the Board provided the subject matter of the reference falls within the prescribed functions of the Board. ix. To do all such other things either alone or in conjugation with other or on the direction of the Government of India to preserve and conserve wildlife.

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The IBWL discharged its responsibilities very efficiently. Some of the main achievements are as follows: a. The most important achievement is promulgation of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act in 1972 for providing special legal protection to our wildlife and to the endangered species of fauna particularly. b. A zoological park was set up in Delhi in 1955 reflecting the latest ideas of exhibiting animals in open air enclosures. The number of wildlife reserves has been increased. c. Forests and protection of wild animals and birds have been included in the concurrent list in the Constitution by the 42nd Amendment in 1976. d. On the recommendation of IBWL, India became a party to the CITES in 1976 due to which the illegal trade in wildlife and its products has declined drastically in our country. e. On the recommendation of IBWL, a National Environmental Conservation Policy and a National Forest Policy have been formulated. In the latter, emphasis has been given on the conservation rather than the exploitation of the forest resources. 5. IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources)

The history of the modern wildlife conservation movement really starts from the International Conference for the Protection of Nature held at Paris in 1931 which led to formation of the IUCN. This was followed by the International Conference on African fauna held at London in 1933 which resulted in the London Convention for the Protection of the Fauna and Flora of Africa (1933). After the last war and in collaboration with the UNESCO (United Nations Economic, Social and Cultural Organisation), the IUCN General Assembly met at Paris in 1948 and at Finland in 1952. Such general meetings alternate with meetings of its Technical Committee. In 1953, the Second International Conference on African fauna was held in the Belgian Congo. IUCN was founded in 1948 which has its headquarter at Morgis, Switzerland. It is the leading international, non-government organisation concerned with conservation. It is a network of government and non-governmental organisations as well as scientists and conservations experts dedicated to the protection and sustainable use of livingresources. Now, it is called WCU (World Conservation Union). IUCN has more than 475 member-organisations and 116 governmental agencies in 110 countries. Functions

i. Monitoring the status of conservation. ii. Developing plans for dealing with conservation problems such as the World Conservation Strategy. iii. Promoting action on their plans by government or organisations as appropriate. iv. Providing advice and assistance to implement conservation measures. v. Co-ordinating communication between the members and the commissions as well as the development. vi. Selection and management of WWF, Conservation Projects around the world. vii. Managing the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and the CITES Secretariat. viii. Performing the continuing bureau duties under the Conservation of Wetlands of International Importance, specially of waterfowl habitats.

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IUCN receives financial support from its own members, from WWF, UNEP and a number of other sources. SSC (Species Survival Commission) of IUCN prepares Red Data Book for endangered species which is modified every year and addition or deletion of the animal is done in the list of the Book as per its status. Also see Chapter 10 under head “Biodiversity”. 6. CBSG (Conservation Breeding Specialist Group)

Previously, it was known as Captive Breeding Specialist Group and the name was changed as “Conservation Breeding Specialist Group” in 1994. CBSG is the most active specialist group in SSC (species survival commission) incorporating principles of conservation biology and small population dynamics with species conservation both in situ and ex situ. It has been an integrating influence on the global conservation community. The CBSG processes of Population and Habitat Viability Assessment (PHVA), Conservation Assessment and Management Plan (CAMP) and Global Captive Action Plan (G-CAP), Global Captive Action Recommendation (G-CAR) have brought together scientists and field managers, zoopersonnel, politicians, sociologists, educationists, industrialists and a great variety of other relevant experts and enthusiasts. The processes are dynamic and interactive events which consider all aspects of conservation from the ego problems between individuals. The most advanced scientific methods assisted reproduction and genetic analysis. The group of processes (CAMP, PHVA, G-CAR) can be described as a set of interactive catalysts because they are all interconnected and interdependent. Mission of CBSG

i. To conserve and establish viable populations of threatened species through captive-propagation programmes and through intensive protection and management of small and fragmented populations in the wild. ii. To advise IUCN, SSC and the SSC Specialist Groups on the uses of captivepropagation for conservation and to organize, facilitate and monitor International Captive Propagation Programmes. iii. To establish a global network of zoo-professionals and also to provide facilities and personnel for International Collaborative Captive Programmes for the species in danger of extinction. iv. To establish a global network of professionals in captive management, wildlifemanagement, population biology, reproductive biology and technology, and other disciplines to advise on the establishment, development and conduct of recommended captive propagation programmes of endangered species. v. To conduct Conservation Assessment and Management Plan (CAMP) workshops and to prepare Captive Breeding Action Plans in collaboration with the appropriate Specialist Groups of SSC and International Council for Bird Preservation (ICBP) for all the vertebrates and selected non-vertebrates. These plans are to provide analysis of the status of the species in captivity, information on the status of the species in wild, and recommendations for captive propagation programmes. vi. To assist in the organisation of captive programmes for species as recommended by the plans. This would include coordination of studbooks and captive-breeding programmes at the global level. Besides, these would include recommendations to the regional zoo-organisations for selection of species, assisting in arrangements for field studies and working with relevant Specialist Groups and responsible management agencies to obtain animals from the wild, if needed.

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vii. To assist the adoption and use of effective systems for assembling local and global captive data (such as ISIS, ARKS) and regional systems for support of collaborative captive breeding programmes. viii. To use global system for continuing collection of information on the status of species in the wild to assist in establishing priorities on a timely basis. This information system would provide a database for SSC Action Plans, Heritage Species Plans and assignment of IUCN Categories of Threat. ix. To assist SSC and International Union of Directors of Zoological Gardens with the Heritage Species Programme, specially the aspects relating to the conservation biology. x. To prepare and distribute a Newsletter to provide a means of communication between all members of the CBSG and the world’s zoos. To arrange and hold meetings to facilitate the selection, development, maintenance and monitoring of collaborative programmes. xi. To conduct PHVA (Population and Habitat Viability Assessments) workshop in conjunction with other SSC and ICBP Specialist Groups, as needed to establish the extinction risks for a taxon and to develop the scenarios and recommendations for management actions needed to prevent extinction and to achieve recovery (removal from the threatened species list). xii. To develop, in conjunction with other SSC and ICBP Specialist Groups, Global Master Plans for species as needed and as a basis for providing a focus on the conservation of species in the wild. This would include specific identification of reserves that are in need of support, development of pre-release programmes for species that are to be returned to the wild, and the coordination of the captive programmes. xiii. To develop and assist the use of Genome Resource Banking for the conservation of threatened species. 7. SSC (Species Survival Commission)

The SSC is one of the commissions of IUCN, the World Conservation Union. Its aim is to conserve biological diversity by developing and executing programmes of study, save, restore and manage wisely the species and their habitats. The main goals are: i. To assess the conservation status and threats to species worldwide, so as to generate the recommendations and strategies necessary for the conservation of biological diversity. ii. TO identify conservation priorities for species and their habitats. iii. To promote the implementation of specific recommended actions for the survival of species. iv. To develop and promote policies for the conservation of species and their habitats. v. To enhance the efforts of individuals working on biodiversity conservation by linking them and providing access to an international forum. vi. To promote an understanding of the importance of the conservation of species to the well-being of the people. vii. It prepares Red Data Book for endangered species which is modified every year as per the status of the animal. It means the animal whose status becomes improved and comes out of endangered category, is removed from the list of the Book (addition or deletion is done in the list every year as per the status of the animal).

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8. PHVA (Population and Habitat Viability Assessments)

Population and Habitat Viability Assessments (PHVA) is the enhanced version of Population Viability Analysis (PVA). It is an intensive analysis of a particular taxon or one of its populations. PHVA use computer models to explore extinction processes that operate on small and often fragmented populations of threatened taxa, and to examine the probable consequences for the viability of the population of various management actions or inactions. The models incorporate information on genetic and demographic characteristics of the population and on conditions in the environment to simulate probable fates (specially probability of extinction and loss of genetic variation) under these circumstances. It also uses models to evaluate a range of scenarios for the populations under a variety of management (or non-management) regimes. As a result of the different scenarios modelled, it is possible to recommend Management Actions that maximize the probability of survival or recovery of the population. The Management Actions may include: a. Establishment, enlargement, or more management of protected areas. b. Poaching control. c. Reintroduction or translocation. d. Captive breeding. e. Sustainable use programmes. f. Educational efforts. Thus PHVA provides an important resource for development of comprehensive conservation and recovery programmes for threatened taxa. Moreover, while the PHVA process commences with an initial workshop, the process normally continues in the light to the results reviewed and refined. The process frequently entails one or more follow-up workshops. Since PHVA has an important step in the development of an overall recovery programme for a threatened taxa, it has been SSC policy to conduct the workshops in the area of all the species in question. It also considers invitation of the appropriate wildlife agencies (those with management responsibility and authority). PHVA normally considers one taxon (single species) at a time and single species is taken up at a time about which there is doubt, for whatever region, about its ability to sustain long-term survival. Its workshop analyses the degree of risk to the species using the information and expertise from a very wide range of participants from both in situ and ex situ professional communities as well as other related disciplines. PHVA is becoming more and more effective. It has emerged as one of the very effective tools for evaluating species and habitat conservation needs and catalyzing specific management action towards reducing the probability of risk of species extinction. 9. CAMP (Conservation Assessment and Management Plan)

As populations of many species of animals are reduced and fragmented in the wild, more “intensive management” has become necessary for their survival and recovery. This intensive management includes, but it is not limited to, captive breeding. CAMP is needed to provide strategic guidance for application of intensivemanagement techniques to the threatened taxa.

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It is conducted as collaborative ventures of particular Animal Specialist Group and the CBSG. The process undertaken in the CAMP workshop reviews both wild and captive status of all individuals (animals) in the taxonomic group under consideration. For this purpose, the process utilizes information from SSC Action Plans that may already have been formulated by the Animal Specialist Groups. Where such Action Plans do not yet exist, the CAMP process produces an assessment of the status and prospects of the species so that Global Action Plans for both in situ and ex situ efforts can be formulated. Based on these assessments, CAMP comes out with a set of the recommendations about which individual animal groups are in need of what kind of intensive management attention. The kinds of attention include: a. Population and Habitat Viability Assessment and Conservation Management Plan (PHVA/CMP) workshops. b. Intensive (captive type) protection and management in the wild. c. In situ and ex situ research where the captive community can reasonably assist in taxonomic clarification, some survey support. d. Captive-propagation programmes that sooner or later could be linked to interactions with wild populations. The CAMP process has also been provided with an opportunity to test the applicability of the Mace/Lande Criteria (Conservation Biology) for assessment of threat. The Mace/Lande Criteria are the proposed new IUCN Categories of Threat and are still under active development. The criteria provide an estimate of the risk of extinction of particular species based on information about size, distribution, trend of their population as well as conditions of their habitat. An important product of the CAMP process is a Global Captive Action Plan (GCAP/CAP) which attempts to provide a strategic overview and framework for effective and efficient use of “captive resources” for conservation of the broad group of taxa of concern. CAP also provides strategic guidance for captive programmes at both the Global and Regional levels in terms of captive breeding and also possible other support (technical, financial, etc.) for in situ conservation. CAP provides recommendations such as: • What taxa are most in need of captive propagation and, hence, • Which taxa in captivity should remain there, • Which taxa not yet in captivity should no longer be maintained there. For the taxa recommended for captivity, the CAP suggests an appropriate level of captive-programme required in terms of demographic and genetic goals and, hence, size of target population to be developed. Ultimately, CAP will also recommend how responsibilities for captive-programmes might best be distributed among organized regions of the global-captive-community. While captive-breeding programmes are emphasized in the CAP, the plans also attempt: a. To identify where and how the captive community can assist with transfer of intensive management information and technology. b. To develop priorities for the limited financial support, the captive community can provide for in situ conservation (i.e. adopt a sanctuary programmes, etc.). It is the intention of the SSC Steering Committee that, as far as possible, Captive Action Plans be incorporated into the overall Action Plans. The CAMP process obviously facilitates this objective. Action Plans have already published that a Captive

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Action Plan component should be omitted to continue process of development. Thus, the CAMP and CAP process assembles the expert’s views on captive and wild management of the taxa under review. It provides for a rational means of assessing priorities for intensive management including captive breeding with the context of the broader conservation needs of threatened taxa. Hence, CAMP aims to: i. Review the wild and captive status of each taxon in a defined broad group of taxa (i.e. an Order, Family, Sub-family, Community). ii. Assess the degree of threat for each taxon. iii. Recommend “intensive management” and “information collection action” to mitigate the threat. Thus, the CAMP provides: a. Resources for the development of IUCN, SSC and Action Plans. b. Strategic guide for intensive conservation action, and c. The first step in the Global Captive Action Plan process. CAMP considers multiple taxa. In CAMP a broad group of living-beings, plants or animals (such as Felidae or Cervidae), a species (such as Crane or Hornbill) or a ecotaxa (such as Hawaiian Forest Birds) or an eco-system (such as a Particular Island) are evaluated. Based on their status and distribution in situ, global priorities for intensiveconservation management are considered. At CAMP, it is possible to assess the direction needed for future programmes. If a species is thought to be very highly endangered, then another workshop such as PHVA might be recommended including intensive-captive programme. If it is felt that the species is relatively safe, the recommendation might be that the species should not be in captivity at all. And further, there might even be a recommendation that the species should be phased out of captivity and the same space should be allocated to a more needy species. 10. MAB (Man and the Biosphere Programme)

UNESCO’s Man and the Biosphere Programme (MAB) proposes an interdisciplinary research agenda and capacity building aiming to improve the relationship of people with their environment globally. Launched in the early 1970, it notably targets the ecological, social and economic dimensions of biodiversity loss and the reduction of this loss. It uses its World Network of Biosphere Reserves (WNBR) as vehicles for knowledge-sharing, research and monitoring, education and training, and participatory decision-making. The Biosphere Reserve concept was developed initially in 1974 and was substantially revised in 1995 with the adoption by the UNESCO General Conference of the statutory framework and the Seville Strategy for Biosphere Reserves. Today, with more than 480 sites in over 100 countries, the WNBR provides context-specific opportunities to combine scientific knowledge and governance modalities to: • • • •

Reduce biodiversity loss Improve livelihoods Enhance social, economic and cultural conditions for environmental sustainability Thus, contributing to the pursuit of the Millennium Development Goal (MDG), in particular, MDG 7 on environmental sustainability.

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Biosphere reserves can also serve as learning and demonstration sites in the framework of the United Nation Decade of Education for Sustainable Development (DESD). UNESCO’s Draft Programme 2006-07 defines four main lines of action for ecological and earth sciences, which may be summarized as follows: 1. Minimizing biodiversity loss though research and capacity-building for ecosystem management. Focus will be on a broad-based interdisciplinary research agenda with respect to the ecological, social and economic dimensions of biodiversity loss and its reduction. • Research, training and education related to the biodiversity loss and global assessments. • Urban systems, carbon economics and ecosystem management for biodiversity use. • Research, training and ecosystem management of drylands and mountains. • Research and ecosystem management in coastal areas and humid tropics and South-South cooperation for capacity building. 2. Biosphere reserves promoting environmental sustainability. Emphasis will be placed on linkages between biodiversity conservation and socioeconomic development in specific biosphere reserve contexts. The WNBR and its regional networks will be used as vehicles for knowledge-sharing and exchange of experience, research and monitoring, education and training, and testing of participatory decision-making, thereby contributing to the emergence of “quality economics” and to conflict prevention. • Establishing new biosphere reserves and transboundary biosphere reserves. • Strengthening of knowledge base on environmental sustainability (including the Great Apes Survival Project (GRASP), and the Biosphere Reserve Integrated Monitoring (BRIM) Programme. • Using Biosphere Reserves as platform for conflict prevention. • Statutory meetings and MAB Young Scientist Award Scheme. • Supporting regional and thematic MAB networks. 3. Enhancing linkage between cultural and biological diversity. Cultural landscapes and sacred sites will receive special attention and allow to learn about biological and cultural diversity interactions. Special attention will be given to biosphere reserves and World Heritage Sites. • Establishing a knowledge base on cultural practices fostering local-level sustainable use of biodiversity in biosphere reserves. • Local and indigenous knowledge as a basis for equitable biodiversity governance in small Island Developing States. • Raising awareness of the role of sacred natural sites, cultural landscapes and intangible heritage in ecosystem management and sustainable use of biodiversity. 4. Earth sciences and earth system monitoring. • Strengthening research of the earth system and scientific networks via interdisciplinary projects.

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• Increasing awareness of earth sciences and economic benefits of sustainable geotourism. • Establishing collaborative science policy-maker mechanism to highlight value of each global observation. • Establishing a network on use of space technologies for monitoring, conservation and capacity-building activities benefiting biosphere reserves and World Heritage Sites. • Strengthening capacities on geological maps and technical documents based on information collected in situ and from space. • Preparing earth science-related education and training materials as well as curricula integrating results from space observation.

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ccording to the definition of Wildiife Management as stated in the concerned chapter, to obtain specific human goal, from the wildlife resources, is necessary. There should be needs/manipulations in structure, dynamics and relations of the three major components, viz. wildlife population, its habitat and the related people. This may be specified as follows: i. The real crux of the wildlife management is the full determination of its goal. It is obtained by observing the situations. Some goals are chosen in the management and to achieve them, different kinds of determinations are fixed. For example, if the number of males in a population is excess in comparison to the appropriate male-female ratio, then the goal will be to make this ratio suitable; and, therefore, it is to be determined that whether the excess males have to be introduced elsewhere or they have to be hunted to minimize its number. Likewise, if there are excess bushes and less grasses in the habitat, it is to be determined that whether the bushes should be destroyed through weedicides or through the controlled burning to enhance the growth of the grass. It means, first of all, some objectives are fixed for specific human goals for indefinite period to get through wildlife resources; and then to achieve these objectives, determination is fixed in planning of the action. ii. The first important component of the wildlife management is wildlife population. Actually management is done to the wildlife population to get benefits from them to the human society for indefinite period. If wildlife population is to be made eternal, it is very essential that wildlife manager is having sufficient knowledge of biology and ecology of the species to be managed. In the absence of such knowledge, making of suitable and effective wildlife structure, dynamics, etc. are impossible. In biology, the knowledge is gained for that particular species regarding its morphology, physiology, life-cycle and breeding, causes of mortality, basic requirements to carry the life, present status of the animal number, age and sex ratios and so on. In ecology, the studies on effects of the environment and results of its impacts upon the nature of the individuals of that particular species are done. In real sense, wildlife management is an ecological science in which there is analysis and studies of the relations and effects of a particular species with its environment (environment includes the basic resources like atmosphere, soil, water, etc. and its users like whole plant and animal kingdom). 282

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iii. The second important component of the wildlife management is its habitat. The basic requirements of wildlife (food, water, space and shelter) are met through the habitat in which they live. Hence, if the wildlife population is to be made beneficial for indefinite period for human life, the habitat has to be managed in such a way that it can provide them and fulfil their all the necessities regularly and smoothly. For this, the knowledge of forestry, zoology and botany is desirable. iv. The last third but very important component of wildlife management is the related people. But from manipulation point of view, this is the most difficult component. The man is the main source who had and has been applying their skills and interfering the nature. Nature is full of miracles; it always tries as well as keeps its all the components in balance, its working are peculiar which is beyond the apprehension of the man till now. But the men are interfering with the nature’s job and try to govern it as per their own little skills. Its results become very disastrous and the man himself invites problems causing annihilation of natural balance. Therefore, an important work of wildlife manager is to manipulate/ manage the skilled people. On the basis of the knowledge of biology and ecology of the wildlife, the condition of wildlife-population may be brought to suitable and favourable. Its habitat may be manipulated suitably and, as a result, the situation and condition of the wildlife population may be created suitable, feasible and favourable. But unless and until there is people’s manipulation/management, all other managements/ manipulations will be in vain. Aims of Wildlife Management: It has been discussed in Chapter 4. A. WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT PLAN

To achieve the above objective, a Wildlife Management Plan is prepared. When the management of a wildlife species of an area is to be done; first of all, a plan has to be prepared in such a way that the basic information regarding the relations of all the three components (wildlife population, habitat and people) may be obtained. The knowledge of their present status (situation) may be acknowledged as well as the studies on the causes of that situation should be carried out. On these basis, all the three components may be manipulated in suitable way so that they may be developed in progressive direction. Generally, the Wildlife Management Plan is dealt in the following steps: i. Inventory: Before preparing any plan, there is necessity to gather some basic information and records for that particular project. Collection of such information is called inventory. In case of the inventory of wildlife population, the information regarding names of the available different types of wild animal species in the related area, their distribution and dispersion in that area, etc. are collected. In case of habitat inventory, the information like availability of different plant species in that area, their distribution, condition and position in plant succession, the suitable and preferred palatable plant species as food for wild animals among the whole available vegetations, the quantity of food obtained from them during different seasons, availability of water in the area, the quality of plant species from shelter point of view, etc. are collected. These works are time consuming and not so easy and require experts in the field of forestry, zoology and botany to conduct the same.

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In case of people’s inventory; the survey and analysis of human population of that area as well as neighbouring zone is conducted. And then they, are categorized such as the people who have interest in wildlife and its conservation, those who are neutral having neither interest in conservation nor harming them, those who are harming the wildlife, area of the offence covered by such people and so on. ii. Census: Through census, the statistical/mathematical informations of the three components (wildlife population, its habitat, and the related people) and their subtypes are collected. For exarnple: a. For wildlife population, the informations like the number of each faunal species, their density, age-ratio, sex-ratio, species-ratio, birth-rate, mortality, survivalrecords, etc. are collected. b. For habitat, the information like the number of different floral species and their areas, the number of different floral species providing food and shelter, their interspersion, and degree of juxtaposition of the different plants are collected. c. In case of related people, the number of their three categories (friends, neutral and enemies), their classification from social and economic point of view, their age classes, etc. information are collected. iii. Revenue Procurement: To fetch revenue from wildlife population, the number of the wild animal species are estimated and allowed to hunt per year or per season, if it is found surplus than the renewal capacity/stock of the area. In case of habitat, the revenue obtained from plants are not counted rather the percentage is estimated by comparing the quantity of food and shelter to be obtained by the whole available species in the total habitat, with that area of the habitat in which sufficient quantity of food and shelter are available. In case of related people; the revenue obtained by legal economy from fauna, benefits related to zoological science, benefits from entertainment and opportunity of employment, etc. are estimated. But simultaneously, the quantity of loss made by man and cattle to the wild animals as well as losses done by wild animals to the human-being and cattle are also estimated. iv. Diagnosis: In case of wildlife population, the present situation (status) of the population is diagnosed; if it is not optimum, the reasons or factors responsible for that are assessed so that it may be removed. For example, the low turnover rate may be due to the reason of irregular sex-ratio, or, due to more percentage of mortality in the young ones. In such cases, the factor/fractors responsible may be found out to rectify sex-ratio or to minimize the percentage of mortality in the young ones. Diagnosis for habitat is to find out the causes of unsuitability, or, its effects. These are assessed and limiting factors are sorted out so that they may be removed. In case of related people, the category causing harms to the wild animals is diagnosed and reasons of such behaviour are found out so that it may be pacified and rectified. v. Control and Remedies: Control and remedies means the actions to be taken to control or rectify the harmful or damaging factors which are found through the diagnosis.

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In case of wildlife population, the objective of control and remedies is to enhance the population on the basis of the knowledge of biology of the wild animals. To control and to make necessary remedies, the factors hindering turnover rate of the animals are taken into considerations. For example, if mortality in youngones is due to certain disease, the treatment is done for that disease; if turnover rate is low due to unfavourable sex-ratio, the sex-ratio should be managed properly. Hence, the objective is to bring the wildlife population at the optimum level. There should be management of sufficient space in the habitat for the each individual of the related species. There should be trials, to make favourable sex-ratio and age-ratio of the species to enhance natality, and removal of unproductive animals from wildlife population. These methods will help or benefit only those wildlife populations which are out of danger or have no great loss. But the population which has become endangered and is on the verge of extinction, there should be special devices for it to be used such as production of young ones through artificial reproduction to get appropriate sex-ratio as well as transfer or introduction of youngs in protected and favourable habitat; if animals are in very limited area, they should be translocated/ introduced in new area. The healthy and optimum condition of wildlife population depends upon the habitat. Hence, before the manipulation of the wildlife population, there should be management or manipulation of the habitat. For example, there should be management for tasty and nutritious food and sufficient water and shelter for the animals. Juxtaposition and interspersion for such essential things should also be improved. Food, shelter and water should be managed to be available in the entire area and the management/arrangement should be in such a way that such essential requirements may meet in pinch-period in sufficient quantity. In case of people’s relation, to bring changes in their motives of harmful activities to the wild animals, is to control with remedial measures. Therefore, the different categories of the people (friend, neutral and enemy of the wildlife) have to be managed. For example, the category like friend of wildlife generally keep their interest limited to themselves and hence such people should be encouraged and motivated for active participation in the protection of wildlife; likewise to create awareness towards love and sense of protection in neutral category of the people, and to change the mentality among the enemy category of the people, they should be persuaded and motivated in such a way that such persons may be converted as wildlife protector. For such work, the benefit may be taken by the research done in social sciences by applying and adopting them wherever it is appropriate and necessary. Obstacles/Problems in Wildlife Management: It has been described in Chapter 4. B. NATIONAL WILDLIFE ACTION PLAN

The shrinkage and degradation of forest, and non-forest wildlife habitats as well as serious decline in the status of wild animals; conservation efforts started gathering momentum in the country in the early ’70s. The National Wildlife Action Plan was drawn up against this background. It is a document setting out an agenda of countrywide activities in the field of wildlife conservation, which was released by the late Prime. Minister Indira Gandhi in November, 1983. The Action Plan covers a period of 5 years and contains ten sections, each representing a major area of activity in the wildlife field which are as follows: 1. Establishment of a Representative Network of Protected Areas (PA = Sanctuary and National Park): This section of the Action Plan is concerned with the necessity

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and requirement ensuring that the country has adequate representative network of the protected areas (national parks and sanctuaries) with respect to biologicaldiversity and geographical distribution. It provides for the production of an agreed biogeographic classification as background to a review of all existing protected areas and recommendation for the establishment of new ones to fill the existing gaps. As a result, all biogeographic zones would be represented in an enlarged protected area network. Work on these priorities, project is in well progress. Management of Protected Areas and Habitat Restoration: This section improves the management of protected areas and ensures its compatability with the needs of local people. Under the provision, the project for the restoration of degraded habitats within protected areas as well as provision for the development of a fully professional cadre of wildlife managers has come into light. The identification of special areas for eco-development, where conservation oriented communitydevelopment programmes are undertaken, remains an urgent need in order to ensure the support and involvement of local people in the overall management of wildlife areas. Wildlife Protection in Multiple-use Areas: This section aims to provide means for the protection of wildlife in multiple-use areas (such as production forests and pasture lands) so as to preserve viable “corridors” linking up protected areas and ensuring genetic continuity between them. These will include “migration routes” of species such as elephants, and “diffusion corridors” for tigers in areas where habitat destruction is bringing them into conflict with man. There has been little specific progress in this area of the plan. Rehabilitation of Endangered and Threatened Species: This section is concerned with the rehabilitation of endangered and threatened species. After conducting field surveys and establishing appropriate criteria, a graduated list of threatened Indian fauna and flora is to be drawn. For each species, specific rehabilitation measures are to be recommended to the relevant state authorities for taking actions. Captive Breeding Programmes: Presently, the design of time bound captivebreeding/release projects is receiving attention for species already identified for rehabilitation. However, the full list of species showing degree of threat and a recommended recovery programme awaits completion. Field surveys of critical areas and species are being undertaken under this section. Wildlife Education and Interpretation: This section of Action Plan deals with the wildlife education and interpretation aiming wider public appreciation of the importance of wildlife for human betterment. Priority projects include the setting up of a division of wildlife education/interpretation at Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun and model interpretation units at key national parks and zoos. Some progress has been made at places such as Kanha National Park and Delhi Zoo with interpretation. A new model Visitor Centre is designed for Corbett National Park. Central Government financial support for non-governmental organisations for producing wildlife educational materials is visualized in the plan. It would greatly speed up progress in this important aspect of conservation of wildlife. Research and Monitoring: This section deals with the vital area of research and monitoring in order to provide a scientific basis for improved management of wildlife. Involvement and implementation of universities in wildlife teaching and research would increase the net capacity for good wildlife research in the country.

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A national list of research priorities in wildlife covering critical habitat types is still awaited but is in progress. 8. Domestic Legislation and International Conventions: This section highlights the importance of statutory provisions and its updation for wildlife conservation. Amendment of 1972 Wildlife (Protection) Act in 1991 and ongoing revision of legislation of CITES in India illustrate the action taken under this section of the Plan. 9. National Conservation Strategy: This section shows the importance of International treaties (agreements) as well as the need for a National Conservation Strategy for India from wildlife conservation point of view. 10. Collaboration with Voluntary Bodies: This section of the Plan represents an important aspect which is easily overlooked viz. the enlisting of support from and collaboration with voluntary bodies involved in wildlife conservation. There is still an urgent need to define the role of such organisations and encourage their participation in conservation efforts. In certain fields, non-governmental organisations can make rapid progress while the government machinery finds it tough only. In each section of the Plan, an objective is concisely defined followed by a brief statement of the action required for its fulfilment. The section is then broken down into a series of priority projects which indicate the exact tasks to be performed, the timing and duration of the project and precisely who will be responsible for its implementation. Priority and sequence of the project components are also indicated. While the overall initiative for implementation of the Action Plan rests with the Department of Environment, Forests and Wildlife at the centre; a number of government as well as non-government agencies are involved. In particular, the Zoological Survey of India, Botanical Survey of India, Wildlife Institute of India and State Forest Departments are given responsibilities for parts of the Plan. In many cases, the Plan provides for the setting of a special working group for the achievement of a particular task. In many sections of the Plan, the recommended mode of achieving objectives requires examination, particularly in cases where little progress has been possible to date. All sections without exception need a revision of their time schedule to take account of delay in commencing the projects or a revised perception of the duration required to adequately achieve the objectives. Ongoing adjustment should be an accepted facet of any good plan of this kind, if it is to avoid becoming an outdated document of only limited relevance to changing conditions in the country. Hence, it is clear that the National Wildlife Action Plan has provided a vital framework for conservation and management of India’s diverse wildlife resources and a yardstick by which progress can be measured. As such, the Plan is a document which deserves even wider attention among foresters and wildlifers. C. ECO-DEVELOPMENT

Eco-development refers to development based on the sustainable use of local renewable resources mainly for the benefit of local people. In rural India, this means satisfying basic needs and providing employment, but not at the expense of the environment and not without participation by the local people. Adapting to natural conditions, eco-development does not seek short term productivity increase through the intensive use of external inputs and high risk technology. Eco-development respects the

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ecological and economical benefits derived from protected areas (national parks and sanctuaries) which are inadequately accounted for in traditional cost/benefit analysis. Hence, eco-development means where conservation-oriented community development programmes are undertaken. It is an urgent need in order to ensure the support and involvement of local people in the overall management of wildlife areas. It deals with principles and practices of appropriate natural resource management with people’s participation. The objective is to reorder rural development so as to improve the socio-economic conditions of the people and do this in a sustainable manner vis-à-vis resource productivity and optimal utilization. It also aims to promote the people’s traditional bonds with their land and resources so as to ultimately support the conservation of the protected areas. Eco-development and people’s participation in land use decisions are inspiring concepts in protected area management. Adopting these concepts implies a fundamental shift away from the traditional approaches to protection. Numerous beginnings have been made in this field. For a sustained effort, we need the continuous and systematic search for opportunities which, once found, can be tied into a coherent approach to eco-development. The problems like encroachment, firewood collection, rural poverty, corruption, etc. are the analysing problems which should be uncovered for realistic opportunities for constructive action. The simple step of defining problems as to urgency, place, and causes will often render some aspects of the problem tractable with the means at hand and increase confidence in eco-development as a workable concept. Participation leads to cooperation only if it gives people a say at every stage and for this to happen protected-area personnel must bridge the social distance between them and the local people. Before voicing their own concerns, they should attempt to understand the inner workings of a community. It is during this process that opportunities for cooperation emerge. Ecodevelopment, as any other development for the matter, requires organization and participation by those who are to be benefited from them because development cannot progress without responsibility or power. It can be real only when the community understands its problems, realises its responsibilities, exercises the necessary powers through its chosen representatives and maintains a constant and intelligent vigilance on local administration.

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21 Wildlife Act

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he importance and essentiality of existence of wild animals in respect of ecobalance and human race have been dealt in the previous chapters in detail. It is clear to understand that wild animals are the integral part of the ecosystem performing vital role in maintaining food chain and food web. Thus, their existence and survival on the earth planet is so important and essential not only for the natural balance but also for the existence of human life. We cannot imagine well-beings of mankind without the optimum survival of every kind of wild species. Unfortunately, the renewable natural resources have been and being exploited by the human beings unscientifically as well as carelessly without thinking its adverse consequences. Since India is an underdeveloping country facing so many problems majorly tremendous growth in human population, poverty, unemployment, illiteracy, and unawareness towards wildlife and nature. As the consequences, there is lot of pressure on forest and wild animals such as encroachment of forest land converting into agricultural field, illicit felling, illegal hunting and poaching, smuggling and merciless killings of wild animals have resulted dwindling in population of wild animals and shrinkage of their habitats. Several species have been brought to the endangered/threatened category, many are on the verge of extinction surpassing the stage of critical-limit, and extinction of many important species has taken place. In brief, the situation has come to an alarming stage and, if left unchecked, it will be beyond our hands. Hence, today we are seeing disturbed ecosystems and life-support systems before our eyes. Therefore, the forest personnel as well as people should have wholistic view and approach in forest activity whether it is tree and/or wild animal. In the year 1800, for the first time in India, the exploitation of wildlife was started on scientific basis; in 1806, first Forest Conservator was appointed at Madras Presidency; in 1847, an eminent botanist was appointed as Forest Conservator at Bombay; in 1855, the administrative structure of Forest Department was framed, and in 1864 Sir Brandis became the first Forest Inspector General. The first systematic law in India was enacted in the year 1887 by the British called Wild Birds Protection Act of 1887. But due to wanton killing of wild animals and birds, a more comprehensive legislation in order to remove the situation, the British Government passed the Wild Birds and Animals (Protection) Act, 1912. Again in the year 1935, the Act was amended calling Wild Birds and Animals (Protection) Act, 1935. But all these laws were essentially aimed at hunting the game 289

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animals and trade in products derived from wild animals. Much attention was not taken in conserving and propagating the wild animals throughout the country. In past, people were of the idea that wildlife was inexhaustible and had pride in having trophies. Before independence, the protection of wildlife was the responsibility of native rulers and local forest officers under Indian Forest Act, 1927 and no uniform national legislation was framed to control, conserve, and regulate the wild animals. Advancement in science and industrialization started to exploit the wildlife in any way to ease and smoothen human life. There was rapid depletion in the population of wild animals. Anyway, the British rulers realized the importance of conservation of Wildlife and enforced various laws like the Rhino Protection Act, the Elephant Protection Act, the Arms Act, etc. from time to time to save them. However, the Second World War was the most devastating period for wild animals which were mercilessly hunted by the soldiers and army officers wherever they halted. The Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS), a private agency, established in 1883 took first step in formulating a comprehensive act for Bombay in 1951 called Bombay Wild Animals and Wild Birds Protection Act, 1951. But the first concrete step was taken after independence in 1952 by setting up an advisory board calling Central Board for Wildlife, which was later on renamed Indian Board for Wildlife (IBWL). Moreover, to cover all aspects of wildlife like conservation, protection, propagation, control, administration, scientific management, trading, etc, it was felt essential to frame rules and regulations on national level to control and manage the wildlife, our marvellous and varied national heritage. Ultimately, Wildlife (Protection) Act was formulated in 1972 with much attention to conserve and propagate the wild animals with the salient provisions of creating sanctuaries and national parks as well as penalties against the offences like illegal hunting, poaching, trading, etc. The Act provides legal protection to the wildlife and to the endangered species of fauna in particular, which have been listed in different Schedules (which are amended suitably from time to time). This act gave great help in conservation efforts of wild fauna. Illegal hunting and reckless killing of wild animals reduced up to a great extent and many endangered/threatened/rare species were saved from extinction improving their population. Creation of Schedules safeguarded them a lot. The Act has been framed in VI Chapters following 66 Sections, and V Schedules. Chapter I defines various terminologies related to the wildlife and Chapter II deals the criteria to appoint certain officers. Chapter III gives the most important contribution for controlling hunting of wild animals; for the purpose, the wild animals have been grouped in V Schedules such as Schedule I consists of Endangered and Rare species directing complete prohibition of hunting, Schedule II includes Special Game animals giving more attention for their protection and hunting is allowed only under exceptional circumstances obtaining licence, Schedule III comprises Big Game animals and hunting is not allowed except permitted under special provision, Schedule IV consists of Small Game animals and hunting is permitted under special provision, the last Schedule V includes Vermines. Chapter IV deals with the provision for the creation of sanctuaries, national parks, reserves and closed areas. Chapter V describes the important aspect about penalties against the offences and its preventive measures. Chapter VI gives powers to the officers in preventing commitment of offences, punishment and enforcement of penalties for violating the rules of the Act as well as entries (adding and deleting the species) in Schedules and also empowers Central and State governments to frame the rules, etc. The Act is amended time to time to accommodate provisions for its effectiveness as well as to be more strict, practical and fruitful as per the time demand. The amendment

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in 1991 has the salient features like more stringent ban on hunting, constitution of Central Zoo Authority, recognition of Zoos, emphasising protection of plants, etc. through insertion of Chapter III A and Chapter IV A, amendment of certain Sections, omission of words such as Special Game, Big Game and Small Game from the Schedules, addition of one more Schedule VI enlisting certain plants. In this amendment, the government became aware of the necessity for harmonizing the needs of the tribals and other forest dwellers with conservation of wildlife and that is why appropriate representation has been provided to the tribals in State Advisory Boards. A separate Chapter III-A has been inserted in the Act to regulate exploitation of threatened species of wild plants. In this chapter, it has been also regulated that bonafide collection of plants by tribals for their own use is not affected by the provision of the chapter. It was felt that rights of local people in the areas notified as Sanctuaries should be determined and settled expeditiously because the matter of the State level was quite slow causing hardship to the local people, and hence, it has been provided in the Act that no land other than a Reserve Forest and Territorial Water would be declared as a Sanctuary without prior settlement of the rights of the local people. The provisions regarding amendment of Sanctuaries have been made more stringent and effective. No alterations can be made in the boundaries of a Sanctuary by any State Legislature to this effect. It has been made mandatory for the Chief Wildlife Warden to take measures for immunization of livestock maintained within 5 km radius of a sanctuary. Destruction or exploitation of any wildlife including vegetation forming part of the habitat has been banned. It has also been regulated that no new armed license would be granted within 10 km of a Sanctuary without prior concurrence of the Chief Wildlife Warden. Molesting and teasing of wild animals or littering the grounds of the sanctuary has also been made a punishable offence. Causing damage or altering the boundary of a Sanctuary has been made punishable. A provision, by inserting Chapter IV-A for setting up of a Central Zoo Authority, has been made to ensure that mushroom growth of ill-conceived and inadequately managed, zoo may be stopped. The Authority would endeavour to ensure that Zoos maintain appropriate standards and contribute significantly in the national conservations effort. The penalties for various offences have been enhanced appropriately. It has also been provided that operation of Section 360 of Cr. Pc and probation of offenders Act, 1958 should be excluded from cases of serious nature, especially those related to hunting in a Sanctuary or a National Park or illegal trade in Scheduled animal products. It has also been provided that vehicles, weapons, traps and tools used for committing an offence shall be the property of the State and these shall not be returned to the offenders. This would act as serious deterrant and would help in curbing down the poaching and illegal trade in wildlife products. Prior to 1991 amendment, only the officials of the State Government were empowered to file cases in the court. Now, this power has been given to the officers of the Central Government also. A provision has also been made that any person could file a case against the offenders after giving a notice in the prescribed manner to the State Governments and the Central Government. To provide protection to Indian population of elephants, a ban has been imposed on trade in African ivory. Trade in Indian ivory had already been banned earlier in 1986. Provision has also been made for payment of rewards to the persons providing intelligence in helping prevention of poaching or capture of offenders including those indulging in illegal trade in wildlife products. Before 1991 amendment, the power to make changes in the Schedules of Wildlife (Protection) Act was exercised concurrently by the State Governments and the Central Government. This power now vests only with the Central Government. The main purpose of this

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change is to ensure uniformity of legal protection available to different species in adjoining states so that the unscrupulous traders do not take advantage of different Schedules in adjoining states for laundering illegally procured wildlife products. In this way, so many fruitful amendments were made in 1991. THE WILD LIFE (PROTECTION) ACT, 1972 (ACT 53 OF 1972) [9th SEPTEMBER, 1972] An Act to provide for the protection of wild animals and birds and for matters connected therewith or ancillary or incidental thereto. Whereas it is expedient to provide for the protection of wild animals and birds and for matters connected therewith or ancillary or incidental thereto; And whereas Parliament has no power to make laws for the States with respect to any of the matters aforesaid except as provided in articles 249 and 250 of the Constitution; And whereas in pursuance of Clause 1 of Article 252 of the Constitution resolutions have been passed by all the Houses of the Legislatures of the States of Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Gujarat, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Manipur, Punjab, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal to the effect that the matters aforesaid should be regulated in those States by Parliament by law. Be it enacted by Parliament in the Twenty-third Year of the Republic of India as follows: CHAPTER I PRELIMINARY Sec. 1. (1) This Act may be called the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. (2) It extends, in the first instance, to the whole of the States of Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Gujarat, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Manipur, Punjab, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal and to all the Union territories; and it shall also extend to such other State as may adopt this Act by resolution passed in that behalf in pursuance of Clause 1 of Article 252 of the Constitution. (3) It shall come into force in a State or Union territory to which it extends, or may become extended in future, on such date as the Central Government may, by notification, appoint, and different dates may be appointed for different provisions of this Act or for different States or Union territories. Sec. 2. In this Act, unless the context otherwise requires: (1) “Animal” includes amphibians, birds, mammals and reptiles and their young, and also includes, in the cases of birds and reptiles, their eggs; (2) “Animal article” means an article made from any captive animal or wild animal, other than vermin, and includes an article or object in which the whole or any part of such animal has been used; (3) “Big game” means any animal specified in Schedule III; (4) “Board” means the Wildlife Advisory Board constituted under Subsection (1) of Section 6;

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(5) “Captive animal” means any animal, specified in Schedule I, Schedule II, Schedule III, or Schedule IV, which is captured or kept or bred in captivity; (6) “Cattle” includes buffaloes, bulls, bullocks, camels, cows, domestic elephants, donkeys, goats, horses, mules, pigs, and sheep, and also includes their young; (7) “Chief Wildlife Warden” means the person appointed as such under clause a of Sub-section (1) of Section 4; (8) “Closed area” means the area which is declared under Sub-section (1) of Section 37 to be closed to hunting; (9) “Collector” means the chief officer in charge of the revenue administration of a district; (10) “Commencement of this Act”, in relation to: (a) A State, means commencement of this Act in that State, (b) Any provision of this Act, means the commencement of that provision in the concerned State; (11) “Dealer” means any person who carries on the business of buying and selling any captive animal, animal article, trophy, uncured trophy or meat; (12) “Director” means the person appointed as Director of Wildlife Preservation under clause a of Sub-section (1) of Section 3; (13) “Game reserve” means an area declared under Section 36 to be a game reserve; (14) “Government property” means any property referred to in Section 39; (15) “Habitat” includes land, water or vegetation which is the natural home of any wild animal; (16) “Hunting” with its grammatical variations and cognate expressions, includes: (a) Capturing, killing, poisoning, snaring and trapping of any wild animal and every attempt to do so, (b) Driving any wild animal for any of the purposes specified in Subclause a, (c) Jnjuring or destroying or taking any part of the body of any such animal or, in the case of wild birds or reptiles, damaging the eggs of such birds or reptiles, or disturbing the eggs or nests of such birds or reptiles; (17) “Land” includes canals, creeks and other water channels’ reservoirs, rivers, streams and lakes, whether artificial or natural, and also includes boulders and rocks; (18) “Licence” means a licence granted under this Act; (19) “Manufacturer” means a manufacturer of animal articles; (20) “Meat” includes blood, bones, sinew, eggs, fat and flesh, whether raw or cooked, of any wild animal, other than vermin; (21) “National Park” means an area declared, whether under Section 35 or Section 38, or deemed, under Sub-section (3) of Section 66, to be declared, as National Park;

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(22) “Notification” means a notification published in the Official Gazette; (23) “Permit” means a permit granted under this Act or any rule made thereunder; (24) “Person” includes a firm; (25) “Prescribed” means prescribed by rules made under this Act; (26) “Sanctuary” means an area declared, whether under Section 18 or Section 38, or deemed, under Sub-section (3) of Section 66, to be declared, as a wildlife sanctuary; (27) “Small game” means any animal specified in Schedule IV; (28) “Special game” means any animal specified in Schedule II; (29) “State Government” in relation to a Union Territory, means the Administrator of that Union territory appointed by the President under Article 239 of the Constitution; (30) “Taxidermy” with its grammatical variations and cognate expressions, means the curing, preparation or preservation of trophies; (31) “Trophy” means the whole or any part of any captive animal or wild animal, other than vermin, which has been kepf or preserved by any means, whether artificial or natural, and includes: (a) Rugs, skins and specimens of such animal mounted in whole or in part through a process of taxidermy, and (b) Antler, horn, rhinoceros horn, hair, feather, nail, tooth, musk, eggs and nests; (32) “Uncured trophy” means the whole or any part of any captive animal or wild animal other than vermin, which has not undergone a process of taxidermy, and includes a freshly killed wild animal. (33) “Vehicle” means any conveyance used for movement on land, water or air and includes buffalo, bull, bullock, camel, donkey, elephant, horse and mule; (34) “Vermin” means any wild animal specified in Schedule V; (35) “Weapon” includes ammunition, bows and arrows, explosives, firearms, hooks, knives, nets, poison, snares and traps and any instrument or apparatus capable of anaesthetizing, decoying, destroying, injuring or killing an animal; (36) “Wild animal” means any animal found wild in nature and includes any animal specified in Schedule I, Schedule II, Schedule III, Schedule IV, or Schedule V, wherever found; (37) “Wildlife” includes any animal, bees, butterflies, Crustacea, fish and moths; and aquatic or land vegetation which forms part of any habitat; (38) “Wildlife Warden” means the person appointed as such under Clause b of Sub-sectio(n) 1 of Section 4. CHAPTER II Authorities to be Appointed or Constituted Under the Act Sec. 3. 1. The Central Government may, for the purposes of this Act, appoint: (a) a Director of Wildlife Preservation; (b) Assistant Directors of Wildlife Preservation; and (c) such other officers and employees as may be necessary.

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(2) In the performance of his duties and exercise of his powers by or under this Act, the Director shall be subject to such general or special directions, as the Central Government may, from time to time, give. (3) The Assistant Directors of Wildlife Preservation and other officers and employees appointed under this section shall be subordinate to the Director. Sec. 4. (1) The State Government may, for the purposes of this Act, appoint: (a) Chief Wildlife Warden; (b) Wildlife Wardens; and (c) Such other officers and employees as may be necessary. (2) In the performance of his duties and exercise of his powers by or under this Act, the Chief Wildlife Warden shall be subject to such general or special directions, as the State Government may, from time to time, give. (3) The Wildlife Warden and other officers and employees appointed under this section shall be subordinate to the Chief Wildlife Warden. Sec. 5. (1) The Director may, with the previous approval of the Central Government, by order in writing, delegate all or any of his powers and duties under this Act to any officer subordinate to him subject to such conditions, if any, as may be specified in the order. (2) The Chief Wildlife Warden may, with the previous approval of the State Government, by order in writing, delegate all or any of his powers and duties under this Act, except those under Clause a of Sub-section (1) of Section 11, to any officer subordinate to him subject to such conditions, if any, as may be specified in the order. (3) Subject to any general or special direction given or condition imposed by the Director or the Chief Wildlife Warden, any person, authorized by the Director or the Chief Wildlife Warden to exercise any powers, may exercise those powers in the same manner and to the same effect as if they had been conferred on that person directly by this Act and not by way of delegation. Sec. 6. (1) The State Government, or, in case of a Union territory, the Administrator, shall, as soon as may be after the commencement of this Act, constitute a Wildlife Advisory Board consisting of the following members, namely: (a) the Minister in charge of forests in the State or Union territory, or, if there is no such Minister, the Chief Secretary to the State Government, or, as the case may be, the Chief Secretary to the Government of the Union territory, who shall be the Chairman; (b) two members of the State Legislature or, in the case of a Union territory having a Legislature, two members of the Legislature of the Union territory, as the case may be; (c) Secretary to the State Government, or the Government of the Union territory, in charge of forests; (d) Chief Conservator of Forests, ex off/do; (e) an officer to be nominated by the Director; (f) Chief Wildlife Warden, ex off Vc/o; (g) such other officers and non-officials, not exceeding fifteen, who, in the opinion of the State Government, are interested in the protection of wildlife.

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(2) The State Government shall appoint Chief Conservator of Forests or Chief Wildlife Warden as the secretary of the Board. (3) The term of office of the members of the Board referred to in Clause g of Sub-section (1) and the manner of filling vacancies among them shall be such as may be prescribed. (4) The members shall be entitled to receive such allowances in respect of expenses incurred in the performance of their duties as the State Government may prescribe. Sec. 7. (1) The Board shall meet at least twice a year at such place as the State Government may direct. (2) The Board shall regulate its own procedure (including the quorum). (3) No act or proceeding of the Board shall be invalid merely by reason of the existence of any vacancy therein or any defect in the constitution thereof or any irregularity in the procedure of the Board not affecting the merits of the case Sec. 8. It shall be the duty of the Wildlife Advisory Board to advice the State Government: (a) in the selection of areas to be declared as sanctuaries, national parks, game reserves and closed areas and the administration thereof; (b) in formulation of the policy in granting licences and permits under this Act; (c) in any matter relating to the amendment of any Schedule; and (d) in any other matter connected with the protection of wildlife, which may be referred to it by the State Government. CHAPTER III HUNTING OF WILD ANIMALS Sec. 9. (1) No person shall hunt any wild animal specified in Schedule I. (2) No person shall hunt any wild animal specified in Schedule II, Schedule III, or Schedule IV, except under, and in accordance with, the conditions specified in a licence granted under Sub-section (5). (3) Any person desiring to obtain a licence referred to in Sub-section (2) shall apply, in such form, and on payment of such fee, as may be prescribed, to the Chief Wildlife Warden or any other officer authorized by the State Government in this behalf (hereinafter referred to as the authorized officer). (4) An application under Sub-section (3) may be made for all or any of the following kinds of licences, namely: (a) Special game hunting licence. (b) Big game hunting licence. (c) Small game hunting licence. (d) Wild animal trapping licence. Provided that any such licence may be restricted to the hunting or trapping of such animal as may be specified therein. (5) On receipt of an application under Sub-section (3), the Chief Wildlife Warden or the authorized officer may, after making such inquiry as he

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may think fit with regard to the fitness or otherwise of the applicant to receive the licence, grant or refuse to grant such licence after recording in writing his reasons for such grant or refusal; and when the grant of a licence is refused, the fee paid therefor shall be refunded to the applicant. A licence granted under this section shall: (a) be in such form as may be prescribed; (b) be valid for such period as may be specified therein; (c) be subject to such terms, conditions and restrictions as may be prescribed; (d) not be transferable. The holder of every licence shall maintain a record, containing such particulars as may be prescribed, of the wild animals, other than vermin, killed or captured by him during the currency of the licence. When any animal specified in Schedule II or Schedule III is killed, wounded, or captured by the holder of a licence, he shall, not later than fifteen days from the date of such killing, wounding or capture, or before leaving the area specified in the licence, whichever is earlier, intimate in writing to the Chief Wildlife Warden or the authorized officer, the prescribed particulars of such animal killed, wounded or captured by him. The holder of every licence shall, not later than fifteen days from the date of expiry of such licence, surrender the records maintained by him under Sub-section (1) and the licence to the Chief Wildlife Warden or the authorized officer, and shall sign a declaration, in the prescribed form certifying the accuracy of the records maintained by him under Subsection (1). Notwithstanding anything contained in any other law for the time being in force and subject to the provisions of Chapter IV: (a) The Chief Wildlife Warden may, if he is satisfied that any wild animal specifed in Schedule I has become dangerous to human life or is so disabled or diseased as to be beyond recovery, by order in writing and stating the reasons therefor, permit any person to hunt such animal or cause such animal to be hunted; (b) The Chief Wildlife Warden or the authorized officer may, if he is satisfied that any wild animal specified in Schedule II, Schedule III, or Schedule IV, has become dangerous to human life or to property (including standing crops on any land) or is so disabled or diseased as to be beyond recovery, by order in writing and stating the reasons therefor, permit any person to hunt such animal or cause such animal to be hunted. The killing or wounding in good faith of any wild animal in defence of oneself or of any other person shall not be an offence: Provided that nothing in this Sub-section shall exonerate any person who, when such defence becomes necessary, was committing any act in contravention of any provision of this Act or any rule or order made thereunder. Any wild animal killed or wounded in defence of any person shall be Government property.

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Sec. 12. Notwithstanding anything contained elsewhere in this Act, it shall be lawful for the Chief Wildlife Warden, to grant, with the previous permission of the State Government, a permit, by an order in writing stating the reasons therefor, to any person, on payment of such fee as may be prescribed, which shall entitle the holder of such permit to hunt, subject to such conditions as may be specified therein, any wild animal specified in such permit, for the purpose of: (a) education; (b) scientific research; or (c) collection of specimens for zoological gardens, museums and similar institutions. Sec. 13. The Chief Wildlife Warden or the authorized officer may, subject to any general or special orders of the State Government, for good and sufficient reason, to be recorded in writing, suspend or cancel any licence granted under this Chapter: Provided that no such suspension or cancellation shall be made except after giving the holder of the licence a reasonable opportunity of being heard. Sec. 14. (1) An appeal from an order refusing to grant a licence under Section 9, or an order suspending or cancelling a licence under Section 13, shall lie: (a) if the order is made by the authorized officer, to the Chief Wildlife Warden, or (b) if the order is made by the Chief Wildlife Warden, to the State Government. (2) In the case of an order passed in appeal by the Chief Wildlife Warden under Sub-section (1), a second appeal shall lie to the State Government. (3) Subject as aforesaid, every order passed in appeal under this section shall be final. (4) No appeal shall be entertained unless it is preferred within fifteen days from the date of the communication to the applicant of the order appealed against: Provided that the appellate authority may admit any appeal after the expiry of the period aforesaid, if it is satisfied that the appellant had sufficient cause for not preferring the appeal in time. Sec. 15. No person shall, unless specially authorized by a licence, hunt the young of any wild animal, other than vermin, or any female of such animal, or any deer with antlers in velvet. Sec. 16. (1) The State Government may, by notification, declare the whole year or any part thereof, to be a closed time throughout the State, or any part thereof, for such wild animal as may be specified in the notification and no hunting of such animal shall be permitted, during the said period, in the area specified in the notification. (2) The provisions of Sub-section (l) shall not apply to vermin unless otherwise specified by the State Government in this behalf. Sec. 17. (1) No person shall: (a) hunt any wild animal, from or by means of, a wheeled or a mechanically propelled vehicle on water or land, or by aircraft; (b) use an aircraft, motor vehicle or launch for the purpose of driving or stampeding any wild animal;

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(c) hunt any wild animal with chemicals, explosives, nets, pitfalls, poisoned-weapons, snares or traps, except in so far as they relate to the capture of wild animals under a Wild Animal Trapping Licence; (d) hunt any special game or big game other than with a rifle, unless specially authorized by the licence to hunt with a soft-gun using single-slug bullets; (e) for the purpose of hunting, set fire to any vegetation; (f) use any artificial light for the purpose of hunting, except when specially authorized to do so under a licence in the case of carnivora over a kill; (g) hunt any wild animal during the hours of night, that is to say, between sun-set and sun-rise, except when specially authorized to do so under a licence in the case of carnivora over a kill; (h) hunt any wild animal on a salt-lick or waterhole or other drinking place or on path or approach to the same, except sand grouse and water-birds; (i) hunt any wild animal on any land not owned by Government, without the consent of the owner or his agent or the lawful occupier of such land; (j) notwithstanding that he holds a licence for the purpose, hunt any wild animal during the close time referred to in Section 16; (k) hunt, with the help of dogs, any wild animal except water-bird, chakor, partridge or quail. (2) The provisions of Sub-section (1) shall not apply to vermin. CHAPTER IV SANCTUARIES, NATIONAL PARKS, GAME RESERVES AND CLOSED AREAS Sanctuaries Sec. 18. (1) The State Government may, by notification, declare any area to be a Sanctuary if it considers that such area is of adequate ecological, faunal, floral, geomorphological, natural or zoological significance, for the purpose of protecting, propagating or developing Wildlife or its environment. (2) The notification referred to in Sub-section (1) shall specify,-as nearly as possible, the situation and limits of such area. Sec. 19. Whenever any area is declared to be sanctuary, the Collector shall inquire into, and determine, the existence, nature and extent of the rights of any person in, or over the land comprised within the limits of the sanctuary. Sec. 20. After the issue of a notification under Section 18, no right shall be acquired in, on or over the land comprised within the limits of the area specified in such notification, except by succession, testamentary or interstate. Sec. 21. When a notification has been issued under Section 18, the Collector shall publish in the regional language in every town and village in or in the neighbourhood of the area comprised therein, a proclamation: (a) specifying, as nearly as possible, the situation and the limits of the sanctuary; and (b) requiring any person, claiming any right mentioned in Section 19, to prefer before the Collector, within two months from the date of such

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proclamation, a written claim in the prescribed form, specifying the nature and extent of such right with necessary details and the amount and particulars of compensation, if any, claimed in respect thereof. The Collector shall, after service of the prescribed notice upon the claimant, expeditiously inquire into: (a) the claim preferred before him under Clause b of Section 21, and (b) the existence of any right mentioned in Section 19 and not claimed under Clause b of Section 21, so far as the same may be ascertainable from the records of the State Government and the evidence of any person acquainted with the same. For the purpose of such inquiry the Collector may exercise the following powers, namely: (a) the power to enter in or upon any land and to survey, demarcate and make a map of the same or to authorize any other officer to do so; (b) the same powers as are vested in a civil court for the trial of suits. (1) In the case of a claim to a right in or over any land referred to in Section 19, the Collector shall pass an order admitting or rejecting the same in whole or in part. (2) if such claim is admitted in whole or in part, the Collector may either: (a) exclude such land from the limits of the proposed sanctuary, or (b) proceed to acquire such land or rights, except where by an agreement between the owner of such land or holder of rights and the Government, the owner or holder of such rights has agreed to surrender his rights to the Government, in or over such land, and on payment of such compensation, as is provided in the Land Acquisition Act, 1894. (1) For the purpose of acquiring such land, or rights in or over such land: (a) the Collector shall be deemed to be a Collector, proceeding under the Land Acquisition Act, 1894; (b) the claimant shall be deemed to be a person interested and appearing before him in pursuance of a notice given under Section 9 of that Act; (c) the provisions of the sections, preceding section 9 of that Act, shall be deemed to have been complied with; (d) where the claimant does not accept the award made in his favour in the matter of compensation, he shall be deemed, within the meaning of Section 18 of that Act, to be a person interested who has not accepted the award, and shall be entitled to proceed to claim relief against the award under the provisions of Part III of that Act; (e) the Collector, with the consent of the claimant, or the court, with the consent of both the parties, may award compensation in land or money or partly in land and partly in money; and (f) in the case of the stoppage of a public way or a common pasture, the Collector may, with the previous sanction of the State Government, provide for an alternative public way or common pasture, as far as may be practicable or convenient. (2) The acquisition under this Act of any land or interest therein shall be deemed to be acquisition for a public purpose.

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Sec. 26. The State Government may, by general or special order, direct that the powers exercisable or the functions to be performed by the Collector under Sections 19 to 25 (both inclusive) may be exercised and performed by such other officer as may be specified in the order. Sec. 27. (1) No person other than: (a) a public servant on duty, (b) a person who has been permitted by the Chief Wildlife Warden or the authorized officer to reside within the limits of the sanctuary, (c) a person who has any right over immovable property within the limits of the sanctuary, (d) a person passing through the sanctuary along a public highway, and (e) the dependants of the person referred to in Clause a, Clause b or Clause c, shall enter or reside in the sanctuary, except under and in accordance with the conditions of a permit granted under Section 28. (2) Every person shall, so long as he resides in the sanctuary, be bound: (a) to prevent the commission, in the sanctuary, of an offence against this Act; (b) where there is reason to believe that any such offence against this Act has been committed in such sanctuary, to help in discovering and arresting the offender; (c) to report the death of any wild animal and to safeguard its remains until the Chief Wildlife Warden or the authorized officer takes charge thereof; (d) to extinguish any fire in such sanctuary of which he has knowledge or information and to prevent from spreading, by any lawful means in his power, any fire within the vicinity of such sanctuary of which he has knowledge or information; and (e) to assist any forest officer, Chief Wildlife Warden, Wildlife Warden or police officer demanding his aid for preventing the commission of any offence against this Act or in the investigation of any such offence. Sec. 28. (1) The Chief Wildlife Warden may, on application, grant to any person a permit to enter or reside in a sanctuary for all or any of the following purposes, namely: (a) investigation or study of Wildlife and purposes ancillary or incidental thereto; (b) photography; (c) scientific research; (d) tourism; (e) transaction of lawful business with any person residing in the sanctuary. (2) A permit to enter or reside in a sanctuary shall be issued subject to such conditions and on payment of such fee as may be prescribed. Sec. 29. (1) Notwithstanding anything contained elsewhere in this Act, no person shall hunt any wild animal in a sanctuary or remove therefrom any wild animal, whether alive or dead, or any trophy, uncured trophy, or meat derived from such animal:

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Provided that if the Chief Wildlife Warden is satisfied that it is necessary that any wild animal in a sanctuary should be hunted or removed: (a) for the better protection of wildlife, or (b) for any other good and sufficient reason, he may, with the previous approval of the State Government, grant a permit authorizing any person to hunt or remove such wild animal under the direction of an officer authorized by him or cause it to be hunted or removed. (2) A permit granted under Sub-section (1) shall specify the kind and number of wild animals that may be hunted or removed by the holder of such permit. (3) The Chief Wildlife Warden may, for good and sufficient reason, to be recorded in writing, cancel any permit granted under Section 28 or under this section: Provided that no such cancellation shall be made except after giving the holder of the permit a reasonable opportunity of being heard. (4) Any person aggrieved by the cancellation of a permit under Sub-section (3) may, within fifteen days from the date of such cancellation, appeal, to the State Government, whose decision shall be final: Provided that the State Government may admit any appeal preferred after the expiry of the period aforesaid if it is satisfied that the appellant had sufficient cause for not preferring the appeal in time. No person shall set fire to a sanctuary, or kindle any fire, or leave any fire burning, in a sanctuary, in such manner as to endanger such sanctuary. No person shall enter a sanctuary with any weapon except with the previous permission in writing of the Chief Wildlife Warden or the authorized officer. No person shall use, in a sanctuary, chemicals, explosives or any other substances which may cause injury to, or endanger, any wildlife in such sanctuary. The Chief Wildlife Warden shall be the authority who shall control, manage and maintain all sanctuaries and for that purpose, within the limits of any sanctuary: (a) may construct such roads, bridges, buildings, fences or barrier gates, and carry out such other works as he may consider necessary for the purposes of such sanctuary; (b) shall take such steps as will ensure the security of wild animals in the sanctuary and the preservation of the sanctuary and wild animals therein; (c) may take such measures, in the interests of wildlife, as he may consider necessary for the improvement of any habitat; (d) may regulate, control or prohibit, in keeping with the interests of wildlife, the grazing or movement of cattle; (e) may regulate, control or prohibit, any fishing. (1) Within three months from the declaration of any area as a sanctuary, every person residing in or within ten kilometers of any such sanctuary and holding a licence granted under the Arms Act, 1959, for the possession of arms or exempted from the provisions of that Act and possessing arms, shall apply in such form, on payment of such fee and

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within such time as may be prescribed, to the Chief Wildlife Warden or the authorized officer, for the registration of his name. (2) On receipt of an application under Sub-section (7), the Chief Wild Life Warden or the authorised officer shall register the name of the applicant in such manner as may be prescribed. National Parks Sec. 35. (1) Whenever it appears to the State Government that an area, whether within a sanctuary or not, is, by reason of its ecological, faunal, floral, geomorphological association or importance, needed to be constituted as a National Park for the purpose of protecting, propagating or developing wildlife therein or its environment, it may, by notification, declare its intention to constitute such area as a National Park. (2) The notification referred to in Sub-section (1) shall define the limits of the area which is intended to be declared as a National Park. (3) Where any area is intended to be declared as a National Park, the provisions of Sections 19 to 26 (both inclusive) shall, as far as may be, apply to the investigation and determination of claims, and extinguishment of rights, in relation to any land in such area as they apply to the said matters in relation to any land in a sanctuary. (4) When the following events have occurred, namely: (a) the period for preferring claims has elapsed, and all claims, if any, made in relation to any land in an area intended to be declared as a National Park, have been disposed of by the State Government, and (b) all rights in respect of lands proposed to be included in the National Park have become vested in the State Government. The State Government shall publish a notification specifying the limits of the area which shall be comprised within the National Park and declare that the said area shall be a National Park on and from such date as may be specified in the notification. (5) No alteration of the boundaries of a National Park shall be made except on a resolution passed by the Legislature of the State. (6) No person shall destroy, exploit or remove any wildlife from a National Park or destroy or damage the habitat of any wild animal or deprive any wild animal of its habitat within such National Park except under and in accordance with a permit granted by the Chief Wildlife Warden and no such permit shall be granted unless the State Government being satisfied that such destruction, exploitation or removal of wildlife from the National Park is necessary for the improvement and better management of wildlife therein; authorizes the issue of such permit. (7) No grazing of any cattle shall be permitted in a National Park and no cattle shall be allowed to enter therein except where such cattle is used as a vehicle by a person authorized to enter such National Park. (8) The provisions of Sections 27 and 28, Sections 30 to 32 (both inclusive), and Clauses a, b and c of Section 33, and Section 34 shall, as far as may be, apply in relation to a National Park as they apply in relation to a sanctuary.

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Game Reserve Sec. 36. (1) The State Government may, by notification, declare any area to be a game reserve. (2) No hunting of any wild animal shall be permitted in such reserve except under and in accordance with a licence issued under this section by the Chief Wildlife Warden or the authorized officer. Closed Area Sec. 37. (1) The State Government may, by notification, declare any area closed to hunting for such period as may be specified in the notification. (2) No hunting for any wild animal shall be permitted in a closed area during the period specified in the notification referred to in Sub-section (1). Sanctuaries or National Parks declared by Central Government Sec. 38. (1) Where the State Government leases or otherwise transfers any area under its control, not being an area within a sanctuary, to the Central Government, the Central Government may, if it is satisfied that the conditions specified in Section 18 are fulfilled in relation to the area so transferred to it, declare such area, by notification, to be a sanctuary and the provisions of Sections 18 to 35 (both inclusive), 54 and 55 shall apply in relation to such sanctuary as they apply in relation to a sanctuary declared by the State Government. (2) The Central Government may, if it is satisfied that the conditions specified in Section 35 are fulfilled in relation to any area referred to in Sub-section (1), whether or not such area has been declared to be a sanctuary by the Central Government or the State Government, declare such area, by notification, to be a National Park and the provisions of Sections 35, 54 and 55 shall apply in relation to such National Park as they apply in relation to a National Park declared by the State Government. (3) In relation to a Sanctuary or National Park declared by the Central Government, the powers and duties of the Chief Wildlife Warden under the sections referred to in Sub-sections (1) and (2), shall be exercised and discharged by the Director or by such other officer as may be authorized by the Director in this behalf and references, in the sections aforesaid, to the State Government shall be construed as references to the Central Government and reference therein to the Legislature of the State shall be construed as a reference to Parliament. CHAPTER V TRADE OR COMMERCE IN WILD ANIMALS, ANIMAL ARTICLES AND TROPHIES Sec. 39. (1) Every: (a) wild animal, other than vermin, which is hunted under Section 11 or Sub-section (1) of Section 29 or Sub-section (6) of Section 35 or bred in captivity in contravention of any provision of this Act or any rule or order made thereunder or found dead, or killed without a licence or by mistake; and (b) animal article, trophy or uncured trophy or meat derived from any wild animal referred to in Clause (a) in respect of which any offence

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against this Act or any rule or order made thereunder has been committed, shall be the property of the State Government, and, where such animal is hunted in a Sanctuary or National Park declared by the Central Government, such animal or any animal article, trophy, uncured trophy or meat derived from such animal, shall be the property of the Central Government. Any person who obtains, by any means, the possession of Government property, shall, within forty-eight hours from obtaining such possession, make a report as to the obtaining of such possession to the nearest police station or the authorized officer and shall, if so required, hand over such property to the officer-in-charge of such police station or such authorized officer, as the case may be. No person shall, without the previous permission in writing of the Chief Wildlife Warden or the authorized officer (a) acquire or keep in his possession, custody or control, or (b) transfer to any person, whether by way of gift, sale or otherwise, or (c) destroy or damage, such Government property. Every person having at the commencement of this Act the control, custody or possession of any captive animal specified in Schedule I or Part II of Schedule II, or any uncured trophy derived from such animal or salted or dried skins of such animal or the musk of a musk deer or the horn of a rhinoceros, shall, within thirty days from the commencement of this Act, declare to the Chief Wildlife Warden or the authorized officer the number and description of the animal, or article of the foregoing description under his control, custody or possession and the place where such animal or article is kept. No person shall, after the commencement of this Act, acquire, receive, keep in his control, custody or possession, sell, offer for sale or otherwise transfer or transport any animal specified in Schedule I or Part II of Schedule II or any uncured trophy or meat derived from such animal, or the salted or dried skins of such animal or the musk of a musk deer or the horn of a rhinoceros, except with the previous permission in writing of the Chief Wildlife Warden or the authorized officer. Nothing in Sub-section (1) or Sub-section (2) shall apply to a public museum or zoo. The State Government may, by notification, require any person to declare to the Chief Wildlife Warden or the authorized officer any animal article or trophy (other than a musk of a musk deer or horn of a rhinoceros) or salted or dried skins derived from an animal specified in Schedule I or Part II of Schedule II in his control, custody or possession in such form, in such manner, and within such time, as may be prescribed. On receipt of a declaration made under Section 40, the Chief Wildlife Warden or the authorized officer may, after such notice, in such manner and at such time, as may be prescribed: (a) enter upon the premises of a person referred to in Section 40; (b) make inquiries and prepare inventories of animal articles, trophies, uncured trophies, salted and dried skins and captive animals specified in Schedule I and Part II of Schedule IF and found thereon; and

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(c) affix upon the animals, animal articles, trophies or uncured trophies identification marks in such manner as may be prescribed. (2) No person shall obliterate or counterfeit any identification mark referred to in this Chapter. Sec. 42. The Chief Wildlife Warden may, for the purposes of Section 40, issue a certificate of ownership in such form, as may be prescribed, to any person who, in his opinion, is in lawful possession of any wild animal or any animal article, trophy, uncured trophy and may, where possible, mark in the prescribed manner, such animal article, trophy or uncured trophy for purposes of identification. Sec. 43. (1) Subject to the provisions of Sub-section (2), Sub-section (3) and Subsection (4), a person (other than a dealer) who does not possess a certificate of ownership shall not: (a) sell or offer for sale or transfer whether by way of sale, gift or otherwise, any wild animal specified in Schedule I or Part II of Schedule II or any captive animal belonging to that category or any animal article, trophy, uncured trophy or meat derived therefrom; (b) make animal articles containing part or whole of such animal; (c) put under a process of taxidermy an uncured trophy of such animal, except with the previous permission in writing of the Chief Wildlife Warden or the authorized officer. (2) Where a person transfers or transports from the State in which he resides to another State or acquires by transfer from outside the State any such animal, animal article, trophy or uncured trophy as is referred to in Subsection (1) in respect of which he has a certificate of ownership, he shall, within thirty days of the transfer or transport, report the transfer or transport to the Chief Wildlife Warden or the authorized officer within whose jurisdiction the transfer or transport is effected. (3) No person who does not possess a certificate of ownership, shall transfer or transport from one State to another State or acquire by transfer from outside the State any such animal, animal article, trophy or uncured trophy as is referred to in Sub-section (1) except with the previous permission in writing of the Chief Wildlife Warden or the authorized officer within whose jurisdiction the transfer or transport is to be effected. (4) Before granting any permission under Sub-section (1) or Sub-section (3), the Chief Wildlife Warden or the authorized officer shall satisfy himself that the animal or article referred to therein has been lawfully acquired. (5) While permitting the transfer or transport of any animal, animal article, trophy or uncured trophy, as is referred to in Sub-section (1), the Chief Wildlife Warden or the authorized officer: (a) shall issue a certificate of ownership after such inquiry as he may deem fit; (b) shall where the certificate of ownership existed in the name of the previous owner, issue a fresh certificate of ownership in the name of the person to whom the transfer has been effected; (c) may affix an identification mark on any such animal, animal article, trophy or uncured trophy.

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(6) Nothing in this section shall apply: (a) to animal articles or trophies made out of feathers of peacocks; (b) to any transaction entered into by a public museum or zoo with any other public museum or zoo. Sec. 44. (1) Except under, and in accordance with, a licence granted under Subsection (4), no person shall: (a) commence or carry on the business as: (i) a manufacturer of or dealer in, any animal article; or (ii) a taxidermist; or (iii) a dealer in trophy or uncured trophy; or (iv) a dealer in captive animals; or (v) a dealer in meat; or (b) cook or serve meat in any eating house: Provided that nothing in this Sub-section shall prevent a person, who, immediately before the commencement of this Act was carrying on the business or occupation specified in this Sub-section, from carrying on such business or occupation for a period of thirty days from such commencement, or where he has made in application within that period for the grant of a licence to him, until the licence is granted to him or he is informed in writing that a licence cannot be granted to him: Provided further that nothing in this Sub-section shall apply to manufacturers of, and dealers in, articles made of ivory and feathers of peacocks. (2) Every manufacturer of, or dealer in, animal article, or every dealer in captive animal, trophies or uncured trophies, or every taxidermist shall, within fifteen days from the commencement of this Act, declare to the Chief Wildlife Warden his stocks of animal articles, captive animals, trophies and uncured trophies, as the case may be, as on the date of such declaration and the Chief Wildlife Warden or the authorized officer may place an identification mark on every animal article, captive animal, trophy or uncured trophy, as the case may be. (3) Every person referred to in Sub-section (1) who intends to obtain a licence, shall within fifteen days from the commencement of this Act, make an application to the Chief Wildlife Warden or the authorized officer for the grant of a licence. (4) (a) Every application referred to in Sub-section (3) shall be made in such form and on payment of such fee as may be prescribed, to the Chief Wildlife Warden or the authorized officer. (b) No licence referred to in Sub-section (1) shall be granted unless the Chief Wildlife Warden or the authorized officer having regard to such matters as may be prescribed in this behalf and after making such inquiry in respect of those matters as he may think fit, is satisfied that the licence should be granted. (5) Every licence granted under this section shall specify the premises in which and the conditions, if any, subject to which the licensee shall carry on his business.

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(6) Every licence granted under this section shall (a) be valid for one year from the date of its grant; (b) not be transferable; and (c) be renewable for a period not exceeding one year at a time. (7) No application for the renewal of a licence shall be rejected unless the holder of such licence has been given a reasonable opportunity of presenting his case and unless the Chief Wildlife Warden or the authorized officer is satisfied that: (i) the application of such renewal has been made after the expiry of the period specified thereof, or (ii) any statement made by the applicant at the time of the grant or renewal of the licence was incorrect or false in material particulars, or (iii) the applicant has contravened any term or condition of the licence or any provision of this Act or any rule made thereunder, or (iv) the applicant does not fulfil the prescribed conditions. (8) Every order granting or rejecting an application for the grant or renewal of a licence shall be made in writing. (9) Nothing in the foregoing Sub-sections shall apply in relation to vermin. Sec. 45. Subject to any general or special order of the State Government, the Chief Wildlife Warden or the authorized officer may, for reasons to be recorded by him in writing, suspend or cancel any licence granted or renewed under Section 44: Provided that no such suspension or cancellation shall be made except after giving the holder of the licence a reasonable opportunity of being heard. Sec. 46. (1) An appeal from an order refusing to grant or renew a licence under Section 44 or an order suspending or cancelling a licence under Section 45 shall lie: (a) if the order is made by the authorized officer, to the Chief Wildlife Warden; or (b) if the order is made by the Chief Wildlife Warden, to the State Government. (2) In the case of an order passed in appeal by the Chief Wildlife Warden under Clause a of Sub-section (1), a second appeal shall lie to the State Government. (3) Subject as aforesaid, every order passed in appeal under this section shall be final. (4) An appeal under this section shall be preferred within thirty days from the date of the communication, to the applicant, of the order appealed against: Provided that the appellate authority may admit any appeal preferred after the expiry of the period aforesaid if it is satisfied that the appellant had sufficient cause for not preferring the appeal in time. Sec. 47. A licence under this Chapter shall: (a) keep records, and submit such returns of his dealings, as may be prescribed: (i) to the Director or any other officer authorized by him in this behalf, and (ii) to the Chief Wildlife Warden or the authorized officer; and (b) make such records available on demand for inspection by such officers.

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Sec. 48. No licence under this Chapter shall (a) keep in his control, custody or possession, (i) any animal, animal article, trophy or uncured trophy in respect of which a declaration under the provisions of Sub-section (2) of Section 44 has to be made but has not been made; (ii) any animal or animal article, trophy, uncured trophy or meat which has not been lawfully acquired under the provisions of this Act or any rule or order made thereunder; (b) (i) capture any wild animal, or (ii) acquire, receive, keep in his control, custody or possession, or sell, offer for sale or transport, any captive animal specified in Schedule I or Part II of Schedule II or any animal article, trophy, uncured trophy or meat derived therefrom or serve such meat, or put under a process of taxidermy or make animal article containing part or whole of such animal, except in accordance with such rules as may be made under this Act: Provided, that where the acquisition or, possession, control or custody of such animal or animal article, trophy or uncured trophy entails the transfer or transport from one State to another, no such transfer or transport shall be effected except with the previous permission in writing of the Director or any other officer authorized by him in this behalf: Provided further that no such permission under the foregoing provision shall be granted unless the Director or the officer authorized by him is satisfied that the animal or article aforesaid has been lawfully acquired. Sec. 49. No person shall purchase, receive or acquire any captive animal, wild animal, other than vermin, or any animal article, trophy, uncured trophy or meat derived therefrom otherwise than from a dealer or from a person authorized to sell or otherwise transfer the same under this Act: Provided that nothing in this section shall apply to any transaction entered into by a public museum or zoo with any other public museum or zoo. CHAPTER VI PREVENTION AND DETECTION OF OFFENCES Sec. 50. (1) Notwithstanding anything contained in any other law for the time being in force, the Director or any other officer authorized by him in this behalf or the Chief Wildlife Warden or the authorized officer or any forest officer or any police officer not below the rank of a Sub-inspector, may, if he has reasonable grounds for believing that any person has committed an offence against this Act: (a) require any such person to produce for inspection any captive animal, wild animal, animal article, meat, trophy or uncured trophy in his control, custody or possession, or any licence, permit or other document granted to him or required to be kept by him under the provisions of this Act; (b) stop any vehicle or vessel in order to conduct search or inquiry or enter upon and search any premises, land, vehicle or vessel, in the occupation of such person, and open and search any baggage or other things in his possession;

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(c) seize any captive animal, wild animal, animal article, meat, trophy or uncured trophy in the possession of any person and appearing to him to be Government property, together with any trap, tool, vehicle, vessel or weapon used for committing any such offence, and unless he is satisfied that such person will appear and answer any charge which may be preferred against him, arrest him without warrant, and detain him. Any officer of a rank not inferior to that of an Assistant Director of Wildlife Preservation or Wildlife Warden, who, or whose subordinate, has seized any trap, tool, vehicle, vessel or weapon under Clause c of Sub-section (1), may release the same, on the execution by the owner thereof of a bond for the production of the property so released, if and when so required, before the Magistrate having jurisdiction to try the offence on account of which the seizure has been made. It shall be lawful for any of the officers referred to in Sub-section (1) to stop and detain any person, whom he sees doing any act for which a licence or permit is required under the provisions of this Act, for the purposes of requiring such person to produce the licence or permit and if such person fails to produce the licence or permit, as the case may be, he may be arrested without warrant, unless he furnishes his name and address, and otherwise satisfies the officer arresting him that he will duly answer any summons or other proceedings which may be taken against him. Any person detained, or things seized under the foregoing power, shall forthwith be taken before a Magistrate to be dealt with according to law. Any person who, without reasonable cause, fails to produce anything, which he is required to produce under this section, shall be guilty of an offence against this Act. (a) Where any meat or uncured trophy is seized under the provisions of this section, the Assistant Director of Wildlife Preservation or any other officer of a gazetted rank authorized by him in this behalf or the Chief Wildlife Warden or the authorized officer may arrange for the sale of the same and deal with the proceeds of such sale in such manner as may be prescribed. (b) Where it is proved that the meat or uncured trophy seized under the provisions of this section is not Government property, the proceeds of the sale shall be returned to the owner. Whenever any person is approached by any of the officers referred to in Sub-section (1) for assistance in the prevention or detection of an offence against this Act, or in apprehending persons charged with the violation of this Act, or for seizure in accordance with Clause c of Sub-section (1), it shall be the duty of such person or persons to render such assistance. Any person who contravenes any provision of this Act or any rule or order made thereunder or who commits a breach of any of the conditions of any licence or permit granted under this Act, shall be guilty of an offence against this Act, and shall, on conviction, be punishable with imprisonment for a term which may extend to two years, or with fine which may extend to two thousand rupees, or with both: Provided that where the offence committed is in relation to any animal specified in Schedule I or Part II of Schedule II or meat of any such animal

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or animal article, trophy or uncured trophy derived from such animal or where the offence relates to hunting in a Sanctuary or a National Park, such offence shall be punishable with imprisonment for a term which shall not be less than six months but may extend to six years and also with fine which shall not be less than five hundred rupees: Provided further that in the case of a second or subsequent offence of the nature mentioned in the foregoing provision, the term of imprisonment shall not be less than one year and the amount of the fine shall not be less than one thousand rupees. (2) When any person is convicted of an offence against this Act, the Court trying the offence may order that any captive animal, wild animal, animal article, trophy, uncured trophy or meat in respect of which the offence has been committed, and any trap, tool, vehicle, vessel or weapon, used in the commission of the said offence be forfeited to the State Government and that any licence or permit, held by such person under the provisions of this Act, be cancelled. (3) Such cancellation of licence or permit or such forfeiture shall be in addition to any other punishment that may be awarded for such offence. (4) Where any person is convicted of an offence against this Act, the Court may direct that the licence, if any, granted to such person under the Arms Act, 1959, for possession of any arm with which an offence against this Act has been committed, shall be cancelled and that such person shall not be eligible for a licence under the Arms Act, 1959, for a period of five years from the date of conviction. Sec. 52. Whoever attempts to contravene, or abets the contravention of, any of the provisions of this Act or of any rule or order made thereunder shall be deemed to have contravened that provision or rule or order, as the case may be. Sec. 53. If any person, exercising powers under this Act, vexatiously and unnecessarily seizes the property of any other person on the pretence of seizing it for the reasons mentioned in Section 50, he shall, on conviction, be punishable with imprisonment for a term which may extend to six months, or with fine which may extend to five hundred rupees, or with both. Sec. 54. (1) The State Government may, by notification, empower the Chief Wildlife Warden or any officer of a rank not inferior to that of Deputy Conservator of Forests: (a) to accept, from any person against whom a reasonable suspicion exists that he has committed an offence against this Act, payment of a sum of money by way of composition of the offence which such person is suspected to have committed; and (b) when any property has been seized as liable to be forfeited, to release the same on payment of the value thereof as estimated by such officer. (2) On payment of such sum of money or such value, or both, as the case may be, to such officer, the suspected person, if in custody, shall be discharged, and the property, other than Government property, if any, seized, shall be released and no further proceedings in respect of the offence shall be taken against such person. (3) The officer compounding any offence may order the cancellation of any licence or permit granted under this Act to the offender, or if not

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empowered to do so, may approach an officer so empowered, for the cancellation of such licence or permit. (4) The sum of money accepted or agreed to be accepted as composition under Clause b of Sub-section (1) shall, in no case, exceed the sum of two thousand rupees: Provided that no offence, for which a minimum period of imprisonment has been prescribed in Sub-section (1) of Section 51, shall be compounded. No court shall take cognizance of any offence against this Act except on the complaint of the Chief Wildlife Warden or such other officer as the State Government may authorize in this behalf. Nothing in this Act shall be deemed to prevent any person from being prosecuted under any other law for the time being in force, for any act or omission which constitutes an offence against this Act or from being liable under such other law to any higher punishment or penalty than that provided by this Act: Provided that no person shall be punished twice for the same offence. Where, in any prosecution for an offence against this Act, it is established that a person is in possession, custody or control of any captive animal, animal article, meat, trophy or uncured trophy, it shall be presumed, until the contrary is proved, the burden of proving which shall lie on the accused, that such person is in unlawful possession, custody or control of such captive animal, animal article, meat, trophy or uncured trophy. (1) Where an offence against this Act has been committed by a company, every person who, at the time the offence was committed, was in charge of, and was responsible to, the company for the conduct of the business of the company as well as the company, shall be deemed to be guilty of the offence and shall be liable to be proceeded against and punished accordingly: Provided that nothing contained in this Sub-section shall render any such person liable to any punishment, if he proves that the offence was committed without his knowledge or that he exercised all due diligence to prevent the commission of such offence. (2) Notwithstanding anything contained in Sub-section (1), where an offence against this Act has been committed by a company and it is proved that the offence has been committed with the consent or connivance of, or is attributable to any neglect on the part of, any director, manager, secretary or other officer of the company, such director, manager, secretary or other officer shall also, be deemed to be guilty of that offence and shall be liable to be proceeded against and punished accordingly. (a) “company” means any body corporate and includes a firm or other association of individuals; and (b) “director”, in relation to a firm, means a partner in the firm. Every officer referred to in Chapter II and every other officer exercising any of the powers conferred by this Act shall be deemed to be a public servant within the meaning of Section 21 of the Indian Penal Code. (1) No suit, prosecution or other legal proceeding shall lie against any officer or other employee of the Central Government or the State Government for anything which is in good faith done or intended to be done under this Act.

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(2) No suit of other legal proceeding shall lie against the Central Government or the State Government or any of its officers or other employees for any damage caused or likely to be caused by anything which is in good faith done or intended to be done under this Act. Sec. 61. (1) The Central Government may, if it is of opinion that it is expedient so to do, by notification, add any entry to any Schedule or transfer any entry from one Part of a Schedule to another Part of the same Schedule or from one Schedule to another. (2) The State Government may, if it is of opinion that it is expedient so to do, by notification, transfer any entry from Schedule II, Schedule III, Schedule IV or Schedule V to Schedule I and may also transfer any entry from Part I of Schedule II, or Schedule III, Schedule IV or Schedule V, to any other Schedule. (3) On the issue of a notification under Sub-section (1) or Sub-section (2), the relevant Schedule shall be deemed to be altered accordingly, provided that every such alteration shall be without prejudice to anything done or omitted to be done before such alteration. (4) If any alteration of any Schedule made by the State Government under Sub-section (2) is repugnant to any alteration made therein by the Central Government under Sub-section (1), then, the alteration made by the Central Government, whether made before or after the notification made by the State Government, shall prevail and the alteration made by the State Government shall, to the extent of the repugnancy, be void: Provided that any such alteration made by the State Government, if it has been made with the previous consent of the Central Government, shall prevail in that State: Provided further that nothing in the foregoing proviso shall prevent the Central Government from modifying or cancelling, at any time, the alteration made by the State Government. Sec. 62. Subject to the provisions of Section 61, the State Government may, by notification, declare any wild animal other than those specified in Schedule f and Part II of Schedule II to be vermin for any area and for such period as may be specified therein and so long as such notification is in force, such wild animal shall be deemed to have been included in Schedule V. Sec. 63. (1) The Central Government may, by notification, make rules for all or any of the following, namely: (a) the form in which declaration shall be made under Sub-section (2) of Section 44; (b) the terms and conditions which shall govern transactions referred to in clause b of Section 48; (c) matters specified in Sub-section (2) of section 64 in so far as they relate to Sanctuaries and National Parks declared by the Central Government. (2) Every rule made under this section shall be laid, as soon as may be after it is made, before each House of Parliament, while it is in session, for a total period of thirty days which may be comprised in one session or in two or more successive sessions, and if before the expiry of the session immediately following the session or the successive sessions aforesaid, both Houses agree in making any modification in the rule or both Houses

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agree that the rule should not be made, the rule shall thereafter have effect only in such modified form or be of no effect, as the case may be; so, however, that any such modification or annulment shall be without prejudice to the validity of anything previously done under that rule. Sec. 64. (1) The State Government may, by notification, make rules for carrying out the provisions of this Act in respect of matters which do not fall within the purview of Section 63. (2) In particular and within prejudice to the generality of the foregoing power, such rules may provide for all or any of the following matters, namely: (a) the term of office of the members of the Board referred to in Clause (g) of Sub-section (1) of Section 6 and the manner of filling vacancies among them; (b) allowances referred to in Sub-section (4) of Section 6; (c) the forms to be used for any application, certificate, claim, declaration, licence, permit, registration, return or other document, made granted, or submitted under the provisions of this Act and the fees, if any, therefor; (d) the conditions subject to which any licence or permit may be granted under this Act; (e) the particulars of the record of wild animals (captured or killed) to be kept and submitted by the licensee; (f) regulation of the possession, transfer and the sale of captive animals, meat, animal articles, trophies and uncured trophies; (g) regulation of taxidermy; (h) any other matter which has to be, or may be, prescribed under this Act. Sec. 65. Nothing in this Act shall affect the hunting rights conferred on the Scheduled Tribes of the Nicobar Islands in the Union territory of Andaman and Nicobar Islands by notification of the Andaman and Nicobar Administration, No. 43/ 67/F, No. G635 Vol.111, dated the 28th April, 1967, published at pages 1 to 5 of the Extraordinary issue of the Andaman and Nicobar Gazette, dated the 28th April, 1967. Sec. 66. (1) As from the commencement of this Act, every other Act relating to any matter contained in this Act and in force in a State shall, to the extent to which that Act or any provision contained therein corresponds, or is repugnant, to this Act or any provision contained in this Act, stand repealed: Provided that such repeal shall not: (i) affect the previous operation of the Act so repealed, or anything duly done or suffered thereunder; (ii) affect any right, privilege, obligation or liability acquired, accrued or incurred under the Act so repealed; (iii) affect any penalty, forfeiture or punishment incurred in respect of any offence committed against the Act so repealed; or (iv) affect any investigation, legal proceeding or remedy in respect of any such right, privilege, obligation, liability, penalty, forfeiture, or punishment as aforesaid; and any such investigation, legal proceeding or remedy may be instituted, continued or enforced, and

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any such penalty, forfeiture and punishment may be imposed, as if the aforesaid Act had not been repealed. (2) Notwithstanding such repeal: (a) anything done or any action taken under the Act so repealed (including any notification, order, certificate, notice or receipt issued, application made, or permit granted) which is not inconsistent with the provisions of this Act, be deemed to have been done or taken under the corresponding provisions of this Act as if this Act were in force at the time such thing was done or action was taken, and shall continue to be in force, unless and until superseded by anything done or any action taken under this Act; (b) every licence granted under any Act so repealed and in force immediately before the commencement of this Act shall be deemed to have been granted under the corresponding provisions of this Act and shall, subject to the provisions of this Act, continue to be in force for the unexpired portion of the period for which such licence had been granted. (3) For the removal of doubts, it is hereby declared that any Sanctuary or National Park declared by a State Government under any Act repealed under Sub-section 1 shall be deemed to be a Sanctuary or National Park, as the case may be, declared by the State Government under this Act and where any right in or over any land in any such National Park which had not been extinguished under the said Act, at or before the commencement of this Act, the extinguishment of such rights shall be made in accordance with provisions of this Act.

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SCHEDULE I (SEE SECTIONS 2, 8, 9, 11, 40, 41, 43, 48, 51, 61 AND 62) PART I Mammals 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38.

Binturong (Arctictis binturong) Black buck (Antelope cervicapra) Brow-antlered deer or Thamin (Cervus eldi) Caracal (Pelis caracal) Cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) Clouded leopard (Neofelis nebulosa) Dugong (Dugong dugon) Fishing cat (Felts viverrina) Golden cat (Fells temmincki) Golden langur (Presbytis geei) Hispid hare (Caprolagus hispidus) Hoolock (Hylobates hoolock) Indian lion (Panthera leo persica) Indian Wild Ass (Equus hemionus khur) Indian Wolf (Canis lupus) Kashmir Stag (Cervus elaphus hanglu) Leopard cat (Fells bengalensis) Lesser or Red Panda (Ailurus fulgens) Lion-tailed macaque (Macaca silenus) Loris (Loris tardigradus) Lynx (fells lynx isabellinus) Malabar Civet (Viverra megaspila) Marbled cat (Felis marmorata) Markhor (Capra falconer!) Musk deer (Moschus moschiferus) Ovis Ammon or Nyan (Ovis ammon hodgsoni) Pallas’s cat (Fells manul) Pangolin (Manis crassicaudata) Pygmy hog (Sus salvanius) Rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis) Rusty spotted cat (Felis rubiginosa) Slow Loris (Nycticebus coucang) Snow leopard (Panthera uncia) Spotted linsang (Prionodon pardicolor) Swamp deer (all sub-species of Cervus duvauceli) Takin or Mishmi Takin (Budorcas taxicolor) Tibetan Gazelle (Procapra picticaudata) Tibetan Wild Ass (Equus hemionus Kiang)

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Tiger (Panthera tigris) Urial or Shapu (Ovis vignei) Wild buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) PART II Amphibians and Reptiles

1. Crocodiles (including the Estuarine or salt water crocodile) (Crocodilus porosus and Crocodilus palustris) 2. Gharial (Gavialis gangeticus) PART III Birds 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18.

Bazas (Aviceda jeordoni and Aviceda leuphotes) Cheer Pheasant (Catreus wallichii) Great Indian Bustard (Choriotis nigriceps) Great Indian Hornbill (Buceros bicornis) Jerdon’s Courser (Cursorius bitorquatus) Lammergeierf Gxpaetusfaarfoatus J Large Falcons (Faico peregrinus, Palco biarmicus and Faico chicquera) Mountain Quail (Ophrysia superciliosa) Narcondom Hornbill (Rhyticeros (undulatus) narcondami) Nicobar Megapode (Megapodius freycinet) Peafowl (Pavo cristatus) Pink headed duck (Rhodonessa caryophyllacea) Sclater’s Monal (Lophophorus sclateri) Siberian White crane (Crus leucogeranus) Tragopan Pheasants (Tragopan melanocephalus, Tragopan blythii, Tragopan satyra, Tragopan temmincki) White-bellied Sea Eagle (Haliaetus leucogaster) White-eared Pheasant (Crosoptilon crossoptilon) White-winged Wood Duck (Cairina scutulata)

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SCHEDULE II (SEE SECTIONS 2, 8, 9, 11, 40, 41, 43, 48, 51, 61 AND 62) SPECIAL GAME PART I Mammals 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23.

Agra Monitor Lizard (Varanus griseus (Daudin)) Bengal Porcupine (Atherurus macrourus assamensis) Bison or Gaur (Bos gaurus) Capped Langur (Presbytis pileatus) Crab-eating Macaque (Macaca irus umbrosa) Dolphins (Dolphinus delphis, Platanista gangetica) Ferret Badgers (Melogale moschata and Melogale personata) Flying squirrels (All species of the genus Hylopetes, Petaurista, Belomys and Eupetaurus) Giant squirrels (Ratufa macroura, Ratufa indica and Ratufa bicolor) Himalayan Brown bear (Ursus arctos) Himalayan crestless Porcupine (Hystrix hodgsoni) Hog badger (Arctonyx collaris) Indian elephant (Elephas maximus) Leaf Monkey (Presbytis phayrei) Malay or Sun bear (Helarctos malayanus) Pig-tailed Macaque (Macaca nemestrina) Pythons (Genus python) Serow (Capricornis sumatraensis) Stump-tailed Macaque (Macaca speciosa) Tibetan Antelope or Chiru (Panthelops hodgsoni) Water lizard (Varanus salvator) Wild Dog or Dhole (Cuon alpinus) Wild yak (Bos grunniens) PART II

1. Leopard or Panther (Panthera pardus) 2. Nilgiri langur (Presbytis johni) 3. Nilgiri Thar (Hemitragus hylocrius)

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SCHEDULE III (SEE SECTIONS 2, 8, 9, 10, 11 AND 61) BIG GAME 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19.

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11.

Andaman Wild Pig (Sus andamanensis) Barking deer or Muntjac (Muntjacus muntjak) Bharal (Ovis nahura) Chinkara or Indian Gazelle (Gazella gazella bennetti) Chital (Axis axis) Four-horned antelope (Tetraceros quadricornis) Corals (Nemorhaedus goral, Nemorhaedus hodgsoni) Himalayan black bear (Selenarctos thibetanus) Himalayan Ibex (Capra ibex) Himalayan thar (Hemitragus jemlahicus) Hog deer (Axis porcinus) Hyaena (Hyaena hyaena) Mouse deer (Tragulus meminna) Nilgai (Boselaphus tragocamelus) Ratel (Mellivora capensis) Sambar (Cervus unicolor) Sloth bear (Melursus ursinus) Tibetan wolf (Canis lupus) Wild pig (Sus scrofa) SCHEDULE IV (SEE SECTIONS 2,8,9,11, AND 61) SMALL GAME Desert cat (Felis libyca) Desert fox (Vulpes bucopus) Ermine (Mustela erminea) Hares (Black naped, Common Indian, Desert, Himalayan Mousehare) Marmots (Marmota bobak himalayana, Marmota caudata) Martens (Martes foina intermedia, Martes flavigula, Martes gwatkinsii) Otters (Lutra lutra, Lutra perspicillata, Aonyx cinerea) Red fox (Vulpes vulpes) Tibetan fox (Vulpes ferrilatus) Weasels (Mustela sibirica, Mustela kathiah and Mustela altaica) Birds (other than those sub-species and species mentioned in Part III of Schedule I or in Schedule V, and belonging to the families listed below i. Barbets (Capitonidae) ii. Barn Owls (Tytoninae) iii. Blue-birds (Irenidae) iv. Bustards (Otididae) v. Bustard-Quail (Turnicidae)

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vi. vii. viii. ix. x. xi. xii. xiii. xiv. xv. xvi. xvii. xviii. xix. xx. xxi. xxii. xxiii. xxiv. xxv. xxvi. xxvii. xxviii. xxix. xxx. xxxi. xxxii. xxxiii. xxxiv. xxxv. xxxvi.

Chaffinches (Fringillinae) Cranes (Cruidae) Ducks (Anatidae) Emerald Dove (Columbidae) Falcons (Falconidae) Finches (Fringillidae) Flamingoes (Phoenicopteridae) Flycatchers (Muscicapidae) Geese (Anatidae) Goldfinches and allies (Carduelinae) Grouse (Pteroclididae) Hawks (Accipitridae) Hornbills (Bucerotidae) loras (Irenidae) Jungle and Spur fowl (Phasianidae) Megapodes (Megapodiidae) Minivets (Campephagidae) Orioles (Oriolidae) Owls (Strigidae) Oystercatchers (Haematopodidae) Partridges (Phasianidae) Pelicans (Pelecanidae) Pheasants (Phasianidae) Pigeons (except Blue Rock pigeon) (Columbidae) Pittas (Pittidae) Quail (Phasianidae) Snipe (Charadriidae) Sunbirds (Nectariniidae) Swans (Anatidae) Thrushes (Muscicapidae) Trogons (Trogonidae) SCHEDULE V (SEE SECTIONS 2, 8, 61, AND 62) VERMIN

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Common crow Common Fox Fruit bats Jackal Mice Rats Voles

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THE WILD LIFE (PROTECTION) AMENDMENT ACT, 1991 (ACT 44 OF 1991) An Act further to amend the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. Be it enacted by parliament in the forty-second year of the Republic of India as follows: 1. Short title and commencement—(1). This Act may be called the Wildlife (Protection) Amendment Act, 1991. (2). It shall come into force on such date as the Central Government may, by notification, appoint and different dates may be appointed for different provisions of this Act. 2. Amendment of long title—In the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 (hereinafter referred to as the principal Act), in the long title, for the words “wild animals and birds”, the words “wild animals, birds, and plants” shall be substituted. 3. Omission of the preamble— In the principal Act, after the long title, the preamble shall be omitted. 4. Amendment of Section 1—In Section 1 of the principal Act: (a) for Sub-section (2), the following Sub-section shall be substituted, namely: “(2) It extends to the whole of India except the State of Jammu and Kashmir.” (b) in Sub-section (3), the words “or may become extended in future”, shall be omitted. 5. Amendment of Section 2—In Section 2 of the principal Act: (a) in Clause (2), for the words “has been used”, the words “has been used, any ivory imported into India and an article made therefrom” shall be substituted; (b) Clause (3) shall be omitted; (c) Clause (6) shall be omitted; (d) after Clause (7), the following Clause shall be inserted, namely: “(7A) ‘circus’ means an establishment, whether stationary or mobile, where animals are kept or used wholly or mainly for the purpose of performing tricks or manoeuvres”: (e) in Clause (11), for the words “or meat”, the words “meat or specified plant” shall be substituted; (f) after Clause (12), the following clause shall be inserted, namely: “(12A) ‘Forest Officer’ means the Forest Officer appointed under Clause (2) of Section 2 of the Indian Forest Act, 1927"; (g) Clause (13) shall be omitted; (h) in Clause (14), after the figures “39”, the words, figures and letter “or Section 17H” shall be inserted; (i) in Clause (17), for the words “and also includes boulders and rocks”, the words “marshes and wetlands and also includes boulders and rocks” shall be substituted; (j) after Clause (18), the following clause shall be inserted, namely: “(18A) live stock’ includes buffaloes, bulls, camels, cows, donkeys, goats, horses, mules, pigs, sheep, yaks and also includes their young”; (k) after Clause (25), the following clauses shall be inserted, namely: “(25A) ‘recognized zoo’ means a zoo recognized under Section 38H;

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(25B) ‘reserve forest’ means the forest declared to be reserved by the State Government under Section 20 of the Indian Forest Act, 1927"; (l) in Clause (26), for the figures “18”, the figures and letter “26A” shall be substituted; (m) for Clause 27, the following clause shall be substituted, namely: “(27) ‘specified plant’ means any plant specified in Schedule VI”; (n) after Clause (3), the following clause shall be inserted, namely: “(30A) ‘territorial waters’ shall have the same meaning as in Section 3 of the Territorial Waters, Continental Shelf, Exclusive Economic Zone and other Maritime Zones Act, 1976"; (o) in Clause (32), for the words “freshly-killed wild animal”, the words “freshlykilled wild animals, ambergris, musk and other animal products” shall be substituted; (p) after Clause (38), the following clause shall be inserted, namely: “(39) ‘zoo’ means an establishment, whether stationary or mobile, where captive animals are kept for exhibition to the public but does not include a circus and an establishment of licensed dealer in captive animals.” 6. Amendment of Section 4—In Section 4 of the principal Act: (a) in Sub-section (1): (i) in Clause (b), the word “and” shall be omitted; (ii) after Clause (b), the following clause shall be inserted, namely: “(bb) = one Honorary Wildlife Warden in each district; and,” (b) in Sub-section (3), for the words “The Wildlife Warden”, the words “The Wildlife Warden, the Honorary Wildlife Warden” shall be substituted. 7. Amendment of Section 6—In Section 6 of the principal Act (a) in Sub-section (1)— (i) for Clause (d), the following clause shall be substituted, namely: “(d) the Forest Officer in charge of the State Forest Department, by whatever designation called, ex officio”; (ii) for Clause g, the following clauses shall be substituted, namely: “(g) officers of the State Government not exceeding five; (h) such other persons, not exceeding ten, who, in the opinion of the State Government, are interested in the protection of wildlife, including the representative of tribals not exceeding three.” (b) after Sub-section (1), as so amended, the following Sub-section shall be inserted, namely: “(1A) The State Government may appoint a Vice-Chairman of the Board from amongst the members referred to in clauses (b) and (h) of Sub-section (1).” (c) in Sub-section (2), for the words “Chief Conservator of Forest”, the words “the Forest Officer-in-Charge of the State Forest Department” shall be substituted. 8. Amendment of Section 8—ln Section 8 of the principal Act— (i) in Clause (a), the words, “game reserves” shall be omitted; (ii) for Clause (b), the following clause shall be inserted, namely: “(b) in formulation of the policy for protection and conservation of the wildlife and specified plants.”

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10. 11.

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(iii) in Clause (c), the word “and” shall be omitted; (iv) after Clause (c), the following clause shall be inserted, namely: “(cc) in relation to the measures to be taken for harmonizing the needs of the tribals and other dwellers of the forest with the protection and conservation of wildlife; and,” Substitution of new section for Section 9 — For Section 9 of the principal Act, the following section shall be substituted, namely: “9. Prohibition of hunting—No person shall hunt any wild animals specified in Schedules I, II, III and IV except as provided under Section 11 and 12.” Omission of Section 10—Section 10 of the principal Act shall be omitted. Amendment of Section 12—In Section 12 of the principal Act, for Clause (c), the following clauses shall be substituted, namely: “(c) collection of specimens: i) for recognized zoos subject to the permission under Section 38(1); or ii) for museums and similar institutions: (d) derivation, collection or preparation of snake-venom for the manufacture of life-saving drugs.” Omission of Sections 13 to 17—Sections 13 to 17 (both inclusive) of the principal Act shall be omitted. Insertion of New Chapter IIIA- After Chapter III of the principal Act, the following Chapter shall be inserted, namely: “CHAPTER III-A PROTECTION OF SPECIFIED PLANTS

17A. Prohibition of picking, uprooting, etc., of specified plants—Save as otherwise provided in this chapter, no person shall: (a) wilfully pick, uproot, damage, destroy, acquire or collect any specified plant from any forest land and any area specified, by notification, by the Central Government; (b) possess, sell, offer for sale, or transfer by way of gift or otherwise, or transport any specified plant, whether alive or dead, or part or derivative thereof: Provided that nothing in this section shall prevent a member of a Schedule Tribe, subject to the provisions of Chapter IV, from picking, collecting or possessing in the district he resides any specified plant or part or derivative thereof for his bonafide personal use. 17B. Grant of permit for special purposes—The Chief Wildlife Warden may, with the previous permission of the State Government, grant to any person a permit to pick, uproot, acquire or collect from a forest land or the area specified under Section 17A or transport, subject to such : (a) education; (b) scientific research; (c) collection, preservation and display in a herbarium of any scientific institution; or (d) propagation by a person or an institution approved by the Central Government in this regard.

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17C. Cultivation of specified plants without licence prohibited: (1) No person shall cultivate a specified plant except under and in accordance with a licence granted by the Chief Wildlife Warden or any other officer authorized by the State Government in this behalf: Provided that nothing in this section shall prevent a person, who, immediately before the commencement of the Wildlife (Protection) Amendment Act, 1991, was cultivating a specified plant, from carrying on such cultivation for a period of six months from such commencement, or where he has made an application within that period for the grant of a licence to him, until the licence is granted to him or he is informed in writing that a licence cannot be granted to him. (2) Every licence granted under this section shall specify the area in which and the conditions, if any, subject to which the licence shall cultivate a specified plant. 17D. Dealing in specified plants without licence prohibited: (1) No person shall, except under and in accordance with a licence granted by the Chief Wildlife Warden or any other officer authorized by the State Government in this behalf, commence or carry on business or occupation as a dealer in a specified plant or part or derivative thereof: Provided that nothing in this section shall prevent a person, who, immediately before the commencement of the Wildlife (Protection) Amendment Act, 1991, was carrying on such business or occupation from carrying on such business or occupation for a period of sixty days from such commencement, or where he has made an application within that period for the grant of a licence to him, until the licence is granted to him or he is informed in writing that a licence cannot be granted to him. (2) Every licence granted under this section shall specify the premises in which and the conditions, if any, subject to which the licence shall carry on his business. 17E. Declaration of stock: (1) Every person cultivating, or dealing in, a specified plant or part or derivative thereof shall, within thirty days from the date of commencement of the Wildlife (Protection) Amendment Act, 1991 declare to the Chief Wildlife Warden or any other officer authorized of the State Government in this behalf, his stocks of such plants or derivative thereof, as the case my be, on the date of such commencement. (2) The provisions of Sub-sections (3) to (8) (both inclusive) of Section 44, Section 45, Section 46 and Section 47 shall, as far as may be, apply in relation to an application and a licence referred to in Section 17C and Section 17D as they apply in relation to the license or business in animals or animal articles. 17F. Possession, etc., of plants by licence—No licence under this chapter shall: (a) keep in his control, custody or possession: (i) any specified plant, or part or derivative thereof in respect of which a declaration under the provisions of Section 17E has to be made but has not been made; (ii) any specified plant, or part or derivative thereof which has not been lawfully acquired under the provisions of this Act or any rule or order made thereunder;

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(b) (i) pick, uproot, collect or acquire any specified plant, or (ii) acquire, receive, keep in his control, custody or possession, or sell, offer for sale or transport, any specified plant or part of derivative thereof, except in accordance with the conditions subject to which the license has been granted and such rules as may be made under this Act. 17G. Purchase, etc., of specified plants—No person shall purchase, receive or acquire any specified plant or part or derivative thereof otherwise than from a licensed dealer: Provided that nothing in this section shall apply to any person referred to in Section 17B. 17H. Plants to be government property (1) Every specified plant or part of derivative thereof, in respect of which any offence against this Act or any rule or order made thereunder has been committed, shall be the property of the State Government, and, where such plant or part or derivative thereof has been collected or acquired from a sanctuary or national park declared by the Central Government, such plant or part or derivative thereof shall be the property of the Central Government. (2) The provisions of Sub-sections (2) and (3) of Section 39 shall, as far as may be, apply in relation to the specified plant or part or derivative thereof or they apply in relation to wild animals and articles referred to in Sub-section (1) of that section.” 14. Amendment of heading of Chapter IV—In Chapter IV of the principal Act, in the heading thereof, the words “GAME RESERVES” shall be omitted. 15. Amendment to Section 18—In Section 18 of the principal Act, for Sub-section (1), the following Sub-section shall be substituted, namely: “(1) The State Government may, by notification, declare its intention to constitute any area other than an area comprised within any reserve forest of the territorial waters as a sanctuary if it considers that such area is of adequate ecological, faunal, floral, geomorphological, natural or zoological significance, for the purpose of protecting, propagating or developing wildlife or its environment.” 16. Amendment of Section 19—In Section 19 of the principal Act, for the words “Whenever any area is declared to be a sanctuary”, the words and figures “When a notification has been issued under Section 18”, shall be substituted. 17. Amendment of Section 24— In Section 24 of the principal Act, in Sub-section (2), after clause (b), the following clause shall be inserted, namely: “(c) allow, in consultation with the Chief Wildlife Warden, the continuance of any right of any person in or over any land within the limits of the sanctuary.” 18. Insertion of new Section 26A—After Section 26 of the principal Act, the following section shall be inserted, namely: “26A. Declaration of area as sanctuary: (1) When: (a) a notification has been issued under Section 18 and the period for preferring claims has elapsed, and all claims, if any, made in relation to any land in an area intended to be declared as a sanctuary, have been disposed of by the State Government; or

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(b) any area comprised within any reserve forest or any part of the territorial waters, which is considered by the State Government to be of adequate ecological, faunal, floral, geomorphological, natural or zoological significance for the purpose of protecting, propagating or developing wildlife or its environment, is to be included in a sanctuary, the State Government shall issue a notification specifying the limits of the area which shall be comprised within the sanctuary and declare that the said area shall be a sanctuary on and from such date as may be specified in the notification: Provided that where any part of the territorial waters is to be so included, prior concurrence of the Central Government shall be obtained by the State Government: Provided further that the limits of the area of the territorial waters to be included in the sanctuary shall be determined in consultation’ with the Chief Naval Hydrographer of the Central Covernment and after taking adequate measures to protect the occupational interests of the fishermen. (2) Notwithstanding anything contained in Sub-section (1), the right of innocent passage of any vessel or boat through the territorial waters shall not be affected by the notification issued under Sub-section (1). (3) No alteration of the boundaries of a sanctuary shall be made except on a resolution passed by the Legislature of the State.” Amendment of Section 27—In Section 27 of the principal Act, after Subsection (2), the following Sub-sections shall be inserted, namely: “(3) No person shall, with intent to cause damage to any boundary-mark of a sanctuary or to cause wrongful gain as defined in the Indian Penal Code, alter, destroy, move or deface such boundary mark. (4) No person shall tease or molest any wild animals or litter in the grounds of sanctuary.” Substitution of new section for Section 29—For Section 29 of the principal Act, the following section shall be substituted, namely: “29 Destruction, etc., in a sanctuary prohibited without a permit—No person shall destroy, exploit or remove any wildlife from a sanctuary or destroy or damage the habitat of any wild animal or deprive any wild animal of its habitat within such sanctuary except under and in accordance with a permit granted by the Chief Wildlife Warden and no such permit shall be granted unless the State Government, being satisfied that such destruction, exploitation or removal of wildlife from the sanctuary is necessary for the improvement and better management of wildlife therein, authorizes the issue of such permit. Explanation—For the purposes of this section, grazing or movement of livestock permitted under Clause d of Section 33 shall not be deemed to be an act prohibited under this section.” Amendment of Section 33—In Section 33 of the principal Act: (a) in Clause (d), for the word “cattle”, the word “livestock” shall be substituted; (b) Clause (e) shall be omitted. Insertion of new Section 33A—After Section 33 of the principal Act, the following section shall be inserted, namely:

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“33A. Immunization of livestock— (1) The Chief Wildlife Warden shall take such measures in such manner, as may be prescribed, for immunization against communicable diseases of the livestock kept in or within five kilometers of a sanctuary. (2) No person shall take, or cause to be taken or grazed, any live-stock in a sanctuary without getting it immunized.” 22A. Amendment of Section 34—In Section 34 of the principal Act, after Sub-section (2), the following Sub-section shall be inserted namely: “(3) No new licences under the Arms Act, 1959 shall be granted within a radius of ten kilometers of a sanctuary without the prior concurrence of the Chief Wildlife Warden.” 23. Amendment of Section 35—In Section 35 of the principal Act— (a) in Sub-section (1), the following proviso shall be added at the end, namely: “Provided that where any part of the territorial waters is proposed to be included in such national park, the provisions of Section 26A shall, as far as may be, apply in relation to the declaration of a sanctuary.” (b) in Sub-section (3), for the figures, words and brackets “19 to 26 (both inclusive)”, the figures, words, letters and brackets “19 to 26A (both inclusive except clause (c) of Sub-section (2) of Section 24)” shall be substituted; (c) in Sub-section (7), for the word “cattle”, wherever it occurs, the word “livestock” shall be substituted; (d) in Sub-section (8), for the word and figures “Section 33”, the words, figures and letter “Section 33, Section 33A” shall be substituted. 24. Omission of Section 36 and sub-heading thereof—In Chapter IV of the principal Act, the sub-heading “GAME RESERVE,” and Section 36 below it, shall be omitted. 25. Amendment of Section 38—In Section 38 of the principal Act, in Sub-section (1), for the words and figures, “Sections 19 to 35”, the words and figures “Section 18 to 35” shall be substituted. 26. Insertion of new Chapter IVA—After Chapter IV of the principal Act, the following Chapter shall be inserted, namely: “CHAPTER IV-A CENTRAL ZOO AUTHORITY AND RECOGNITION OF ZOOS 38A. Constitution of Central Zoo Authority: (1) The Central Government shall constitute a body to be known as the Central Zoo Authority (hereinafter in this chapter referred to as the Authority), to exercise the powers conferred on, and to perform the functions assigned to it under this Act (2) The Authority shall consist of: (a) chairperson; (b) such number of members not exceeding ten; and (c) member-secretary; to be appointed by the Central Government. 38B. Term of office and conditions of service of chairperson and members, etc.: (1) The chairperson and every member shall hold office for such period, not exceeding three years, as may be specified by the Central Government in this behalf.

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(2) The chairperson or a member may, by writing under his hand addressed to the Central Government, resign from the office of chairperson or, as the case may be, of the member. (3) The Central Government shall remove a person from the office of chairperson or member referred to in Sub-section (2) if that person— (a) becomes an undischarged insolvent; (b) gets convicted and sentenced to imprisonment for an offence which, in the opinion of the Central Government, involves moral turpitude; (c) becomes of unsound mind and stands so declared by a competent court; (d) refuses to act or becomes incapable of acting; (e) is, without obtaining leave of absence from the authority, absent from three consecutive meetings of the Authority; or (f) in the opinion of the Central Government has so abused the position of chairperson or member as to render that person’s continuance in office detrimental to the public interest: Provided that no person shall be removed under this clause unless that person has been given a reasonable opportunity of being heard in the matter. (4) A vacancy caused under Sub-section (2) or otherwise shall be filled by fresh appointment. (5) The salaries and allowances and other conditions of appointment of chairperson, members and member-secretary of the Authority shall be such as may be prescribed. (6) The Authority shall, with the previous sanction of the Central Government, employ such officers and other employees as it deems necessary to carry out the purposes of the Authority. (7) The terms and conditions of service of the officers and other employees of the Authority shall be such as may be prescribed. (8) No act or proceeding of the Authority shall be questioned or shall be invalid on the ground merely of that existence of any vacancies or defect in the constitution of the Authority. 38C. Functions of the Authority—The Authority shall perform the following functions, namely: (a) specify the minimum standards for housing upkeep and veterinary care of the animals kept in a zoo; (b) evaluate and assess the functioning of zoos with respect to the standards or the norms as may be prescribed; (c) recognize or derecognize zoos; (d) identify endangered species of wild animals for purposes of captive breeding and assigning responsibility in this regard to a zoo; (e) co-ordinate the acquisition, exchange and loading of animals for breeding purposes; (f) ensure maintenance of stud-books of endangered species of wild animals bred in captivity; (g) identify priorities and themes with regard to display of captive animals in a zoo; (h) co-ordinate training of zoo personnel in India and outside India;

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(i) co-ordinate research in captive breeding and educational programmes for the purposes of zoos; (j) provide technical and other assistance to zoos for their proper management and development on scientific lines; (k) perform such other functions as may be necessary to carry out the purposes of this Act with regard to zoos. 38D. Procedure to be regulated by the Authority: (1) The Authority shall meet as and when necessary and shall meet at such time and place as the chairperson may think it. (2) The Authority shall regulate its own procedure. (3) All orders and decisions of the Authority shall be authenticated by the member-secretary or any other officer of the Authority duly authorized by the member-secretary in this behalf. 38E. Grants and loans to Authority and constitution of Fund: (1) The Central Government may, after due appropriation made by Parliament by law in this behalf, make to the Authority grants and loans of such sums of money as that government may consider necessary. (2) There shall be constituted a Fund to be called the Central Zoo Authority Fund and there shall be credited thereto any grants and loans made to the Authority by the Central Government, all fees and charges received by the Authority under this Act and all sums received by the Authority from such other sources as may be decided upon by the Central Government. (3) The Fund referred to in Sub-section (2) shall be applied for meeting salary, allowances and other remuneration of the members, officers and other employees of the Authority and the expenses of the Authority in the discharge of its functions under this chapter and expenses on objects and for purposes authorized by this Act. (4) The Authority shall maintain proper accounts and other relevant records and prepare an annual statement of accounts in such form as may be prescribed by the Central Government in consultation with the Comptroller and Auditor-General of India. (5) The accounts of the Authority shall be audited by the Comptroller and Auditor-General at such intervals as may be specified by him and any expenditure incurred in connection with such audit shall be payable by the Authority to the Comptroller and Auditor-General. (6) The Comptroller and Auditor-General and any person appointed by him in connection with the audit of the accounts of the Authority under this Act shall have the same rights and privileges and the authority in connection with such audit as the Comptroller and Auditor-General generally has aim connection with the audit of the government accounts and, in particular, shall have the right to demand the production of books, accounts connected vouchers and other documents and papers and to inspect any of the offices of the Authority. (7) The accounts of the Authority, as certified by the Comptroller and AuditorGeneral or any other person appointed by him in this behalf, together with the audit report thereon, shall be forwarded annually to the Central Government by the Authority.

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38F. Annual report—The Authority shall prepare in such form and at such time, for each financial year, as may be prescribed, its annual report, giving a full account of its activities during the previous financial year and forward a copy thereof to the Central Government. 38G. Annual report and audit report to be laid before parliament—The Central Government shall cause the annual report together with a memorandum of action taken on the recommendations contained therein, in so far as they relate to the Central Government, and the reasons for the non-acceptance, if any, of any of such recommendations and the audit report to be laid as soon as may be after the reports rare received, before each house of parliament. 38H. Recognition of zoos: (1) No zoo shall be operated without being recognized by the Authority: Provided that a zoo being operated immediately before the date of commencement of the Wildlife (Protection) Amendment Act, 1991 may continue to operate without being recognized for a period of six months from the date of such commencement and if the application seeking recognition is made within that period, the zoo may continue to be operated until the said application is finally decided or withdrawn and in case of refusal for a further period of six months from the date of such refusal. (2) Every application for recognition of a zoo shall be made to the Authority in such form and on payment of such fee as may be prescribed. (3) Every recognition shall specify the conditions, if any, subject to which the applicant shall operate the zoo. (4) No recognition to a zoo shall be granted unless the Authority, having due regard to the interests of protection and conservation of wildlife, and such standards, norms and other matters as may be prescribed, is satisfied that recognition should be granted. (5) No application for recognition of a zoo shall be rejected unless the applicant has been given a reasonable opportunity of being heard. (6) The Authority may, for reasons to be recorded by it, suspend or cancel any recognition granted under Sub-section (4): Provided that no such suspension or cancellation shall be made except after giving the person operating the zoo a reasonable opportunity of being heard. (7) An appeal from an order refusing to recognize a zoo under Sub-section (5) or an order suspending or cancelling a recognition under Sub-section (6) shall lie to the Central Government. (8) An appeal under Sub-section (7) shall be preferred within thirty days from the date of communication, to the applicant, of the order appealed against: Provided that the Central Government may admit any appeal preferred after the expiry of the period aforesaid if it is satisfied that the appellant had sufficient cause for not preferring the appeal in time. 38I. Acquisition of animals by a zoo—Subject to the other provisions of this Act, no zoo shall acquire or transfer any wild animal specified in Schedule I and Schedule II except with the previous permission of the Authority. 38J. Prohibition of teasing, etc., in a zoo—No person shall tease, molest, injure or feed any animal or cause disturbance to the animals by noise or otherwise, or litter the grounds in a zoo.”

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Amendment of Section 39 — In Section 39, of the principal Act, in Sub-section (1) (a) in Clause (a), (i) for the words “bred in captivity”, the words “bred in captivity or hunted” shall be substituted; (ii) the words “without a license or” shall be omitted;. (b) after Clause (b), the following clauses shall be inserted, namely: “(c) ivory imported into India and an article made from such ivory in respect of which any offence against this Act of any rule or order made thereunder has been committed. (d) vehicle, vessel, weapon, trap or tool that has been used for committing an offence and has been seized under the provisions of this Act.” (e) in the-long paragraph, for the words “derived from such animal”, the words “derived from such animal or any vehicle, vessel, weapon, trap or tool used in such hunting” shall be substituted. Amendment of Section 40—In Section 40 of the principal Act, for Sub-section (3), the following Sub-section shall be substituted, namely: “(3) Nothing in Sub-section 1 or Sub-section (2), shall apply to a recognized zoo subject to the provisions of Section 38(1) or to a public museum.” Amendment of Section 43—In Section 43 of the principal Act, in Sub-section (6): (i) for Clause (a), the following clause shall be substituted, namely: “(a) to tail feather of peacock and the animal articles or trophies made therefrom,” (ii) for Clause (b), the following clause shall be substituted, namely: “(b) to any transaction entered into by a recognized zoo subject to the provisions of Section 38(1) or by a public museum with any other recognized zoo or public museum.” Amendment of Section 44—In Section 44 of the principal Act, in Sub-section (1): (i) in Clause (a), Sub-clause (i a) shall be omitted; (ii) after Clause (b) the following clause shall be inserted, namely: “(c) derive, collect or prepare, or deal in, snake venom:” (iii) for the second proviso, the following proviso shall be substituted, namely: “Provided further that nothing in this Sub-section shall apply to the dealers in tail feathers of peacock and articles made therefrom and the manufacturers of such articles.” Insertion of new Section 48A—After Section 48 of the principal Act, the following section shall be inserted namely: “48A. Restriction on transportation of wildlife—No person shall accept any wild animal (other than vermin), or any animal article, or any specified plant or part of derivative thereof, for transportation except after exercising due care to ascertain that permission from the Chief Wildlife Warden or any other officer authorized by the State Government in this behalf has been obtained for such transportation.” Amendment of Section 49—In Section 49 of the principal Act, for the proviso, the following proviso shall be substituted, namely: “Provided that nothing in this section shall apply to a recognized zoo subject to the provisions of Section 38(1) or to a public museum.”

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Amendment of Section 49A—In Section 49A of principal Act: (a) in clause (b), for the words “has been used”, the words “has been used but does not include tail feather of peacock, an article or trophy made therefrom and snake venom or its derivative”, shall be substituted; (b) in Clause (c)— (i) in sub-clause (i), after the words “from such commencement”, the word “and” shall be omitted; (ii) after Sub-section (ii), the following sub-clause shall be inserted, namely: “(iii) in relation to ivory imported into India or an article made from such ivory, the date of expiry of six months from the commencement of the Wildlife (Protection) Amendment Act, 1991.” Amendment of Section 49B— In Section 49B of the principal Act, in Sub-section (1), in clause (a), after Sub-clause (i), the following sub-clause shall be inserted, namely: “(ia) a dealer in ivory imported into India or articles made therefrom or a manufacturer of such articles; or” Amendment of Section 49C: In Section 49C of the principal Act: (a) in Sub-section (1), in Clause a, after Sub-section (iv), the following sub-clause shall be inserted, namely: “(v) ivory imported into India or article made therefrom;” (b) in Sub-section (7), for the words “any scheduled animal or a scheduled animal article”, the words “any scheduled animal, a scheduled animal article or ivory imported into India or any article made therefrom.” Amendment of Section 50—In Section 50 of the principal Act — (a) in Sub-section (1)— (i) in Clause (a), for the words “trophy or uncured trophy”, the words “trophy, uncured trophy, specified plant or part or derivative thereof” shall be substituted; (ii) for Clause (c), the following clause shall be substituted, namely: “(c) seize any captive animal, wild animal, animal article, meat, trophy or uncured trophy, or any specified plant or part or derivative thereof, in respect of which an offence against this Act appears to have been committed, in the possession of any person together with any trap, toll, vehicle, vessel or weapon used for committing any such offence and, unless he is satisfied that such person will appear and answer any charge which may be preferred against him, arrest him without warrant, and detain him: Provided that where a fisherman, residing within ten kilometers of a sanctuary or national park, inadvertently enters on a boat, not used for commercial fishing, in the territorial waters in that sanctuary or national park, a fishing tackle or net on such boat shall not be seized.” (b) Sub-section (2) shall be omitted; (c) after Sub-section (3), the following Sub-section shall be inserted, namely: “(3A) Any officer of a rank not inferior to that of an Assistant Director of Wildlife Preservation or Wildlife Warden, who, or whose subordinate, has seized any captive animal or wild animal under Clause (c) of Sub-section (1) may give the same for custody on the execution by any person of a bond for

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the production of such animal if and when so required, before the magistrate having jurisdiction to try the offence on account of which the seizure has been made.” (d) in Sub-section (6), for the words “meat or uncured trophy”, wherever they occur, the words “meat, uncured trophy, specified plant, or part or derivative thereof” shall be substituted; (e) after Sub-section (7), the following Sub-sections shall be inserted, namely: “(8) Notwithstanding anything contained in any other law for the time being in force, any officer not below the rank of an Assistant Director of Wildlife Preservation or Wildlife Warden shall have the powers, for purposes of making investigation into any offence against any provision of this Act— (a) to issue a search warrant; (b) to enforce the attendance of witnesses; (c) to compel the discovery and production of documents and material objects; and (d) to receive and record evidence. (9) Any evidence recorded under Clause (d) of Sub-section (8) shall be admissible in any subsequent trial before a magistrate provided that it has been taken in the presence of the accused person.” Amendment of Section 51—In Section 51 of the principal Act— (a) in Sub-section (1)— (i) for the brackets, words, figure and letter “(except Chapter VA)”, the brackets, words, figures and letters “(except Chapter VA and Section 38J)”, for the words “two years,” the words “three years” and for the words “two thousand rupees”, the words “twenty-five thousand rupees” shall be substituted; (ii) in the first proviso, for the words “relates to hunting in”, the words, “relates to hunting in, or altering the boundaries of”, for the words “six months”, the words “one year” and for the words “five hundred rupees”, the words “five thousand rupees” shall be substituted; (iii) for the second proviso, the following proviso shall be substituted, namely: “Provided further that in the case of a second or subsequent offence of the nature mentioned in this Sub-section, the term of imprisonment may extend to six years and shall not be less than two years and the amount of fine shall not be less than ten thousand rupees.” (b) after Sub-section (1 A), the following Sub-section shall be inserted, namely: “(1 B) Any person who contravenes the provisions of Section 38J shall be punishable with imprisonment for a term which may extend to six months, or with fine which may extend to two thousand rupees, or with both: Provided that in the case of a second or subsequent offence, the term of imprisonment may extend to one year or the fine may extend to five thousand rupees.” (c) in Sub-section (2), for the words “uncured trophy or meat”, the words “uncured trophy, meat, ivory imported into India or an article made from

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such ivory, any specified plant, or part of derivative thereof” shall be substituted; (d) after Sub-section (4), the following Sub-section shall be inserted, namely: “(5) Nothing contained in Section 360 of the Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973 or in the Probation of Offenders Act, 1958 shall apply to a person convicted of an offence with respect to hunting in a sanctuary or a national park or of an offence against any provision of Chapter VA unless such person in under eighteen years of age.” Amendment of Section 54— In Section 54 of the principal Act, in Sub-section (1), for the words “The State Government”, the words “The Central Government may, by notification, empower the Director of Wildlife Preservation or any other officer and the State Government” shall be substituted. Substitution of new section for Section 55 — For Section 55 of the principal Act, the following section shall be substituted, namely: “55. Cognizance of offences—No Court shall take cognizance of any offence against this Act on the complaint of any person other than: (a) the Director of Wildlife Preservation or any other authorized in this behalf by the State Government; or (b) the Chief Wildlife Warden, or any other officer authorized in this behalf by the State Government; or (c) any person who has given notice of not less than sixty days, in the manner prescribed, of the alleged offence and of his intention to make a complaint, to the Central Government or the State Government or the officer authorized as aforesaid.” Amendment of Section 57—In Section 57 of the principal Act, for the words “trophy or uncured trophy”, wherever they occur, the words “trophy, uncured trophy, specified plant, or part, or derivative thereof” shall be substituted. Amendment of Section 59—In Section 59 of the principal Act, for the words and figures “in Chapter II and”, the words, figures and letter “in Chapter II and the chairperson, members, member-secretary and other officers and employees referred to in Chapter IVA” shall be substituted. Amendment of Section 60—In Section 60 of the principal Act, after Subsection (2), the following Sub-section shall be inserted, namely: “(3) No suit or other legal proceeding shall lie against the Authority referred to in Chapter IVA and its chairperson, members, member-secretary, officers and other employees for anything which is in good faith done or intended to be done under this Act.” Insertion of new Section 60A—After Section 60 of the principal Act, the following section shall be inserted, namely: “60A. Reward to persons — (1) When a court imposes a sentence of fine or a sentence of which fine forms a part, the court may, when passing judgement, order that the reward be paid to a person who renders assistance in the detection of the offence or the apprehension of the offenders out of the proceeds of fine not exceeding twenty per cent of such fine. (2) When a case is compounded under Section 54, the officer compounding may reward to be paid to a person who renders assistance in the detention of the offence or the apprehension of the offenders out of the sum of money accepted by way of composition not exceeding twenty per cent of such money.”

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Amendment of Section 61— In section 61 of the principal Act— (a) in Sub-section (1), for the words “add any entry to any Schedule”, the words “add or delete any entry to or from any Schedule” shall be substituted; and (b) Sub-section (2) shall be omitted; (c) in Sub-section (3), the words, brackets and figure “or Sub-section (2)” shall be omitted; (d) Sub-section (4) shall be omitted. Amendment of Section 62—In Section 62 of the principal Act, for the words, “subject to the provisions of Section 61, the State Government”, the words “The Central Government” shall be substituted. Amendment of Section 63—In Section 63 of the principal Act, for Sub-section (1), the following Sub-section shall be substituted, namely: “(1) The Central Government may, by notification, make rules for all or any of the following matters, namely: (a) conditions and other matters subject to which a licensee may keep any specified plant in his custody or possession under Section 17F; (b) the salaries and allowances and other conditions of appointment of chairperson, members and member-secretary under Sub-section (5) of Section 388; (c) the terms and conditions of service of the officers and other employees of the Central Zoo Authority under Sub-section (7) of Section 38B; (d) the form in which the annual statement of accounts of the Central Zoo Authority shall be prepared under Sub-section (4) of Section 38E; (e) the form in which and the time at which the annual report of the Central Zoo Authority shall be prepared under Section 38F; (f) the form in which and the fee required to be paid with the application for recognition of a zoo under Sub-section (2) of Section 38H; (g) the standards, norms and other matters to be considered for granting recognition under Sub-section (4) of Section 38H; (h) the form in which declaration shall be made under Sub-section (2) of Section 44; (i) the matters to be prescribed under Clause b of Sub-section (4) of Section 44; (j) the terms and conditions which shall govern transactions referred to in clause b of Section 48; (k) the manner in which notice may be given by a person under Clause c of Section 55; and (l) the matters specified in Sub-section (2) of Section 64 in so far as they relate to sanctuaries and national parks declared by the Central Government.” Amendment of Section 64—In Section 64 of the principal Act, in Sub-section (2), after Clause e, the following clause shall be inserted, namely: “(ee) the manner in which measures for immunization of livestock shall betaken;” Amendment of Section 66—In Section 66 of the principal Act, after Sub-section (3), the following Sub-section shall be inserted, namely:

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“(4) For the removal of doubts, it is hereby further declared that where any proceeding under any provision of Sections 19 to 25 (both inclusive) is pending on the date of commencement of the Wildlife (Protection) Amendment Act, 1991, any reserve forest or a part of territorial waters comprised within a sanctuary declared under Section 18 to be a sanctuary before the date of such commencement shall be deemed to be a sanctuary declared under Section 26A.” Amendment of Schedule II—In Schedule II to the principal Act, in the heading, the figures “10” and the words “Special Game” shall be omitted. Amendment of Schedule III—In Schedule III to the principal Act, in the heading, the figure “10” and the words “Big Game” shall be omitted. Amendment of Schedule IV—In Schedule IV to the principal Act, the heading, “Small Game” shall be omitted. Insertion of new Schedule VI—After Schedule V to the principal Act, the following Schedule VI shall be inserted. SCHEDULE VI (SEE SEC. 2)

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Beddomes cycad (Cycas beddomei) Blue vandaf Vanda coerulea) Kuth (Saussurea lappa) Ladies slipper orchids (Paphiopedilium spp.) Pitcher plant (Nepenthes khasiana) Red vanda (Rananthera imschootiana).

Wildlife Act

SCHEDULE I (SEE SECS. 2, 8, 9, 11, 40, 41, 43, 48, 51, 61 AND 62) PART I Mammals 1. 1-A. 1-B. 2. 3. 3-A. 3-B. 4. 4-A. 5. 5-A. 5-B. 6. 6-A. 6-B. 6-C 7. 7-A. 8. 8-A. 8-B. 8-C. 8-D. 8-E. 9. 10. 10-A. 10-B. 10-C. 11. 11 -A. 12. 12-A. 12-B. 13. 14. 15. 16.

Andaman wild pig (Sus andamanensis) Bharal (Ovis nahura) Binturong (Arctictis binturong) Blackbuck (Arctictis cervicapra) Brow-antlered deer or thamin (Cervus eldi) Himalayan brown bear (Ursus arctos) Capped langur (Presbytis pileatus) Caracal (Fells caracal) Catacean spp. Cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) Chinese pangolin (Manispentadactyla) Chinkara or Indian gazelle (Cazella gazella bennetti) Clouded leopard (Neofelis nebulosa) Crab-eating macaque (Macaca irus umbrosa) Desert cat (Felis libyca) Desert fox (Vulpes bucopus) Dugong (Dugong dugon) Ermine (Mustela erminea) Fishing cat (Felis viverrina) Four-horned antelope (Tetraceros quadricornis)

Gangetic dolphin (Platanista gangetica) Gaur or Indian bison (Bos gaurus) Golden cat (Fells temmincki) Golden langur (Presbytis geei) Giant squirrel (Ratufa macroura) Himalayan ibex (Capra ibex) Himalayan tahr (Hemitragus jemlahicus) Hispid hare (Caprolagus hispidus) Hog badger (Arctonyx collaris) Hoolock gibbon (Hylobates hoolock) Indian elephant (Elephas maximus) Indian lion (Panthera leopersica) Indian wild ass (Equus hemionus khur) Indian wolf (Canis lupus) Kashmir stag (Cervus’elaphus hanglu)

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16-A, 16-B. 17. 18. 19. 20. 20-A. 21. 22. 22-A. 23. 24. 24-A. 25. 25-A. 25-B. 26. 27. 28. 29. 29-A. 30. 31. 31-A. 31-B. 31-C. 32. 33. 32-A. 33-A. 34. 35. 36. 36-A. 36-B. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 41-A. 41-B.

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Leaf monkey (Presbytis phayrei) Leopard or panther (Panthera pardus) Leopard cat (Felis bengalensis) Lesser or red panda (Ailurus fulgens) Lion-tailed macaque (Macaca silenus) Loris (tons tardigradus) Little Indian porpoise (Neomeris phocaenoides) Lynx (Felis lynx Isabel linus) Malabar civet (Viverra megaspila) Malay or sun bear (Helarctos malayanus) Marbled cat (Felis marmorata) Markhor (Capra falconer!) Mouse deer (Tragulus meminna) Musk deer (Moschus moschiferus) Nilgiri langur (Presbytis johni) Nilgiri tahr (Hemitragus hylocrius) Nayan or great Tibetan sheep (Ovis ammon hodgsoni) Pal la’s cat (Felis manul) Pangolin (Manis crassicaudata) Pygmy hog (Sus salvanius) Ratel (Mellivora capensis) Indian one-horned rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis) Rusty-spotted cat (Felis rubiginosa) Serow (Capricornis sumatraensis) Clawless otter (Aonyx cinerea) Sloth bear (Melursus ursinus) Slow loris (Nycticebus coucang) Snow leopard (Panthera uncia) Small Travancore flying squirrel (Petinomys fuscopapillus) Subfin dolphin (Orcaella brevirostris) Spotted linsang (Prionodon pardicolor) Swamp deer (all sub-species of Cervus duvauceli) Takin or Mishmi takin (Budorcas taxicolor) Tibetan antelope or chiru (Panthelops hodgsoni) Tibetan fox (Vulpes ferrilatus) Tibetan gazelle (Procapra picticaudata) Tibetan wild ass (Equus hemionus kiang) Tiger (panthera tigris) Urial or shapu (Ovis vignei) Wild buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) Wild yak (Bos grunniens) Tibetan wolf (Canis lupus chanco)

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PART II Amphibians and Reptiles 1. 1-A. 1-B. 1-C 1-D. 1-E. 1-F. 2. 3. 3-A. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 9-A. 11. 12. 13. 14. 14-A. 14-B. 14-C.

Audithia turtle (Pelochelys bibroni) Barred, oval or yellow monitor lizard (Varanus flavescens) Crocodiles (including the estuarine or saltwater crocodile) (Crocodilus porosus and Crocodilus palustris) Terrapin (Batagur baska) Eastern hill terrapin (Melanochelys tricarinata) Gharial (Cavialis gangeticus) Ganges soft-shelled turtle (Trionyx gangeticus) Golden gecko (Caloductyloides aureus) Green sea turtle (Chelonia mydas) Hawksbill turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata imbricata) Indian egg-eating snake (Elachistodon westermanni) Indian soft-shelled turtle (Lissemys punctata) Indian tent turtle (Kachuga tecta tecta) Kerala Forest Terrapin (Hoesemys sylratiea) Leathery turtle (Dermochelys coriacea) Loggerhead turtle (Caretta caretta) Oliveback loggerhead turtle (Lepidochelys olivacea) Peacock-marked soft-shelled turtle (Trionyx hurum) Pythons (Genus Python) Sail terrapin (Kachuga kachuga) Spotted black terrapin (Geociemys hamiltoni) PART III Birds

1. 1-A. 1 -B. 1 -C 1 -D. 1-E. 1-F. 2. 2-A. 2-B. 2-C. 3. 4.

Andaman teal (Anas gibberifrons albogularis) Assam bamboo partridge (Bambusicola fytchii) Bazas (Aviceda jordoni and Aviceda leuphotes) Bengal florican (Eupodotis bengalensis) Black-necked crane (Crus nigricollis) Blood pheasants (Ithaginis cruentus tibetanus, l.c. kuseri) Cheer pheasant (Catreus wallichii) Eastern white stork (Ciconia ciconia boyciana) Forest spotted owlet (Athene blewitti) Frogmouths (Genus Batrachostomus) Great Indian bustard (Choriotis nigriceps) Great Indian hornbill (Buceros bicornis)

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4-A. 4-B. 4-C. 4-D. 4-E. 4-F. 5. 6. 7. 7-A. 7-B. 7-C. 8. 9. 9-A. 10. 10-A. 10-B. 10-C. 11. 12. 13. 14. 14-A. 14-B. 15. 16. 17. 17-A. 18.

Hawks (Accipitridae) Hooded crane (Crus monacha) Hornbills (Ptiloaemus tickelli austeni, Aceros nipalensis, Rhyticeros undulatus ticehursti) Houbara bustard (Chlamydotis undulata) Hume’s bar-backed pheasant (Syrmaticus humiae) Indian pied hornbill (Anthracoceros malabaricus) Jerdon’s courser (Cursrius bitorquatus) Lammergeir (Gypaetus barbatus) Large falcons (Falco peregrinus, F. biarmicus, F. chicquera) Large whistling teal (Dendrocygna bicolor) Lesser florican (Sypheotides indica) Monal pheasants (Lophophorus impejanus, Lsclateri) Mountain quail (Ophrysia superciliosa) Narcondam hornbill [Rhyticeros (undulatus) narcondami] Nicobar megapode (Megapodius freycinet) Nicobar pigeon (Caloenasnicobaricapelewensis) Osprey or fish-eating eagle (Pandion haliaetus) Peacock pheasants (Polyplectron bicalcaratum) Peafowl (Pavo cristatus) Pink-headed duck (Rhodonessa caryophyllacea) Scalater’s monal (Lophophorus sclateri) Siberian white crane (Grus leucogeranus) Tibetan snow cock (Tetraogallus tibetanus) Tragopan pheasants (Tragopan melanocephalus, T.blythii, T.satyra, T. temmincki) White-bellied sea eagle (Haliaetus leucogaster) White-eared pheasant (Crossoptilon crossoptilon) White spoonbill (Platalea leucorodia) White winged wood duck (Cairina scutulata) PART IV Crustacea and Insects

1. Butterflies and Moths Scientific Name Family Amathusidae Discophora deo deo Discophora sondaica muscina faunis faunula faunuloides

Common English Name Duffer, banded Duffer, common Pallid fauna

Wildlife Act

Family Danaidae Danaus gautama gautamoides Euploea crameri nicevillei Euploea midamus roepstorfti Family Lycaenidae Allotinus drumila Allotinus fabius penormis Amblopala avidiena Amblypodia ace arata Amblypodia alea constanceae Amblypodia ammon ariel Amblypodia arvina ardea Amblypodia asopia Amblypodia comica Amblypodra opalina Amblypodia zeta Biduanda melisa cyana Callophyrs leechii Castalius rosimon alarbus Charana cepheis Chlioria othona Deudoryx epijarbas amatius Everes moorei Cerydus biggsii Gerydus symethus diopeithes Heliophorus hybrida Horaga albimacula Jamides ferrari Liphyra brassolis Listeria dudgeni Logania Watsoniana subfasciate Lycaenopsis binghami Lycaenopsis haraldus ananga Lycaenopsis purpa prominens Lycaenopsis quadriplaga dohertyi Nacaduba noreia hampsonii Polymmatus orbitulus leela Pratapa icetas mishmia Simiskinaphalena harterti Sinthusa virgo Spindasis elwesi * Spindasis rukmini Strymonidia mackwoodi Tajuria ister

Blue Tiger Crow, spotted black Crow, blue-spotted Darkie, crenulate/great Angled darkie Hairsteak, Chinese Leaf blue Rosyoakblue Malayan bush blue Purple brown tailless oakblue Plain tailless oakblue Comic oakblue Opal oakblue Andaman tailless oakblue Blue posy Hairstreak, ferruginous Pierrot, common Mandarin blue, Cachar Tit, orchid Cornelian, scarce Cupid, Moore’s Bigg’s brownie Great brownie Sapphires Onyxes Caeruleans Butterfly, moth Lister’s hairstreak Mottle, Watson’s Hedge blue Hedge blue, Felder’s Common hedge blue Naga hedge blue Lineblue, white-tipped Greenish mountain blue Royal, dark blue Brilliant, broadlanded Spark, pale Silverline, Elwes’s Sileverline, khaki Hairstreak, Mackwood’s Royal, uncertain

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Tajuria luculentus nela Tajuria yajna yajna Thecla ataxus zulla Thecla bieti menlera Thecla letha Thecla paona Thecla pavo Virachola smilis

Royal, Chinese Royal, chestnut and black Wonderful, hairstreak Indian purple hairstreak Wastson’s hairstreak Paona hairstreak Peacock hairstreak Guava blues

Family Nymphalidae Apatura ulupi ulupi Argynnis hegemone Calinaga buddha Charaxes durnfordi nicholi Cirrochroa fasciata Diagora nicevillei Dilipa morgiana Doleschallia bisaltide andamana Eriboea moori sandakanus Eriboea schreiberi Eulaceura manipurensis Euthalia durga splendens Euthalia iva Euthalia khama curvifascia Euthalia telchinia Helcyrahemina Hypolimnas missipus Limenitis austeniapurpurascens Limenitis zulema Melitaea shandura Neptis antilope Neptis aspasia Neptis columella kankena Neptis cydippe kirbariensis Neptis ebusa Neptis jumbah binghami Neptis manasa Neptis nyctens Neptis poona Neptis sankara Panthoporia jina jina Panthoporia reta moorei Prothoe franckii regalis Sasakia funebris Sephisa chandra

Emperor, tawny Silver-washed fritiilary Freak Rajah, chestnut Yeomen Siren, scarce Emperor, golden Autumn leaf Malayan nawab Blue nawab Emperor, Tytler’s Barons/Counts/Duchesses Duke, grand Duke, Naga Baron, blue Emperor, white Eggfly, danaid Commodore, grey Admirals Fritillaries/Silverstripes Sailer, veriegated Sailer, great hockey stick Sailer, short-banded Sailer, Chinese yellow Sailer, lascar Sailer, chestnut-streaked Sailer, pale hockeystick Sailer, hockeystick Lascar, Tytler’s Sailer, broad-banded Bhutan sergeant Malay staff sergeant Begum, blue Empress Courtier, eastern

Wildlife Act

Symbrenthia silana Vanessa antiopa yedniila

Jester, scarce Admirables

Family Papilionidae Chilasa clytia clytia f. commixtus Papilio elephenor Papilio liomedon Parnassius aeco geminifer Parnassius delphius Parnassius hannyngtoni Parnassius imperator augustus Parnassius stoliczkanus Polydorus coonsambilanga Polydorus crassipes Polydorus hector Polydorus nevilli Polydorus plutonius pembertoni Polydorus polla

Common mime Spangle, yellow-crested Swallowtail, Malabai banded Apollo Banded apollo Hannyngton’s apollo Imperial apollo Ladakh banded apollo Common clubtail Black Windmill Crimson rose Nevill’s windmill Chinese windmill Deneceylle’s windmill

Family Pieridae Aporia harrietae harritae Baltia butleri sikkima Colias colias thrasibulus Colias dubi Delias sanaea Pieris krueperi devta

Black veins White butterfly Clouded yellows Dwarf clouded yellow Jezebel, pale Butterfly cabbage/White II

Family Satyridae Coelites nothis a damsoni Cyllogenes janetae Elymnias peali Elymnias penanga philansis Erabia annada annada Erabia narasingha narasingha Lethe distans Lethe dura gammiee Lethe europa tamuna Lethe gemina gafuri Lethe guluihal guluihal Lethe margaritae Lethe ocellata lyncus Lethe ramadeva Lethe satyabat; Mycalesis orseis nawtilus Yothima dohertyi persimilis 1-A. Coconut or Rubber crab (Birgus latro) 2- Dragonfly (Epioplebia laidlawi)

Cat’s eye, scarce Evening brown, scarce Palmfly, Peal’s Palmfly, Painted Argus, ringed Argus, mottled Forester, scarce red Liacfork, scarce B amboo tree brown Tytler’s tree brown Forester, dull Tree brown, Bhutan Mystic, dismal Silverstripe, single Forester, pallid Wall dark Five ring, great

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SCHEDULE II (SEE SECS. 2, 8, 9, 11, 40, 41, 43, 48, 51, 61 AND 62) PART I 1. I-A.

Assamese macaque (Macaca assamensis)

2.

Bengal porcupine (Atherurus mecrourus assamensis)

3. 3-A.

Bonnet macaque (Macaca radiata)

3-B. 3-C.

Cetacean spp. (other than those listed in Sch. I and Sch. Part II)

4. 4-A.

Common langur (Presbytis entellus)

5. 6. 7.

Ferret badgers (Melogale moschata, and M.personata)

8. 9. 10. 11.

Himalayan crestless porcupine (Hystrix hodgsoni)

II-A.

Himalayan newt or salamander (Tyletotriton verrucosus)

12. 13. 14. 15. 16.

Pig-tailed macaque (Macaca nemestrina)

17. 17-A.

Rhesus macaque (Macaca mulatta)

18. 19.

Stump-tailed macaque (Macaca speciosa)

20. 21. 22.

Wild dog or dhole (Cuon alpinus)

23. 24.

Chameleon (Chameleo calcaratus)

25.

Spiny-tailed lizard orsanda (Uromastix hardwickii)

Wildlife Act

PART II 1. Beetles Family Carabidae Agonotrechus andrewesi Amara brucei Amara eleganfula Brachinus atripennis Brososoma gracile Brosopus bipillifer Broter ovicollis Calathus amaroides Callistominus belli Chalenius championi Chalenius kanarae Chalenius masoni Family Chrysomelidae Acrocrypta rotundata Bimala indica Clitea indica Gopala pita Criva cyanipennis Nisotra cardoni Nisotra madurensis Nisotra nigripennis Nisotra semicoerulea Nisotra striatipennis Nonarthra patkaia Psylliodes plana Psyllides shira Sebaethe cervina Sebaethe patkaia Sphaeroderma brevicorne Family Cucujidae Carinophloeus raffravi Cucujus bicolor Cucujus grouvee Cucujus imperial is Heterojinus semiiactaneus Laemophloeus belli Laemophloeus incertus Pediacus rufipes Family Inopeplidae Inopeplus albonotalus

Family Amathusidae Aemona amathusia amathusia Amathusia philippus andamanicu Amathusia amythaona Discophora deo deodoides Discophora lepida lepida Discophora timora andamanensis Enispecycnus Faunis sumeus assama Sticopthalma nourmahal Thauria aliris amplifascia Family Danaidae Euploea melanoleuca Euploea midamus rogenhoferi Family Erycinidae Abisara kausambi Dodona adonira Dodona dipoea Dodonaegeon Libythea lepita Family Hesperiidae Baoris philippina Bebasasena Halpe homolea Family Lycaenidae Allotinus subviolaceous manychus Amblypodia aberrans Amblypodia aenea Amblypodia agaba aurelia Amblypodia agrata Amblypodia alesia Amblypodia apidanus ahamus Amblypodia areste areste Amblypodia bazaloides Amblypodia camdeo Amblypodia ellisi Amblypodia fulla ignara Amblypodia ganesa watsoni Amblypodia paraganesa zephp-reeta Amblypodia paralea Amblypodia silhetensis Amblypodia suffusa suffusa

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Amblypodia yendava Apharitis tilacinus Araotes lapithis Artipe eryx Bindahara phocides Bothrinia chennellii Castalius roxus manluena Catapoecilma delicatum Catapoecilma elegans myositina Charana jalindra Cheriterlla truncipennis Chliaria kina Deudoryx hypargyria gaetulia Enchrysops one jus Everes kalaroi Heliphorus androcles moorei Horaga onyx Horaga viola Hypolycaena nilgirica Hypolycaena thecloides nicoba-rica Iraota rochana boswelliana Jamides alectokandulana Jamides celeodus pura Jamides kankena Lampides boeticus Lialacea albocaerulea Lialacea atroguttata Lialacea lilacea Lialacea melaena Lialacea minims Logania massalia Lycaenesthes lycaenina Mahathala ameria Mahathala atkinsoni Magisba malaya presbyter Nacaduba aluta coelestis Nacaduba ancyra aberrans Nacaduba dubiosa fulva Nacaduba helion Nacaduba hermus major Nacaduba pactolus Neucheritra febronia Niphanda cymbia

Orthomiella pontis Pithecops fulgens Polymmatus devanica devanica Polymmatus metallica metallica Polymmatus orbitulus jaloka Polymmatus yeonghusbandi Poritia erycinoides elisei Poritia hewitsoni Poritia plusrata geta Pratapa bhotes Pratapa blanka Pratapa deva Pratapa icetas Rapala buxaria Rapala chandrana chandrana Rapala nasala Rapala refulgens Rapala rubida Rapala scintilla Rapala ophinx ophinx Rapala varuna Spindasis elima elima Spindasis lohita Spindasis nipalicus Suasalisides Surendra todara Jajuria albiplaga Tajuria cippus cippus Tajuria culta Tajuria diaeus Jajuria illurgoodes Tajuria illurgis Tajuria jangala andamanica Tajuria melastigma Tajuria sebonga Tajuria thydia Tajuria yajna istroides Tarucus callinara Tarucus dharta Thaduka multicaudata kanara Theda ataxus ataxus Thecla bitei Theda icana

Wildlife Act

Theda jakamensis Theda kabrea Theda khasia Theda kirbariensis Theda suroia Theda syla assamica Theda vittata Theda ziba Theda zoa Una usta Yasoda tripunctata Family Nymphalidae Adolias cyanipardus Adolias dirtea Adolias khasiana Apatura chevana Apatura parvata Apatura sordida Apatura ulupi florenciae Argynnis adippe pallida Argynnis altissima Argynnis clara clara Argynnis pales horla Atella Isdppe Calinaga buddha brahaman Charaxes aristogiton Charaxes fabius sulphureus Charaxes nabruba Charaxes marmax Charaxes polyexna heman Chersonesia rahria arahrioides Cyrestis codes Diagora persimilis Dolischallia bisalitide malabarica Eriboea athamas andamanicus Eriboea deophis Eriboea dolon Eriboea lissainei Euripus consimilis Euripus halitherses Euthalia anosia Euthalia cocytus Euthalia duda

Euthalia durga durga Euthalia evalina landabilis Euthalia franciae Euthalia gauda acontius Euthalia lepidea Euthalia merta eriphylea Euthalia nara nara Euthalia patala taoana Euthalia teuta Herona marathus andamana Hypolimnas missipus Hypolimnas ploy nice birmana Kallima albofasciata Kallima alompora Kallima philarchus horsfieldii Limenitis austenia austenia Limenitis damava Limenitis dudu Melitea robertsi lutko Neptis ananta Neptis anjana nashona Neptis aurelia Neptis magadha khasiana Neptis nandina hamsoni Neptis narayana Neptis radha radha Neptis soma Neptis zaida Neurosigma doubledayi double-dayi Pantoporia asura asura Pantoporia kanwa phorkys Pantoporia larymna siamensis Pantoporia pravara acutcpemnis Pantoporia ranga Parthenos sylvia Penthema lisarda Symbrenthia niphanda Venesa egea agnicula Venesa lalbum Venesa polychloros fervida Venesa prarsoides dohertyi Venesa urtcoe rizama

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Family Papilionidae Bhutanitis liderdalii Ch ilasa epycides epycides Chilasa paradoxa telearchus Chilasa slateri slateri Graphium aristeus anticrates Graphium arycles arycles Graphium eurpylus macronius Graphium evemon albociliates Graphium gyas gyas Graphium megarus megarus Papilio bootes Papilio buddha Papilio fuscus andamanicus Papilio machaon verityi Papilio mayo Parnassius charltonius charltonius Parnassius epaphus hillensis Parnassius jacquemonti jacquem-onti Polydorus latreillei kabrua Polydorus plutonius tytleri Teinopalpus imperialis imperialis Family Pieridae Apoia nabellica Appias albina darada Appias indra shiva Appias lyncida latisfasciata Appias wardica Baltia butleri butleri Cepora nadian remba Cepora nerissa dapha Colias eocandica hinducucica Colias stoliczkana miranda Deliaslativitta Dercaslycorias Euchloe charlonia lucilla Eurema andersoni ormistoni Metaporia agathon Pierisdeota Pantia chloridice alpina Saletara panda chrysaea Valeria avatar avatar Family Satyridae Aulocera brahminus Cyllogenes suradeva

Elymnias melilas milamba Elymnias vasudeva Erebia annada suroia. Erebia hygriva Erebia kalinda kalinda Erebia manii manii Erebia seanda opima Erebia falcipennis Hipparchis heydenreichi shandura Lethe atkinsoni Lethe baladeva Lethe brisnda Lethe goalpara goalpara Lethe insane insane Lethe jalaurida Lethe kabrua Lethe latiaris latiaris Lethe moelleri moelleri Lethe naga naga Lethe nicetella Lethe pulaha Lethe seanda Lethe serbonis Mycalesis misenus Mycalesis mestra Mycalesis mystes Mycalesis suavolens Neorina hilda Neorina patria westwoodii Oeneis buddha gurhwalica Parantirrhoes marshali Parage maerula maefula Ragadia crisilda crito Rhappicera sttricus kabrua Ypthima bolanica Ypthima lycus lycus Ypthima mathora mathora Ypthima similis affectata Zipotis saitis Lethe siderea Lethe sinorix Lethe tristigmata Lethe violaceodicta kanjupkula Lethe visrava

Wildlife Act

Lethe yama Maniola davendra davendra Melanitis zitanius Mycalesis adamsoni Mycalesis anaxias Mycalesis botama chamba Mycalesis heri Mycalesis lepcha bethami Mycalesis malsarida Mycalesis misenus Mycalesis mestra Mycalesis mystes

1 -A. 1-B. 1-C. 1-D. 2. 2-A. 2-B. 2-C. 2-D. 2-E. 3. 4. 4-A. 4-B. 5. 5-A. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15.

349

Mycalesis suavolens Neorina hilda Neorina patria westwoodii Oeneis buddha gurhwalica Parantirrhoes marshali Parage maerula maefula Ragadia crisilda crito Rhappicera sttricus kabrua Ypthima bolanica Ypthima lycus lycus Ypthima mathora mathora Ypthima similis affectata Zipotis saitis

Civets (all species of Viverridae except Malabar civet) Common fox (Vulpes bengalensis) Flying squirrels (all species of the genera Bulopetes, Petaurista, Pelomys, and Eupetaurus) Giant squirrels (Ratufa indica, and R.bicolor) Himalayan black bear (Selenarctos thibetanus) Jackal (Canis aureus) Jungle cat (Felis chaus) Marmots (Marmota bobak himalayana, M. caudata) Martens (Martes foina intermedia, M. flavigula, M. gwatkinsi) Otter (Lutra lutra, L perspicillata) Polecats (Vormela peregusna, Putatorius putorius) Red fox (Vulpes vulpes, V.montana, V.griffithi) Sloth bear (Melursus ursinus) Sperm whale (Physter macrocephalus) Weasels (Mustela sibiric, M. kathian, M. altaica) Checkered keelback snake (Xeno chnphis piscator) Dhaman or rat snake (Ptyas mucosus) Dog-faced water snake (Cerberus rhynchopi) Indian cobras (all sub-species of the genus Naja) King cobra (Ophiophagus hannah) Oliveceous keelback snake (Artretium schistosum) Russel’s viper (Vipera ruselli) Varanus species (excluding yellow monitor lizard)

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SCHEDULE III (SEE SECS 2, 8, 9, 11 AND 61) 1. 2.

Barking deer or mumtjac (Muntiacus muntjak)

3. 4. 5.

Cheetal or Spotted deer (Axis axis)

6. 7.

Corals (Nemorhaedus goral)

8. 9. 10. 11.

Hog deer (Axis porcinus)

12.

Hyaena (Hyaena hyaena)

13. 14.

Nilgai (Boselaphus tragocamelus)

15. 16.

Sambhar (Cervus unicolor)

17. 18. 19.

Wild pig (Sus scrofa)

Wildlife Act

SCHEDULE IV (SEE SECS 2, 8, 9, 11 AND 61) 1. 2. 3. 3-A.

Five striped palm squirrel (Funambulus pennant!)

4.

Hares (Black napped, common Indian, Desert, Himalayan mouse)

4-A.

Hedgehog (Hemiechinus auritus)

4-B. 4-C. 4-D. 4-E.

Indian porcupine (Hystrix indica)

5. 6. 6-A.

Mongooses (all species of genus Herpestes)

7. 7-A.

Polecats (Vormela peregusna)

8. 9. 10. 11.

Birds (other than those which appear in other schedules) 1.

Avadavat (Estridinae)

2.

Avocet (Recurvirostridae)

3.

Babblers (Timaliinae)

4.

Barbets (Capitonidae)

5.

Barn owls (Tytoninae)

6.

Bitterns (Ardeidae)

7.

Brown-headed gull (Larus brunnicephalus)

8.

Bulbuls (Pycnonotidae)

9.

Buntings (Emberizidae)

10.

Bustards (Otididae)

11.

Bustard-quails (Turnicidae)

12.

Chloropsis (Irenidae)

13.

Comb duck (Sarkidiornis melanotos)

14.

Coots (Rallidae)

15.

Cormorants (Phalacrocoracidae)

16.

Cranes (Gruidae)

17.

Cuckoos (Cuculidae)

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352

17-A.

Curlews (Scolopacinae)

18.

Darters (Phalacrocoracidae)

19.

Doves including the Emerald dove (Columbidae)

20.

Drongos (Dicruridae)

21.

Ducks (Anatidae)

22.

Egrets (Ardeidae)

23.

Fairy bluebirds (Irenidae)

24.

Falcons (Falconidae), except the shaheen and peregrine falcons (Falco peregrinus), the saker and laggar falcons (F.biarmicus)

25.

Finches including the chaffinch (Fringillidae)

26.

Flamingos (Phoenicopteridae)

27.

Flowerpeckers (Dicaeidae)

28.

Flycatchers (Muscicapidae)

29.

Geese (Anatidae)

30.

Goldfinches and allies (Carduelinae)

31.

Grebes (Podicipitidae)

32.

Herons (Ardeidae)

33.

Ibises (Threskiornithidae)

34.

loras (Irenidae)

35.

Jays (Corvidae)

36.

Jacanas (Jacanidae)

36-A.

Junglefowl (Phasianidae)

37.

Kingfishers (Alcedinidae)

38.

Larks (Alaudidae)

39.

Lorikeets (Psittacidae)

40.

Magpies including the Hunting magpie (Corvidae)

41.

Mannikins (Estrildinae)

42.

Megapodes (Megpodidae)

43.

Minivets (Campephagidae)

44.

Munias (Estrildinae)

45.

Mynas (Sturnidae)

46.

Nightjars (Caprimulgidae)

47.

Orioles (Oriolidae)

48.

Owls (Strigidae)

49.

Oystercatchers (Haematopodidae)

50.

Parakeets (Psittacidae)

51.

Partridges (Phasianidae)

52.

Pelicans (Pelecanidae)

Wildlife Act

12.

353

53.

Pheasants (Phasianidae)

54.

Pigeons (Columbidae) except the Blue rock pigeon (Columba livia)

55.

Pipits (Motacillidae)

55-A.

Pittas (Pittidae)

56.

Plovers (Charadriinae)

57.

Quails (Phasianidae)

58.

Rails (Rallidae)

59.

Rollers or Blue jays (Coraciidae)

60.

Sandgrouses (Pteroclididae)

61.

Sandpipers (Scolopacinae)

62.

Snipes (Charadriidae)

63.

Spurfowls (Phasianidae)

64.

Starlings (Sturnidae)

65.

Stone curlews (Burhinidae)

66.

Storks (Ciconiidae)

67.

Stilts (Recurvirostridae)

68.

Sunbirds (Nectariniidae)

69.

Swans (sic) (Anatidae)

70.

Teals (Anatidae)

71.

Thrushes (Turdinae)

72.

Tits (Paridae)

73.

Tree pies (Corvidae)

74.

Trogons (Trogonidae)

75.

Vultures (Accipitridae)

76.

Waxbills (Estrildinae)

77.

Weaver birds or bays (Ploceidae)

78.

White-eyes (Zosteropidae)

79.

Woodpeckers (Picidae)

80.

Wrens (Troglodytidae)

Snakes (other than those species listed in Sch. 1, Pt. II; and Sch. II, Pt.ll): i. Amblycayhalidae ii. Amilidae iii. Boidae iv. Colubridae v. Dasypeptidae vi. Elapedae (cobras, kraits and coral snakes) vii. Glauconidae viii. Hydrophidae (freshwater and sea snakes)

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ix. llysidae x. Leptotyphlopidae xi. Typhlopidae xii. Uropeltidae xiii. Viperidae xiv. Xenopeltidae 13.

Freshwater frogs (Rana spp).

14.

Three-keeled turtle (Geomyda tricarinata)

15.

Tortoises (Testudinidae, Tryonichidae)

16.

Viviparous toads (Nectophyrynoides spp.)

17.

Voles

18.

Butterflies and moths: Family Danaidae Euploea core simulatrix Euploea crassa Euploea dioeletianus ramsahai Euploea mulciber Family Hesperiidae Baoris farri Hasora vitta Hyarotis adrastus Oriens concinna Pelopidas assamensis Pelopidas sinensis Polytrema discreta Polytrema rubricans Thoresa horiorei Family Lycaenidae Tarucus ananda Family Nymphalidae Eiuthalia lubetina Family Pigeridae Appias agathon ariaca Appias libythea Appias nero galba Prioneris sita

Wildlife Act

SCHEDULE V (SEE SECS. 2, 8, 61 AND 62) Vermin 1.

Common crow

2. 3.

Fruit bats

4. 5.

Mice

6.

Rats

7. SCHEDULE VI (SEE SEC 2) 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Beddomes cycad (Cycas beddomei) Blue vanda (Vanda coerulea) Kuth (Saussurea lappa) Ladies slipper orchid (Paphiopedilium spp.) Pitcher plant (Nepenthes khasiana) Red vanda (Rananthera imschootiana)

* inserted by Act, 1991

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Appendices

357

APPENDICES Appendix I (A) SOME IMPORTANT FACTS Mammals: Largest and heaviest animal/mammal

—

Blue Whale (average length 30.5 m, weight 150 tonnes)

Fastest animal/mammal

—

Cheetah (It can run at 112 km/h over short distances. It is extinct from India.)

Largest land animal/mammal

—

African Bush Elephant (height 3 m, weight 6 tonnes).

Slowest animal/mammal

—

Three-toed Sloth (It covers about 2 m distance in minute the ground and 5 m in trees. An American animal which is very sluggish and moves slowly).

Smallest land animal/mammal

—

Kitti’s hog-nosed Bat (Its wing span is 16 cm and weight 2 gm)

Largest bovid (wild oxen) in India/world

—

Gaur/Wild Buffalo

Largest deer in India

—

Sambhar

Smallest deer in India

—

Mouse deer

Smallest true deer in India Smallest antelope in India

— —

Muntjak (Barking deer) Chinkara (Indian Gazelle)

National Animal of India

—

Tiger

National aquatic animal of India (declared on 5th October, 2009 by Govt. of India as proposed by Mr Nitish Kumar, Chief Minister of Bihar State).

—

Dolphin

Among 850 mammalian species of India, 81 are greatly endangered. • • • • •

Order primate is represented by 19 species Family Viverridae is represented by 15 species. Family Felidae is represented by 15 species. Family Cervidae is represented by 9 species, out of which five are endangered. Order Lagomorpha is represented by 4 species, of which Hispid hare or Assam rabbit (Caaprologus hispidus) is a rare. • Order Rodentia forms the largest group represented by 95 species out of which 11 species of Flying squirrels and two marmots are endangered. • Order Cetacea is represented by 25 species and all are endangered.

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Birds (Aves): Largest bird

—

Ostrich (height 2.74 m)

Smallest bird

—

Bee-humming bird (body length 6.5 cm)

Largest range of migratory bird

—

Arctic Tern (from one pole to another 40,300 km)

Average incubation period of small birds

—

12 to 14 days

Incubation period of Ostrich egg

—

45 days

Longest period of incubation

—

80 days of bird’s egg (Royal Albatross/ Sea-bird)

National bird of India

—

Peacock

There are about 2100 species and sub-species of birds known in India, out of which a large number of birds are greatly endangered. Generally in nonavian vertebrate species, particularly in mammals, the female is showy and fancy to attract the opposite sex. But in birds where the sexes differ in colouration, it is the male who is more showy and who takes the initiative in the display and courtship ceremonials (except in the case of polyandrous species where the normal conditions are reversed). In birds where the sexes are outwardly alike, as in larks and pipits, they apparently recognize each other’s sex only by the natural response to each other’s behaviour. Reptiles Largest and heaviest reptile

—

Estuarine Crocodile (Average length of male 4.3 m)

Largest lizard

—

Komodo Dragon (Length up to 3 m)

Tree snakes

—

Dryophis (Whip-snake) and Chrysopela (Golden tree-snake). Both lead arboreal life feeding on lizard and other forms. Their poison is not harmful to man.

Nest-dwelling snake

—

Ophiophagous hannah (King Cobra). The only snake that builds a nest to lay eggs is female King-cobra (largest venomous snake) found in India. The female builds nest in bushes, etc. by leaves of the plants at the time of laying eggs. Its tongue acts as thermoreceptor through which the female judges the optimum temperature for hatching of the eggs. If the temperature is more, she removes excess leaves from the nest or adds more if the temperature is less to maintain optimum temperature for hatching.

Reptiles of India belong to the groups such as Tortoises, Turtles (Chelonia), Crocodiles and Gharials (Loricata), Lizards (Sauria) and Snakes (Serpentes). Amphibians: Largest amphibia

—

Chinese Giant Salamander (average length 1 m, weight 11 to 13 kg)

Largest frog

—

Goliath Frog (body length 33.5 cm)

Appendices

Pisces (Fishes): Largest fish Most electric fish

359

—

Whale Shark (length 18.5 m) Electric Eel (It can produce electricity of 400 to 650 volts)

Insects: Heaviest insect

—

Goliath Beetle (Weight of male l00 gm)

Longest insect

—

Tropical Stick-insect (Length up to 33 cm)

(B) SOME IMPORTANT DAYS/EVENTS Wildlife Week

—

1st to 8th October (1st week, October).

World Sparrow Day

—

20th March

World Forestry Day

—

21st March. The idea originated in 1871 at the European Agricultural Conference in Spain. Afterwards, it was decided by the F.A.O. (an organisation of the U.S.A.) to celebrate this day as World Forestry Day in each country.

World Water day

—

22nd March

World Weather day

—

23rd day

World Earth Day

—

22nd April

World Crocodile/Turtle Protection Day

—

23rd May

World Environment Day

—

5th June

World Sea Day

—

8th June

World Air Day

—

15th June

Desert Day

—

17th June

World Water Conservation Day

—

5th July

World Population Day

—

11th July

World Tiger Day

—

29th July

World Ozone Day

—

16th September

World Nature Day

—

3rd October

World Habitat Day

—

5th October

World Environment Conservation Day

—

26th November

Energy Conservation Day

—

14th December

Social-Forestry Programme

—

Started in 1976

Chipko Movement

—

A self-sustained community requires five Fs: Food, Fooder, Fuel, Fertilizer and Fibre. Started by Bishnoi Community (Rajasthan) in late nineteenth century by masses hugging the standing trees particularly Prosopis cineraria (Khijri) to protect from felling. Later on, Sundar Lal Bahuguna (1973) spearheaded a campaign against cutting of trees in Gopeshwar hills of Chamoli district in Tehri Garhwal (Uttarakhand) by hugging trees.

Textbook of Wildlife Management

360 Silent Valley (Kerala)

—

Tropical Evergreen Forest. Once proposed to be submerged to develop a dam but was saved by a public agitation.

(C) CRIES OF ANIMALS Ape Ass Bat Bee Bear Bird Bull Calf Camel Cat Cattle Cock Cow Cricket Crow Dog Dove Duck Eagle Elephant Fly Fox Frog Goat Goose Hawk Hen Horse

Gibber Bray Scream Hum, Buzz Growl Chirp, Twitter, Sing Bellow Low, Bleat Grunt Mew, Purr Low Crow Low Chirp Caw Bark, Howl, Yelp Coo Quack Scream Trumpet Buzz, Hum Yelp, Bark Croak Bleat Cackle Scream Cluck, Cackle Neigh

Jackal Kid Kitten Lamb Lark Lion Mice Monkey Mouse Nightingale Owl Oxen Parrot Peacock Pig Pigeon Puppy Raven Sheep Snake Sparrow Squirrel Swallow Swan Tiger Vulture Wild Dog Wolf

Howl Bleat Mew Bleat Sing, Warble Roar Squeak Chatter, Gibber Squeak Sing, Warble Hoot, Scream Low, Bellow Talk, Chatter Scream Grunt, Squeak Coo Yelp Croak Bleat Hiss Chirp, Twitter Squeak Twitter Cry Roar, Growl Scream Whistling Howl, Yell

(D) YOUNG ONES (OFFSPRINGS) OF ANIMALS Ass Bear Buffalo Butterfly Cat Cow Deer Dog Donkey Duck

Foal Cub Calf Caterpillar Kitten Calf Fawn Puppy, Pup Foal Duckling

Goat Goose Hare Hen/Cock Horse Lion Owl Sheep Deer Swan

Kid Gosling Levere Chicken Colt, Filly, Foal Cub, Whelp Owlet Lamb Fawn Cygnet

Appendices

Elephant Frog Fox

Calf Tadpole Cub

Tiger Whale Wolf

361 Cub Calf Cub

(E) HOMES & DWELLINGS OF ANIMALS Bee Dog Fox Horse Lion/Tiger Mouse Owl Pig Sheep Spider

Hive Kennel Hole, Earth Stable Lair, Den Hole Tree Sty Den, Pen, Fold Web

(F) MEAT OF ANIMALS Cow Deer Goat Pig

Beef Venison Mutton Pork

.

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Appendix II FULL FORM OF SOME ABBREVIATIONS AGRI-IS APFC APFISL BDA BMC BNHS BSI BSW CAMP CAWT CAZRI CBD CBMTRI CBSG CDM CIS CITES CMS ComR ConR CPB CPCB CWPCB CZA DOM EAT EBA EIA EMP EPA ER FAO FSI GASP GATT GEF GMO GSI GTF

Information System on Animal Genetic Resources of India. Asia Pacific Forestry Commission. Asia Pacific Forest Invasive Species Network. Biological Diversity Act. Biodiversity Management Committee. Bombay Natural History Society. Botanical Survey of India. Botanical Survey of World. Conservation Assessment and Management Plan. Coalition Against Wildlife Trafficking. Central Arid Zone Research Institute, Jodhpur. Convention on Biological Diversity. Crocodile Breeding and Management Training Research Institute, Chennai. Conservation Breeding Specialist Group. Clean Development Mechanism. Geographic Information System. Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora. Convention on Conservation of Migratory Species. Community Reserve. Conservation Reserve. Cartagena Protocol on Bio-safety. Central Pollution Control Board. Central Water Pollution Control Board. Central Zoo Authority. Dissolved Organic Matter. Environmental Analytical Techniques. Endemic Bird Area. Environmental Impact Assessment. Environmental Management Plan. Environment (Protection) Act. Elephant Reserve. Food and Agriculture Organization of United Nations. Forest Survey of India. Global Animal Survival plan. General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade. Global Environmental Fund. Genetically Modified Organism. Geological Survey of India. Global Tiger Forum.

Appendices

IBP IBWL ICBN ICBP ICSU ICZN IEE IGU ILEC IMO IPR IUAES IUB IUBS IUCN IUNS IUPS IWDP JMM KBA MAB MIKE NBAGR NBAP NBDV NBFGR NBPGR NBSAP NCEPC NCERT NDMA NEAC NEP NEPA NLCB NLCP NNRMS NP NRCD NRCP NTCA NWAP NWCMP

International Biological Programme. Indian Board for Wildlife. International Council for Botanical Nomenclature. International Council for Bird Preservation. International Council of Scientific Unions. International Council for Zoological Nomenclature. Initial Environmental Examination. International Geographical Union. International Lake Environment Committee. International Maritime Organization. Intellectual Property Rights. International Union for Anthropological and Ethnological Sciences. International Unions of Biochemistry. International Unions of Biological Sciences. International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. International Union for Nutritional Sciences. International Union of Physiological Sciences. Integrated Wasteland Development Programme. Joint Mangrove Management. Key Biodiversity Area. Man and Biosphere Programme. Monitoring of Illegal Killing of Elephant. National Bureau of Animal Genetic Resources. National Biodiversity Action Plan. National Bioresource Development Board National Bureau of Fish Genetic Research Resources. National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources. National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan. National Committee on Environmental Planning and Co-ordination. National Committee on Education, Research and Training. National Disaster Management Authority. National Environment Awareness Campaign. National Environmental Policy. National Environmental Policy Act. National Land Use and Conservation Board. National Lake Conservation Plan. National Natural Resource Management System. National Park. National River Conservation Directorate. National River Conservation Plan. National Tiger Conservation Authority. National Wildlife Action Plan. National Wetland Conservation and Management Programme.

363

364 PA PAN PBR PeTA PHVA POM RBA SBB SCIBP SCOR SEA SPCA SSC SWAB TCS TR TRAFFIC UNCCD UNCSD UNDP UNEP UNESCO UNFCCC UNO WAP WCCB WCMC WCPA WCS WCU WHO WHS WII WIPO WLAP WLPA WLS WMO WPA WPSI WRI WTO WWF ZSI ZSW

Textbook of Wildlife Management

Protected Area. Protected Area Network. People’s Biodiversity Register. People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals. Population and Habitat Viability Assessments. Particulate Organic Matter. Rapid Biodiversity Assessment. State Biodiversity Board. Special Committee for International Biological Programmes. Scientific Committee on Oceanic Research. Strategic Environmental Assessment (Appraisal). Societies for the Preservation of Cruelty of Animals. Species Survival Commission/Survival Service Commission. State Wildlife Advisory Board. Tiger Conservation Society. Tiger Reserve. Trade Record Analysis of Flora and Fauna in Commerce. United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification. United Nations Commission for Sustainable Development. United Nations Development Programme. United Nations Environment Programme. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. United Nations Organisation. Wildlife Action Plan. Wildlife Crime Control Bureau. World Conservation Monitoring Centre. World Commission on Protected Areas. World Conservation Strategy. World Conservation Union. World Health Organization. World Heritage Sites. Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun. World Intellectual Property Organization. Wild Life Action Plan. Wild Life (Protection) Act. Wildlife Sanctuary. World Meteorological Organization. Wildlife (Protection) Act. Wildlife Preservation Society of India. World Resources Institute. World Tourism Organization. Worldwide Fund for Nature. Zoological Survey of India. Zoological Survey of World.

Appendices

Appendix III ZOOLOGICAL NAMES OF SOME WILD MAMMALS Lion

Panthera leo

Indian Lion (Asiatic lion)

Panthera leo persica

Tiger

Panthera tigris

Indian Tiger

Panthera tigris tigris

Panther/Leopard

Panthera pardus

Snow Leopard

Panthera uncia (Uncia uncia)

Clouded Leopard

Neofelis nebulosa

Golden Cat

Fells temmincki

Fishing Cat

Felis viverrina

Leopard Cat

Felis bengalensis

Marbled Cat

Felis marmorata

Jungle Cat

Felis chaus

Desert Cat

Felis libyca

Palla’s Cat

Felis manul

Toddy Cat

Paradoxurus hermaphrodites

Lynx

Felis lynx

Caracal

Felis caracal

Large Indian Civet

Viverra zibetha

Small Indian Civet

Viverricula indica

Himalayan Palm Civet

Paguma larvata

Binturong

Arctictis binturong

Spotted Linsang

Prionodon pardicolor

Common Mangoose

Herpestes edwardsi

Small Indian Mongoose

Herpestes auropunctatus

Striped-necked Mongoose

Herpestes vitticollis

Crab-eating Mongoose

Herpestes urva

Hoolock (White-browed Gibbon)

Hylobates hoolock

Lion-tailed Macaque

Macaca silenus

Rhesus Macaque

Macaca mulatta

Assamese Macaque

Macaca assamensis

Bonnet Macaque

Macaca radiata

Common Langur (Hanuman)

Presbytis entellus

Golden Langur

Presbytis geei

Capped Langur

Presbytis pileatus

Nilgiri Langur

Presbytis johni

Slow Loris

Nycticebus coucang

Wolf

Canis lupus

Jackal

Canis aureus

Red Fox

Vulpes vulpes

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Indian Fox

Vulpes bengalensis

Dhole (Wild Dog)

Cuon alpinus

Striped Hyaena

Hyaena hyaena

Sloth Bear

Melursus ursinus

Brown Bear

Ursus arctos

Himalayan Black Bear

Selenarctos thibetanus

Red Panda

Ailurus fulgens

Common Otter

Lutra lutra

Smooth Indian Otter

Lutra perspicillata

Clawless Otter

Aonyx cinerea

Beech Marten

Manes foina

Himalayan Yellow-throated Marten

Maries flavigula

Gaur

Bos gaurus

Banteng

Bos banteng

Yak

Bos grunniens

Wild Buffalo

Bubalus bubalis

Shapu (Urial)

Ovis orientalis

Macro Polo’s Sheep

Ovis ammon polii

Nayan (Great Tibetan Sheep)

Ovis ammon hodgsoni

Bharal (Blue Sheep)

Pseudois nayaur

Ibex

Capra ibex

Markhor

Capra falconeri

Wild Goat

Capra hircus

Himalayan Tahr

Hemitragus jemlahicus

Nilgiri Tahr

Hemitragus hylocrius

Coral

Nemorhaedus goral

Serow

Capricornis sumatraensis

Takin

Budorcas taxicolor

Tibetan Antelope

Pantholops hodgsoni

Nilgai

Boselaphus tragocamelus

Four-horned Antelope

Tetracerus quadricornis

Chinkara

Gazella gazella

Blackbuck

Antilope cervicapra

Cheetal (Spotted Deer)

Axis axis

Sambhar

Cervus unicolor

Swamp Deer (Barasingha)

Cervus duvauceli

Thamin (Brow-antiered Deer)

Cervus eldi

Hangul (Kashmir Stag)

Cervus elaphus hanglu

Hog Deer

Axis porcinus

Musk Deer

Moschus chrysogaster (moschiferus)

Barking Deer (Muntjac)

Muntiacus muntjak

Mouse Deer (Indian Chevrotain)

Tragulus meminna

Appendices

Indian Wild Boar

Sus scrofa

Blue Whale

Balaenoptera musculus

Sperm Whale

Physeter catodon

Common Dolphin

Delphinus delphis

Gangetic Dolphin

Platanista gangetica

Dugong (Sea-Cow)

Dugong dugon

Himalayan Weasel

Mustela sibirica

Pale Weasel

Mustela altaica

Striped-backed Weasel

Mustela strigidorsa

Yellow-bellied Weasel

Mustela kathiah

Ermine

Mustela erminea

Marbled Polecat

Vormela peregusna

Chinese Ferret-Badger

Melogale moschata

Burmese Ferret-Badger

Melogale personata

Hog-Badger

Arctonyx collaris

Ratel (Honey-Badger)

Mellivora capensis

Indian Tree Shrew

Anathana ellioti

Malay Tree Shrew

Tupaia glis

Grey Musk Shrew

Suncus murinus

Long-eared Hedgehog

Hemiechinus auritus

Pale Hedgehog

Paraechinus microous

Eastern Mole

Talpa micrura

Common Yellow Bat

Scotophilus heathi

Tickell’s Bat

Hesperoptenus tickelli

Painted Bat

Kerivoula picta

Bearded Sheath-tailed Bat

Taphozous melanopogon

Fulvous Fruit Bat

Rousettus leschenaulti

Short-nosed Fruit Bat

Cynopterus sphinx

Great Eastern Horseshoe Bat

Rhinohphus luctus

Great Himalayan Leaf-nosed Bat

Hipposideros armiger

Indian Flying Fox

Pteropus giganteus

Indian False Vampire

Megaderma lyra

Indian Pipistrelie

Pipislrellus coromandra

Serotine

Eptesicus serotinus

Common Giant Flying Squirrel

Petaurista petaurista

Indian Giant Squirrel

Ratufa indica

Malayan Giant Squirrel

Ratufa bicolor

Grizzled Giant Squirrel

Ratufa macroura

Kashmir Flying Squirrel

Hylopetes fimbriatus

Parti-coloured Flying Squirrel

Hylopetes alboniger

Hoary-bellied Himalayan Squirrel

Callosciurus pygerythrus

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Orange-bellied Himalayan Squirrel

Dremomys lokriah

Three-striped Palm Squirrel

Funambulus palmarum

Five-striped Palm Squirrel

Funambulus pennanti

Long-tailed Marmot

Marmota caudata

Himalayan Marmot

Marmota himalayana

Indian Desert Gerbille

Meriones hurrianae

Indian Gerbille

Tatera indica

House Mouse

Mus musculus

Spiny Field Mouse

Mus platythrix

Indian Field Mouse

Mus booduga

Indian Bush Rat

Golunda ellioti

Long-tailed Tree Mouse

Vandeleuria oleracea

Indian Mole Rat

Bandicota bengalensis

Bandicoot Rat

Bandicota indica

White-tailed Wood Rat

Rattus blanfordi

Brown Rat

Rattus norvegicus

Bay Bamboo

Cannomys badius

Rat Metad

Millardia meltada

Royle’s Vole

Alticola roylei

Indian Porcupine

Hystrix indica

Rufous-tailed Hare

Lepus nigricollis ruficaudatus

Himalayan Mouse Hare

Ochotona roylei

Black-naped Hare

Lepus nigricollis nigricollis

Indian Elephant

Elephas maximus

Wild Ass (Asiatic Wild Ass)

Equus hemionus

Great Indian One-horned Rhinoceros

Rhinoceros unicornis

Smaller One-horned Rhinoceros

Rhinoceros sondaicus

Indian Pangolin

Manis crassicaudata

Chinese Pangolin

Manis pentadactyla

Appendices

369

Appendix IV SOME IMPORTANT ENDANGERED AND EXTINCT WILD ANIMALS OF INDIA (a) Endangered Species Mammals: Lion

Panthera leo persica

Tiger

Panthera tigris tigris

Leopard (Panther)

Panthera pardus

Snow Leopard

Panthera uncia

Clouded Leopard

Neofelis nebulosa

Caracal

Felis caracal

Desert Cat

Felis libycata

Fishing Cat

Felis viverrina

Golden Cat

Felis temmincki

Leopard Cat

Felis bengalensis

Marbled Cat

Felis marmorata

Pal la’s Cat

Felis manul

Rusty-spotted Cat

Felis rubiginosa

Lynx

Felis lynx

Wolf

Canis lupus

Loris

Loris tardigradus

Slow Loris

Nycticabus coucang

Markhor

Capra falconeri

Ibex

Capra ibex

Himalayan Tahr

Hemitragus jemlahicus

Nilgiri Tahr

Hemitragus hylocrius

Nayan (Great Tibetan Sheep)

Ovis ammon hodgsoni

Urial (Shapu)

Ovis vignei

Bharal (Blue Sheep)

Pseudois nayaur

Serow

Capricornis sumatraensis

Takin

Budorcas taxicolor V

Malabar Civet

iverra megaspila

Blue Whale

Balaenoptera musculus

Hump-backed Whale

Megoptera nevaeangliae

One-horned Rhinoceros

Rhinoceros unicornis

Flying Squirrel

All species of genus Hylopetes, Petanrista Belomys and Eupetaurus

Andaman Wild Pig

Sus scrofa and musculus

Four-horned Antelope

Tetraceros quadricornis

Tibetan Antelope

Panthelops hodgsoni

Blackbuck

Antelope cervicapra

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Chinkara

Cazella gazella

Tibetan Gazelle

Procapra picticaudata

Wild Buffalo

Bubalus bubalis

Indian Wild Ass

Equus hemionus khur

Tibetan Wild Ass

Equus hemionus kiang

Brow-antlered Deer (Thamin)

Cervus eldi

Mouse Deer

Tragulus meminna

Musk Deer

Moschus chrysogaster (moschiferus)

Swamp Deer

Cervus duvauceli branderi

Hangul

Cervus elaphas hanglu

Red Panda

Ailurus fulgens

Pangolin

Manis crassicaudata

Chinese Pangolin

Manis pentadactyla

Sloth Bear

Melursus ursinus

Malay Bear

Helarctos malayanus

Binturong

Arciictis binturong

Gangetic Dolphin

Platanista gangetica

Dugong

Dugong dugon

Elephant

Elephas maximus

Hispid Hare

Caprolagus hispidus

Hog Badger

Arctonyx collaris

Pygmy Hog

Sus salvanius

Hoolock

Hylobatus hoolock

Capped Langur

Presbytis pileatus

Golden Langur

Presbytis geei

Nilgiri Langur

Presbytis johni

Lion-tailed Macaque

Macaca silenus

Spotted Linsang

Prionodon pardicolor

Aves: Andaman Teal Large Whistling Teal Assam Bamboo Partridge Bazas Bengal Floricans Black-necked Crane Hooded Crane Siberian White Crane Blood Pheasant Humes Barpacked Pheasant Monal Pheasant Peacock Pheasant

Appendices

Tragopen Pheasant White-eared Pheasant Brown-headed Gull Comb Duck White-winged Woodduck Forest-spotted Owlet Great Indian Bustard Houbara Bustard Great Indian Hornbill and other species White Spoonbill Lammergeier Large Falcons Nicobar Magapode Nicobar Pigeon Peafowl Spur Fowl Sclater’s Monal Tibetan Snow Cock White-bellied Sea Eagle Vulture Reptiles Agra Monitor Lizard Water Lizard Large Bengal Monitor Lizard Barred Yellow Monitor Lizard Tortoise Crocodiles (including Estuarine Crocodile) Ghariyal Atlantic Ridley Turtle Ganges Soft-shelled Turtle Green Sea Turtle Hawk’s Bill Turtle Indian Soft-shelled Turtle Leathery Turtle Tree-keeled Turtle Loggerhead Turtle Olive-back Loggerhead Turtle Himalayan Newt Indian Egg-eating Snake Python

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Amphibia: Viviparous Toad Arthropoda: Coconut or rubber Crab

(b) Extinct Species Mammals: Cheetah

Acinonyx jubatus venaticus

Two-horned Rhinoceros

Didermocerus sumatrensis

Aves: Jerdon’s Courser

Cursorius bitorquatus

Mountain Quail

Ophrysia superciliosa

Pink-headed Duck

Rhodonessa caryophyllacea

Appendices

373

Appendix V NATIONAL PARKS OF INDIA S. No. State/UT

Total number of National parks

Total area (in sq. km.)

3 2

1368.88 2290.82

1 2

Andhra Pradesh Arunachal Pradesh

3

Assam

5

1977.79

4

Bihar

1

335.65

5

Chhattisgarh

3

2899.08

6

Goa

1

107

7

Gujarat

4

480.12

8

Haryana

2

48.25

9

Himachal Pradesh

5

2271.28

10

Jammu and Kashmir

4

3925

11

Jharkhand

1

226.33

12

Karnataka

5

2795.79

13

Kerala

6

558.158

14

Madhya Pradesh

9

3656.36

15

Maharashtra

6

1273.6

16

Manipur

1

40

17

Meghalaya

2

267.48

18

Mizoram

2

150

19

Nagaland

1

202.02 990.70

20

Orissa

2

21

Punjab

0

22

Rajasthan

5

3947.07

23

Sikkim

1

1784

24

Tamil Nadu

5

307.84

25

Tripura

2

36.71

26

Uttar Pradesh

1

490

27

Uttarakhand

6

4915.44

28

West Bengal

6

1981.65

29

Telangana

3

19.62

30

Andaman and Nicobar Islands

9

1153.94

31

Chandigarh

0

32

Dadra and Nagar Haveli

0

33

Lakshadweep

0

34

Daman and Diu

0

35

Delhi

0

36

Pondicherry

0

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Name of National Parks, Year of Notification and Total area is as follows: S. No. National Park 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37

Papikonda National Park Rajiv Gandhi National Park Sri Venkateswara National Park Kasu Brahmananda Reddy National Park Mahavir Harina Vanasthali National Park Mrugavani National Park Namdapha National Park Mouling National Park Dibru-Saikhowa National Park Kaziranga National Park Manas National Park Nameri National Park Rajiv Gandhi Orang National Park Valmiki National Park Indravati National Park Kanger Valley National Park Guru Ghasi Das (Sanjay) National Park Bhagwan Mahavir (Mollem) National Park Blackbuck National Park, Velavadar Gir Forest National Park Marine National Park, Gulf of Kutch Vansda National Park Kalesar National Park Sultanpur National Park Pin Valley National Park Great Himalayan National Park Inderkilla National Park Khirganga National Park Simbalbara National Park Dachigam National Park Hemis National Park Kishtwar National Park Salim Ali National Park Betla National Park Bandipur National Park Bannerghatta National Park Kudremukh National Park

State

Established

Area (in km²)

Andhra Pradesh Andhra Pradesh Andhra Pradesh Telangana

2008 2005 1989 1994

1012.86 2.40 353.62 1.43

Telangana

1994

14.59

Telangana Arunachal Pradesh Arunachal Pradesh Assam Assam Assam Assam Assam

1994 1983 1986 1999 1974 1990 1998 1999

3.60 1807.82 483 340 858.98 500 200 78.81

Bihar Chhattisgarh Chhattisgarh Chhattisgarh

1989 1982 1982 1981

335.65 1258.37 200 1,440.71

Goa

1992

107

Gujarat

1976

34.53

Gujarat Gujarat

1975 1982

258.71 162.89

Gujarat Haryana Haryana Himachal Pradesh Himachal Pradesh Himachal Pradesh Himachal Pradesh Himachal Pradesh Jammu and Kashmir Jammu and Kashmir Jammu and Kashmir Jammu and Kashmir Jharkhand Karnataka Karnataka Karnataka

1979 2003 1989 1987 1984 2010 2010 2010 1981 1981 1981 1992 1986 1974 1974 1987

23.99 46.82 1.43 675 754.4 104 710 27.88 141 3350 425 9.00 226.33 874.2 260.51 600.32

Appendices

375

(Contd.)

S. No. National Park

State

Established

38

Karnataka

1988

643.39

Karnataka Kerala Kerala Kerala Kerala Kerala Kerala Madhya Pradesh Madhya Pradesh Madhya Pradesh Madhya Pradesh

1987 1978 2003 1982 1984 2003 2003 1968 1955 1959 1983

417.37 97 12.82 350 89.52 7.50 1.32 448.85 940 375.22 0.27

Madhya Pradesh Madhya Pradesh

1981 1975

542.67 292.85

Madhya Pradesh Madhya Pradesh Madhya Pradesh Maharashtra Maharashtra Maharashtra Maharashtra

1981 1981 1979 2004 1975 1975 1983

466.88 585.17 4.45 317.67 361.28 133.88 86.96

Maharashtra Maharashtra Manipur Meghalaya Meghalaya Mizoram Mizoram

1955 1975 1977 1985 1986 1991 1992

116.55 257.26 40 220 47.48 100 50

Nagaland Odisha Odisha Rajasthan Rajasthan Rajasthan

1993 1988 1980 1982 1980 2006

202.02 145 845.70 273.80 282 200.54

Rajasthan Rajasthan Sikkim Tamil Nadu

1992 1981 1977 1990

3162 28.73 1784 103.24

39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75

Nagarhole (Rajiv Gandhi) National Park Anshi national park Eravikulam National Park Mathikettan Shola National Park Periyar National Park Silent Valley National Park Anamudi Shola National Park Pambadum Shola National Park Bandhavgarh National Park Kanha National Park Madhav National Park Mandla Plant Fossils National Park Panna National Park Pench (Priyadarshini) National Park Sanjay National Park Satpura National Park Van Vihar National Park Chandoli National Park Gugamal National Park Navegaon National Park Sanjay Gandhi (Borivilli) National Park Tadoba National Park Pench National Park Keibul Lamjao National Park Balphakram National Park Nokrek National Park Murlen National Park Phawngpui Blue Mountain National Park Intanki National Park Bhitarkanika National Park Simlipal National Park Sariska National Park Ranthambore National Park Mukundra Hills (Darrah) National Park Desert National Park Keoladeo Ghana National Park Khangchendzonga National Park Mudumalai National Park

Area (in km²)

(Contd.)

Textbook of Wildlife Management

376 (Contd.)

S. No. National Park 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101

Mukurthi National Park Indira Gandhi (Annamalai) National Park Guindy National Park Gulf of Mannar Marine National Park Bison (Rajbari) National Park Clouded Leopard National Park Dudhwa National Park Gangotri National Park Govind Pashu Vihar Jim Corbett National Park Nanda Devi National Park Rajaji National Park Valley of Flowers National Park Gorumara National Park Buxa National Park Neora Valley National Park Singalila National Park Jaldapara National Park Sundarbans National Park Mahatama Gandhi Marine (Wandoor) National Park Middle Button Island National Park Mount Harriett National Park North Button Island National Park Rani Jhansi Marine National Park Saddle Peak National Park

102

South Button Island National Park Campbell Bay National Park

103

Galathea Bay National Park

State

Established

Area (in km²)

Tamil Nadu Tamil Nadu

1990 1989

78.46 117.10

Tamil Nadu Tamil Nadu

1976 1980

2.82 6.23

Tripura Tripura Uttar Pradesh Uttarakhand Uttarakhand Uttarakhand Uttarakhand Uttarakhand Uttarakhand West Bengal West Bengal West Bengal West Bengal West Bengal West Bengal Andaman and Nicobar Islands Andaman and 1987 Nicobar Islands Andaman and Nicobar Islands Andaman and Nicobar Islands Andaman and Nicobar Islands Andaman and Nicobar Islands Andaman and Nicobar Islands Andaman and Nicobar Islands Andaman and Nicobar Islands

2007 2007 1977 1989 1990 1936 1982 1983 1982 1992 1992 1986 1986 2014 1984 1983

31.63 5.08 490 2390.02 472.08 520.82 624.6 820.42 87.5 79.45 117.10 159.89 78.60 216.51 1330.10 281.50

0.44 1987

46.62

1987 1996

0.44 256.14

1987

32.54

1987

0.03

1992

426.23

1992

110

Source: Wildlife Institute of India http://natureconservation.in/state-wise-list-of-national-parks-of-india-updated/2017

Appendices

377

Appendix VI WILDLIFE SANCTUARIES OF INDIA S. No. State/UT

Total number of wildlife sanctuaries

Total area (in sq. km.)

1

Andhra Pradesh

13

8008.49

2

Arunachal Pradesh

11

7487.75

3

Assam

18

1840.14

4

Bihar

12

2901.68

5

Chhattisgarh

11

3760.28

6

Goa

6

647.91

7

Gujarat

23

16574.42

8

Haryana

8

233.21

Himachal Pradesh

28

6116.10

10

9

Jammu and Kashmir

15

10243.11

11

Jharkhand

11

1955.81

12

Karnataka

30

6774.81

13

Kerala

17

1928.24

14

Madhya Pradesh

25

7958.40

15

Maharashtra

42

7604.44

16

Manipur

2

184.81

17

Meghalaya

4

94.10

18

Mizoram

8

1090.75

19

Nagaland

3

20.33

20

Odisha

19

6969.15

21

Punjab

13

326.6

22

Rajasthan

25

5379.26

23

Sikkim

24

Tamil Nadu

7

399.10

29

6157.12

25

Tripura

4

566.93

26

Uttar Pradesh

25

5828.36

27

Uttarakhand

7

2690.05

28

West Bengal

15

1442.12

29

Telangana

9

7077.72

30

Andaman and Nicobar Islands

96

389.39

31

Chandigarh

2

26.01

32

Dadra and Nagar Haveli

1

92.16

33

Lakshadweep

1

2.18

34

Daman and Diu

1

27.82

35

Delhi

1

.01

36

Pondicherry

1

3.90 (Contd.)

Textbook of Wildlife Management

378

Name of Wildlife Sanctuary, Year of Notification and Total Area is as follows: S. No. Name of wildlife sanctuary (WLS) 1

Arial Island WLS

2

Bamboo Island WLS

3

Barren Island WLS

4

Battimalv Island WLS

5

Belle Island WLS

6

Benett Island WLS

7

Bingham Island WLS

8

Blister Island WLS

9

Bluff Island WLS

10

Bondoville Island WLS

11

Brush Island WLS

12

Buchanan Island WLS

13

Chanel Island WLS

14

Cinque Islands WLS

15

Clyde Island WLS

16

Cone Island WLS

17

Curlew (B.P.) Island WLS

18

Curlew Island WLS

19

Cuthbert Bay WLS

20

Defence Island WLS

21

Dot Island WLS

22

Dottrell Island WLS

23

Duncan Island WLS

State

Established year

Area (in km²)

Andaman and Nicobar Islands Andaman and Nicobar Islands Andaman and Nicobar Islands Andaman and Nicobar Islands Andaman and Nicobar Islands Andaman and Nicobar Islands Andaman and Nicobar Islands Andaman and Nicobar Islands Andaman and Nicobar Islands Andaman and Nicobar Islands Andaman and Nicobar Islands Andaman and Nicobar Islands Andaman and Nicobar Islands Andaman and Nicobar Islands Andaman and Nicobar Islands Andaman and Nicobar Islands Andaman and Nicobar Islands Andaman and Nicobar Islands Andaman and Nicobar Islands Andaman and Nicobar Islands Andaman and Nicobar Islands Andaman and Nicobar Islands Andaman and Nicobar Islands

1987

0.05

1987

0.05

1987

8.1

1987

2.23

1987

0.08

1987

3.46

1987

0.08

1987

0.26

1987

1.14

1987

2.55

1987

0.23

1987

9.33

1987

0.13

1987

9.51

1987

0.54

1987

0.65

1987

0.16

1987

0.03

1997

5.82

1987

10.49

1987

0.13

1987

0.13

1987

0.73

Appendices

379

(Contd.)

S. No. Name of wildlife sanctuary (WLS) 24

East Island WLS

25

East of Inglis Island WLS

26

Egg Island WLS

27

Elat Island WLS

28

Entrance Island WLS

29

Gander Island WLS

30

Girjan Island WLS

31

Galathea Bay WLS

32

Goose Island WLS

33

Hump Island WLS

34

Interview Island WLS

35

James Island WLS

36

Jungle Island WLS

37

Kwangtung Island WLS

38

Kyd Island WLS

39

Landfall Island WLS

40

Latouche Island WLS

41 42

Lohabarrack (Saltwater Crocodile) WLS Mangrove Island WLS

43

Mask Island WLS

44

Mayo Island WLS

45

Megapode Island WLS

46

Montogemery Island WLS

State

Established year

Area (in km²)

Andaman and Nicobar Islands Andaman and Nicobar Islands Andaman and Nicobar Islands Andaman and Nicobar Islands Andaman and Nicobar Islands Andaman and Nicobar Islands Andaman and Nicobar Islands Andaman and Nicobar Islands Andaman and Nicobar Islands Andaman and Nicobar Islands Andaman and Nicobar Islands Andaman and Nicobar Islands Andaman and Nicobar Islands Andaman and Nicobar Islands Andaman and Nicobar Islands Andaman and Nicobar Islands Andaman and Nicobar Islands Andaman and Nicobar Islands Andaman and Nicobar Islands Andaman and Nicobar Islands Andaman and Nicobar Islands Andaman and Nicobar Islands Andaman and Nicobar Islands

1987

6.11

1987

3.55

1987

0.05

1987

9.36

1987

0.96

1987

0.05

1987

0.16

1987

11.44

1987

0.01

1987

0.47

1987

133.87

1987

2.1

1987

0.52

1987

0.57

1987

8

1987

29.48

1987

0.96

1987

22.21

1987

0.39

1987

0.78

1987

0.1

1987

0.12

1987

0.21 (Contd.)

Textbook of Wildlife Management

380 (Contd.)

S. No. Name of wildlife sanctuary (WLS) 47

Narcondam Island WLS

48

North Brother Island WLS

49

North Island WLS

50

North Reef Island WLS

51

Oliver Island WLS

52

Orchid Island WLS

53

Ox Island WLS

54

Oyster Island-I WLS

55

Oyster Island-II WLS

56

Paget Island WLS

57

Parkinson Island WLS

58

Passage Island WLS

59

Patric Island WLS

60

Peacock Island WLS

61

Pitman Island WLS

62

Point Island WLS

63

Potanma Islands WLS

64

Ranger Island WLS

65

Reef Island WLS

66

Roper Island WLS

67

Ross Island WLS

68

Rowe Island WLS

69

Sandy Island WLS

State

Established year

Area (in km²)

Andaman and Nicobar Islands Andaman and Nicobar Islands Andaman and Nicobar Islands Andaman and Nicobar Islands Andaman and Nicobar Islands Andaman and Nicobar Islands Andaman and Nicobar Islands Andaman and Nicobar Islands Andaman and Nicobar Islands Andaman and Nicobar Islands Andaman and Nicobar Islands Andaman and Nicobar Islands Andaman and Nicobar Islands Andaman and Nicobar Islands Andaman and Nicobar Islands Andaman and Nicobar Islands Andaman and Nicobar Islands Andaman and Nicobar Islands Andaman and Nicobar Islands Andaman and Nicobar Islands Andaman and Nicobar Islands Andaman and Nicobar Islands Andaman and Nicobar Islands

1987

6.81

1987

0.75

1987

0.49

1987

3.48

1987

0.16

1987

0.1

1987

0.13

1987

0.08

1987

0.21

1987

7.36

1987

0.34

1987

0.62

1987

0.13

1987

0.62

1987

1.37

1987

3.07

1987

0.16

1987

4.26

1987

1.74

1987

1.46

1987

1.01

1987

0.01

1987

1.58

Appendices

381

(Contd.)

S. No. Name of wildlife sanctuary (WLS) 70

Sea Serpent Island WLS

71

Shark Island WLS

72

Shearme Island WLS

73

Sir Hugh Rose Island WLS

74

Sisters Island WLS

75

Snake Island-I WLS

76

Snake Island-II WLS

77

South Brother Island WLS

78

South Reef Island WLS

79

South Sentinel Island WLS

80

Spike Island-I WLS

81

Spike Island-II WLS

82

Stoat Island WLS

83

Surat Island WLS

84

Swamp Island WLS

85

Table (Delgarno) Island WLS

86

Table (Excelsior) Island WLS

87

Talabaicha Island WLS

88

Temple Island WLS

89

Tillongchang Island WLS

90

Tree Island WLS

91

Trilby Island WLS

92

Tuft Island WLS

State

Established year

Andaman and Nicobar Islands Andaman and Nicobar Islands Andaman and Nicobar Islands Andaman and Nicobar Islands Andaman and Nicobar Islands Andaman and Nicobar Islands Andaman and Nicobar Islands Andaman and Nicobar Islands Andaman and Nicobar Islands Andaman and Nicobar Islands Andaman and Nicobar Islands Andaman and Nicobar Islands Andaman and Nicobar Islands Andaman and Nicobar Islands Andaman and Nicobar Islands Andaman and Nicobar Islands Andaman and Nicobar Islands Andaman and Nicobar Islands Andaman and Nicobar Islands Andaman and Nicobar Islands Andaman and Nicobar Islands Andaman and Nicobar Islands Andaman and Nicobar Islands

1987

0.78

1987

0.60

1987

7.85

1987

1.06

1987

0.36

1987

0.73

1987

0.03

1987

1.24

1987

1.17

1987

1.61

1987

0.42

1987

Area (in km²)

11.7

1987

0.44

1987

0.31

1987

4.09

1987

2.29

1987

1.69

1987

3.21

1987

1.04

1987

16.83

1987

0.03

1987

0.96

1987

0.29 (Contd.)

Textbook of Wildlife Management

382 (Contd.)

S. No. Name of wildlife sanctuary (WLS) 93

Turtle Islands WLS

94

West Island WLS

95

Wharf Island WLS

96

White Cliff Island WLS

97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120 121 122 123 124 125 126 127 128 129

Coringa WLS Gundla Brahmeswaram WLS Kambalakonda WLS Koundinya WLS Kolleru WLS Krishna WLS Nagarjuna Sagar-Srisailam WLS Nellapattu WLS Pulicat Lake WLS Rollapadu WLS Sri Lankamalleswara WLS Sri Penusila Narasimha WLS Sri Venkateswara WLS *Combined area with Telangana Kinnersani WLS Eturnagaram WLS Kawal WLS Lanja Madugu Siwaram WLS Manjeera Crocodile WLS Nagarjuna Sagar-Srisailam WLS Pakhal WLS Pocharam WLS Pranahita WLS *Combined area with Andhra Pradesh Barela Jheel Salim Ali Bird WLS Bhimbandh WLS Gautam Budha WLS Kanwarjheel WLS Kaimur WLS Kusheshwar Asthan Bird WLS Nagi Dam WLS Nakti Dam WLS Pant (Rajgir) WLS Udaipur WLS Valmiki WLS

State

Established year

Area (in km²)

Andaman and Nicobar Islands Andaman and Nicobar Islands Andaman and Nicobar Islands Andaman and Nicobar Islands Andhra Pradesh Andhra Pradesh Andhra Pradesh Andhra Pradesh Andhra Pradesh Andhra Pradesh Andhra Pradesh Andhra Pradesh Andhra Pradesh Andhra Pradesh Andhra Pradesh Andhra Pradesh Andhra Pradesh

1987

0.39

1987

6.4

1987

0.11

1987

0.47

1978 1990 2002 1990 1953 1989 1978 1976 1976 1988 1988 1997 1998

235.7 1,194.00 71.39 357.6 308.55 194.81 3568.09* 4.59 500 6.14 464.42 1,030.85 172.35

Telangana Telangana Telangana Telangana Telangana Telangana Telangana Telangana Telangana

1977 1953 1965 1978 1978 1978 1952 1952 1980

635.41 806.15 892.23 29.81 20 3568.09* 860 130 136.03

Bihar Bihar Bihar Bihar Bihar Bihar Bihar Bihar Bihar Bihar Bihar

1997 1976 1976 1989 1992 1994 1987 1987 1978 1978 1978

1.96 681.99 138.34 63.11 1342 29.17 1.92 3.33 35.84 8.87 545.15

Appendices

383

(Contd.)

S. No. Name of wildlife sanctuary (WLS)

State

Established year

130

Bihar

1990

Chandigarh Chandigarh Chhattisgarh Chhattisgarh Chhattisgarh Chhattisgarh Chhattisgarh Chhattisgarh Chhattisgarh Chhattisgarh Chhattisgarh Chhattisgarh Chhattisgarh Dadra & Nagar Haveli Daman & Diu Goa Goa

1998 1986 1975 1975 1976 1983 2001 1975 1985 1978 1974 1978 1985 2000 1191 1969 1988

0.03 25.98 551.55 104.45 244.66 138.95 163.8 277.82 262.12 430.36 553.36 608.53 247.59 92.16 2.18 7.95 1.78

Goa Goa Goa

1968 1999 1967

85.65 208.48 133

Goa Haryana Haryana Haryana Haryana Haryana Haryana Haryana

1999 1987 1986 1987 1986 1996 1991 2004

211.05 115.3 4.12 7.67 0.29 54.06 0.83 48.83

Haryana Gujarat Gujarat Gujarat Gujarat Gujarat Gujarat

1987 1989 1979 1988 1965 2008 1980

2.11 542.08 192.31 3.33 1,153.42 178.87 6.54

Gujarat Gujarat

1990 1978

130.38 180.66

131 132 133 134 135 136 137 138 139 140 141 142 143 144 145 146 147 148 149 150 151 152 153 154 155 156 157 158 159 160 161 162 163 164 165 166 167

Vikramshila Gangetic Dolphin WLS City Birds WLS Sukhna Lake WLS Achanakmar WLS Badalkhol WLS Barnawapara WLS Bhairamgarh WLS Bhoramdev WLS Sarangarh-Gomardha WLS Pamed Wild Buffalo WLS Semarsot WLS Sitanadi WLS Tamor Pingla WLS Udanti Wild Buffalo WLS Dadra and Nagar Haveli WLS Fudam WLS Bondla WLS Chorao Island (Dr. Salim Ali ) WLS (Bird) Cotigaon WLS Madei WLS Bhagwan Mahavir (Mollem) WLS Netravali WLS Abubshehar WLS Bhindawas WLS Bir Shikargarh WLS Chhilchila WLS Kalesar WLS Khaparwas WLS Morni Hills (Khol-Hi-Raitan) WLS Nahar WLS Balaram Amji WLS Barda WLS Gaga Great Indian Bustard WLS Gir WLS Girnar WLS Hingolgadh Nature Reserve WLS Jambugodha WLS Jessore WLS

Area (in km²) 50

(Contd.)

Textbook of Wildlife Management

384 (Contd.)

S. No. Name of wildlife sanctuary (WLS)

State

Established year

168 169 170 171 172 173 174

Gujarat Gujarat Gujarat Gujarat Gujarat Gujarat Gujarat

1995 1986 1981 1980 2004 1969 1995

2.03 7506.22 6.05 295.03 18.22 120.82 442.91

Gujarat Gujarat Gujarat Gujarat Gujarat Gujarat

1989 1988 1990 1988 1982 1982

39.63 0.09 160.84 15.01 55.65 607.7

Gujarat Gujarat Himachal Himachal Himachal Himachal Himachal Himachal Himachal Himachal Himachal Himachal Himachal Himachal Himachal Himachal Himachal Himachal Himachal Himachal Himachal Himachal Himachal Himachal

Pradesh Pradesh Pradesh Pradesh Pradesh Pradesh Pradesh Pradesh Pradesh Pradesh Pradesh Pradesh Pradesh Pradesh Pradesh Pradesh Pradesh Pradesh Pradesh Pradesh Pradesh Pradesh

1988 1973 1962 1976 2007 1985 1962 1994 1962 1954 1958 1954 1954 1992 1962 1692 1954 1954 1962 1982 2013 1982 1994 1989

6.99 4953.71 32.11 16 38.56 55.52 171.50 982.86 108.40 12.61 17.17 107.29 14.94 2220.12 405.49 31 30.86 29 132.37 207.59 4 503 90 304

Himachal Pradesh Himachal Pradesh Himachal Pradesh

1962 1962 1958

390.29 29.94 10

175 176 177 178 179 180 181 182 183 184 185 186 187 188 189 190 191 192 193 194 195 196 197 198 199 200 201 202 203 204 205 206 207

Lala Great Indian Bustard WLS Kachchh Desert WLS Khijadiya WLS Marine (Gulf of Kachchh) WLS Mitiyala WLS Nal Sarovar Bird WLS Narayan Sarovar (Chinkara) WLS Paniya WLS Porbandar Lake WLS Purna WLS Rampara Vidi WLS Ratanmahal WLS Shoolpaneswar (Dhumkhal) WLS Thol Lake WLS Wild Ass WLS Bandli WLS Chail WLS Chandratal WLS Churdhar WLS Daranghati WLS Dhauladhar WLS Gamgul Siyabehi WLS Kais WLS Kalatop-Khajjiar WLS Kanawar WLS Khokhan WLS Kibber WLS Kugti WLS Lippa Asrang WLS Majathal WLS Manali WLS Nargu WLS Pong Dam Lake WLS Renuka WLS Rupi Bhaba WLS Sainj WLS Sangla Valley (Rakchham Chitkul) WLS Sech Tuan Nala WLS Shikari Devi WLS Shimla Water Catchment WLS

Area (in km²)

Appendices

385

(Contd.)

S. No. Name of wildlife sanctuary (WLS)

State

Established year

208 209 210 211 212 213 214 215 216 217 218 219 220 221 222 223 224 225 226 227 228 229 230 231 232 233 234 235 236 237 238 239 240 241 242

Himachal Pradesh Himachal Pradesh Himachal Pradesh Jammu and Kashmir Jammu and Kashmir Jammu and Kashmir Jammu and Kashmir Jammu and Kashmir Jammu and Kashmir Jammu and Kashmir Jammu and Kashmir Jammu and Kashmir Jammu and Kashmir Jammu and Kashmir Jammu and Kashmir Jammu and Kashmir Jammu and Kashmir Jammu and Kashmir Jharkhand Jharkhand Jharkhand Jharkhand Jharkhand Jharkhand Jharkhand Jharkhand Jharkhand Jharkhand Jharkhand Karnataka Karnataka Karnataka Karnataka Karnataka Karnataka

1962 1962 1962 1987 1987 1987 1987 1992 1987 1987 1987 1987 1981 1987 2002 1981 1981 1981 1976 1976 1976 1985 1978 1976 1976 1990 1984 1978 1991 1981 1985 1994 1974 2010 1987

46.48 61 64 210.50 4,000.00 180 110 13.75 25.75 5,000.00 80 26 33.34 425 20 31.5 55.5 31.77 193.22 121.14 186.25 177.35 211.03 63.25 752.94 182.83 49.33 12.82 5.65 0.84 13.5 2.22 492.46 190.42 539.52

Karnataka Karnataka Karnataka Karnataka Karnataka Karnataka

1974 1987 2012 1987 1992 1974

181.29 1027.53 134.88 886.41 82.72 29.79

243 244 245 246 247 248

Talra WLS Tirthan WLS Tundah WLS Baltal-Thajwas WLS Changthang Cold Desert WLS Gulbarga WLS Hirapora WLS Hokersar WLS Jasrota WLS Karakoram (Nubra Shyok) WLS Lachipora WLS Limber WLS Nandni WLS Overa Aru WLS Rajparian (Daksum) WLS Ramnagar Rakha WLS Surinsar Mansar WLS Trikuta WLS Dalma WLS Gautam Buddha WLS Hazaribagh WLS Koderma WLS Lawalong WLS Mahauadanr WLS Palamau WLS Palkot WLS Parasnath WLS Topchanchi WLS Udhwa Lake WLS Adichunchunagiri WLS Arabithittu WLS Attiveri WLS Bhadra WLS Bhimgad WLS Biligiri Rangaswamy Temple (B.R.T.) WLS Brahmagiri WLS Cauvery WLS Chincholi WLS Dandeli WLS Daroji Bear WLS Ghataprabha Bird WLS

Area (in km²)

(Contd.)

Textbook of Wildlife Management

386 (Contd.)

S. No. Name of wildlife sanctuary (WLS)

State

Established year

249 250 251 252 253 254 255 256 257 258 259

Karnataka Karnataka Karnataka Karnataka Karnataka Karnataka Karnataka Karnataka Karnataka Karnataka Karnataka

1989 2013 2013 1974 1974 1974 1987 1974 1940 2012 2011

0.73 38.48 906.19 49.82 370.37 30.32 102.96 119 0.67 3.46 77.24

Karnataka Karnataka Karnataka Karnataka Karnataka Karnataka Karnataka Kerala Kerala Kerala Kerala Kerala Kerala Kerala Kerala Kerala Kerala Kerala Kerala Kerala Kerala Kerala Kerala Kerala Lakshadweep Madhya Pradesh Madhya Pradesh Madhya Pradesh Madhya Pradesh Madhya Pradesh

1974 1974 1974 1987 2015 2016 2015 1984 1984 1984 2007 1976 2011 2006 2010 2004 1958 1973 1958 1983 1950 1984 1983 1973 1995 1978 1977 1981 1981 1981

431.23 395.6 314.25 105.01 100.48 50.86 96.36 55 85 90.44 3.42 70 30.38 32 74.215 0.0274 128 285 125 53 427 100.32 25 344.44 0.01 478 485.72 368.62 511 202.21

260 261 262 263 264 265 266 267 268 269 270 271 272 273 274 275 276 277 278 279 280 281 282 283 284 285 286 287 288 289

Gudavi WLS Gudekote Sloth Bear WLS Malai Mahadeshwara WLS Melkote Temple WLS Mookambika WLS Nugu WLS Pushpagiri WLS Ranebennur Black Buck WLS Ranganathittu Bird WLS Ramadevara Betta Vulture WLS Rangayyanadurga Four-horned antelope WLS Sharavathi Valley WLS Shettihalli WLS Someshwara WLS Talakaveri WLS Jogimatti WLS Thimlapura WLS Yadahalli Chinkara WLS Aralam WLS Chimmony WLS Chinnar WLS Chulannur Peafowl WLS Idukki WLS Kottiyoor WLS Kurinjimala WLS Malabar WLS Mangalavanam Bird WLS Neyyar WLS Parambikulam WLS Peechi-Vazhani WLS Peppara WLS Periyar WLS Shendurney WLS Thattekad Bird WLS Wayanad WLS Pitti WLS (Bird) Bagdara WLS Bori WLS Gandhi Sagar WLS Ghatigaon WLS Karera WLS

Area (in km²)

Appendices

387

(Contd.)

S. No. Name of wildlife sanctuary (WLS)

State

Established year

290 291 292 293 294 295 296 297 298 299 300 301 302 303 304 305 306 307 308 309 310 311 312 313 314 315 316 317 318 319 320 321 322 323 324 325 326 327 328 329 330 331

Madhya Pradesh Madhya Pradesh Madhya Pradesh Madhya Pradesh Madhya Pradesh Madhya Pradesh Madhya Pradesh Madhya Pradesh Madhya Pradesh Madhya Pradesh Madhya Pradesh Madhya Pradesh Madhya Pradesh Madhya Pradesh Madhya Pradesh Madhya Pradesh Madhya Pradesh Madhya Pradesh Madhya Pradesh Madhya Pradesh Maharashtra Maharashtra Maharashtra Maharashtra Maharashtra Maharashtra Maharashtra Maharashtra Maharashtra Maharashtra Maharashtra Maharashtra Maharashtra Maharashtra Maharashtra Maharashtra Maharashtra Maharashtra Maharashtra Maharashtra Maharashtra Maharashtra

1981 1955 1974 1978 1984 1994 1977 1981 1979 1983 1975 1983 1989 1978 1983 1975 1983 1976 1974 1997 1997 1986 1986 1997 1985 1970 1986 1980 1997 1986 1979 1986 1986 1968 2000 1988 1985 2000 1987 2010 1997 1985

Ken Gharial WLS Kheoni WLS Narsighgarh WLS National Chambal WLS Noradehi WLS Orcha WLS Pachmarhi WLS Kuno WLS Panna (Gangau) WLS Panpatha WLS Pench WLS Phen WLS Ralamandal WLS Ratapani WLS Sailana WLS Sanjay Dubri WLS Sardarpur WLS Singhori WLS Son Gharial WLS Veerangna Durgawati WLS Amba Barwa WLS Andhari WLS Aner Dam WLS Bhamragarh WLS Bhimashankar WLS Bor WLS Chaprala WLS Deolgaon-Rehkuri WLS Dhyanganga WLS Gautala- Autramghat WLS Great Indian Bustard WLS Jaikwadi WLS Kalsubai Harishchandragad WLS Karnala WLS Karanja Sohal Blackbuck WLS Katepurna WLS Koyana WLS Lonar WLS Malvan Marine WLS Mansingdeo WLS Mayureswar Supe WLS Melghat WLS

Area (in km²) 45.2 122.7 59.19 435 1,194.67 44.91 417.78 344.68 68.14 245.84 118.47 110.74 2.34 823.84 12.96 364.59 348.12 287.91 41.8 23.97 127.11 509.27 82.94 104.38 130.78 61.1 134.78 2.17 205.23 260.61 1222.61 361.05 361.71 4.48 18.32 73.63 423.55 1.17 29.122 182.59 5.15 778.75 (Contd.)

Textbook of Wildlife Management

388 (Contd.)

S. No. Name of wildlife sanctuary (WLS)

State

Established year

332 333 334 335 336 337 338 339 340 341 342 343 344 345 346 347 348 349 350 351

Maharashtra Maharashtra Maharashtra Maharashtra Maharashtra Maharashtra Maharashtra Maharashtra Maharashtra Maharashtra Maharashtra Maharashtra Maharashtra Maharashtra Maharashtra Maharashtra Maharashtra Maharashtra Maharashtra Maharashtra

1970 1994 1986 1997 2012 2012 2012 1986 1986 1958 1985 1970 2015 1997 2003 1969 1997 2012 1997 2015

152.81 28.89 100.12 12.35 122.76 60.70 151.33 324.62 69.79 351.16 10.87 304.81 16.90 148.63 85 177.52 22.38 189.30 211 1.98

Orissa Orissa Orissa Orissa Orissa Orissa Orissa Orissa Orissa Orissa Orissa Orissa Orissa Orissa Orissa Orissa Orissa Orissa Orissa Punjab Punjab

1962 1981 1984 1975 1982 1987 1985 1997 1978 1992 1982 1981 1984 1988 1985 1979 1976 1979 NA 1988 1952

304.03 168.35 71.72 525 175.79 15.53 346.91 1,435.00 191.06 147.66 116 399.5 272.75 500 185.87 14.16 745.52 1,354.30 125.50 186.5 2.64

352 353 354 355 356 357 358 359 360 361 362 363 364 365 366 367 368 369 370 371 372

Nagzira WLS Naigaon Mayur WLS Nandur Madhameshwar WLS Narnala Bird WLS Nawegaon WLS New Bor WLS New Nagzira WLS Painganga WLS Phansad WLS Radhanagari WLS Sagareshwar WLS Tansa WLS Thane Creek Flamingo WLS Tipeshwar WLS Tungareshwar WLS Yawal WLS Yedsi Ramlin Ghat WLS Umred-Kharngla WLS Wan WLS Gangewadi New Great Indian Bustard WLS Badrama WLS Baisipalli WLS Balukhand Konark WLS Bhitarkanika WLS Chandaka Dampara WLS Chilika (Nalaban) WLS Debrigarh WLS Gahirmatha (Marine) WLS Hadgarh WLS Karlapat WLS Khalasuni WLS Kotagarh WLS Kuldiha WLS Sunabeda WLS Lakhari Valley WLS Nandankanan WLS Satkosia Gorge WLS Simlipal WLS Kapilash WLS Abohar WLS Bir Aishvan WLS

Area (in km²)

Appendices

389

(Contd.)

S. No. Name of wildlife sanctuary (WLS)

State

Established year

373 374 375 376 3767 378 379 380 381 382 383 384 385 386 387 388 389 390 391 392 393 394 395 396 397 398 399 400 401 402 403 404 405 406 407 408 409 410 411 412

Punjab Punjab Punjab Punjab Punjab Punjab Punjab Punjab Punjab Punjab Punjab Pondicherry Rajasthan Rajasthan Rajasthan Rajasthan Rajasthan Rajasthan Rajasthan Rajasthan Rajasthan Rajasthan Rajasthan Rajasthan Rajasthan Rajasthan Rajasthan Rajasthan Rajasthan Rajasthan Rajasthan Rajasthan Rajasthan Rajasthan Rajasthan Rajasthan Rajasthan Tamil Nadu Tamil Nadu Tamil Nadu

1952 1952 1952 1977 1952 1952 1982 1998 2007 1992 2009 2008 1985 1988 1983 1955 1955 1982 1975 1983 1955 1971 1960 1980 1979 1983 1982 1955 1987 1955 1955 1984 1983 1979 1971 1983 1955 2014 1989 2013

10.23 6.62 5.18 6.2 1.23 6.54 86 1.16 7.58 3.82 2.90 3.90 199.5 138.69 229.14 80.75 52 300 153.41 676.38 14.76 608.58 112.98 50 274.75 692.68 252.79 34.4 5.19 219 131.3 103.25 98.71 422.94 7.19 495.27 25.6 504.33 0.48 2.88

Tamil Nadu

1972

841.49

413

Bir Bhadson WLS Bir Bunerheri WLS Bir Dosanjh WLS Bir Gurdialpura WLS Bir Mehaswala WLS Bir Motibagh WLS Harike Lake WLS Jhajjar Bacholi WLS Kathlaur Kushlian WLS Takhni-Rehampur WLS Nangal WLS Oussudu WLS Bandh Baratha WLS Bassi WLS Bhensrodgarh WLS Darrah WLS Jaisamand WLS Jamwa Ramgarh WLS Jawahar Sagar WLS Kailadevi WLS Kesarbagh WLS Kumbhalgarh WLS Mount Abu WLS Nahargarh WLS National Chambal WLS Phulwari Ki Nal WLS Ramgarh Vishdhari WLS Ramsagar WLS Sajjangarh WLS Sariska WLS Sawaimadhopur WLS Sawai Man Singh WLS Shergarh WLS Sitamata WLS Tal Chhapper WLS Todgarh Raoli WLS Van Vihar WLS Cauvery North WLS Chitrangudi Bird WLS Gangaikondam Spotted Dear WLS Indira Gandhi (Annamalai) WLS

Area (in km²)

(Contd.)

Textbook of Wildlife Management

390 (Contd.)

S. No. Name of wildlife sanctuary (WLS)

State

Established year

414 415 416 417 418 419 420

Tamil Nadu Tamil Nadu Tamil Nadu Tamil Nadu Tamil Nadu Tamil Nadu Tamil Nadu

1976 1989 2002 1999 1989 2013 1994

223.58 1.04 457.78 4.54 0.61 608.95 1.29

Tamil Nadu

1998

5.93

Tamil Nadu Tamil Nadu Tamil Nadu Tamil Nadu Tamil Nadu Tamil Nadu Tamil Nadu Tamil Nadu

1942 1977 2015 2015 1967 1980 2008, 2011 1988

Tamil Nadu

1991

0.45

Tamil Nadu Tamil Nadu Tamil Nadu Tamil Nadu Tamil Nadu Tamil Nadu Tamil Nadu Tamil Nadu Uttar Pradesh Uttar Pradesh Uttar Pradesh

1991 1936 1987 1997 1977 2016 2016 2016 1990 1957 2003

1.28 0.3 16.41 0.77 0.38 269.11 0.29 2.30 28.94 78 4.27

Uttar Uttar Uttar Uttar Uttar Uttar Uttar Uttar Uttar Uttar

1986 1982 1976 1972 1988 1977 1979 1984 1990 1990

2,073.00 500.73 400.09 227 80.24 5.41 635 2.25 4 10.84

421 422 423 424 425 426 427 428 429 430 431 432 433 434 435 436 437 438 439 440 441 442 443 444 445 446 447 448 449 450 451

Kalakad WLS Kanjirankulam Bird WLS Kanyakumari WLS Karaivetti WLS Karikili WLS Kodaikanal WLS KoonthankulamKadankulam WLS MelaselvanoorKeelaselvanoor WLS Mudumalai WLS Mundanthurai WLS Nellai WLS Oussudu Lake Bird Sanctuary Point Calimere WLS Pulicat Lake WLS Satyamangalam WS Srivilliputhur Grizzled Squirrel WLS Udayamarthandapuram Lake WLS Vaduvoor WLS Vedanthangal WLS Vellanadu (Blackbuck) WLS Vellode WLS Vettangudi WLS Megamalai WLS Theerthangal WLS Sakkarakottai WLS Bakhira WLS Chandraprabha WLS Dr. Bhimrao Ambedkar Bird WLS Hastinapur WLS Kaimur WLS Katerniaghat WLS Kishanpur WLS Lakh Bahosi Bird WLS Mahavir Swami WLS National Chambal WLS Nawabganj WLS Okhala Bird WLS Parvati Aranga WLS

Pradesh Pradesh Pradesh Pradesh Pradesh Pradesh Pradesh Pradesh Pradesh Pradesh

Area (in km²)

217.76 567.38 356.73 3.32 17.26 153.67 1411.61 485.2

Appendices

391

(Contd.)

S. No. Name of wildlife sanctuary (WLS)

State

452 453 454 455 456 457 458 459 460

Uttar Uttar Uttar Uttar Uttar Uttar Uttar Uttar Uttar

461 462 463 464 465 466 467 468 469 470 471 472 473 474 475 476 477 478 479 480 481 482 483 484 485 486 487 488 489 490 491

Patna WLS Ranipur WLS Saman Bird WLS Samaspur WLS Sandi Bird WLS Sohagibarwa WLS Sohelwa WLS Sur Sarovar WLS Jai Prakash Narayan (Surhatal) Bird WLS Turtle WLS Vijai Sagar WLS Pilibhit WLS Askot Musk Deer WLS Nandhaur WLS Binsar WLS Govind Pashu Vihar WLS Kedarnath WLS Mussoorie WLS Sonanadi WLS Ballavpur WLS Bethuadahari WLS Bibhuti Bhusan WLS Buxa WLS Chapramari WLS Chintamani Kar Bird Sanctuary Haliday Island WLS Jorepokhri Salamander WLS Lothian Island WLS Mahananda WLS Raiganj WLS Ramnabagan WLS Sajnakhali WLS Senchal WLS West Sunderban WLS Asola Bhati (Indira Priyadarshini) WLS D’Ering Memorial (Lali) WLS Dibang WLS Eagle Nest WLS Itanagar WLS Kamlang WLS

Established year

Area (in km²)

Pradesh Pradesh Pradesh Pradesh Pradesh Pradesh Pradesh Pradesh Pradesh

1990 1977 1990 1987 1990 1987 1988 1991 1991

1.09 230.31 5.26 7.99 3.09 428.2 452.47 4.03 34.32

Uttar Pradesh Uttar Pradesh Uttar Pradesh Uttarakhand Uttarakhand Uttarakhand Uttarakhand Uttarakhand Uttarakhand Uttarakhand West Bengal West Bengal West Bengal West Bengal West Bengal West Bengal West Bengal West Bengal West Bengal West Bengal West Bengal West Bengal West Bengal West Bengal West Bengal Delhi

1989 1990 2014 1986 212 1988 1955 1972 1993 1987 1977 1980 1980 1986 1976 1982 1976 1985 1976 1976 1985 1981 1976 1976 2013 1992

7 2.62 602.80 599.93 269.96 47.07 485.89 975.2 10.82 301.18 2.02 0.67 0.64 267.92 9.6 0.07 5.95 0.04 38 158.04 1.3 0.14 362.4 38.88 556.45 27.82

Arunachal Arunachal Arunachal Arunachal Arunachal

1978 1991 1989 1978 1989

190 4,149.00 217 140.3 783

Pradesh Pradesh Pradesh Pradesh Pradesh

(Contd.)

Textbook of Wildlife Management

392 (Contd.)

S. No. Name of wildlife sanctuary (WLS)

State

492 493 494 495 496 497 498 499 500 501 502 503 504 505 506 507 508 509 510 511 512 513 514 515 516 517 518 519 520 521 522 523 524 525 526 527 528 529 530 531 532 533

Arunachal Arunachal Arunachal Arunachal Arunachal Arunachal Assam Assam Assam Assam Assam Assam Assam Assam Assam Assam Assam Assam Assam Assam Assam Assam Assam Assam Mizoram Mizoram Mizoram Mizoram Mizoram Mizoram Mizoram Mizoram Manipur Manipur Sikkim Sikkim Sikkim Sikkim Sikkim Sikkim Sikkim Nagaland

Kane WLS Mehao WLS Pakhui/Pakke WLS Sessa Orchid WLS Tale Valley WLS Yordi-Rabe Supse WLS Amchang WLS Barail WLS Barnadi WLS Bherjan-Borajan-Padumoni WLS Burachapori WLS Chakrashila WLS Deepor Beel WLS Dihing Patkai WLS East Karbi Anglong WLS Garampani WLS Hollongapar Gibbon WLS Lawkhowa WLS Marat Longri WLS Nambor WLS Nambor Doigrung WLS Porbitora WLS Pani-Dihing Bird WLS Sonai Rupai WLS Dampa WLS (TR) Khawnglung WLS Lengteng WLS Ngengpui WLS Pualreng WLS Tawi WLS Thorangtlang WLS Tokalo WLS Khongjaingamba Ching WLS Yangoupokpi-Lokchao WLS Barsey Rhododendron WLS Fambong Lho WLS Kitam WLS (Bird) Kyongnosla Alpine WLS Maenam WLS Pangolakha WLS Shingba (Rhododendron) WLS Fakim WLS

Established year Pradesh Pradesh Pradesh Pradesh Pradesh Pradesh

1991 1980 1977 1989 1995 1996 2004 2004 1980 1999 1995 1994 – 2004 2000 1952 1997 1972 2003 2000 2003 1987 1995 1998 1985 1992 1999 1991 2004 1978 2002 2007 2016 1989 1998 1984 2005 1977 1987 2002 1984 1980

Area (in km²) 31 281.5 861.95 100 337 397 78.64 326.25 26.22 7.22 44.06 45.56 4.14 111.19 221.81 6.05 20.98 70.14 451 37 97.15 38.81 33.93 220 500 35 60 110 50 35.75 50 250 0.412 184.4 104 51.76 6 31 35.34 128 43 6.4

Appendices

393

(Contd.)

S. No. Name of wildlife sanctuary (WLS)

State

Established year

534 535 536 537 538 539 540 541 542 543

Nagaland Nagaland Meghalaya Meghalaya Meghalaya Meghalaya Tripura Tripura Tripura Tripura

1980 1986 1984 1981 1979 2015 1988 1988 1987 1988

Puliebadze WLS Rangapahar WLS Baghmara Pitcher Plant WLS Nongkhyllem WLS Siju WLS Narpuh WLS Gumti WLS Rowa WLS Sepahijala WLS Trishna WLS

Area (in km²) 9.23 4.7 0.02 29 5.18 59.90 389.54 0.86 13.45 163.08

Nagarjuna Sagar-Srisailam WLS is calculated two times Andhra Pradesh and Telangana. Source: http://natureconservation.in/state-wise-list-of-wildlife-sanctuaries-of-india-updated/2017

394

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Appendix VII BIOSPHERE RESERVES OF INDIA S. Name of biosphere No. reserve

Date of notification

Area of the core/ buffer/transition (in km2)

Location (States)

1 Nilgiri

01.09.1986

5520 (Core 1240 and Buffer 4280)

Part of Wayanad, Nagarhole, Bandipur and Madumalai, Nilambur, Silent Valley and Siruvani hills (Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Karnataka).

2 Nanda Devi

18.01.1988

5860.69 (Core 712.12, Buffer 5,148.570) and T. 546.34)

Part of Chamoli, Pithoragarh, and Bageshwar districts (Uttarakhand).

3 Nokrek

01.09.1988

820 (Core 47.48 and Buffer 227.92, Transition Zone 544.60)

Part of Garo hills (Meghalaya).

4 Great Nicobar

06.01.1989

885 (Core 705 and Buffer 180)

Southern most islands of Andaman and Nicobar (A & N) Islands.

5 Gulf of Mannar

18.02.1989

10,500 km2 Total Gulf area (area of Islands 5.55 km2)

Indian part of Gulf of Mannar between India and Sri Lanka (Tamil Nadu).

6 Manas

14.03.1989

2837 (Core 391 and Part of Kokrajhar, Buffer 2,446) Bongaigaon, Barpeta, Nalbari, Kamprup and Darang districts (Assam).

7 Sunderbans

29.03.1989

9630 (Core 1700 and Buffer 7900)

Part of delta of Ganges and Brahamaputra river system (West Bengal).

8 Simlipal

21.06.1994

4374 (Core 845 and Buffer 2129

Part of Mayurbhanj district (Orissa). Transition 1400

9 Dibru-Saikhowa

28.07.1997

765 (Core 340 and Buffer 425)

Part of Dibrugarh and Tinsukia Districts (Assam).

10 Dehang-Dibang

02.09.1998

5111.50 (Core 4094.80 and Buffer 1016.70)

Part of Siang and Dibang Valley in Arunachal Pradesh.

Appendices

395

(Contd.)

S. Name of biosphere No. reserve

Date of notification

Area of the core/ buffer/transition (in km2)

Location (States)

11 Pachmarhi

03.03.1999

4926

Parts of Betul, Hoshangabad and Chindwara districts of Madhya Pradesh.

12 Khangchendzonga

07.02.2000

2619.92 (Core 1819.34 and Buffer 835.92)

Parts of Khangchendzonga hills and Sikkim.

13 Agasthyamalai

12.11.2001

1828

Neyyar, Peppara and Shendurney Wildlife Sanctuaries and their adjoining areas in Kerala.

14 Achanakamar –

30.3.2005

3835.51 (Core Amarkantak 551.55 and Buffer 3283.86)

Covers parts of Anupur and Dindori districts of M.P. and parts of Bilaspur districts of Chhattisgarh State.

15 Kachchh

29.01.2008

12,454 km2

Part of Kachchh, Rajkot, Surendra Nagar and Patan Civil Districts of Gujarat State.

16 Cold Desert

28.08.2009

7770

Pin Valley National Park and surroundings; Chandratal and Sarchu and Kibber Wildlife Sanctuary in Himachal Pradesh.

17 Seshachalam Hills

20.09.2010

4755.997

Seshachalam Hill Ranges covering parts of Chittoor and Kadapa districts of Andhra Pradesh.

18 Panna

25.08.2011

2998.98

Part of Panna and Chhattarpur districts in Madhya Pradesh.

Source: Wildlife Institute of India http://natureconservation.in/list-of-biosphere-reserves-in-india-updated/2017

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396

Appendix VIII COMMUNITY RESERVES IN INDIA S. No. Name of community reserve 1 2 3 4 5

6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30

Kokkare Bellur Community Reserve (Bird) Kadalundi- Vallikkunnu Community Reserve Lalwan Community Reserve Keshopur-Chhamb Community Reserve Ka Khloo Thangbru Umsymphu Community Reserve Ka Khloo Pohblai Mooshutia Community Reserve Ka Khloo Langdoh Kur Pyrtuh Community Reserve Nongsangu Community Reserve Raid Nongbri Community Reserve Lum Jusong Community Reserve Jirang Community Reserve Raid Nonglyngdoh/ Pdah Kyndeng Community Reserve Phudja-ud Community Reserve Lawbah Community Reserve Ryngibah Community Reserve Mongalgre Community Reserve Dangkipara Community Reserve Aruakgre Community Reserve Resu Haluapra Community Reserve Kitmadamgre Community Reserve Kpoh Eijah Community Reserve Miewsyiar Community Reserve Umsum Pitcher Plant Community Reserve Lumkohkriah Community Reserve Ryngud Community Reserve Thangkharang Community Reserve Baladingre ComR Bandarigre ComR Chandigre ComR Daribokgre ComR

State

Established year

Area (in sq. km.)

Karnataka

2007

3.12

Kerala

2007

1.50

Punjab Punjab

2007 2007

12.67 3.4

Meghalaya

2014

0.196

Meghalaya

2014

0.335

Meghalaya

2014

0.154

Meghalaya Meghalaya Meghalaya Meghalaya Meghalaya

2014 2014 2014 2014 2014

1.00 0.70 0.70 2.00 0.75

Meghalaya Meghalaya Meghalaya Meghalaya Meghalaya Meghalaya Meghalaya Meghalaya Meghalaya Meghalaya Meghalaya

2014 2014 2014 2014 2014 2014 2014 2014 2014 2014 2014

1.20 2.10 0.80 0.20 0.025 1.00 0.50 0.70 0.17 0.87 0.40

Meghalaya Meghalaya Meghalaya Meghalaya Meghalaya Meghalaya Meghalaya

2014 2014 2014 2013 2013 2013 2013

6.11 5.22 1.11 0.5 0.67 0.37 1.73

Appendices

397

(Contd.)

S. No. Name of community reserve

State

Established year

31 32 33 34 35

Meghalaya Meghalaya Meghalaya Meghalaya Meghalaya

2013 2013 2013 2015 2016

0.7 0.6 0.3 1.29 0.15

Meghalaya Meghalaya Meghalaya Meghalaya Meghalaya Meghalaya Meghalaya Meghalaya Meghalaya Meghalaya

2014 2014 2013 2013 2003 2013 2013 2013 2013 2013

0.07 0.96 0.5 0.01 0.31 0.62 1.92 1.22 0.6 0.2

36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45

Dumitdikgre ComR Dura Kalkgre ComR Eman Asakgre ComR Khloo Amrawan ComR Khloo Blai Ka Raij U Landoh longlang ComR Khloo Blai Kongwasan Khloo Blai Chyrmang ComR Khloo Blai Sein Raij Tuber ComR Mandalgre ComR Mikadogre ComR Nongumiang ComR Rongma Paromgre ComR Rongma Rekmangre ComR Sakalgre ComR Sasatgre ComR Selbalgre ComR

Area (in sq. km.)

State wise list of Indian community reserve S. No. State/UT 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

Andhra Pradesh Arunachal Pradesh Assam Bihar Chhattisgarh Goa Gujarat Haryana Himachal Pradesh Jammu and Kashmir Jharkhand Karnataka Kerala Madhya Pradesh Maharashtra Manipur

Total number of community reserves 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0

Total area (in sq. km.) – – – – – – – – – – – 3.12 1.5 – – – (Contd.)

Textbook of Wildlife Management

398 (Contd.)

S. No. State/UT 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36

Meghalaya Mizoram Nagaland Orissa Punjab Rajasthan Sikkim Tamil Nadu Tripura Uttar Pradesh Uttarakhand West Bengal Telangana Andaman and Nicobar Islands Chandigarh Dadra and Nagar Haveli Lakshadweep Daman and Diu Delhi Pondicherry

Total number of community reserves 41 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Total area (in sq. km.) 39.96 – – – 16.07 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –

Source : Wildlife Institute of India http://natureconservation.in/state-wise-list-of-community-reserves-of-indian-updated/

Community Reserves: Conservation reserves and community reserves in India are terms denoting protected areas of India which typically act as buffer zones to or connectors and migration corridors between established national parks, wildlife sanctuaries and reserved and protected forests of India. The State Government may, after having consultations with the local communities, declare any area owned by the Government, particularly the areas adjacent to National Parks and Sanctuaries and those areas which link one protected area with another, as a conservation reserve for protecting landscapes, seascapes, flora and fauna and their habitat, provided that where the conservation reserve includes any land owned by the Central Government, its prior concurrence shall be obtained before making such declaration.

Appendices

399

Appendix IX TIGER RESERVE OF INDIA S. Name of tiger No. reserve

State

Area of the core/critical tiger habitat (in sq. km)

Area of the buffer/ peripheral (in sq. km)

Total area (in sq. km)

1 Bandipur 2 Corbett Amangarh (buffer of Corbett TR)

Karnataka Uttarakhand Uttar Pradesh

872.24 821.99

584.06 466.32 80.60

1456.3 1288.31 80.60

3 Kanha

Madhya Pradesh

917.43

1134.361

2051.791

4 Manas

Assam

840.04

2310.88

3150.92

5 Melghat

Maharashtra

1500.49

1268.03

2768.52

715.85

1129.93

297.9265

1411.291

6 Palamau

Jharkhand

414.08

7 Ranthambore

Rajasthan

1113.364

8 Similipal

Odisha

1194.75

1555.25

2750.00

9 Sunderbans

West Bengal

1699.62

885.27

2584.89

881.00

44.00

925.00 1213.342

10 Periyar

Kerala

11 Sariska

Rajasthan

881.1124

332.23

12 Buxa

West Bengal

390.5813

367.3225

757.9038

13 Indravati

Chhattisgarh

1258.37

1540.70

2799.07

14 Namdapha

Arunachal Pradesh Uttar Pradesh Tamil Nadu

1807.82

245.00

2052.82

1093.79 895.00

1107.9848 706.542

2201.7748 1601.542

Bihar

598.45

300.93

899.38

18 Pench

Madhya Pradesh

411.33

19 Tadoba-Andhari

Maharashtra

625.82

20 Bandhavgarh

Madhya Pradesh

716.903

21 Panna

Madhya Pradesh

576.13

1021.97**

1578.55

22 Dampa

Mizoram

500.00

488.00

988.00

23 Bhadra

Karnataka

492.46

571.83

1064.29

24 Pench

Maharashtra

257.26

483.96

741.22

15 Dudhwa 16 KalakadMundanthurai 17 Valmiki

768.30225 1101.7711 820.03509

1179.63225 1727.5911 1598.10

25 Pakke

Arunachal Pradesh

683.45

515.00

1198.45

26 Nameri

Assam

200.00

144.00

344.00

27 Satpura

Madhya Pradesh

28 Anamalai

Tamil Nadu

29 Udanti-Sitanadi

Chhattisgarh

30 Satkosia

Odisha

523.61

440.26

963.87

31 Kaziranga

Assam

625.58

548.00

1173.58

1339.264

794.04397

2133.30797

958.59

521.28

1479.87

851.09

991.45

1842.54

400

Textbook of Wildlife Management

(Contd.)

S. Name of tiger No. reserve

State

32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39

Chhattisgarh Karnataka Madhya Pradesh Tamil Nadu Karnataka Kerala Maharashtra Karnataka

626.195 814.884 812.571 321.00 643.35 390.89 600.12 359.10

287.822 282.63 861.931 367.59 562.41 252.772 565.45 215.72

914.017 1097.514 1674.502 688.59 1205.76 643.662 1165.57 574.82

Telangana Tamil Nadu Rajasthan Maharashtra Andhra Pradesh

893.23 793.49 417.17 653.674 2595.72*

1125.89 614.91 342.82 – 700.59*

2019.12 1408.40 759.99 653.674 3296.31*

Telangana Uttar Pradesh Maharashtra Uttarakhand Assam Arunachal Pradesh

2166.37* 602.7980 138.12 819.54 79.28 671.00

40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50

Achanakmar Dandeli-Anshi Sanjay-Dubri Mudumalai Nagarahole Parambikulam Sahyadri Biligiri Ranganatha Temple Kawal Sathyamangalam Mukandra Hills Nawegaon-Nagzira Nagarjunsagar Srisailam (part)* Amrabad Pilibhit Bor Rajaji Tige Reserve Orang Tiger Reserve Kamlang Tiger Reserve Total

Area of the core/critical tiger habitat (in sq. km)

Area of the buffer/ peripheral (in sq. km)

Total area (in sq. km)

(

40340.12

445.02* 127.4518 – 255.63 413.18 112.00 30686.98

2611.39* 730.2498 138.12 1075.17 492.46 783.00 71027.10

* Revised area details are awaited from the State Governments concerned after reorganization. ** Notifed vide notification No. F. 15-21/2010/10-2 dated 24.7.2014 by the State Government of Madhya Pradesh (old area of the buffer was 1002.42 sq. km.) Source: The National Tiger Conservation Authority http://natureconservation.in/list-of-tiger-reserves-in-india-updated-how-many-tiger-reserves-inindia/2017

Appendices

401

Appendix X ELEPHANT RESERVES IN INDIA S. Elephant No. reserve 1 2 3 4

Mayurjharna ER Singhbhum ER Mayurbhanj ER Mahanadi ER *

5

Sambalpur ER *

6 7 8 9

Baitami ER # South Orissa ER # Lemru ER # Badalkhol – Tamorpingla ER

Elephant range

East-Central Landscape (South West Bengal) (Jharkhand– Orissa)

Name of state

Date of notification

West Bengal Jharkhand Orissa Orissa

24/10/2002 26/09/2001 29/09/2001 20/07/2002

414 4530 3214 1038

193 1309 964

Orissa

27/03/2002

427

427

Orissa Orissa Chhattisgarh Chhattisgarh

Total 10 Kameng ER 11 Sonitpur ER*

KamengSonitpur Landscape (Arunachal– Assam)

13 South Arunachal ER

Eastern-South Bank Landscape (Assam– Arunachal)

P.A. (km2)

1755 4216 450 1048.3

1154.93

17092.3

4797.93

750

Arunachal

19/06/2003

1892

748

Assam

06/03/2003

1420

420

3312

1168 345

Total 12 Dihing-Patkai ER

Total area (km2)

Assam

17/04/2003

937

Arunachal Pradesh

29/02/2008

1957.5

378.13

2894.5

723.13 1073

Total 14 Kaziranga-Karbi Anglong ER 15 DhansiriLungding ER

Kaziranga-Karbi

Assam

17/04/2003

3270

Anglong-Intanki Landscape

Assam

19/04/2003

2740

16 Intanki ER

(Assam –

Nagaland

28/02/2005

202

202

6212

1275

Total 17 Chirang-Ripu ER 18 Eastern Dooars ER

Nagaland) North BengalGreater Manas Landscape (Assam– West Bengal)

Assam

07/03/2003

2600

526

West Bengal

28/08/2002

978

484

3578

1010

3500

402

Total 19 Garo Hills ER

Meghalaya Landscape

Meghalaya

31/10/2001

402

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(Contd.)

S. Elephant No. reserve

Elephant range

Name of state

20 Khasi-hills ER #

Meghalaya

Meghalaya

Date of notification

22 Wayanad ER 23 Nilgiri ER 24 Rayala ER

BrahmagiriNilgiriEastern Ghat Landscape (Karnataka– Kerala(Tamil Nadu– Andhra Pradesh)

25 Nilambur ER 26 Coimbatore ER

28 Anamudi ER

AnamalaiNelliampathy– High Range Landscape (Tamil Nadu– Kerala)

30 Srivilliputhur ER

PeriyarAgasthyamalai Landscape (Kerala– Tamil Nadu)

6724

3103

Kerala Tamil Nadu

02/04/2002 19/09/2003

1200 4663

394 716

Andhra Pradesh Kerala Tamil Nadu

09/12/2003

766

525

02/04/2002 19/09/2003

1419 566

90 482

15335

5310

Tamil Nadu

19/09/2003

1457

300

Kerala

02/04/2002

3728

780

5185

1080

Kerala

02/04/2002

3742

1058

Tamil Nadu

19/09/2003

1249

568

4991

1626 1340

Total 31 Shivalik ER 32 Uttar Pradesh ER

North-Western Landscape (Uttarakhand– Uttar Pradesh)

402

25/11/2002

Total 29 Periyar ER

4831 Karnataka

Total 27 Anamalai ER

P.A. (km2)

1331

Total 21 Mysore ER

Total area km2)

Uttarakhand

28/10/2002

5405

Uttar Pradesh

09/09/2009

744

Total Grand Total # – Approved by Govt. of India, but not yet notified by the State Government * – Proposal for extension approved by GOI, but not yet notified by the state

6149

1340

69,582.80 18,732.06

Appendices

403

List of Elephant Population estimates for 2007 and 2012 S. No. Site name

Elephant Population 2007

Elephant Population 2012

1

Arunachal Pradesh

1690

1690*

2

Assam

5281

5281*

3

Meghalaya

1811

1811*

4

Nagaland

152

212

5

Tripura

6

West Bengal

325–350

7

Jharkhand

624

688

8

Odisha

1862

1930

9

Chattisgarh

122

215

10

Uttarakhand

1346

1346*

11

Uttar Pradesh

380

380

12

Tamil Nadu

3867

3726

13

Karnataka

4035

3900–7458**

14

Kerala

6068

6177

15

Andhra Pradesh

28

41

16

Maharashtra

7

4

Total

59

27657–27682

* Census figure as per 2007. The census report of 2012 is still awaited from the States ** 3900–7458 (Confidence Limits) Source: Elephant Task Force Report of MoEF http://natureconservation.in/list-of-elephant-reserves-in-india-updated/2017

59* 325–350*

27785–31368

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Appendix XI PROTECTED AREAS OF INDIA Protected areas are those in which human occupation or at least the exploitation of resources is limited. The definition that has been widely accepted across regional and global frameworks has been provided by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) in its categorization guidelines for protected areas. There are several kinds of protected areas, which vary by level of protection depending on the enabling laws of each country or the regulations of the international organizations involved. The term “protected area” also includes Marine Protected Areas, the boundaries of which will include some area of ocean, and Transboundary Protected Areas that overlap multiple countries which remove the borders inside the area for conservation and economic purposes. Protected Areas of India from 2000 to 2017 (as on July, 2017) Year

No. of National Parks

Area Under National Parks

No. of Wild Life Sanctuaries

Area Under Wild Life Sanctuaries

No. of Area Under No. of Area Under No. of Total Area Community Community Conservation Conservation Protected Under Reserves Reserves Reserves Reserves Areas Protected Areas

2000

89

37593.94

489

117881.68

–

–

–

–

578

155475.63

2006

96

38183.01

506

120244.39

–

–

4

42.87

606

158470.27

2007

98

38219.72

510

120543.95

4

20.69

7

94.82

619

158879.19

2008

99

39232.58

513

122138.33

4

20.69

45

1259.84

661

162651.45

2009

99

39232.58

513

122138.33

4

20.69

45

1259.84

661

162651.45

2010

102

40074.46

516

122585.56

4

20.69

47

1382.28

669

164062.99

2011

102

40074.46

517

122615.94

4

20.69

52

1801.29

675

164512.37

2012

102

40074.46

524

123548.33

4

20.69

56

1998.15

686

165641.62

2013

102

40074.46

526

124234.52

4

20.69

57

2017.94

689

166347.6

2014

103

40332.89

525

116254.36

4

20.69

60

2037.11

692

158645.05

2015

103

40500.13

531

117607.72

26

46.93

66

2344.53

726

160499.31

2016

103

40500.13

537

118005.30

26

46.93

67

2349.38

733

160901.74

2017

103

40500.13

543

118917.71

45

59.66

73

2547.19

764

162024.69

Source: National Wildlife Database Cell, Wildlife Institute of India Note: All areas are in km2 - Community Reserves have been established in India from 2007 onwards and Conservation Reserves from 2005 onwards. Hence these values are zero.

Appendices

405

Protected Areas of India (as on July, 2017) No.

Total area (km2)

National Parks (NPs)

103

40500.13

1.23

Wildlife Sanctuaries (WLSs)

543

118917.71

3.62

Conservation Reserves (CRs)

73

2547.19

0.08

Community Reserves

45

59.66

0.002

Protected Areas (PAs)

764

Coverage % of country

162024.69

Geographical Area of India (http://knowindia.gov.in/) Forest cover of India (FSI, 2015) Percentage Area under Forest cover

4.93 2

= 32,87,263 km = 7,01,673 km2 = 21.34 % of Geographical Area of India

Textbook of Wildlife Management

406

Appendix XII ANIMAL, BIRD, TREE AND FLOWER OF INDIAN STATES State/UT

Animal

Bird

Tree

Flower

Andhra Pradesh Arunachal Pradesh Assam

Blackbuck

Indian roller

Neem

Lotus

Mithun

Great hornbill

Hollong

One-horned rhinoceros Ox Wild buffalo Nilgai Gaur

White-winged wood duck House sparrow Hill myna House sparrow Black crested bulbul Greater flamingo Black francolin Western tragopan

Hollong Peepal Sal * Matti

Lady slipper orchid Foxtail orchids Kachnar * * *

Mango Peepal Deodar

Marigold Lotus Rhododendron

Black necked crane Koel Indian roller Great hornbill

Chinar

Lotus

Sal Sandal Coconut Banyan

Palash Lotus Golden shower tree Parrot tree

Mango

Jarul

Toon

Shirui lily

White teak Iron wood

Lady slipper orchid Red vanda

Alder Banyan Vilva tree Sheesham Khejri

Rhododendron Lotus Cannonball * Rohira

Rhododendron Palmyra palm Jammi

Noble orchid Kandhal Tangedu

Bihar Chhattisgarh Delhi Goa Gujarat Haryana Himachal Pradesh Jammu and Kashmir Jharkhand Karnataka Kerala

Asiatic lion Blackbuck Snow leopard

Madhya Pradesh Maharashtra

Swamp deer Giant squirrel

Manipur

Sangai

Meghalaya Mizoram

Clouded leopard Serow

Nagaland Odisha Puducherry Punjab Rajasthan

Mithun Sambar Squirrel Blackbuck Camel

Sikkim Tamil Nadu Telangana

Red panda Nilgiri tahr Deer

Hangul Elephant Elephant Elephant

Asian paradise flycatcher Yellow-footed green pigeon Mrs. Hume’s pheasant Hill myna Mrs. Hume’s pheasant Blyth’s tragopan Indian roller Asian koel Northern goshawk Great Indian bustard Blood pheasant Emerald dove Indian roller

Appendices

407

(Contd.)

State/UT

animal

Bird

Tree

Flower

Tripura

Phayre’s langur Musk deer Swamp deer Fishing cat

Green imperial pigeon Himalayan monal Sarus crane White-breasted kingfisher

Agar

Nageshwar

Burans Ashok Chatian

Brahm kamal Brahm kamal Shephali

Uttarakhand Uttar Pradesh West Bengal

Source: http://www.frienvis.nic.in/KidsCentre/State-Animals-Birds-Trees-Flowers-of-India_1500.aspx (Last updated : 02/07/2015)

Textbook of Wildlife Management

408

Appendix XIII CROCODILE BREEDING CENTRES OF INDIA State

Rearing centres

Releasing sites

Andaman Island

Haddo Mini Zoo-Port Blair

Lohabarack Crocodile Sanctuary

Andhra Pradesh

Vishakhapatnam Warangal Hyderabad Nagarjunasagar-Sri Sailam

Sivaram WLS Manjira WLS Pakhal WLS Kinnerasani WLS, NagarjunasagarSri Sailam WLS

Bihar

Hazaribagh (Damodar Valley Corporation)

Gujarat

Gandhinagar Sason Gir

Ranjit Sagar Lake Sasan Gir WLS’ Ajawa Sarovar, Karjan Dam Narmada Dam

Kerala

Neyyar Dam Perruvanmoozhy

Neyyar WLS Parambikulam WLS

Madhya Pradesh

Deori (Morena Dist.)

National Chambal WLS, Shivpuri NP,’ Son WLS, Ken WLS, Vanvihar NP (Bhopal)

Maharashtra

Sanjay Gandi Tadoba

Gugamal WLS Melghat TR

Orissa

Satkoshia Nandankanan Dangmal (Bhitarkanika) Ramatirtha (Simlipal)

Satkosia WLS Baisipalli WLS Hadgarh WLS Bhitarkanika WLS. Simlipal TR, Chandaka WLS

Rajasthan

Kota

National Chambal WLS Vanvihar WLS Ranthambar TR, Jawahar Sagar WLS

Appendices

409

(Contd.)

State

Rearing centres

Releasing sites

Tamil Nadu

Hoganekkal Amaravati Sathanur Mudumalai Chenni

Krishnagiri Reservoir Hoganekkal Falls Sathanur Reservoir Amaravati Reservoir Mudumalai WLS Kalakad-Mundanthurai Annamalai WLS

Uttar Pradesh

Katarniyaghat

Ganga River Corbett NP,

Lucknow

Dudhwa NP, Sarda River, Katerniyaghat WLS Rapti River

Ghagra River National Chambal WLS Batwa River Pinahat Ghat West Bengal

Bhagabatpur

Source: WII ENVIS Bulletin—Indian Crocodilians, June 1999 Courtesy: WII, Dehradun, 2008

Sunderban TR, Sajnakhali WLS, Gorumara NP

410

Textbook of Wildlife Management

ZOOLOGICAL PARKS IN INDIA BREEDING INDIAN CROCODILIANS • Jawaharlal Nehru Biological Park (Bokaro, Bihar), Mugger • Sanjay Gandhi Biological Park (Patna, Bihar), Mugger • Tata Steel Zoological Park (Jamshedpur, Bihar), Mugger • Alipur Zoo (Calcutta, West Bengal), Mugger • Nandankanan Zoological Park (Bhubaneswar, Orissa), Gharial, Mugger and Saltwater Crocodile • Nehru Zoological Park (Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh), Mugger • Indira Gandhi Zoological Park (Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh), Mugger and Saltwater Crocodile • Vanvigyan Kendra (Warangal, Andhra Pradesh), Mugger • Arignar Anna Zoological Park (Vandalur, Chennai, Tamil Nadu), Mugger • Madras Crocodile Bank (Mammalapuram, Tamil Nadu), Gharial, Mugger and Saltwater Crocodiles • Chennai Snake Park Trust (Chennai, Tamil Nadu), Mugger • Mini Zoo, (Port Blair, Andaman and Nicobar Islands), Saltwater Crocodile • Sri Chamarejendra Zoological Garden (Mysore, Karnataka), Gharial and Mugger • Banerghatta Zoo (Bangalore, Karnataka), Mugger • Bondla Zoo (Panaji, Goa), Mugger • Mahatma Gandhi Rastriya Udyan (Sholapur, Maharashtra), Mugger • Pune Snake Park (Pune, Maharashtra), Mugger • Sayaji Baug Zoo (Baroda, Gujarat), Mugger • Sakkarbaug Zoo (Junagarh, Gujarat), Mugger • Balbhavan Children’s Dreamland (Rajkot, Gujarat), Mugger • Kamla Nehru Zoological Garden (Ahmedabad, Gujarat), Mugger • Surat Municipal Zoo (Surat, Gujarat), Mugger • Indroda Nature Park (Gandhi Nagar, Gujarat), Mugger • Jaipur Zoo (Jaipur, Rajasthan), Gharial and Mugger • Jodhpur Zoo (Jodhpur, Rajasthan), Mugger • Udaipur Zoo (Udaipur, Rajasthan), Mugger • Van Vihar National Park (Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh), Mugger • Prince of Wales Zoological Garden (Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh), Mugger • Kanpur Zoological Park (Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh), Mugger • Kukrail Gharial Rehabilitation Centre (Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh) GHARIAL, MUGGER AND SALTWATER CROCODILE • National Zoological Park (Delhi), Mugger • Mahendra Chaudhury Zoological Park (Chhat Bir, Chandigarh), Mugger • Kurukshetra Crocodile Centre (Kurukshetra, Haryana), Mugger Source: WII ENVIS Bulletin—Indian Crocodilians, June 1999 Courtesy: WII, Dehradun, 2008

References

Annon (1984)

Wildlife Management Technique. Ed. R.H. Giles. The Wildlife Society, Washington, D.C.

Annon (1989)

A Manual of Wildlife Conservation Ed. R.D. Teague. The Wildlife Society, Washington, D.C.

Annon (1986)

The Indian Forester; Special Issue on Wildlife Management Vol. 112.

Ambasht R.S. (!990)

A Textbook of Plant Ecology. Students Friends and Co., Varanasi.

Coulson R.G. & J.A. Witter (1984)

Forest Entomology, Ecology and Management. A WileyInterscience Publication.

Dasmann R.F. (1982)

Wildlife Biology. Wiley Eastern Ltd.

Gabrielson I.N. (1972)

Wildlife Conservation. The Macmillan Co.

Krishna Murthy A.V.R.G. (1980)

Forests and Wildlife in India. International Council of Scientific Unions.

Kapil D. (1991)

Vanyaprani Sanrakchhan avam Prabandh Taknik (Hindi). Madhya Pradesh Hindi Granth Academy.

Khanna L.S. (1985)

Vanyajiv Sanrakchhan tatha Prabandh (Hindi) Khanna Bandhu, Dehradun.

Negi S.S. (1991)

Handbook of National Parks, Sanctuaries and Biosphere Reserves in India. Indus Publishing Co., New Delhi.

Prater H.S. (1980)

The book of Indian Animals, Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay.

Saharia V.B. (1982)

Wildlife in India. Natraj Publishers, Dehradun.

Stracey P.D. (1963)

Wildlife in India: Its Conservation and Control. Government of India.

Tikader B.K. (1983)

Threatened Animals of India. Zoological Survey of India.

Venkataramany P. (1965)

India Forest Records: Wildlife and Recreation, Government of India.

Woodroffe G. (1981)

Wildlife Conservation and the Modern Zoo. Saiga Publishing Co. Ltd., England.

411

412

Textbook of Wildlife Management

Plate 1

Tiger (Panthera tigris)

Lion (Panthera leo)

Leopard (Panthera pardus)

Plate 2

Elephant (Elephas maximus)

Plate 3

Great Indian One-horned Rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis)

Plate 4

Gaur (Bos gaurus)

Blackbuck (Antilope cervicapra)

Four-horned Antelope (Tetracerus quadricornis)

Plate 5

Chital (Axis axis)

Sambhar (Cervus unicolor)

Muntjac (Muntiacus muntjak)

Plate 6

Swamp Deer (Cervus duvauceli)

Musk Deer (Moschus moschiferus)

Indian Chevrotain (Tragulus meminna)

Plate 7

Sloth Bear (Melursus ursinus)

Himalayan Black Bear (Selenarctos thibetanus)

Brown Bear (Ursus arctos)

Plate 8

Index

A Abiotic 20, 42, 94, 99 Abiotic factor (physical factors) 99 Absolute abundance 128 Absolute density 107 Abyssal zone 249 Accidents 124 Act 289, 269 Adverse climate 124 Advisory body/nonGovernment Organization/ Voluntary Organization 271 Aesthetic value 22 Afforestation 84 African elephant 195, 255 African lion 193 Agroforestry 7 Alfa diversity 155 Allen’s Rule 101 Alpine tundra 244 Amphibia 201 Andaman & Nicobar Islands 230 Andaman region 241 Animal behaviour 42 Animal community 48 Annual cyclic population 116 Annual fluctuation 59 Antagonism 43 Antelopes 209, 210 Antelopinae 209, 210, 212 Anthrax 122 Antibiosis 43 Antlers 212 Ape (Chimpanzee) 213 Arctic tundra 244 Ariel method (photographic method) 133 Artificial feeding 80 Artificial nestings 85 Artifical shelter 84 Artificial waterhole 82

Artiodactyla 209 Asiatic lion 193, 228, 252 Asiatic wild ass/hot desert wild ass 229 Assam region 241 Atmosphere 93 Auditory count/call index count/trend count 148 Australian region 231 Autotrophs 20, 93 Aves 203

B Babesiosis 124 Bandipur N.P. 184 Bannerghatta N.P. 186 Barasingha (swamp deer) 259, 265 Barking deer/muntjac/Ribfaced deer 260 Barriers 216 Bathyal zone 249 Bear 264 Beat method 132 Bergmann principle/ (Bergmann’s Rule) 46, 101 Beta animal 50 Beta diversity 155 Betla N.P. 178 Bharal (Blue sheep) 225 Biodiversity 152, 153, 167 Biodiversity conservation 152 Biogeographical region of India 241 Biogeography 214 Biological barriers 217 Biological surplus 57, 111 Biomes 94, 243 Biosphere reserve 17 Biotic 20, 42, 94, 98 Biotic community 94, 97 Biotic factors 94, 98 Biotic potential 111 Biotic province 94

413

Biotic succession 94 Bipolar distribution 216 Bird continent 232 Black quarter 123 Blackbuck (Indian antelope) 257, 265 Blind 129 Block 131 Block count 136 Blue sheep (Bharal) 225 BNHS 272 Boreal coniferous forest biome 244 Botulism 123 Bovidae 209, 211 Bovinae 209, 210 Branderi (hard ground barasingha) 180, 227 Breeding cover (nesting cover) 105 Breeding potential 111 Breeding stock 57 Brood census 129 Brow-antlered deer/thamin sangai/dancing deer 188, 224 Brown bear 264 Brucellosis 123 Brush piles 85 Buffer zone 17, 175 Bustard/Great Indian bustard 229

C Call Index count/Trend count/Auditory count 148 CAMP 275, 277 Canidae 208 CAP 278 Capped langur (Leaf monkey) 230 Caprinae 209 Captive animal 164 Capture fishery 266

414 CAR 275 Caracal 229 Caranassial teeth 208 Carnivora 208 Carnivore 48, 208 Carrying capacity 95, 118 Cave and rock-cliff shelter 84 CBSG 275 Central Himalayan region 240 Central India and Deccan plateau 241 Centre of dispersal/centre of origin 234 Cercopithecidae 213 Cervidae 211, 212 Cetacea 213 Chance predation 45 Chausingha/Four-horned antelope 227, 265 Cheek pouch 213 Cheetah (hunting leopard) 64, 228 Cheetal (spotted deer) 258, 264 Chimpanzee (Ape) 213 Chinkara (Indian gazelle) 227 Chipko movement 7, 359 Chiroptera 207 Chiru 225 CITES 269 Climatic barriers 217 Clumped dispersion 109 CMP 278 Coastal zone and Islands nearby coast zone/ region 242 Cold blooded 100 Cold desert (temperate desert) and warm hot desert (tropical desert) 245 Cold desert wild ass 225 Commensalism 42 Commercial value 23 Communication channel 52 Community 41, 47 Community and ecosystem diversity 155 Compartments 131 Competition 43 Computer chips/transponder 151 Conservation 152 Conservation dependent 169 Conservation of biodiversity 152 Conservation phase 34 Conservation strategies 158 Consumer 20, 92, 93, 267

Textbook of Wildlife Management Continental shelfs 249 Continuous distribution 215, 234 Control burning 80 Control grazing 80 Co-operation 43 Corbett N.P. 176 Core zone 17, 176 Corridors 196, 263 Cosmopolitan 164, 234 Courtship 53 Cover 95, 105 Critical level 96 Critical limit 44, 96, 161, 169 Critical maximum 96 Critical minimum 96 Critically endangered 168 Crocodile 196, 199 Crocodile breeding project 196 Cultural value 20 Culture fishery 266 Cyclic population 116 Cycling of material 92

D Dachigam N.P. 189 Dancing/brow-antlered deer/ Thamin/Sangai 188, 224 Data deficient 169 Deccan plateau zone/region 242 Deciduous forest (seasonal forest) 245 Decimating factors 121 Declining population 114 Decomposers 20, 21, 92, 267 Deforestation 4 Density 106 Desert 245 Desert cat 229 Desert zone/region 241 Dhole (wild dog) 227 Diastema 208 Diffusion corridors Digitigrade 206, 208 Direct count (visual count) 129, 130 Discontinuous distribution 215, 234 Dispersal 108 Dispersion 108 Distemper 123 Domesticated animal 164 Drive method 132 Dung count (Pellet count) 144

E Earth summit 157 Eastern Himalayan region 240 Eastern Himalayas 226 Eco-development 287 Ecological homologue 65, 72 Ecological niche 94, 95 Ecological value 20 Ecology 92 Economic value 23 Ecosystem 92 Ecotone 97 Eco-tourism 176 Eco-type forest Edentata 208 Edge 97 Edge-effect 97 Elephant 51, 195, 212, 253, 263 Elephant project 195 Elephant Proof Ditch 196 Emergency food 103 Emigration 109 Endangered 167, 168 Endemic species 164, 234 Endomism 164 Energy flow 93 Environment 94 Environmental manipulation 41, 77 Environmental resistance 111 Equidae 211 Escape cover 105 Ethical value 19 Ethiopian region 220 Ethology 55 Euphotic zone 249 Euryhaline 101 Eurythermal 100 Eurytopic 215 Eutheria 207 Exclosure 129 Expanding population 114 Exploitation phase 34 Ex-situ conservation 15, 75, 159 Extinct/Extinct species 161, 168 Extinction 44, 160, 161 Extinction in the wild 168 Extinction threshold 44, 96, 113, 162

F Face gland 258 Facundity 110 Feedback mechanism 48, 92 Felidae 208

Index Feral animal 165 Feral cat caregiver 166 Feral cat colony 165 Feral colony 167 Feral kitten 167 Fertility 110 Fire management 86 Fire-line/Fire-breaks 87 Fishes 200, 266 Fixed-width transect 140 Flat type curve (Geometric Growth Form) 58 Flocking 110 Fluctuating curve 59 Food 78, 102 Food chain 21, 44, 93, 267 Food improvement 78 Food-web 21, 44, 93, 267 Foot and mouth disease (FMD) 122 Foot print (Pug mark) 141, 142 Forest 3 Forest conservation 11, 14 Forestry 3 Four-horned antelope (Chausingha) 227, 265 Free-living animal 164 Frequency of occurrence 128 Fuel wood/fire wood 3

G Gall bladder 211, 258 Game survey 127 Game value 23 Gamma diversity 155 Gangetic plain region 240 Gaur (Indian Bison) 228, 256, 264 Gazelles 209, 210 G-CAP 275 Genetic diversity 154 Genorhietron 234 Geographic range 95 Geographical distribution 214 Geometric growth form (flat type curve) 58 Gerbil 229 G-GAR 275 Gharial 197 Gir N.P. 183 Giraffidae 209 Gloger’s rule 101 Goat-antelope 226 Golden eagle 225 Golden langur 230 Goral 226

Government Organizations 269 Great Indian Bustard/Bustard 229 Great Tibetan Sheep (Nayan) 225 Gregariousness 110 Growth-form 58, 113 GTC 270 Guano 3

H Habit predation 45 Habitat 26, 77, 94, 95 Haemorrhagic septicaemia 123 Hangul (Kashmir stag) 225 Hardground barasingha/ branderi 180, 227 Herbivore 48, 208 Herbivore safari 186 Herd 47, 50 Herpestidae 208 Heterotrophs 20, 93 Hide 129 High altitude regions of Western Himalayas 224 Himalayan black bear 264 Himalayan foothills 223 Himalayan mountain systems 223 Himalayan Tahr (Tahr) 224 Himalayan zone/region 241 Hippopotamidae 209 Homeostatis 92 Home-range 110 Homoithermic 100 Hoolock gibbon (Whitebrowed gibbon) 213, 230 Horns Hot desert wild ass/Asiatic wild ass 229 Hot desert wild Ass/Asiatic wild ass 229 Hot spots 156 Human-interference 124 Hunting record count/ marking method/ tagging method/ lincoln index method 147 Hyaenidae 208

I Ibex 224 IBWL (NBWL) 273 ICBP 275, 276

415 Illegal hunting 124 Immigration 109 Inclosure 129 Incomplete count 129 Indeterminate/Intermediate 168 Index count (Indirect count) 129, 141 Indian antelope (Blackbuck) 257, 265 Indian Bison (Gaur) 228, 256, 264 Indian chevrotain (mouse deer) 261 Indian desert/Thar desert/ Thar 228 Indian gazelle (Chinkara) 227 Indirect count (Index count) 129, 141 Individual marking 150 Indo-Gangetic plain zone/ region 242 Indo-Malayan subregion/ Tropical evergreen forest/Tropical rain forest region 229 Indus plain region 240 Inner sanctuary (Abhayaranya)/Corezone/Sanctumsanctorum 171 Insect control 80 Insectivora 207 In-situ conservation 15, 75, 159 Insuffiiciently known 168 Intensive management 227 Inter and intraspecific relations 41, 42, 98 Intermediate zone/transitory zone 175 Intermediate/indeterminate 168 Interrelationship 48 Interspersion 98 Invasive species 165 Inventory 283 In-vitro 15, 75, 159 In-vivo 15, 75, 159 Irregular population 115 Irruptive curve 59 Irruptive population 59, 117 IUCN (WCU) 274, 275

J Jordan’s Rule 101 Juxtaposition 98

416

K Kanha N.P. 179 Kashmir Stag (Hangul) 225 Kaziranga N.P. 186 Keibul–Lamjao N.P. 187 Kill-evidence method 149 King method/King Greed method 141

L Land use 38 Land use planning 38 Lande criteria/Mace criteria 278 Langur 213 Law of Minimum 96 Law of Tolerance 102 Leaf monkey (capped langur) 230 Least concern 169 Leopard (panther) 253, 263 Life-support-systems 267 Light 99 Limit of tolerance 96, 102 Limiting factor 96, 102 Lincoln Index method/ marking method/ Hunting record method 147 Line-drived census 131 Lion 51, 193, 252, 262 Lion safari 186 Lion-failed macaque 230 Local endemic 164 Lower limit and upper limit 45 Lower risk 168

M MAB 279 Macaque (Monkey) 213 Mace criteria/Lande criteria 278 Macrocycles 116 Makhna 195, 253 Malabar region 240 Mammalia 205 Management (Vermin) 75 Mane 252, 259 Manipulation 41, 59, 77 Manipulation zone 17 Marine biome 249 Markhor 224 Marking method/Tagging method/Hunting Record Count Method 129

Textbook of Wildlife Management Marmot 225 Marsupial 215 MDG 279 Metatheria 207 Microcycles 116 Migration 108 Minor/Major Forest Produce (MFP) 3 Miscellaneous count 148 Miscellaneous food 103 Monkey (hacaque) 213 Mortality 121 Mouse deer (Indian chevrotain) 261 Mouse hare (pikas) 225 Movement 125 Mugger 196, 199 Multi-team census 131 Muntjac/barking deer/Ribfaced deer 260 Musk deer 225, 260 Musk gland 260 Mustelidae 209 Musth 254 Mutualism 42 Mythological phase 34

N Natality 109 National park 17, 172, 173 National Wildlife Action Plan 285 Natural regulator 21 Natural resources 9 Natural shelter 83 Nayan (great Tibetan sheep) 225 NBWL (IBWL) 273 Near threatened 169 Negative feedback 93 Negative values 24 Neoarctic region 219 Neotropical region 232 Neritic zone 249 Nest-dwelling snake 358 Nesting census 129 Nesting cover (Breeding cover) 105 Neutral relation 43 Neutralism 42 Niche 94, 95, 267 Nilgiri 229, 230 Nilgiri langur 230 Nilgiri tahr (tahr) 230 Nival zone 244

Non-government organization voluntary organization/advisory body 271 Non-renewable natural resources 10, 18 North-East part of India zone/ region 242 North-West Himalayan region 239 Not evaluated 169

O Obnoxious animal 75, 290, 320, 355 Omega animal 50 One-horned rhino 255 Open width transect 140 Optimum density 221 Out of danger 168

P Palaearctic region 218 Palatability 104 Panther (Leopard) 253, 263 Parasitism 43 Partial count (sample count) 133 Peck 47, 50, 110 Peck-order (pecking) 43, 50, 110 Pellet count (dung count) 144 Peninsular India and drainage basin of ganges 227 Peninsular Indian subregion 226 Periodic cyclic population 117 Perissodactyla 211 Permafrost 244 Pheal 52 Photographic method/aerial method 133 Photokinesis 100 Photoperiodism 99 Photosynthesis 21 Phumdi 224 PHVA 275, 277 Physical barriers 216 Physical factors (abiotic factors) 99 Physiological need 103 Phytogeographical Regions of India 239 Phytogeography 214, 234 Pig-tailed Macaque 230 Pikas (mouse hare) 225

Index Pinch-period 102, 103 Pisces 200, 266 Plant geography 234 Plantigrade 206 Plastic species 72 Play behaviour 43 Poikilothermic 100 Poisoning 124 Polar bear 51 Population curve 58 Population cycle 113 Population dynamics 57 Population estimation 127 Population stability/structure 56, 61, 113 Positive feedback 93 Positive values 19 Prairy 245 Predation 43, 124 Predator 45 Preferred food 103 Preservation 160 Prey 45 Prey and Predator relationship 44 Pride 228, 252 Primary biotic succession 94 Primary consumers 21, 92 Primates 213 Probability sampling 135 Proboscidea 212 Producers 20, 92, 93, 267 Productivity 30, 113 Progressive/Expanding endemic 164 Project lion 193 Project tiger 191 Protected areas 16, 170 protection 160 Prototheria 207 Pseudo-endemic 164 Psychological need 103 Pug mark count/tracks trial method/track method 141 Pug mark/foot print 141, 142 PVA 277 Pyramid 20

R Rabies 123 Random dispersion 109 Random sampling 134 Rare 168 Ratio-based count 149 Realms 94

Red Data Book 167, 168, 276 Red fox/desert fox 229 Red panda 230 Reforestation 84 Relative abundance 128 Relic/conservative/ancient/ paleo-endemic 164 Renewable natural resources 10, 13 Reptile park 186 Resources 9 Restocking 70 Restoration zone 17 Retrogressive/contracting endemic 164 Rhinoceros 255 Rhinocerotidae 211 Rib-faced deer/barking deer/ muntjac 260 Rinderpest 122 Road count method 139 Rock-cliff shelter 84 Rodentia 208 Roosting cover (resting cover) 105 Runn of Kutch 229 Rupicaprinae 210

S Safari park 175 Salt-lick 80 Sambhar 259, 265 Sample 134 Sample count (partial count) 133 Sample unit/sample plot 133, 134 Sampling 134 Sampling fraction 134 Sampling methods 134 Sampling percentage 134 Sanctuary 17, 172 Sanctum-santorum 171, 176 Sangai/brow-antlered deer/ thamin/dancing deer 188, 224 Sanitary predation 45 Saturation point 108 Scavengers 2, 104 Scientific value 22 Seasonal forest/deciduous forest 245 Secondary biotic succession 94 Secondary consumers 21, 92 Security density 107 Seeping 82

417 Seladang 227 Semi-arid zone/region 242 Serow 226 Sex-radio and mating behaviour 110 Shapu (urial) 225 Shelter 105 Shelter cover 105 Shelter improvement 83 Shola forest 230 Shortable surplus 44, 121 Shou (Sikkim stag) 225 Sighting and resighting method 149 Sigmoid curve 58 Sigmoid growth form 58 Sikkim stag (shou) 225 Simiidae 213 Single-team census 131 Sirenia 213 Sloth bear 264 Social forestry 7 Social hierarchy 43, 50 Social life 50 Soil 11, 99 Soil conservation 11, 13, 82 Soil erosion 11, 13 Space 105 Spatial count 131 Spatio-temporal distribution/ spatial distribution 97, 105 Species diversity 154 Species inventory 126 Specific natality 109 Spotted deer (cheetal) 258, 264 SSC 275, 276 Stability 112 Stable population 114, 115 Staple food 103 Starvation ‘125 Stenohaline 101 Stenothermal 100 Stenotopic 215 Stratified block count 136 Stratified random sampling 135 Stratified sampling 135 Stratified sampling method 135 Stratified transect count 139 Stress 125 Stuffing food 103 Subsistence density 107 Succession 94 Sucker-list predation 45 Suidae 209

418 Sunderbans N.P. 181 Survival 112 Survival curve 113 Swamp deer (Barasingha) 259, 265 Symbiosis 42 Systematic sampling 135

T Tagging method/marking method/hunting record method/Lincoln index method 147 Tahr (Himalayan tahr) 224 Tahr (Nilgiri Tahr) 230 Taiga 244 Takin 226 Temperate and tropical desert biome 245 Temperate forest biome 244 Temperate grassland biome 245 Temperature 100 Temporal count 133 Territorialism 111 Territory 110 Tertiary consumer 21, 92 Thamin/brow-antlered deer/ sangai/dancing deer 188, 224 Threatened species 164, 168 Threshold of security Tibetan gazelle 225 Tidal zone 249 Tiger 191, 251, 263 Tiger safari 186 Tiger tracer 142 Timber 3 Tolerance density 107 Total count 129, 130 Tract and Trail method/track method/pug mark method 141 Tragelaphinae 210 Transect 134 Transect count 139 Trans-Himalayan zone/ region 241 Transitory zone/intermediate zone 175

Textbook of Wildlife Management Translocation 62, 65 Transponder/computer chips 151 Transport-based transect method 139 Travel-route cover 85 Trend count/call index count/ auditory count 148 Trophic level 20, 267 Tropical deciduous forest biome 246 Tropical evergreen forest/ Indo-Malayan subregion tropical rain forest region 229 Tropical rain forest biome 246 Tropical savanna and grassland biome 246 Trunk/proboscis 195 Tuberculosis 123 Tundra biome 244 Turnover rate 59, 112 Tusks 195, 253, 260 Two-stage sampling 135

U Ungulata 209 Unguligrade 206 Uniform dispersion 109 Universe 134 Upper and lower limit 45 Urban forestry 7 Urial (Shapu) 225 Ursidae 208

W Warm/hot desert (tropical desert) and cold desert (temperate desert) 245 Warm-blooded 100 Watch tower 87 Water 101, 104 Water conservation 14, 82 Water hole count 148 Water holes 81, 82 Water improvement 81 WCU (IUCN) 274 Western ghat zone/region 242 Western Himalayan region 240

Wetland 248 Wetland biome 248 Wetland development 82 White elephant 254 White tiger 251 White-browed gibbon/ hoolock gibbon 213 Wild ass 225, 229 Wild dog (dhole) 207 Wild goat 224 Wild path (corridor) 196, 263 Wild sheep 225 Wildlife 1, 11, 26, 67 Wildlife conservation 14, 28, 29, 33, 157, 267 Wildlife diseases 122 Wildlife in Andaman and Nicobar Islands 230 Wildlife inventory 127 Wildlife management 27, 28, 29, 67, 89, 106 Wildlife management plan 68, 283 Wildlife organization 18 Wood 4 Woodland 3 Wooly flying squirrel 225 World conservation strategies 15, 68, 158 WPSI 272 WWF 271

Y Yak 209, 225

Z Zone of physiological stress 96, 102 Zoo 175 Zoo-geographical distribution 214 Zoo-geographical realms 94, 214 Zoo-geographical regions 94, 214 Zoo-geography 214, 234 Zoological garden 175 Zoological park 175