Textbook of Educational Technology / Nursing Education [First Edition] 9349057956, 9789349057951

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Urmila Devi Bhardwaj PhD, MSc (CHN), BSc Former Professor cum Principal Rufaida College of Nursing Jamia Hamdard, New Delhi Former Professor cum Dean School of Nursing Sciences & Research Sharda University Greater Noida, Uttar Pradesh

Suchhanda Bhattacharya MSc (CHN), BSc, RM, RN Tutor/Assistant Proctor Rufaida College of Nursing Jamia Hamdard, New Delhi Former Clinical Instructor Government College of Nursing Kolkata, West Bengal

Foreword Geeta Parwanda

CBS Publishers & Distributors Pvt Ltd • New Delhi • Bengaluru • Chennai • Kochi • Kolkata • Lucknow • Mumbai • Hyderabad • Nagpur • Patna • Pune • Vijayawada

Disclaimer Science and technology are constantly changing fields. New research and experience broaden the scope of information and knowledge. The authors have tried their best in giving information available to them while preparing the material for this book. Although, all efforts have been made to ensure optimum accuracy of the material, yet it is quite possible some errors might have been left uncorrected. The publisher, the printer and the authors will not be held responsible for any inadvertent errors, omissions or inaccuracies.

eISBN: 978-93-490-5795-1 Copyright © Authors and Publisher First e Book Edition: 2023

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Foreword Today’s the academic environment has become increasingly complex, and can easily be influenced by external forces. As far as learning is concerned, it is a lifelong process, so for beginners in nursing, the technology of education must be such which can make the budding nurses familiar with the importance and value of education technology in nursing.  his book focuses on how to integrate technologies into the teaching-learning process and use them T to facilitate student learning. The special features of the book include key terms, and assess yourself (with long, short, and multiple types of questions). It is also enriched with a number of tables and figures for ease of learning. The book covers new concepts in teaching-learning process which will prove highly beneficial to learners. I am very glad to write the foreword of the book on educational technology for BSc Nursing which will not be only a knowledge provider but will also create interest in the subject.

Geeta Parwanda

Dean cum Principal Panna Dhai Maa Subharti Nursing College Swami Vivekanand Subharti University Meerut, Uttar Pradesh

Contributors and Reviewers Contributors Aastha Singh

Seema Rani

MSc (N), BSc

MSc (N), MPhil (Health Care and Hospital Administration), RM, RN

Assistant Professor Sharda School of Nursing Science and Research Sharda University Greater Noida, Uttar Pradesh

Associate Professor cum Vice Principal Rufaida College of Nursing Jamia Hamdard, New Delhi

Saliqua Sehar MSc (N), RM, RN

Tutor Rufaida College of Nursing Jamia Hamdard, New Delhi

Reviewers Abey Varughese

Jesudian K Nath

MSN (N)

MSc (N), RN, RPN (Mental Health Nursing)

Principal Sharbati College of Nursing Mahendergarh, Haryana

Associate Professor cum Principal Incharge United Institute of Nursing United University Prayagraj, Uttar Pradesh

Annu Gaba

Jyoti Srivastava

PhD, MSc (CHN), BSc

MSc (N), RM, RN (Medical Surgical Nursing)

Associate Professor Amity University Manesar, Gurugram

Assistant Professor United Institute of Nursing and Paramedical Sciences United University Prayagraj, Uttar Pradesh

The names of the contributors and reviewers are arranged in an alphabetical order.

viii

Textbook of Educational Technology/Nursing Education Kannammal C

Ramesh Bandagar

PhD Scholar (CHN), MSc (N), RM, RN (Community Health Nursing)

PhD Scholar, MSc (N) (Community Health Nursing)

Professor cum Vice Principal, HOD Hind College of Nursing (HIMS) Barabanki, Uttar Pradesh

Principal The Yash Foundation’s College of Nursing and Medical Research Institute Ratnagiri, Maharashtra

Mamta Verma

Saumya Srivastave

PhD (Scholar) (Public Health), MSN (N)

MSN (Oncology Nursing), RM, RN

Associate Professor All India Institute of Medical Sciences Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh

Nursing Tutor Vivekananda College of Nursing Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh

Nitisha Shruti Julious

Sumity Arora

MSc (OBG Nursing), RM, RN (Obstetrical and Gynecological Nursing)

MSN (N)

Assistant Professor United Institute of Nursing and Paramedical Sciences United University Prayagraj, Uttar Pradesh

Faculty Panna Dai College of Nursing Deen Dayal Upadhyay Hospital New Delhi

Rajni

Varinder Kaur

MSc (OBG) (N), RM, RN (Obstetrical and Gynecological Nursing)

PhD (N), MSc (CHN), MA (Pub. Ad.)

Nursing Tutor Hind College of Nursing (HIMS) Barabanki, Uttar Pradesh

Principal HIMCAPES’ College of Nursing Badhere, Una Himachal Pradesh

The names of the contributors and reviewers are arranged in an alphabetical order.

Preface Educational Technology can be used in various ways to improve learning outcomes, such as providing personalized and adaptive learning experiences, enabling collaborative learning, and increasing access to education for learners in remote or underserved areas. In this book, all the aspects of Educational Technologies have been covered keeping nursing segment in mind. This book is divided into 8 chapters covering the important topics such as Learning Theories, Teaching Strategies, Assessment Methods, Implementation, etc. relevant to nursing education. This book focuses on the design and delivery of nursing curricula, including topics, such as curriculum development, program evaluation, and teaching strategies, teaching in clinical settings, evidencebased learning and practices and latest education technology. Case studies and reflective exercises have been covered to apply the concepts discussed in the book to their own teaching practice. The chapters of textbook have been organized systematically according to new INC syllabus to explore and validate current knowledge. A number of examples have been used throughout the book to make the topic clearer from the student’s point of view. This book is studded with evidence-based facts in the field of nursing. The contents of the book have been designed in the manner that students will correlate theoretical knowledge to their clinical practice. We are pretty sure that this book will be surely useful for nursing students. We also believe that this book will be beneficial for the target audience in best manner. All the feedback and concerns are highly appreciated for further consideration. Urmila Devi Bhardwaj Suchhanda Bhattacharya

Acknowledgments I am grateful to the teachers of yesteryears who imbibed high standards of nursing practice in me, mentors of today who refined, updated and polished me and made me what I am today, and teachers of tomorrow who are ready to take this profession of caring to newer heights. My students owe a special thanks for stimulating me to write this book and providing me with valuable input, and evoked my hidden capabilities. I am thankful to the co-author Ms Suchhanda Bhattacharya and chapter contributors for their valuable contributions. No work can be initiated and completed without family support. At the outset, I am thankful to my parents who left no stone unturned to educate me and moulded me into the person I am today. It is truly said that a child is a teacher of mankind, so my thanks are also due to my granddaughters, Kyra Bhardwaj and Siya Bhardwaj who are sources of my inspiration for perfect communication. I place on record encouragement provided by my son Raghav Bhardwaj and daughter-in-law, Nisha Singla who provided unconditional support in this endeavor. I am overwhelmed to mention the names of my daughter Nikshubha Bhardwaj and son-in-law Satyendra Bhandari for standing by my side in times of high and low. 

Urmila Devi Bhardwaj

We would like to thank Mr Satish Kumar Jain (Chairman) and Mr Varun Jain (Managing Director), M/s CBS Publishers and Distributors Pvt Ltd for providing us the platform in bringing out the book. We have no words to describe the role, efforts, inputs and initiatives undertaken by Mr Bhupesh Aarora, Sr. Vice President – Publishing and Marketing (Health Sciences Division) for helping and motivating us. We sincerely thank the entire CBS team for bringing out the book with utmost care and attractive presentation. We would like to thank Ms Nitasha Arora (Publishing Head and Content Strategist – PGMEE and Nursing), and Dr Anju Dhir (Product Manager cum Commissioning Editor – Medical) for their editorial support. We would also extend our thanks to Mr Shivendu Bhushan Pandey (Sr. Manager and Team Lead), Mr Ashutosh Pathak (Sr. Proofreader cum Team Coordinator) and all the production team members for devoting laborious hours in designing and typesetting the book.  

Urmila Devi Bhardwaj Suchhanda Bhattacharya

It gives us immense pleasure to share with you that Nursing Knowledge Tree—An

initiative by CBS Nursing Division, has successful established itself in the field of nursing as we have been standing as a strong contender by sharing approximately 50% of market share. This growth could not have been possible without your invaluable contribution as our reader, author, reviewer, contributor and recommender, and your outstanding support for the growth of our titles as a whole. Before I enunciate in detail, I would like to thank each and every Clinical Nurse, Academician and Nursing Student for the phenomenal support during the COVID-19 pandemic. It is all your support that instilled a sense of responsibility in us and provided us with strength and motivation to survive under the worst circumstances of the pandemic. The last 2–3 years were the most crucial phase when the entire world stood still due to adversity of COVID-19. The normal life was in turmoil, and people had no idea what would be their next step and how long this crisis would persist. In the midst of all, a few things which nobody could stop is ‘Change’, which is inevitable. During these years, we have done a lot of innovations and put our best efforts in implementing those innovations to bring quality education and make sure that every person should have access to best possible education. It is worth mentioning that with all your support we have made some remarkable innovations in the field of nursing education, which are: 1. More quality books by the top Authors from the top institutes 2. Entered into Nursing EdTech Segment with NNL App (Nursing Next Live Application) 3. NN Social 4. Phygital Books 5. Social Media Presence 6. Built Strong Community (Faculty/Student Ambassador Program) As a publisher, we have been contributing to the field of Medical Sciences, Nursing and Allied Sciences and have many established titles in the market. Tradition is carrying forward the legacy of the old pattern and approach in the contemporary time. We broke the boundary of being a traditional publisher through innovations and changes. As far as publishing industry is concerned, we are the first to enter the Nursing EdTech with the Launch of Nursing Next Live App. Through Nursing Next Live, we made possible the reach of quality education from Jammu and Kashmir to Kanyakumari and from Gujarat to Arunachal Pradesh. We started with the mission: “We are bringing Learning to the People Instead People are going for the Learning.” When pandemic halted everything, the future seemed to be doomed, Nursing Next Live made it possible for the Nursing Professionals across the nation to keep continuing their learning and helped them to achieve their dream career.

In a step toward strengthening the Nursing Segment, we have melded the four important pillars—Print, Digital, Nursing Professionals and Social Media—to work in a homogenized manner for the better future of the nursing education through: NN Social, a community of 20K+ professionals, is an initiative of Nursing Next Live as India’s knowledgesharing network platform for the nursing segment. Nursing Next Social is curated with the aim to bring all the nursing faculty members across the nation closer and together on a single platform. Through NN Social, we aim to connect the sharp minds across the nation to use their knowledge for the better future of Nursing Profession. With NN Social India’s top-notch societies, like TNAI, SOCN, NTA, KINS, etc. are associated with us. Apart from this, NN Social has a strong network of 100+ authors, 500+ reviewers and contributors. They all are dedicated and committed as we are, toward imparting quality nursing education. In the era of digitalization, to make study interactive and convenient, we have conceptualized the idea of Phygital Edition of the books. In this series, our many bestselling titles are available in the phygital form. This phygital learning is a blended learning wherein printed booklets are thoughtfully integrated with the digital support to reconceptualize the learning method in a more interactive manner with added values to knowledge. Phygital edition is an endeavor to facilitate the next level of preparation for any nursing competitive exams through quality content, flexibility, customization and engaging interactive learning experiences. We have also increased our social media presence through meaningful and innovative ideas and are committed to assist the nursing professionals in gaining and sharing the knowledge. We have taken the initiative to learn from the experience of the others and started NNL Talks. It is a platform where every nursing professional who has done exceptionally well in his/her career, toppers of any Nursing Exams and those who manage themselves in all the odds and stand firm and determined and succeed in his/her life, can share the success journey. We aim to motivate, educate and encourage the nursing professionals through various activities and posts on our social media platform. Whatever initiative we take, we always make sure that it is for a noble cause of promoting the quality education accessible to everyone. Today we can say this with confidence, we “CBS Publishers and NNL” have an edge over all other Indian and International Publishers. Our Approach, Vision, Mission, Concept, Content, Reach, Ideas all have a single goal that is better nursing education can lead to a better healthcare system. Long way to go…. Together! Looking forward to invite more young and experienced minds who can join us as Authors, Reviewers, Contributors, and Faculties and accomplish our mission of providing quality nursing education to all. With Best Wishes Mr Bhupesh Aarora Sr. Vice President – Publishing and Marketing (Health Sciences Division)

Special Features of the Book LEARNING OBJECTIVES After studying this chapter, students will be able to: Â Identify essential qualities and attributes of a teacher. Â Describe the teaching styles of faculty.

Learning Objectives given in all the chapters focus on the areas that a student will become aware of after completing the chapter.

CHAPTER OUTLINE  Introduction  Teaching and its Definition  Features of Good Teaching  Learning Pyramid

Every chapter starts with a Chapter Outline that gives a glimpse of the content covered in the chapter.

KEY TERMS Teaching: Teaching is a social process. The meaning of teaching is ‘to teach’. Teaching is a three-dimensional process in which the teacher and the student realize their nature through the curriculum. That is, by making a subject matter a medium, we call teaching only the exchange of ideas or mutual interaction between the teacher and the learner.

Important terms used in the chapter are enlisted under Key Terms.

TABLE 8.2: Value development strategies

Numerous Tables have been used to provide necessary data in compiled form.

Strategy

Examples

Classroom learning strategy

Essay, article, newspaper proverb, quotation.

Practical activity strategy

Classroom maintenance activity: Social development activity, awareness activity, like AIDS awareness, and environmental degradation.

xviii Textbook of Educational Technology/Nursing Education Numerous Figures are used to make learning easy for students.

Fig. 2.3:  Diagrammatic representation of clinical teaching

ASSESS YOURSELF Long Answer Type Questions 1.  What do you understand by workshop? Discuss the advantages and disadvantages as well. 2. What is the difference between lecture and discussion?

Short Answer Type Questions

At the end of every chapter, Assess Yourself section has been included to help the students in assessing their learning.

1. Enumerate the techniques of lecture. 2. Define the learning pyramid.

Multiple Choice Questions 1. Factors influencing selection of clinical learning experience except: a. Allowing students to practise and make decision b. Relationship with clinical staff c. Mentoring done by teaching and clinical staff d. Innovative and creative clinical environment

Further Readings

To have supportive extra knowledge, Further Readings section has been included.

1. Education in India. International Educational E-Journal Volume III, Issue II, April– June 2014. 2. Patra, J. N. (2014): The Role of ICT in Improving the Quality of School 3. Prakash R. Textbook of nursing education. 1st edition. CBS Publishers

Syllabus Educational Technology/Nursing Education Placement: V SEMESTER

Theory: 2 Credits (40 hours)

Course Content Unit Time (Hrs)

I

Learning Outcomes

T

P

6

3 • Explain the definition, aims, types, approaches and scope of educational technology • Compare and contrast the various educational philosophies • Explain the teaching learning process, nature, characteristics and principles

T – Theory, P – Practical (Laboratory) Content

Introduction and Theoretical Foundations: Education and educational technology • Definition, aims • Approaches and scope of educational technology • Latest approaches to education: ƒ Transformational education ƒ Relationship-based education ƒ Competency-based education Educational philosophy: • Definition of philosophy, education and philosophy • Comparison of educational philosophies • Philosophy of nursing education Teaching learning process: • Definitions • Teaching learning as a process • Nature and characteristics of teaching and learning • Principles of teaching and learning • Barriers to teaching and learning

Teaching/ Learning Activities

Lecture cum discussion Group exercise: Create/discuss scenario-based exercise

Assessment Methods

Quiz Assessment of Assignment: Learning theories— analysis of any one

Contd...

xx

Textbook of Educational Technology/Nursing Education Unit Time (Hrs) T

Learning Outcomes

Content

Teaching/ Learning Activities

Assessment Methods

Lecture cum discussion Self-assessment exercise: • Identify your learning style using any learning style inventory (ex. Kolb‘s learning style inventory) • Lecture cum discussion Individual/group exercise: • Writing learning outcomes • Preparation of a lesson plan

• Short answer • Objective type Assessment of assignment: Individual/ Group

P

• Learning theories • Latest approaches to learning ƒ Experiential learning ƒ Reflective learning ƒ Scenario-based learning ƒ Simulation-based learning ƒ Blended learning II

6

6 • Identify essential qualities/ attributes of a teacher • Describe the teaching styles of faculty • Explain the determinants of learning and initiates selfassessment to identify own learning style • Identify the factors that motivate the learner • Define curriculum and classify types • Identify the factors influencing curriculum development • Develop skill in writing learning outcomes, and lesson plan

Assessment and Planning Assessment of teacher • Essential qualities of a teacher • Teaching styles–Formal authority, demonstrator, facilitator, delegator Assessment of learner • Types of learners • Determinants of learning— learning needs, readiness to learn, learning styles • Today‘s generation of learners and their skills and attributes • Emotional intelligence of the learner • Motivational factors— personal factors, environmental factors and support system Curriculum planning • Curriculum—definition, types • Curriculum design— components, approaches • Curriculum development— factors influencing curriculum development, facilitators and barriers • Writing learning outcomes/ behavioral objectives • Basic principles of writing course plan, unit plan and lesson plan

Contd...

Syllabus xxi Unit Time (Hrs) T

Learning Outcomes

Content

Teaching/ Learning Activities

Assessment Methods

P

III

8 15 • Explain the principles and strategies of classroom management • Describe different methods/ strategies of teaching and develop beginning skill in using various teaching methods • Explain active learning strategies and participate actively in team and collaborative learning

Implementation Teaching in Classroom and Skill lab—Teaching Methods • Classroom management— principles and strategies • Classroom communication ƒ Facilitators and barriers to classroom communication ƒ Information communication technology (ICT)—ICT used in education Teaching methods—Features, advantages and disadvantages • Lecture, Group discussion, microteaching • Skill lab—simulations, demonstration & re-demonstration • Symposium, panel discussion, seminar, scientific workshop, exhibitions • Role play, project • Field trips • Self-directed learning (SDL) • Computer assisted learning • One-to-one instruction Active learning strategies • Team-based learning • Problem-based learning • Peer sharing • Case study analysis • Journaling • Debate • Gaming • Interprofessional education

IV

3

Teaching in the Clinical • Lecture cum • Short answer Setting—Teaching Methods discussion • Assessment • Clinical learning • Writing clinical of written environment outcomes— assignment • Factors influencing assignments in selection of clinical learning pairs experiences

3 • Enumerate the factors influencing selection of clinical learning experiences

• Lecture cum • Short answer discussion • Objective • Practice type teaching/ • Assessment Microof microteaching teaching • Exercise (Peer teaching) • Patient teaching session • Construction of game – puzzle • Teaching in groups– interdisciplinary

Contd...

xxii Textbook of Educational Technology/Nursing Education Unit Time (Hrs) T

Learning Outcomes

Content

Teaching/ Learning Activities

Assessment Methods

P

• Develop skill in • Practice model using different • Characteristics of effective clinical teaching clinical teacher strategies • Writing clinical learning outcomes/practice competencies • Clinical teaching strategies— patient assignment— clinical conference, clinical presentation/bedside clinic, case study/care study, nursing rounds, concept mapping, project, debate, game, role play, PBL, questioning, written assignment, process recording V

5

5 • Explain the purpose, principles and steps in the use of media • Categorize the different types of media and describe its advantages and disadvantages • Develop skill in preparing and using media

Educational/Teaching Media • Lecture cum • Short answer • Media use—purpose, discussion • Objective components, principles and • Preparation type steps of different • Assessment • Types of media teaching aids— of the Still visuals (Integrate teaching • Nonprojected—drawings with practice media & diagrams, charts, graphs, teaching prepared posters, cartoons, board sessions) devices (chalk/white board, bulletin board, flannel board, flip charts, flash cards, still pictures/ photographs, printed materials-handout, leaflet, brochure, flyer • Projected—film stripes, microscope, power point slides, overhead projector Moving visuals • Video learning resources— videotapes & DVD, blu-ray, USB flash drive • Motion pictures/films Realia and models • Real objects & models Audio aids/audio media • Audiotapes/Compact discs • Radio and tape recorder Contd...

Syllabus xxiii Unit Time (Hrs) T

Learning Outcomes

Content

Teaching/ Learning Activities

Assessment Methods

P

• Public address system • Digital audio

Electronic media/computer learning resources • Computers • Web-based video conferencing • E-learning, Smart classroom Telecommunication (Distance education) • Cable TV, satellite broadcasting, video conferencing Telephones—Telehealth/ telenursing Mobile technology VI

5

3 • Describe the purpose, scope, principles in selection of evaluation methods and barriers to evaluation • Explain the guidelines to develop assessment tests • Develop skill in construction of different tests • Identify various clinical evaluation tools and demonstrate skill in selected tests

Assessment/Evaluation • Lecture cum Methods/Strategies discussion • Purposes, scope and • Exercise on principles in selection of constructing assessment methods and assessment types tools • Barriers to evaluation • Guidelines to develop assessment tests Assessment of knowledge: • Essay type questions, • Short answer questions (SAQ) • Multiple choice questions (MCQ—single response & multiple response) Assessment of skills: • Clinical evaluation • Observation (checklist, rating scales, videotapes) • Written communication— progress notes, nursing care plans, process recording, written assignments • Verbal communication (oral examination) • Simulation • Objective Structured Clinical Examination (OSCE) • Self-evaluation • Clinical portfolio, clinical logs

• Short answer • Objective type • Assessment of tools prepared

Contd...

xxiv Textbook of Educational Technology/Nursing Education Unit Time (Hrs) T

Learning Outcomes

Content

Teaching/ Learning Activities

Assessment Methods

P

Assessment of attitude: Attitude scales Assessment tests for higher learning: Interpretive questions, hot spot questions, drag and drop and ordered response questions VII 3

3 • Explain the scope, purpose and principles of guidance • Differentiate between guidance and counseling • Describe the principles, types, and counseling process • Develop basic skill of counseling and guidance • Recognize the importance of preventive counseling and develop skill to respond to disciplinary problems and grievance among students

Guidance/Academic Advising, • Lecture cum Counseling and Discipline discussion Guidance • Role play on student • Definition, objectives, counseling scope, purpose and in different principles situations • Roles of academic advisor/ • Assignment faculty in guidance on identifying Counseling situations • Difference between requiring guidance and counseling counseling • Definition, objectives, scope, principles, types, process and steps of counseling • Counseling skills/ techniques—basics • Roles of counselor • Organization of counseling services • Issues for counseling in nursing students Discipline and grievance in students • Managing disciplinary/ grievance problems— preventive guidance and counseling • Role of students‘ grievance redressal cell/committee

• Assessment of performance in role play scenario • Evaluation of assignment

Contd...

Syllabus xxv Unit Time (Hrs) T

VIII 4

Learning Outcomes

Content

Teaching/ Learning Activities

Assessment Methods

P

2 • Recognize the importance of value-based education • Develop skill in ethical decision making and maintain ethical standards for students • Introduce knowledge of EBT and its application in nursing education

Ethics and Evidence-Based Teaching (EBT) in Nursing Education Ethics–Review • Definition of terms • Value-based education in nursing • Value development strategies • Ethical decision making • Ethical standards for students • Student-faculty relationship Evidence-based teaching— Introduction • Evidence-based education process and its application to nursing education

• Value • Short answer clarification • Evaluation exercise of case study • Case study analysis analysis • Quiz—MCQ (student encountered scenarios) and suggest ethical decisionmaking steps • Lecture cum discussion

Contents Foreword........................................................................................................................................................................ v Contributors and Reviewers....................................................................................................................................vii Preface.......................................................................................................................................................................... ix Acknowledgments..................................................................................................................................................... xi Special Features of the Book.................................................................................................................................xvii Syllabus.......................................................................................................................................................................xix Chapter 1

Introduction to Theoretical Foundations.......................................................1–30 Education and Education Technology  2 ◆ Introduction  2 ◆ Definitions  2 ◆ Aims of Education  3 ◆ Functions of Education  4 ◆ Principles of Education  5 ◆ Educational Objectives  6 ◆ Bloom’s Taxonomy of Education  7 ◆ Lesson Plan  11 ◆ Latest Approaches in Education  15 ◆ Educational Philosophies 18 Teaching and Learning Process  19 ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆

Chapter 2

Nature and Characteristics of Learning  19 Principles of Teaching  22 Maxims of Teaching  23 Technology Education  24 Latest Approaches to Learning  25

Assessment and Planning............................................................................ 31–59 ◆ Introduction 32 ◆ Teaching and its Definition 33 ◆ Features of Good Teaching 33

xxviii Textbook of Educational Technology/Nursing Education ◆ Learning Pyramid 34 ◆ Virtual Learning 34 ◆ Clinical Teaching Method 35 ◆ Essential Qualities of Teacher 36 ◆ Teaching Style 40 ◆ Types of Learner 42 ◆ Determinants of Learning 43 ◆ Readiness to Learn 46 ◆ Today’s Generation of Learner and Their Skills and Attributes 46 ◆ Emotional Intelligence 47 ◆ Curriculum Planning 48 ◆ Meaning of Curriculum 49 Chapter 3

Implementation.......................................................................................... 61–124 ◆ Classroom Management 62 ◆ Techniques of Classroom Teaching 64 ◆ Nature of Classroom Communication 66 ◆ Skills of Communication 68 ◆ Elements of Communication 71 ◆ Types of Communications 74 ◆ Patient Education Teach-Back 79 ◆ Basic Elements of Communication Process 79 ◆ Lecture 80 ◆ Group Discussion 85 ◆ Seminar 89 ◆ Symposium 92 ◆ Panel Discussion 94 ◆ Role Play 96 ◆ Field Trip 100 ◆ Workshop 102 ◆ Computer-Assisted Learning Program 106 ◆ Microteaching 110 ◆ Simulation 113 ◆ Demonstration 114 ◆ Self-Directed Learning 116 ◆ Active Learning Strategies 118

Contents xxix Chapter 4

Teaching in the Clinical Setting............................................................... 125–144 ◆ Clinical Learning Environment 125 ◆ Teaching in the Clinic 130 ◆ Clinical Teaching Strategies 130 ◆ Nursing Rounds 134

Chapter 5

Educational/Teaching Media................................................................... 145–169 ◆ Introduction 146 ◆ Communication Media/Audio-Visual Aids 146 Common Audio-Visual Aids Used for Nursing Students  151 ◆ Chalkboard/Blackboard, Whiteboard 151 ◆ Objects, Specimens and Models 152 ◆ Posters 153 ◆ Charts 154 ◆ Flannel Graphs/Khadi Graph/Welt Board 155 ◆ Bulletin Board 156 ◆ Flash Cards 157 ◆ Three-Dimensional Aids 158 ◆ Mock-ups 159 ◆ Exhibitions 160 ◆ Museums 161 ◆ Puppets 161 ◆ Other Aids 162 Electronic Media/Computer Learning Resources  164 ◆ Computers 164 ◆ Web-Based Video Conferencing 165 ◆ E-Learning 165 ◆ Smart Classroom 166 ◆ Telecommunication (Distance Education) 166

Chapter 6

Assessment and Evaluation Methodologies........................................... 171–189 ◆ Introduction 172 ◆ Definitions 172 ◆ Concept of Evaluation 172 ◆ Nature of Evaluation 173 ◆ Purposes of Evaluation 173 ◆ Purposes of Evaluation in Nursing 173

xxx

Textbook of Educational Technology/Nursing Education ◆ Scope of Evaluation 174 ◆ Barriers to Evaluation 174 ◆ Types of Assessment/Evaluation 175 ◆ Classification of Tools and Techniques of Assessment 176 ◆ Assessment of Knowledge 176 ◆ Assessment of Skills 179 ◆ Assessment of Attitude 183 ◆ Progress Notes 185 ◆ Process Recording 186 Chapter 7

Guidance/Academic Advising Counseling and Discipline .................... 191–226 ◆ Introduction 192 ◆ Concept of Education 192 ◆ Guidance 194 ◆ Counseling 203 ◆ Difference Between Counseling and Guidance 211 ◆ Occupational and Educational Information 213 ◆ Counseling Skills 219 ◆ Discipline and Grievance in Students 221 ◆ Grievance and Redressal Cell 221

Chapter 8

Ethics and Evidence-Based Teaching in Nursing Education.................. 227–244 ◆ Introduction 228 ◆ Code of Ethics 228 ◆ Value-Based Education in Nursing 228 ◆ Value Development Strategies 229 ◆ Ethical Decision-Making 230 ◆ Ethics in Education 231 ◆ Principles of Ethics in Education 232 ◆ Ethical Standards for Students 233 ◆ Student-Faculty Relationship 233 ◆ Evidence-Based Practice 234 ◆ Evidence-Based Teaching 239

Annexures ...................................................................................................................... 245–257 Annexure I  Format of Lesson Plan 245 Annexure II  Annotated Bibliography 246

Contents xxxi Annexure III  Master Rotation Plan 247 Annexure IV  Rating Scale 250 Annexure V  Clinical Rotation Plan 251 Annexure VI  Evaluation Criteria of Classroom Teaching 253 Annexure VII  Format of Anecdotal Record 254 Annexure VIII  Format of OSCE/OSPE 255 Index.................................................................................................................................................................259–264

1 Introduction to Theoretical Foundations LEARNING OBJECTIVES After studying this chapter, students will be able to: � Explain the definition, aims, types, approaches and scope of educational technology. Â Compare and contrast the various educational philosophies. Â Explain the teaching learning process, nature, characteristics and principles.

CHAPTER OUTLINE Education and Education Technology  Introduction  Definitions  Aims of Education  Functions of Education  Principles of Education  Educational Objectives  Bloom’s Taxonomy of Education  Lesson Plan

 Latest Approaches in Education  Educational Philosophies Teaching and Learning Process  Nature and Characteristics of Learning  Principles of Teaching  Maxims of Teaching  Technology Education  Latest Approaches to Learning

KEY TERMS Domain: Learning can generally be categorized into three domains: (1) Cognitive, (2) Affective, and (3) Psychomotor. Within each domain are multiple levels of learning that progress from more basic, surfacelevel learning to more complex, deeper-level learning. The level of learning, will vary across learning experiences depending on:   The nature of the experience   The developmental levels of the participating students   The duration and intensity of the experience. Cognitive stage of learning: The cognitive stage of learning is the first stage of learning when a person is setting out to learn a new skill or technique. This is known as the thinking stage. An example of this could be an athlete learning how to perform a serve in tennis.

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Associate stage of learning: The associative stage of learning is the next phase an athlete goes through when learning a new skill. This is known as the practice phase and athletes begin to learn what errors they are making and will continue to practice how to serve in tennis. During this phase, the athletes will notice they are beginning to make progress. Autonomous stage of learning: This is the final stage of learning and is when a skill has been overlearned and is now automatically recalled when needed. Athletes can now also begin to concentrate on other tasks. Taxonomy: Taxonomies in education are classification systems based on an organizational scheme. It is a set of carefully defined terms, organized from simple to complex and from concrete to abstract, provide a framework of categories into which one may classify educational goals.

EDUCATION AND EDUCATION TECHNOLOGY INTRODUCTION When we termed this word, generally people get the concept of big books, boring lectures, strict teachers, assignments, and so on, and automatically we start feeling sleepy. But as the spectrum of the word is being enhanced, new ways, methods, and techniques are being imparted to make the frame more interesting. Education is an act or process of acquiring knowledge that will further help people to think and provide them with the reasoning power to keep their judgment polishing their intellectuals and preparing them for mature life. Education is control gained by enforcing obedience and order with the help of guidance, teaching, and imparting knowledge to the individual. Education can be a transmission of values, rights, and professionalism in the individual, and as there is a common saying, “that education usually begins at home”. Education is not only designed to make the individual professionally stable but also to guide the individual in learning about his/her culture and customs and molding his/her behavior as adulthood, and directing him/her for an eventual role in the society. As society is becoming more complex day by day and institutions, schools, universities, and other educational centers are becoming more institutionalized and focus more on the curriculum hence, the educational experience becoming more directive and less relative to daily life.

DEFINITIONS Education is both the act of teaching others knowledge and receiving any knowledge or guidance from others as a part of their experience. Education is defined as where the act of learning and the act of instructing goes hand in hand. It usually takes place under the guidance or influence of an educator, teacher, elder, younger, or experienced person. According to Mahatma Gandhi, education not only molds the new generation but also reflects society’s fundamental assumptions about itself and the individuals who comprise it. By education, he meant, and all-round development drawing out the best in the child’s body, mind, and spirit. He stated that literacy is not the end of education. Education is change in behavior which is not necessary to be found in literate person. It is only the means by which men and women can be educated. In his opinion, education should aim at developing self-reliance, where people learn to earn their livelihood. His aims of education also emphasized character formation and all-round

CHAPTER 1  Introduction to Theoretical Foundations development (physical, mental, social, moral, esthetic, and religious). According to him, education should make children ideal members of the democratic society. He wanted a school to be a “doing and thinking school”, rather than a listening school. He emphasized experiential learning through which the child acquires knowledge and utilizes it for the understanding and control of his social environment. He aspired that education should enable the child to relate what is learned in school to real-life situations. His concept of Buniyadi Talim (basic education) stresses learning through craft, which favors the child belonging to the lowest stratum of society. Education through craft was felt desirable as it relieves the child from the stress of purely academic and theoretical instruction. Swami Vivekananda (1863–1902), a great thinker and reformer of India, provides an insight into what education ought to be. According to him, “Education is the manifestation of the divine perfection, already existing in man”. The word “manifestation” implies that something already exists and is waiting to be expressed. The main focus of learning is to make the hidden ability of a learner manifest. Vivekananda believed that the system of education, which existed at that time, did not enable a person to stand on his/her own feet, nor did it teach him/her self-confidence and selfrespect. To Swami Vivekananda, education was not only a collection of information but something more meaningful. He felt that education should be man-making, life-giving, and characterbuilding. The aim of education, according to him, is to manifest in our lives the perfection, which is the very nature of our inner-self, which resides in everything and everywhere, which is known as “satchitananda” (existence, consciousness, and bliss). Hence, education, in Vivekananda’s sense, enables one to comprehend one’s self within as the self everywhere. The essential unity of the entire universe is realized through education. Therefore, man-making relates to the harmonious development of the body, mind, and soul.

AIMS OF EDUCATION Education is being termed a lifelong process. The aim is to provide education to individuals with a direction and focus on life education is a treasure that cannot be stolen, and if preserved, it’s going to benefit the individual in one way or the other. Knowledge and education provided in the right direction help one to be directional in life (Fig. 1.1).

Social Aim As we all know and are aware of the fact that human beings are considered social animals they cannot live without communication and sharing their thoughts. Therefore, if the education is given to the individual in the right direction it will contribute to making the individual product for the society. Every individual is born with his/her own potential and education helps him/her to fulfill that potential. Society is the result of interaction among the individual. If the person is educated, we

Fig. 1.1:  Aims of education

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ensure the existence of the individual to be peaceful for society. With education, the individual is motivated to believe in the values of fair play, harmony, and, a healthy competitive spirit. Education makes the student valuable for the nation and productive for the society.

Vocational Aim Process of education which we are following helps the individual to become capable of livelihood so he can lead a productive life in the society. The individual will be able to learn to respect the dignity of labor. This aim makes the individual be self-reliant and sufficient and bridges the gap between education and vocation. Education provides knowledge and skills to an individual in a fruitful manner.

Cultural Aim Education teaches the individual about the customs and tradition as well hence we say that education has cultural aims as well as it helps the individual to be civilized and cultured. The person who is well educated automatically develops the esthetics and respect for not only his/her own culture but also for other cultures as well.

Moral Aim As we all are aware and discussed earlier as well that education helps the individual to build up a respectable personality. We see most of the values inculcating in the individual automatically, like honesty, truthfulness, justice, goodness, purity, courage, punctuality, and dutifulness are nurtured through education.

Spiritual Aim Education also plays an important role to develop spirituality in the individual when the individual tries to raise himself and works for the welfare of others. We see development of this feature in the individual when one devotes, himself helping others whenever and by whatever means one can, this feature is being termed self-actualization. The individual is not only able to differentiate between right and wrong but also practices the same in life.

Intellectual Aim As the individual becomes educated the one gains the ability to innate the power of intellectual capacity to think with a rationale and helps the one to lead his life independently and confidently.

FUNCTIONS OF EDUCATION The functions of education toward individual, society and the nation have been shown in Figure 1.2.

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As an individual if the person is educated it will help him/her to develop the inborn potentials one has by providing him/her the scope to develop and learn. Education helps the individual in the Fig. 1.2:  Functions of education modification of the behavior and the personality as well through learning and working under the guidance of different agencies.

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Education focuses on not only increasing the knowledge of the individual but also helping him/her to work on the overall personality development, which includes the spiritual, social, mental, and emotional aspects. Education helps the individual to earn his livelihood by preparing him for the future challenges therefore the education must be imparted in the interest of the child. The personality of the individual also grows when one is well educated in the aspect of the personality to focus on all the parameters spiritual, physical, social, intellectual, and esthetical. Helping the individual to adjust to society as one possesses the ability to think and tries to adjust to his environment through education.

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Social change and control: As we are aware that the society is dynamic and progressive, every individual is a part of the society and the environment around him influences in the development of the individual, some of the old customs and traditions are never changing therefore it is transmitted as it is but we should not blindly believe the old customs and traditions that we are following hence it should be preserved and transmitted with the situation and with the help of education we can always walk with development of science and technology. Reconstruction of experience: The individual who wants to learn, education for the one is a lifelong learning process, a treasure that grows with experience and time. One cannot live throughout his/her life with past experience hence one learns and grows, therefore, education helps the individual to reconstruct the experience and adjust with the environment. Development of the social and moral values: Even after the focus is being given to the education still the society is facing a narrow mindset it is nothing wrong with saying that the humans are turning devilish, and that man has started behaving worse than the animals. This type of animalism can be changed to some extent by educating them about Morales. This will help the individual to enhance tolerance, sympathy, fellowship, love, affection, and respect toward elders, helping the needy and poor. Providing the opportunity and equality: In the Constitution of India, it is being mentioned that every individual irrespective of caste, gender, race, or religion should be given an equal opportunity to grow and with the help of education we can help the individual to know about his/her equal rights and help him/her to develop.

Functions of Education Toward the Nation There is a famous quote that “Padhega India Tabhi to Badhega India” so keeping that in mind if more and more people will get educated, they will be able to contribute to the development of the nation by using their skills and knowledge in one decorum to another. Therefore, we say that education is essential in every stage of life.

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How to develop the dependent and interdependent lifelong learning skills. It helps in nurturing the intellectuals, aspiration, creativity, curiosity, imagination, and selfrespect.

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It helps the individual to work with new innovations and ideas. It helps the individual to know about the various social changes and develop accordingly by adapting to those changes. It helps to possess the self-determination with an assessment of self for aptitude and inclination. It helps individual to develop the quality by participating in the community both ways as teachers and as a learner. It helps individual to participate in the open environment that enhances the critical thinking of the individual. It helps individual to analyze various discriminations and oppressions while embracing to assess the equitable opportunity for all. It helps in the development of the environment which encourages an active learning process. It helps in developing both leadership and participatory role. It helps in integrating knowledge from multiple disciplines to make thoughtful and informed decisions It helps in making the decision based on factual and affective evidence rather than on unexamined opinions.

EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES Introduction Goals are not necessary to absolutely motivate us but to keep us alive. With the help of an educational objective, the learner should be able to do an undertaking after the program. The learner should be able to successfully complete the educational program by imparting some of the knowledge to the targeted people.

Definition The result sought by the learner at the end of the educational program that is what the targeted group should be able to do at the end of the learning period that they cannot do beforehand. y Education objectives are said to be the desired outcomes of intended action through the mode of action. y Educational objectives are learner and behavior centered.

Types of Educational Objectives The types of educational objectives have been shown in Figure 1.3. Central Objectives

It is also known as the institutional objectives as it corresponds to the aim of the educational program. Example: After the completion of the Baccalaureate in the nursing course, the student will be able to provide preventive and curative care to the community as well as individuals in health or sickness or emergency.

Fig. 1.3:  Types of educational objectives

CHAPTER 1  Introduction to Theoretical Foundations Intermediate Objectives

Intermediate objectives are also known as the departmental objectives which usually arrive from breaking down the professional functions into the components and activities. One of the departmental objectives gives rise to many of the intermediate objectives. Example: After the completion of Maternal and Child Health, the student should be able to provide preventive and curative care to the female as well as the child. Specific Objectives

Objectives are the statements that tell us about what the students should be able to do at the end of the learning period. It is specific and pertaining to learning behavior it is correspondent from precise professional tasks whose results can be measurable and observable along with the given criteria. Example: The student should be able to withdraw blood samples from an adult with not more than two attempts.

BLOOM’S TAXONOMY OF EDUCATION The Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, known as Bloom’s Taxonomy (Bloom, Engelhart, Furst, and Krathwohl, 1956) is one of the most recognized learning theories in the field of education. Educators often use Bloom’s Taxonomy to create learning outcomes that target not only subject matter but also the depth of learning they want students to achieve, and to then create assessments that accurately report on students’ progress toward these outcomes (Anderson and Krathwohl, 2001).

An Introduction to Bloom’s Taxonomy Bloom’s Taxonomy comprises three learning domains: (1) Cognitive, (2) Affective and (3) Psychomotor, and assigns to each of these domains a hierarchy that corresponds to different levels of learning. It’s important to note that the different levels of thinking defined within each domain of the Taxonomy are hierarchical. In other words, each level subsumes the levels that come before it. So, if we look at the cognitive domain for example (which is represented in Fig. 1.4), we can infer that before a student can conduct an analysis, the first might need to know the methods of analysis, understand the different elements to review and consider which method to apply. It is only then that they will be ready to conduct the analysis itself.

Fig. 1.4:  The hierarchy of the cognitive domain of Bloom’s taxonomy (1956)

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Fig. 1.5:  Anderson and Krathwohl’s (2001) revision to Bloom’s cognitive hierarchy

Bloom’s Taxonomy Revised In 2001, David Krathwohl (one of Bloom’s original collaborators) and coeditor Lorin Anderson published a revision to the 1956 hierarchy with contributions from cognitive psychologists, curriculum theorists, instructional researchers, and testing and assessment specialists. This new revised version introduced a key change to the cognitive domain of Bloom’s Taxonomy: it shifted the language used from nouns to verbs (see Figs 1.5 and 1.6) and thereby focused the attention away from acquisition and toward the active performance of the types of learning involved in each stage of the hierarchy. “Synthesis” was also dropped and “create” was moved to the highest level of the domain.

Cognitive Domain The cognitive domain is focused on intellectual skills such as critical thinking, problem-solving, and creating a knowledge base. It was the first domain created by the original group of Bloom’s researchers. The cognitive hierarchy spans from simple memorization designed to build the knowledge of learners, to creating something new based on previously learned information. In this domain, learners are expected to progress linearly through the hierarchy, beginning at “remember” and ending at “create”. When writing your own learning outcomes, we encourage you to choose verbs that best describe what is expected (e.g., for remember, you might consider defining, identify, list, recall, recognize, match, etc.). A search for “Bloom’s Verbs” will provide lists of synonyms to use. Cognitive Hierarchy y

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Remember  Sample learning outcome: Remember the names and relationships of a cast of characters in a play.  Sample assessment/activity: A multiple choice test designed to test the memory of learners.  Rationale: A multiple choice test will allow educators to see whether students have effectively memorized the given material. Understand  Sample learning outcome: Understand and explain the main ideas of a play or piece of literature.

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Fig. 1.6:  Different domains of education

Sample assessment/activity: Write a short (1 page) paper summarizing the plot and most important events in the play.  Rationale: Writing a summary encourages learners to think about what the most important parts of a piece of literature are, and to decide which aspects of the plot to discard in favor of a concise summary. It allows educators to evaluate whether or not they have understood the main idea of the play. Apply  Sample learning outcome: Apply the main ideas/themes in the play to another context.  Sample assessment/activity: Write an advice column responding to one of the characters.  Rationale: In doing this assignment, learners will consider the implications of a character’s actions outside of the consequences shown in the play. Analyze  Sample learning outcome: Be able to analyze the relative roles of each character in the play and their relationships with each other.  Sample assessment/activity: Write an analytical paper comparing the antagonists and protagonists of the play.  Rationale: Through this assignment, as learners consider what makes each character an antagonist or a protagonist, they need to use both their knowledge of the play and critical thinking skills. Evaluate  Sample learning outcome: Evaluate the decisions of characters in the play, and support your evaluation with textual evidence.  Sample assessment/activity: Write a response to one of the events in the play, either supporting or rejecting their actions on the basis of evidence from the play as well as personal opinion and projected/actual consequences of an action.  Rationale: Through this assignment, learners will consider the rationale and consequences for actions in the play, leading them to understand and make judgments about the validity of a character’s decision-making. Create  Sample learning outcome: Create a new and unique piece of writing using similar plot devices.  Sample assessment/activity: Create a short story using similar plot devices in a new time or setting.  Rationale: Through this activity, learners must integrate the plot devices and writing techniques into a new setting, allowing them to practice their creative writing skills and showing their full understanding of the writer’s techniques. 

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Affective Domain The affective domain focuses on the attitudes, values, interests, and appreciation of learners. The hierarchy associated with it begins with receiving and listening to information, and extends to characterization, or internalizing values and consistently acting upon them. It focuses on allowing learners to understand what their own values are and how they have developed. Affective Hierarchy y

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Receiving  Sample learning outcome: Listen to other students with respect.  Sample assessment/activity: Be an audience member to another student’s presentation, and then write a summary.  Rationale: Through this assignment, learners will learn how to listen effectively to others as well as remember key details about their presentation (used in writing the summary). Responding  Sample learning outcome: Speak effectively in front of an audience and actively respond to others.  Sample assessment/activity: Present on a subject in front of the class, and answer questions from peers about their presentation.  Rationale: Through this, learners will become more comfortable with public speaking as well as more comfortable with contributing to a discussion in the form of answering questions. Valuing  Sample learning outcome: Demonstrate and explain your own values regarding various topics.  Sample assessment/activity: Write an opinion piece on any issue, explaining one’s own stance and reasons supporting that stance.  Rationale: Through this, learners will explore not only their own values but why they support their values, giving them a chance to understand more fully their own value system. Organization  Sample learning outcome: Compare value systems and understand evidence behind values.  Sample assessment/activity: Organize and compare different cultural value systems, evaluating the differences between them and why these differences may have arisen.  Rationale: In doing this activity, learners will consider how value systems are put into place and organized, as well as the evidence that supports different value systems across the world. Characterization  Sample learning outcome: Work well in a team of peers.  Sample assessment/activity: A group project, including group work on any assignment.  Rationale: By working in a group, learners must balance their own values with the values of the team, as well as prioritize tasks and practice teamwork.

Psychomotor Domain The psychomotor domain encompasses the ability of learners to physically accomplish tasks and perform movement and skills. There are several different versions including different hierarchies— the examples here fall into Harrow’s theory (1972) of the psychomotor domain. This hierarchy ranges from reflexes and basic movement to nondiscursive communication and meaningfully expressive activity.

CHAPTER 1  Introduction to Theoretical Foundations Psychomotor Hierarchy y

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Reflex  Sample learning outcome: Instinctively respond to a physical stimulus.  Sample assessment/activity: A game of dodge ball.  Rationale: Learners must react (dodge) the balls that are being thrown at them, allowing them to develop their reflexive skills. Basic fundamental movements  Sample learning outcome: Perform a simple action (including running and throwing).  Sample assessment/activity: A game of dodge ball.  Rationale: Learners must run and throw to actively engage the opposing team, allowing them to develop these skills. Perceptual abilities  Sample learning outcome: Use more than one ability to integrate different sensory perceptions.  Sample assessment/activity: A game of catch or soccer (or other game involving movement and passing).  Rationale: Learners must integrate running, visual information about the position of the ball, and predictive information about the future position of the ball. Physical abilities  Sample learning outcome: Sustain activity for a set period of time.  Sample assessment/activity: Run for 25 minutes steadily.  Rationale: This activity is a measure of the learner’s stamina and physical fitness. Skilled movements  Sample learning outcome: Adapt one’s behavior and movement to better achieve goals.  Sample assessment/activity: A soccer or other strategic game (football, hockey).  Rationale: This activity allows teams to change their strategy and individuals to change their physical behavior depending on the response of the other team. Nondiscursive communication  Sample learning outcome: Express oneself through purposeful movement and activity.  Sample assessment/activity: A soccer or other strategic game (football, hockey)  Rationale: These games all involve teamwork, strategy, and integrative and purposeful move­ ment. Successful teams must integrate all of their senses, communicate through movement, and use a variety of adaptive strategies.

LESSON PLAN A lesson plan is the instructor’s road map of what students need to learn and how it will be done effectively during class time. Before you plan your lesson, you will first need to identify the learning objectives for the class meeting. Then, you can design appropriate learning activities and develop strategies to obtain feedback on student learning. A successful lesson plan addresses and integrates these three key components: 1. Objectives for student learning 2. Teaching/learning activities 3. Strategies to check student understanding

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Fig. 1.7:  Objectives of lesson plan

Specifying concrete objectives for student learning will help you determine the kinds of teaching and learning activities you will use in class, while those activities will define how you will check whether the learning objectives have been accomplished (Fig. 1.7).

Steps for Preparing a Lesson Plan Below are six steps to guide you when you create your first lesson plan. Each step is accompanied by a set of questions meant to prompt reflection and aid you in designing your teaching and learning activities. 1. Outline learning objectives: The first step is to determine what you want students to learn and be able to do at the end of class. To help you specify your objectives for student learning, answer the following questions:  What is the topic of the lesson?  What do I want students to learn?  What do I want them to understand and be able to do at the end of class?  What do I want them to take away from this lesson? Once you outline the learning objectives for the class meeting, rank them in terms of their importance. This step will prepare you for managing class time and accomplishing the more important learning objectives in case you are pressed for time. Consider the following questions:  What are the most important concepts, ideas, or skills I want students to be able to grasp and apply?  Why are they important?  If I ran out of time, which ones could not be omitted?  And conversely, which ones could I skip if pressed for time? 2. Develop the introduction: Now that you have your learning objectives in order of their importance, design the specific activities you will use to get students to understand and apply what they have learned. Because you will have a diverse body of students with different academic and personal experiences, they may already be familiar with the topic. That is why you might

CHAPTER 1  Introduction to Theoretical Foundations start with a question or activity to gauge students’ knowledge of the subject or possibly, their preconceived notions about it. For example, you can take a simple poll: “How many of you have heard of X? Raise your hand if you have.” You can also gather background information from your students prior to class by sending students an electronic survey or asking them to write comments on index cards. This additional information can help shape your introduction, learning activities, etc. When you have an idea of the students’ familiarity with the topic, you will also have a sense of what to focus on. Develop a creative introduction to the topic to stimulate interest and encourage thinking. You can use a variety of approaches to engage students (e.g., personal anecdote, historical event, thought-provoking dilemma, real-world example, short video clip, practical application, probing question, etc.). Consider the following questions when planning your introduction:  How will I check whether students know anything about the topic or have any preconceived notions about it?  What are some commonly held ideas (or possibly misconceptions) about this topic that students might be familiar with or might espouse?  What will I do to introduce the topic? 3. Plan the specific learning activities (the main body of the lesson): Prepare several different ways of explaining the material (real-life examples, analogies, visuals, etc.) to catch the attention of more students and appeal to different learning styles. As you plan your examples and activities, estimate how much time you will spend on each. Build-in time for extended explanation or discussion, but also be prepared to move on quickly to different applications or problems, and to identify strategies that check for understanding. These questions would help you design the learning activities you will use:  What will I do to explain the topic?  What will I do to illustrate the topic in a different way?  How can I engage students in the topic?  What are some relevant real-life examples, analogies, or situations that can help students understand the topic?  What will students need to do to help them understand the topic better? 4. Plan to check for understanding: Now that you have explained the topic and illustrated it with different examples, you need to check for student understanding—how will you know that students are learning? Think about specific questions you can ask students in order to check for understanding, write them down, and then paraphrase them so that you are prepared to ask the questions in different ways. Try to predict the answers your questions will generate. Decide on whether you want students to respond orally or in writing.  What questions will I ask students to check for understanding?  What will I have students do to demonstrate that they are following?  Going back to my list of learning objectives, what activity can I have students do to check whether each of those has been accomplished? An important strategy that will also help you with time management is to anticipate students’ questions. When planning your lesson, decide what kinds of questions will be productive for discussion and what questions might side-track the class. Think about and decide on the balance between covering content (accomplishing your learning objectives) and ensuring that students understand.

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Textbook of Educational Technology/Nursing Education 5. Develop a conclusion and a preview: Go over the material covered in class by summarizing the main points of the lesson. You can do this in several ways: you can state the main points yourself (“Today we talked about…”), you can ask a student to help you summarize them, or you can even ask all students to write down a piece of paper what they think we’re the main points of the lesson. You can review the students’ answers to gauge their understanding of the topic and then explain anything unclear in the following class. Conclude the lesson not only by summarizing the main points but also by previewing the next lesson. How does the topic relate to the one that’s coming? This preview will spur students’ interest and help them connect the different ideas within a larger context. 6. Create a realistic timeline: GSIs know how easy it is to run out of time and not cover all the many points they had planned to cover. A list of ten learning objectives is not realistic, so narrow down your list to the two or three key concepts, ideas, or skills you want students to learn. Instructors also agree that they often need to adjust their lesson plans during class depending on what the students need. Your list of prioritized learning objectives will help you make decisions on the spot and adjust your lesson plan as needed. Having additional examples or alternative activities will also allow you to be flexible. A realistic timeline will reflect your flexibility and readiness to adapt to the specific classroom environment. Here are some strategies for creating a realistic timeline:  Estimate how much time each of the activities will take, then plan some extra time for each.  When you prepare your lesson plan, next to each activity indicates how much time you expect it will take.  Plan a few minutes at the end of class to answer any remaining questions and to sum up key points.  Plan an extra activity or discussion questions in case you have time left.  Be flexible—be ready to adjust your lesson plan to students’ needs and focus on what seems to be more productive rather than sticking to your original plan.

Presenting the Lesson Plan Letting your students know what they will be learning and doing in class will help keep them more engaged and on track. You can share your lesson plan by writing a brief agenda on the board or telling students explicitly what they will be learning and doing in class. You can outline on the board or on a handout the learning objectives for the class. Providing a meaningful organization of the class time can help students not only remember better but also follow your presentation and understand the rationale behind in-class activities. Having a clearly visible agenda (e.g., on the board) will also help you and your students stay on track.

Reflecting on Your Lesson Plan A lesson plan may not work as well as you had expected due to a number of extraneous circumstances. You should not get discouraged—it happens to even the most experienced teachers! Take a few minutes after each class to reflect on what worked well and why, and what you could have done differently. Identifying the successful and less successful organization of class time and activities would make it easier to adjust to the contingencies of the classroom. For additional feedback on planning and managing class time, you can use the following resources: student feedback, peer observation, viewing a videotape of your teaching, and consultation with a staff member at CRLT.

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LATEST APPROACHES IN EDUCATION Transformational Education Transformational learning, also known as transformative learning, is a learning theory relating to how people make sense of their life experiences. It’s an extension of constructivism, a framework that states every learner constructs his/her own meaning based on the interaction of new knowledge with previous knowledge. Transformational learning, in particular, posits that learning experiences fundamentally transform a person’s way of thinking, thereby altering his/her whole perception about an idea or situation. These changes typically arise from moments of sudden insight, causing the learner to reflect on the revelatory knowledge he/she has gained and how it affects his/her understanding. The transformational learning theory comes from American sociologist Jack Mezirow. Studying adult subjects who’d decided to pursue a college education after a gap of some years, he found they didn’t merely apply previously gained perspectives to their new pursuit but rather required completely new perspectives in which to frame their present situation. It was necessary for them to reinterpret and reassess their prior learning and then adjust their view of the world accordingly. What is the Transformational Learning Process?

There are 10 stages of the transformational learning process, through which an educator guides the learner to help them to attain awareness and metamorphosis:  1. Experiencing a disorientating dilemma: A disorienting dilemma is when a person encounters a situation or idea that doesn’t fit with his/her past knowledge and, therefore, his/her present preconceptions. Here, the learner discovers that what they believed to be true is actually false, or they undergo a disruptive event. This jolt to their established view is the catalyst that initiates the process of transformation. In the example of adults pursuing a college education, they’ve experienced a fundamental change in their environment and expectations. Many of them may have previously worked in professional settings, which had their own requirements of them, but now they’re in an academic setting that asks them to perform entirely different tasks and pursue unfamiliar goals. Moreover, they’re receiving ideas that may contradict information they’d received many years ago. Initially, both instances overwhelm their present understanding of the world, prompting them to find a resolution.  2. Conducting a self-examination: At the self-examination stage, the learner reflects on his/her existing beliefs and preconceptions and determines how he/she relates to the present dilemma. They might look back on events in their past and question their applicability to the dilemma. An associated event at this stage is an emotional response. It’s not uncommon for learners to react to the dilemma with fear, anger, guilt or shame, and processing the emotion is part of the transformational process.  3. Critically assessing present assumptions: At the third stage, the learners begin to review their existing beliefs and preconceptions with a critical eye. They strive to overcome biases, test their ideas and determine which ones hold up to scrutiny. They’re also open to conceding that their existing beliefs may be incorrect and are thus willing to consider new information. Thus, their existing beliefs begin to become past assumptions.  4. Recognizing shared experiences: Recognizing shared experiences means that the learner undergoing this transformational process realizes that they’re not the only ones who’ve struggled with dilemmas. Others, too, have struggled and currently are struggling to cope with

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acknowledging the flaws of previous understanding and trying to supplant old beliefs with new knowledge. This recognition of shared experiences can be a motivational moment, as it leads the learner to understand two revelations. The first is that others have succeeded in the transformational process, so the learner can succeed as well. The second is they’re not alone, so they can rely on others for guidance.  5. Exploring options for new roles, relationships and actions: Here, the learners begin to wonder what roles, relationships and actions are amenable to their newly developing understanding. They can envision, at least vaguely, a different way of thinking and living after they complete their transformation, and they can imagine conducting their life in that new mode. For example, an employee compelled into a new employment model, such as transitioning from remote work to onsite work, might, at this stage, entertain his/her potential to succeed in the new environment, even if he/she had previously been resistant to the change.  6. Planning a course of action: Having recognized the deficiencies in their past assumptions, become emboldened by the recognition of shared experienced and envisioned a potential future in a new mode, the learner is capable of planning a course of action to complete his/her transformation. Here, they begin to determine what further learning may be required to carry them through the remaining stages of the process. With that done, they can strategize a path that facilitates their success.  7. Acquiring knowledge: Knowing that further knowledge is necessary to complete their transformation, the learner begins to execute his/her course of action by acquiring relevant information and skills. At this point, they’re capable of actively seeking new perspectives. Rather than causing new dilemmas, the new perspectives facilitate the learner’s development.  8. Trying out a new role, relationship or behavior: Whereas before the learners mentally explored new roles, relationships or behaviors, now they can use their new knowledge to practice them. This stage is when the learner transforms theoretical knowledge into practical knowledge. Actively experiencing a new role, relationship or behavior can help to reinforce their transformation.  9. Building competence and confidence in the new role, relationship or behavior: In this stage of the process, the learners continue to exercise their new role, relationship or behavior. As they do so, they become better at it and more certain of their ability to embody it. As a result, they also become more self-reliant in their developing belief, as they’ve worked to earn it and so understand it. 10. Reintegration: The new knowledge has been fully incorporated into the learner’s understanding and worldview, so the transformation is complete. The learner can now reintegrate into his/her life with the new understanding he/she has earned and developed. As a result, he/she sees and comprehends the world through a new perspective.

Relationship-Based Education It is believed that relationship matters a lot in education as well. We learn through relationship and equality, learning takes place with five important elements trust, forgiveness, integrity, hope and compassion. In pedagogy which is based on relationship, the teachers should be reflexive about the place, culture and lived realities of the students. y

Differential instructions can provide diverse opportunities for students engaged in learning. The educators are also refreshed with knowledge learning from students itself.

CHAPTER 1  Introduction to Theoretical Foundations y

y y

y y

Culturally responsive teaching: The culture is a way of life, including attitudes, values, goals and social behavior. The teacher need to learn about the cultural background of the students for quality teaching. Social-emotional learning: It refers to the enhancement of students well-being in selfregulation, focus, resilience and mind fullness. Trauma informed teaching: It order to provide safe environment in education the teachers need to be more professionally developed. Now always we have lot of program on emotional intelligence for student to combat trauma. Restorative justice: It is required to eliminate harm from fractured relationship in education. It is aimed to be inclusive and respectful to resolve conflicts. Engaged learning: In this type of learning the students involve beyond passive receptivity to strong relationships. Engaged learning in education leads to stronger motivation, reduce problematic behavior and leading to greater knowledge across the academia.

Competency-Based Education It is an approach to allow students to master the skills or competency at their own pace regardless of environment. The key features of competency based education are as follows: y Equity for all students irrespective of their educational background. y Individual need based support to the students. y The evaluation is purely based on knowledge and skill gained by them. y Student can assess themselves and understand their shortcomings on predetermined parameters. The major aspects of competency-based education (CBE) are curriculum design, teaching learning process and assessment at the end. Nursing is a profession which need high quality of competence in patient care. CBC helps students to develop skills rather than completing the syllabus. Employers can search employees with enact skills required for them. The education institutes can be enabled to bring diversity in the courses offered by them. Benefits of Competency Based Education y y y y y

It is flexible and paced according to the learner capabilities. The approach focuses on providing practical and logical solution to the students. Students can be helped to attain next level with personalized training. Various mentors can be assigned for different competencies. CBE advocates skills upgradation at global platform.

Characteristics of Competency Based Education y y y y

Learner centric: Focus on each learner. It is outcome based meaning thereby that the objectives are attained. It is multifaceted and applies to learner support. It is adaptive as per the individual student.

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EDUCATIONAL PHILOSOPHIES The philosophy of education helps in examining the goals, methods of teaching, and creative ideas of education. The various philosophies given are to describe the fundamental and the philosophical analysis. Education plays a key role in building individual and today’s generation demands more creative ways of teaching. There are a number of ways though depending upon the different circumstances and different mindset and thinking abilities of the individual. Before moving on to learning the various philosophies in education, we need to find the answer about what actually are these philosophies? Most of the people involved Fig. 1.8:  Diagrammatic representation in educational teaching get confused with the given of educational philosophies philosophies of education. Educational philosophies are not only limited to what you as a teacher doing in class but also inculcating the same in day-to-day life lessons and journeys (Fig. 1.8).

Perennialism In this, the aim of education focuses on acquiring great ideas from the educational content. As acquiring ideas gives the potential to the individual to solve problems. The ideas should not be confined to a specific time rather they should be everlasting for a period. To seek the enduring truths which are constant for all. Teaching these unchanging truths or principles can be critical sometimes as the generation grows, so does the mindset of the individuals as humans are rational beings; therefore, the changing curriculum demands modernization and thus focuses on discipline, literacy, knowledge, and continuum of growth.

Essentialism Essentialism says that the individual needs to have a common core of knowledge that has a systemic channel and disciplined ways to be transmitted to the group of students. The emphasis on this type of system is being given to the morals and principles that an educational institute should teach to the students. The base of the curriculum is the required knowledge and professional skills. Although it’s somewhat hand in hand with that of perennialism. Hence this theory emphasizes more the practical teaching aspects (like in nursing hands-on practice for various procedures) and thus, makes the students valuable to the society. It should focus on the basic objectives for the profession like, nursing, where educators have to be aware of the medical terminologies, short forms, vital signs, basic care, anatomy, and physiology, resourceful, empathetic, emotionally stable, etc. Students should be enlightened about hard work and respect authority. Educators should always help the students to check and work upon their nonproductive habits such as anger, indiscipline, and intolerance, impatient.

Progressivism Progressivism theory is based on the fact that education should help the individual to develop on the overall aspect of life rather than focusing on the educator’s style or content of teaching. This theory

CHAPTER 1  Introduction to Theoretical Foundations states that the student intellectuals are sensitized by putting them into various experimentations and scenarios. Learning is rooted in the questioning of the learner that is developed with experience. The one who is open to learning is a critical thinker and a problem solver who always tries to find out the meaning of his/her experiences in life. Effective teaching always concentrates on sharing their life experience with the students so that the students somewhat can relate and learn by doing.

Reconstructionism Reconstructionism is also being termed the critical thinking theory. It helps in preparing the individuals to solve the social problems as we believe that all the leaders are the product of college; therefore, it is important that the individuals should have the curriculum that helps them to foster their development. A person who is a reconstructionist not only enforces the education for generations to solve the problem but also figures out the correct or worthy paths to many of the social problems as well. The classroom following the Reconstructionism theory involves the students in current affairs of the society to know the perception of the students regarding the social issue going on. Example: As the pandemic effect is devastating on the general population in terms of financial, emotional, psychological, physical, and social ways; therefore, there are certain measures taken by the current ruling government. Few were satisfied and some were not debate on such current topics to understand the Reconstructionist theory.

Eclecticism

Eclecticism is a conceptual approach that does not hold on to the assumptions it works on the fact and evidence instead it believes that having the knowledge and ideas referring to the various source can give us better knowledge. This can sometimes lead to inelegancy and a lack of simplicity in the content. For example, experimenting on a new research topic, we usually take the references of many research articles similar to the selected though we do not use the exact frame or tools used in the referred research but taking references we modify them.

TEACHING AND LEARNING PROCESS NATURE AND CHARACTERISTICS OF LEARNING Learning Learning is defined as the act of acquiring a modified set of knowledge, behavior, skills, and values, or it can be defined as synthesizing the new set of knowledge by various means. We can also define learning as the process of transformation by taking the information and mixing it with the overall experience of life. The basic changes in life depend upon what we know and what we do as an individual. If we talk about all living beings, whether they are animals, human beings, or plants, everyone has the ability to learn; therefore, we have the following nature and characteristics of learning (Fig. 1.9).

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Fig. 1.9:  Diagrammatic representation of nature and characteristics of learning

Learning is Unitary

The one who is eager to learn responds to the learning process as a whole. Everyone has a unique way to respond to the learning process. To any the learning ability, the individual reacts in intellectually, emotionally, physically, and spiritually simultaneously. For example, if the teacher is correcting the students, the students can take it in a positive way and try to not repeat it again, on the other hand some of the students may feel offended and would do it again and again just to prove themselves right in front of the whole class. The emotions, intellectuals, and physical and social processes are wholly coordinated toward the achievement goal. Learning is Individual

Each learner differs from one another as we already mentioned therefore, each one wants to achieve different goals during the learning process. Each individual has his own way to adapt in a unique way to learning. A lot of factors are responsible for the individual learning process such as hereditary, environment, religious background, educational opportunities, financial soundness, and health of the individual. Learning is Social

Learning is influenced by the environment as a human is a social butterfly and tends to learn from the people around if we consider or talk about the social maturity it comes with the various opportunities and develops into actual achievement. Learning is Self-Active

Every individual learns through his own reactions to the situations there are a lot of ups/downs in every individual’s life, and each one has his own ability to react and fight through it and learn or lose. Learning is the personal process each person develops his own habits of learning. The teacher can only set the pattern for the students to learn and imitate, but the intellect is perfected by knowledge, not by activity. The learning process is a process of self-activity, self-direction, and self-realization of the individual’s highest potential.

CHAPTER 1  Introduction to Theoretical Foundations Learning is Purposive

Learning process is the one that directs the individuals toward a specific goal in life, and the goals are determined by one motive or the other person wants to achieve in a variety of forms. So, every individual through learning has one or the other purpose to serve his own desires and nation by contributing what he learned. The learning process adds more meaning to the learning process when it is related to the individual’s interest. Thus, learning enables the individual to make meaningful adjustments in life and set goals, make more meaningful problems, and as a result, help in satisfying the social relationship. Learning is Creative

Learning process involves both the subjective ways and the creative ways of learning. The learning and teaching process always involves various mind-storming activities and creative forms to enhance the intellect of an individual. We can relate it by using mnemonics to learn various anatomical or physiological processes of various organs or drugs. The mnemonic (OOOTTAFVGVAH) was used to learn the Cranial nerves. Similarly, taking the reference of patient case history presenting the health talks doing the street plays these are some of the creative ways of personal choices. The learner is always considered the primary force and the teacher is considered the secondary force. Learning is a personal choice process. Learning is Transferable

Transfer refers to knowledge. Whatever the skill and the knowledge gained in one or the other context always affect the situation. If we talk about the teacher conducting the practice in the initial phase about the vital signs monitoring and due to any reason, the student was unable to attend then during the clinical postings when the one is exposed to the real patient will face difficulty in understanding the procedure. There are factors that influence the amount of permanency which are intellectuals and the background experience of the learner and the explicitness and definiteness of the learner as well.

Stages of Learning The stages of learning have been given in Figure 1.10.

Fig. 1.10:  Stages of learning

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PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING y

y

y

y

y

y y

y

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y y y y y

Principle of aim: There should be a well-planned aim for teaching a particular lesson. Why we are starting the following unit and what benefits will the student in terms of professional or personal expect can gain from the same. Principle of acting or learning by doing: Most the educational institutes are focused on the practical tasks and aspects as they believe we see we learn we do we remember and as far as the medical departments are considered nothing major can be taught to them without indulging the students in the practical teaching and practice. Principles of linking with actual life and other subjects: Learning should always be linked with life events and other subjects so it will create a kind of link and things will be easy to remember if you will be repeating it again and again it’s sometimes difficult for the students to learn the anatomical parts of the body but then even in the day to day conversation with friends if we are using 1 or 2 words relatable we will be able to learn the site and name of that organ easily. Principle of planning: So, whenever you are preparing to present any of the presentations, it’s important for you to make notes or script for the same as planning is always better for good and effective teaching. Principle of interest or motivation: This is the most important principle of all as the whole learning process of the individual depends upon the absorption of the content, and that is only possible when one will be focused and feel motivated to learn. Principle of sympathy and kindly atmosphere: Good teaching cannot take place in an atmosphere that lacks kindness and sympathy. Principle of creativity: The idea of a good teacher is to make the content creative and help the student to learn in an interesting way. We can give the students certain signs and symptoms of the patient and ask the group to provide the treatment according to the priority needs. Principle of flexibility and cooperation: Planning the rigid content is a little bit harmful as we need to focus on brighter as well as the weaker students. The plan of a lesson must provide scope to make necessary changes if need be, and teaching should always be flexible to meet the unexpected situation. Principle of diagnostic and remedial teaching: Good teaching must be remedial and diagnostic, once the diagnosis of the person is concluded the one must be provided with the remedial measures in terms of any subject if the students are facing a language barrier in understanding the content, then we as educators should be able to provide them with the remedial measures. Principles of looking ahead: Good teaching looks ahead while it also takes into account the past experiences of the children an open-minded teacher is always forward-looking. Principle of model presentation: The presentation of material should be really a model one in every way. Principle of selection of material: The right selection of material will result in proper teaching and hence desired results will be achieved. This benefits both teacher and students. Principle of gradation or division: Easy and simple things should come first and difficult and complicated things will occur afterward. Principle of individual differences: A good teacher deals with the students according to their individual differences.

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Principle of democracy: The teacher should adopt a democratic attitude with students. He should not be dictatorial.

MAXIMS OF TEACHING y y

Teaching is an art and science. Teachers require two things—(1) Knowledge and (2) Process of teaching. In the actual classroom, the teacher is required to manage the class with experience and decisions in the form of Maxims. For successful and effective teaching, the teacher must know and use the maxims of teaching.

Benefits of maxims of teaching are as follows: y Simplify the process of teaching y Joyful teaching and learning environment y Purposeful teaching y To create creativity among students y To analyze and synthesize by students y To develop a scientific attitude y Learning by doing y To develop critical thinking The diagrammatic representation of maxims of teaching has been shown in Figure 1.11.

Simple to Complex When we talk about the simple to easy content in the curriculum, the simple and basic concepts are being taught to the students first, for example, if we talk about Nursing in the initial period the basic nursing procedure like bedmaking and vital monitoring are taught first and then the complex procedure like mouth care and wound dressing, etc. and if we talk about the disease condition first the anatomy and physiology of the specific organs and then moving on to the various disease conditions.

Known to Unknown Whenever we begin a new topic, we must assure the previous knowledge about the topic so as to get a brief idea from which base to start with the targeted group.

Fig. 1.11:  Diagrammatic representation of maxims of teaching

Concrete to Abstract When teaching the students, it is important to remember to always start with the concrete that is basic and move to the abstract if we see the example many things are abstract like studying the name of drugs, studying the anatomy of a specific organ it will be difficult for the students if directly we start by the action or formulation of the drugs.

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Psychological to Logical Modern education gives more emphasis on the psychology of the child. The child`s psychological development is of utmost importance than any other thing. A teacher teaching should follow this maxim from psychological to logical. Psychological approach brings into consideration the student’s interests, capabilities, aptitudes, development level, and responses. The teacher should consider psychological selection of the subject matter. The approach considers the structure of the content into logical order. It is child-centered maximum. For example, a teacher tells about the disease condition to students when they are not interested in discussing it, with this a teacher proceeds from psychological to logical sequence.

Induction to Deduction Procedure of deriving known laws, rules, or formulae from particular examples is called induction. If a statement is true in a special situation, it will also be true in other similar situations. It means drawing a conclusion from a set of examples. Using this approach, a teacher has to show instances or incidents and talk about similarities of their attributes. The deduction is just the opposite of induction. In it, we derive a certain conclusion from known laws, rules, or principles. For example, in language teaching, before giving the definition of a noun, the students are acquainted with the example of nouns, like man, chair, Delhi, etc. and then they are led to the general definition of the noun. So, a good teacher always proceeds from induction and finishes at deduction.

Empirical (Practical) to Rational Empirical (Practical) knowledge is based on observation and hand on experience, which does not require reasoning. However, rational knowledge is based on arguments and explanations. For example, students are taught, water boils on heating. They should initially heat the water and see it boiling. Then they should be explained, during heating process, the molecules gain kinetic energy and there is molecular thermal agitation, which makes the water boil.

Whole to Part This maxim is the result of the Gestalt theory of learning whose main focus was to perceive things or objects as a whole and not in the form of parts. The whole is more relatable, motivating, and useful than the parts. Teacher should first give a synoptic viewpoint of the lesson and then analyze it into different parts. In this way, maximum learning is possible. It is the reverse of the maxim “analyses to synthesis”.

TECHNOLOGY EDUCATION Process by which the knowledge, skills and attitude are transmitted to the members of the society. Technology refers to the techniques as well as technical contrivances which enhance a process. It is a systematic way of applying the technique to achieve an objective.

Meaning Educational technology can be defined as the systematic application of technology in the field of education.

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Nature of Educational Technology Educational technology is a comprehensive term and is not to be viewed in terms of its parts or processes. It includes instructional technology, teaching technology, programmed learning, microteaching, etc.

Scope of Educational Technology Educational technology tries to study the phases of teaching, skills of teaching and learning, principles of teaching, etc. Educational technology as a discipline strives for the formulation of objectives and goals of education based on individual and social needs. Educational technology includes planning of curricular and noncurricular inputs on the basis of goals and objectives of education. Education is dependent of philosophy due to the following reasons: y Philosophy determines the real destination toward which education has to go: Education is a conscious dynamic process which needs proper guidance and supervision. Without proper guidance and supervision, it cannot achieve its goal. Philosophy determines the goal of life and also provides suitable and effective guidance and supervision for education to achieve that goal. Without the help of philosopher, education cannot be a successful process of development and achievement. Spencer has rightly remarked—“True education is practicable only by a true philosophy.” y Philosophy determines the various aspects of education: Some scholars believe that philosophy is concerned with abstract items and conceptions only, while education deals with practical, concrete things and processes. Hence, the two are different and there exists no relation between them. But this is a wrong belief. Both philosophy and education are intimately and integrally connected with each other. Separation between the two is not possible on any account. It is the philosophy, we must know, that has been influencing all aspects of education since the very beginning and will go on influencing education for all times to come. Once again it will be better to recollect the saying of Ross that—“Philosophy and education are like the sides of the same coin, present different views of the same thing, and that one is implied by the other.” y Great philosophers have been great educationists also: History bears eloquent testimony to the fact that great philosophers have been great educationists also of their times. Plato, Socrates, Locke, Comenius, Rousseau, Froebel, Dewey, Gandhi, Tagore, Aurobindo Ghosh and others who were great philosophers of their times have also talked about education. Their philosophical treatises have been important guide books for educational planning and determination of educational aims for children of the world. In other words, all great philosophers have employed education as a means to translate their philosophical ideas into practice for the people to follow and develop themselves. Philosophy is dependent on education due to these reasons.

LATEST APPROACHES TO LEARNING Experiential Learning and Its Importance Experiential learning is the process of learning by doing. By engaging students in hands-on experiences and reflection, they are better able to connect theories and knowledge learned in the

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classroom, demonstration room, and their application in clinical setting and to real-world situations. Nursing being a skill profession experimental learning is of utmost importance. Experiential learning opportunities exist in a variety of nursing practice. These may include community service, service-learning, undergraduate research, and culminating experiences such as internships, student teaching, and capstone projects, to name a few. y y y y y y y

When students participate in experiential education opportunities, they gain: A better understanding of learning activity A broader view of the world and an appreciation of society at large Insight into their own skills, interests, passions, capabilities and values Opportunities to collaborate with diverse organizations and people Positive professional practices and skills The gratification of assisting in meeting community needs Practice of professional ethics, self-confidence and leadership skills.

Reflective Learning Reflective learning involves actively monitoring and assessing ones knowledge, abilities, and performance during the learning process, in order to improve the process of learning and its associated outcomes. For example, if you’re studying for a test, you can engage in reflective learning by asking yourself how well you understand each of the topics that you’re studying, and based on this figure out which topics you need to spend more time on. Reflective learning, and see how you can engage in it yourself, as well as how you can encourage others to engage in it.

Scenario-Based Learning Scenario-based learning (SBL) is an instructional strategy where you as learner pick your own path based on the choices they make. Learners are placed in interactive scenarios, often based on real life situations. It is one example of the increased Motivational design of learning and is a highly effective form of online training. Also known as branching scenarios, SBL learning theory provides a more experiential learning process than traditional learning materials. Gaming can be used for learning by giving a scene from the clinical situation in Nursing. Every day games can be used as EDUTAINMENT.

Simulation-Based Learning Once the domain of those faculties who enjoyed the technical aspects of using computerized mannequins, has now moved to center stage in nursing education. Nursing programs realize that they can no longer afford to consider simulation as merely an “add-on”. Simulation today includes role play, standardized patients, virtual simulation, and computerized mannequins. It is now imperative to integrate simulation throughout the entire curriculum. Today, simulation allows students to learn skills; develop clinical reasoning abilities; and to become competent in caring for

CHAPTER 1  Introduction to Theoretical Foundations patients/families in a safe environment. The variety of simulation-based learning options can offer a way to replace traditional, and often hard to find, clinical experiences.

Blended/Hybrid Learning Hybrid learning is when conventional face-to-face teaching is combined with offline or distance learning approaches, like experiential learning and remote course delivery. The aim is to use the right combination of learning strategies to efficiently teach content while still meeting students’ learning needs. The additional learning strategies are intended to supplement rather than replace conventional face-to-face training. If a class meets two days per week, for example, a hybrid learning teacher can schedule one day for an in-class lecture and the other for a hands-on lab or online assignment. This type of learning can be used to enrich learnt experiences. Here are some examples of hybrid learning tools: y Video conferencing y Online tasks y Learning management systems y Microteaching

SUMMARY y y

y y y y y

y y

y y y y

Education, being a never ending process, is irresistible and unstoppable in nature. Education enlightens a person from within and aids in all-round development. It drives all of us in achievement of our goals of life and in this pursuit only learners/students tend to be curious in classrooms. Various education philosophies include idealism, realism, pragmatism, existentialism and postmodernism, humanism, behaviorism, etc. Education theories and philosophies often discussed and understood interchangeably, i.e., perennialism, essentialism, progressivism, reconstructionism and electicism. Aims and functions of education are directed toward self, society, country and civilization at large. Learning is a technique of being educated. It may take place in isolation, in society, actively, passively with or without defined purpose. Learning principles emphasize ways and means of better and quick learning such as learning by doing, planning, creation, self-motivation, understanding the environment, looking forward appreciating the significance of flexibility and cooperation, etc. Teaching is a complex process and is backed by expertise in content as well as by skills of delivering the content. Teaching is maximized by following the principles like simple to complex, known to unknown, concrete to abstract, psychological to logical, induction to deduction, empirical to rational and whole to parts. Bloom’s taxonomy aids to measure the width and depth of learning. Various pedestals in revised Bloom’s hierarchy are remember, understand, apply, analyze, evaluate and create. Three domains of education include cognitive, affective and psychomotor. A lesson plan is considered a tool of effective and planned teaching. Steps of preparing a comprehensive lesson plan start from clear-cut understanding of learning objective, making the introduction, penning the main body of lesson in appropriate series,

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y

evaluation criteria, summary and conclusion and above all time duration of each activity while executing the plan. Transformational education/learning makes use of previous knowledge and life experiences while learning the new. In the process, they examine their already existing concepts, beliefs, understanding, try to learn from others’ experiences, analyze the earlier and new role, develop newer skills with confidence.

CONCLUSION Education, being a never ending process, is irresistible and unstoppable in nature. It enlightens a person from within and aids in all-round development. Education drives all of us in achievement of our goals of life and in this pursuit only learners/students tend to be attentive and curious in classrooms. Process of education is believed to have started in mother’s womb until the last breath. All over the world great thinkers, philosophers and travelers have guided the society in unique ways. In its entirety, it is not merely dependent upon institutions of education though facilitated by these institutes. A good education environment is also reliant upon the political will, socioeconomic status of people, culture, beliefs and policies and schemes pertaining to education.

ASSESS YOURSELF Long Answer Questions 1. Write details about educational philosophies. 2. Write essay on latest approaches of education technology.

Short Answer Questions 1. What are the functions of education? 2. Write the maxims of teaching. 3. Write about Bloom’s taxonomy.

Multiple Choice Questions 1. The all-round development drawing out the best of a child was envisaged by: a. Swami Vivekananda b. Aurobindo Ghosh c. Mahatma Gandhi d. Dr Radhakrishnan 2. Reconstruction is termed: a. Critical thinking theory b. Assumption theory c. Inclusion theory d. Exclusion theory 3. Education is termed: a. Fitness of good. b. Living a better life by caring good c. Lifelong process d. Process to achieve something 4. Arms of education are: a. Social, volcano and cultural b. Normal, spiritual and intellectual c. To get an employment d. Both (a) and (d)

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5. Principles of education is except: a. Self-determination b. Develop independent learning skills c. Develop leadership skills d. To guide people 6. Learning is except: a. Self-directed b. Self-activity c. Not transferable d. Creative 7. The most recognized learning theory in education is: a. Bloom’s taxonomy b. Motivational theory c. Theory of avoidance d. None of these 8. Affective domain of learning includes: a. Attitude, values, interest and appreciation b. Attitude, moral, interest and appreciation c. Attitude, moral and appreciation d. Attitude, values and interest 9. Transformation learning process is: a. Based on learning by doing b. Make sense of other life experiences c. Make sense and people’s own life experiences d. Based on cognitive values 10. Education is dependent on: a. Anthropology b. Sociology c. Philosophy d. Geography 11. The objectives of lesson plan should be: a. Learner oriented b. Teacher oriented c. Both (a) and (b) d. None of these 12 . The learning domains of Bloom’s taxonomy are: a. Cognitive and psychomotor b. Alternative and cognitive c. Cognitive, affective and psychomotor d. Psychomotor and effective 13. Central objective is also known as: a. Specific objective b. Departmental objective c. Institution objective d. Main objective 14. The maxims of learning is: a. Known to unknown b. Concrete to abstract c. Sample to complex d. All of these 15. The stages of learning are: a. Cognitive, associate and disassociate b. Cognitive, autonomous and captive c. Cognitive, associative and autonomous d. Cognitive, associative and behavior

Answer Key 1. c

2. a

3. c

4. d

5. d

10. c

11. a

12. c

13. c

14. d

6. c 15. c

7. a

8. a

9. c

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Further Readings   1. Anderson, L., and Krathwohl, D. A. (2001). Taxonomy for learning, teaching and assessing: A revision of Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives. New York: Longman.   2. Armstrong, P. (n.d.). Bloom’s Taxonomy. Centre for Teaching, Vanderbilt University.   3. Bloom, B. S.; Engelhart, M. D.; Furst, E. J.; Hill, W. H.; Krathwohl, D. R. (1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives: The classification of educational goals. Handbook I: Cognitive domain. New York: David McKay Company.   4. Cunningham, Gini. “Lesson Plans and Unit Plans: The Basis for Instruction”. ASCD. Retrieved 2018-02-15.  5. Dougherty, Eleanor (2012). Assignments Matter: How to Transform Urban Schools through Fearless Leadership. Alexandria, VA: ASCD. p. 9. ISBN 9781416614401.   6. Harrow, A.J. (1972). A taxonomy of the psychomotor domain. New York: David McKay Co.   7. Jump up to:a b c d Mitchell, Diana, and Stephen Tschudi, “Exploring and Teaching the English Language Arts” (4th Ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon, 1999.   8. Lesson Plan Reviews Introduction. Teachinghistory.org. Accessed 15 June 2011.   9. Moore, Kenneth (2014). Effective Instructional Strategies: From Theory to Practice. Los Angeles, CA: SAGE Publications. p. 218. ISBN 9781483306582. 10. Nagro, Sarah A.; Fraser, Dawn W.; Hooks, Sara D. (2019). “Lesson Planning With Engagement in Mind: Proactive Classroom Management Strategies for Curriculum Instruction”. Intervention in School and Clinic. 54 (3): 131–140. doi:10.1177/1053451218767905. 11. O’Bannon, B. (2008). “What is a Lesson Plan?”. Innovative Technology Centre, the University of Tennessee. Archived from the original on July 29, 2011. Retrieved May 17, 2011. 12. Writing Lesson Plans Archived 2011-07-22 at the Way Back Machine.” Huntington Universityt Christian college ranked among America’s best colleges. 15 Mar. 2009.

2 Assessment and Planning LEARNING OBJECTIVES After studying this chapter, students will be able to: Â Identify essential qualities and attributes of a teacher. Â Describe the teaching styles of faculty. Â Explain the determinants of learning and initiate self-assessment to identify own learning style. Â Identify the factors that motivate the learner. Â Define curriculum and classify learner. Â Identify the factors influencing curriculum development. Â Develop skill in writing learning outcomes and lesson plan.

CHAPTER OUTLINE  Introduction  Teaching and its Definition  Features of Good Teaching  Learning Pyramid  Virtual Learning  Clinical Teaching Method  Essential Qualities of Teacher  Teaching Style

 Types of Learner  Determinants of Learning  Readiness to Learn  Today’s Generation of Learner and Their Skills and Attributes  Emotional Intelligence  Curriculum Planning  Meaning of Curriculum

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Learning: Learning is the relatively permanent change in a person’s knowledge or behavior due to experience. This definition has three components:  1. The duration of the change is long-term rather than short-term  2. The locus of the change is the content and structure of knowledge in memory or the behavior of the learner  3. The cause of the change is the learner’s experience in the environment rather than fatigue, motivation, drugs, physical condition or physiologic intervention.”  –From Learning in Encyclopedia of Educational Research, Richard E Mayer Teaching: Teaching is a social process. The meaning of teaching is ‘to teach’. Teaching is a three-dimensional process in which the teacher and the student realize their nature through the curriculum. That is, by making a subject matter a medium, we call teaching only the exchange of ideas or mutual interaction between the teacher and the learner. Good teaching qualities   Effective goal-setting   Clear communication   Acting as a role model   Adaptability and flexibility   Preparation   Self-reflection   Life-long learning   Promoting a love of learning Emotional intelligence (EI): Emotional intelligence is essential for good interpersonal communication. Some experts believe that this ability is more important in determining life success than IQ alone. Fortunately, there are things that you can do to strengthen your own social and emotional intelligence. Understanding emotions can be the key to better relationships, improved well-being, and stronger communication skills.

INTRODUCTION The number of possible human behaviors is unlimited. A set of instructional behavior, which is a subset of human behavior, is infinite as well. There is a corresponding element in the set of teaching behaviors for every element in the set of human behavior. This suggests that these two sets are equivalent. However, it is important to know, what are the distinguishing characteristics between these two sets of behavior. The distinguishing characteristic here is intention. Teaching behavior is intentional; its basic intention is that somebody learns something. Intention can be as simple as knowing the name of the object and as complex as development of the character of the student. The degree of complexity in instructional behavior is proportional to the degree of complexity in intentions. Teaching has a long and illustrious history, comparable to that of humans. Since Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle’s period, people from several professions have attempted to characterize the teaching-learning process. There has long been debate about whether teaching is an art or a science. If teaching is an art form, it must be developed in the same way as any other art form. On the contrary, if teaching is not an art, then individuals who wish to become teachers should develop their

CHAPTER 2  Assessment and Planning teaching skills. When teaching, the instructor must combine his or her creative and intuitive abilities with his or her teaching abilities. If one teaches the same subject, he/she has to constantly improvise to move from what is routine in the expression of learning material and does not depend on fixed structures like formulas, rules, and algorithms.

TEACHING AND ITS DEFINITION Teaching is a process of attending to people’s needs, experience feelings in order to guide them and teach them what is required. y Teaching is the arrangement of situations, which lead to desirable bonds and makes them satisfy —Thorndike y Teaching is the means whereby society trains the young in a selected environment as quickly as possible to adjust themselves to the world in which they live.  —Yoakam and Simpson y Teaching is the process of paying attention to people’s needs, experiences, and feelings and intervening so that they learn certain skills and go beyond what is expected of them. y Teaching is intimate contact between a more mature personality and a less mature one. —HC Morrison y Teaching is interpersonal influence aimed at changing the behavior potential of another person. —NL Gage

FEATURES OF GOOD TEACHING y y y y y y y y

Good teaching involves essential skills to guide learners. It is planned carefully. It is cooperative and suggestive to the students. It is democratic in nature. It is stimulating in nature. Although it takes the student’s previous experience into account, it is progressive in nature. It is both diagnostic and remedial. In other words, good teaching liberates the mind of the learner.

Therefore, good teaching should follow the maxims of teaching from what a student knows to what is unknown; teaching what is simple first and then moving to complex content; definite to indefinite; concrete to abstract; particular to general by using both inductive and deductive thinking process; and keeping in mind the psychology of the learner. There are a variety of teaching methods that a teacher can use in the classroom: Lecture method, discussion, seminars, role play, projects, assignments, symposium, field trips, exhibitions, computer-based assisted learning, microteaching, problem-based learning, simulations, programed instructions, and self-instructional modules. The teacher uses demonstration in the classroom as well as in the clinical area. In the clinical area, teaching methods can include clinical teaching, nursing rounds, clinical reports, patient-based case study, bedside clinics, process recording, and nursing conferences. While giving instructions, the instructor must employ a variety of teaching strategies and methods, the most common of which is verbal structuring in the classroom to introduce new concepts, principles, generalizations, procedures, and so on. Even now, this is done most frequently in colleges through lectures.

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LEARNING PYRAMID Figure 2.1 shows the learning pyramid.

Fig. 2.1:  Learning pyramid by the National Training Center

Many studies showed that the types of methods to teach and take lectures will improve the retaining power of the group or individual to recall the taken topic and enhance the learning experience. The learning pyramid is, therefore referred to as the “cone of learning”, which is being developed by the National Training Center. According to this pyramid, most of the students only remember 10% of the content while reading from the textbook, but retain about 90% of what they teach to others.

VIRTUAL LEARNING Virtual learning is sometimes referred to as e-learning or digital learning. It is moving away from the traditional or classroom teaching style in which the presence of a teacher is not required. Virtual learning brings the outside world into the classroom by using a computer, the internet, or software designed to allow interaction with a facilitator in a separate location. Students who use the virtual learning technique can enroll in extra courses or choose from a variety of options. To improve the learning experience, many university programs are incorporating virtual learning into the system.

Definition It is a method of learning which uses computer software, internet or both to deliver instructions to students without requiring a teacher or classroom.

Forms of Virtual Learning y y

Computer-based: Instruction is given by a computer with software that may be customized with appropriate learning materials on a regular basis and also fulfills the learning needs of pupils. Internet-based: It is similar to computer-based instruction, but here the software is delivered by web and stored on a remote server.

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y y

Remote teacher online: In this type of virtual learning, a teacher instructs students while interacting with them via the internet, online video, online forums, e-mail, and instant messaging. The teacher is not physically present. Blended learning: It is a mix of virtual and traditional learning methods in which the teacher is physically present and gives face-to-face education using at least one virtual learning method. Facilitated virtual learning: This is online training that is assisted by a human facilitator and is computer-based, internet-based, or remote instructor based. The human facilitator does not give instructions; instead, he or she supervises the learning process.

Advantages y y y y y y

Students get the chance to study at their own pace. Students receive up-to-date information by using this method. It gives the freedom to choose the time for study. It does not have restricted physical boundaries. Students can control their own learning experience. Students can access additional learning material.

Disadvantages y y y

It requires responsible learner. Students should have higher level of self-discipline. Human interaction is not possible in this type of teaching.

CLINICAL TEACHING METHOD Clinical teaching method provides the opportunity to the students to translate the theoretical knowledge into a variety of intellectual and psychomotor skills needed to provide patient-centered quality nursing (Fig. 2.2).

Fig. 2.2:  Clinical teaching method

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In recent years, nursing education has focused on theoretical education and bridging the gap between theoretical and clinical education. Many of the research studies stated that the nursing students are weak when it comes to the clinical practice in spite of good knowledge and the gap increased during the pandemic days. Due to entry of unskillful nurses in the clinical setting the nursing care system is falling day by day, therefore, it is important to continue the clinical education for the professional development.

Steps of Clinical Teaching 1. 2. 3. 4.

Formulating objectives Determine the skills and knowledge of the students by conducting repeat tests. Preplanning the procedures or clinical teaching for a specific area. Evaluation or re-demos will help the students to implement the procedure in clinical setting with confidence.

Physiology/Principles of Clinical Teaching y y y y y y y

Clinical education should be able to reflect the nature of professional practice. More focus should be given toward the clinical teaching as the practical aspect plays an important role. The educators must keep in consideration that the nursing students are trainees in the clinical not nurses. Sufficient practice time should be given to the nursing students before evaluating them. The clinical teaching must be supported with mutual trust and respect; the rights of each and every patient must be respected. Clinical teaching and learning should focus on skill and essential knowledge. In the clinical teaching, the focus should be on the quality teaching rather than completing many procedures in one day.

Methods of Clinical Teaching Figure 2.3 shows the methods of clinical teaching.

Fig. 2.3:  Diagrammatic representation of clinical teaching

ESSENTIAL QUALITIES OF TEACHER It is said that a teacher affects eternity. You never know where the influence stops. y Teachers play a crucial role in shaping the future generation. y Teachers nurture natural abilities and skills and prepare students for the future. As a teacher, you have to be a role model and inspire your students.

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Different students might be coming from different backgrounds and as their teacher, you have the power to uplift them and make a change.

Empathy One of the most important good qualities of a teacher is empathy.

Creativity Do you remember how you used to be as a student? Did you enjoy your classes or were you bored during the lessons? As a teacher, you have to ensure that your students don’t get bored. It’s common for students to lose interest and attention. How do you make sure that they are listening to you? The answer is simple, be creative! One of the important qualities of an ideal teacher is creativity. By being creative, you can make your classes interesting. You can take the help of various online teaching tools to add life to the classroom.

Communication Skills While talking about the good qualities of a teacher, communication skills cannot be missed. When it comes to communication, a lot of things can go wrong. It is said that the biggest problem with communication is the misconception that it has taken place. To put it simply, as a teacher, you might think that you are communicating well. But, there are a few points to be kept in mind: Always invite feedback, and ask your students if they have understood Create a platform for open communication Communication need not always be verbal, the teacher will have to pick up nonverbal cues and that’s where the real qualities of a teacher get tested. It is important for teachers to have strong verbal and nonverbal communication skills. y y

Interpersonal Skills Interpersonal skills and communication skills are closely related to each other. How well you communicate with your students and their parents will determine the nature of your connection with them. Interpersonal communication is important to establish strong interpersonal relationships. As mentioned above, a teacher must aim for the holistic development of a student.

Positivism Students would often feel depressed and down. If a teacher has the quality of always being positive, it can help the students in a lot of ways. A positive attitude and a positive relationship between students and teachers are the most important things needed to ensure effective learning.

Fair Minded A teacher has to treat all her students equally. Fairness is one of the most important qualities of effective teachers. When a teacher is fair-minded, it earns them respect and students feel safe and valued in the classroom. Creating a classroom environment that’s fair will nurture trust and respect between students and it is a great quality to teach your students.

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Humorous Though most people don’t think of humor as a quality, it is one of the most significant qualities of an ideal teacher. When the classroom gets boring, who doesn’t like a good laugh and some jokes? Teachers who are humorous and funny have the ability to connect with students easily and can create a joyful environment. By being humorous, we don’t just mean cracking jokes; being able to enjoy jokes and small mischievous activities from students are also parts of being humorous.

Consistent Consistency helps teachers and students alike. It helps teachers to feel more organized. Being organized and well-planned removes tension and stress. By consistency, we mean having a routine and system in place. When there’s a proper routine, the respect from the students and parents increases.

Rewarding A small pat on the back can go a long way. Teachers need to be rewarding and have to acknowledge the efforts of their students. When teachers say “well done”, “good job” etc., and reward students with a good word of encouragement, it motivates them to do better and makes them better teachers. Hence, when the question of what are the most important qualities of a good teacher comes up, this quality cannot be missed.

Reliable A reliable teacher is someone who is dedicated to his/her job and is trustworthy. Reliability is one of the best qualities of a teacher. Reliable teachers know how to make proper decisions and assessments. Since a student’s future lies with the teacher, it is important for students to study under reliable teachers and for teachers to cultivate the quality of reliability in their students.

Passionate Passion is something that every teacher should have. Teaching is not an easy job. There are a lot of problems that teachers face in their day-to-day lives. From low engagement of students to less interactivity, there are a lot of issues. Now, with online teaching and live classes, teachers face even bigger problems. Passion is the core essential quality that helps teachers to overcome any problem that they face. With passion and the right online teaching platform, teachers can seek success.

Motivational Low motivation to study and learn is one of the major concerns of every parent, teacher, and student across the globe. Teachers can play a huge role in motivating their students. As mentioned above, a small pat on the back can go a long way. Prompt feedback, critical appreciation, group work, etc. are some of the methods that teachers can apply to motivate their students. When a teacher is naturally motivating, when they ask their students to do more and push them to be their best, the results are amazing.

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Active Listening Quite often, students want someone to listen to them. You can be a great teacher only when you understand what your students want and in order to understand what they want, you have to listen. Active listening is one of the most important qualities of an ideal teacher.

Nurturing A nurturing teacher promotes a healthy classroom. There’s enough room for opinions, feedback, and mistakes. Students often need someone to talk to them through their problems and mistakes. When teachers get harsh on them, there are chances of students acting out. When a teacher is nurturing, the students feel safe, which increases respect between students and the teacher. If students have behavioral or social disabilities, a nurturing teacher can help them a lot.

Honesty Students look up to their teachers and honesty is one of the most important qualities that students need. Honesty toward the work that you do, toward your students and colleagues is extremely important. Honesty is often a package, it comes along with qualities such as responsibility, courage and reliability.

Punctuality Being on time and sticking to schedules and timetables are among the most needed qualities of an ideal teacher. Students learn from you and in order to instill a sense of punctuality in them, you have to live by it. This quality reflects your responsibility and commitment to your profession.

Willingness to Learn Teaching and learning go hand in hand. A good teacher never stops learning. With the education sector changing every day, teachers need to learn and upskill themselves. For example, with classes going online, teachers have to learn about live classes and online teaching.

Organization Skills This quality helps teachers to stay punctual and disciplined. Organization and planning are extremely important qualities of a good teacher. Imagine putting all the keys in one box without labeling them. Your house keys, locker keys, car and bike keys, everything in one big box. If you were running out in a hurry and were searching for your keys, imagine how much time you would spend finding the keys. Instead, if they were labeled and kept separately, it would have been easier for you. The same logic applies to your teaching job. If you are organized and planned, it helps you to be on time and finish your lessons. This is an inevitable characteristic of teaching.

Ethics Ethics is a standard set of values and beliefs that teachers should follow. It is important for teachers to have good ethical principles. Ethics is what tells us what is right and wrong and keeps us from doing things that are wrong. It is against a teacher’s ethics to be unfair to students and to show partiality to students.

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Dignity Respect for humanity is of utmost importance. Since learning starts with teachers, it is very important for teachers to respect everyone regardless of his/her gender, status, caste and creed. There’s no room for judgment and bias. This is one of the characteristics of teaching that sets teachers apart. A good set of principles and qualities is essential to make teaching effective. With teaching being redefined day by day, it is important for the teachers to hold their qualities of respecting everyone. If you are a teacher, you know how difficult it is to take classes. The above-mentioned qualities help teachers to overcome these challenges. Good teaching is founded on qualities and values. As mentioned before, if you don’t have any of these qualities, don’t worry, you can inculcate them.

TEACHING STYLE In traditional teaching environments, teachers with decades of experience are not aware of their primary teaching style, even though their approach to teaching has a direct effect on student participation and student engagement. Different teaching styles are as follows: y Lecturer y Demonstrator y Hybrid y Facilitator y Delegator

Lecturer The lecturer style (sometimes called the formal authority style) is familiar to anyone who’s sat through long unidirectional lectures in auditoriums. This teaching style is often used with large groups of students, when a lot of interaction between the teacher and students is not feasible. The subject matter in the lecturer style, most of the time, is singular and predetermined. Students are encouraged to take notes and ask questions at the end. There are usually no activities planned. Pros y y

Possible to teach large groups of students at once. Easy to prepare lecturers.

Cons y y

Low retention of information. No active learning.

Demonstrator Under the demonstrator style, the teacher still retains a lot of authority but is more open to trying a student-centered approach to teaching. You can see the demonstrator encouraging students to come up with problem-solving strategies, ask questions and simulate what they’ve just learned. The demonstrator often goes beyond lectures, showing presentations, images, films and experiments. As a result, it’s more applicable to more learning styles.

CHAPTER 2  Assessment and Planning Pros

Incorporates a variety of teaching formats. Cons

Doesn’t accommodate the needs of all students.

Hybrid The hybrid (also known as blended) style strives to strike a balance between teacher- and studentcentered approaches. Most of the time, the teachers who follow the hybrid style bring their own knowledge and expertise into the class. They still have a structure for every lecture but are able to adjust their flow and come up with the right activities to keep the students engaged. While the hybrid approach tends to be quite effective in a variety of settings, it can make covering information-heavy courses difficult due to its slower pace. Pros

Students remain active and engaged for longer. Cons y y

Can be less focused and slow. Requires a lot of energy from the teacher.

Facilitator Shifting to an even more student-centered approach, there’s the facilitator style of teaching. Instead of giving one-directional lectures, a facilitator encourages inquiry-based learning. Students learn by asking questions and discussing real-world case studies. Some other activities might be designed to improve problem-solving skills and help understand the subject matter better through practical challenges. Pros

Helps students develop self-sufficiency. Cons

Doesn’t work well for theory-heavy classes.

Delegator The most student-centric teaching style of all is called the delegator style (also known as the group style). Here, the teacher is merely present as an observer, and it’s the group of students who are doing all the work. Most of the learning in the delegator style happens peer-to-peer, through frequent collaborations and discussions. The instructor is practically removed from the position of authority and only facilitates the discussions instead. The delegator style works best for lab-based experiments, group tutoring classes, creative writing, debates and other peer-to-peer activities.

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Encourages learning and collaboration among students. Cons

Can be inefficient since students have to find the right answers for themselves.   These are just five of the most popular teaching styles.

TYPES OF LEARNER We mentioned before that scientists have for years tried to understand the best ways students learn through research. One of the popular theories, to this day, is the VARK model. This model identifies four types of learners: visual, auditory, kinesthetic and reading/writing. Most people are a combination of these four styles, but more times than not, they have a predominant style of learning. Each of these styles has a complementary way of teaching. Now, let’s see the characteristics each of these styles entails and how to use them in the best possible manner.

Visual Learning Style Visual learners are individuals who prefer to take in their information visually—be that with maps, graphs, diagrams, charts, and others. However, they don’t necessarily respond well to photos or videos, rather needing their information using different visual aids such as patterns and shapes. The best way to present to visual learners is by showing them the relationship between different ideas visually. For instance, when explaining a scientific process, it can be done by using a flow chart (Fig. 2.4).

Fig. 2.4:  Visual learning style

Auditory Learning Style Auditory learners are individuals who learn better when they take in information in auditory form when it is heard or spoken. They are prone to sorting their ideas after speaking, rather than thinking ideas through before. Since to them, saying things out loud helps them understand the concept (Fig. 2.5). Auditory learners learn best when information is presented to them via strategies that involve talking, such as lectures and group discussions. They can benefit from repeating back the lessons, having recordings of the lectures, group activities that require classmates explaining ideas, etc.

Fig. 2.5:  Auditory learning style

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Kinesthetic Learning Style Kinesthetic learners are individuals who prefer to learn by doing. They enjoy a hands-on experience. They are usually more in touch with reality and more connected to it, which is why they require using tactile experience to understand something better. The best way to present new information to kinesthetic learners is through personal experience, practice, examples, or simulations. For instance, they can remember an experiment by recreating it themselves (Fig. 2.6).

Fig. 2.6:  Kinesthetic learning style

Reading/Writing Reading/writing learners consume information best when it’s in words, whether that’s by writing it down or reading it. To them, text is more powerful than any kind of visual or auditory representation of an idea. These individuals usually perform very well on written assignments (Fig. 2.7).

DETERMINANTS OF LEARNING y y y

Fig. 2.7:  Reading/Writing

Nurses have always provided education to patients and their families to learn many different aspects of their health care. Nurses have difficulty meeting patients’ needs because of time constraints in clinical practice. The “teachable moment” is hard to capture because of decreased length of stay. These determinants include:  Learning needs (what)  Readiness to learn (when)  Learning styles (how) The nurse plays a crucial role in the learning process by:  Assessing problems of deficits  Providing meaningful information  Identifying progress being made  Giving feedback and follow up  Reinforcing learning  Evaluating the client’s abilities

Assessment of the Learner The effectiveness of nursing care depends on the scope, accuracy and comprehensiveness of assessment.

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y y y y

Factors that are considered with respect to three determinants (what, when, how) of learning: Assessment should be based on theories, concepts and principles Identify priorities of behavioral objectives Reduce anxiety of client as much as possible Prevent unneeded repetition

Assessing Learning Needs y y

Learning needs must be examined first to discover what has to be taught and to determine the extent of teaching required. Learning needs defined are gaps in knowledge that exist between a desired level of performance and the actual level of performance.

Steps to Assess Learning Needs 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Identify the learner. Choose the right setting. Collect important information about the learner. Involve members of the health care team. Prioritize needs. Take time management issues into account.

Criteria to Prioritize Needs Figures 2.8A and B shows criteria to prioritize needs.

Fig. 2.8A:  Criteria to prioritize needs

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Fig. 2.8B:  Criteria to prioritize needs

Criteria

Learning needs

Mandatory

That must be learned for survival recent heart attack survivors need to know about signs and symptoms and when to get immediate help.

Desirable

That are not life dependent but related to well being, clients with cardiovascular disease need to know the effect of a high-fat diet on their condition.

Possible

That are nice to know but not essential, about daily activity, newly diagnosed diabetes.

Time Management Issues Lack of time is a major barrier to carrying out a proper assessment. The following are some tips that, in long term, are time-savers: y Give more efficient and effective time to do good initial assessment. y Learner must be given time to offer their own thought (involve client actively). y Do assessment any time and anywhere as possible. y Inform client ahead of time. y Minimize interruptions and distractions.

Methods to Assess Learning Needs y y y y y

Casual conservations: While performing patient care, nurse must rely on active listening, use open-ended questions. Structured interviews: Use direct open-ended questions. Questionnaires: Use checklist. Observations: Watching the learner perform a task is an excellent way of assessing a skill. Patient charts: Physicians’ notes, nurses’ notes, ….etc.

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READINESS TO LEARN Defined as the time when the learner expresses or shows interests in learning the information necessary to maintain optimal health. The same methods to assess learning can be used for assessing readiness to learn. Timing—that is, the point at which teaching should take place—is very important. A learner who is not receptive to information at one time may be more receptive to the same information at another time.

Types of Readiness to Learn y y

Physical readiness Emotional readiness

y y

Experiential readiness Knowledge readiness

Physical Readiness y y

Measures ability Complexity of task

y y

Health status Gender

Emotional Readiness y y y

Anxiety level Support system Motivation

y y y

Risk taking behavior Frame of mind Developmental stage

Experiential Readiness y y y

Level of aspiration Past coping mechanisms Cultural background

y

Locus of control Orientation

y

Learning disabilities

y

Knowledge Readiness y y

Present knowledge base Cognitive ability

TODAY’S GENERATION OF LEARNER AND THEIR SKILLS AND ATTRIBUTES Today’s learner are very ambitious confident and optimistic. They have lots of capacity for cooperative work. Due to modern era they also have high level of stress due to cut throat competition in the world.

Creative and Innovative The learners of today’s era are very creative and innovative due to information explosion which is easily available to them.

Collaboration and Communication The increasing collaboration and communication is the need of the hour. As the learner has to work in the team, they need to communicate effectively and collaborate efficiently.

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Critical Thinking and Problem Solving Critical thinking and problem solving is another skills which need to inculcated among students.

Global Citizenship The global boundaries are shrinking the world has become a global village. So the students need to be prepared for 21st century challenges.

Technology Since the technology is changing a fast pace, the students of nursing need to be skillful in technology upgradation. The most important skills in nursing practice is to be life long learner. Since medical and information technology are changing very rapidly the students should be imbibed with value of learner forever.

EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE The concept of emotional intelligence (EI or EQ) emerged over 20 years ago and still applies today. Emotional intelligence is described as the ability to monitor or handle one’s own emotions as well as the emotions of others. Emotional intelligence involves recognizing feelings, self-monitoring or awareness, how emotions impact relationships and how they can be managed. Motivation, empathy and social skills can all be impacted by emotional intelligence. Emotional intelligence includes: y The ability to feel but also correctly identify emotions, both in self and in others. y Using these emotions to assist reasoning. y Having the capability to understand feelings. y Managing one’s emotions. y Controlling emotional situations. These components can be described as: y Self-awareness: The ability to recognize emotions. y Self-regulation: The ability to control emotions and think before acting. y Motivation, in relation to emotional intelligence: The inclination to follow goals with energy and tenacity. y Empathy: The understanding of other’s emotions and social skills, including the ability to build and manage relationships. Development of emotional intelligence can have positive results on many levels, and it requires selfreflection and work on the self, which is not always easy to do. Tools are available to assess emotional intelligence. Additionally, as individuals, we should look for feedback on our behavior. We need to evaluate the feedback, including reactions of others to our behavior. Self-reflection on how stress is managed and how we deal with emotional reactions to situations is important. We should also develop action plans for ourselves to work on both strengths and opportunities with our emotional intelligence (Goleman, 1995). Improving our emotional intelligence will assist us, our team and our patients.

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CURRICULUM PLANNING In the past, the second name of curriculum was ‘course of studies’. This term was considered to be a program related to various subjects only. However, the terms ‘curriculum’ and ‘course of studies’ were sometimes interchangeable but used in a very limited sense. As a matter of fact, this viewpoint was a static view which emphasized only the textbook knowledge or factual information. In those times, it was correct because the main objective of education was to help the learner memorize the content. Furthermore, curriculum was a body of preserved factual knowledge to be transmitted from the teacher to the pupils and mastered by them through memorization, recitation and drills; and to be reproduced on the demand of the teacher. The traditional curriculum was subject-centered, while the modern curriculum is child and life-centered or student-centered.

Definitions of Curriculum y y y

Cuningham: “Curriculum is a tool in the hands of the artist (teacher) to mold his material (pupils) according to his ideas (aims and objectives) in his studio (school).” Morroe: “Curriculum includes all those activities which are utilized by the school to attain the aims of education.” Crow and crow: “The curriculum includes all the learner’s experience in or outside school that are included in a program which has been devised to help him developmentally, emotionally, socially, spiritually and morally.”

Modern Concept of Curriculum With the passage of time and reinforcement of mind, the traditional concept of curriculum (which was limited in scope) was replaced by a dynamic and modern concept. Hence, it is now considered to be a broad cumulative and comprehensive term including all the curricular and co-curricular activities. It is the totality of all the learning activities to which we are exposed during study, i.e., classroom experiences, laboratory, library, playgrounds, school building, study tours associations with parents and community. Now, it is more than the textbooks and more than the subject matter selected for a particular class. Modern education is a combination of two dynamic processes. The one is the process of individual development and the other is the process of socialization, which is known as adjustment with the social environment. In short, curriculum is a series of potential experiences, set-up in educational institutions for making the learners disciplined in desirable ways of thinking of the concerned society. It is a path by following which we can reach a specified destination. Furthermore, it is considered to be a series of learning opportunities which are planned and carried out by a teacher and pupils working together.

Characteristics of Curriculum y

y

Continuously evolving: It evolved from one period to another, to the present. Curriculum must be continuously monitored and evaluated for making it effective. Educational activities and services of curriculum must be adapted to meet the needs of a modern and dynamic community. Based on the needs of the pupils: A good curriculum reflects the needs of an individual and the society as a whole. The curriculum must be in proper shape in order to meet the challenges of time and make education more responsive to the clientele it serves.

CHAPTER 2  Assessment and Planning y

y y

y y

y

y

Democratically conceived: A good curriculum is developed through the efforts of a group of individuals from different sectors in the society who are knowledgeable about the interests, needs and resources of the learner and the society as a whole. Curriculum is a product of many minds. Result of a long-term effort: It is a product of long and tedious process. A good curriculum takes a long period of time in planning, management, evaluation and development. A composite of various elements: A good curriculum suggests proper instructional equipment and meeting places that are often most conducive to learning. It includes the student-teacher relationship, guidance and counseling program, health services, school and community projects, library and laboratories, and other school-related work experiences. Provides for the logical sequence of subject matter: Learning is developmental. Classes and activities should be planned. A good curriculum provides continuity of experience. Complements other programs of the community: It is responsive to the needs of the community. The school offers its assistance in the improvement and realization of ongoing programs of the community. There is cooperative effort between the school and the community toward greater productivity. Quality education: Quality education comes through the situation of the individual’s intellectual and creative capacities for social welfare and development. The curriculum helps the learner to become the best that he/she can possibly be. Its support system is secured to augment existing sources for its efficient and effective implementation. Has administrative flexibility: A good curriculum must be ready to incorporate changes whenever necessary. The curriculum is open to revision and development to meet the demands of globalization and the digital age.

MEANING OF CURRICULUM The term “curriculum” means many things to many people. Any attempt to define the concept within the context of this chapter is not aimed at seeking consensus of interpretation but rather an understanding of the meaning attached to the concept in the context of this book. Curriculum here refers to planned learning experiences that the educational institution intends to provide for its learners. This definition does not deny the existence of hidden and null curricula (that which the educational institution chooses to exclude from its curriculum (Eisner, 1994) in educational institutions, but is seen as an appropriate point of departure for a book on curriculum development, since what is not planned or cannot be planned would be difficult to articulate in such a book. Despite the lack of agreement on the meaning of the term, there seems to be consensus that educational institutions, as institutions charged with the all-important societal function of educating citizens, have the sole claim to curriculum. Furthermore, most agree that in education of all forms, there is no such thing as being neutral (Bode, 1937; Moore, 2000; Smeyers, 1995). Some authors believe that education should be directed toward helping learners become intelligent and critical citizens in a democratic society (Dewey, 1916, 1961); yet for some, education is a political act that ‘demands from educators that they take it on as a political act and that they consistently live their progressive and democratic or authoritarian and reactionary past or also their spontaneous, uncritical choice, that they define themselves by being democratic or authoritarian’ (Freire, 1998:63).

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Textbook of Educational Technology/Nursing Education Put simply, either the learners have to be taught to fit as a cog into the existing social machinery, or to recognize their own responsibility for transformation of the social, political and economic world in which they live (Bode, 1937). In Cuffaro’s words, ‘philosophy of education represents choices, values, knowledge and beliefs of teachers as well as their aspirations, intentions and aims. It serves to guide and inspire and contributes to determining the detail of everyday life in the classroom’ (1994:1). Central to making educational choices is a need to make explicit the philosophical beliefs underpinning what the educational institution sees as worthwhile for learners to experience. Such beliefs, whether made explicit or not, permeate the curricula experiences of all the learners in whatever context they find themselves. As noted by Wiles and Bondi, ‘at the heart of purposeful activity in curriculum development is an educational philosophy that assists in answering value-laden questions and selecting from among the many choices’ (1998:35). This is specifically true about choices and questions related to the purpose of education, the nature and role of the learner, the nature and role of the teacher and the teaching/learning process. Choices and decisions about curriculum are, hopefully, not random choices, but are based on thorough understanding of the educational ideologies on which they are based. Three broad streams of educational philosophy underpin curricula choices and decisions; the conservative, the progressive and the radical views. It should be noted, however, that most of what has been written in educational philosophy has been directed to formative education, i.e., the aspect of education that takes place during the years of primary and secondary education. For some reason, it seems that educational philosophers have preferred to stay clear of tertiary education, especially professional education. On the other hand, educators in different professions have been drawn to the philosophical debates underlying their practice. The basic premise underpinning the conservative vision is that there are certain enduring worthwhile truths that should be taught and learned. According to this view, the purpose of education is to transmit worthwhile bodies of information to generations of learners so that whatever is worthwhile is conserved. Two schools of thought, perennialism and essentialism, fall within the conservative vision. Although the two schools of thought differ somewhat in how they view education, they agree on various fundamental aspects about education. For both the perennialists and the essentialists, education should concern itself with the cultivation of the intellect and not learner needs or interests (Tanner and Tanner, 1995). Furthermore, the two schools of thought agree that: y Social change should be slow y There is need to conserve and therefore to oppose reform y Methodology should be teacher directed y Emphasis should be placed on ensuring content-centered curriculum (Hearne and Cowles, 2001:54). Differences between the two schools of thought revolve around specifications of exactly what is to be taught and for what purpose. Perennialists’ views of education have limited relevance to professional education because of their focus on the basics such as the reading, writing and arithmetic. This chapter focuses mainly on a brief analysis of the essentialists’ view of education. The decision to focus mainly on essentialism is not to negate the tight grip that perennialists’ views on education have had on nursing education in particular. It has been noted that ‘perennialists contend that there is an organized body of knowledge that children (learners—insertion mine) need to know so that society might cohere around a common identity’ (Gaudelli, 2002:198).

CHAPTER 2  Assessment and Planning

Curriculum Development Factors Curriculum development is influenced by a multitude of factors. Factors affecting curriculum development include philosophical, psychological, societal or social, political, economical, educational, technological and gender factors etc. A brief description of these factors is as follows: Philosophical Factors

Based upon fundamental beliefs that arise from one’s philosophy of education, curricular decisions involve consideration of several topics and issues. Precisely for this reason, we consider philosophy one of the major foundation areas in curriculum. Studying philosophy helps us deal with our own personal systems of beliefs and values, the way we perceive the world around us and how we define what is important to us. Hence, study of the philosophy of education in terms of curriculum development is essential. In essence, educational philosophies influence and, to a large extent, determine our educational decisions and alternatives. Those who are responsible for curricular decisions, therefore, should be clear about what they believe. If we are unclear or confused about our own beliefs, then our curricular plans are bound to be unclear and confusing. Psychological Factors

The purpose of psychology is to study human behavior. Psychology contributes to curriculum planning by providing teachers with information concerning the nature of students, the nature of the process involved in learning, the motivation, personality and individual differences of students, the value of teaching methods and teaching effectiveness. Social or Societal Factors

The purpose of sociology is the analysis of organized human relationship. Its major contribution to curriculum has been the making of decisions about the content of the curriculum; and its main focus has been the understanding of the direction of social change and the socialization of the individual. Its method of working involves providing extensive information about the social background of students, promoting a realistic evaluation of the role of the teacher and school in social change. It increases teacher’s flexibility, tolerance and awareness of methods of inquiry. It also takes into consideration that primary school curriculum differs from secondary school curriculum. The needs of society play an important role in the development of the curriculum, e.g., emphasis should be on a technical-based curriculum for the development of an industrialized society. Political Factors

Politics has a certain impact on all spheres of life, and instability in politics leads to instability in everyday life. It usually defines goals and content; political considerations need to be admitted while developing curriculum; and political decisions may change the requirements for curriculum development. Governments need to promote nationalism, patriotism and ideologies. Therefore, they make policies according to which they send out directives. The directives state the medium of instruction, the nature of the syllabus and the kind of textbook, etc. Economical Factors

As compared to the elite schools where this is hardly a problem, schools belonging to the lower social strata cannot entertain the possibility of using modern equipment, e.g., the computer, due to

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financial constraints. This also leads to losing good teachers and other personnel to places offering better remuneration. Educational Factors

In order to facilitate effective learning, modern and efficient methods of education should be used and for this, we need trained and skilled teachers. We also need to keep co-curricular activities like sports, drama, debates, excursions, etc. as an integral part of the curriculum. Technological Factors

The influence of technological progress is observed in each sphere of life, and when the time for curriculum development comes, the technological factor plays an important role. Curriculum developers cannot ignore technological progress and the influence it presents. Technological innovations may be applied to curriculum development in several ways “as a plan for the systematic use of various devices and media” and as the issue that “is found in models and procedures for the construction or development and evaluation of curriculum materials and instructional systems” (Print, 1993, p. 55). Gender Factors

The needs of each gender are also kept in mind for the development of curriculum. Although this is the age where women have gone into professions which were previously considered the domain of male gender and women are asking for equal rights, yet option should be left open, e.g., home economics for girls and technical education for boys, though these should not be strictly the domains of females or males respectively. In advanced countries where women enjoy a greater degree of freedom, a variety of educational institutions exist that separately cater to curriculum needs of males and females.

Different Types of Curriculums

Facilitators of Curriculum Development The curriculum development process systematically organizes what will be taught, who will be taught, and how it will be taught. Each component affects and interacts with other components. For example, what will be taught is affected by who is being taught (e.g., their stage of development

CHAPTER 2  Assessment and Planning in age, maturity and education). Methods of how content is taught are affected by who is being taught, their characteristics and the setting. In considering the above three essential components, the following are widely held to be essential considerations in experiential education in non-formal settings: Essential considerations for curriculum development: • Issue/problem/need is identified (issue → what). • Characteristics and needs of learners (target audience → who). • Changes intended for learners (intended outcomes/objectives → what the learners will be able to do). • The important and relevant content → (what). • Methods to accomplish intended outcomes → (how). • Evaluation strategies for methods, content, and intended outcomes → (what works?).

The curriculum development model (Fig. 2.9) shows how these components relate to each other and to the curriculum development process. It begins when an issue, concern or problem needs to be addressed. If education or training a segment of the population will help solve the problem, then curriculum to support an educational effort becomes a priority with human and financial resources allocated. The next step is to form a curriculum development team. The team makes systematic decisions about the target audience (learner characteristics), intended outcomes (objectives), content, methods and evaluation strategies. With input from the curriculum development team, draft curriculum products are developed, tested, evaluated and redesigned, if necessary. When the final product is produced, volunteer training is conducted. The model shows a circular process where volunteer training provides feedback for new materials or revisions to the existing curriculum.

Phases and Steps in Curriculum Development Phases and steps in curriculum development (Figure 2.10) further illustrate how the 12 essential steps progress from one to the next. It also shows the interaction and relationships of the four essential phases of the curriculum development process: (1) Planning, (2) Content and methods,

Fig. 2.9:  Curriculum development model

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Fig. 2.10:  phases and steps in curriculum development

(3) Implementation and (4) Evaluation and Reporting. It is important to acknowledge that things do not always work exactly as depicted in a model. Each phase has several steps or tasks to complete in a logical sequence. These steps are not always separate and distinct, but may overlap and occur concurrently. For example, the curriculum development team is involved in all of the steps. Evaluations should occur in most of the steps to assess progress. The team learns what works and what does not and determines the impact of the curriculum on learners after it is implemented. Each step logically follows the previous. It would make no sense to design learning activities before learner outcomes and content are described and identified. Similarly, content cannot be determined before learner outcomes are described. In the experience of the author, and confirmed by other curriculum specialists, the following curriculum development steps are frequently omitted or slighted. These steps are essential to successful curriculum development and need to be emphasized. Essential curriculum development steps needing emphasis 1. Needs assessment: If not conducted, wonderful curriculum could be developed, but the appropriate needs of the target audience may not be met. 2. Involving youth: The target audience and volunteers (or staff) who will be the implementors of the curriculum must be involved (i.e., they participate as full members of the curriculum development team). 3. Recruiting and training volunteer facilitators: Competent and skilled curriculum implementors are critical (the printed word cannot teach experiential group process, it doesn’t provide feedback). 4. Evaluating and reporting on the impact of the curriculum: This is critical for securing human and financial support from key policy decision makers and for assessing whether the curriculum has achieved the intended outcome.

Two types of evaluation are included in the phases and steps (Fig. 2.10): 1. Formative provides feedback during the process of developing the curriculum. 2.  Summative answers questions about changes (impact) that have occurred in learners because of their learning experiences. Summative evaluation provides evidence for what works, what does not work, and what needs to be improved.

CHAPTER 2  Assessment and Planning In every step of the curriculum development process, the most important task is to keep the learners (in this case, youth) in mind and involve them in process. For example, the curriculum team members, who have direct knowledge of the target audience, should be involved in conducting the needs assessment. From the needs assessment process, the problem areas are identified, gaps between what youth know and what they need to know are identified, and the scope of the problem is clarified and defined. The results may prompt decision makers to allocate resources for a curriculum development team to prepare curriculum material. A brief description of each of the curriculum development steps is described below. After reviewing these descriptions, you should have a very clear idea of how the steps occur in each of the phases and what each step includes. The planning phase lays the foundation for all of the curriculum development steps. The steps in this phase include: y Identify issue/problem/need: The need for curriculum development usually emerges from a concern about a major issue or problem of one or more target audience. This section explores some of the questions that need to be addressed to define the issue and to develop a statement that will guide the selection of the members of a curriculum development team. The issue statement also serves to broadly identify the scope (what will be included) of the curriculum content. y Form curriculum development team: Once the nature and scope of the issue have been broadly defined, the members of the curriculum development team can be selected. Topics covered in this section include:  The roles and functions of team members  A process for selecting members of the curriculum development team  Principles of collaboration and teamwork. The goal is to obtain expertise for the areas included in the scope of the curriculum content among the team members and develop an effective team. y Conduct needs assessment and analysis: There are two phases in the needs assessment process. The first is procedures for conducting a needs assessment. A number of techniques are aimed toward learning what is needed and by whom relative to the identified issue. Techniques covered in this section include: KAP—Knowledge, Attitude and Practice Survey; focus groups; and environmental scanning. Analysis, the second part of this needs assessment step, describes techniques on how to use the data and the results of the information gathered. This includes ways to identify gaps between knowledge and practice; trends emerging from the data; a process to prioritize needs; and identification of the characteristics of the target audience.

VARK Model y y y

Identifies four types of learners: visual, auditory, kinesthetic and reading/writing. Emotional intelligence is described as the ability to monitor or handle one’s own emotions as well as the emotions of others. Emotional intelligence involves recognizing feelings, self-monitoring or awareness, how emotions impact relationships and how they can be managed.

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SUMMARY y y y y y y y

Virtual learning brings the outside world into the classroom by using a computer, the internet, or software designed to allow interaction with a facilitator in a separate location. Since medical and information technology are changing very rapidly the students should be imbibed with value of learner forever. Clinical teaching method provides the opportunity to the students to translate the theoretical knowledge into a variety of intellectual and psychomotor skills It is important for teachers to have strong verbal and nonverbal communication skills. Interpersonal communication is important to establish strong interpersonal relationships. With the education sector changing every day, teachers need to learn and upskill themselves. Most of the time, the teachers who follow the hybrid style bring their own knowledge and expertise into the class.

CONCLUSION The students learn by seeing the role models. The supervisions must practice what is being taught to them in the demonstration rooms. The clinical experience enrich the interpersonal relationship with colleagues seniors, clients and significant others. It is a big challenge  nowadays to have facility interms of patient available in clinical settings equipments, standing operating procedures etc. to make it easy for students to practice. Moreover the clinical  supervisor must be  aware of laws  in relation to patient’s safety, risks etc. so a strict supervision is a must in clinical setting. The clinical supervisor must have anecdotes written for each students. The curriculum need to be designed with utmost care to meet the need of society, students and the nation at large. Nursing being a profession dealing with human beings. The needs of society, human beings are ever changing the medical technology is tremendously changing the disease condition are numerous. Now pandemic/endemic/disease phenomenon is changing so need to change the curriculum frequently.

ASSESS YOURSELF Long Answer Questions 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

What do you understand by workshop? Discuss the advantages and disadvantages as well. What is the difference between lecture and discussion? What are the different types of AV aids used in teaching learning process? What are the different types of conferences? Enlist the purposes of conferences. Define workshop. Explain the purpose of group discussion along with advantages and disadvantages.

Short Answer Questions 1. Enumerate the techniques of lecture. 2. Define the learning pyramid. 3. What is the main purpose of teaching?

CHAPTER 2  Assessment and Planning 4. Enumerate different methods of teaching. 5. Define symposium.

Multiple Choice Questions 1. Factors influencing selection of clinical learning experience except: a. Allowing students to practise and make decision b. Relationship with clinical staff c. Mentoring done by teaching and clinical staff d. Innovative and creative clinical environment 2. The learning outcomes in clinical setting should be focused on: a. Students ability to focus on interpersonal/relationship b. Student ability to work without supervision c. Student knowledge to be focused d. Student behavior to be focused interms of application of theory in practice 3. Nursing rounds are focused on: a. Multidisciplinary approach b. Students-patient approach c. Patient-patient approach d. Patient-relative approach 4. The case study method of clinical teaching is: a. Exhaustive, systematic and general investigation b. It focus on only individuals c. Extensive systematic and in depth investigation d. The multiple factor are ignored 5. Concept mapping is: a. Used to encourage critical thniking b. Link key concepts for analysis of information c. Encourage students to improve judgment d. All of these 6. Characteristics of curriculum are except: a. Continuously evolving b. Logical sequence of subjects c. Educational quality d. Simple and short term effort 7. Curriculum development factors are: a. Societal, economical factor b. Political and gender factor c. National priority, educational factor d. All of these 8. Types of evaluation are: a. Formative and summative b. Formative and automative c. Sumative and counter productive d. None of these 9. The steps of planning phase of curriculum devlopmental are a. Identify problem b. For curriculum development team c. Both (a) and (b) d. None of these 10. Highest percentage of learning takes place while doing (as per learning pyramid) a. Reading b. Watching video c. Teaching others d. Discussion 11. To be able to communicate well, a teacher will become an effective communicator if: a. He uses instructional aids b. He helps students get meaning out of what he teaches c. He asks questions between teachings d. He helps students get correct answers to the questions on the topic 12. A teacher is said to be good when she is capable of: a. When she finishes the tasks on time b. Motivating students to learn c. Delivering a satisfactory outcome d. Assisting pupils in the preparation of good notes

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Textbook of Educational Technology/Nursing Education 13. Which of the following subject combinations would assist a teacher in developing effective pedagogical methods: a. Sociology and philosophy b. Philosophy and psychology c. Psychology and sociology d. None of these 14. If a teacher wants to gain popularity among students, he or she should do the following: a. Personally helps them in their studies b. Organizes tours routinely c. Whilst teaching, he dictates notes d. Maintains positive interpersonal relationships 15. Without the assistance of a teacher, a pupil attempts to solve an issue. The instructor should: a. Tell him/her to seek assistance from his/her coworkers b. Not pay attention to him/her c. Chastises him/her for being an idiot d. Evaluate his or her own effort 16. Which of the following statements about the Modern Annual Examination System is/are accurate? a. It encourages cramming to get knowledge b. It does not motivate students to study on a regular basis c. It does not inspire students to come to class on a regular basis d. All of the above 17. Which of the following is a good indicator of teaching quality? a. Keeping the harmony in the classroom for a period of time b. Students’ inquiries in the classroom should be of a certain standard c. Standard of answers replied by students in the classroom d. The percentage of pupils that pass 18. The main goal of education is to: a. Strengthen the mind b. Develop reasoning ability c. Both (a) and (b) d. Give information only 19. New or the basic education is also known as : a. Crucial education b. New Education policy c. Wardha education plan d. Drive for education to all 20. Why do teachers need to study philosophy of education? a. To understand theory philosophy of inheritance b. Being acquainted with abstract knowledge c. Defining the curriculum’s goals and objectives d. Obtaining concepts for controlling instructional behavior 21. Values of every human being are reflected in: a. Realism b. Pragmatism c. Naturalism d. Idealism 22. Developing the universal human values means: a. Indoctrination b. Adoption c. Imitation d. Manifestation 23. Applying listening skills to a lecture which is being delivered in the class room: a. Informative audition b. Assessed audition c. Added audition d. None of these 24. What is the ideal situation in the classroom? a. The lecturer prepares himself for the lecture before entering the classroom and gives his speech with complete confidence b. Students enter the classroom with their bags packed. Prepare and discuss the subject with one another in the presence of the lecturer c. Lecturer and the students discuss the subject d. While delivering the lecture, the lecturer uses audio-visual means

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25. A teacher should be well-versed in which of the following in order to comprehend his students? a. Child psychology b. A proclivity for gaining a better knowledge of children c. Students’ perspectives on the subject d. All of the above 26. The following is a description of the educational process in practice: a. Very credible, authentic and regular b. Not credible c. Credible but not regular d. None of these 27. Which teaching technique encourages students to make the most of their knowledge? a. Problem Solution Method b. Laboratory Method c. Self-Study Method d. Team-Study Method 28. The primary sources are books and documents: a. Historical research data b. Participation data c. Medical research data d. Laboratory research data 29. An open book exam method has which of the following significant characteristics? a. Serious behavior of the student b. Increase attendance in the class-room c. Reduces the stress related to examination d. Compelling student from thinking 30. Quality of a effective teacher is : a. Control over the class b. Delivering of information in limited period c. Inspiring students to learn d. Amends the carefully assignments

Answer Key 1. a 2. d 10. c 11. b

3. a 12. b

4. b 13. c

5. c 14. a

6. d 15. d

7. d 16. d

8. a 17. d

9. c 18. c

19. c

20. a

21. d

22. d

23. a

24. a

25. d

26. a

27. b

28. a

29. d

30. c

Further Readings 1. Education in India. International Educational E-Journal Volume III, Issue II, April– June 2014. 2. Patra, J. N. (2014): The Role of ICT in Improving the Quality of School 3. Prakash R. Textbook of nursing education. 1st edition. CBS Publishers 4. Prasannakumar, M. (Dr.) (2014): Information Technology: Roles Advantages and Disadvantages. International Journal of Advanced Research in Computer 5. Prasannakumar, M. (Dr.) (2014): Information Technology: Roles Advantages and Disadvantages. International Journal of Advanced Research in Computer 6. Science and Software Engineering, Volume 4, Issue 6, June 2014.

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3 Implementation LEARNING OBJECTIVES After studying this chapter, students will be able to: Â Explain the principles and strategies of classroom management. Â Describe the different methods/strategies of teaching and develop skills in using various teaching methods. Â Explain active learning strategies and participate actively in term and collaborative learning.

CHAPTER OUTLINE  Classroom Management  Techniques of Classroom Teaching  Nature of Classroom Communication  Skills of Communication  Elements of Communication  Types of Communications  Patient Education Teach-Back  Basic Elements of Communication Process  Lecture  Group Discussion  Seminar

 Symposium  Panel Discussion  Role Play  Field Trip  Workshop  Computer-Assisted Learning Program  Microteaching  Simulation  Demonstration  Self-Directed Learning  Active Learning Strategies

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Channel of communication: The methods that an employee uses in the workplace to communicate and convey information to managers, stakeholders and colleagues. Communication depends upon both nonverbal and verbal types. Therapeutic communication: Therapeutic communication in nursing is a face-to-face process between a nurse and patient where a nurse uses communication strategies that support a patient’s feeling of well-being. These communication strategies involve providing education and support to patients in an objective manner that will achieve the goal of communication. The goal of therapeutic communication is to establish a relationship in which the patient feels free to express any concern. Total quality management: Total Quality Management (TQM) is a management approach that seeks to provide long-term success by providing unparalleled customer satisfaction through the constant delivery of quality.

CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT Classroom management is a word used by teachers to describe the process of ensuring that classroom lessons run smoothly, and that disruptive student behavior does not jeopardize instruction delivery. The word also refers to proactively preventing disruptive conduct as well as properly responding to it once it has occurred. For many teachers, it is a difficult component of teaching. Some teachers have left the profession due to problems in this area. According to the National Educational Association of the United States in 1981, 36% of teachers claimed that if they had to do it all over again, they would not choose to teach. Negative student attitudes and discipline were a big factor. Classroom management is critical in classrooms because it facilitates curriculum development, the development of optimal teaching techniques, and their implementation. Classroom management can be defined as the activities and directives that teachers utilize to establish a successful learning environment; in other words, having a positive impact on pupils and meeting their learning objectives. To ensure that all students receive the greatest education possible, educator programs should devote more time and resources to ensuring that educators and instructors are well-versed in classroom management. Teachers do not focus on learning classroom management since higher education programs do not emphasize classroom management; rather, the emphasis is on establishing a suitable learning environment for students. These tools provide teachers with the materials they need to properly and successfully educate future generations, ensuring the country’s future success. According to Moskowitz and Hayman (1976), once a teacher loses control of the classroom, regaining control becomes progressively difficult. Additionally, studies by Berliner (1988) and Brophy and Good (1986) suggest that the time it takes a teacher to rectify misbehavior caused by poor classroom management skills leads to a decreased rate of academic engagement in the classroom. Effective classroom management, from the student’s perspective, entails clear communication of behavioral and academic standards, as well as a cooperative learning environment. y Interest and explanation: “We love working hard on anything that piques our interest, whether it is an academic subject or a hobby. We begin to believe that we can somehow claim it and utilize it to make sense of the world”. Instructors must construct explanations that allow students to understand the information in addition to establishing the relevance of the content. This

CHAPTER 3  Implementation entails first determining what kids comprehend and then making connections between what they already know and what they don’t. y Concern and regard for pupils and their learning: Ramsden begins with the negative, which he is clear about. “In higher education, truly bad teaching is most often exposed by a complete lack of interest and sympathy for students and their learning. It frequently exhibits the traditional characteristic of making a subject appear more difficult than it is. This type of masquerade may bring joy to some people. If they do, they are doing a poor job of teaching. Making things difficult has nothing to do with good teaching. It has nothing to do with students being scared. y Appropriate evaluation and feedback: This principle entails employing a number of assessment methods and allowing students to demonstrate mastery of the material in a variety of ways. It avoids assessing students in ways that encourage them to memorize and repeat information. It recognizes the importance of feedback in motivating students to put up more effort in their learning. y Goals that are clear and intellectually challenging: Teachers, who are effective, set high expectations for their students. They also state their objectives clearly. Students should be aware of what they will study and what they will be required to do with what they have learned from the beginning. “Good teaching develops sense of student control over learning and interest in the subject matter”, according to one study. Learning assignments that are suited for the student’s level of knowledge are created by good teachers. They also acknowledge the individuality of each learner and resist the desire to impose “mass production” standards that treat all students the same. “It is worth emphasizing that we know that kids who are exposed to education that allows for learner control not only learn better, but also like learning more”. “Effective teaching refuses to take its effect on pupils for granted”, says one student. It considers the relationship between teaching and learning to be difficult, unclear, and subjective. Good teaching is adaptable; it entails “constantly attempting to determine what impacts education has on learning, and then adjusting instruction in light of the information gathered”. Classroom management encompasses a wide range of skills and tactics used by teachers to keep pupils organized, orderly, focused, attentive, on task, and academically productive throughout class. When teachers use successful classroom management tactics, they reduce the behaviors that obstruct learning for both individual students and groups of students, while maximizing the behaviors that support or improve learning. Successful instructors, on the whole, have great classroom management abilities, whereas an inexperienced or less effective teacher’s trademark is a chaotic classroom filled with kids who are not working or paying attention. While a limited or traditional interpretation of effective classroom management may focus primarily on “compliance”—rules and strategies that teachers can use to ensure that students are sitting on their seats, following directions, and listening attentively, among other things—a more comprehensive or updated view of classroom management encompasses everything that teachers can do to facilitate or improve student learning (a positive attitude, happy facial expressions, encouraging statements, the respectful and fair treatment of students, etc.). Expectations (the quality of work that teachers expect students to produce, the ways that teachers expect students to behave toward other students, the agreements that teachers make with students), materials (the types of materials that teachers expect students to use), and environment (for example, a welcoming,

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well-lit classroom filled with intellectually stimulating learning materials that are organized to support specific learning activities) (the kinds of learning experiences that teachers design to engage student interests, passions, and intellectual curiosity). Classroom management cannot be easily separated from all of the other decisions that teachers make, given that poorly designed lessons, uninteresting learning materials, or unclear expectations, for example, can contribute to increased student disinterest, increased behavioral problems, or unruly and disorganized classes. y Good teaching and good classroom management become, to some extent, indistinguishable in this broader understanding of classroom management. Classroom management tactics may appear deceptively simple in practice, but efficiently and smoothly incorporating them into students’ learning often necessitates a range of advanced techniques as well as a large amount of talent and experience. y Entry routine is a technique in which teachers establish a consistent, daily routine that begins as soon as students enter the classroom—preparing learning materials, making seat assignments, passing in homework, or doing a brief physical “warm-up” activity would all be examples of entry routines. This technique can avoid the disorder and squandered time that can characterize the beginning of a class period. y Do now is a short written assignment provided to pupils as soon as they enter the classroom. This strategy aims to get pupils relaxed, focused, productive, and ready for class as quickly as feasible. y Tight transitions is a teaching style in which teachers create transition routines that students learn and can perform quickly and repeatedly without much guidance from the teacher. When a teacher says, “reading time”, for example, pupils know they must stop what they are doing, put away their supplies, retrieve their books, and begin reading silently on their own. This strategy helps to maximize instructional time by reducing the chaos and delay that might occur during activity transitions.

TECHNIQUES OF CLASSROOM TEACHING Corporal Punishment Corporal punishment was commonly employed as a technique of managing disruptive behavior until recently, although it is now prohibited in most educational settings. Religious leaders such as James Dobson still endorse it in specific settings, but his opinions “differ drastically from those suggested by contemporary mainstream experts” and are not based on empirical testing, but rather on his faith-based ideas. According to studies, traditional physical punishments such as paddling or classroom practices such as standing do not make students or youngsters more aggressive. Consistency appears to play a larger impact in whether or not negative effects are possible. Most educational centers in the United States, as well as in most developed countries, have abolished corporal punishment. The punishment was delivered in a disproportionate manner, despite the fact that its effectiveness was never established. Male African Americans were the most severely penalized. According to a 2006 survey, African Americans made up 17.1% of children who were subjected to corporal punishment, while males made up 78.3% of all students.

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Good Teacher-Student Relationships The right amounts of dominance, cooperation, professionalism, and knowledge of high-needs children are some qualities of having excellent teacher-student relationships in the classroom. Dominance is defined as a teacher’s ability to provide clear direction and purpose to students’ behavior and academics. This fosters productive connections by establishing and communicating clear expectations and penalties for student behavior. Classroom etiquette and behavior, group work, seating arrangements, the use of equipment and materials, and classroom disruptions are all examples of such expectations. Students will regard inconsistency as unjust and will have less respect for the teacher as a result. Assertive teaching behavior also reassures students that their views and messages are being conveyed effectively. Erect posture, suitable tone of voice depending on the occasion, and taking care not to ignore inappropriate behavior by taking action are all examples of assertive behavior. Using inclusive pronouns is another excellent method for developing a positive teacher-student relationship. For example, instead of saying, “You need to get back to work”, a teacher would say, “We’ve had a lot of work to do today, so let’s get back to it”. William Purkey’s “three pluses and a wish” method is another way to develop positive teacher-student interactions. These are compliments given by the teacher to the pupil before making a request. The pluses assist the learner in developing an attitude that encourages cooperation with the teacher. “Thank you so much for your participation in class today”, one example would be. “I enjoy reading your feedback. I believe you add a lot of value to the conversation”. “I’d appreciate it if you could raise your hand before making a comment so that the other kids can learn from you”.

Preventive Techniques Creating a positive classroom community with mutual respect between instructor and student is a preventive approach to classroom management. Teachers that use the preventative method provide unconditional kindness, acceptance, and support to students regardless of their behavior. Students are provided frequent and consistent feedback on their behavior, and fair rules and consequences are set. The creation and use of a classroom contract is one strategy to create this type of learning environment. Both the students and the teacher should work together to draft the contract. Students and teachers decide and agree on how to treat one another in the classroom in the contract. The group also decides and agrees on what would happen if somebody breaks the contract. Instead of a consequence, the group should decide how to resolve the issue through class discussion, peer mediation, counseling, or one-on-one interactions that lead to a solution. In addition, rather than managing student conduct, preventive tactics include the strategic use of praise and prizes to inform pupils about their behavior. Teachers must emphasize the worth of the rewarded behavior and also explain to pupils the specific skills they displayed to earn the award when using rewards to inform students about their behavior. Teachers should also encourage student collaboration when it comes to selecting prizes and outlining suitable behaviors for earning them. This type of positive reinforcement and praise is particularly beneficial in helping pupils grasp expectations and improving their self-esteem.

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Overplanning is an often-overlooked protective strategy. The awkward gaps or silences in class are usually filled in by the students. When teachers overplan, they have enough of material and activities to keep pupils occupied during class, minimizing the amount of time to misbehave. Students may use transition time as an opportunity to be disruptive. Transitions should be under 30 seconds to avoid this. A day of learning requires the instructor to be prepared and organized, as well as the pupils to be prepared and organized. An organized routine should be established at the start of the year and reinforced on a daily basis until it becomes second nature.

Blue versus Orange Card Theory William Purkey proposed the blue card vs. orange card hypothesis, which claims that children need helpful, encouraging remarks to feel worthwhile, capable, and accountable. Many of the messages are calming, encouraging, and reassuring. These messages are known as ‘blue cards,’ as they promote a good self-image. Other messages are harsh, discouraging, and degrading. These cards are ‘orange,’ which is the worldwide distress hue. The idea is to have more “blue cards” than “orange cards” in the kids’ “file box” to help with their learning perspective.

High Cards and Low Cards High cards and low cards is a teacher-led intervention strategy developed by William Purkey that provides students with the necessary amount of management. Low cards are a less invasive way to deal with what’s going on. Raising the brows, looking sweetly at the student, stepping closer to the student while constantly talking, calling the student by name and asking whether they are listening are all examples of low card interventions. High cards are a powerful intervention to handle the situation. Sending a pupil to the principal’s office, holding a student after school, and contacting home are some instances.

NATURE OF CLASSROOM COMMUNICATION As teachers, we deal with a lot of conversation at school, which is augmented by a lot of nonverbal communication in the form of gestures, facial emotions, and other forms of “body language”. Persons must take turns speaking while also listening to others taking turns, or occasionally ignoring others if a conversation does not touch them, and individuals must take turns speaking while also listening to others taking turns. As a result, when talking in classes, you find yourself playing a variety of roles: Master of Ceremonies, referee, and, of course, source of fresh knowledge. Your task is to sort the roles so that you are playing the appropriate roles in the appropriate combinations at the appropriate times. Surprisingly, much of your conversation with kids will take on the qualities suggested by Franklin Roosevelt as you learn to do this. You will almost always be more sincere and brief, and you will discover that eliminating power discrepancies between you and students is a good thing. In this chapter, we will look at how you can start working toward these objectives. We’ll go through a few key characteristics of classroom communication that set it apart from communication in other settings. Then we illustrate how these strategies, both verbal and nonverbal, contribute to effective communication in a variety of common activity situations, which we refer to as structures of participation. As you’ll see, the structure of an activity—its structure of participation—has a significant impact on how students communicate with one another and with the teacher.

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Communication in Classrooms versus Communication Elsewhere Classroom happenings are frequently so complicated that even conversing with kids can be perplexing. It is helpful to consider the problem as a communication issue—or, as one expert put it, “who says what to whom, and with what effect” (Lasswell, 1964). Things rarely happen in classrooms at a consistent speed or in a logical order, or with just the teacher and one student interacting while the rest of the class listens or waits patiently. While such moments do occur, even when things are going well, events can occasionally resemble a kaleidoscope of overlapping interactions, disturbances, and decisions. One student completes a task, while another is just halfway through. A third pupil appears to be reading, although she could be dreaming. You start talking to her to get her back on track, only to be interrupted by a fourth student who has a question concerning an assignment. Little you are dealing with the fourth student, a fifth enters with a message from the office that needs to be addressed; hence, the bored (third) student gets ignored for a while longer. Understanding and becoming familiar with the basic aspects of communication that are characteristic of classrooms is one method to handle circumstances like this. One set of characteristics has to do with the functions or purposes of communication, particularly the balance of content, method, and behavior control discussion. Another distinguishing aspect is the nature of nonverbal communication, which complements and often even opposes what is conveyed orally. Communication is the activity performed verbally or physically to convey any information. Communication has been derived from a “Latin” word “communis”, which means “to share”. Communication requires a sender, a message, and an intended recipient. Communication is such an important core for day to day life. While communicating we are trying to initiate commonality with someone (Fig. 3.1). Communication is defined by the Oxford English Dictionary as, “the imparting, conveying, or exchanging of ideas and knowledge whether by voice, writing, or singing”. Fig. 3.1:  Pictorial depiction of It is described as, “the transfer of thoughts and messages communication as opposed to the transportation of commodities and individuals”, in the Columbia Encyclopedia of Communication. As per the evolution of the new era and development of technology, the communication process is being taken surmise. Enormous amount of time is spent in communicating our thoughts to a receiver by various modes, therefore, it is important for all of us to understand effortless yet grinding methods to portrait your contemplations. Thinking about the ways to channelize your thoughts, working out the best way of expressing, finding the right words, making sure the other person understands and replying you back are all vital stages in communication. The most important single development “in human consciousness in the previous century, and notably in American consciousness, has been the increasing of the means and forms of what we term “communication”, as Daniel Boorstin remarked in “Democracy and it’s Discontents”. This is especially true in today’s society, with the introduction of texting, e-mail, and social media as means of communication with people all over the world. With more ways to communicate, there are now more opportunities to be misinterpreted than ever before. Communication, in the popular meaning, refers to everything from a face-to-face talk between two people to a telephone conversation or letter between friends. The transmission of live television programming over a communication satellite is received by millions of people.

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When people send or receive various types of messages, they are communicating. Animals, like humans, convey and receive messages primarily by instinct. Man, on the other hand, has been dubbed the “Communicating Animal”, as he engages in a number of communication activities. Human communication is a difficult task. When we chat, listen, read, write, watch television, or listen to the radio, we are frequently unaware of its intricacy. To communicate is: y To exchange thoughts, sentiments, or information y To make known y To make common y To have a sympathetic relationship in everyday usage. Communication is defined as: y The exchange of symbols, common messages, and information. y The act of exchange between individuals using a common set of symbols. y The art of expressing ideas. y The science of transferring information in its noun form. G.G. Brown defines Communication as the transfer of information from one person to another, whether or not it elicits confidence; but the information transferred must be understandable to the receiver. Other scholars define communication as: Carl Hovland, a well-known psychologist defined communication as the process by which an individual (the communicator) transmits stimuli (usually verbal symbols) to modify the behavior of the other individual (communicates). We all use language to communicate, to express ourselves, to get our ideas across, and to connect with the person to whom we are speaking. When a relationship is working, the act of communicating seems to flow relatively effortlessly. When a relationship is deteriorating; the act of communicating can be as frustrating as climbing a hill of sand.  —Chip Rose, Attorney and Mediator William Newman and Charles Summer: Communication is an exchange of ideas, facts, opinions or emotions of two or more persons. Louis Allen: Communication is a bridge of meaning.

SKILLS OF COMMUNICATION Listening Skills One of the best ways to be a good communicator is to be a good listener. No one enjoys conversing with someone who is just interested in putting in her two cents and does not listen to the other person. It will be difficult for you to understand what you are being asked to do if you are not a good listener (Fig. 3.2). Spend some time practicing active listening. Paying great attention to what the other person is saying, asking clarifying questions, and rephrasing what the other person says to assure clarity (“So, what you are saying is...”) are all examples of active listening. You can better understand what the other person is trying to say and respond appropriately if you listen actively.

Fig. 3.2:  Pictorial depiction listening skills

CHAPTER 3  Implementation As previously stated, communication is a two-way street. Receiving information necessitates the ability to listen. We spend 45% of our communication time listening. Most people consider listening to be second nature, although it is distinct from hearing and should be regarded as a skill. Our listening skills page serves as an introduction to the subject, and the Ten Principles of Listening may also be of interest. Our page on active listening contains a wealth of information on how to listen effectively and avoid misunderstandings, while Types of Listening delves deeper into the idea of listening. Nonverbal Communication The message you are trying to send is colored by your body language, eye contact, hand gestures, and voice tone (Fig. 3.3). It is also crucial to make eye contact with the other person to show that you are paying attention to them and the topic. (However, avoid staring at the person, as this may make him or her feel uncomfortable.) Also, when you are chatting, pay attention to other people’s nonverbal messages. Nonverbal indicators frequently reflect how a person is truly feeling. If someone is not staring you in the eyes, for example, he or she may be uncomfortable or concealing the truth. Verbal Communication When it comes to verbal communication, stating just enough is key—don’t say too much or too little. Try to say as little as possible in your message. Whether you are chatting to someone in person, on the phone, or by email, say what you want plainly and directly. If you go on and on, the audience will either tune you out or be unsure of what you are talking about.

Presentation Skills Many of us do not use our presentation skills very often. However, you will almost certainly have to deliver material to a group of people at some point in your life, whether in a professional or informal environment.

Fig. 3.3:  Pictorial depiction of nonverbal communication

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Presentations entail much more than merely standing in front of a computer screen and talking your way through a series of slides. They also include the ability to communicate effectively in small and large meetings, as well as pitching your business idea to a possible investor.

Writing Skills Written communication has a more formal viewpoint, implying higher authority and trustworthiness; it can be a prospective record, with a long shelf life and the ability to be reused; and it has a more formal perspective, implying greater authority and trustworthiness. Legitimately quoted; ideal for reading at one’s own preferred reading time, speed, and location; and accessible to a broad readership, which can result in expert criticism and peer review. If the message is produced by specialists and informed people, these traits are amplified; the facts contained in such written communications, as well as the comments made therein, are more likely to be seen as well-thought-out, valid, and correct. So, when communicating through written messages, you should be able to take use of all the benefits that come with written communication, keeping in mind that oral communication is not an option. To compensate for the advantages of oral communication, experienced writers aim to infuse immediacy, personal touch, and participation into their writings through style, language, and writing volume, among other things, in order to establish a proper relationship with the audience. Creative Writing Skills A certain amount of, or a streak of, originality in an individual is required for creative writing (Fig. 3.4). A creative writer should have a flare for writing in addition to a good command of a language (proficiency in vocabulary and diction). A creative writer skillfully depicts a vivid picture of an event or activity (actual or hypothetical) in an imaginative way with a deep awareness of the context in which the event or activity takes place and the characters participating in it, using his or her rhetoric abilities of employing language. Because they are founded on intuition, feelings, and imagination, good poetry, novels, short tales, and other types of imaginative writing would not be technical. High-quality creative writing also lends itself Fig. 3.4:  Pictorial depiction of creative to a variety of interpretations and meanings. As a result, writing communication creative writing has the aura of a spiritual endeavor. Its goal is to reveal rather than to inform. A creative writer meditates on either concrete world objects or abstract concepts such as love or divinity, and then expresses his or her own sentiments and emotions through writing. While using his or her unique imagination, he or she may interact with the world around him or her and write about societal circumstances and events in order to enlighten, uplift, and transport in a unique way, as in a novel or short tale. In such writings, one can sense the writer’s unique perspective and personality, as well as his or her perceptions and understandings.

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Technical Writing Skills Unlike creative writing, technical writing is a replica of what was previously a reality, specifically narrating a specific work, to meet a social, economic, commercial, or techno-economic necessity. In many respects, technical writing varies from other types of writing. However, the reporting of technical data, which must contain tabular presentation of data, graphical representation, and frequently photos, distinguishes technical writing from other expository writing. As a result, technical writing works with ideas and situations; its objective and purpose are to inform; it expands one’s understanding and perception of things. Books on history, economics, science, Fig. 3.5:  Pictorial depiction of and technology fall under this category in the educational writing communication environment. To do the best job of informing, the writer must be analytical in his or her approach and explain the ideas logically and lucidly so that the writing is understandable (Fig. 3.5). Although technical writings can be separated into creative and noncreative categories based on subject matter, form, and presentation, it is not uncommon for a highly imaginative writer to portray a noncreative work in a creative fashion. A technical writer, on the other hand, can also produce highquality creative material. While presenting exceedingly complex scientific and technical themes, some of science’s best authors have created works of remarkable literary worth and imagination.

Personal Skills Personal skills are the abilities that we utilize to keep our bodies and minds in good shape. They can, however, improve communication. Improving your self-esteem and confidence, for example, can help you feel better about yourself and your abilities, especially your communication skills. And feeling good is the first step toward doing better and thus being more effective. You’re more likely to be charismatic if you have a better awareness of yourself and a more relaxed and happy view on life, which can help in communication.

ELEMENTS OF COMMUNICATION In order to understand communication process in a better way, it is important to understand the eight specific elements for the effective and positive outcome through various modes (Fig. 3.6). Each of the elements is essential to accomplish the process of communication effectively.

1. Source Source is the person who by his/her thinking abilities formulates the ideas for communicating the content in a constructive way. The source, by

Fig. 3.6:  Various elements of communication process

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using the correct words, language and body gestures, conveys the message in order to give it an intended meaning then at last the source evaluate, by analyzing the people’s level of perception by their reaction. A source, in the strictest definition of the word, is a process that generates message data that one would like to communicate or duplicate as precisely as possible elsewhere in space or time, notably in information theory. In order of increasing generality, a source can be described as memory less, erotic, stationary, or stochastic. A transmitter can be a mechanical device such as an antenna or a human transmitter such as a speaker. The term “transmitter” comes from the term “emitter”, which refers to a device that produces Hertzian waves. It also refers to the person or organization who sends a letter and whose address is written on the letter’s envelope when mailing mail.

2. Message By message, we understand the valuable meaning achieved by the source for the receiver or audience (Fig. 3.7). The message that you want to convey to the audience directly depends upon the words used by a source. The words chosen by a source should be brought together with proper organization. Source must try to be a little creative by using quotes and humor in between so as to build the Interest of the Fig. 3.7:  Picture depicting channeling and audience. If the content is present in the written receiving of the message form, try to be specific and precise while using the words. A message is information delivered via the use of words (spoken or written) and/or other signs and symbols. The content of the communication process is a message (verbal, nonverbal, or both). In the communication process, the sender is the one who sends the message. The message is delivered to the recipient by the sender. According to John O. Burtis and Paul D. Turman in their book, “Leadership Communication as Citizenship”, a message can comprise vocal material such as written or spoken words, sign language, email, text messaging, phone calls, snail mail, and even sky-writing. Both verbal and nonverbal content is part of the information that is communicated in a message, whether it is done intentionally or not. When nonverbal clues do not match the spoken message, ambiguity is introduced, even as the level of doubt rises. Nonverbal content, such as meaningful conduct beyond words, will be included in a communication. This involves voice variation, touch, and bodily movement and gestures, as well as eye contact, artefacts, and clothes. The process of transmitting and receiving communications, also known as encoding and decoding messages, is referred to as communication. “Communication is effective only when the message is comprehended and when it motivates action or pushes the listener to think in new ways”, stated Courtland L Bovée, John V Thill, and Barbara E. Schatzman in “Business Communication Essentials”.

CHAPTER 3  Implementation Indeed, according to W James Potter in “Media Literacy”, certain people—such as those who are highly media literate, for example—may be able to see considerably more in a given message than others. They have a better understanding of the various layers of meaning. This improves comprehension. They have more authority. Successful politicians and others have been able to persuade a large audience of their point of view by sending out messages. For example: In essay, Peter Obstler ‘A well-defined message includes two crucial components,’ according to ‘Fighting Toxics: A Manual for Protecting Your Family, Community, and Workplace,’ which is published in ‘Fighting Toxics: A Manual for Protecting Your Family, Community, and Workplace.’ First and foremost, it is straightforward, direct, and concise. Second, it gives you the opportunity to characterize the concerns on your own terms and in your own words.

3. Channel Channel is the process where the message is being traveled by different modes from a source to an audience. For example, on the Internet platform, you are having ample number of options and sources to gather the information and each source occupies the space into the digital world. Even if you are watching any videos on the internet without the volume, with the help of body language you are able to understand the message conveyed. To describe how the input (the transmitted signal) is transferred to output, mathematical models of the channel can be created (the received signal). There are many different sorts of channel models depending on the field of communication and the model’s application. Separate models are developed to characterize each layer of a communication system in specific. Physically, a channel can be modelled by attempting to determine the physical processes that alter the broadcast signal. In wireless communications, for example, the channel can be modelled by adding up the reflections of all objects in the area.

4. Receiver Receiver is the person who tries to gather the information conveyed using different channels or methods by a source. As a receiver, you can converge knowledge by either tasting, smelling, seeing, touching. For better understanding, the concept, think that you are the fielder in the cricket team. The batsman (source) hits the ball (message) and you as a fielder (receiver) needs to catch the ball. The receiver’s job is to decode the sender’s message as accurately as possible, both verbally and nonverbally. Decoding is the process of comprehending the message. Because words and nonverbal cues have varied meanings for various people, this stage of the communication process can lead to a slew of issues: “The presenter inadvertently encodes the original message with terms unfamiliar to the receiver; imprecise, nonspecific thoughts; or nonverbal signs that distract or contradict the vocal message”.

5. Feedback When you are intentionally or unintentionally responding to the source, you are giving feedback. Feedback is where the receiver after perceiving replies back to the source. The mode of feedback response can be either verbal or nonverbal allowing the source to know how well does the message

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is received. With the help of feedback, the source evaluates the agreement and disagreement of the audience, hence, helping to increase the accuracy of the communicator.

6. Environment Exchange of ideas, news, messages, information etc. which influence the environment. The environment communication is pragmatic and constitutive.

7. Context It is basic understanding of situation when communication takes place, it can be interpersonal, Intrapersonal public and masses.

8. Interference While using telecommunication interference is that where modification of signal takes place between source and receiver.

TYPES OF COMMUNICATIONS As mentioned earlier, communication is the process of switching your thoughts, ideas, innovations, emotions, behavior. During the whole process of communication, the ‘communicator’ channelizes his message by convenient mode to the ‘recipient’ who then decodes the message and sends the suitable reply. A method of communication depends upon the context which has to be delivered Fig. 3.8:  Diagrammatic views of two main and the mode of the communication method will channels of communication also affect the communication process. There are two types of communication based on channel; verbal communication and nonverbal communication (Fig. 3.8).

Verbal Communication Verbal communication is the type of communication in which the thoughts are shared by written as well as spoken mode. Verbal method comprises correct words, voice modulation, sounds as well as the correct language as per the targeted group. However, many people define verbal communication as spoken mode only. The base or key objective for every communication is to understand the matter which is to be conveyed. For verbal communication, always remember to “keep it to the point and simple”. Whenever we are communicating through verbal communication, we always have an assumption that the receiver perceives everything said by us. But this usually doesn’t happen. People usually have their own ideas, thoughts, and generalizations; hence, it creates the barrier in carry through process. Therefore, always try to put yourself in others shoes (as receiver) as being at the other side of the table you will be able to understand the content communicated.

CHAPTER 3  Implementation Scenario 1 Assume that you want to educate rural community people of West Bengal regarding the Prevention of SARS COV-2, commonly known as COVID. The preferred language is Hindi or English that the local community might not be able to grasp the content or either they will be disinterested. Therefore, to build up the interest and IPR, you need to deliver the content in the local language for effective outcome. Verbal communication is further divided into the following (Fig. 3.9).

Fig. 3.9:  Pictorial view for various types of verbal communication

Intrapersonal Communication This type of communication is confined to oneself. Intrapersonal communication is when the individual is spending and channelizing his own thoughts with himself. Such communication method consists of imagination, visualization, self –talk, recalling or memorizing something (Fig. 3.10). You are just scrolling the phone and your Facebook account reminded you by popping up the memory of last year New year celebrations with friends and family and cheerfully welcoming 2020 whereas in due to the pandemic situation, you won’t be able to do the same and you just do the selftalk regarding how to plan your New year celebration this year.

Fig. 3.10:  Pictorial view for methods used in communication

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Leonard Shedletsky, a communication expert, has examined the process of intrapersonal relationship with the help of eight parameters (i.e., source, receiver, message, channel, feedback, environment, context, and interference) all of them go inside the individual. Interpersonal Communication This is the type of communication in which the two individuals are communicating with each other by sharing their thoughts and ideas through face-toface interaction by either verbal or nonverbal mode. Interpersonal communication depends more on how the message is being conveyed and less on what is being conveyed (Fig. 3.11). In interpersonal relationship the powerful mode of expression depends upon the tone, facial expression and body language. Therefore, it is important to understand and observe the nonverbal signs as well. It will result in better learning process about the person’s thoughts. Small Group Communication

Fig. 3.11:  Pictorial view for methods used in communication

Small group communication is the interaction between three or more people gathered on a particular place sharing common ideas or interest and enhancing them by discussing. Where the interpersonal relationship is mainly focusing on the thought sharing, on the other hand, the main focus for small group discussion is on problem or conflict resolving. The people involved in the discussion may have positive, neutral or negative experience with one another. Usually, the external and internal factors are influencing the group structure. Group can be formed by both formal and informal network system. Both the types of network help the group to build up the contact and grow in a better way by enhancing the resources. Public Communication This type of communication is where the individual addresses the large number of gathering and the topic of discussion is common for all. In this, there is a single person who is sending the information and a large number of people is the carrier for that information. Advantages of Verbal Communication y y y y y y

Verbal communication makes the message clear and easy to understand.  Once the message is delivered in verbal communication, it is easy to obtain a feedback. Verbal communication provides us with complete understanding of communication delivered and makes the delivered content more clear and removes the doubts at the same moment. Verbal communication is termed the more reliable method of communication. Verbal communication is, in comparison, the cheaper method of communication. Verbal communication is the flexible method of communication.

Disadvantages of Verbal Communication y

In verbal communication, we don’t have any legal validity, therefore, it may lead to problems in some deals or legal issue as person can change the statements as per the convenience.

CHAPTER 3  Implementation y y y y

Verbal communication does not have any permanent record, therefore, the storage is done using modern means. In verbal communication, one can face issues while delivering the message to distant places. It may be difficult for certain people to understand speech due to barrier in speech tones and language used in verbal communication.  Verbal communication is not that much useful if you want to send long message, as it is difficult for people to retain much information correctly.

Nonverbal Communication Nonverbal communication is the type of communication which usually deals with the signs and gesture of a person rather than speaking a word or writing. As it can be termed little more effective as we say, “Actions speak louder than Words”. The Nonverbal communications plays an important role whenever you are being interviewed or acting as a presenter or participating in any meetings. Nonverbal communication of yours can always create a positive ambience and impression. Whereas your wrong posture may give an unprofessional feel. The verbal communication contains several nonverbal signs such as ambience body movement, touch voice quality, posture, hand signals, eye movements, facial expressions (Fig. 3.12). However, much of the nonverbal communication depends upon. Place or environment Fig. 3.12:  Diagrammatic representation you are communicating in and the physical appearance of various nonverbal signs responsible for nonverbal communication of the communicator behaviors of communicators during interaction process with individual or group. Nonverbal communication is all about the body language of speaker. The following signs help the receiver in interpreting the message in positive or negative way. Often, nonverbal signals reflect the situations in a more precise way in comparison to verbal messages. Sometimes, nonverbal response of an individual contradicts verbal communication and hence, affects the effectiveness of a message. In everyday life, the most prevalent signs are pictures or drawings. The fundamental difference between signs and signals is that a sign includes intrinsic meaning, but a signal is only a technology that allows one to generate extrinsic meaning. Traffic signs are an example of a sign that we see regularly in our daily lives. Ambience y y

Environment: Room, size, furnishing, facilities, lightning, technical errors, furnishing, interiors. Speaker: Neatness, hair, content clarity, clothing, odor, neatness.

Body Movement and Posture The way we sit, walk, stand and hold the entire body while sitting or standing or moving says a lot about our personality and the people around us usually get affected by the body posture we maintain. For example, Leaning and rubbing hands frequently depends or indicate the unpleased or uncomfortable environment.

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Volume, speech, tone, pace of delivering words, selection of words of delivering the content, how loud and interactive you were during the session and the way you are addressing the questions for evaluation are the aspects of voice quality. Think about how such things can indicate sarcasm, anger, confidence and affection. Facial Expression We human beings are very expressive and have different facial expressions for expressing different emotions without pouring them in words. Facial expressions are used universally as a mode of expression. Sad, anger, irritated, fear, anxious, confuse, excited many more are same across cultures. Gestures Gestures can imitate different meanings in different cultures. It is the form of nonverbal comm­ unication to communicate the message with visible body language. This type of bodily language is even used by the soldiers to communicate when they are heading toward secret mission. Eye Contact The way you look at someone may give the expression of your interest, affection, hostility or attraction over that person. This type of nonverbal communication has large influence on the social behavior as well. Eye contact during the content delivering also tells about the confidence of a person. Touch This type of nonverbal communication is also termed haptic communication. Haptic communication method is being used to show affection and care while gently tapping on the back during the conversation. This type of nonverbal communication is used more frequently while dealing with the animals. Touch is also considered as the most imitate and sophisticated of five senses. Advantages of Nonverbal Communication y y y y y y

Communication is easy with the people having language barrier. You can communicate with the people who cannot speak. Communication is easy when you don’t want others except the receiver to know your message. Easy way of communication, when the receiver is too far or away from you. For example, by gesturing. With the help of nonverbal communication by using minimal or no words, you can express yourself. Nonverbal communication is the type which requires minimal resources.

Disadvantages of Nonverbal Communication y y y y y

Nonverbal communication does not support the long messages or conversations. The gestures and signs used during nonverbal communication may be different for different cultures. The precise message that you want to convey to the receiver cannot be given. Nonverbal communication is an ineffective tool for group communications. Nonverbal communication cannot be used with every community or gender people.

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PATIENT EDUCATION TEACH-BACK The majority of communication between the health care team and patients is handled by nurses. This includes providing information about health concerns, diagnosis, treatment plans, and drug regimens to patients and their families. This ability is especially crucial for family nurse practitioners who give health and educational counseling to patients and their families. Patient teach-back is a communication approach in which doctors urge patients to repeat what they have told them. This approach increases patient comprehension and encourages patients to follow care guidelines. Patients and their families may become worried or defensive as a result of a lack of understanding of facts. “We’ve gone over quite a bit of data. To make sure you remember everything, I’d like you to repeat everything back to me”. “Could you please repeat the directions for returning this drug to me?” “Let’s go through what we just spoke about. Is it possible for you to convey it to me in your own words?”

BASIC ELEMENTS OF COMMUNICATION PROCESS Communication is the exchange of information and the sharing of meaning between two or more individuals. When you examine the communication process, you’ll notice that it is a chain with distinct links. Sender message, encoding, decoding, receiver, and feedback are all links in this process. The communication network, like any other chain, is only as strong as its weakest link (Fig. 3.13).

Sender The sender and the recipient are both involved in the communication process. The sender can be an individual, a group of individuals, or an organization that wants to communicate information for a certain reason or in anticipation of a specific action or response. The process begins when the sender’s mind is struck by an idea, a feeling, or knowledge. The sender, as the promoter of the process, must have a clear picture of what he expects from the communication process and the receiver.

Fig. 3.13:  Diagrammatic representation of basic elements of communication process

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Encoding Encoding is a process of giving a concrete shape to a message by transforming it into words, symbols, pictures, diagrams, and gestures. Encoding is the process of converting internal thought patterns into a language or code that the intended recipient of the message would most likely comprehend. Encoding necessitates the use of a common medium that both the sender and the recipient can comprehend. Because the recipient needs to understand the information in the same way that the sender does.

Message/Information The message is the physical manifestation of a thought that may be perceived and understood by one or more of the receiver’s senses. The communication process allows for the delivery of information or a message in the form of words, symbols, or other media to the intended recipient. In truth, a message is an idea, a feeling, an opinion, or any other expression formed in the sender’s head that he wishes to communicate to the receiver for a specific purpose.

Channel/Media Channel/media is a mode of transmission for a message. The message is actually sent and the data is sent at this point. Before delivering his message, the sender must examine all aspects, speed, cost, and prompt receipt, printer record, confidentiality, and so on.

Receiver The receiver is the member of the group who perceives the communication and gives it meaning. There is no communication if there is no receiver. The scenario isn’t ideal. Thought Message transmission Noise Reverberation Sender Encoding of Thoughts Decoding Receiver Reception If the communication reaches the receiver but he or she does not understand it, understanding improves.

LECTURE Introduction The lecture method  is defined as the oldest method in the field of teaching. It is based on the philosophy of idealism. This method refers to the explanation of the topic to the students. The emphasis is given on the content delivered by the respective educator. The teacher clarifies the content matter to the students by using correct and upgraded knowledge gestures, and simple devices by change in voice, pose, motion, and facial expressions. In this process of teaching and learning the educators are more active and students are passive, but the teachers also adapt the tendency of evaluation by asking frequent questions from the students in between the session. This method is believed to be economical, and many groups can be targeted. As a large group of people is targeted by this method, therefore, the completion of the curriculum is on time. The lecture method is the simplest method for teachers and requires just the basic arrangements. It trains the students to develop patience and listening skills. It provides an opportunity for better clarification of the topics and lays stress on significant ideas. It brings personal contact and touch to impress or influence the pupils.

CHAPTER 3  Implementation This method is useful in large classes, but it also has some limitations. This method makes the students passive listeners. There is very little scope for pupil activity. It is against the principle of learning by doing. It does not take into consideration individual differences. It does not develop the power of rezoning the students. It becomes monotonous to the students. Though if we compare the practical aspect, this method has many limitations but still it is the most commonly used method. The lecture method can be made effective by using the following points: y Matter should be arranged properly. y The teacher should have a process in between the lesson. y There should be an abundant repetition of the topic. y The teacher should encourage the students to ask questions. y Teaching aids should also be used to make the lecture effective. y The content of the lecture should be logical and according to the standard of the students. Thus, we conclude that the lecture method can be very effective, if it is made more interactive and interesting for students.

Definition Lecture method is defined as the talk given to provide valuable updated information to class or group of people.  —Oxford Dictionary The lecture method can also be defined as an oral presentation intended to teach or present a particular subject. Lecture method is said to be the presentation method comprising content, clarification of the content, clarification of the doubts, explanation of the existed facts, various relationships and principles.

Ways of Delivering Lecture There are various ways of delivering the lectures to help the targeted group grab the knowledge. y Traditional oral essay: Traditional oral method implies the historical method or an ancient method used by the teachers or presenters where they are only allowed to deliver lectures in turns using minimal aids. This way, in the ancient period, was found to be effective but as the generation is approaching more technology, the traditional method was not enough to teach the student, therefore, the other creative ways were included in the curriculum. y Participatory lecture: Participatory method is the method where the evaluation and discussion are being emphasized. The teacher while delivering the lecture takes the evaluation of the targeted group. The presenter believes in brainstorming activity as it helps the individual to boost the creativity and ability to question. y Feedback lecture: Feedback lecture method has two aspects, one where the information given by the teacher is regarding the overall progress of the learner. Second where the learners will provide feedback regarding the content delivery, techniques used, knowledge, and explanation. It should aim toward (and be capable of producing) improvement in students’ learning. Feedback redirects or refocuses either the teacher’s or the learner’s actions to achieve a goal, by aligning effort and activity with an outcome. It can be about the output of the activity, the process of the activity, the student’s management of their learning or self-regulation, or them as

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individuals (which tends to be the least effective). Feedback studies tend to show a very high effect on learning but the feedback can either give you with positive or a negative response. It is, therefore, important to understand the potential outcome and benefits. There can also be potential limitation in the teaching and learning approaches. Mediated lecture: If we talk about the media-oriented method of teaching as per the today’s modernization era, the students are inclined toward technology and creative-based learning important that the various media are added or considered while teaching the targeted it is group. The use of video-assisted teaching, PowerPoint presentation, short documentaries, and digital mannequins help the student to grab the delivered content fast and brush up on the caliber of the individual. Purpose of lecture method: If we talk about the lecture method, it is considered the most convenient and easy method of canvasing the knowledge to a large group of people. The lecture method hardly requires the use of scientific apparatus, experiments, and minimal aids. The lecture method is considered to be a presenter-oriented method, as it has a controlled and an information-centered delivery approach. In this, as the presenter is the one doing all the talking hence, this makes the ambience boring and disinterested. The following purposes are being served:  Helps to stimulate the thinking ability of the individual.  Helps to develop the concentration of the individual.  Helps the individual to enhance problem-solving ability.  Helps the person to build more concentration in terms of listening and learning.  Develops the teaching skills by correlating the subjects.  Motivates the individual to learn by listening.

Uses and Shortcomings of Lecture Method y y y

y y y

Purposes: Lectures are as effective as other methods for conveying information, but less effective for the promotion of thinking skills and the changing of attitudes. Compulsory attendance: Students who are absent themselves from lectures do less well in examinations and tests. Time of the day: Morning lecture seems superior to afternoon lectures for the recall of information, but this may not apply to the ‘evening-type’ of the learner, whose maximum physiological alertness occurs between 1500 hours and midnight. Length: Attention declines considerably after some 20 minutes, with a reduction in the amount of information assimilated and noted. Recall: Recall from lectures is relatively inefficient, falling to something around 20% recall after one week. Delivery: The level of difficulty of the material is directly tied to the pace with which it is provided, and evidence implies that there is a critical threshold of difficulty and speed beyond which the material is conveyed inefficiently.

The fact that the knowledge might have just readily been gotten through textbooks is a typical complaint of the lecture technique, however, this demonstrates a lack of understanding of the aim of lectures. Due to time limits, they are likely to be oversimplified or erroneous if they are primarily used to deliver information that is readily available in other forms such as books. However, used thoughtfully, lectures can complement textbooks by providing:

CHAPTER 3  Implementation y y y y y

Up-to-date research information that has not yet reached the textbooks. A synthesis of viewpoints from a wide variety of sources. Clearer explanations of issues and phenomena, with the possibility of demonstration. Personal involvement of students by means of activities during the lecture. The potential to motivate and inspire students to further study.

However, over-reliance on lectures may lead to dependence on the part of the students, who expect all the information to be handed to them ‘on a plate’. Lectures are frequently long, dull, and disorganized, whereas they may be a powerful vehicle for encouraging students with careful design and practice.

Qualities of a Good Lecture The lecture should neither be lengthy nor short. It should be able to hold students’ attention. The qualities of a good lecture are: y It should address one topic or concept. y It should simplify technical terms. y It should include well-acquainted examples and representations. y There should be a natural flow while explaining technical content. y A good lecture should use case illustrations from the clinical area. y It should be based on available facts/reality. y It should be used in various innovative ways.

Domains of Lecture Method In the field of education, the lecture method is being used very frequently. This method is used to acquire knowledge and clear the concept related to the delivered topic. This method of teaching usually focuses on the cognitive objective. The main emphasis is being given to the delivery of the content as the presenter is controlling the whole process of teaching and learning. y Objectives: The first domain of the lecture method is to set the objectives of the content that must be delivered. The objectives comprise the cognitive and affective objectives. Setting the objectives for any of the content that must be delivered is important to give the workforce aim to the driven content. Objectives provide the baseline in which the presenter is supposed to plan, make and present the delivered content. Objectives will help the presenter to evaluate the performance and to rectify the performance. y Activities: Activities here stands for the actions which are being implemented to deliver the content either it can be through performing group activities, lecture, or indulging the student in any outdoor projects which help in enhancing the learning ability of the person. At various educational levels, different activities are being used to modify the teaching and learning experience. y Nature of the content: The content that is being planned to deliver its nature can either be simple or complex depending upon the targeted group. The intent of the content should include the correct knowledge, skills, and method. The purpose for which the content is being designed will help the presenter to decide. It is, therefore, important to have a systematic approach to teaching.

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Components of Lecture (Fig. 3.14) y

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Time: The presenter should have the time boundaries while presenting as the time boundaries will help to manage and channel the content more effectively and knowledgeably in the specific period. Time management is important as it helps you prioritize your work. Once the presenter maps the time limit and the task which must be completed, you can figure out how much time you can put into the given task. Audience: The presenter must know to which type of targeted audience the prepared content has to be delivered, therefore, must ensure the preparation of the content as per the targeted group’s knowledge and efficacy. For example, if the content needs to be presented to diploma students will have a different set of Fig. 3.14:  Diagram showing various lecture components objectives vs the objectives for the postgraduate students. Subject matters: Subject matters refer to the content prepared to focus on the dealt topic that should cover all the objectives of the content and must focus on the creative teaching-learning activity to get a positive evaluation. Posture: Presenters usually apply many skills while teaching but none give the importance to the body posture. Pointing, gesturing, bending, and demonstrating a teacher or presenter’s every move is calculated while facilitating learning. The good news is adjustments to teachers can prevent most work-related strains. Appearance: Appearance matters in both the creativity of the content as well as the presentable personality of the presenter. As there is a saying if you look good you feel good and confident, even the appearance builds the interest of the learners. If the educator has a shabby appearance, it will automatically make the people disinterested in the content but if the presenter is well dressed and maintain a positive aura, the group tries to take active participation in the content. Manner: The way you interact with the targeted group matters a lot if the presenter is being not supportive throughout delivering the content it will automatically make the group anxious. But if the presenter is supportive and gives a friendly vibe to the group, they are going to actively participate in the evaluation even though they are not sure about the correct answer. Simultaneously, the same thing applies to the learner group if the group is not taking interest in learning, the presenter will automatically lose interest. Voice: The voice modulation also plays an important role while presenting a lecture. When the content must be delivered, the presenter needs to be more specific with the words, they need to give emphasis on the important words and scenarios with the help of the sharpening of the voice. The words spoken should not be too fast or too slow as again it will lead to the disinterest of the learners. The number of the people also matters when we consider the voice modulation. If the group is large the voice must be a little bit raised.  Organize the room in a form where you can easily conduct teaching-learning activities.  The lesson plan must be prepared as per the topic which has to be presented. The objectives to be included along with the audio-visual and methods of teaching.

CHAPTER 3  Implementation The lecture should always be started by introducing yourself even when addressing all gatherings. Give a brief introduction regarding the topic before jumping to the scientific content.  The content which is to be presented must be organized as per the objectives.  The voice pitch and volume to be altered and emphasis should be given to the important words or paragraphs.  Develop a routine pose depending upon the levels of the student or group as the pace can be increased while dealing with the simple topics and slowed down while dealing with the difficult ones.  Take the evaluation in between as it helps the participants to be actively involved in the lecture.  Use the simple planning method in the initial phase. While dealing with the topic, refer to the notes in between but avoid continuously reading from the notes. Gesture: Teachers use representational gestures to depict ideas, objects and relationships. 

y

Advantages of Lecture Method y y y y y y

Efficiency, i.e., one teacher can communicate with many students. A well-presented lecture may increase student motivation. New knowledge may be presented which is not yet in textbooks. Teachers can integrate the subject matter better than students. It is good for introducing a new topic. Useful for giving a framework upon which students can build.

Disadvantages of Lecture Method y y y y y

Student’s attention may wane. Students here are largely passive. It does not cater to individual student’s need. Teacher’s bias may be evident. Students obtain material second-hand rather than from primary sources.

GROUP DISCUSSION Group discussion (GD) is referred to as the collection of the individuals who tend to be in regular interaction with one another and commonly work to achieve the same set of objectives. If we talk about discussion, then it is referred to as when two or more people are sharing valuable thoughts on a given topic. The discussion can lead in favor or against the topic. A Group discussion activity is a kind of brainstorming activity where the individuals are sharing their perspectives and helping each other to gain knowledge in every aspect. A group discussion, often known as GD, is a sort of discussion in which participants share ideas or activities. The participants in the group discussion are united by a common theme. Everyone in the group represents his or her point of view based on that concept. The GD assesses a candidate’s abilities in areas such as leadership, communication, social skills and behavior, civility, teamwork, listening capacity, general awareness, confidence, and problemsolving abilities, among others.

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Following the admission exam for a professional degree, the group discussion is usually the following step. Depending on the company or organization, group discussion can be the first or last step in the recruitment process. The term “group discussion” is made up of the words “group” and “discussion”. Let’s take a closer look at it.

Group A group is a collection of people who are working together to achieve a common goal. Collaborative work of individuals determines how well a group performs. A group is defined as two or more persons working together.

Discussion The term “discussion” refers to a face-to-face conversation in which two or more people exchange ideas. It is a method of interacting with others in order to arrive at a given choice. It can also refer to a discussion of a specific subject. A specific conclusion, enhanced understanding, activities, a debate, doubt-clearing, disagreement, and so on can all be the result or end product of a group conversation.

Group Discussion Process Figure 3.15 shows the group discussion process. The procedure of group discussion begins with the topic being announced. It could be a technical, factual or case study topic. y Before starting the debate, a 3–minute preparation period is given. In the case of a protracted case statement, the time can also be extended. y The topic can be started by any group member. Anyone in the group can continue the conversation after the lead participant. Similarly, everyone is given an opportunity to speak. Participants in the group offer their opinions on the provided topic one by one. y It comes to an end when the panelist calls a halt to the discussion or asks one or more participants to summarize the GD. Remember to cover the mentioned issues if you are asked for a summary. The words that were not discussed in the discussion cannot be included in the summary.

Fig. 3.15:  Pictorial depiction of group discussion process

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Effective Group Discussion The group discussion is said to be effective when critical thinking is being done by everyone involved in the group discussion on a particular topic given. The group discussion must be conducted in a specific group of people to make it effective and all the participants are supposed to give equal participation to assure that the topic is divided into further subtopics to reassure the equal participation and cover all the specific and important parameters of the topic. A group of two or three doesn’t need a leader but once the number reaches to six, a leader or a facilitator can be helpful to continue the discussion smoothly. When the group numbers eight or more, a leader or facilitator, whether formal or informal, is almost always helpful in ensuring an effective discussion. A group discussion is a type of discussion, but it differs from formal to informal discussions in the following ways: y It may not have a specific goal—many group discussions are just that group kicking around ideas on a particular topic.  y It is less formal and may have no time constraints, or structured order, or agenda. y Its leadership is usually less directive than that of a meeting. y It emphasizes process (the consideration of ideas) over the product (specific tasks to be accomplished within the confines of the meeting itself. y Leading a discussion group is not the same as running a meeting. It is much closer to acting as a facilitator, but not exactly the same as that either. An effective group discussion has a number of elements (Fig. 3.16):

Fig. 3.16:  Diagram to represent elements of group discussion

Purposes for Group Discussion Many of the groups doesn’t have any base of group discussion except just to be aware of the individual’s perspectives or the exchange of ideas. The group discussion is said to be effective when there is effective knowledge gained. This further allows the group to accomplish the given purpose. The group discussion can have the following purposes (Fig. 3.17). Not only the purpose but also the style of leadership varies depending upon the directive and nondirective group discussion. The leader of the group might not control the content or either try to control the people. A directive leader is said to keep the participants focused on the topic whereas if we talk about the nondirective leader tends to range the discussion more broad-ranging and more satisfying.

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Fig. 3.17:  Diagram representing purposes of group discussion

Points for Group Discussion As explained in the opening paragraph above, group discussions are common in a democratic society and everyone has a right to keep their thoughts and perspectives. Therefore, certain points to be remembered while beginning any group discussion (Fig. 3.18) are as follows:

Leading a Group Discussion The need or desire for a group discussion might of course arise anytime, but there are sometimes when it is particularly necessary. y At the start of something new: Whether you are designing an intervention, starting an initiative, creating a new program, building a coalition, or embarking on advocacy or another campaign, the inclusive discussion is likely to be crucial in generating the best possible plan and creating community support for and ownership of it. y When an issue can no longer be ignored: When youth violence reaches a critical point, when the community’s drinking water is declared unsafe, when the HIV infection rate climbs—these are times when groups need to convene to discuss the issue and develop action plans to swing the pendulum in the other direction. y When groups need to be brought together:  One way to deal with racial or ethnic hostility, for instance, is to convene groups made up of representatives of all the factions involved. The resulting discussions—and the opportunity for people from different backgrounds to make personal connections with one another—can go far to address everyone’s concerns and reduce tensions.

Fig. 3.18:  Diagram showing important consideration points for group discussion

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When an existing group is considering its next step or seeking to address an issue of importance to it: The staff of a community service organization, for instance, may want to plan its work for the next few months or to work out how to deal with people with particular quirks or problems.

Do’s and Don’ts as a Leader for Discussion Do’s y

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Try to inculcate the behavior that you want from the group members as one should give respect to each other, and all should be open toward learning. Asking questions and clarifying the doubts, agreeing and supporting when one has a right point to state, accepting and agreeing criticism is a little culturally sensitive and intrusive. Encourage the body language, gesture, and tone of a person. Keep your body positioning approachable and open while listening to others. Have a positive attitude toward the people who showed interest to join the group discussion, repeat the points of all members or else show positive motivation toward their work. As a leader, you must be aware of the sensitivity toward the emotional or spiritual front of all the participants, if some of the participants are being hurt by the opposition team, a leader should handle the situation calmly. Try to ask the open-ended questions at the end of the discussion in place of simply saying yes or no one must respond to the analysis and rationale for agreeing or disagreeing. Biasness to be controlled while you should point out factual errors or ideas that are inaccurate and disrespectful of others. An open process demands that you do not impose your views on the group and that you keep others from doing the same.

Don’ts y

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Don’t let the small group or any individual dominate any of the discussion. People who have assertive behaviors and try to speak in between the discussion and do not let anyone speak believe the people who speak less will lose the chance to participate actively. Don’t let one point of view override others, unless It is based on facts and logic, and is convincing group members to change their minds. If a point of view dominates because of its merits, and its appeal to participants’ intellectual and ethical sensibilities, that’s fine. It is in fact what you hope will happen in a good group discussion.  Don’t presume any facts about the participants of the group regarding cultural, religious, or situation. Don’t try to take all your wisdom as a leader though you might be aware of the general topic of the discussion you should try to fit within the participants of your group and let them keep their perspectives.

SEMINAR Seminar may be termed when a group of people gather together to have a discussion on a particular topic but here the discussion is usually an interactive session where the participants engage in the discussion about the delineated topic The seminar usually is headed by one or two presenters who head the discussion towards the desired path.

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A seminar is a gathering of people who come together to discuss a specific topic. Typically, these gatherings are participatory sessions in which attendees engage in discussions regarding a predetermined topic. One or two presenters usually head or lead the sessions, steering the conversation in the right direction.

Purpose of the Seminar A seminar might serve multiple functions or only one. For example, a seminar may be used for educational purposes, such as a lecture in which participants engage in a discussion on an academic subject in order to develop a greater understanding of the subject. Other types of educational seminars may be arranged to teach participants specific skills or knowledge. Personal finance, web marketing, real estate, investing, and other forms of seminars where attendees obtain knowledge or recommendations concerning the topic of discussion are examples of such seminars. Seminars are sometimes just a tool for businesspeople and other like-minded people to network and meet other people who share their interests. Attendees of such seminars have the opportunity to create potentially valuable contacts that will help them advance in their careers or endeavors. A seminar may have several purposes or only one linked purpose of the discussion. Let’s take the example of a lecture in the class where the topic is curriculum centered and the purpose is to let the student gain knowledge. y Seminars can be motivational as well in order to motivate the attendees and let them become better people in life. y Seminars can also be helpful in implementing the skills they have learned from the seminar. y Seminars help the learners to develop the new skills or to update the old, learned skills keeping into consideration the present objectives and guidelines. y Sometimes the seminars are networks to build channels and meet people of the same interest. With the help of the sources and channels, the people with the same instinct can work to achieve a common goal. y A seminar brings wide cross-sectional communities together like government employees, working, businessmen, corporate sector, health sectors, and even the general public.

Seminar Planning The first stage in arranging a good seminar is to figure out the goal. Consider the seminar’s target audience and what they stand to gain by attending. Determine the agenda of your session. Set a seminar budget and stick to it; don’t get too carried away with venue selection or other potentially costly factors. If we want to plan an effective seminar, then the initial step is to be aware that what purpose you want to serve while conducting the seminar. y Need to think and plan out the targeted participants for the seminar. This means to which group of the society you want to serve by organizing this seminar at the maximum. y Every organized seminar comprises the agenda for the seminar. So determine the agenda for the seminar to be organized. y Budget plays an important role. Keep in mind that for all committees get equal or comparative budgeting. None of the committees are overprivileged or underprivileged. y Don’t get too much carried out for the venue of the seminar or other considerations that can possibly cost more money.

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Before Seminar Preparations y y y y

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Find the speaker for the seminar with the help of the analysis of the subject matter and the person who can justify the given topic. The speakers that are selected must be professionals or else the people with the requisite knowledge and authority. Try to find out the appropriate venue for the seminar. Sometimes selecting the venue to be considered the infrastructure and the available technical support. Make sure that the venue should have proper audio-visual facilities and communication equipment. Certain basic things to be checked upon, stands for the mic or dais. During the summertime, the air-condition to work properly, proper ventilationor do the place that offers catering services, another important thing is ample and safe parking for the attendees. Separate invitations to be made for the resource person and the attendees for the seminar and ensure the active marketing for the event. Make sure to inform the resource person prior about the time and topic they are supposed to talk about and if the speakers are connecting through online mode, ensure the pre-practice session to avoid any technical errors for the final day. Collect the content of all the resource persons to avoid any hindrance. Make sure to collect the numbers and email addresses of the attendees, this will help to continue the networking. If any of the attendees are from outside, ensure their accommodation, car pickups, and food facilities. Confirm the number of attendees on a frequent basis to avoid any interruptions in the arrangements. Select volunteers to help with activities like guiding and helping the seminar attendees. If they need the training to familiarize themselves with their expected duties, ensure that they receive such training well ahead of the seminar. Make sure to send an appraisal card. Thank them for their participation and taking the sessions in your seminar. Make sure that the participation and resource person certification reach the respective people.

After the Seminar Analyze the outcome of the seminar, including the response of the attendees and their feedback in order to discover whether the aims of the seminar were met. You can also send out thank you notes to the attendees through emails and any other follow-up, such as upcoming seminars.

Advantages y y y y y y

Students get involved in the learning process when the seminar method is used. A well-run seminar has the potential to teach students how to analyze content and find relevant material to include in their presentations. Individual students and the group try to gather content for the seminar. To consolidate group opinion, information and ideas are exchanged. Participation sharpens the student’s problem-solving skills as they learn to plan and organize the seminar. Participation of students in seminar develops critical thinking skills in them.

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Limitation y y y y y

Seminar is a time-consuming process. It cannot be applied to freshers or to a new subject. Students who are shy or weak may be anxious at first and find it difficult to deal with or convey the topic. Students who lack the ability to express themselves due to a lack of vocabulary or language skills may find it challenging to do so. Unnecessary discussion arises if the subject knowledge is poor.

SYMPOSIUM Symposium is generally defined as a gathering organized where the various experts come together to share their experiences and experiments in the various fields, they are specialized in discussing the current issues and trends or recommendations for a certain course of action. A symposium helps the participants and experts to clarify their own ideas and thoughts and draw conclusions regarding a particular issue or a topic. It is an interesting method of teaching by which concepts and topics can be discussed.

Meaning A symposium is a gathering of like-minded people from the same field for the aim of exchanging ideas on a specific topic, with some people presenting their ideas and others serving as the audience. A symposium is a type of discussion in which people exchange ideas, concepts, and methods about a specific topic. A symposium is a series of talks focusing on a single aspect of a subject. Let’s relate it with an example during the present scenario when we are dealing with the pandemic situation (since Feb 2020) to overcome the situation and provide the patients with the effective treatment. Many of the researches are being carried out by the experts to find out the best treatment for each category of the patient. Initially, hydroxychloroquine medicine is said to be effective but by the end of the first wave, this was no longer an effective medication. Not only an effective treatment but many also health fraternities and regulatory bodies were working to find out an effective vaccine for the same. Presently after all the hard research work, the population is being offered effective vaccines. As time will pass, many types of research programs will be witnessing the changes in the treatment or vaccine in the future as well. y y y y y y

The initial step to organize the symposium is to issue a call for the research papers in hand. This process is usually initiated by the publications and their corresponding website. The paper should be on the relevant social media platform. After the above-mentioned steps only, the organizers can choose the presenter based on their submission. If your given paper is not used, then the organizers may preselect the paper or may request the presenter to prepare the paper on the subject. The call of the paper must be completed in advance before the presentation. Meeting planners should choose a diverse group that is unlikely to repeat the same concepts, preferably reflecting different disciplines within the same field.

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Purposes y y y y y y y

To be able to recognize and comprehend numerous aspects of a topic or subject To provide solutions to the issues and refine skills of decision making. To sensitize students/participants on a topic/disease/culture and emotions To facilitate the participants to form protocol related to the issue/condition To investigate a problem from several points of view To boost students’ abilities to speak in the group. To encourage students to study independently.

Characteristics y y y y y y

It helps to comprehend a topic or problem The audience is allowed to participate in a selected issue or a problem Symposium is a method of teaching used in higher classes for specific theme or a problem. It develops a feeling of cooperation and adjustment. The symposium technique aids in reaching the synthesis and assessment goals. Symposium provides different views on the topic.

Principles y y y y y y y

Persuasive, argumentative, and instructive speeches are all possibilities. Presentation is objective and accurate. This method always includes a summary in the end. Every speaker presents their content uninterrupted. The convener introduces the theme and may also give the keynote address. All the presenters are seated facing the audience with the convener in the middle or one side. The seating arrangement can be done according to the content being presented. If it is a debate, then the presenter speaking “for” and “against” the topic may be seated on two sides of the stage and the convener at the center of the stage.

Format of the Symposium Symposium can have many formats according to the number of presenters. y y y y

y

Welcome remarks are delivered by the hosts/organizers of the symposium. Introduction of a moderator for the symposium who will in turn introduce the keynote speaker and the panelists, pose questions, and facilitate discussion. A keynote speaker will deliver remarks on the overall theme of the symposium. The keynote speech is typically presented before the panel discussion or during or after a luncheon. During the panel discussion, the moderator introduces each presenter with a brief biography. The speaker will have a few minutes to speak on the topic and may give an overview plus his or her personal or professional perspective. After the individual presentations, the moderator guides a round table discussion among the panel lists, often with pre-selected questions that have been sent to the panel lists in advance. The symposium generally concludes with a question-and-answer period. Often, the hosts simply take microphones into the audience. For a more structured environment, questions can be submitted in writing and read by the moderator.

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Guidelines y y y y

The convener of the session introduces the subtheme and highlights key points. Each speaker is allocated 15–20 minutes. Each speaker would give their point of view, logic, or disagreement, sharing fresh information or eliciting emotions. The session is available to the public following each speaker’s presentation to allow them to clarify or add to the topic.

Advantages y y y y y y

Symposium can be used to address a large group or class. This method can be used to propose broad subjects for discussion during conventions and meeting planning. The organizational principle is high in a symposium since the presentations are arranged ahead of time. It gives deeper insight into the topic. It directs the student for continuous independent study. This method can be used for topics that generate different opinions.

Limitations y y y y y

y y y

It does not provide the opportunity to all students to participate actively. The speech is limited to 10–20 minutes. Question and answer session is limited to 3–4 minutes. It has the possibility of overlapping subjects. Speakers are free to prepare and convey their content, and the chairman cannot prevent them from expressing themselves on the topic. They have the freedom to present any facet of the theme or issue. There is a chance that the content will be repeated, because one speaker may present a subtheme that overlaps with other speakers, making it difficult for listeners to understand. The listener will not be able to perceive the theme adequately if the subthemes are not given simultaneously. The listener remains passive in the symposium because they are not given an opportunity to seek clarification and question in between the symposium.

PANEL DISCUSSION Panel discussion is referred to as a modern style of conference. The purpose of the panel discussion is to bring light to a conversation between groups or experts to help the audience to learn from their discourse and interactions. The format of the panel discussion is usually the same where experts gather on the stage or in front of the camera to have a discussion on a particular topic and offer different opinions. The presenters or experts share their personal experiences, express their opinions and answer the doubts of the audience. There is one moderator to keep the pace going for the panel discussion.

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Fig. 3.19:  Diagram representing the ideal format for a panel discussion.

Ideal Panel Discussion (Fig. 3.19) Define the Purpose Everything that we usually do has a purpose to offer. We just need to ask ourselves what lessons or impact we want to create or what one is hoping from a panel discussion. A purpose can be either serving the diversity or respecting the different opinions or sharing the perspectives. The panel discussion can be based on sharing the updated knowledge on any of the topics of knowing the different existing opinions and directions of the people and learning from them. Once you have decided the objectives, you will be able to streamline the base of the panel discussion. Will it be a formal concept or a casual or entertaining one. The purpose should also be based on the group that you are going to target. If the group is only of the professionals, it can be in the formal form but if the panel discussion is going to take place in front of the common public, it an to have an entertainment factor to keep the audience engaged. Choose the Right Panelist Always keep in consideration when you are choosing the panelists, choose them as they will be able to cover the diverse angle of the topic but with a slight change in the perspectives. The panel discussion can be more interesting if the two of the panelists are of the same profile and experience. Do proper research for your panelists that they should be experts and can positively contribute to a panel discussion. To ensure, we can even check the last panel discussion of the panelist whom we are inviting just to ensure their speaking engagement with the audience. Preparing the Panelist When we talk about the preparation of the panelist the, discussion taking place should not look scripted, hence, it must be effortless and smooth. Not only the speaking of the words but also there are a lot of other aspects we need to be prepared for to have a successful panel discussion. The points or the issues that will be enlightening the panel discussion should be prepared in the form of questions. The questions are to be distributed to the audience to make it smooth and as a planner, you need to inform selective people in the audience. Make sure that the questions that are formulated should give a boost to the panel discussion as: y As in pandemic situation what are their further plans and challenges? y What are they planning for the youth and the people who have lost their job in the pandemic? y What are their actionable sights for the economic improvements?

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As we know that the moderator plays an important role in the panel discussion, the moderator must be capable enough to lift any of the simple shared questions or points or any fascinating dialogue from the crowd or the panelist. If the moderator is not active, one can change the discussion into a snooze fest. So be vigilant while choosing the one. Moderators must fulfill the multiple functions like: y Managing the time for each of the panelists. y Managing any of the one or two panelists from dominating the panel discussion. y Managing the baseline of the discussion, one should make sure that any of the panelists should not go beyond the topic. y Clarifying and answerable to the audience in case the panelist failed to do so. y Facilitating the question-answer round. Engage the Audience When we talk about the best or most effective panel discussion, it is an audience-centered panel discussion. Panel discussions are said to be amazing for providing a variety of viewpoints through lively discussions and are believed to be a great complement to keynotes and other presentationbased sessions. But if a moderator wants to make the most of them, they will need to ensure that there is a clear purpose and objectives for the discussion, that their panelists have been pre-prepared, and that the audience stays connected to the conversation.

Advantages y y y y y y

Emphasizes on learning instead of teaching. Facilitates participation by everyone in the class. Encourages reflective thinking and self-expression. Inculcates respect for other’s point of view or idea. Spirit of tolerance is inculcated. Learning is made interesting and provides an opportunity for assimilation of content.

Limitations y y y y y y

This method is not appropriate for all topics It can be used only for students who have some basic knowledge of the topic. Some students may feel shy or reluctant to take part, while others may try to dominate in a group discussion. The audience may not contribute to the discussion and may remain as passive participants. There are chances of deviation from the topic If there are differences in the group or among the panelists, it may result in disagreement.

ROLE PLAY Think back to the last time you prepared for an important presentation. Perhaps you needed to convince your evaluators and the targeted audience to cooperate with you. Or maybe you had to

CHAPTER 3  Implementation present to the head of your department or dean and you knew that they would be peppering you with questions about your presentation. Whatever the situation, chances are that you were nervous about the presentation and practicing again and again in front of a mirror may not have helped you overcome your anxiety, especially with respect to answering difficult questions and difficult medical terminologies. This is where role-playing can be useful. We will try to imagine the environment we what we are going to face, and we will see how the students can use this technique to prepare for a variety of challenging and difficult situations. Role play is the enacting of a scenario in which an individual reacts to various events. It can be utilized to sensitize pupils in a variety of scenarios, which aids in empathy development. Role-play allows students to become more aware of facts and real-life situations. It is a widely accepted method of teaching in several disciplines like nursing, medicine, management, and many others. It can be used in counseling patients, and relatives, conflict management, etc.

Uses Role play is the scenario that can be created between two or more people if you want to present it in public to act out the scenario. It will be helpful to you and your constricted team members to prepare for unfamiliar and difficult situations and impose creative learning. For example, you can use them to study the signs and symptoms of various disease conditions and to clear the myths people are having about disease conditions or else to make the community aware regarding treatment for the disease conditions. By acting on various scenarios like these, you can explore how the community people are likely to respond to the different and creative approach for those people who found this method productive. This even helps you to develop an empathetic feeling regarding the sufferers of various diseases and will be able to form a close connection with the community people. Also, by preparing for any situation using role-play, the individual gets ready to slowly build up the experience and self-confidence for handling the different situations in real life, and can develop the skills for instinctively give correct reactions to situations. This means that the person will react effectively as situations evolve, rather than making mistakes or becoming overwhelmed by events. Role play exercises allow pupils to take on the role of another person or act out a scenario. Individual students, couples of students, or groups of students can play these roles in a more sophisticated scenario. Students participate in role plays that put them in real-life settings or scenarios that can be “stressful, unfamiliar, difficult, or contentious”, requiring them to analyze their own sentiments toward people and their circumstances.

Benefits of Role Play y y y y

In the classroom, role play can be used to motivate and engage students; improve current teaching practices. Provides students with real-life circumstances to aid their learning. Facilitates learning of abilities that can be applied in real-life circumstances (negotiation, debate, teamwork, cooperation, persuasion). Provide opportunities for peers to be observed critically.

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Role Play Developing Guidelines y

y

y y y y y

y

Introduce brief, nongraded role plays early in and throughout the semester to assist students prepare for a larger role play that will be assessed if you plan to use role playing as a graded exercise. Decide how the role-playing will be evaluated: Will observers be given a rubric to evaluate? Will the role players be informed of the observers’ comments and scores? Will the observers’ scores be shared with the instructor’s scores? Will the role players have another chance to rehearse and present the role play? Will observers be taught how to correctly evaluate a performance (provide useful criticism that isn’t just judgmental, but rather justifies all practical and unbiased remarks)? Instruct students that the purpose of the role play is to communicate a message about the topic rather than to focus on the person who is playing the role. Connect role plays to learning objectives so that students may see how they relate to the course material. Allow students time to practice the role play, even if it is on the spot, so they can think deeply about it and express it in a meaningful way. Reduce large amounts of content into smaller portions that can be delivered as a role play more effectively. Explain the goal of the role play and answer questions so that students can properly prepare the exercise. Provide content standards, such as general presentation behavior (eye contact, gestures, and voice projection); props; and particular language to use (subject-related terminology) and language to avoid (profanity, slang). While giving role plays, challenge all students similarly so that everyone is evaluated on an equal footing.

Framing a Role Play It is easy to do a proper setup and run a role play plan using these basic five steps (Fig. 3.20): 1. Identifying the Situation To start with the process, gather people together who are going to give active participation, introduce all to the current problem, and encourage all for the open-end discussion to uncover all the relevant issues. This will help the participants to start thinking about the problem before the role-play begins. If you are in a group and all the participants are unfamiliar with each other, consider doing some interactive exercises beforehand to maintain a good IPR and comfort level for better performance.

Fig. 3.20:  Diagram showing parameters for ideal role play

2. Adding the Details Next step is to set up a scenario in enough detail just to make it feel “real”. Make sure that each participant is clear about the agenda that you are trying to work through, and what you want to achieve by the end of the session. The script must be maintained in detail keeping all the small concepts in mind as it should give the portrait of the real scenario.

CHAPTER 3  Implementation 3. Assigning the Roles Once you have set the script, based on the capability of the group member’s identify the various fictional characters that need to be involved in the acting scenario. Some of these assigned characters are those who have to deal with the situation when it actually happens. Other people will represent as support or hostile, depending on the scenario (for example, an angry patient). Once you have identified the roles, allocate them to the individuals who fit in your exercise; they should use their imagination to put themselves inside the minds of the people that they are representing. This involves trying to understand their perspectives, goals, motivations, and feelings when they enter the situation. 4. Acting Out the Scenario Each person can now assume the situation mentioned in the script, try to do the justice by practicing the scenario, trying different approaches where necessary. The practice can be useful if the scenarios demand higher intensity. For instance, if the aim of your role-play is to practice a gathering, the person playing the role of the potential client could start as an ideal client, and, through a series of scenarios, could become increasingly hostile and difficult. You could then test and practice different approaches for handling situations, so that you can give participants experience in handling them. 5. Evaluate Learning When you are done with the role play, don’t forget to take the evaluation as it will help you to know the areas of improvement and what the targeted group has gained and your objectives are being meant to specific level or not.

Advantages y y y y y y y y

Helps to build interest at the beginning of teaching session. It builds enthusiasm among students. Improves student’s ability to disseminate information to a large audience through visual presentation. Motivates students to think out of the box. Helps to integrate different aspects. Helps to realize sensitive issues. Allows for the clarification of personal concerns that have arisen. Allows you to put yourself in the shoes of the character and have a better understanding of the situation’s complexity and breadth.

Limitations y y y

Learner should actively participate in role play; a passive observer does not help in attainment of educational objectives. Time is needed to rehearse in order to perform effective role play. Students may not feel comfortable in playing all types of character.

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FIELD TRIP The term “field trip” is been known from decades to all the sector. It is being commonly organized by the colleges or schools to give students the exposure and live experiences. It seems that a field trip is said to be the treasured time for teachers as well as the students. Who are keen on learning and discovering? So, here we are going to learn in details regarding the field trip. A field trip or excursion is a trip taken by a group of people to a location that is different from their usual surroundings. The trip is frequently for educational purposes, non-experimental research, or to provide students with experiences outside of their normal routines, such as going camping with their teachers and classmates. The goal of this study is to observe the topic in its natural habitat and collect samples, if possible. Field trips give a common ground for more-advantaged and less-advantaged students to encounter some of the same cultural experiences in the arts, while more-advantaged children may have already experienced cultural institutions outside of educational institution. Preparation, activities and follow-up activities are the most common steps of a field trip. Both the learner and the teacher need to prepare. Before going on a vacation, many teachers spend time learning about the destination and the subject. Lectures, excursions, worksheets, movies, and demonstrations are all common activities during field trips. Following-up activities are usually talks that take place in the classroom after the field trip. Zoos, nature centers, community agencies such as fire stations and hospitals, government agencies, local companies, amusement parks, science museums and industries are all popular field trip destinations. Field trips give alternate educational opportunities to students and, if they incorporate some form of community service, can benefit the community. Students can also take a break from their regular routine and engage in more hands-on learning through field trips. Interactive exhibits, such as those found at zoos and nature centers, allow children to touch plants and animals.

Educational Field Trip We define field trip as a journey taken by a group of students to a place different from their usual environment or you can say field trip is to visit outside area or a teaching away from the classroom setting for the purpose of first-hand observational learning. We can express the meaning of field trip in many terminologies as we can term it as the educational tour or school trip. These are the concept where the experience and ideas can be shared in an innovative manner. It is a teaching style that allows students to gain first-hand experience outside the classroom through watching locations, items, and procedures. It enhances learning in a natural setting by breaking up the monotony of the classroom or changing the normal pattern. A field trip might be scheduled to train hospital management about administrator functions. Learning is increased by field trips in various subjects, such as community health nursing, anatomy and physiology, nursing education, and nursing administration. A field trip to the hospital’s mortuary to see postmortem can be arranged for anatomy. In the subject nutrition, food hygiene or the preparation of a particular item is shown through visiting the central kitchen or departmental dietetics.

Purposes y y

To draw a link between theory and practice. To supplement the lessons given in the classroom.

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To provide authentic learning experience. Can be used as an introduction to a unit. It helps in retaining what students have learned during the trip. It aids in gathering experience through observing, touching, hearing, smelling and tasting.

Types of Field Trip Listed below field trip ideas help us to give a clear picture of field trip meaning. Such efficient educational tours can help us to create a spark in students’ imagination, help them to gain valuable experiences and refresh their minds after days with classroom teachings. An educational tour can be themed with one type of field trip or combined by various types of educational trips (Fig. 3.21). Sightseeing Field Trip

Fig. 3.21:  Diagrammatic view showing types of field trip

Students are definitely going to be eager if we talk about the sightseeing trips captivating them by an innumerate appealing charisma of their favorite destination. The students usually admire well-known attractions offered by their cities as historic structures, discover World Heritage Sites, spectacular landscapes which offer them incredible activities and help them gain knowledge and understand to admire the ancient concepts and new technologies. Language and Culture Educational Field Trip For students those who are interested in learning foreign languages and are eager to learn about the new customs and traditions offered by different cultures, such field trips are helpful to improve the vocabulary and explore the alluring indigenous cultures. The students also get chance to join immersive activities, stay in the local sight, taste the local food, get a chance to learn language lessons and visit local markets to explore the speciality of the place, help to maintain an understanding with local people, their culture and their captivating paces of life. Gardening and Farming Field Trip If we talk about gardening activity, this might attract the interest of lots of students’. Their attention is diverted because of its strangeness to their usual life. This will help the students to discover special farms that grow the seasonal crops, food crops, cash crops, plantations, horticulture crops to their surprise. Learn how vegetables are produced, explore and give a try to do traditional farming techniques and modern techniques and compare the better one. The local people will get the chance to spend a quality time with the students. Manufacturing Facility Field Trip Students can be taken to a place where they can be guided to any factory where equipment, medical devices, medical instruments, portable devices packaging or any other things are made. Visiting the mechanical facility will help them learn and get exposure regarding assembly lines and working of the various parts. Students also learn about the production process, how raw materials are utilized and how workers use them to make the final product.

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Discovering the natural world is said to be highly effective in increasing the thinking ability and serve as a relaxing therapy. Students can be entertained and refreshed by organizing camps or trekking through untouched natural locations to adore and appreciate the nature and wildlife animals. This opportunity also adds to local historical factors such as early life remnants. Business Educational Tour Business study trips, delight the students by bustling financial and business centers. Business study trips help process business theories in the classroom into life as students explore great commercial organizations. Business field trip gives students the chance to immerse in stimulating and dynamic environments. Visit to a range of famed organizations and large corporations are perfect business school trips.

Teacher’s Role y y y y y y

A teacher develops a plan at the beginning of an academic year. While planning, a teacher must review past experience, difficulties encountered and check for unexpected holidays. Prior to the field trip, obtain the required permission, instruct students on dress code, articles to be carried, decorum to be maintained and the academic background for the field trip. Prepare the objectives of the visit and communicate the objectives with the students. Provide guidelines to students with a list of questions or checklist that should be their focus so that the trip becomes effective. After the field visit, a teacher must debrief.

Advantages y y y y y y

The thrill of discovering something new energizes students. It makes socializing easier. It enables the learner to learn in an unstructured way. Rather than being dictated by the teacher or the curriculum, student learning can be guided by their interests. Learning becomes more integrated and holistic. Learning is enriched and reinforced with multimedia experience.

Limitations y y y

As the number of students increases, the trip becomes a social gathering rather than a learning one. Inadequate supervision may lead to indiscipline among students. While moving to new places, students might get lost from the group.

WORKSHOP Workshops are organized to develop the psychomotor aspects as in the skill development of the learner regarding the practice of new innovations in area of education. In this type of learning, the participants have to do some practical work to produce instructional teaching and testing material.

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Definition Workshop is being defined as a group of people those who are assembled together to share common interest and problem. These participants meet together to improve their education and skills on a subject through intensive study, research practice and discussion. We can also define workshop as where the experienced people at responsible position join together to find out the solution of a problem that is cropped up in the course of their work and they have had difficulty in dealing it on their own or else you can say it is a large group for discussing on single matter. The term ‘workshop’ comes from the field of engineering. According to this definition, a workshop is a place where a group of people collaborate to complete a task using their hands to produce something. Similarly, in education, workshops are organized to develop skills. For example, skills are required in question paper setting, writing lesson plan, etc. In nursing, there are workshops conducted to teach research methodology, CPR, and mastering different skills. A workshop is defined as a gathering of 10–25 people with the goal of dealing with comparable areas of interest or challenges in order to improve their skills via intensive work out and practice.

Essential Features of Workshop (Fig. 3.22)

Fig. 3.22:  Diagram representing features of workshop

Principles of Workshop y y y y y y y y

Allowing the participants to prepare and select objectives to increase motivation amongst the participants. Providing the participants with the opportunities to take the session; this will help to improve the teaching skills. Improve the attitude of a person toward other people. Learn to establish better human relationship. Giving participants the active role, which will help them in improving teaching skills. We should appreciate worth for the participation of every individual. Workshop must be focused on the current issues. Workshop must be conducted with full cooperation with the organizers.

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Objectives of Workshop (Fig. 3.23) Cognitive Objectives Cognitive objectives are usually designed to solve the problems of teaching professionals. y y y

To provide philosophical and sociologic background for instructional and teaching situations. To identify the educational objectives in the presently offered context. To develop the understanding regarding the theme allocated.

Fig. 3.23:  Two types of workshop objectives

Psychomotor Objectives y y y y

To develop the tasks which can be performed independently. To effectively use the teaching strategies. Help and train the person to use the teaching abilities effectively. To help organize a workshop so as to seed, explore and identify the solution of a problem.

Purposes of Workshop y y y y y y

To help the teachers break down the barrier to facilitate communication. To provide with the opportunities to the professionals for professional growth. To help the professionals to identify their problems those are direct, current and concerned to them. This will help the professionals to learn new techniques to solve their problems in professional journey. Workshop will help the teachers to enhance their own learning skills. To help the teachers to evaluate their work and work toward improvement.

Phases (Fig. 3.24) Preactive Phase Step 1: (Define goals)

The workshop must compromise of the clearly set goals and objectives as they will help to achieve and plan the workshop in an effective manner. Step 2: (Decide the target group)

While organizing the workshop, the group that is going to be actively participating must be decided. Make the list of the people who had to be present and try to be specific with the number of participants but always keep few seats open and available for last minute of participations.

Fig. 3.24:  Diagram representing phases of workshop

CHAPTER 3  Implementation Step 3: (Select the right location) y y y y y

Think about the logistics and practical details of the workshop for the selection of location. Make sure to set the AV aids as it should be visible to all the participants. Also make sure regarding the break facilities between the sessions. Keep in mind that everyone can easily locate the venue; try to keep the venue nearby the working main roads or metro stations. If the participants or the resource persons are coming from out of station, try to arrange the accommodation facility for them.

Step 4: (Prepare an agenda) y y

Prepare the important agendas that have to be discussed in the workshop and break down the larger points and make them precise while communicating. List all the visual aids that are required throughout the presentation and ask for the technical help to avoid any interruptions.

Step 5: (Develop a follow-up)

The only way to find out whether the workshop has been successful or not is to always take the evaluation from the participants. The evaluation can be in the form of questionnaire, post-test and give them plenty of opportunity to share their opinion. With the help of evaluation, we get the scope of improving for the next time. Active Phase y

y

y

First stage: In the first or you can say the initial phase, the theoretical aspects of the decided topics are being discussed relating it with the various research studies as well. The resource person is invited to discuss the awareness and understanding of the topic. Second stage: In the second stage, the participants group are being divided on the basis of language, subject study and curriculum, a resource person is assigned to provide the guidance for the work to be performed. For example, the whole participants are 50 and they further are divided into five groups and given a task to take care for the patient and each will be given one of the resource person or the mentor to guide. Third stage: Now the third stage is going to give participants the opportunity to represent their findings or feedback. The participants are requested to elaborate their learning experience.

Advantages of Workshop y y y y y y

Helps to realize the cognitive and psychomotor objectives. Helps to understand the proficiency, creativity and latest practice implementations in teaching. Helps to develop and provide the opportunities for the presenters to work on the capabilities. Helps to increase the ability to coordinate with the group cooperation with team work. Helps to introduce new teaching and innovative methods in teaching learning process. Helps to improve the professional efficiency.

Disadvantages of Workshop y

The educator might not take interest in the curriculum and introduce new teaching practice during the class.

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The workshop if organized for large group of people, most of them might not be attentive during the session. The educator might not take the interest to introduce creative learning during the session which ultimately leads to loss of interest of the participants.

COMPUTER-ASSISTED LEARNING PROGRAM When we talk about today’s teaching learning activity, preceding it without the use of electronic devices is kind of impossible and the commonly used devices are either phones or computers. The uses of the devices differ in each of the settings. If we consider the specific use of computer, it is to maintain the complex data of the organization like mathematical and statistical calculations. Computers are preferred in all the big to small organizations, nowadays, due to its efficacy, accuracy and storage of the data. If we talk about the education sector it is found for the purpose of creative teaching for the students as an educator or teacher, you have to be fully aware about proper functioning so as to efficiently use the device for teaching, and learning purpose. Computer is an electronic device that is responsible for taking the raw data as inputs from the users and then the data is being processed under the control of set instructions and programme. It can process both numeric and non-numeric data. The computer helps in accepting the data by the way of input, processing the data required by the user, it gives the results in the form of output, and controls all operations inside the computer. Let’s discuss each of these operations in depth:

Input This is the process of entering the required data into the system. Just relating it with the examples, if you are working to serve the IT firm the MS excel sheet must be stored and functional and if we consider teaching, the video players, PowerPoint, MS Word are the most specifically used applications. If you are from the creative side, you require the graphic card in the system. Many more are is the simple examples.

Storage The command or the work that you are doing must be stored properly in the system programming. This is where we termed it as storage of the work. The data is supposed to be fed into the system before it actually starts to work. The access should also be for the later period after the processing of the data. The output should also be stored for the future use. This is the unique feature of the computer which helps to make us work easily.

Processing The tasks where we are supposed to maintain the arithmetic’s and logical operations is called processing of the data. The CPU which is the central processing unit of the system takes the data and instructions from the storage unit and helps in all sort of calculations. The processed data is then set back to the storage unit.

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Output This is the process of producing results after processing the data for making it useful and presentable, for example, using the excel calculations we simply have to put the formula and out of which we get the desired result for our calculation.

Control Controlling all the operations like giving inputs, processing the data and the output or the results are performed by the control unit.

Functional Unit of Computer In order to carry out the various functions in the computer device, the tasks are being allocated by different computer units which are: (i) Arithmetic logical unit, (ii) Control unit, and (iii) Central processing unit. iii.  Arithmetic logical unit (ALU): After you enter data through the input device, it is stored in the primary storage unit. The actual processing of the data and instruction are performed by Arithmetic Logical Unit (ALU). The major operations performed by the ALU are addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, logic and comparison. iii.  Control unit (CU): The next component of computer is the Control Unit, which acts like the supervisor seeing that the things are done in proper fashion. The control unit determines the sequence in which computer programs and instructions are executed. Things like processing of programs stored in the main memory, interpretation of the instructions and issuing of signals for other units of the computer to execute them. iii.  Central processing unit (CPU): The ALU and the CU of a computer system are jointly known as the central processing unit. You may call CPU as the brain of any computer system that takes all major decisions, makes all sorts of calculations and directs different parts of the computer functions by activating and controlling the operations.

Components of Computer : Input (Fig. 3.25) Input Device The computer is said to be useful when you are able to communicate with the outer world. When you work with computer, you are feeding your data and instruction through some devices to computer. These helping devices are known as input devices. The commonly ones are keyboard and mouse. A good input device should be functional and provides timely, accurate and useful data. Central Processing Unit The main unit of the computer is said to be the CPU. This is the unit which is responsible for all events inside the computer. It helps in controlling internal and external devices and helps in performing the arithmetic and logical operations.

Fig. 3.25:  Diagrammatic representation of components of computer

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The CPU contains the basic instructions needed to operate the computer, but it does not have the capability to store the programmes or large sets of data permanently. Just like the human brain, the computer has an in-built memory where it can store large amount of data which helps in processing arithmetic and logical operations and also holds programmes and the data being manipulated. This area is called memory or storage. Data can be also stored in secondary storage devices such as pen drives, which can be kept outside your computer and can be carried to other computers. Computer has two sets of memory, which are primary memory like RAM (Random Access Memory/ReadWrite Memory), ROM (Read-only-memory) and secondary memory like Hard Disk (Local Disk), Optical Disks: CD-R, CD-RW, DVD-R, DVD-RW, Pen drive, Zip drive and Memory Cards.

Computer as a Learning Source In the earlier phase, we used to collect the knowledge or information regarding any of the topic with the help of books, newspaper and magazines, textbooks, reference books, research manuals, but in today’s modern era, the knowledge is in our hands with the help of internet login in to google. All that you want to learn is just a click away. Let us understand the today’s learning skills with the help of internet and how we can use them as the source of knowledge. The Web Learning We generally consider the use of Internet and the World Wide Web (www) to be the same. They are not exactly the same but closely related to each other. There are differences. The internet is a decentralized global network of computers. The web is a collection of documents that you can access using the internet and web searching software. The web comprises the vast content available over the internet. Websites reside on computers called Internet servers. When you are connected to the Internet, your web browser software can communicate with the Internet servers, ask them to send your computer a copy of the webpage that you wanted to see. The Uniform Resource Locator (URL) you type or the hyperlink you click tells your computer which server to try to contact and get the information. Internet Learning Internet learning has given the great contribution to learning we can use the internet for education with three main purposes: 1. The internet as technology of information. 2. The internet as technology of interaction. 3. The internet as sociability. The internet as the technological source of information provides us with the large stock data like text, visual aids, graphical aids and audio aids. Internet is considered to be the pool of knowledge and serves a different purpose of learning like: y y y

We can use the internet to access various books so it serves as the in-hand library where the student can access many books for free. Internet can help the students to publish their knowledge materials as in the form of articles, textbooks, researches. Using the internet as the classroom with electronic white board and asynchronous discussion.

CHAPTER 3  Implementation Suppose you want to teach the students regarding the physiology of any of the organ and simple lecture method is not being sufficient enough the therefore, to help them to enhance their learning, video assisted teachings can help. Internet serves as the medium to bridge a gap between learning and teaching skills as if helps in the collaboration, decentralization and maintaining the standard teaching.

Computer-Assisted Learning y

y

y

y

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The teaching learning activity will not simply help in teaching but will help the educator to build the creative ways of learning in the class. The use of computer in teaching and learning is to enhance the quality of teaching. There are different modes for computer assisted teaching. Drill and practice session: This is the phase where the computer is generating large number of exercises like evaluating, feedback and responses. Here the computer gives the immediate responses in terms of correction and also by providing hints for how the corrections can be made. Tutorial mode: This type of section is when the information and the explanatory material is presented into small section in the form of questions. For example, multiple practice questions are being formulated as a form of exercise for the student and after responding the students are able to evaluate the incorrect answers themselves. The program decides how rapidly material should be generated and how much should be covered. In this mode, computer is used to simulate the most visible part of your activity to transmit knowledge and check whether the knowledge has been correctly transmitted. Data analysis: In this type of programming, the data gathered helps to analyze the result and the result is being portrayed in the numerical or graphical form. A more realistic approach is being made with the help of appropriate planning or building up a set of data. For example, you want to take the class of statistics for the students and want them to learn about correlational coefficient or graphical representation of the data. Computer can be used for analysis, interpretation and representation of different data as well. Stimulation: Computerized stimulation are said to be the imitation model of processes. Stimulation help the students to learn from their experiences and to take the risk without suffering the consequences. The students can study the effect of changing various aspects by observing the outcome of each case so as to develop an appreciation and the scope and limitation of a system. Modelling: Modelling usually involves creating, adapting, or choosing a theoretical model in correspondence with the natural phenomenon or manmade system. This type of phenomenon is usually used and adapted in higher education system. An example of this type of program involves finding the relationship between different aspects to form a functional unified whole. Information, retrieval and storage: Information in the computer can be retrieved in various forms by having a large data bank. Computer has the capacity to provide knowledge and information in wide variety and is easily accessible than books and other sources. Information stored in the computer can be easily updated, expanded and enlarged upon. This type of CAL program allows students to study topics which require access to large data bases that cannot be easily handled manually.

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Advantages of Computer y y y y y y

It provides multiple modes of communicating data and opportunity to learn a variety of skills and knowledge. Students can learn at their own pace, work and acquire next academic level. It provides a two-way flow of information. It provides lecture material. It facilitates prompt feedback. It facilitates more accurate monitoring of learner’s progress.

Limitations of Computer y y y y y y y

Learner should be self-motivated. It requires computers and other resources. Learner can face software/hardware or internet connectivity problem. One must know how to use a computer. Time commitment is required to complete and prepare simulations. Resistance of learners and teachers to utilize CAL resources. Individual differences in learning styles.

MICROTEACHING Microteaching is being referred to as appropriate and innovative way that helps the trainee teachers get trained in the college so that they can enhance their acquisitions to desired teaching. Or we can define microteaching as a specialized technique used to train the teachers to practice and develop some of the teaching skills. Microteaching is a type of miniature teaching in terms of class size, class duration and the content which has to be covered. Microteaching is the tool which is being used for training the untrained or new teachers or just to make them aware about the working environment; purpose is to make them practice the specific skills. Introducing the microteaching can be beneficial and that’s why adopted by many countries to prove it advantageous on account of the specific features. y Non-dependence over the practicing schools and their students for the practice of skills y This helps in practicing one skill at one time. y Helps in reducing the complexities of the classroom by avoiding the monotonous teaching. y Helps to give the appropriate opportunities for systematically observing the teaching skills and immediately providing with the feedback to bring improvement. y Providing the trainee teachers with the opportunities developing their teaching skills in a controlled manner.

Characteristics of Microteaching y y y

With the help of microteaching, a trainee can concentrate on practicing the well-defined teaching skills. Microteaching helps in getting pinpoint feedback from the students. Microteaching is considered the scale down teaching; hence, has no problem in maintaining discipline.

CHAPTER 3  Implementation y y y

Less problems in administration as the teaching sessions are organized in peer. Microteaching helps to take the research studies with better control, condition and situation. Microteaching is considered an integral part of the teacher training in India.

Steps of Microteaching Figure 3.26 shows the steps of microteaching. Planning: This involves selection of the skill to be practiced, awareness of components of the skill, selection of a suitable concept, writing of microlesson with specific objectives. y Teaching: The following setting is suggested for the microteaching technique.  Time: 5 minutes  Students: Peer group-5 or so, number of Supervisors: 1 or 2 If possible, the teaching can be done under camera supervision so that the teacher can self-analyze the teaching skills. Fig. 3.26:  The steps of microteaching y Feedback: This is considered a vital aspect; to be clear with the concept, it is must to state the feedback in the teaching cycle as It is a kind of evaluation this adds. The appraisal from the students as well as the supervisor. This method is used to give clear picture to the teacher by providing scope for improvement. y Replan: Keeping in mind the feedback, the teacher replans the teaching by bringing changes in existing teaching method and improving microteaching. y Reteach: The teacher trainee reteaches, incorporating the suggested changes with the same students or another group of 5 students. Supervisor checks to see whether there is any improvement in skill attainment. y Refeedback: The supervisor along with the students assesses the teaching again pointing out the improvements and lapses. y

Advantages of Microteaching y y y y y y y y

Microteaching helps in improving the efficacy and it can be used in pre service and in-service education program. Microteaching can take place in the stimulated class room or the real class room. Microteaching helps to attain the practice and knowledge which helps in the improvement of teaching skills. Microteaching is a tool that helps in the improvement of teaching and learning skills. Microteaching helps to focus the attention on teaching behavior to modify and improve in the desired direction. Microteaching is considered to be an effective tool to modify teacher’s behavior. Microteaching helps in permitting control and regulating teaching practice. The demonstration teachings with the help of video assisted teaching and short films are possible through microteaching.

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Disadvantages of Microteaching y y y y y y y

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Microteaching tends to reduce the creativity if the teacher has to complete the topic in a given period of time covering all the important sub topics. Microteaching application is limited to new teaching practice. Microteaching requires well trained and experienced teachers as they will be well aware to manage the given topic in a specific period of time efficiently. Microteaching alone cannot be the adequate method to evaluate the skills of a teacher. it might need other methods too. Microteaching process is also considered time-consuming as again and again teacher needs to replan the content till she obtains a satisfactory score. Some of the skills might overlap as there will be fragmentation of the conventional as well as practical skills. As teaching is itself an art and different subjects require different ways and methods of teaching; and so alone it can only be helpful in obtaining minor skills like class control, explaining, stimulus, etc. Participants who were not there during the conversation are usually requested to describe it, which is an excellent opportunity for them to express their opinions. However, this does not imply that everyone should be silent. The important discussed topics and the conclusion of the conversation should be included in the summary. The final results are computed. The panelist assigns ratings based on each participant’s performance. In most cases, there are four to five panelists who judge the candidates’ performance in the group discussion.

Participants The number of people in a group might range from 7 to 12. The number of candidates in a group discussion is determined by the strength available. The number of participants might range from 5 to 7, if the strength is low.

Duration of a Group Discussion A group discussion lasts for about 15 minutes on average. However, depending on the number of applicants in a group, it may differ. The panelists or judges may occasionally extend the discussion beyond 15 minutes. They can also bring the conversation to a close in the middle. The participants should not make the mistake of assuming that the GD will last only for 15 minutes.

Importance of Group Discussion Group discussion is an important aspect of evaluating applicants in businesses, as well as the recruitment process. It also aids in the development of a candidate’s abilities. y y y y y

Helps in increasing confidence Focuses on deep thinking Helps in improving communication skills Helps in removing the hesitation while speaking Helps in improving the team work

CHAPTER 3  Implementation y y y

Helps to understand the attitude and behavior of the individual Group discussion helps in improving the listening skills of the candidates Group discussion entails exchanging thoughts with the other members of the group. Every member discusses his or her thoughts with the group, resulting in a wide range of ideas.

SIMULATION A simulation is an animated model that simulates the operation of a current or projected system, such as a bank’s day-to-day operations, assembly line operations, or staffing in a hospital or call center. You can create a visual mock-up of your process using intuitive simulation software like simul8, which works similarly to a flowchart. The simulation can precisely mimic your real process by adding timings and rules around the activities, resources and restrictions that make up your system.

Benefits of Using Simulation-Based Learning Simulation is Less Expensive than Real-World Testing Experimenting in the actual world has a number of drawbacks. There are costs connected with the repercussions of these decisions, in addition to the capital investment of altering processes, recruiting new people, or acquiring new equipment. If you cut staffing yet can’t keep up with the workload, you risk losing customers, income, and market share. You can avoid costly mistakes by extensively evaluating changes with simulation prior to implementation. Many Simul8 users have enjoyed multi-million dollar returns on their investments. Different Concepts are put to the Test Under the Same Conditions It is tough to replicate the precise circumstances while evaluating changes in real life therefore, you might only get one chance to collect the results of an experiment. As a result, you won’t be able to quickly test alternative ideas under the same conditions, and as a result, you won’t be able to make accurate conclusions. You can test the same system multiple times with varied inputs using simulation software, guaranteeing that any changes to processes have been adequately examined. Determines How Process Changes will Affect You in the Long Run Although process modifications may have an immediate effect in the near term, how can you be certain that they will have the desired long-term effect? For example, if you are recruiting three extra doctors with the goal of reducing patient waiting time over the next two years, you’d generally have to wait for two years to assess the return on your investment. You can run two, ten, or even 100 years into the future in seconds using simulation. This gives you the information you need to make informed decisions now, rather than later, when it may be too late to change the outcome if you have already committed time and money.

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Simulation Provides Unbiased Insight into the Process, Allowing it to be Improved The value of a simulation project often comes not from the end results, but from the exploration that occurs between the start of the project and the point where answers are needed to make a choice. If you ask 20 people, “What do you think would be the best method to improve the process?” at the start of a process improvement project, you might get 20 different replies! The capacity to get impartial information that promotes quality process improvement is the benefit of visual and quantitative technologies like SIMUL8. Determines the Potential for Random Events to have an Impact Other tools, such as spreadsheets, can efficiently represent a static scenario, but what if you need to evaluate the impact of random occurrences throughout your system, such as the effect of a machine breaking down on an assembly line or a hospital’s staff absence? Without this random element, spreadsheet models can completely ignore system difficulties and make it appear as if nothing is wrong, even while the real-world system is demonstrating visible problems such as blocks or queues. Only simulation can account for the randomness that occurs in real-world systems, allowing you to examine the effects of events being delayed due to resources not being accessible when they are needed.

DEMONSTRATION Demonstration is a teaching approach that uses visual aids such as flip charts, posters, and Powerpoint to Express an idea. A demonstration is a step-by-step technique for showing someone how to manufacture or execute something. You “inform” what you are doing as you demonstrate how. There is always a final product in a demonstration. The ability of the audience to go home and do what you have taught them is crucial to a successful demonstration.

Choosing the Subject Your interests, experience, knowledge, and talents should all be reflected in the subject you choose. It should be engaging rather than boring, challenging rather than mundane. Your students will be bored if you are bored.

Plan On paper, make a plan for your demonstration. In the long run, detailed planning saves time and is the key to a successful presentation. The following steps are included in the planning process: y Make a list of the supplies you’ll need (equipment, posters, etc.). y Obtain accurate information (using sources such as the internet, publications, and books). y Create a list of actions to be demonstrated in order and decide what will be said in conjunction with each step. y Organize the usage of equipment and materials.

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The Outline y y y

Introduction Body Summary

Introduction Introduce yourself and greet your audience. Use a gimmick to get people’s attention. y A personal experience y An eye-catching poster y A well-known proverb, a riddle, a poem, a comedy, or a song y A surprising or spectacular declaration or problem y Pose a query y An action y Display a finished product Body y y y

Talk about the most important points. Explain each process in simple terms. Include all steps required to manufacture or execute what is planned.

Summary y y y y

Showcase your finished project. Emphasize the most important points. If there are any sources of information, state them. Ask for questions—“Thank you for your time and consideration; do you have any questions?”

Visual Planning Visuals such as posters or PowerPoint slides are used to add interest and sparkle to a presentation and to further elucidate a subject. y y y y y y y y y y

Keep your visuals simple. Make imaginative cover posters, but keep the rest of the posters clean and uncluttered. Graphics Print out lettering or use a computer to do it. Make the lettering large enough to read from a distance. Use a single color marker or printing in color (black on white posters are always best) Keep the language simple and don’t write out the entire example on your own. Posters Make use of crucial words. Use only what is essential to make your point.

Title Consideration The title may be the final stage in the demonstration’s preparation. The title will appear if you concentrate on the idea and growth of the presentation. Short, detailed, and image-making titles are

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usually the most effective. The demonstration subject should be suggested in the title without giving the entire story.

Plan Your Appearance It is crucial to present yourself in a tidy, well-groomed manner. Clothing does not have to be a typical uniform, but it should be appropriate for the occasion. A modest costume can add intrigue, but don’t go overboard or your demonstration will suffer. y y y y y

The following points must be kept in mind: Avoid wearing hanging or heavy jewelery. Do not lean on the table or twist one foot behind the other; instead, stand tall. Make direct eye contact with your audience. Control the pitch and tempo of your voice. Avoid distracting habits such as pushing back hair, pacing and rocking.

Equipment’s Organizing y y y y

Make a list of all the tools and supplies you’ll need. Arrange your materials and equipment in the order in which you will utilize them. Have a second table (if possible) behind you to keep equipment and supplies on before the demonstration and to put articles out of the way once you have used them. As you complete each process, wipe down your demonstration table.

Here are a few recommendations: y y y y y y y y

Provide a clean, well-lit show table or work surface that is of appropriate height. Make use of trays to transport little items and supplies to the table. Arrange the objects in the order in which they will be used. Make sure you have a litter bag and towels on hand to clean up any accidental spill. While stirring, place a pad or towel under the bowls to reduce noise and unsettle the bowls. Before the demonstration day, test the equipment. Rehearse using the equipment multiple times to improve your skills. Before the demonstration, arrange your equipment and supplies, remove covers, unpack equipment, and so on. For a summary, begin and complete the presentation with a clean table and only the finished product.

SELF-DIRECTED LEARNING Even for the brightest and most driven students, learning independently can be difficult. This teaching tip outlines key components of four key stages to independent learning, also known as self-directed learning: being ready to learn, setting learning goals, engaging in the learning process, and evaluating learning in order to better understand the processes involved in this mode of study.

Step 1: Being Ready for Learning For independent study to be successful, students must have a variety of abilities and attitudes toward learning. This step requires students to assess their current situation, study habits, family status, and

CHAPTER 3  Implementation support network at school and at home, as well as evaluate previous experiences with autonomous learning. Read our Readiness to Learn Teaching Tip for a thorough Learning Skills Assessment Tool. Being autonomous, organized, self-disciplined, able to communicate effectively, accept constructive feedback, and participate in self-evaluation and self-reflection are all signs of preparation for selfdirected learning.

Step 2: Plan Learning Goals It is vital that a student and his or her advising instructor communicate their learning objectives. We’ve created a collection of questions for students to think about as they plan their learning objectives: our Unit Planning Decision Guide). Learning contracts are also important in generating a clear understanding of learning goals between students and teachers. The following items are usually included in learning contracts: y The unit of study’s objectives y Activity structure and sequence y Timeline for completing the tasks y For each aim, specifics on the resource materials are provided. y Procedures for grading are described in detail. y As each target is completed, provide feedback and evaluation. y Plan a meeting with your advising instructor. y Unit policing agreement

Step 3: Learning Process Engagement Referring students to our resource on learning preferences may be helpful in helping them understand themselves as learners and their needs as self-directed learning students. The following questions should be considered by students: y What are my requirements in terms of educational methods? y What was the name of my favorite teacher? Why? y What did they do that set them apart from other educators? Throughout their program, students should consider these questions and replace the word “teacher” with “advising instructor”. y A deep approach to studying is ideal for self-directed learning because it entails transformation. y Reproduction is a surface technique that entails dealing with unit requirements, learning only what is needed to pass a unit, and regurgitating examples and explanations from readings. y A strategic approach entails planning: Getting the best marks possible, studying what is needed to pass tests, memorizing facts, and spending time practicing from previous exams.

Step 4: Evaluate Learning Students must be able to engage in self-reflection and self-evaluation of their learning goals and progress in a unit of study in order to be successful in self-directed learning. They should do the following to aid this self-evaluation process: y Consult with your advising instructor on a regular basis. y Look for feedback y Participate in self-reflection on their accomplishments, which includes questions like:

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How can I tell if I’ve learned something?  Am I adaptable in my knowledge application?  Do I have faith in my ability to convey concepts?  When do I know I’ve learned everything there is to know?  When should you engage in self-reflection and when should you consult with your advising faculty member?

ACTIVE LEARNING STRATEGIES The education field is changing so fast that you need to keep abreast of more modern strategies. Otherwise, it may be hard for you to fit in. y Interactive lessons y Jigsaw y Using virtual reality technology y Cloud computing teaching y Using AI in education y Flipped classroom y Blended learning y Peer teaching y 3D printing y Peer feedback y Use the design-thinking process y Crossover teaching y Project-based learning y Personalized teaching y Inquiry-based learning

Artificial Intelligence AI assists us in doing so much of our work, so we can’t use it in education? This method is surprisingly widespread these days. Using AI doesn’t mean it does everything and replaces you. It is not like in the sci-fi movies where computers and robots move around and teach our students. 3D printing makes your lessons more fun and gives students hands-on experience to learn new things better. This method takes classroom engagement to a new level that textbooks can’t ever compare. This one is a solution-based strategy to solve problems, collaborate and spark students’ creativity. There are five stages, but it is different from other methods because you don’t have to follow a stepby-step guide or any order. It is a non-linear process, so you can customize it based on your lectures and activities.

Team-Based Learning Team-Based learning is a systematic type of small-group learning that focuses on student preparation outside of class and knowledge application in class. People are intentionally arranged into different teams of 5–7 students that collaborate throughout the class. Students prepare for class by reading before each unit or module of the course. Students participate in a “Readiness Assurance Process”, or RAP, in the module’s first class. In particular, each student takes an exam on their own. Participants then perform the “group Readiness Assurance Test”, or gRAT, with their group members. The grades of the students are influenced by both individual and group scores. Students often complete the group test using a “scratch-off ” sheet and score themselves, decreasing grading time and encouraging student debate of right answers.

CHAPTER 3  Implementation The instructor encourages teams to appeal questions that they got wrong after the students finish the group test. Students are encouraged to analyze the information, evaluate their comprehension, and defend their decision through the appeal process. Team-based learning is an active, student-centered method applied in a group of 5–7 students with the management of a single trainer who is a specialist. There are three stages in the team-based learning method: preparation, display of readiness and implementation. Team-based learning is an active learning strategy in medical education. In this study, the structure and basic principles of team-based learning, the steps of the method and assessment and evaluation are discussed.

Problem-Based Learning (PBL) The PBL is a student-centered approach in which students learn about a subject by solving an open-ended problem in trigger material. The PBL approach does not emphasize problem solving with a predetermined answer, but it does allow for the development of other desirable abilities and characteristics. This involves improved group collaboration and communication, as well as knowledge development. The PBL process was created for medical education and has now been expanded to include other learning programs. Learners are able to gain abilities that will be useful in their future practice as a result of the given procedure. Working in small groups of learners is an important part of the PBL tutorial process. Each student takes on a formal or informal role within the group, which they frequently switch. It focuses on the students’ ability to develop their own learning through reflection and reasoning. Clarifying words, defining problem(s), brainstorming, structure and hypothesis, learning objectives, independent study, and synthesis are all part of the Maastricht seven-jump process. In a nutshell, It is figuring out what they already know, what they need to know, and how and where they can get fresh information that could help them solve the problem. The tutor’s job is to make learning easier by assisting, guiding and monitoring the learning process. The tutor’s goal is to increase pupils’ confidence in dealing with challenges while also broadening their knowledge. Constructivism is used to guide this process. PBL is a paradigm change from traditional lecture-based teaching and learning philosophy.

Peer Sharing y

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Peer-to-peer learning to:  Build an active and cooperative learning environment.  Encourage students to give and receive feedback and evaluate each others’ learning. Promote positive interdependence and accountability.  Increase participation, motivation and student engagement.  Improve communication skills, achievement and productivity. Promote ownership of learning and deeper understanding of new concepts.

Case Study Analysis A case study analysis is not merely a descriptive but, as the term itself suggests, a critical exercise, typically an examination of a situation or institution with view toward making recommendations. Case study analyzes are included in many courses to give students a sense of the constraints involved in decision making. Cases are usually based on real situations. Refer to chapter 4.

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Debate Debate is a teaching strategy in nursing education that enhances students’ critical thinking. Although debate can be an effective teaching strategy, it also boosts the self confidence and critical thinking of nursing students.

Game-Based Learning Game-based learning has attracted much attention in education in recent years due to its ability to increase student motivation and engagement in learning

Interprofessional Education Interprofessional education (IPE) is a critical approach for preparing students to enter the health workforce, where teamwork and collaboration are important competencies. IPE has been promoted by a number of international health organizations, as part of a redesign of health care systems to promote interprofessional teamwork, to enhance the quality of patient care and improve health outcomes.

Advantages of Being a Good Communicator A good communication skill gives you an edge over the others in the following manner: y y y y y y y y y y

In the workplace, you are highly regarded. Aids in the advancement of your career. Allows you to speak in a concise manner. Improve your customer relations It improves your professional appearance. More money is made by highly talented communicators. Self-esteem is higher among good communicators. For persons just starting out in the workforce, the most vital talent is the ability to communicate. Communication is one of the most important characteristics of a successful entrepreneur. Effective communication skills contribute in the development of leadership abilities.

SUMMARY y y y y y

y

The process of conveying information from one person to another is known as communication. The goal of communication is to convey information. Whatever one wishes to communicate with another person must be clearly understood by him, otherwise the communication’s objective will be thwarted. Communication in an organization enables the flow of information and understanding across different people and departments by utilizing a variety of mediums and networks. This flow of information is critical for effective management and decision-making in general. As a result, communication aids in better understanding of others, reducing misunderstandings and promoting clarity in thought and speech. People are also educated as a result of it.

CHAPTER 3  Implementation y

Interpersonal, intrapersonal, interdepartmental, and intraorganizational communication can be written or oral, formal or informal, upward, downward, horizontal, diagonal.

CONCLUSION People become more connected as a result of communication. Communication is a crucial management function that is intertwined with all other management responsibilities. It closes the gap between individuals and groups by facilitating the exchange of information and understanding. The most important part of communication is information. It is the data that is sent, received, studied, analyzed, interpreted and saved. As a result, the manager must set out time to gather, evaluate and retain data for decision-making and day-to-day operations. Whatever industry you work in, the ability to communicate effectively with clients, coworkers, and bosses is critical. Good communication strengthens teams, motivates employees to perform at their best, and improves the workplace culture. Remember that communication is a two-way street, so pay attention to the verbal and nonverbal cues of others as well as your own. You’ll interact in a more constructive and productive manner if you learn to communicate more effectively, making the workplace a positive and thriving environment.

ASSESS YOURSELF Long Answer Questions 1. What does nonverbal communication imply? Describe the benefits and drawbacks of nonverbal communication. 2. Describe the components of communication process? 3. Describe the active/advanced learning strategies in details. 4. Write down the common communication barriers you may come across when you move to a new place.

Short Answer Questions 1. 2. 3. 4.

Write short notes on symposium and panel discussion. What is the definition of effective communication? Define oral communication. What exactly do you mean when you say “effective listening”? What are the main elements of successful listening? 5. What exactly do you mean when you say “group discussion”?

Multiple Choice Questions 1. _________________ refers to communication without the usage of words. a. Object to object communication b. Communication by writing c. Nonverbal Communication d. Oral communication

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Textbook of Educational Technology/Nursing Education 2. _________________ is the name of the person who sends the message. a. Channel b. Sender c. Receiver d. Response 3. _________________ strives to get people to work together for the organization’s common good. a. Communication b. Conversation c. Combination d. Connection 4. There is a chance of interference at each level of the communication process, which could hinder the process. This type of interference is referred to as _________________. a. Sender b. Receiver c. Barrier d. None of these 5. _________________ refers to all nonverbal means of human communication. a. Prosody b. Vocalic c. Haptics d. Para language 6. Communication is _________________ transfer of information or message. a. Interpersonal b. Impersonal c. Personal d. Important 7. The sender and receiver are linked by a _________________. a. Channel b. Noise c. Communication d. Feedback 8. The _________________ in word usage could be a major impediment to good communication. a. Disturbance b. Discrimination c. Disorder d. Distortion 9. When we speak, most of us use _________________ and _________________ in addition to words. a. Body language and posture b. Gesture and body language c. Words and gesture d. Posture and eye gazing 10. Pitch, loudness, duration, intonation, and pace are all examples of _________________ a. Touch b. Gesture c. Haptics d. Prosody 11. The major goal is to find specific information that will be useful in _________________ a. Comprehension b. Empathetic c. Appreciative d. Therapeutic 12. _________________ is another name for dialogic listening. a. Therapeutic b. Appreciative c. Relational d. Evaluative 13. _________________ refers to skimming through a textbook to acquire a general sense of the topic. a. Extensive reading b. Skimming c. Scanning d. Intensive 14. _________________ reading is great since it aids comprehension. a. Loud b. Intensive c. Silent d. Extensive 15. The amount of words on a presentation should be kept to a maximum of _________________ per slide. a. Seven b. Eight c. Nine d. Ten

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16. 17. 18. 19. 20.

The _________________ are created by writing the first letters of words in a name or phrase. a. Personal abbreviations. b. Field abbreviations. c. Acronyms d. None of these TQM stands for _________________ in a complete form. a. Total quality management b. Total quality manager c. Team quality management d. None of these Internal communication between members of an organization is referred to as _________________. a. Formal b. Informal c. External d. Internal The _________________ of the problem is marked by informal meetings. a. Immediacy b. Important c. Immediately d. Improvement _________________ is intended for a certain set of people, while _________________ is intended for the broader public. a. Memo, circular b. Notice, circular c. Notice, memo d. Circular, notice 21. The issue with proofreading is that you’ll need to be proficient in both _________________ and _________________. a. Pronunciation, spelling b. Spelling and punctuation c. Punctuation and pronunciation d. Paraphrasing and spelling. 22. Oral communication ensures that _________________ and _________________ are met. a. Adequate attention, immediate response b. Speedy interaction, immediate response. c. Fluency, speed d. Attention, speed 23. In communication, unclarified assumptions can lead to _________________ and _________________. a. Lack of planning, physical barriers b. Information overload, selective perception c. Premature evaluation, poor listening d. Confusion, misunderstanding. 24. Communication’s fundamental purpose is to _________________. a. To create noise b. To create barriers c. To affect a change d. None of these 25. Verbal communication is defined as communication that takes place via the use of __________ and _________________. a. Gestures and spoken words b. Spoken words and written material c. Body language and gestures d. Written material and gestures

Answer Key 1. c

2. b

3. a

4. b

5. d

6. c

7. a

10. b

11. d

12. b

13. b

14. d

15. d

16. d

19. b

20. d

21. b

22. a

23. d

24. c

25. c

8. d 17. a

9. a 18. d

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Further Readings 1. Duch, B. J., Groh, S. E, and Allen, D. E. (Eds.). (2001). The power of problem-based learning. Sterling, VA: Stylus. 2. Grasha, A. F. (1996). Teaching with style: A practical guide to enhancing learning by understanding teaching and learning styles. Pittsburgh: Alliance Publishers. 3. Hasson, Gill. Brilliant Communication Skills. Great Britain: Pearson Education, 2012. 4. http://networketiquette.net/ 5. http://public.wsu.edu/brains/errors. 6. Nilson, L. B. (2010). Teaching at its best: A research-based resource for college instructors (2nd ed.).  San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.  7. Pearson, J., and Nelson, P. (2000). An introduction to human communication: understanding and sharing (p. 6). Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill. 8. Raman, Meenakshi and Sangeeta Sharma. Technical Communication: Principles and Practice. Second Edition. New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2011.

4 Teaching in the Clinical Setting LEARNING OBJECTIVES After studying this chapter, students will be able to: Â Enumerate the factors influencing selection of clinical learning experiences. Â Develop skills in using different clinical strategies.

CHAPTER OUTLINE  Clinical Learning Environment  Teaching in the Clinic

 Clinical Teaching Strategies  Nursing Rounds

KEY TERMS Bedside Clinic: A bedside clinic is a process in which a clinical teacher and a group of learners see a patient, elicit or verify physical signs, and discuss provisional diagnosis, diagnostic or therapeutic options in the clinical setting. Clinical Teaching: It involves two persons, a teacher and a student. Interpersonal Communication: It takes place between two people, a teacher and a student. Experiential Learning: This type of learning is based on experience.

CLINICAL LEARNING ENVIRONMENT Clinical Teaching Clinical teaching is a type of interpersonal communication that takes place between two people, a teacher and a student. “The teaching-learning process is a human transaction that involves a set of dynamic interrelationships between the teacher, the student, and the learning group. Teaching is a matter of human relationships.’’ As a “relational problem”, effective teaching and learning necessitate the teacher’s understanding and effective use of four factors:

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1. The teacher’s position in the interaction, as well as the information, attitudes, and skills that the teacher brings to the table. 2. The learners’ position in the connection, as well as the experiences and information they provide. 3. The conditions or external factors that improve the teaching-learning process; and 4. The types of interactions that take place between the instructor and the learner.

Role of Clinical Teacher Many medical educators believe that the teacher’s sole function is to serve as a reservoir of knowledge and abilities that occasionally and unpredictably overflows, allowing information to flow down a canyon of learning. The clinical teacher is an expert and has a wealth of information. Between the medical teacher’s degree of expertise and wisdom and that of the students, there is a significant gap. The medical teacher and pupils are gathered because of this disparity. The teacher is also responsible for reviewing and certifying student proficiency to college officials, specialty boards, and hospital credentials committees. The physician is a socializing agent and a member of a professional discipline who upholds professional standards. As a teacher, the medical educator is intensely aware of students’ needs and aspirations but does not automatically assume that they will be able to receive what they require. The teacher can listen, question, paraphrase, encourage, or doubt students, but he or she cannot always meet their needs. The medical educator’s role as a supervisor is to demonstrate processes, provide practice, observe and assess performance, and provide feedback. Finally, as a person, the educator creates an environment in which students feel safe sharing their ideas, feelings, and opinions. The physician-educator does not have to like his or her students, but he or she must accept their needs and flaws. Outside of the traditional teaching situation, the person may provide significant personal assistance and support.

Purposes of Clinical Teaching y y y y y y y y y

Immersion in teaching experiences enable a smooth transition from student to classroom instructor In the clinical teaching situation, demonstrate competency in all job tasks. In the educational process, to communicate, interact, and consult with teachers, students, administrators, and parents in a clear and effective manner. In a world of varied cultures and expectations, to study students’ behavior and learning styles. To improve teaching and learning by strengthening abilities in generating, choosing, and applying formal and informal evaluation procedures to evaluate student progress. To learn how to build and implement excellent lesson plans for teaching. To create and sustain a learning environment that encourages social interaction, active participation in learning, and self-motivation. To incorporate technology into instruction and communication in a way that is both effective and efficient. To conduct self-reflection and professional goal-setting

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Strengths, Problems, and Challenges There are numerous advantages to learning in a clinical setting. It focuses on real-world issues that arise in professional practice. Learners are compelled to participate because it is relevant to them. Teachers “model” professional thinking, behavior, and attitudes. It’s the only place where history taking, physical examination, clinical reasoning, decision making, empathy, and professionalism can all be taught and learned together. Clinical education has been chastised for its lack of consistency, intellectual challenge, and random character, despite these potential advantages. In other words, clinical teaching is a method that is educationally sound.

Factors Influencing Selection of Clinical Learning Experiences Clinical experience is an important aspect of nursing education as it is the transformation of theoretical knowledge into practice and the cornerstone of nursing as a health profession. The selection of clinical learning experiences depends on supportive clinical environment. Some of the factors are as follows: y Good mentoring. y Relationship with the clinical staff. y Opportunities to practice. y Support given to students in the clinical area by the nursing staff. y Innovative, creative and highly individualized clinical environment where they feel they are an integral part of the health team and feel comfortable enough to make mistakes and learn from them. y Influence of peers, etc. are the some of the factors influencing selection of clinical learning experiences.

Characteristics of Effective Clinical Teachers The most important characteristics of an effective clinical instructor are as follows: y Having intrinsic motivation. y Teaching skills, adequate clinical competence. y Professional ethics. y Sufficient clinical experience. y Appropriate communication skills. y Professional acceptability. y Appropriate appearance.

Writing Clinical Learning Outcomes Learning outcomes reflect on what students are able to exhibit in terms of knowledge, abilities, and values after completing a course, a series of courses, or a program. The cornerstone for measuring the efficacy of the teaching and learning process is a clear articulation of learning outcomes. Student learning behaviors, appropriate assessment methodologies, and specific student performance standards/success criteria are three crucial components of measurable

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learning outcomes. It is critical to include the following information when writing a measurable learning outcome: y Concentrate on the behavior of the students. y Use action verbs that are simple and specific. y Choose the best assessment methods. y Specify desired performance metrics. Learning outcomes refer to what students can show after completing a course, a series of courses, or a program. Learning outcomes are determined by what students can demonstrate rather than what instructors can deliver. Use action verbs that are simple and specific. Focus on student behavior when creating learning goals, and use short, specific action verbs to express what students are expected to demonstrate. The wording should be something as follows: Students will be able to (action verbs)…. . . . . The following are examples of learning outcomes: y Students will be able to collect and organize appropriate clinical data (history, physical exam, laboratory assessments including technological advancements in diagnostic such as PCR). y Students will be able to apply principles of evidence-based medicine to determine clinical diagnoses and formulate and implement acceptable treatment modalities. y Students will be able to articulate cultural and socioeconomic differences and the significance of these differences for instructional planning. y Students will be able to use technology effectively in the delivery of instruction, assessment, and professional development. y Students will be able to evaluate the need for assistive technology for their students.

Challenges of Clinical Teaching y y y y y y y y

Time constraints. Conflicting demands—clinical (particularly when patient and student requirements are at odds); administrative; research. Often opportunistic, which complicates planning. The number of students is growing. Fewer patients (shorter hospital stays; patients who are too sick or fragile; more patients (patients who refuse to provide their consent). Frequently underfunded. Clinical setting that isn’t conducive to learning (e.g., a hospital ward). Poor instructors should be rewarded and recognized.

The Importance of Planning Many good teaching principles, on the other hand, may (and should) be incorporated into clinical instruction. One of the most crucial is the requirement for planning. Planning, rather than compromising spontaneity, gives both the teacher and the students structure and context, as well as a framework for reflection and evaluation. Students recognize preparation as a sign of a good clinical teacher.

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Experiential Learning According to experiential learning theory, learning is most successful when it is based on experience. A cyclical process combining concrete experience with abstract conceptualization through reflection and planning has been articulated in several frameworks. Reflection is the act of taking a step back and pondering an experience (What did it mean? What does it have to do with your previous experience? How did I feel at the time?). (What will I do next time?) Planning entails predicting the application of new theories and skills. The experiential learning cycle, which can be started at any point, can be used to arrange instructional sessions.

Questions Questions can be used for a variety of goals, including clarifying comprehension, promoting curiosity, and emphasizing essential points. There are three types of questions: “closed,” “open,” and “clarifying” (or “probing”). Closed questions elicit low-level thinking, such as simple recall. Indeed, a closed inquiry may produce no response at all (because of the learner’s fear of being incorrect), and the teacher may wind up answering their own question.

Explanation Typically, teaching entails a great deal of explanation, spanning from the basic to the advanced. (All-too common). A brief introduction to “thinking aloud.’’ An effective means of “modeling” professional though, is allowing students to apply what they’ve learned. Gaining insight into the clinical reasoning and decision-making of experts (not easily articulated in a didactic way). There is a close relationship between them. Analogies between a teacher and a pupil, and between a doctor and patient communication, as well as the ideals of straightforward explanation apply. If you’re unsure, start small and work your way up. “Never say never,” said the late journalist, Sydney Jacobson. Don’t underestimate a person’s intelligence, but don’t dismiss their expertise. Nonverbal clues may tell you everything you need to know about someone’s grasp of the topic before you start, as you go along, and at the end.

Exploiting Teaching Opportunities Most of the clinical teaching occurs in the context of a busy practice when time is limited. Many studies have found that in teaching sessions, a disproportionate amount of time is spent on regurgitation of facts, with little time spent on checking, probing, and increasing understanding. It has been stated how to use time more effectively and efficiently, as well as how to incorporate education into daily routines. The “one-minute preceptor,” for example, is made from a succession of steps, each of which includes a simple activity, that when combined provides an integrated teaching technique.

Teaching on the Wards The hospital ward, despite its long and honorable legacy, is not an appropriate teaching location. Nonetheless, with planning and consideration, learning opportunities can be maximized while causing the least amount of disruption to employees, patients, and their families.

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Students seeing patients on their own (or in pairs—students can learn a lot from each other) and reporting back, with or without a follow-up visit to the bedside for further discussion; and shadowing, when learning will undoubtedly be more opportunistic.

TEACHING IN THE CLINIC Although teaching during consultations is convenient for the organization and less disruptive, the results are limited if students remain passive spectators. Students can participate more actively with relatively minimal impact on the operation of a clinic. For example, they could be requested to make observations, jot down suggestions regarding differential diagnoses or additional tests, or jot down any questions for patient conversation.

CLINICAL TEACHING STRATEGIES A licensed Registered Nurse gathers information on a patient’s physiological, psychological, sociological, and spiritual status during a nursing assessment. The first step in the nursing procedure is to conduct a nursing assessment. Certified nurse’s aides may be entrusted with a portion of the nursing assessment. Certified nurse’s aides or nursing techs can perform vitals and ECGs. (2017, Nurse Journal) It is not the same as a medical diagnosis. The nursing evaluation may include a wide range of topics in some cases, while in others, it may focus on a single physical system or mental health. Nursing evaluation is used to determine the current and future requirements of a patient.

Interviewing the Client The nurse must first develop a professional and therapeutic manner of communication before beginning the examination. This builds trust and creates the groundwork for a nonjudgmental, trusting relationship. This will also ensure that the individual feels at ease when disclosing personal information. Having the nurse introduce herself or himself is a popular way for the nurse to start therapeutic communication. Following that, the client is asked how they would like to be addressed and the general nature of the issues that will be discussed throughout the interview. Nursing evaluation therapeutic communication strategies consider developmental stage (toddler vs. old), privacy, distractions, and age-related communication barriers such as sensory deficiencies and language, place, time, and nonverbal indicators. Avoiding medical jargon in favor of common language used by the patient might also help with the therapeutic communication.

Collecting the History of the Patient Although the patient history and interview are subjective, they are nonetheless very important when supplemented with objective measurements. The use of open-ended questions is one of the most effective interviewing tactics. Open-ended questions are those that can’t be answered simply with a “yes” or “no”. If the person is unable to respond, the questions will be answered by the person’s family.

CHAPTER 4  Teaching in the Clinical Setting In the clinical setting, collection of data about the following details will give us a picture about clients clinical and family profile: y y y y y y y y y y y

Chief complaint and nature of symptoms Present symptoms Past history of illness Severity of symptoms Classifying symptoms as acute or chronic Health history Family history Social history Current medical and/or nursing management Understanding of medical and nursing plans Perception of illness

In addition, the nursing evaluation may include reviewing the results of laboratory tests such as blood work and urine analysis. The client’s medical data is used to establish baseline health metrics. If prioritization reveals that immediate intervention is needed to maintain the airway, breathing, and circulation, the nursing assessment may not include the standard patient history and interview. This is also known as triage, and it is used in emergency rooms and by medical teams in catastrophic events.

Physical Examination A physical examination comprises the observation or measurement of indications that can be seen or measured, as well as symptoms such as nausea or vertigo that may be felt by the patient. In addition to the “vital signs” of temperature, blood pressure, pulse, and respiration rate, the techniques utilized may include inspection, palpation, auscultation, and percussion, as well as further assessment of body systems such as the cardiovascular and musculoskeletal systems. The nursing assessment sheet is shown in Figure 4.1. Integument y y

Skin: The client’s skin is of a uniform hue, is flawless and has no unpleasant odor. His skin turgor is good, and his skin temperature is within normal limits. Hair: The client’s hair is thick, smooth, and equally distributed, with a varying amount of body hair. In addition, there are no indicators of infection or infestation.

The client’s nails are light brown in color and have a convex curve, are smooth and haven’t been damaged by the epidermis. The nails revert to their normal color in less than 4 seconds when pushed between the fingers (Blanch Test). Head y

Client’s head: The client’s head is rounded, normocephalic, and symmetrical. When the skull is palpated, there are no nodules, masses, or depressions.

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Head-to-toe assessment Assessment conducted________________________ LOC • Alert • Drowsy • Lethargic • Stuporous • Coma Orientation • Person__________________________________ • Place____________________________________ • Time____________________________________ • Situation_________________________________ Vitals • Temp_____________ • R ___________________ • BP ____________ Pulse Ox _________________ Head • Hair____________________________________ • PERRLA_____________________________ mm • Nose____________________________________ • Ears____________________________________ • Mouth__________________________________ ○  Midline tongue _________________________ ○ Moist_________________________________ ○ Lesions _______________________________ ○ Dentition _____________________________ Neck • Carotid pulse ________ • JVD + • Trachea midline Chest • Apical pulse ___________ • Muffled • Arrhythmia • Breath Sounds, Anterior____________________ Posterior _________ Lateral _________________ • Chest symmetry___________________________ • Skin turgor (clavicle)_______________________ Abdomen • Inspection • Ausculation ○  LUQ (active/hyper/absent) ○  RUQ (active/hyper/absent) ○  LLQ (active/hyper/absent) ○  RLQ (active/hyper/absent) • Palpation________________________________ ________________________________________ Upper extremities • Radial pulses equal, +2 ○  Other:________________________________ • Temp vs. trunk (warm/cool) • Grip equal and strong______________________ • Capillary refill