TESOL Made Practical For All Situations [5th Edition, July 2022] 9780987186119, 9780987186102, 9780977532438, 9780977532414

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TESOL Made Practical For All Situations 5th Edition, July 2022 © Language Training Institute (LTi) ISBN: 978-0-9871861-1-9

Published and distributed by: Language Training Institute International Office PO Box 6145 Maroochydore BC, Sunshine Coast Queensland, 4558, Australia www.LTi.edu.au Language Training Institute is a Division of Universal Education and Training Ltd ABN 75 090 720 086

TESOL Made Practical For All Situations Original Author: Paula Withers Authors of recent updates: Rachel Brigg, Laura Higgins da Silva © Language Training Institute, 2022 ISBN (Paperback): 978-0-9871861-0-2 ISBN (E-book): 978-0-9871861-1-9 Previous editions: First published 2005 Second Edition 2007 Third Edition 2011 Fourth Edition 2014

ISBN 978-0-9775324-3-8 ISBN 978-0-9775324-3-8 ISBN 978-0-9775324-3-8 ISBN 978-0-9775324-1-4

This book is copyright. Subject to statutory exception and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place without the written permission of the publishers. The publishers would like to thank the following for permission to reproduce their material: • Brian Cambourne for permission to use his model of learning (p. 7) • Christopher Jolly for permission to reproduce Jolly Phonics Actions, available from www.jollylearning.co.uk. • Dave Sperling for permission to reproduce an image of the home page for Dave’s ESL cafe. Image created on 13/9/07 from www.eslcafe.com. • Elaine Wylie and David Ingram for permission to reproduce the International Second Language Proficiency Rating Scale (ISLPR©)General Proficiency Version for English • Gerard Piper for his cartoon "Trevor" (p.4). • Linda Gulbrandson for her valuable prompts and feedback that helped enrich this context of this text. • NCELTR for second language acquisition strategies from Learning styles in adult migrant education by Ken Willing, © Macquarie University (pp. 6-7). • Streetcents and the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation for permission to reproduce 5 ways to get over gossip. Text was retrieved on 27/9/07 from www.cbc.ca/streetcents/guide/2005/01 • The State of Queensland (Queensland Transport) (2000-2007), for permission to reproduce instructions from the driver training manual Your keys to driving in Queensland. Information extracted from the website on 27/9/07 (last updated 27/8/07). A full copy of the original text can be found at www.transport.qld.gov.au.

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About the Authors Language Training Institute (LTi) By the turn of the new millennium (the year 2000) Language Training Institute (LTi) had become the first organisation in Australia to gain Government accreditation for a Certificate IV in TESOL (Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages). Since that time LTi has also developed an accredited Diploma, Graduate Certificate, and Graduate Diploma, as well as the LTi International TESOL Certificate. In association with the development of these Courses, LTi has produced high quality TESOL teacher training materials which are used around Australia and internationally by LTi and other education providers. TESOL Made Practical for All Situations was first published in 2005. The original author was Paula Withers who penned the earlier editions of the text at the invitation of LTi. Paula had gone to the Philippines to teach English in 1995 with limited experience after completing a short TESOL Course in Australia. Out of that experience and her ongoing commitment to the profession, Paula's belief in the value of practical, hands-on training became a perfect foundation for the delivery of the LTi English language teacher training courses. This most recent edition of TESOL Made Practical for All Situations includes valuable revisions and updates by Rachel Brigg, LTi TESOL Director; Laura da Silva, a senior LTi Course Trainer and Course Materials Developer; and Daria Cooper, LTi Editorial and Publishing Coordinator. The ongoing involvement of LTi staff, as well as feedback from representatives of other education providers delivering the LTi Courses within Australia and internationally, ensures that the text stays at the forefront of the global English language teaching profession.

Publications in this Series TESOL Made Practical For All Situations is used in conjunction with a comprehensive package of LTi Course materials developed for both printed and online delivery contexts. This suite of materials includes: Workbooks, Study Guides, Practical Placement Guides, audio-visual support material, and trainer support materials including Answer Guides for all course assessment requirements.

For more information visit LTi.edu.au

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Table of Contents Introduction ................................................................................................................. xi CHAPTER 1: Culturally inclusive learning environment ..................................... 1 Introduction...............................................................................................................2 1.

Language and Culture ......................................................................................2

2.

Cultural concepts embedded in language ......................................................6

3.

Language and Language learning ................................................................ 11

4.

Learning styles and differences ................................................................... 15

5.

Culture and Learning ..................................................................................... 20

6.

Practical tips for classroom teaching .......................................................... 23

Summary ................................................................................................................ 43 CHAPTER 2: English language and the Genre approach .................................. 45 1.

Register........................................................................................................... 46

2.

Functional grammar ...................................................................................... 50

3.

Genre .............................................................................................................. 53

4.

Vocabulary ..................................................................................................... 64

5.

The Genre approach to TESOL ..................................................................... 65

Summary ................................................................................................................ 70 CHAPTER 3: Teach English grammar ............................................................. 71 Introduction............................................................................................................ 72 1.

Grammar and language learning .................................................................. 72

2.

Overview of grammar concepts ................................................................... 73

3.

Syntax ............................................................................................................. 99

4.

Basic sentence structure ............................................................................ 105

5.

Cohesion....................................................................................................... 107

6.

Punctuation .................................................................................................. 110

7.

Procedure for teaching grammar ............................................................... 112

8.

Grammar activities ...................................................................................... 117

9.

Selecting suitable materials for teaching grammar .................................. 120

10. Vocabulary building using grammatical structures .................................... 124 Summary .............................................................................................................. 125 CHAPTER 4: Teach spelling and pronunciation ............................................. 127 Introduction.......................................................................................................... 128 1.

Teach Pronunciation ................................................................................... 128

2.

International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)........................................................ 129

3.

Standard or World English........................................................................... 135 TESOL Made Practical For All Situations

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4.

Developing Intelligible pronunciation ......................................................... 137

5.

Articulation & Voicing .................................................................................. 139

6.

Accent & Stress ............................................................................................ 142

7.

Teach sound-spelling relationships ............................................................ 146

8.

Terminology ................................................................................................. 147

9.

Teaching Methods ....................................................................................... 149

10. Teach Spelling rules ...................................................................................... 152 Summary .............................................................................................................. 155 CHAPTER 5: Teach speaking........................................................................ 157 Introduction .......................................................................................................... 158 1.

Spoken genres.............................................................................................. 158

2.

Text analysis ................................................................................................ 160

3.

Lesson planning ........................................................................................... 166

4.

Practice activities......................................................................................... 167

5.

Activity examples ......................................................................................... 169

6.

The teacher’s role ........................................................................................ 178

7.

Selecting materials ...................................................................................... 180

Summary .............................................................................................................. 182 CHAPTER 6: Teach listening ........................................................................ 183 Introduction .......................................................................................................... 184 1.

The listening skill ......................................................................................... 184

2.

Listening strategies ..................................................................................... 187

3.

Listening texts based on real life listening texts and situations .............. 192

4.

Techniques for practising a variety of listening skills ............................... 196

5.

Overcoming listening challenges................................................................ 202

6.

Principles for teaching listening comprehension ...................................... 204

8.

Listening without written activities ............................................................. 205

9.

Example listening lesson plan .................................................................... 207

10. Monitoring ESL learners’ listening ............................................................... 208 Summary .............................................................................................................. 208 CHAPTER 7: Teach reading .......................................................................... 209 Introduction .......................................................................................................... 210

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1.

Foundational reading skills and conventions ............................................ 210

2.

Authentic or adapted real-life texts ............................................................ 216

3.

Evaluating Published materials................................................................... 222

4.

Reading for social purposes: tasks, texts and strategies ......................... 224

5.

Learning activities to develop reading strategies and skills ..................... 225 TESOL Made Practical For All Situations

6.

Writing comprehension exercises .............................................................. 229

7.

Critical literacy ............................................................................................. 230

8.

Reading activities......................................................................................... 231

9.

Example reading lesson plan ...................................................................... 232

10. Giving feedback and correction ................................................................... 233 Summary .............................................................................................................. 233 CHAPTER 8: Teach writing........................................................................... 235 Introduction.......................................................................................................... 236 1.

Teaching foundational writing skills and conventions.............................. 236

2.

Needs analysis ............................................................................................. 241

3.

Analysing written texts ................................................................................ 241

4.

Planning a unit of work ................................................................................ 242

5.

Feedback and error correction.................................................................... 247

6.

Selecting materials suitable for a range of levels ..................................... 250

7.

Example writing lesson plan and activities ................................................ 254

Summary .............................................................................................................. 259 CHAPTER 9: Teach English using technology ............................................... 261 Introduction.......................................................................................................... 262 1.

Critical literacy ............................................................................................. 263

2.

Benefits of using technology ...................................................................... 264

3.

Beginner digital literacy ............................................................................... 267

4.

Use internet based resources and activities.............................................. 270

5.

Assessment of online participation ........................................................... 279

6.

ESL software ................................................................................................ 280

7.

Teach word-processing skills ..................................................................... 281

8.

Select or design activities using technology ............................................. 282

9.

Mobile phone apps ...................................................................................... 285

10. Interactive Whiteboard.................................................................................. 286 11. Creating a filing system ................................................................................ 286 12. Strategies when teaching online .................................................................. 288 Summary .............................................................................................................. 290 CHAPTER 10: English teaching approaches and methods ............................. 291 Introduction.......................................................................................................... 292 1.

Traditional approaches ............................................................................... 293

2.

Behaviourist Approaches ............................................................................ 298

3.

Cognitive Approaches ................................................................................. 303

4.

Learner-centred approaches ....................................................................... 308 TESOL Made Practical For All Situations

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5.

Communicative approaches ....................................................................... 314

6.

Postmethod Pedagogy ................................................................................ 324

Summary .............................................................................................................. 326 CHAPTER 11: Design and teach English syllabus .......................................... 327 Introduction .......................................................................................................... 328 1.

Needs analysis for developing a task-based syllabus .............................. 330

2.

Task analysis................................................................................................ 332

3.

Identifying language learning needs........................................................... 334

4.

Syllabus planning ......................................................................................... 335

5.

Plan lessons based on communicative language learning methodology 346

6.

Topic-based syllabus ................................................................................... 351

7.

Evaluation of Programs ............................................................................... 353

Summary .............................................................................................................. 354 CHAPTER 12: Assessment of English language skills ................................... 355 Introduction .......................................................................................................... 356 1.

Assessment in ESL Contexts ...................................................................... 356

2.

Forms of assessment and types of evidence ............................................ 359

3.

Purposes of assessment ............................................................................ 360

4.

Validity, reliability, fairness and flexibility................................................... 365

5.

Assessment design and administration .................................................... 368

6.

English language proficiency tests ............................................................. 373

Summary .............................................................................................................. 377 CHAPTER 13: Teach English for academic purposes .................................... 379 Introduction .......................................................................................................... 380 1.

Streams within EAP ..................................................................................... 381

2.

Develop listening skills for participation in academic contexts ............... 382

3.

Develop speaking skills for participation in academic contexts .............. 390

4.

Develop reading skills for participation in academic contexts ................. 395

5.

Develop writing skills for participation in academic contexts .................. 403

Summary .............................................................................................................. 406 CHAPTER 14: Teach English for specific purposes ....................................... 407 Introduction .......................................................................................................... 408 1.

The purpose of ESP Programs.................................................................... 408

2.

ESP programs breakdown ........................................................................... 409

3.

Developing a learning program in ESP ....................................................... 418

4.

Suggested reading ....................................................................................... 423

Summary .............................................................................................................. 423 viii

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CHAPTER 15: Teach English to early childhood learners .............................. 425 Introduction.......................................................................................................... 426 1.

Language use in the early childhood years................................................ 429

2.

Planning a learning program ....................................................................... 434

3.

Monitoring and evaluating ESL learning .................................................... 443

Summary .............................................................................................................. 446 CHAPTER 16: Teach English to primary school-aged learners ...................... 447 Introduction.......................................................................................................... 448 1.

The learning context .................................................................................... 448

2.

General principles for teaching children .................................................... 449

3.

Needs analysis ............................................................................................. 452

4.

Responding to language learning needs in planning learning programs 455

5.

Planning and implementing lessons .......................................................... 463

6.

Giving instructions ....................................................................................... 469

7.

Tips for behaviour management ................................................................ 470

8.

Some further background information ....................................................... 471

Summary .............................................................................................................. 472 CHAPTER 17: Teach English to teenage learners.......................................... 473 Introduction.......................................................................................................... 474 1.

TESOL with teenagers ................................................................................. 474

2.

Analysing the language use of teenagers .................................................. 478

3.

Creating a learning program ....................................................................... 491

Summary .............................................................................................................. 494 CHAPTER 18: Use music, art and drama to teach English ............................. 495 Introduction.......................................................................................................... 496 1.

Music ............................................................................................................ 496

2.

Art ................................................................................................................. 505

3.

Drama ........................................................................................................... 509

Summary .............................................................................................................. 518 CHAPTER 19: Work with volunteers in English programs .............................. 519 Introduction.......................................................................................................... 520 1.

Recruit volunteers ........................................................................................ 523

2.

Train volunteers ........................................................................................... 526

3.

Including volunteers in your program ......................................................... 527

4.

Mentoring and monitoring .......................................................................... 529

5.

Avoid volunteer burn-out or abuse ............................................................. 530

Summary .............................................................................................................. 532 TESOL Made Practical For All Situations

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CHAPTER 20: Establish community-based English classes ........................... 533 Introduction .......................................................................................................... 534 1.

Getting started: evaluating the need........................................................... 534

2.

Arrange a suitable venue ............................................................................. 536

3.

Arrange necessary equipment .................................................................... 537

4.

Arrange insurance cover ............................................................................. 538

5.

Apply for funding.......................................................................................... 538

6.

Recruit students ........................................................................................... 538

7.

Recruit volunteers ........................................................................................ 540

8.

Place ESL students into program ............................................................... 543

9.

Manage the ESL program ............................................................................ 544

Summary .............................................................................................................. 545 Appendices.................................................................................................. 547 Appendix A: Lesson plan pro-forma ................................................................... 548 Appendix B: Verb tenses – examples and formation ....................................... 549 Appendix C - Summary of verb forms and their uses ....................................... 550 Appendix D – Irregular verbs .............................................................................. 553 Appendix E - International Phonetic Alphabet chart with key words ............... 554 Appendix F - Key word charts ............................................................................. 555 Appendix G – International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) Examples ...................... 557 Glossary ...................................................................................................... 559 References .................................................................................................. 563

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Introduction TESOL Made Practic al For All Situations is an educational textbook written for people from a diverse range of backgrounds, who are entering or participating in the profession of Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages (TESOL). The companion volume, TESOL Made Practical For All Situations: The Workbook provides a step by step guide to applying the concepts presented in the textbook. The textbook content is intended to equip people for teaching English as a second language (ESL) or as a foreign language (EFL) in a variety of settings, ranging from situations in which there is a high degree of support (e.g. prescribed syllabus or course materials), to the opposite extreme where there is very little or no support. The textbook, as the name states, is intentionally practical in its goals, with both the language learner and the teacher in mind. TESOL Made Practical For All Situations focuses on the practical or task-based learning needs that motivate language learning. People choose to learn English because there are practical tasks, requiring the use of English, that they need to complete. These practical tasks are the starting point for determining the process and content of language learning. The approach to language teaching and learning presented in this textbook is based on systemic functional linguistics theory. Readers will develop skills in analysing tasks and texts to identify the kind of language used to achieve specific social purposes. Drawing on genre theory, this approach increases awareness of the choices being made in every communicative transaction. The Workbook is packed with learning activities to assist in developing these foundational teaching skills. The textbook is directed towards the practical goal of equipping teachers for the whole spectrum of teaching duties, from planning through to delivery and assessment. This textbook outlines how to identify learners’ needs and formulate them into learning goals, which in turn become the basis for a syllabus or training program. With this preparation, ESL/EFL teachers will be able to design training programs, and original materials, for any particular group of learners. In situations where the only directive given is as vague as, “Please, teach them English,” teachers will now have the skills to plan a purposeful and meaningful learning program with interesting and engaging activities. TESOL Made Practical For All Situations also guides readers to recognise and exploit everyday texts for their potential use in language learning activities, thus reducing dependence on published materials that may not be easily accessed in remote teaching situations, or which may even prove to be culturally irrelevant or inappropriate. This practical training means teachers no longer have to be tied to a course book; they will be ready to enrich and expand, or diverge altogether. We sincerely hope and expect that you will feel confident to step into classrooms or tutoring situations around the world. - LTi Editorial Team

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Chapter 1

CHAPTER 1: Culturally inclusive learning environment

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Introduction This chapter deals with the relationships between language, culture and learning, and the implications of these relationships for teaching English Language. As we prepare to teach ESL/EFL we need to become very aware of our own cultural background, the way that we see the world, the way that we respond to situations, our attitudes and our values. Our own cultural background affects the way that we teach. It also affects what we teach in class about the ‘best’ way to communicate. As teachers we need to become skilled in cross-cultural communication, respecting the validity of other cultures while disclosing the way that the target culture (i.e. the culture in which English is going to be spoken) affects communication. This loose interpretation of ‘target culture’ is intentional, as it recognises the multitude of cultural contexts in which English is used for communication for a myriad of purposes. In many countries where English is not the vernacular, it is used as the language of government. In numerous countries English is an official national language alongside another language. In some countries English is the first language. One thing is certain, from one setting to another, the dominant culture and sub-cultures (minority groups within dominant cultures) will differ, and with it aspects of communication will differ. Some of the things we would teach migrants learning English in a native English-speaking country will be different from what we would teach in Sri Lanka or Uganda or the Philippines. While some of the examples in this text relate to Australian and British English, the underlying principles can be applied across diverse cultural contexts.

1. Language and Culture What is culture? When asked this question, many people answer by listing the visible elements of culture, e.g. type of clothing, housing, food, art, language, etc. These aspects of lifestyle reflect cultural values. Here are a few definitions of culture as a general concept:

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If we think of culture in terms of learned behaviour patterns of groups of people who have common beliefs, values, and ways of behaving, we see that culture is not necessarily an issue of nationality. The Sudanese nation, for example, includes a number of tribal groups who are culturally distinct from each other. It can be misleading therefore to talk about ‘Sudanese culture’. Culture can be defined as a group of people who identify with each other in terms of behaviours, values, beliefs, attitudes and language. Most English-speaking Western countries have become increasingly culturally diverse because of immigration. Countries such as the United States, Australia and New Zealand were populated by immigrants who then became the dominant culture over the native indigenous population. When we look at native indigenous populations, we notice that there are cultural and language differences between groups. For example, Australian Aboriginal languages (oral language) comprise up to twenty-seven language families and over 500 distinct languages, some of which have become extinct. Combine this with Australian immigrant languages, including English and the various ways it is spoken, and it results in a high degree of cultural and language diversity. Resettlement of refugees from Sudan, Congo, Burundi, Somalia, Ethiopia and Rwanda has resulted in the quick growth of African communities in Australia and other nations. The following chart was developed in Kenya, and though African cultures are distinct from each other, there are enough similarities and overlaps for the information about ‘African culture’ to be useful. Contrast of worldview philosophies – African and European African

European

Religious – God is creator (though he Secular – A set order in the universe, is far away). All things are related and independent existence, naturalistic connected. view. Spirit-World – Many factors in life cannot be known, controlled, or predicted. Humans are at the mercy of the forces of life. Resignation to conditions.

Scientific Approach – Describe, control, manipulate, and change your destiny. Aggressive. Frustration with failure.

Dynamic – An active world seen in relational terms.

Mechanical – A static world, controlled by cause and effect. Linear concepts. Productivity, organisation.

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Relationship – Truth is found in experience and relationship.

Knowledge – Facts are important. Truth is found in correlation of statements to observable, testable phenomena.

Event – Meaning centers in the verb: Event Primary.

Substance – Noun-adjective: Entity and Description Primary.

Focus on Present – The world is uncontrollable. Immediacy. Presence of an individual takes precedence over plans.

Predictability – Reproducible phenomena, probability. Planning is highly valued. Same result from same factors every time.

Group Identity – Obligations. Commitment to the group.

Individualistic – Rights. Commitment to the principle.

Fig. 1.1 Contrasting worldviews (Jenkins, 1991) The following comparison is based on a definition of Eastern being mainly Asian cultures, with Western being cultures that have developed from European origins. A selection of issues is presented here. Issues

Eastern Philosophy

Western Philosophy

Beliefs and values

The true key is inside. The inner world of a person and their ability to control and develop it is of the highest value. The way to the top is with you, through self-development.

The main values are success and achievement evidenced mainly through externals such as money, faith, popularity. The way to the top is through active intervention.

Individualism/ Collectivism

A person is an integral part of the universe and the society. People are fundamentally connected. Duty towards all others is very important. Collectivism is stronger.

A person has an individualistic nature and is an independent part of the universe and the society. Individualism is stronger.

Development

Cyclical development, so improvement is never ending and has no limits.

Linear development, so improvement has a goal and development stops when the goal is achieved.

Change

The status quo should not be questioned. Culture of change is weak.

The status quo can/should be questioned and challenged. Strong culture of change.

Entrepreneuris m

Is contained by the habit of controlling one’s passions.

Is encouraged emotionally.

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Winning

Winning is inside yourself – conquering oneself.

Winning is outside yourself.

Leadership

Spiritual – the leader takes a background and silent position so that others feel no hurt.

Hands-on – walking ahead of people, talking is valued.

Fig. 1.2 Contrasts between Eastern and Western philosophy selected aspects (Bibikova and Kotelnikov, n.d.) While there is much diversity between cultures, there are also behaviour patterns that are shared by all cultures, as supported by research (Hofstede, 2001). For example:

1

Communicating with a verbal language consisting of a limited set of sounds and grammatical rules for constructing sentences;

2

Using age and gender to classify people (e.g. teenager, senior citizen, woman, man);

3

Classifying people based on marriage and descent relationships, and having kinship terms to refer to them (e.g. wife, mother, uncle, cousin);

4 5

6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Raising children in some sort of family setting; Having a gender division of labour (e.g. men's work versus women's work); Having a concept of privacy; Having rules to regulate sexual behaviour; Distinguishing between ‘good’ and ‘bad’ behaviour; Having some sort of body ornamentation (e.g. jewellery, clothing);

Making jokes and playing games; Having art; Having some sort of leadership roles for the implementation of community decisions.

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As an English language teacher, it is important that we consider cultural and language similarities and differences between ourselves and our students, and between the students themselves. At the same time, however, we must not to be too quick to ‘culturally tag’ students according to their particular racial, ethnic, or national background. We should rather be looking at each student as a specific individual rather than as just a representation of a larger group. The risk with cultural tagging is that we lump everyone from a particular culture or nationality into one group, when there are other differences that need to be considered. Some of the influential individual differences to be considered are: the level of literacy and education in the first language; the similarities of the target language to the first language; aptitudes and personality; learning styles; age; suitability of methodology; previous exposure to English; opportunity to interact with native speakers; motivation; experiences; cognition; and gender. These important variables influence the rate and degree of spoken and written language acquisition. The anthropologist Edward T. Hall presented the terms ‘high context’ or ‘low context’ to refer to communication styles that relate directly to culture. In a high context culture, many things are left unsaid, because the in-group in that culture has similar experiences and expectations from which inferences are drawn. The common culture ‘explains’. A few words can communicate a complex message very effectively to an in-group, but can cause problems for someone outside that the group. High context cultures are more common in the eastern nations than in western, and in countries with low racial diversity. On the other hand, in a low context culture, the communicator needs to be much more direct and explicit, and a single word or phrase carries less meaning. The communicators need to fill in more details, so that everyone can understand the message. While some cultures are considered high/low context communicators, it is important to remember that everyone, regardless of culture, can use degrees of high to low context and vary their communication styles to suit the particular situation.

2. Cultural concepts embedded in language 2.1

Idioms

Listening to the average Australian (or other native English-speaking group), there can be no doubt that language and culture are intrinsically bound. The following comic, showing Trevor and his good friends Gavin and Martin at a barbecue, gives some classic examples of utterances (things that are said) which are culturally loaded in Australian idiomatic English. Martin is alarmed when Trevor says the barbecue cost him “an arm and a leg” not understanding that the phrase means

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Chapter 1 expensive. His perplexity only increases when he hears that Phil “is tied up”, unaware that this is an idiom, saying someone is busy with another activity.

Fig. 1.3 Courtesy of Gerard Piper What sense is a non-native speaker of English in Australia going to make of, “How’re you going?” A logical answer would be, “We’re driving / catching the bus / walking.” The expected response, however, is, “Fine thanks. How about you?” Confusion, disorientation and miscommunication result if no-one ever explains that the question “How’re you going?” is an enquiry about someone’s health or life in general. Teaching ESL is therefore as much about explaining the target culture implicit in our many idiomatic expressions, as it is about teaching someone vocabulary and grammatical structures. Within any language, and within any social setting, there will be phrases and concepts which are understood by some, and not by others. This understanding comes through a lifetime of hearing, responding to and using these phrases. Analysis of each word in a phrase will not render the intended meaning. The phrase as a whole has a single meaning, endowed upon it by a community who tacitly agree on the intended meaning. This also applies to single words, for example, ‘wicked’, which in certain circles has come to describe something very exciting or well done. Most of the English-speaking nations share some common idioms, and idioms can be understood between nations. For example, in Australia and USA, ‘head honcho’ means the topmost leader of a company. An American could say to an Australian, "The head honcho is coming to the meeting," and meaning would not be lost; the Australian would understand what the American meant. An example of an idiom TESOL Made Practical For All Situations

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which has migrated to other areas is the Indian phrase, "Please do the needful," meaning, "Please do what is implied and/or expected." As the global network expands, this phrase which used to be specific to India is now being used outside the area in which it originated.

2.1.1 Teaching Idioms The concepts implicit in the language people use, create a situation in which some people are insiders because they understand what is being said and others are outsiders. The words and phrases we use are part of an intricate web of behaviour and ways of communicating and relating that establish and maintain a particular cultural context. The challenge for language teachers is to be aware of aspects of communication that are specific to a particular group or community, then to be able to unpack or explain those language items to enable learners to access the meaning and communicate effectively. Teaching and learning idioms in the ESL classroom can be a lot of fun. Not only will it improve their listening skills, especially in terms of colloquial English, but it can also improve their native-like speaking abilities. Here are some helpful tips to teaching idioms:

Discuss idioms that come up in stories: students will often remember idioms within the context of the story

Idioms like any other language devices should be regularly used in the classroom to demonstrate their frequent everyday use Idioms used in real-life conversation will bring meaning to context. This will help student to infer meaning of unfamiliar idioms based on their context and can be achieved through role plays and other speaking activities Visual mediums such as art, pictures, and film: this will help students to not only visualise the meaning but will also give context to meaning to aid memorisation

Keep it fun: teach idioms through games and activities

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2.2

Words used by a culture

The relationship between language and culture also becomes evident in the words the language contains. For example, the Inuit language (used by an Eskimo people group) has at least twelve different words for ‘snow’ (Uniview Publications, 1997). The various forms and qualities of snow are important to survival for an Inuit. Although English does have a comparative list of words to describe snow, we commonly use only a handful. Similarly, Tagalog, the national language of the Philippines, has at least seven words to name rice – in its natural state, still growing on the plant in the field, threshed, cooked, burnt rice at the bottom of the pot, rice cooked with lots of water, sticky rice and fried rice. Then there are the names of the many varieties of rice available.

2.3

Cultural conceptualisations and language

A study of Aboriginal English as an example Through the study of Cultural Linguistics, developed by Sharifian (2005), we have been able to explore and understand the relationship between language and cultural conceptualisation. In his studies, Sharifian (2005; 2006; 2007; 2011; 2017) employs the analytical framework of Cultural Linguistics (see Figure 1.4) to explore cultural conceptualised expressions and language features of Aboriginal language varieties and Aboriginal English. These studies showed that the Aboriginal understanding of English words, such as ‘family’ and ‘shame’ were very different their Anglo-Australian peers even when experiencing similarities in physical environment, age group, modern lifestyle, access to school materials and contact with peers. Responses associated with the word ‘shame’ clearly showed differing cultural schemas, which capture beliefs, norms, rules, and expectations of behaviour as well as values relating to various aspects and components of experience. While the word ‘shame’ Anglo-Australian students evoked schemas associated to ‘doing wrong’ or ‘feelings of guilt’ (p.83), Aboriginal students associated it with factors such as respect, unfamiliarity or being singled out from the group, for praise, punishment or reverence (p.85). ‘Family’ triggered cultural conceptualisations associated with the responsibilities and obligations of extended family members rooted in the Aboriginal worldview, whereas Anglo-Australian students associated the word ‘family’ with the schema of the ‘nuclear family’. Through this study, Sharifian (2005) observed that Family is an important concept to Aboriginal people. The responses from the Aboriginal participants revealed that “family is priority”, it is the “centre of their existence” (p.85). Family is a concept that “overrides everything and anything in terms of its significance… Family responsibility and obligations are the centre of one’s existence” (p.85). Similarly, in Sharifian’s (2007) study of Aboriginal language habitat and cultural continuity, he explores how various features of several Aboriginal languages demonstrate the Aboriginal cultural conceptualisation of kinship. The term, kin, lends itself to a very complex conceptualisation among Aboriginal Australians in that it may be used to address all people accepted as kin by making certain kinds of commitments, beyond one’s extended family, even beyond one’s locality. TESOL Made Practical For All Situations

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Sharifian (2007) explains that Aboriginal people operate on systems of kinship schema which embody norms and values relating to obligations, responsibilities and respect that are rooted in Aboriginal worldview and in the history of the Aboriginal people. Sharifian (2007) observes English terms of kinship that are used to instantiate Aboriginal cultural conceptualisations such as ‘cousin’ to refer to a generation level rather than actual kinship, have a power similar to the English ‘aunty’ and ‘uncle’ which can include people of one’s parents’ generation who deserve special respect, and ‘grandfather’ and ‘grandmother’ used to refer to elderly people in the community. These terms are associated by Aboriginal people with schemas of wisdom and respect, rather than with genealogical relatives.

2.4

Verbal vs non-verbal communication

Culture can also dictate the way in which language is used. Traditional Japanese culture, for example, prefers non-verbal communication. The ideal family is one in which the members do not need to talk to each other very much in order to understand each other, or to have meaningful relationships. Reading between the lines of communication is a highly regarded skill. This is also played out in business roles and relationships. To Japanese learners, the much more verbal Australian or American society may seem crass and unsophisticated against the ideal of intuitive perception and understanding. On the other hand, an Australian or American, trying to communicate with a person of more traditional Japanese heritage, may interpret this reserved approach to communication as unwillingness to communicate or to develop a relationship. Chinese culture also tends away from an abundance of verbal communication. One has to earn the right to speak, through demonstration of expertise, years of experience, education, or a position of seniority or power. Children are chastened not to talk, but to listen and, if required to speak, to support their elders’ comments. Students are expected to listen to their teachers, and certainly not to challenge them or to express a differing opinion, which would demonstrate lack of respect. Again, this stands in stark contrast to Australian culture, in which we encourage children, from the moment they can speak, to display knowledge and express feelings and opinions. In the Australian educational culture, students of all ages engage in critical thinking processes in relation to all activities, not only challenging the ideas of their peers but also those presented by the teacher or lecturer.

2.5 Non-linguistic and para-linguistic aspects of communication On the understanding that language is used to fulfil specific social purposes (more about this in Chapter 2: English language and the Genre approach), taking the form of a multitude of communicative tasks, then non-linguistic and para-linguistic aspects of communication must also be considered in this discussion of the relationship between language and culture. Tone of voice, intonation, pitch and stress are all examples of para-linguistic aspects (voice but not words) of spoken communication. Body language, gestures, personal space boundaries, facial expressions are all non-linguistic aspects (no voice or words) of communication.

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The use of eyebrows to communicate is a clear example of non-linguistic communication and its cultural loading. In the Philippines, it is very common that people will raise their eyebrows in greeting or acknowledgement of people they meet or even pass in the street. In many African cultures, raising your eyebrows simply means, “yes”. In Australia, raising one’s eyebrows to another person is a suggestive invitation or an expression of disbelief, and so would not be understood or received as a simple greeting or acknowledgement. Non-linguistic aspects of communication need to be addressed in the ESL classroom alongside spoken communication. In terms of written English, features of print such as spacing, font, size, colour, bold print and underlining all contribute to the message. ESL lessons must also address these culturally loaded aspects of communication, as they vary from culture to culture.

3. Language and Language learning As we look at the relationship between language and learning, we will begin by exploring the idea that there are “good language learners”. What is it that makes some people exceptionally proficient in learning languages? Are there common qualities or strategies that make language learning more effective?

3.1

Second language acquisition strategies

3.1.1 Learning styles in adult migration education The following strategies for successful language learning are reprinted from Learning styles in adult migrant education by Ken Willing, with permission from the National Centre for English Language Teaching and Research (NCELTR), Australia, Macquarie University. Valuing: •The good language learner values the culture, the language and its speakers. Planning: •The good language learner thinks about his/her language needs and how to best fulfil them. Evaluating: •The good language learner thinks about how well s/he is learning the language and what could be done to improve the learning process.

Monitoring: •The good language learner monitors all facets of his/her language and others’ language. Internalising: •The good language learner thinks about what is being learnt and incorporates it into a developing system. TESOL Made Practical For All Situations

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Hypothesising: •The good language learner considers possible manifestations of the language, tests these hypotheses and makes subsequent modifications accordingly. Rehearsing: •The good language learner rehearses her/his speech when preparing for an interchange. Communicating: •The good language learner actively looks for opportunities to communicate. Persisting: •The good language learner tries again, if necessary in other ways, when there has been a language breakdown. Risk-taking: •The good language learner is willing to make mistakes, or to appear foolish in order to communicate. Practising: •The good language learner practises. Inferencing: •The good language learner is a far-ranging and accurate guesser. Attending to meaning: •The good language learner searches for meaning. Attending to form: •The good language learner pays attention to the patterns in the language that express the meanings. Absorbing: •The good language learner immerses himself/herself in the language. Harmer (1998) adds two more strategies to this list: Asking questions: •The good language learner is not afraid to ask questions, and gauges when it is appropriate to do so. Accepting correction: •Good language learners are keen to get feedback, prepared to be corrected, and act upon what they have been told.

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3.1.2 Cambourne’s (2007) model of learning Cambourne’s (2007) model of learning as it applies to literacy is a comprehensive illustration of the conditions necessary for learning a second language. Each component overlaps the last, to show that language learning is a complex picture in which a number of dynamics interact. Firstly, the learner should be immersed in a language-rich environment, where they are hearing, speaking, reading and writing English. The more a learner uses the new language in realistic and meaningful ways, the greater the potential for successful acquisition. Learners need to receive keys for interpreting texts, so the language classroom experience must include demonstrations of how texts are created and used. As well as developing the ability to comprehend language input, learners must have the opportunity to practise creating meaningful texts. Other conditions that promote language learning include feeling secure enough to risk making mistakes, and to appreciate mistakes as a natural part of the learning process. Learners must be able to move beyond using formulaic expressions to begin using language creatively, employing guesswork, testing hypotheses and coming out with approximations. Learners also need to be involved in planning and monitoring their learning process and progress. The real-life language needs that a learner experiences will motivate their learning efforts. Ask learners, therefore, to share the situations in which they are already using English, the situations in which they feel they are unable to communicate effectively and the situations in which communication may have broken down completely. Each of these situations will each provide stimulus for practically-oriented lessons that are relevant to the learner. Clearly, second language acquisition is a partnership between teacher and learner. While the teacher can and should facilitate and structure learning activities in the best way possible for learning to occur, the student must also take a very active role in the learning process. Learning is not a passive exercise of receiving something that is imparted; it is a very active process of acquiring a skill, involving assimilating new information or knowledge, making it our own, remembering it, and using it.

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IMMERSION

DEMONSTRATION

EXPECTATION

RESPONSIBILITY

USE

APPROXIMATION

RESPONSE

•Learners nee to be immersed in texts of all kinds.

•Leaners need to receive many demonstrations of how texts are constructed and used.

•Expectations of those whom learners are bonded are powerful coercers of behaviour. Learners acheive that which they expect to acheive.

•Learners need to be empowered in the decision making process about when, how, and what 'bits' to learn in any task.

•Learners need time and opportunity to use, employ and practice their developing control in functional, realistic, non-artificial ways.

•Learners must be free to take risks and make mistakes if effective learning is to occur.

•Learners need feedback from knowledgeable others. Feedback must be appropriate, timely, readily available, nonthreatening, with no strings attached.

Fig. 1.5 Cambourne’s model of learning as it applies to literacy. Reproduced with permission

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4. Learning styles and differences Most people have preferred ways of learning that encompass the kinds of activities they enjoy or benefit from, memorisation techniques and strategies that prove most effective for them, and preferred ways of receiving input. Interestingly, our own learning preferences often become our preferred ways of teaching. So it is important that we become aware of our own learning preferences since this can influence the way we teach, and there is a wide variety of ways of learning which our students may prefer, and which we should therefore endeavour to include.

4.1

Learner styles

4.1.1 VAK/VARK Model; Gardner’s Theory A number of different paradigms for describing learning styles have been developed. Among them are those that focus on the senses. Fleming’s VAK model describes learners as being more visual, auditory, tactile or kinaesthetic in their approaches to learning. Visual (V) learners benefit from seeing things written on the board, posters, printed texts, flash cards, graphic representations, videos and charts. Auditory (A) learners benefit more from listening to the teacher, other learners, audio tapes or CDs. Favoured techniques involve rhythm and sound, like jazz chants, memorisation drills, songs, roleplays and discussion. Tactile learners need concrete experiences, seeing, hearing and doing, to remember new information. These learners benefit from games, simulations and problem-solving tasks. Kinaesthetic (K) learners must have the opportunity to move, for example going to the board to write an answer, or games involving movement. They like to do things with their hands, and will benefit from using physical movement in learning and as a memory aid. They may also choose to write and rewrite information as a learning/memorisation technique. They are good at taking things apart and reassembling them. In 1992, Fleming and Mills included a fourth modality, Read/Write (R), resulting in the model often being referred to as VARK. You will notice that we will refer to the model as the VAK/VARK model throughout this text. Read/write (R) learners have a preference for information being displayed as words. This preference emphasises text-based input and output – reading and writing in all its forms but especially manuals, reports, essays and assignments.

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Visual

Auditory

Reading / Writing

Kinaesthetic

 Take well organised notes which are systematically filed and reviewed before the next class  Use highlighters  Sometimes close eyes to aid memory (visualising what they’ve seen)  Like wall posters, realia, flash cards, picture stories  Are aided by use of video, graphical presentation of information (charts, tables, diagrams)

 Talkative: study in pairs or groups to be able to reflect and discuss  Listen to taped lessons/dialogues again and again  Subvocalise when reading (read out loud/mutter)  Replay the ‘teacher’s voice’ to recall information  Use musical or rhythmic ditties to remember information (e.g. jazz chants)  Need to be away from distracting noises when studying  Are aided by drills

 Benefit from reading and writing in all its forms but especially manuals, reports, essays and assignments  Prefer written word  Online research  Make notes during lectures  Enjoy using PowerPoint, the Internet, lists, diaries, dictionaries, thesauri, quotations, and words

     

Memory aided by rhythmic repetition Need to be physically comfortable to concentrate Take frequent breaks, get up and move around Study in pairs or groups Benefit from background music Physical movement aids memory (walk while reading or listen to audio recordings of information)  Learn by doing (e.g. role play, drama, simulations)  Games and competition involving movement Fig. 1.6 VARK Learning styles

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4.1.2 David Kolb learning styles Another conceptualisation of learning styles (David Kolb) is illustrated in the following diagram. The diagram shows two intersecting lines, which represent the scale or degree of certain qualities (continuums). The tendency of individual learners towards learning in a particular way, can be placed at any point along each line. In this case one of the continuums has active at one extreme and reflective at the other, and the other continuum illustrates the tendency learners have towards learning in either more concrete or more abstract ways. Learners described by the active-concrete quadrant benefit from hands-on, active experimentation, manipulating components and doing projects. Those described by the active-abstract quadrant like to understand the theory before doing. They like to know how something works, to understand the terms and procedures, starting with rules or theory and progressing to exercises and tasks. Reflectiveconcrete learners like to observe and reflect on real-life experiences, benefiting from field trips and total immersion programs, grasping experiences as a whole and discovering what they need to learn in that context. Reflective-abstract learners will appreciate watching demonstrations (including TV and video) looking for the key to how something works. • Diverger • Concrete experiences and reflective bservation • Real-life experiences • “Why (should I learn this)?” Reflective Observation

Abstract Conceptualisation

(Reviewing/reflectin g on an experience)

(Concluding/learning from the experience)

Concrete Experience • Accommodator • Concrete experience and active experimentation • Hands-on in an insulated environment • “If I do this, what happens?”

(Doing/having an experience)

• Assimilator • Abstract conceptualisation and reflective observation • Familiarisation through observation • “What’s happening?”

Active Experimentation (Planning/trying out what you have learned)

• Converger • Abstract conceptualisation and active experimentation • Theoretical understanding before doing • “How (does it work)?”

Fig. 1.7 David Kolb learning styles

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4.1.3 Howard Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences Howard Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences (M.I.) (1985) has been a popular and useful approach to the understanding of human intelligence. Like Fleming and Mills’ VAK/VARK model (1992) mentioned above, M.I. theory offers a relatively simple and accessible framework to help us to understand and explain people’s preferred ways to learn and develop. These concepts are aids to understanding individual differences, preferences and strengths, and will almost always be mixed in each person. With knowledge of learning styles and multiple intelligences, the English language teacher can consider each student as an individual with individual abilities and needs.

4.1.4 Bloom’s Taxonomy of Learning Bloom’s Taxonomy1 of Learning is another model that offers teachers, including specialist English language teachers, a framework for understanding the different forms and levels of learning. This hierarchical framework is useful when deciding on syllabus and activities for students from varied cultural and language backgrounds. Bloom’s Taxonomy is well known and is still considered to be a foundational and essential element of educational theory, even though it was developed in the early 1950s. The taxonomy was revised in 2000 and has been translated into over 22 languages. The original taxonomy describes three domains of learning: affective, psychomotor and cognitive. We will look briefly at the cognitive domain which includes six major categories: knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis and evaluation. These categories were ordered from simple to complex and from concrete to abstract.

Analyze | Evaluate | Create

Apply

Understand

Remember

Fig. 1.10 Categories in the cognitive domain according to Bloom's Taxonomy of Learning - revised version (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001) 1

‘Taxonomy’ meaning classification.

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Bloom’s categories within the cognitive domain, when applied to language learning, can assist in describing how ‘deeply’ an aspect of language has been learned and how widely it is able to be used. Starting with the simplest level of learning or processing, an example of remembering and understanding is demonstrated by the student’s ability to recall vocabulary or phrases that have been learned before when they complete simple matching or gap-fill exercises. Skill development at the apply level will have the student using a newly acquired verb to describe a variety of different situations, for example, “I cut the fruit. I cut the paper. I cut the fabric.” An example of analysis will see the student discriminating between various adjectives of similar meaning but subtle differences, for example choosing to describe a woman as ‘elderly’ rather than ‘ancient’. Evaluation shows the ability to make appropriate language choices from the myriad of possible ways that something could be said. At the create level, students write their own text, putting parts they have been learning together to form a whole, for example, progressing from writing sentences, to paragraphs to writing a whole text using an appropriate genre such as a recount, letter, narrative, etc.

4.2 Individual differences Individual differences were mentioned earlier as affecting the learner’s approach to language learning and to some degree their success. Aspects of the learner’s background have an impact on their learning; for example their educational background, cultural background, how closely related their first language is to English, their experience of the world, and their current domestic and social context. Affective (emotional and attitudinal) factors and personality factors such as culture shock, level of motivation, how closely the learner’s identity is linked to their first language, how closely the learner wants to become identified with the new culture and people, and willingness to take risks, can all impact on the learner’s process and progress in language learning. Physical factors such as hearing or sight impairment can have an effect also. Age can affect language learning. The language acquisition capacity of children is often regaled as far above that of older learners, and in terms of developing nativelike pronunciation they do have far greater potential. They also have better shortterm memory function than older learners. On the other hand, older learners already have an internalised language framework or schema against which they can process information about a new language, either assimilating it into the existing framework or adjusting the framework to accommodate. In the early stages of language learning this produces a faster rate of acquisition of new structures and vocabulary compared to that of children.

4.3

Learner levels and macro-skills

You may begin to wonder how you as the teacher will determine how well a student uses English and what level you should be teaching your students. Proficiency in English could fall anywhere between being able to say “hello” to having native-like speaking abilities. Learner levels are used to measure and describe the main features of a student’s command of English. This allows teachers to place English TESOL Made Practical For All Situations

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language learners (ELL) in appropriate levels according to their capabilities. These levels range from beginner to advanced. The Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR) is used all over the world and provides descriptors of each of the macro-skills, for each level. Each proficiency level gives a description of an ELL’s skills in the four macro-skills of speaking, reading, writing, and listening. Reference Level Descriptors (RLD) described by the CEFR and can be located on the ©Council of Europe Website.

4.4

Implications

The implication of these differences for the ESL teacher, is that the more variety we can employ in teaching techniques and learning activities in the classroom, the greater the chance of success for the learners. All learners will benefit from having their range of learning strategies broadened. The increased variety of types of activities usually also results in increased interest and participation. Learners will also benefit from working together at times with learners who have similar learning preferences and at other times with those who have different learning preferences. Working with a curriculum that offers learning experience in a number of styles and cognitive domains, offers a greater number of students the opportunity to excel at some stage. Teachers need to be aware that we have our own set of learning preferences which affect the way we would naturally choose to teach, and we need to make a conscious effort to expand the range of techniques we put into practice. A teacher therefore needs to be flexible in techniques and delivery style.

5. Culture and Learning 5.1

World Englishes

Global ‘Englishes’ is a term that became popular in the early 2000s to reflect the reality of what happens when English becomes a global language. English has made quite a journey across our globe and has become more and more ‘localised’ with many communities of speakers all around the world adopting and adapting English for their own use and within their own cultural expression, worldview and conceptualisation of the language. Language exists for us to talk about what we want to talk about, and therefore, you want to have an English that reflects your local interests, history, the things around you, all the things that you would naturally do in your own language. As English becomes global, the countries who have adopted it immediately start to make it their own, shaping it and pushing it into a direction it has never been before. You only have to look at the some of the varieties of localised English we hear in countries such as India, Malaysia, Mexico, Philippines and Uganda to understand the vast differences in Englishes. It is recorded around 2 billion people on the 20

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planet are now using English on a daily basis, and English has an official role in more than 75 countries and territories (Crystal, 2001). Everywhere, in every part of the world, there is a new variety of English growing which is culturally influenced. Every aspect of one’s culture; myths and legends, fauna and flora, the food, politics, folk law, songs, dances, institutions will be talked about in your own language with a flavour unique to that country or culture (Crystal, 2013).

5.2 Cultural beliefs regarding teacher and student roles, responsibilities and relationships As mentioned earlier, Chinese culture dictates that a student should show respect for teachers by unquestioningly accepting their teaching. The idea of engaging in discussion with a teacher or of challenging the ideas presented by a teacher is quite disconcerting for someone from this cultural heritage. Entering many western educational systems, where lively discussion and disagreement are part and parcel of the educational methodology, can throw a student from Chinese cultural heritage into culture shock. The following contrasts are drawn from tables found in Working with NESB learners in ALBE (Commonwealth of Australia, 1994), describing continuums that reflect the positions of ‘western’ and ‘other’ cultures. In western cultures, students are expected to analyse and critique the information they encounter. In other cultures there may be a strong emphasis on passive acceptance and rote memorisation of information presented by a teacher or textbook. Learning activities in western cultures will involve evaluating and synthesising a number of viewpoints, whereas other cultures may focus on summarising information and applying theories and formulae. In western cultures, reading strategies prefer selecting portions of many texts, as opposed to other cultures which prefer reading one whole text and teacher’s notes in great depth. The role of the teacher is another point of contrast when analysing western and other cultures. In western cultures the teacher may present a number of viewpoints which students are expected to compare and evaluate. In other cultures the teacher presents the view that students are expected to adopt. The teacher in western cultures is seen as a facilitator of learning, a resource, and an enabler who is still in the continual process of developing their own expertise. Other cultures regard the teacher as the source and transmitter of all necessary knowledge. The role of the student is similarly disparate between the two ends of the westernother continuum. In western cultures students must take a very active role with a high degree of self-motivation and autonomy, while in other cultures students may appear quite passive in the determination of the learning process. Many successful learners in western cultures will be seen making notes during lectures, and engaging in discussion and debate in an assertive manner. Learners in other cultures will receive prepared notes, speak quietly and avoid disharmony. Students and teachers will each be positioned somewhere on the continuum between these extremes. It is important to be aware of students’ expectations of the role of the teacher, and of the role that they as students will play. The difference in students’ and teachers’ expectations of each other could be a source of TESOL Made Practical For All Situations

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frustration and difficulty in relating, resulting in a teaching-learning partnership that is less than effective or desirable. It can be helpful to address these issues directly. Talking explicitly about cultural aspects of the new learning context will help to put students at ease about practices and activities that would normally go against what they are used to. Most learners, where necessary, will benefit from a gentle or gradual move from a familiar cultural approach to learning, to the one favoured in their current learning context. Making clear the expectations of participation in activities, and the benefits to be gained from participation, will help students to begin to accept different educational practices in the new cultural context. Cultural adaptation takes time. Cultural change takes even longer. Some new cultural practices may never fit the learner comfortably. The challenge for an ESL teacher is to provide a learning environment that is comfortable and yet empowering for a student in a new cultural context.

5.3 Inclusive strategies for dealing with cultural differences that affect ESL classes 5.3.1 Non-verbals We need to be aware of the non-verbal signals we are sending, and of the fact that these signals may have very different significance within other cultures. It’s also good to check what the most common non-verbal signals are in the cultures of your students, so that you can recognise the cues they are sending.

5.3.2 Avoid stereotyping We are often presented with stereotypes by the media or by popular culture (e.g. television shows), and we can unwittingly absorb the opinions and attitudes that go along with them. Try to avoid making assumptions; instead, ask your students to tell you about their culture. Not only are you getting first-hand information about your students, but they are getting great language practice by speaking with you. At the same time, they are being esteemed, as you show interest in and acknowledge the validity of different views of life. Students will also bring their own assumptions regarding other people groups into the ESL classroom. Help them to learn about and value other cultures, by facilitating discussion and sharing of cultural information.

5.3.3 Avoid inappropriate evaluations It is natural to see things from our own cultural point of view, but the assumption that our cultural viewpoint is ‘right’ and others are ‘wrong’ is ethnocentrism2, and this has no place in the ESL classroom. Teachers and students alike need to acknowledge that there is more than one way of looking at the world. The ESL teacher must model, and be prepared to teach, an attitude of respect, tolerance, 2

Ethnocentrism: A belief in or assumption of the superiority of your own social or cultural group.

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and acceptance of differences. By doing this, the classroom itself develops a culture of its own, in which everyone is comfortable and a safe learning environment is established. In a classroom environment where tolerance is the norm, acceptance is demonstrated and, even better, a positive appreciation of different cultures flourishes, and students relax and are receptive language learners. Orientating students in regard to the target culture will increase their expectation of successful participation in the local community and wider society. The more relaxed and comfortable the learning situation and the more positive the learner’s attitude towards the host culture, the more likely second language acquisition will be successful (Schumann, 1992).

6. Practical tips for classroom teaching To anyone who has spent time in a classroom, which I imagine includes most of us, either as a student, as a teacher or as an assistant, this section may seem to be just plain common sense. At the same time, most of us can and do benefit from hints that, when we think about them, seem very obvious, but which we haven’t actually thought about before or haven’t been reminded of for a long time. So the way to get the most out of this section is to appreciate it as a timely reminder or introduction of some common classroom management techniques. Many of the suggestions in this next section are practical and easily implemented, and it is hoped that they will serve you well in delivering classes that run smoothly and relatively stress-free. Before we get to the light-hearted material, however, there is the need to address the matter of conduct and ethics. This is an area that has gained much media attention in recent years, and educators must consciously consider all practices in the light of the current social climate.

6.1

Code of conduct

Most institutions will have a ‘Code of Conduct’, usually in the form of an official document, with which teachers are expected to comply. The need for professional conduct by teachers is no less in a non-formal educational setting, whether that be community-based, church-based or as an independent endeavour.

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The essence of a code of conduct reflects, among others, the principles of:

Fairness and justice; Confidentiality (except where mandatory reporting is applicable);

Respect for others (teachers, students, parents, etc.);

Impartiality (including nonacceptance of gifts or gratuities that may appear to influence professional decisions or actions);

Compliance with local Law;

Integrity regarding level of expertise.

Non-abuse of power;

3

Fig. 1.11 Principles of a Code of Conduct

Relationships between teachers and students have come under greater scrutiny in recent years, with internet-based interactions exposing many inappropriate relationships between teachers and students. While discussion in many forums has centred on whether or not teachers should or should not be using social media (e.g. Facebook) in education, for class announcements, or for ‘bonding’ with students, this is probably a distraction from the far more important discussion of what the boundaries are in teacher-student relationships. As a professional occupation, teaching involves a professional relationship between the student, who is the client, and the practitioner, including the teacher and the educational institute. Ethical boundaries will serve to protect both student and teacher from the potential (or suspicion of) abuse of power (Aultman, Meca, Williams-Johnson and Schutz, 2008). A vulnerable student can be influenced by a teacher to behave or take an action which they would not otherwise have chosen. A teacher who acts to influence students outside of the mandate of the learning objectives can be accused of abuse of power. Every teacher, in every setting, has a responsibility to act for the good of the student and not to cause harm. A dilemma arises when a student approaches a teacher for advice or counsel in relation to personal matters. This is reasonably common in the ESL setting where 3

Mandatory reporting: In some regions, teachers are among a number of professionals required to report situations where abuse is evident or suspected.

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students are away from home or making a new home. This situation creates some vulnerability and some students need support in their new surroundings. The need for support may continue for years. A kind, compassionate ESL teacher, who listens with care and attention to personal stories, will hold obvious appeal as part of a support network. An appropriate and just response may be to facilitate introductions to agencies or community groups who focus on assisting migrants, refugees and international students. Actions that would generally be considered as being beyond the boundaries of a professional relationship would include: A teacher using their own personal money to excess, for student or class needs

A teacher transporting one student in private transport

A teacher showing excessive emotion in class

A teacher introducing emotionally charged issues into a class with vulnerable people

A teacher touching a student in a way that could be interpreted as intimate

In relation to touch, a helpful guide could be keep it to a ‘high five’, handshake, pat on back, in public and acceptable in the presence of a parent or the principal. Where a counselling-type situation or request is presenting, teachers have a duty of care to consider their level of expertise and make an appropriate referral to a trained counsellor. Where the issue at hand is easily resolved and within the capability of the teacher to address with the student, conversation should take place in a visible setting (i.e. not behind closed doors). These recommendations are in line with the current social climate and professional guidelines within the education industry in Australia.

6.2

Organise the physical resources of a classroom

The need to organise the furniture and other equipment in the classroom may seem very obvious, but it’s surprising how few teachers bother to rearrange furniture in a classroom. I think we all assume that someone else wants it the way we’ve found it. And it takes effort to move desks/tables and chairs around. Chances are though, if we go to the effort, it will still be that way next time we use that same room. The ideal of course is to have a room that is always yours, but few institutes are able to offer that kind of luxury, when rooms are booked for every timeslot available, and for different kinds of classes and activities. With time and energy for arranging furniture, it would be great to arrange seating to suit the kinds of activities you will be doing in class and the possibilities are quite extensive. An important consideration is always that all students should be able to see the board or projections, and hear easily and without discomfort. These simple diagrams illustrate just a few options for arranging classroom furniture. TESOL Made Practical For All Situations

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Some questions to consider when planning arrangement of the physical resources in your classroom include:

1 2

3 4 5 6 7 8

• What are the pros and cons of each of the following arrangements? • As a permanent arrangement, which would be most suitable? • Do the arrangements make any statements about power or status? • If projected items are also displayed where the board is marked in these classrooms will all students be able to see the board and projections clearly?

• How easy is access into and out of the classroom? • How easy is movement within the classroom? • How well would each arrangement accommodate group work or pair work? • As a student, what do you prefer? As a teacher, what do you prefer?

Fig. 1.12 Various classroom furniture arrangements 26

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Another physical resource in the classroom is your whiteboard, and it is worth thinking about how you use the board. Here are a few pointers:

Practise writing on the board: neat handwriting, straight lines across the board.

Check that every student can see the board from their seat.

Use different coloured pens to teach grammar, allocating colours to different parts of speech.

6.3

Check your spelling. It’s common to make more mistakes writing on a board.

Young learners can only reach the bottom of the board, so keep that part clear for student participation.

Organise your board. Use different parts of the board for different purposes.

Use the board for games.

Workplace Health and Safety

After deciding what will suit our activities from the logistics point of view, we need to assess the setup in terms of Workplace Health and Safety (WHS). In classrooms the most common risk factors are injuries resulting from slips, trips and falls. A teacher is most specifically concerned with and held responsible for WHS in the classroom. A checklist (State Govt. of Queensland, 2013) for classroom WHS will include:

Rooms Floor surfaces are maintained in a safe condition and are suitable for the type of activities being conducted

There is sufficient space for each person to work safely.

The room is clean and tidy..

Steps/stairs/ramps are in a safe condition with nonslip surface, and secure handrails where needed.

Walls and ceilings are safe and in good condition.

Doors, windows, locks and latches are in good condition and in working order.

Guarding (mesh fitted) is in place for any skylights or other fragile roof area/s.

There is adequate ventilation.

The lighting is adequate to work safely in.

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Furniture, Fixtures and Fittings Light fittings/fixtures and ceiling fans are in good condition and working order.

Hanging displays are not hazardous.

All furniture is safe and in good condition.

Electrical Electrical equipment is in good condition and is tested and tagged as required.

All power boards have an overload switch.

All areas have Residual Current Device (RCD) protection.

Fig. 1.13 Checklist of classroom safety In the wider educational setting, we need to consider human factors such as appropriate clothing and footwear, cleaning hazards created by operating equipment and using hazardous chemicals in public areas. Manual handling of classroom equipment must be carried out with care, following correct lifting, carrying and transportation procedures. Accredited institutes will have a risk assessment protocol in relation to off-campus excursions and, if you are teaching under-18s, you will need to gain (and keep evidence of) the consent of a parent or carer, usually in the form of a ‘permission slip’ or ‘consent form’. A far more sensitive area is the very occasional need to address personal hygiene, particularly in relation to hand washing after using the toilet and appropriate covering of the nose and mouth when we have a cough, cold or flu. Community education materials on these issues are available from many government health websites, and making this a topic-based lesson in the class, before the cold and flu season begins, can forestall some awkward situations, or at least ease situations in which you have to reinforce practices that assist in avoiding the spread of infectious diseases. In terms of community education, ESL teachers have an important role, as our classes are one of the first contexts in which some adults will encounter this information.

6.4

Organise student groupings

In the classroom, you will organise the students into different groupings depending on the activity you are doing at the time. An information gap in which there are two parts will be best completed in pairs. For successful interaction in a discussion, you will need small groups of 3-5. When you look at your lesson plan, there should be a balance between teacher-fronted instructional time, individual work, pair work and small group work. Each is productive in their own way. You may need to encourage pair and group work by being explicit about the benefits. This can be especially so in monolingual groups, such as you would find in an EFL situation, where speaking to each other in English seems very unnatural and awkward to people who are used to communicating with each other in L1. In 28

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an EFL class, it has also been observed (Classroom management: pair and group work in EFL/ESL. n.d., para. 3) that when an activity is particularly competitive or interesting to the students, they are more likely to resort to L1 use. It may be necessary to introduce an incentive to only use English.

6.4.1. Advantages and disadvantages of group and pair work: Advantages More students are speaking at any one time. The smaller the groups, the greater the number of students speaking. There is a greater level of engagement with the task. Peer tutoring happens automatically, with students correcting each other. Students support each other’s efforts, encouraging each other. The teacher can give more individualised attention when moving around the room focussing on one pair or one group at a time. Disadvantages

Some students don’t like or value working in pairs or groups and feel that the teacher should always be ‘teaching’ the class. Some students may be passive, others may dominate.

Some students, pairs or groups may wander from the task. Some groups simply may not function well. This is always a risk, but can usually be overcome with a little prompting by the teacher. A lot of ‘incorrect’ language is used, as the teacher cannot be everywhere at once. In a class with a lot of same-language speakers, there may be an undesirable amount of L1 use. It can get noisy. Fig. 1.14 Advantages and disadvantages of student groupings

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6.4.2. Dividing Dividing into groups or pairs often involves some movement within the classroom, but may only require students to turn around in their seats. To work in pairs, students can turn to the person next to them, the person in front, or the person behind: easy variety! Or you may choose to use a communicative activity to sort students into pairs. You could give each student a card with either the name of (1) a person or (2) a country, these being pairs that are always associated with each other (e.g. Ghandi and India, Bush and USA). Any kind of pair could be used: gardening implements with tasks, words with matching pictures, colours. Students must ask and answer questions in order to find their partner, making the regrouping exercise a communicative process. It’s all good practice. One tip is, if there is not the correct number of students to equally make pairs or threes or whatever, don’t fill the gap yourself. If you want pairs, and there is an extra student, make one group of three. If the teacher becomes engaged as a studentparticipant in the activity, the class misses out on their feedback and correction, as the teacher will not be able to get around to monitor language production. To work in groups, you may choose to simply have students turn to the people closest to them, or you may organise them on some other principle. You may choose to group students according to ability, with groups being homogeneous or being a mixture of ability levels. You may want to see students mix more widely within the class and so choose a more random way of organising groups. There’s the traditional ‘number off’ method, where all the 1s go together, all the 2s go together, etc. Or you could organise a communicative process similar to those described earlier for finding pair partners. Students are each given a picture of a part of a whole and must find the other components that go to make up their whole: a dinner setting (knife, fork, spoon, plate, and glass), sports equipment (soccer boots, ball, uniform, and whistle). Whatever: Let your imagination run riot! The important thing is that students end up in groups appropriate for the task they need to complete. Groupings for activities on the following page will be quite different.

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Playing a team game

Listening to an audio recording

Practising a dialogue

Watching a video

Writing a formal letter

Roleplaying a four-way conversation

Fig. 1.15 Groupings that encourage student participation

6.4.3. Teacher’s role A very important role the teacher must play during pair and group activities is to ensure that each student is actively involved in what should be happening. It is very easy in group activities for one or two students to monopolise. Quite often others are happy to allow more outspoken students to take the lead and main role and do all of the work. But the purpose of a communicative activity is to get as many students talking as much as possible. It is important therefore, during such activities, that the teacher is not sitting at their desk marking papers or daydreaming (!) but is circulating throughout the classroom, monitoring students’ involvement and ensuring all students are involved. Model how to include a quiet student in a discussion by saying, “That’s interesting, Jason. What do you think about that, Roger?” or by directing a turntaking process in activities requiring a question and answer routine. At times you may even need to be explicit in your intention and say, “We want everyone to be practising now, so make sure that everyone in your group is speaking.”

6.4.4. Giving instructions Another important piece of advice is to give the instructions for the activity before people start moving around the room, and before you give out any papers involved. As soon as you distribute something written, you will lose the attention of half of the class, who will be busy trying to read it. Once people start scraping chairs and moving around it will take minutes to regain the peace and quiet necessary for giving instructions.

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Steps:

1. Give instructions while holding up a copy of the worksheet and pointing to the various components.

2. Distribute worksheets and look at the task together as a class.

3. Ask two reliable students to demonstrate what they are going to do.

4. Move into groups.

Fig. 1.16 Steps of Instructions Giving instructions seems straightforward until you do it! We can think our instructions are very clear and precise, stand up and explain what to do, and still be greeted with blank faces clearly lacking comprehension of the task. If you find yourself circling through the room having to give instructions all over again to each group, then your instruction giving has not been clear enough. It’s even worth practising giving the instructions before standing in front of the class to do it. Here are some helpful principles: Students need to understand every word in your instructions – no new vocab in instructions! Explain the activity one step at a time, checking comprehension of each step. Don’t ask, “Do you understand?” Get a demonstration from some capable students. Ask one student, “What will you do first?” Ask another student, “What will you do after that?” To save time when distributing papers, rather than laboriously handing one sheet to each student yourself:

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1. Give out bunches of papers here and there so that students ‘take one and pass them along’; and

2. Collect extras when everyone has a copy.

This process is smoother, involves everyone, shows who hasn’t been listening (because the passing stops with them!) and is far more time efficient.

6.5

Prepare for the unexpected

No matter how well we plan, there is always the potential for something to go wrong or for some other challenge to present itself.

6.5.1. Equipment may fail While we plan and prepare to make use of available technology, we also need to be ready to present information in another way if necessary. Think beforehand about how you might do this. If the photocopier is out of order before class so that you can’t make the required copies, how will you manage the same activity?

6.5.2. Early finishers In every class there are one or two students who finish the activity in half the time the others take. Decide before class what you can assign these students as an extension on what they have been doing. They will usually appreciate this as your conscientious effort to teach them well. It often has a spin-off benefit of motivating other students to work harder. If there is no obvious or logical extension exercise to the activity the rest of the class is working on, choose some relevant spelling words for them to memorise, or ask them to write about a related topic. If all else fails, it’s handy to carry some extra worksheets, ready for those moments you just need something to fill in time.

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Characteristics of an extension task that will motivate learners (Cunha, 2012):

Useful (consolidates or extends learning)

Simple (easy to understand what to do)

Discreet (doesn’t disturb rest of group)

Flexible (works for individuals or pairs)

Easy-to-end (easy to leave and rejoin whole class task)

Relevant (connected to the current topic)

Appropriate (suits the level of the learner)

Autonomous (can be completed without assistance)

Fun (can’t be seen as a punishment and will motivate other students)

Fig. 1.18 Extension task characteristics

6.5.3. Slower finishers On the other end of the spectrum, you will almost certainly have some students who regularly need extra help to complete a set task. Students come from incredibly diverse backgrounds and end up together in the same class. All kinds of factors may mean that one student progresses quickly while another, receiving the same instruction, progresses very slowly. Our job is to accommodate and assist each learner enrolled in our class. Sometimes this may mean spending extra time with individuals while other students are busy on a task. We can also try pairing students so that a more advanced student tutors another student.

6.5.4. Learning style preference Some students come from cultures that have a very strong oral tradition of storytelling and memorising great lists (e.g. family trees), but may have little or no value for written material. While we cannot ignore the need to develop all four macro-skills, we may be able to capitalise on the oral memory of such folk in their learning process, by adjusting activities to involve more speaking and less writing, or more listening and less reading. Perhaps students could tape record a text and then use the recording to help them produce a written version.

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6.6. Mixed ability classes Classes may be deliberately comprised of students who have a range of language proficiency levels, simply because an institute must maintain a minimum number of students in a class to be fiscally viable. A class may begin a term seeming to be a homogenous group in terms of level, but because of learning style, rate of learning or motivation, may develop some variation in levels. In a fairly homogenous class, you may have one or a few students who are of a significantly different level in one of the macro-skills. It is often the case, for example, that preliterate students from a strong oral learning tradition take a long time to develop written literacy skills to the same level as their spoken English skills. Strategies for accommodating learners of different levels in one class include:

Pair work

•partner a strong and weak student.

Pair work

•partner students of same level but give slightly different tasks to the different levels.

Choral drilling

•gives strongly supported oral practice in the rhythm and intonation aspects of pronunciation, word order and grammatical structure.

Be diplomatic in Q&A activities

•don’t put weaker students on the spot , but select them to answer when you are confident of their success, thus building confidence.

Homework

•tasks of different levels.

Extension activities

•see section 6.5.2. Early finishers

Fig. 1.19 Mixed ability class strategies

6.6.1 Special needs Occasionally we have a student in a class who is so far behind the rest that they need to be working on separate tasks most of the time. Where possible, it is important to include such students in tasks that the rest of the class is involved in. Being included is very important to the individual’s sense of belonging and of worth. A student like this will also benefit greatly from the attention of a volunteer tutor if one is available. Progress can often be speeded considerably through some well-planned individual tuition. TESOL Made Practical For All Situations

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We need to consider a broad range of factors that can impede learning progress (Schwarz and Terrill, 2000), for example: •

Limited academic skills in L1 can result in a lack of learning strategies.

•

L1 interference – especially with learners who have not previously used the Roman script.

•

Mismatch of teaching style and learner expectation about roles and responsibilities of teachers and students.

•

Stress or trauma background creates difficulty concentrating and memory dysfunction.

•

Socio-cultural factors.

•

Problems with work, health, family.

•

Sporadic attendance.

•

Lack of practice outside of the classroom.

•

Vision or hearing problems, which could be solved through a visit to an optometrist or hearing specialist.

•

Diabetes can cause confusion, sleepiness, double vision and headaches. Watch for signs of extreme thirst, dizziness and frequent trips to the bathroom. Some cultures prohibit an individual standing out from the crowd and so a student will underperform in order to maintain peace in the community.

•

If there seems to be no physical impairment, then the student may have a learning disability. With ESL students, these are difficult to assess by conventional means, as the norms for assessment instruments are based on the performance of native English speakers. When we begin to talk about a learning disability, it is important to understand that people with such disabilities are usually of average to above average intelligence. Learning disabilities are generally thought to be caused by a dysfunction in the central nervous system (Schwarz and Terrill, 2000). Strategies for identification include interviewing the learner, using interpretation if necessary, looking for an indication of how long the problem has persisted, and whether the problem has been evident in other learning experiences. By collecting a portfolio of the student’s work over time, we can gain a broad picture of their performance, noting what teaching and learning strategies worked and those which were ineffective. 36

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Suggested teaching strategies (Schwarz and Terrill, 2000) include:

Be highly structured and predictable.

Teach small amounts in sequential steps.

Emphasise content words and make concepts accessible through visuals.

Use several senses and learning strategies.

Simplify language but not content.

Build on leaner strengths and prior knowledge.

Emphasise through rephrasing not repetition.

Keep the learning environment uncluttered, tidy and clean.

Technology may have its benefits as the students can work at their own pace, or maybe with tutor assistance.

Fig. 1.20 Teaching strategies (Schwarz and Terrill, 2000).

6.7

Large classes

What do you do when you’re faced with a class of 30 or 40 or 50 or 150 students? How do you stop your class from turning into a lecture? How do you implement engaging learning activities in a crowded room with furniture that cannot be moved? How can you check the progress of each student when there are so many? Be encouraged that many ESL teachers have gone before you and are reflecting on their experiences in the public domain. Here are some pointers from Practitioners in the field (Clandfield and Tennant, n.d.; English Club, n.d.; Busy teacher, n.d.; Long, S., 2012):

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Get to know students names as best you can. Sound impossible? Use a seating chart after asking students to sit in the same place for a few classes. Map out the furniture and note the name of each student in the place of each chair. Use names as much as possible. Use name-based get-to-know-you activities. Choral drilling: Whole class repeats after the teacher – new words and phrases, dialogues. Whole class then pairs or groups: Practice new material first as a whole class, then further practice in pairs or small groups. “Think, pair, share”: A three-word prompt to get students working together. (1) Think individually, (2) find someone to make a pair, (3) share your thoughts in English with your partner. Keep activities moving: Plan plenty of activities so that there is no down time in class when students are likely to get bored and restless. Use group leaders: Report back to class, collect written work, check answers to exercises (from answer sheet that you provide). Establish and maintain routines: When students know when they need what, transitions between activities will be smoother. Maintain class discipline: Use a class code of conduct to establish and maintain the standard of behaviour you expect in the classroom. Prepare extension activities for early finishers. Use a notebook during group work to note common errors to review as a class. Reward attendance and participation. In large classes attendance can be fragmented (Baker and Westrup, 2000), but an incentive to attend such as giving a daily ‘exam tip’ can help to produce consistency and therefore continuity. Encourage competition. Establish teams and a points system for rewarding accomplishment, encouraging participation. Reduce marking time by focusing feedback and correction on a limited scope of errors. Assign to students responsibility for learning. If a student misses a class it is their responsibility to catch up, by seeking notes and instructions from other students.

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Small group discussions.

Balderdash teams: Teacher calls out a word, and students must write a meaning as well as the part of speech. A point to the team for each correct part.

Write the question: Students work in teams. Teacher calls out an “answer”, students write a question to evoke the stated answer.

Questionnaires: Students circulate around the room, with a certain number of people they must survey.

Dictogloss: Students listen while you read a short text, then work in pairs or small groups to write down as much as they can remember.

Fig. 1.21 Large classroom activities

6.8

Maintain an orderly classroom

6.8.1 Routine Routine is often mentioned in literature referring to classroom management, citing the benefits, not only for children but for adults, especially those for whom the classroom is a new learning context. Routine and predictability build a sense of security in an unfamiliar situation. We all need to know and understand what is going on around us and what we are expected to do and how we are expected to behave in that situation. Gentle induction into a new ‘community’ with its inherent practices and protocols is the right of every person, young and old. Earl (2010) suggests the following elements of classroom routine and protocol, with which students need to be conversant, and which will increase participation and confidence.

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1. Greeting: Greeting students by name as they enter the classroom increases the sense of connection and community in the class. It also helps to begin the class time the same way (in general) each time. Have a clear signal that the class is starting: a bell, a noise, a gesture. 2. Check attendance: This is protocol in any formal institution. In some cases, social security payments are tied to course attendance and this record is necessary. On a purely social level, in any setting, it helps students and teachers to be aware of absences. 3. Starting lessons: Introduce the aims for the lesson, and with groups that are new to the classroom situation give an outline of the agenda. Make sure your first activity is one that engages and inspires participation. 4. Groups: Students should always know which group they are in for any activity. If there are set groups, help students to learn which group is theirs. If groups are different each time, make sure that students are following the formation process and know where to go and what they need to take with them. 5. Getting attention: Have a recognised signal for gathering the class together after an activity, or for getting their attention in the middle of one, so that Ss can quickly respond. 6. Asking for help: Students need to know how to get your attention. Agree on how they should do that: e.g. in a large class students should raise a hand, but in smaller groups saying the teacher’s name could be acceptable. 7. Activities: Keep the routine or stages of starting and stopping activities fairly predictable. You don’t need to do exactly the same thing every time, but having predictable stages of giving instructions, distributing materials, forming groups, moving, refocusing and coming back to own seats, will help transitions to go more smoothly and without disorientation for students. 8. Books and sheets: see section 6.4.4 of this chapter regarding giving instructions. 9. Homework: Use homework to consolidate learning. Make sure students understand what they are to do. Have a system for noting what the homework task is (e.g. students write in notebook). 10. Toilet: Make it clear whether or not students need to ask permission to leave the room. Children are often required by school policy to go in pairs. Whatever the protocol, make sure everyone knows. The ‘routine’ will be fairly consistent with younger learners and with adults who are becoming acculturated to the classroom situation for the first time. It will be much 40

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looser and more flexible with learners who are older, responsible and accustomed to the classroom.

6.8.2 Discipline Finally we need to be able to deal with behaviours that become problematic in the classroom. Thankfully, the incidence of problem behaviour becomes far less frequent when teaching adults rather than children or adolescents. Thankfully, too, plenty of practitioners have recorded their strategies for pre-empting problem behaviour and we can learn from their experience. The most serious problem with adults will likely be governing an appropriate level of use of L1 in the ESL classroom. This can be worked out as a class. In fact, including students in determining a code of conduct can be a very helpful process, as there is a stronger sense of ownership of the established code. You may well find that use of L1 for relaying information about grammar or instructions is remarkably expedient. In relation to communicative activities however, it is more effective to encourage or insist on an ‘English only’ policy. Adult students usually respond very positively to simple reminders during communicative activities such as, “English, English, English!” said in a sing-song voice. Teaching children and adolescents is a very different situation, however, and some words of advice have been garnered from Harmer (2001), Ur (1996), McCamley (n.d.): 1. As a class establish a code of conduct. Students are more likely to conform to behaviour they have agreed is desirable. Students may also take more initiative in keeping each other in line, reducing the need for the teacher to be the ‘heavy’. Whatever agreement is made, it should be applied consistently. Post your Class Code of Conduct on the wall and simply point to it, in reminder, when necessary. 2. It is important that there be a positive relationship between teacher and students. Teachers should be warm and friendly, treating students with respect, and never speaking or acting in a way towards students that would damage self-esteem. 3. A professional approach to teaching inspires confidence (the teacher in him/herself, and the students in the teacher). Always be well-prepared with purposeful activities that will also be interesting, relevant, meaningful and hence motivating. Always prepare more than you expect to need, so that you are never left trying to fill in time. 4. The teacher role is more of a mentor than a friend. Maintain an approach of firmness, fairness and consistency in your expectation of behaviour and participation. Having established a standard, it is easier to ease or lower it, than to raise it. 5. Circulate within the classroom, keeping in touch with what is happening in small groups and pairs. Keep students working on task. Restlessness may TESOL Made Practical For All Situations

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Chapter 1 be a signal that a group or a student doesn’t understand the material or what they are supposed to be doing. Check comprehension. 6. If a problem does arise deal with it in positive terms, “Let’s …” rather than stating your correction in negative terms, “Don’t …” And stay calm. 7. If a confrontation with a student becomes necessary, handle it outside of the class context, not in front of the student’s peers. Direct comments towards the behaviour, not towards the person, “Talking when I am giving instructions makes it difficult for everyone to hear,” rather than, “You’re so rude, talking when I’m giving instructions.” Never yell at a student. 8. Take the time to find out where problems might be originating. There may be something happening at home, or in a homestay situation that is causing stress which is triggering the misbehaviour. 9. Separate students who incite each other towards trouble. 10. Use your physical proximity to discourage misbehaviour – stand close to a group that is more prone to distraction or rowdiness. 11. Organise seating so that those prone to misbehaviour are at the front of the class, where you can interact and keep an eye on them. 12. Reward the behaviour that you want to see repeated – classic behaviourism! Words of encouragement, acknowledgement, praise and appreciation can go a long way towards soliciting acceptable classroom behaviour.

These are just a few suggested strategies for avoiding problem behaviour. It would be wonderful if we never had to think about such things, but to be realistic we need to expect to encounter some challenges from time to time, and it’s so much better if we have some ideas of how we might handle difficult situations. Fellow teachers are always a great sounding board for ideas on dealing with difficulties.

6.9

Using games

Games are defined by Hadfield (cited by Deesri, 2002) as, “an activity with rules, a goal and some fun.” Used in ESL they are a simple way to keep the pace of the lesson going, motivate students, create engagement with the topic, lower stress and elicit real communication. A competitive element increases the motivation of most students, though you must watch for the few who may become overwhelmed or agitated by noise and bustle. We have already talked about giving instructions (section 6.4.4) and this is very important in setting up a game as a class activity. If at all possible, give or solicit a demonstration so that students get a clear idea of what they need to do.

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Monitor participation for language use, ensuring that completion of the task is achieved through using English. Hadfield promotes games as providing concentrated practice of a particular point of grammar or a particular sentence structure or a particular function of language. Through a well-structured game, students can gain repetitive practice that is meaningful and purposeful.

Summary To end on a positive note, a well-organised classroom with purposeful and interesting learning activities will provide a learning environment in which we can rightly expect students to flourish and excel.

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CHAPTER 2: English language and the Genre approach

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Chapter 2

Introduction All language use is functional. That is, we use language to achieve social purposes, such as getting information, giving information, establishing and maintaining relationships, negotiating goods and services, and communicating procedures. All language use occurs within the context of culture, and culture shapes the language choices we make. In Chapter 1: Culturally inclusive learning environment we described culture as the beliefs, values and ways of behaving and doing things that a group of people share. We noted that culture is not necessarily the same as nationality, and that within a geographically defined nation there may be several distinct cultures, and even subcultures of the broader general culture. We also looked at cultural concepts embedded in language. Some societies are more strongly oriented towards verbal communication than others, so we can see how culture can determine the way language is used. Culture can also influence the gestures, facial expressions and tone of voice that go along with conveying a particular message. All language production happens within the context of a culture. Within any cultural setting you will find groups that have their own distinctive patterns of behaviour and beliefs, known as sub-cultures. Compare the way in which motor bike groups, surfies and politicians would recount the same event, and you are certain to note significant differences in the choices of vocabulary, sentence structure, tone of voice, intonation, facial expressions, body gestures, interjections and responses. In addition, people from a particular group will express themselves one way when speaking with someone else from within their group, and another way when speaking with someone outside their group. Language use is inseparable from culture. Understanding and using language involves understanding the culture in which it is being used.

1. Register We have already seen that the relationship between the people who are communicating influences their language choices. Change the mode of communication from spoken to written and the language choices will likely be affected again. Another obvious influence on language choices is the topic or subject matter. Clerical workmates will speak with each about work practices and policies, in a different manner from their conversation with each other about family matters. The following model (Derewianka, 1990) illustrates the factors that shape texts and contribute to its register.

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CULTURE

GENRE (Purpose)

SITUATION Subjectmatter (Field)

Who is involved? (Tenor)

Channel

(Mode)

REGISTER

TEXT

Fig. 2.1 Derewianka model, 1990

1.1

Culture

This model shows that all language is produced in the context of a culture. It also shows that language is produced for a purpose; we communicate for a reason, to achieve a specific aim. In a shop I might ask for information about a product, or depending on the kind of shop it is I might try to negotiate a lower price, or I may want to arrange delivery. In each of these examples there is a purpose for communicating: to get information, to negotiate a price, to get a service. From this we can see that language use is functional in nature. Within the broader context of culture, we have purposes for communicating, and these purposes and communication endeavours are enacted in specific situations.

1.2

Situation

Field The subject matter or topic, which is referred to as Field.

Tenor The people or groups involved and the relationship between them, which are referred to as Tenor.

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Mode The channel of communication (i.e. Is it spoken or written? Is it happening in realtime or are the participants distant in terms of space and/or time?), which is referred to as Mode. Sometimes, students have difficulty with Mode, so the following information has been included to help. Also, keep in mind that Mode includes two aspects: (i) whether the communication is written or spoken, and (ii) the concept of space and time. Distance in time and space - Once the principle is understood, it’s just a matter of working out each situation. Speaking directly (face to face) with someone is the closest form of communication. Communication events can get further and further away depending on the situation.

Real time - Is when people are communicating with each other at the same time.

Not real time (distant) - Is when one person communicates talks/writes and the other doesn’t get the message until later.

Real space - Is when people are communicating with each other and are physically in the same place.

Not real space (distant) - Is when one person is communicating with someone else who is not physically with them.

Fig. 2.2. Time and space There is quite a combination of Time/Space situations depending on what is happening. You will need to assess each communication situation independently. For example –  You are having coffee with your friend. You are together at the same time and at the same place. Therefore, it is REAL TIME and REAL SPACE.  You phone your friend, and she picks up the phone and you talk. You are talking at the same time, but you are not together at the same place/space. Therefore, it is REAL TIME but NOT REAL SPACE.

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 You phone your friend, and she does not pick up the phone, so you leave a message which she listens to later. The message machine is not a communicant. It’s just a recording machine. So, you do not speak to your friend directly. Therefore, it is NOT REAL TIME (because she was not there at the time and only got the message later when you were off doing something else) and NOT REAL SPACE. Because of modern telecommunications, it is now possible to have a situation that is REAL SPACE but not REAL TIME. If you are sitting next to someone and you are both on the internet on separate computers and you email that person and they pick it up a bit later, you are both still in the same place, but you are getting the message at a different time - NOT REAL TIME but REAL SPACE. Or you could pass a note to someone near you and they don’t look at it straight away but are still next to you, So NOT REAL TIME but REAL SPACE.

1.3

Register

These three elements together are referred to as Register and have the most immediate impact on the language choices made in producing a text. A text can be defined as any item of communication, as simple as a stop sign, or as intricate as a negotiation for purchase and delivery of goods. The functional approach often draws on functional grammar which is one of two different grammatical frameworks. Most native English speakers recognise traditional grammar terms (e.g. verbs, nouns, adjectives) but few are adept in using those terms accurately. In more recent years, Australian schools have adopted the terms used within “functional grammar”, and people educated within the Australian curriculum will be more familiar with these newer terms. These two frameworks for describing grammar are very different, and each has its own strengths and effective applications. ESL teachers need to understand both grammars, i.e. functional grammar as well as traditional grammar. This chapter and the next one will help you to do this. In this chapter, English language and the Genre approach, you will have the opportunity to increase your understanding of the functional nature of language. While Chapter 3: Teach English Grammar is primarily concerned with traditional grammar, you will find some explanations in that chapter drawing on or extending into functional grammar. Campbell and Ryles (1996) state clearly the relationship between traditional and functional grammar: “Functional grammar emphasises the ways in which language functions to assist meaning, but also relies upon knowledge, understanding and the use of terms of traditional grammar.” English language teachers need to understand both the function (functional grammar) and form (traditional grammar) of language. They need to be competent at the big picture level of making meaning of a whole text, all the way down to the detailed micro level of describing the part of speech of a single word.

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It is likely that if you teach English as a Foreign Language (EFL), you may have to begin by describing language use in terms that the students are familiar with: traditional grammar. Then you can begin to integrate functional grammar before moving, if at all, to purely functional grammar. Your situation will determine your choice, but either way, the ability to be flexible is the key.

2. Functional grammar Functional grammar looks at language use at five levels:

Text

•We look at patterns that are reflected in particular text types or genres. •For example, in procedural texts we see the common use of command verbs.

•Sentences are made up of one or more clauses. •Where a sentence is made up of two or more clauses, students need to learn how to combine those clauses showing the Sentence relationships between the information in each clause.

•A clause contains a verb or verb group. Clause

Group

Word

50

•A clause consists of smaller groups of words which convey part of the meaning. •For example, who and what are involved, what they are doing, and where it is happening.

•Groups and phrases can be divided into words: nouns, adjectives, etc.

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The following is an example of this process in use:

Text level

A paraglider spent four hours suspended in a tree near Bright, in northeastern Victoria, on Sunday night after becoming tangled in the branches during a botched landing. The 27-year-old Caulfield South woman was trying to land near Mystic Point when she got stuck in the tree about 15 metres off the ground. The police search and rescue team inflated a jumping castle underneath the tree while a crane was arranged to bring her down.

Sentence level

The police search and rescue team inflated a jumping castle underneath the tree while a crane was arranged to bring her down.

Clause level

while a crane was The police search and rescue team inflated a arranged to bring her jumping castle underneath the tree down.

Group/ phrase level

The police search and rescue inflated team

The

police

search

and

rescue

team

a jumping castle

inflated

a

underneath the tree

jumping

Word level

When we begin to analyse a clause in functional grammar, we can ask questions to identify the various parts: What is happening? Who or what is taking part? More information: When? Where? How? This helps readers to think in ‘chunks of meaning’ rather than individual words. Who/what is taking part?

What’s happening?

Who/what is taking part?

Where?

The police search and rescue team

inflated

a jumping castle

underneath the tree.

MEANING

Participant

Process

Participant

Circumstance

FORM

Noun group

Verb

Noun group

Prepositional phrase

CLAUSE

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castle

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Functional grammar is particularly helpful because it directs the user of language to think first about the purpose of the communication and gives a framework for creating meaning prompted by function: What do you need to say/tell? What choices do we have if we want to tell about ...? Derewianka (2011) talks about grammars describing form and function. Traditional grammar terms (noun, adjective, preposition, etc.) are commonly used to describe form. Functional grammar terms (participant, circumstance, process, etc.) are used to effectively describe function. She advises that there are times for using each grammar appropriately and that a major consideration is what the students already know and are therefore able to productively work with. She has this to say about the interaction between traditional and functional grammars:

The following diagram, developed by Castleton and Short (2010), gives a clear picture of the main elements of functional grammar and the choices that writers and readers make in the process of making meaning.

Fig. 2.3 Diagram developed by Dr Megan Short and Geraldine Castleton, (2010)

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For a comprehensive explanation of functional grammar, we re commend the following texts: •

Derewianka, B. (2011) A new grammar companion. Newtown, NSW: PETAA.

•

Collerson, J. (1994) English grammar: A functional approach. Calendar Islands Pub.

3. Genre Texts are often classified by type or genre. A story about something that happened in the past, for example, is known as a recount. A story with an orientation, complication and resolution is known as a narrative. Other common genres include report, explanation, argument, exposition and procedural text. Each genre or text type has a social purpose and distinctive features in terms of text structure and language features. The following table details three different genres, serving to illustrate that each genre has a distinct structure and set of language features which combine to achieve a particular purpose. The table then lists the kinds of texts to be found within that genre. Genres/Text types and Purpose

Structure

1. Orientation – Narrative: Introducing the to amuse or participants, place entertain the and time readers and to tell 2. Complication a story 3. Resolution 4. Reorientation 1. Orientation: Recount: Introducing the to retell participants, place something that and time happened in the 2. Events: past and to tell a Describing series series of past of events that events happened in the past 3. Optional reorientation: Personal comment of the writer

Dominant Language Features Using Past Tense Using action verbs Chronology is indicated Introducing personal participant: I, my group, etc. Using chronological connectors: then, first, etc. Using linking verbs: was, were, saw, heard, etc. Using action verbs: look, go, change, etc. Using simple past tense

Most often used in... Fables Myths and legends Detective stories Adventure stories Thrillers Period dramas Newspaper articles – proceedings of a trial, description of a soccer match, events before and after the occurrence of natural disasters Police reports Biographies Autobiographies Diary entries Historical records

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Genres/Text types and Purpose

Structure

Dominant Language Features

Most often used in...

Narratives and recounts are similar in many ways. The most important difference is that the narrative structure includes a complication that the main character or characters need to solve. The complication can be natural conflict, social conflict or psychological conflict. The solution is known as the resolution.

Explanation: To explain how something works or why something happens

1. General statement which describes or identifies the phenomenon 2. Explanation series of statements about the topic 3. Closing/conclusio n - sums up the explanation

1. Simple Present Tense 2. Action verbs 3. Passive voice 4. Noun phrases 5. Adverbial phrases 6. Technical terms 7. General and abstract nouns 8. Connectives: a) Time connectives: firstly, next, then, after that, meanwhile, eventually, later, finally b) Cause/effect connectives: because, so, this means, this causes 9. Write in second or third person

Technical manuals Encyclopedias Text books Non-fiction books Documentaries Question and answer Articles and leaflets Write up of science experiment

Fig. 2.4 Table: narrative, recount, and explanation To further illustrate distinctive features of different genres, some written texts have been analysed for you on the following pages using a mixture of terms from traditional (refer to Chapter 3) and functional grammars. These analyses are not exhaustive but do give an indication of the structural and language features of some commonly used genres.

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Structural features

ARGUMENT

Sender’s address Date

123 Apple Court FRUIT GROVE, Qld, 4567

Recipient’s address

Glen Hardcase MP PO Box 89 PLEASANTVILLE, Qld, 4999

Greeting

Dear Mr Hardcase,

Language features

4 March, 2005

Emotive Introduction of issue

I am writing to express my disgust at the way animals

are being treated in laboratories all over the world.

vocabulary

The suffering created by this barbaric scientific testing on living creatures can never be justified. In particular, I am appalled at scientific testing on animals for the cosmetic industry.

Argument 1

•

Animal testing is inhumane and cruel. continue to use barbaric methods in testing the animals that lead to their ultimate painful deaths. All for the sake of so-called beauty! What a trivial reason for the infliction of so much suffering.

Argument 2

Timeless present • As we do not "own" these creatures, we have no tense verb inherent right to subject them against their will to what we ourselves call inhumane practices, any more than we have a right to torture animals for our amusement.

Argument 3

•

It isn't even necessary! Because of many technological advances, there are alternatives to animal testing. EpiSkin, a synthetic skin, has been accepted as an

Passive verbs

alternative to be used in testing cosmetics.

Recommendation

There must be a serious and intensive campaign dedicated to humane and morally acceptable ways of caring for our wild and domestic animals and prohibiting scientific testing on animals.

Closing

Yours sincerely,

Signature

P. Maloney

Name

Penny Maloney

High modality

Fig. 2.5 Sample argument text

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EXPLANATION Structural features Phenomenon

Language features

Sound is a type of energy that travels through air, Generalised water and even solid objects such as walls.

non-human

Sounds are made when the tiny particles that

participants

make up the air are made to move back and forth very quickly. This movement is called vibration.

Explanation Point 1

Sound travels in waves. For example, when you hit

Processes

an expanding circle. Your ears pick up the vibrations in the air and turn them into messages that your brain can understand. When the air

Action verbs “timeless” bumps into air particles. These particles bump present into the ones next to them and so on, travelling in tense a drum, the surface of the drum vibrates and

particles vibrate slowly, the sound waves are further apart and you hear them as a low-pitched sound,

. When the

air particles vibrate quickly, the sound waves are closer together and you hear them as a highpitched sound Some large animals, , can hear sounds lower than our ears can pick up, and many small animals, such as bats can hear much higher sounds than humans.

Point 2

When sound waves hit a solid surface, like a large outcrop of rock, some of the waves travel through it, but others bounce back, causing an echo, and you hear the sound again. Loud, short sounds make the best echoes. Some fishing boats are

fitted with echo-location equipment to find shoals of fish. This equipment sends out high pitched sounds which bounce off any large masses of fish swimming in the area. A computer on board the vessel interprets the echoes and locates the fish so they can be caught. Dolphins and some bats use echo location to find their food in much the same way.

Point 3

Sound travels further and faster under water than it does through air. That is why the songs of whales, such as the Humpback, can be heard as far away as 1600 kilometres from where the animal is swimming.

Fig. 2.6 Sample explanation text

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Some passive verbs

Chapter 2

NARRATIVE Structural features

Language features SURVIVAL

Orientation

Who: specific Linda Roper loved to travel. Since her participants childhood, she and her family had travelled to (human and different places. She also liked meeting the people who lived there. But today Linda was

non-human)

on a trip by herself. She was driving through for the first time. She would reach her aunt and uncle’s house in a few hours. Linda was fascinated by the tall rocks and the wide blanket of sand that covered the desert. The early morning sun beat down intensely. Linda

When

was thankful that the car had air-conditioning. She smiled as she viewed this

Complication

Suddenly the car jolted. Linda heard a funny noise, the engine sputtered and then gave out. Linda tried to start the engine, but nothing happened. She waited several minutes and tried again. Again it failed. Linda began to feel the extreme heat of the desert sun. She honked her horn hoping a passing motorist would hear her. However, no one else was nearby. As the hours dragged on, Linda felt hotter and hotter. She

was

• mental

thirsty, but there

was no water left in her canteen. She hoped her aunt and uncle would send for help soon. In the meantime, Linda got out of the car. She took a stick and wrote “HELP” in giant letters in the sand.

Resolution

Variety of verbs/processes:

The next morning Linda was awakened by the sound of roaring engines. At first Linda

• action/material

• linking

Passive voice

was not sure where she was. And then she quickly remembered. Linda got out of the car and saw a plane flying overhead. She returned to her car and got a mirror. She flashed the mirror to make a reflection in the sky. The plane seemed to fly away. And then it came closer and landed. Linda had never felt happier as the pilot helped her to the plane. Later at the airport, Linda promised her aunt and uncle that she would never travel alone in the desert again.

Fig. 2.7 Sample narrative text

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PROCEDURE Structural features Goal General information

Materials

Language features POTATO AND CHICKEN CURRY Serves 4-6 Preparation time: 15 minutes

Precise information:

Cooking time: 20 minutes

• time

Ingredients:

•

washed potatoes 2 onions (diced)

• type

chopped garlic

chopped ginger Tikka curry paste chicken breast or thigh meat (sliced) coconut milk

⅓

chopped coriander

steamed basmati rice pappadums

Steps

Method: 1.

Dice potatoes (no need to peel) and place in

2.

a small saucepan. Cover with water, bring to the boil and simmer for 10-12 minutes or until soft. Drain and set aside.

3.

4. 5. 6.

Meanwhile, in a large heavy-based pot, fry onion, garlic and ginger in some olive oil until soft. Add curry paste and chicken meat and cook for another 3-5 minutes. Add coconut milk and potatoes and simmer for 10-12 minutes or until cooked through. Stir in coriander and serve with steamed basmati rice and pappadums.

Fig. 2.8 Sample procedure text

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Command verbs Details: •

using

• quality

Linking words to do with time

Chapter 2

INFORMATION REPORT Structural features

Language features KOALAS

General classification

The koala is a small Australian animal resembling a teddy bear. It is not a bear, however,

Technical

it is a marsupial (a mammal that has a pouch

terms

for carrying its young).

Description Aspect 1

Appearance is about 60cm long and about 30cm high at the shoulder. It has only the suggestion of a tail. Its thick, soft, woolly fur is ash-gray on its back and the tops of its arms and legs and yellowish-white on the tummy and underside of the arms and legs. It has a wide head, a short snout, and its mouth has cheek pouches.

Description Aspect 2

Timeless present tense verbs

Behaviour The koala often sits in eucalypt trees where meets the trunk. It can grasp the branches easily with its long toes. It sleeps up to 20 hours a day and is usually only active at night. The koala mother carries her young joey in her pouch for

about six months. Later mother’s back. Description Aspect 3

Moderating words

rides on the

Food The koala eats only eucalyptus leaves and buds. It does not drink, but obtains all of the liquid it needs from the leaves it eats.

Fig. 2.9 Sample information report text

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RECOUNT Structural features

Language features

Orientation

Sequence events

My whole family went for a picnic last Sunday. of

We all went out for the day because it was warm and sunny. We left home early at 9 am and took a train from Strathfield to Circular Quay and then

Who What Where

a ferry from Circular Quay to Watsons

Bay. Watsons Bay is a lovely place and there were lots of people everywhere. Many people just sat under the trees talking to each other and some other people fished off the wharf.

We walked

Action verbs – past tense

from the ferry to the beach and

Linking words to do we bought some fish and chips for lunch and with time ate them in the park. After lunch my son fished looked at the beautiful blue harbour. And then

off the beach and he caught a small fish which we had for dinner that night. At 4 o’clock we decided to go home so we caught the ferry at 4:15. On the way back to Circular Quay the Sydney Opera House looked wonderful in the afternoon sun.

Comment

It was a great day and I will remember it for a long time.

Fig. 2.10 Sample recount text

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Specific participants

Chapter 2

3.1

Spoken genres

Just as written texts can be classified as particular genres or text types, spoken texts can be identified as having distinct structures and language features. Spoken genres may include casual conversation, negotiating for goods and services, providing an explanation, formal lectures (academic), informal lectures (parental), and giving instructions. An analysis of a spoken text focusing on functions of speech is provided below: Structural Features

S = Sales assistant C = Customer

Line

C

Excuse me.

1

Can you tell me what paint would be best to use on our house?

2

S

Inside or outside?

3

C

Outside.

4

It was done five and a half years ago,

5

Opening

S

Information exchange and clarification

C

so the paint is still in fairly good condition. We just want to do it again before it starts to deteriorate. Yeah, best to get it before it starts cracking and flaking. What did you use last time: enamel or acrylic? Acrylic. It’s so much easier to work with.

Ask for info Give info

7 8 9 10

Oh yeah...

11

C

...and being able to wash the brushes out in water is great.

12

Enamel is such a pain to clean up.

13

Couldn’t agree with you more.

14

So...the main brands all have an exterior acrylic.

15

Do you want high gloss or low sheen?

16

Not too shiny, but I don’t want matt either.

17

C

Opening, state need

6

S

S

Functions of speech

Comment Ask for more info Give info & opinion Interject: Agreement Opinion

State agreement Give info. Ask for info. Give info, clarify

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S

Okay. That narrows your choices. Taubmans have got this one on special at the moment. But then Home Choice is the same paint and

Negotiate the selection

Closing transaction

18 19 Give info 20

it’s cheaper even at its regular price.

21

C

The same paint?

22

S

Yeah, it’s made in the same factory, same paint.

Ask for clarification

23

Clarify

C

So there’s no difference?

24

Ask for confirmation

S

Well, you might find that the cheaper brand is the tail end of a batch of paint.

25

But it’s basically the same paint.

26

C

Okay then, we’ll just take the Home Choice.

27

State decision

S

Do you want that tinted?

28

Ask for info

C

Yeah, this is the colour we’ve chosen.

29

Give info

S

Okay, I’ll just mix that for you.

30

Offer service

C

Thanks very much.

31

Thanks

Give confirming info

Fig. 2.11 Transcript – negotiation of goods and service using functional grammar

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Phone call to enquire about a car service with the local mechanic. Text type:

Phone call conversation

To enquire about a car service Customer to Field: Car service Tenor: Mode: Spoken mechanic Structural Language Model text features features -Formal greeting Mechanic: “All-round Mechanics, Frank Proper nouns or introduction speaking, how can I help you?” -Customer states purpose Customer: “Hi there, I’ve got my booked in of call for a service in the name of Symonds, Terry -Question for Symonds.” confirmation Frank: “Okay, just let me check that. Ah here it Adjectives -Agreement and is. Rego check and full service, it?” further question for information Terry: “Yep, and could you have a look at the Adverbs -Agreement/ also? not working at all.” confirmation Social purpose:

Acknowledgem ent and further request -Confirmation; request for confirmation of details -Agreement and another request

Frank: “Sure, we can do that for you.” Terry: “Thanks, great. Could I also ask that you inform me of the total cost before you start work? I don’t really want to spend a lot of on it.” Frank: “Sure, no problem. Let me just confirm your phone number. got five, four, five, one, zero nine, zero nine. Is that still correct?”

First conditional clause Pronoun Phrase

Terry: “Yes, correct. Do you think you can get that done today?”

-confirmation and possible complication

Frank: “Should be able to, unless we find a major problem. If we do find a major

Acknowledgem ent and signing off. -closing

Terry: “Okay great. Thanks for that. I look forward to hearing from you later in the day.”

problem, I’ll let you know.”

Frank: “Okay, bye for now.”

Fig. 2.12 Adapted from: Butterworth, A. & Nicholson, P. (2009). Listening to Australia: Post-beginner. Surry Hills, NSW. NSW. Adult Migrant English Service. (p. 108).

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3.2

Implications

It is important to be aware of Register and the features of various genres because they represent the standard forms of communication, “the way we do things around here”. So if someone wants to submit a job application, it’s helpful to know the generally acceptable format. If someone wants to lodge a complaint, it is helpful to know the kind of cues that the local culture expects. If someone wants to make, accept or refuse an invitation, it is helpful to know the kinds of things that can and can’t be said. For communication to be effective, the sender (speaker/writer) needs to communicate in a way that is meaningful to the receiver (listener/reader). Hence, in teaching ESL, an important part of our job is to help the learner to understand and practice the norms of communicating for a variety of purposes, in a variety of situations within a local culture.

4. Vocabulary Vocabulary is best taught within a context to provide meaning and connection to other aspect of learning English, such as within a genre or specific text type. Once the text type (genre) and social purpose (goal and target audience) for the text has been established, then introducing 5-10 relevant vocabulary terms guides the learners with more direction for writing and understanding. Note that words that go together with a particular topic or subject, are known as ‘lexical’ terms. For example, writing a simple recount text about the past weekend, we would expect some of the following words to be relevant:     

Days of the week – Saturday/Sunday Times of the day – morning/afternoon/evening Activities - swimming/driving/ Emotions – happy/excited/ Family or friends – sister/brother/parents/best friend

If we rephrased these in terms of ‘functions’ we would be answering the questions: Who?

When?

Where?

How?

Why?

Obviously there is a strong connection here with the appropriate grammar terms needed to complete the recount. This ties the structural and language features of texts closer together to understand how texts are structured. In the next section we will see how using the Genre approach supports teaching these structural and language features within a context or social purpose and the tight connection it has with vocabulary choices.

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5. The Genre approach to TESOL The genre approach teaches learners to produce coherent, purposeful spoken or written texts (Hyland, 2003). The approach focuses on the conventions (structure) a text needs to follow to be acceptable to its audience (readers, listeners) and to achieve its social function (Muncie, 2002). When using this approach in your classroom, learners need to understand three things:

(2) its structural features and

(1) the social purpose of the text

(3) the target audience.

In the classroom, the genre approach has two main stages: (1) working with the class and (2) working independently.

Working with the class

Working independently

1. Building knowledge of the field

4. Building knowledge of a similar field

2. Exploring the genre (social purpose and structure); and

5. Drafting, revising and conferencing; and

3. Constructing text jointly

6. Editing and publishing their text.

Fig. 2.13 Widodo, 2006 So, how does this approach shape what ESL teachers do in the classroom? This question is possibly best answered by looking at a sample unit of work.

5.1

Sample unit of work using the Genre approach

The following plan for a writing lesson focuses on the genre of opinion texts and would be implemented in class over a number of days. Even though this is a writing

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lesson, there is plenty of listening, reading and speaking occurring throughout. This unit was planned for a group of elementary level adult ESL students in the Adult Migrant English Program (AMEP). The plan draws on the learning cycle described by Burns and Joyce (cited in Hammond et al, 1992) and the curriculum cycle described by Derewianka (1990). It is important to become familiar with the curriculum cycle as outlined by Derewianka, as this model is employed throughout this TESOL course. Referral to the following document would be very useful as you are designing your syllabus and planning your lessons. Genre: Opinion text Topic: Travelling as a tourist within Australia Activities to introduce the Field (topic) and text type • Discussion/Plan a trip (small groups then whole class)

Building knowledge of the field

Given $10,000 where would you travel in Australia? Who would you go with? How would you get there? How long would you stay there? What would you see/do? Each group reports back to class for discussion. Record on board comparative statements emerging from each group’s defence of the choices they have made in planning their trip. You may have to draw these out of the students, and structure them appropriately, but the ideas originate with the students. • Information gap Asking and answering questions to complete a table outlining where four tourists went, how they got there, how long they stayed, what they did there. • Vocabulary building Students bring and share photographs of own travel experiences. Use this activity to draw out known vocabulary and extend into the unknown. • Grammar Comparative and superlative adjectives and making statements. • Social purpose of opinion text Discuss where we might expect to find such texts, who writes them and why.

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Activities to make explicit the cultural norms, and the structural and linguistic features of opinion texts.

Modelling of text

• Analyse a model text (same or different topic): Text A Distribute copies of a model text (one per student). Display same text on OHT. Highlight structure (label stages of text down left margin). Highlight language features (use different colours and labels down the right margin). • Match stages with paragraphs of a text: Text B • Grammar practice Observe and practise correct formation (e.g. of comparative and superlative adjectives). Based on model text/s A or B. • Complete a gapped text Choose from boxes the appropriate phrases to complete the text (e.g. firstly, secondly, finally, bigger than, faster than, more comfortable) in relation to model text/s A or B. • Reassemble split text Summary of model text/s A or B. Activities to provide supported writing experiences

Joint construction of text

• Class composes an opinion text together Students take turns offering the next sentence/idea. Grammar, spelling, vocabulary needs are addressed along the way within the context of this activity. Post-writing, analyse the newly written text. Does the text follow the structural pattern we observed earlier? e.g. Have we used some comparative statements? Have we used effective signal words? • Small groups or pairs write a text together As groups or pairs are engaged in writing, teacher is available as a resource or consultant. Editing the text can be done conference style, with the teacher asking questions to point students to areas needing revision.

Independent construction of text

Individuals plan and write own text • Write outline. • Follow outline in writing. • Check own writing with regard to structure and language features. • Conference with teacher. • Write second draft. • Publish. Fig. 2.14 Sample unit of work

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5.1.1 Genre Approach Activities Building knowledge of the field The activities suggested in the sample unit of work above for building knowledge of the field are clearly classroom based, but this stage can involve a wide range of experiences including field trips, hands-on creativity, use of audio-visual resources, and texts of all sorts that deal with the topic. Modelling of text Authentic texts may be chosen, or the teacher may decide to write a sample text especially for a particular group of learners, related to their real-life needs. Using texts that are relevant and personally meaningful to the learners, increases motivation for learning. The primary aim during this stage of the learning cycle is for learners to become aware of the stages and characteristics of a particular text type, and the kind of language (grammar) typically associated with it. Joint construction of text This gives opportunity for learners to begin writing their own texts with the support and assistance of the teacher. A class as a whole may construct a text, or small groups or pairs might be preferred. Learners may construct one text in this collaborative mode, or perhaps more than one if that will be beneficial. Key to this process is the scaffolding provided by the teacher. The amount of support provided is reduced as the learners’ confidence and proficiency increases. Teachers will engage students in a flow of discussion about the text they are creating, its organisation, and the language used, so that the process of editing and re-drafting of the text becomes natural. Independent construction of text The teacher is again a resource for the learners. The teacher will continue the conferencing approach to re-drafting and editing, negotiating with the learner all the way through. Some post-writing reflection is helpful, where learners identify and discuss difficulties they experienced.

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5.2

Benefits of the Genre approach to TESOL

A number of benefits are experienced through this approach to teaching and learning ESL

The topical context gives the opportunity to use and reuse new vocabulary to help reinforce learning.

The cultural, textual and linguistic keys to a particular communicative function are made explicit, empowering the learner for that social task. Learning language in the context of meaningful situations, and learning what it takes to communicate appropriately, means people from Non-English Speaking Backgrounds (NESB) can function more effectively in their host community.

Working with a whole text means that grammar is addressed in the context of meaningful communication, thereby creating a strong cognitive link between the grammar and the social function. This also creates greater potential for the transfer of this information into real-life use.

Grammatical constructs are explained in terms of how they are used, in what situations, for what purposes, in addition to the traditional information of how to form a particular construct.

Building knowledge of the field before engaging with written texts or attempting to produce written texts helps learners to bring to mind all that they already know about a given topic. With this knowledge activated, more attention is available to focus on the language involved in dealing with the topic and genre

Students are given as much support as necessary in the writing process, firstly beginning with speaking about the topic before moving into writing. In addition, the writing process is scaffolded with a lot of support and assistance in the beginning, reducing those supports as the student is ready.

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Summary Language is used to achieve social purposes or to fulfil a particular task. Each communicative event, spoken or written, generally falls within the description of a particular genre, and as such can be outlined in terms of structural and language features typically associated with that genre. Knowing about these keys is not enough. One must know how and be able to put these keys into practice for successful communication to occur.

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CHAPTER 3: Teach English grammar

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Introduction As you study this unit, keep in mind everything you have learned in Chapter 2: English language and the Genre approach. In Chapter 2, language use is explained using a ‘top down’ approach, i.e. the starting point is the big picture of social purposes of language. This chapter, Teach English Grammar, begins at the bottom, i.e. a ‘bottom up’ approach where we focus on words and sentences and the form of language. As explained, we need both functional and traditional grammars for an overall, comprehensive understanding of the world of grammar. This knowledge will stand you in good stead in any English language teaching environment. If ESL students come to language classes with any previous understanding of English, it is most likely an awareness of traditional grammar terms. This gives us common language for focusing on “form”, or talking about how specific language chunks are created. Functional grammar talks about participants and we see that they are represented in words through noun groups which can contain (in traditional grammatical terms) an article (or determiner), adjective/s and a noun, e.g. the red car. In this way we can work simultaneously with functional grammar and traditional grammar, to focus on meaning and form. In this unit you will be introduced to some of the traditional grammatical terms and concepts used to describe the way English is put together. Some functional grammar terms that describe language at the word level have been included at the relevant points, as these terms are becoming more and more commonly used in classrooms.

1. Grammar and language learning Mention the word ‘grammar’ and many people groan, if not outwardly then inwardly. If this whole area can incite such negative feeling, we must ask the question: Do we need to know about participles, prepositions and pronouns? Do we really need all of these terms? In learning to speak our first language there is rarely any explicit instruction in the first few years. As infants we learn largely through listening and mimicking. When we look at the way that children learn language/s, we don’t have discussions about whether a word is being used as a noun or a verb, we don’t hear parents or carers saying, “Use a present perfect verb there rather than a present simple verb, dear.” Children have the innate capacity to sift and sort all of the raw language input they receive, and develop a framework which enables them to begin producing language. That framework continues to develop as they receive more input, and their language production matures correspondingly. Instruction (at school) comes after a functional level of language use is acquired. Why then the need for all of this analysis and terminology? Can’t older people learn in the same way?

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The process of learning a second language as an adult is quite different from learning our first language as a child. Most second language learners consciously look for a framework which will enable them to make sense of the pattern or structure of the language. This can in large part be attributed to changes in the way we process information, and learning style preferences in which, by adulthood, we have developed a clear preference. Sometime around puberty the language acquisition processes change. Adolescents are able to think more abstractly than children can, and begin analysing, deconstructing and reconstructing, not just concrete items but abstract concepts as well. This is a significant move away from the intuitive style of learning in which children naturally excel. While some individuals retain a propensity for intuitive learning, others become more reliant on explicit instruction and demonstration with accompanying explanation or narrative. Whereas children simply process the raw data of language (the spoken language that they hear), adolescents and adults benefit from being able to process information about language in order to build an internal framework or schemata into which new information about language is assimilated or accommodated. In the teaching and learning process then, we need to have a way to talk about language, to explain language use and formation. We need terms for describing language, and that is where “grammar” is important. The terms and descriptions provide us with the vocabulary and concepts necessary for talking about language. We will begin by looking at ‘parts of speech’, and move on to learn about other aspects of grammar and some ideas for teaching grammar.

2. Overview of grammar concepts 2.1

Word Classes

Commonly English parts of speech are nouns, pronouns, verbs, adverbs, adjectives, articles, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections. Word class (or part of speech) is a term used in traditional grammar to which a word is assigned to a category according to its meaning and grammatical function within a sentence. In this section, we will begin by looking at the linguistic definitions of each part of speech, it’s semantic meaning, it’s structural form and it’s function. We will also have a look at how morphemes can change the grammatical category of a word as well as serve as grammatical markers. Finally, examples for meaning, use, and function will be given for each part of speech along with some example activities.

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Linguistic Definition Semantics

– what does it mean? (Dictionary meaning)

Structural

– what is the form? What does it look like?

Functional

– what part does it play in the sentence?

This introduction should give an indication of areas of grammar applicable to teaching English language and will point the way to areas which will undoubtedly require your closer attention. Every English language teacher needs to have access to a good grammar reference book. As a teacher’s reference, the following are recommended: • • • •

2.2

Cobuild English Grammar published by HarperCollins Publishers; Swan’s Practical English Usage published by Oxford University Press; Parrot’s Grammar for English Language Teachers by Cambridge University Press (CUP); and Carter and McCarthy’s Cambridge Grammar of English by CUP.

Morphemes

Morphemes in relation to parts of speech and meaning Derivational morpheme An affix that's added to a word to create a new word or a new form of a word. Compare with inflectional morpheme. Derivational morphemes can change the grammatical category (or part of speech) of a word. In English, both prefixes and suffixes are derivational. With derivational suffixes, the new word has a new meaning, and is usually a different part of speech. But the new meaning is related to the old meaning -it is "derived" from the old meaning. We can add more than one suffix, as in this example: e.g. derive (verb) + ation→ derivation (noun) + al → derivational (adjective) There are several hundred derivational suffixes. Here are some of the more common ones: Inflectional morpheme A suffix that's added to a word to assign a particular grammatical property to that word. Compare with derivational morpheme. Inflectional morphemes serve as grammatical markers that indicate tense, number, possession, or comparison. In English, only suffixes are inflectional.

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Inflectional suffixes do not change the meaning of the original word. So in "Every day I walk to school" and "Yesterday I walked to school", the words walk and walked have the same basic meaning. In "I have one car" and "I have two cars", the basic meaning of the words car and cars is exactly the same. In these cases, the suffix is added simply for grammatical "correctness".

Prefixes Prefixes are a part of a word which, when added to the front of a word, change the meaning in some way. For example, ‘un‘ added to ‘kind’ makes the opposite, ‘unkind’. Here are some more examples: Prefix

Meaning

Examples

anti-

against

antiabortion, antinuclear

bi-

two/twice

biannual, bicycle

centi-

one hundred

centimeter, century

kilo-

one thousand

kilogram, kilometer

multi-

many

multinational, multifaceted

non-

Not

non-stop, nonentity

pre-

before

preschool, prehistoric

re-

again

rewrite, redo

semi-

half or partly

semitrailer, semicircle

trans-

Across

transplant, translate

tri-

Three

triangle, trimester

Suffixes Suffixes are the endings which, when added to the end of a word, change the meaning in some way and also tell you something about the grammar of words. Some suffixes tell you what part of speech a word is. For example: Rule: Example:

a. Some are noun endings, such as: -er/-or painter, teacher, doctor -ance appearance, assistance, entrance -ation information, education, confirmation -ence dependence, interference, intelligence -ment commitment, amusement, improvement -ness directness, frankness, brashness TESOL Made Practical For All Situations

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Rule:

b. Some suffixes are usually adjective endings, such as:

Example:

-ful -ish -ive -less -ous

Rule:

c. Some suffixes are usually verb endings, such as:

Example:

-ate -en

Rule:

d. The suffix –ly is often an adverb ending

Example:

-ly

colourful, wonderful, dreadful childish, selfish, devilish cooperative, supportive, collaborative defenceless, penniless, homeless odorous, contagious, suspicious

concentrate, affiliate, consolidate deepen, broaden, widen

quickly, slowly

Word building / Word families: When we add prefixes or suffixes to a basic word, we are building on that word so we can make a new word that is related in meaning to the basic word.

2.3

develop

(verb)

developer

(noun)

developing

(verb or adjective)

developed

(verb or adjective)

development

(noun or adjective)

developmental

(adjective)

antidevelopment

(adjective)

Noun

Linguistic Definition Semantics

- name of a person, place, thing, idea, emotion, activity and quality.

Structural

- Derivational morphemes (-ity, -ness, -hood, -ment, -dom, ion, tans-, tri-). e.g. appearance, commitment, transmission - Inflectional morphemes (plural -s, possessive – ‘s).

Grammatical function

- subject of a sentence - Direct object of a sentence - The complement of a copular verb (always after a linking verb e.g. “BE” or “seem” e.g. (‘doctor’ in “He’s a doctor.” SVC) or (‘happy’ in “Tom seems happy.” SVC) - Indirect object (whom) - Can come after a preposition

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Noun Variations Concrete noun

Example Lawyers give advice to clients. Debbie works in a bank. Australia is a great place to live. Joseph studied engineering at university.

Person Place Thing

The shoes at the front door are muddy.

Abstract noun

Example Utilitarianism is looking for the best outcomes for the most people. She looked with disgust at the footprints all over the new carpet. The most popular sport in the Philippines is basketball. The Welsh are famous for their singing.

Idea Emotion Activity

The beauty of the sunset took their breath away.

Quality

Types of Nouns Type

Rule

Example

Proper noun

Proper nouns are the names of particular or special things, persons or places and start with a capital letter.

I invited David to the party.

Collective nouns are names for groups of things or people and are treated as singular nouns.

The whole team is coming over for a barbecue after the game.

Collective noun

Let’s go to Sydney in January.

My family came to Australia when I was seven years old. Subject nouns

Object nouns

Sentences must always have a subject, and that subject will always be a noun such as a person, place, or thing that is doing or being the verb in the sentence.

Maria is beautiful.

Nouns can also be objects of a verb in a sentence. The object can either be a direct object (a noun that receives the action) or an indirect object (a noun that is the recipient of a direct object).

The boy ate the cake.

I was eating spaghetti.

Give the books to her.

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Subject compliment noun

SC nouns usually follow the linking verbs like ‘to be’, ‘become’, or ‘seem’.

Laura is a teacher.

Object compliment noun

Verbs that denote making, naming, or creating are usually followed by object compliments.

I pronounce you husband and wife.

Plural nouns indicate that there is one or more of that noun. Many English plural nouns can be formed by adding -s or -es to the singular form. Although, there are many exceptions.

1 cat – 2 cats

Countable nouns can be either singular or plural: one pencil, two pencils. Countable nouns can be used with a/an, the, some, any, a few, and many.

There are three pencils on the table.

Uncountable nouns cannot be used with a number, ‘a’ or ‘an’. You cannot drink “a milk”. We can use ‘the’ with uncountable nouns. You can drink “the milk”. We can use modifiers like ‘some’, ‘any’, ‘a little’ with uncountable nouns. You can drink “some milk”. To give a measurement of an uncountable noun, you need to pair it with a countable noun.

There is some milk in the fridge. e.g. two cups of milk (cups = countable, milk = uncountable).

Possessive nouns show that the noun possesses something and is formed by adding and apostrophe +s or an apostrophe after the plural noun s.

Look at the children’s toys all of the floor.

A gerund (sometimes called a verbal noun, or nominalised verb) is an “-ing” word that looks like a verb but acts as a noun.

Studying is essential for academic success.

Plural nouns

Countable

Uncountable

Possessive nouns

Gerund

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He declared war.

These two cats are both mine.

Please pass me the bananas.

The air smells bad in this region. There is a lot of work today.

These are the boys’ bikes.

After I finished the cleaning, I did the ironing.

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2.4

Pronoun

Linguistic Definition Semantics Grammatical function

- stand in the place of a noun or a noun phrase - Pronouns are a subcategory of nouns and they substitute for other nouns. Pronouns are categorized under personal, indefinite, relative, possessive, demonstrative, and quantifier pronouns.

Types of Pronouns Type

Rule

Example

Personal pronouns

A short word used as a simple substitute for the name of a person, place or thing. Personal pronouns are the most highly inflected class as they inflect for gender (he/she), number (I/we), case (I, me, mine). Proper nouns help us to speak in such a way we do not sound repetitious.

(I, me, you, he, him, she, her, they, them, we, us, it).

Indefinite pronouns

An indefinite pronoun does not refer to any specific person, place or thing.

(someone, anyone, everybody, anybody, each, all)

Relative pronouns

Introduces a dependent (or relative) clause and connects it to an independent clause.

(who, whom, whose, which, that, what)

Possessive pronouns

Possessive pronouns show that something or someone belongs to something or someone.

Dependent (my, our, your, his, her, their, its)

Never spelled with apostrophes. Demonstrative pronouns

Demonstrative pronouns are pointers for specific objects and take the place of nouns, noun phrases, activities, or situations.

Personal pronouns are the most highly inflected class as they inflect for gender (he/she), number (I/we), case (I, me, mine).

Independent (mine, ours, yours, his, hers, its, theirs) (this, that, these, those) Can also include (none, neither and such)

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Quantifiers

Quantifiers give information about the numerical quality of something. We can use quantifiers in the place of determiners.

2.5

(one, several, much, more, enough, no, any, less, plenty of, heaps of, loads of, tons of) e.g. “I haven’t got one.” Some children, lots of cows, most people

Verb

Linguistic Definition Semantics

- describing actions of states of being

Structural

- derivational morphemes ( -ise, -ate, -ify). - inflectional morphemes (3rd person singular -s “he walks”, simple past tense: ed, past participle: ed, -n “walked, shown”, present participle: ing.)

Grammatical function

- the verb is the only absolutely essential component of a sentence. - First verb must mark TENSE distinction - Modal (and AUX do) must mark TENSE - TENSE is only marked once - MODAL must be followed by infinitive - PERFECT must be followed by PAST PARTICIPLE - PROGRESSIVE must be followed by GERUND PARTICIPLE - PASSIVE must be followed by PAST PASTICIPLE

It is useful to view grammar from the three perspectives of form, meaning and pragmatics. A teacher of grammar might begin by asking these three questions for any given grammar point: Form

How is it formed?

Meaning

What does it mean?

Pragmatics

When/why is it used?

Appendix B provides the answer to the first question regarding formation. It is worth becoming very familiar with the names of the tenses (Past Simple, etc.) as they provide vocabulary/terms for referring to language structures. Many ESL students from lower-intermediate level and up, come to our classes with some of this traditional grammar knowledge already.

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Appendix C provides a helpful summary of many of the ways in which the various verbs forms are used. This chart gives the most common answers to the last question regarding when and why the various tenses are used. Analysis of the use of verb tenses in a text reveals this to be one of the most complex areas of English grammar. Consider the following passage:

A man was walking down the street carrying a box filled with an assortment of paraphernalia he had collected during his years in London. He had been having a cigarette earlier when his boss had cornered him saying that he either returned the CDs he had ‘borrowed’ or got out. He had been indignant at first, angered by his boss’s accusation. He’d protested loudly, then packed his personal effects into a box. But now as the drizzle seeped through his clothes, he wondered how his boss had found out. A native speaker would produce this narrative without hesitation and without having to think consciously about the appropriate verb tenses. Their selection and production is automatic. Analysis reveals the use of Past Continuous, Past Perfect, Past Perfect Continuous and Past Simple verbs, in addition to uses of the present participle (carrying) and the past participle (filled, angered). Most native English speakers couldn’t explain why so many different verb tenses have been used, yet the variation in tenses gives us a lot of information about when events happened in relation to each other, and relative to the moment of speaking/writing. When we consider that Chinese languages do not have verb tenses, we begin to understand the mammoth task of teaching and learning English verb tenses. Thankfully we can learn this information little by little. As beginning ESL teachers we will at times be only a step ahead of our ESL students, studying grammar books the night before needing to teach about a particular concept. But as we study, and pass our learning on, our knowledge base grows and our own language analysis skills develop. No-one can be expected to know everything there is to know about English grammar at first, or even ever. The second question regarding meaning can be illustrated by contrasting sentences in which the same content is presented, but the verb tense in the principal clause has been changed.

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When they arrived, the movie started.

‘They’ arrived first and then the movie started.

When they arrived, the movie was starting.

At the time ‘they’ arrived, the movie was just starting; it was in the very beginning stages. Perhaps the trailers were just finishing or the preliminary lead-in was on. It is understood, however, that it was only the very beginning of the movie, the story hadn’t as yet begun.

When they arrived, the movie had started.

The movie started and ‘they’ arrived later. It is clear that the movie was well under way by the time they arrived.

Fig. 3.1 Meaning change reflected in verb tenses From this we can see that some important aspects of the meaning are actually affected by the verb tense/s. The third question, “When/why is it used?” brings us back to what we have been learning about functional language use. In relating the story of an incident, we naturally use many past tense verbs. In relating what we do as a matter of routine, we use present simple verbs. In formal writing (e.g. letters and reports) we use more passive verbs than in other situations. So as we analyse a text in preparation for teaching we need to note the typical language structures and verb tenses used in that text, or more generally in that text type (genre). We commonly think of a verb as an action word that tells us what is being done by someone or something, e.g. James caught the train. However, we also have linking verbs that express a condition or state of being rather than an action, e.g. James is at the station. The new trains look good.

Verb Processes Many of us will remember being taught that verbs are “doing words” or “action words”. However, the use of verbs is much broader than describing actions. As described in Chapter 2, functional grammar raises our awareness of the different ‘processes’ which verbs seek to describe. Type

Rule

Example

Material processes

Material processes express some physical action going on. This class of verb is closest to our traditional definition of “doing/action”.

I ran to the corner.

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The shopping centre was locked at 9:30pm.

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Mental processes

Mental processes involve thinking, feeling and perceiving.

Thinking We all believed her story. Do you understand? I know what you mean. Feeling I love watching the sunset. She wanted another piece of cake, though she said she didn’t. Perceiving Can you hear that? I saw something out of the corner of my eye.

Verbal processes

Verbal processes signal the presentation of a message.

I told you I’d be late tonight. I asked you to get wombok, not bok choy. This letter says I’ve been accepted.

Rational processes

Relational processes establish certain kinds of relationship.

Attributive This room is too cold. The tourists looked amazed. The girl seemed nervous. Possessive Koalas have short grey fur. The unit has three bedrooms. The land belongs to the council.

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Types Of Verbs Type

Rule

Example

Transitive

Transitive verbs are objects verbs which require an object to convey the full meaning

Ian McEwan wrote Atonement.

Intransitive

Intransitive verbs are nonobject verbs, they do not need an object to act upon.

Something terrible happens in the story

Ditransitive

Ditransitive verbs are two object verbs, they take both a direct object and an indirect object.

Robbie sent a letter to

Copular verbs are linking verbs of complement verbs

e.g. be, seem, look, smell,

Copular verbs

Cecilia.

become.

They tell you more about the subject The complement completes the meaning of the verb Phrasal verbs

Phrasal verbs are formed by adding an adverb or preposition to a verb, creating a new meaning.

e.g. “She looks incredible in that green dress” SV(copular)A e.g. look after, log on, show off, put up with. We can’t put off the inevitable. (‘Put’ no longer means ‘to place’; instead, ‘put off’ now means ‘to postpone’.) The Treasurer stepped down amid rumors of corruption. (‘Step’ no longer has anything to do with feet moving; ‘step down’ means ‘to resign’.)

Auxiliary verbs

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Auxiliary verbs, or helping verbs, add some meaning to the main verb. In the following examples the whole verb is underlined, and the

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You can go in now. (‘can’ = modal auxiliary) You really should visit your mother more often. (‘should’ = modal auxiliary)

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auxiliary verb is in bold italics.

The most common auxiliary verbs are ‘be’, ‘have’, ‘do’, and ‘will’, which are used to form various verb tenses.

We’ve got to see the new Star Wars movie. (‘have got to’) He was walking down the street when his mobile rang. I have lived in Brisbane for the last eight years. We have been waiting for 45 minutes!

(more on Aux verbs in the next section) Modal verbs

Modal verbs are a type of auxiliary verb that is used to indicate modality – i.e., likelihood, ability, permission, and obligation. The most common modal verbs are ‘can’, ‘could’, ‘may’, ‘might’, ‘will’, ‘would’, ‘must’, ‘shall’, ‘should’, ‘have to’, and ‘ought to’.

I must go to the shop because I've run out of milk.

Main verbs

Main verbs express the main meaning. In the following examples the whole verb is underlined, and the main verb is in italics.

We’re travelling to Sydney tomorrow. They stayed in a motel overnight.

Verb Tense and Aspect SIMPLE

CONTINOUS

PERFECT

P. CONTINUOUS

PRESENT

Simple present

Present continuous

Present perfect

Present perfect cont.

PAST

Simple past

Past continuous

Past perfect

Past perfect cont.

FUTURE

Simple future

Future continuous

Future perfect (will) (have/has)

Future perfect cont. (will) (have/has been)

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The chart included as Appendix B gives examples of the formation of the past and present verb tenses. Each tense is illustrated with the statement, negative and question forms. In the following example the verbs are italicised to emphasise the changed form in statements, questions and negatives.

Statement Negative Question

Past continuous Harry was walking to school. Harry wasn’t walking to school. Was Harry walking to school?

Past continuous verbs are formed by combining ‘was’ or ‘were’ (i.e. past tense of verb ‘to be’) with an ‘-ing verb’. was/were + -ing

When we think of verb tenses, we think in terms of past, present and future. In traditional grammar, English verbs have been given labels that include the terms past, present and future, e.g. Past Simple, Present Simple. It is simplistic or misleading, however, to think that Past Simple verbs only talk about the past, and Present Simple verbs only ever talk about the present. Appendix C gives examples of how the various verb tenses cross over the past, present and future boundaries, depending on the time intention (i.e. the time that is being referred to). For example, Past Simple can be used to talk about the: Past: Present: Future:

I woke up and got out of bed. You wanted to see me now? I wondered if you were free tonight?

Type

Rule

Tense

Inflection change in form Present simple and past simple

Aspect

Perfect aspect (perfective) for whether something has been completed or not.

e.g. verb + have + ed “I’ve finished the painting.”

Continuous aspect (progressive) for whether an action is in progress or not.

Verb + be + ing “He’s walking the dog.” e.g. present (tense) progressive (aspect)

Active voice – In most English sentences with an action verb, the subject performs the action denoted by the verb.

In this example the subject is doing the verb's action. e.g. “Andy Murray beat Roger Federer.”

Voice (focus)

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Example

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Passive voice - One can change the normal word order of many active sentences (those with a direct object) so that the subject is no longer active, but is, instead, being acted upon by the verb - or passive.

Note in this example how the subject-verb relationship has changed. e.g. “Roger Federer, was beaten by Andy Murray.”

Regular or Irregular Verbs The past simple tense and past participle (used in perfect tenses) of regular verbs end in ‘-ed’ (walked, phoned, listened). Irregular verbs do not end in ‘-ed’; they may have the same form or a completely different form in the past simple and for the past participle. Base verb

Past simple

Past participle

hit

Hit

hit

three forms are the same

run

Ran

run

only past simple is different

speak

Spoke

spoken

three forms are different

beat

Beat

beaten

only past participle is different

See Appendix D for a list of some irregular English verbs (not comprehensive). Such charts are often included as an appendix in ESL course books and grammar texts.

2.6

Auxiliary Verb

Linguistic Definition Semantics

- helps you do something e.g. mark tense

Structural

- to be - to have - to do - modals

Functional

- Used to ‘help’ the main verb express it’s tense, mood, or voice.

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Types of Auxiliary Verbs Types

Use

Examples

To be

Present participle to make continuous tense.

e.g. “Freddy is studying.”

Past participle to make passive voice forms. Present participle to make future progressive. To do

To have

Used to mark tense – it is meaningless To make a question and negatives in the present simple and past simple

e.g. “The dishes were washed by Jane.” e.g. “I will be planting my own veggie garden this summer.”

e.g. “Do you like to go running?”

To make affirmative present simple and past simple statements

e.g. “We did prepare our homework for Mrs. Da Silva!” e.g. “We do enjoy going for a walk each night!”

With the past participle to make the perfect tense

e.g. “She has had that car for years!” e.g. “I have been waiting for you for hours”

Modal Auxiliary

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Each modal auxiliary has their own rules: - Used to express possibility, desire, doubt, etc. - Bare infinitive – take infinitive without ‘to’ e.g. “I shall invite them.” - There is no 3rd person singular form - They form negatives by adding ‘not’ e.g. “I wouldn’t do that if I were you.” - They form questions

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e.g. Can, will, may, might, shall, should, could, would, must.

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by inverting e.g. “Could you help me, please?” Limited in tenses They cannot be preceded by another modal

-

2.7

Adverb

Linguistic Definition Semantics

- added to the verb. Describing direction, location, time, manner of frequency, and degree.

Structural

- Derivational morphemes (some - ly). - Inflectional morphemes – a few inflect for comparative / superlative.

Functional

- Adverbs modify verbs - Adverbs intensify adjectives - Intensify other adverbs - Intensify whole sentences

Types of Adverbs Use

Examples

Adverbs modify verbs

“She drives carefully.”

Adverbs intensify adjectives

“You look absolutely marvelous.”

Intensify other adverbs

“She works incredibly hard.”

Intensify whole sentences

“Unfortunately, there is no juice left in the bottle.”

Adverbs cannot describe a noun or a pronoun; that is the function of an adjective.

Adverb: They walked slowly. (‘Slowly’ describes the verb ‘walked’.) Adjective: They went for a slow walk. (‘Slow’ describes the noun ‘walk’.)

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In the last example it is easy to spot the adverb, because it ends in ‘-ly’, as most adverbs do. But not all adverbs end in ‘–ly’. And some adjectives do end in ‘–ly’ (e.g. lovely). So an ‘–ly’ ending is not a completely reliable indicator. A helpful strategy here is to ask yourself whether the verb can be replaced with ‘to be’ and still make sense, e.g. “The manager is nervous.” In this example, we can see that nervous is an adjective because it clearly describes the manager. In contrast, think of the example, “Our friends visit often.” We can’t say, “Our friends are often.” Therefore, ‘often’ must describe the verb ‘visit’. Another helpful strategy is to ask ourselves a question to find out what is being described. What is nervous? - the manager. ‘Manager’ is a noun, so ‘nervous’ is an adjective. What is often? Not our friends! The ‘visiting’ is often. ‘Visit’ is a verb, so ‘often’ is an adverb.

Adverb Position Adverbs can be placed at the beginning, end or in the middle of a sentence. Anxiously he checked his watch. He anxiously checked his watch. He checked his watch anxiously. Refer to a grammar textbook for more detail on the position of adverbs in a sentence.

2.8

Adjective

Linguistic Definition Semantics

- an adjective describes a noun or pronoun

Structural

- Derivational morphemes (-ful, -ive, -ish, -able, -ent). - Inflectional morphemes (-er, -est) comparative and superlative

Grammar function

- Come before a determiner and a noun (attributive), “A handsome young man.” - After a copular verb (predictive) “Lewis is sensational in his new movie.”

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Types of Adjectives Type

Rule

Example

Numerical adjectives

Numerical adjectives imply the number of nouns or order of nouns. Qualitative adjectives describes the qualities of a noun and are gradable.

one book, two students

Qualitative adjectives

Interrogative adjectives Comparative

Superlative

Interrogative adjectives modify the noun by asking a question. Add ‘er’ or ‘more’ plus adjective Long adj (3 syllables +) use ‘more’ Add ‘est’ or ‘most’ plus adjective Must show ‘the’ before ‘most’ Long adj (3 syllables +) use ‘most’

big, round, tall, red relaxing, disappointing, interesting (-ing) confused, fascinated (-ed) Which book? What ideas? Better, faster, hotter more important, more dangerous, more colorful Best, fastest, hottest the most important, the most dangerous, the most colorful

Order of Adjectives When we use a number of adjectives to describe one item, there is a generally accepted order: How good? a

How big?

How old?

What shape?

Large

a a the

fantastic tacky

a

wonderful

What colour?

Where from?

Made of?

Italian

leather

What kind?

red new

Long

plastic

picture

maho gany

dining

narrow

old

round

apple shoes computer frame pathway

table

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2.9

Determiners

Linguistic Definition Semantics

Function

- Always come before a noun - Sometime one or more adjectives can come between the determiner and the noun e.g. - “It is a beautiful garden.” (Determiner/adj/noun) - There cannot be two determiners together - Articles

- Quantifiers - Numbers - Ordinals

(an, the a), (possessive adjectives - your, mine, his…) and (demonstrative pronouns – this, that, these, those) (much, many, some, any, few, little…) (one, two, three…) (first, last, next, thirty-first…)

Definite Articles & Indefinite Articles Semantics

- one type of determiner

Function

- A, AN, THE or zero article - Depends on whether the noun that follows is: single or plural, countable or uncountable, general or specific

This short section is a very superficial introduction to articles and should be treated as such. Much more information is available in grammar textbooks regarding the use of articles. Caution: it’s not as simple as it seems!

Definite Article: ‘The’ As a general rule we use ‘the’ when the hearer or reader already knows what we’re referring to. There are a myriad of other situations in which we use ‘the’, some of which are described as follows

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Pronunciation

Use

Rule

Example

[ðə]

when the following words begins with a consonant sound

the car ðə kɑ:

[ð3:]

when the following word begins with a vowel sound

the apple ð3: æpəl

[ði:]

the Elvis Presley [ði: elvIs prezli:] as in “the one and only Elvis Presley.”

when it is emphasised

the university ðə ju:nəv3:səti:

i.

Referring to a specific person or thing or group of people or thing:

the doctor the university the car

ii.

Referring to one thing only:

proper nouns – the Shah, the Pyramids singular nouns – the sun, the wind

iii.

Referring to just one person, thing or group in a particular place or organisation:

the school the director

iv.

Generalising – countable nouns used in singular to refer to something more general:

The theatre was just a way to make a living.

v.

Refer to a system:

How long does it take on the train?

vi.

Musical instruments:

Geoff plays the piano well.

vii.

Formal generalisations:

living things The kangaroo lives in the Australian bush. parts of the body The heart is an essential organ. all members of a group

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Organising events is the responsibility of the committee. viii.

Uncountable nouns:

Usually don’t use ‘the’ with uncountable nouns. But we do use ‘the’ if the uncountable noun is followed by a qualifier which relates it to a particular person, thing or group. I am interested in the education of young children.

ix.

Superlatives

They went to the most expensive restaurant in town.

x.

For emphasis:

It’s the club to go to. You met the Michael Jackson?

xi.

The few members in Before some general attendance were talkative determiners (few, little, many, other, select) – to that night. give an indication of amount or quantity:

xii.

With numbers:

The four girls sat and giggled uncontrollably.

Indefinite Article: ‘a’ and ‘an’ As a general rule we use ‘a’ or ‘an’ when the reader or hearer does not already know what we are referring to. We are talking about it for the first time. Rule a. You use ‘a’ in front of words that begin with a consonant sound.

Example We all live in a yellow submarine. We all went to a university in Brisbane. Both ‘yellow’ and ‘university’ begin with the [j] sound, a

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consonant sound. Even though ‘university’ begins with a vowel letter, it begins with a consonant sound [j]. That’s why we don’t say, ‘an university’. b. You use ‘an’ in front of words that begin with a vowel sound.

Can you pass me an apple, please? The doctor sent him to get an xray. Again, we see that the key is a vowel sound rather than a vowel letter. ‘Xray’ begins with a consonant letter, but a vowel sound, so it is preceded by ‘an’.

Use

i.

With singular countable nouns:

an apple a horse

ii.

First time something is mentioned – use a/an;

Once upon a time, a man walked down the street.

iii.

Can add modifiers:

a Swedish girl

iv.

With modified uncountable nouns:

a general education an eagerness for life

v.

With modified singular nouns:

a gloomy sky

Nouns without Determiners

Use

Rule

Example

Referring to things or people in an indefinite way.

Permission should be asked before visitors are invited.

Uncountable nouns usually don’t take a determiner.

Do you take sugar in your tea?

Plural nouns – when referring to all the people or things of a kind.

Dogs need regular exercise.

Referring to an unspecified number of things.

Teachers often read stories to young children.

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Other Determiners Type

Rule

Example

Quantifiers

Quantifiers give more information about the number of something. Can be used with both count and non-count nouns.

(much, many, some, any, few, little…)

Numbers

Similar to quantifiers, numbers are used to give information about the number of something. Numbers come at the beginning of a noun phrase and adjectives.

(one, two, three…)

Ordinals

Ordinal numbers indicate position or order in relation to other numbers. Ordinal numbers always have a suffix tacked onto the end (1st, 2nd, 3rd).

(first, last, next, thirty-first…)

2.10 Preposition Linguistic Definition Semantics

- a word governing, and usually preceding, a noun or pronoun and expressing a relation to another word or element in the clause.

Function

- Followed by a noun, pronoun, or noun phrase - They can make connections between words

They can be

- One word (by, with, from) - Several words (on account of, in the event of)

Types of Prepositions Use

Example

Place

e.g. on the table, in the soup, above the houses

Time

e.g. at 4 o’clock, in two weeks, for three years

Instrument

e.g. with a hammer, by reading

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Direction

e.g. into the cup, towards the window, through the park

Manner

e.g. with great sensitivity, in an authoritative tone

2.11 Conjunction Linguistic Definition Semantics

- Conjunctions join words, phrases, clauses or whole sentences, connecting related ideas or elements.

Function

- You cannot have two conjunctions together. - Conjunctions are also known as joining / connecting words.

Types of Conjunctions Type

Rule

Example

Coordinating conjunctions

A conjunction placed between words, phrases, clauses, or a sentence of equal rank

and, but, or, unless

A conjunction that introduces a subordinating clause (dependent clause – which means it cannot stand alone).

Because, though, since, if, after

A conjunction that works in pairs to join together words or phrases that have no equal importance in a sentence.

Either/or, not only/but also, such/that

Subordinatin g conjunction

Correlative conjunction

I like the beach, but I don’t like the sand.

Melbourne is such a beautiful city because of all its parks.

You can have either pasta or rice. She not only sings well but is also a talented dancer.

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Examples of Conjunctions The examples listed below are not an exhaustive list. Use

Example

Time

when, whenever, as, while

We lock the doors whenever we leave the house.

Place

wherever

I’ll be thinking of you wherever you are.

Logical relationships

Reason: because, since, as

I’ll just wrap up some cake for James, since he wasn’t able to be at the party tonight.

Purpose: so, that, in order that

I’ll put these in the filing cabinet so that we can find them easily.

Result: so … that

She was so kind that I immediately relaxed.

Condition: if, unless

We’ll go if you’ve finished your homework. We won’t go unless you have.

Concession: although, even though, even if

It’s too late to go now, even though you have finished your homework.

Comparison: as, as if, as though

The weather is as hot as if it was the middle of summer.

Additive: and, also, furthermore, in addition, besides, or, nor

You are both amusing and intelligent!

Adversative: but, yet, though, however, on the other hand

He is intelligent, but a trifle dull.

Continuatives: now, of course, well, anyway, surely, after all (signalling that the speaker is continuing to speak)

“Well, shall we go now?”

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2.12 Interjection Linguistic Definition Semantics

- interjections are usually spoken words like “hey!” or “oh!”

Function

- Express sudden feelings - Usually used separate from other sentences - Used in casual and informal writing and speech - Not used in formal writing

Examples

Hey! Oh my! Wow! Yikes! Ouch! Oops! Terrific! Woohoo!

3. Syntax Phrases, Clauses and Sentences Phrases, clauses and sentences are terms used in both traditional grammar and functional grammar; however, the analysis that comes out of each grammar type is very different. In this section we have described the analysis according to traditional grammar. Functional grammar would be talking about word groups which represent participants, circumstances and processes and offers a very helpful framework for focusing on meaning.

Phrases A phrase is a group of words without a finite verb. A finite verb is a verb that has a subject. A phrase functions in a sentence like a single part of speech. It cannot stand on its own as a sentence because its message is not complete. The girl sat reading a book. ‘Reading a book’ would not stand as a sentence on its own; therefore, it is a phrase. Although ‘reading’ is a verb, it is not finite; the subject is not explicit. To make it finite, we would need to state the subject: She was reading a book. Deciding whether something a is phrase or not: Test

Description

Example

Substitution test

Substitute a word without changing meaning

The tall librarian put the book on that shelf. She

it

there.

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Cleft test

Movement test

To use the cleft test, we take the string of words that we’re investigating and put it after the words It was, then leave the remaining parts of the sentence to follow the word that.

It BE ___ that/who ____.

Moving phrases around

The tall librarian put the book on that shelf. On that shelf, the tall librarian put the book.

It was the tall librarian who put the book… BE

who

Types of Phrases Type

Rule

Example

Noun phrases

noun phrases consist of a determinative followed by a noun determinative + adjective + noun noun (substituted with ‘it’) pronoun adjective + noun An adjective phrase is a group of words headed by an adjective that modifies a noun. An adverbial phrase is a group of words that refines the meaning of a verb, adjective, or adverb. preposition phrase = preposition + noun phrase

the sentence, some dirty water, happiness, that boy, David, elderly man, woman, they.

Adjective phrase

Adverb phrase

Preposition phrase Verb phrase

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verb verb + preposition phrase verb + noun phrase verb + noun phrase + preposition phrase verb + noun phrase + preposition phrase + preposition phrase verb + noun phrase + noun phrase + preposition phrase + preposition phrase (maximum of 2 NP’s in a VP) (as many PP’s as you like)

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That very happy woman left … so happy … very quickly, rather carefully

to the shops, after the party, into the large kitchen the girl left, the girl kissed the boy

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Clauses A clause is a complete statement that is contained in a sentence. A clause can be the main clause or subordinate clause/s. When they arrived in Australia, they struggled to communicate because they could not speak English. “They struggled to communicate” is the most important information in the sentence. It is the principal clause, and the other clauses are added in such ways that they support or add to the principal clause. The other two clauses tell when and why they couldn’t communicate. Those two clauses, as they are, could not stand on their own (“When they arrived in Australia.” Or, “Because they could not speak English.”). They are subordinate clauses. Clause: “The largest grammatical unit smaller than a sentence” (Trask, 2007; p37). Can be at the beginning, middle or end of a sentence. Type

Rule

Example

Clause / simple sentence

Consists of only one clause.

John submitted his assignment online.

Subordinating clauses

Cannot stand on their own There are three types (noun clauses, adverbial clauses and adjective clauses)

If I can find my wallet, (This SC does not convey the full meaning).

Subordinating conjunction

While, although, as before, since, as if, when, as long as, in order that etc.

(time, reason, contract, condition, purpose, result)

Noun clauses

A noun clause is a dependent clause that acts as a noun. Noun clauses can act as subjects, direct objects, indirect objects, predicate nominatives, or objects of a preposition. Introduced by a ‘wh – question word’, or ‘if’ or

“I can’t think where I’ve left my glasses.” “I don’t know why people seem to be fascinated by Kim K.” “She said that she loved me.” (verb) “She said she love me.” (verb) “I’m delighted you came.” (adjective)

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Adjective clauses

‘whether’ or ‘that’. ‘that’ noun clauses come after verbs, adjectives or nouns You can usually leave ‘that’ clause out

“I have a feeling you’re bored.” (noun)

An adjective clause is a dependent clause that, like an adjective, modifies a noun or pronoun

“JK Rowling is the writer who introduced…c” (modifies the noun – writer).

Introduced by who, which, that, whom, whose, and sometimes where and when. Defining relative clauses (restrictive)

They tell which person or think of which kind of person or thing is meant. ‘that’ is always used in defining clauses. Defining clauses tell us more about a general noun (anyone, people, everything).

People who live in glass houses shouldn’t throw stones. Anyone who had a heart would know that you love me. I’ll be watching every move (that) you make. A cardiologist is a doctor who specialises in diseases of the heart.

Some relative clauses identify or classify nouns. Non-defining relative clauses (non-restrictive)

Do not identify or classify They merely tell us something more about a person or thing that is already identified. They often follow proper nouns – Can never use ‘that’

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Wayne Bennett, who has been with the Broncos for 20 years, is now going to coach the Dragons. Edinburgh, which I think is the most beautiful city in the world, is the capital of Scotland.

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Grammatical and stylistic differences between defining and non-defining clauses. -

Non-defining clauses are generally more formal and used more in written rather than spoken English.

-

Non-defining clauses are separated from the rest of the sentence by commas (or in speech by a pause). Commas are not used with defining clauses.

-

The relative pronoun ‘that’ is commonly used for things and even people informally in defining relative clauses. In non-defining clauses ‘that’ is not possible and we must use ‘which’ for things and ‘who’ for people.

-

When the relative pronoun is an object, it can be (and usually is) left out in defining relative clauses. The relative cannot be left out in nondefining clauses.

Adverbial Clauses

Introduced by a subordinating conjunction (while, although, as before, since, as if, in order to etc.) They tell us about time, manner, reason, contrast, condition, purpose, result or concession.

Manner – how Place – where Time – when, while, as before, since Reason – so, as to why, why Condition - as long as Result – as a result, therefore, so Concession – although e.g. I will go to the party although I don’t want to go.

Conditional clauses Conditional sentences express an action or outcome (in the main clause without if) that can only take place if a certain condition (contained in the clause with if) is fulfilled. There are four conditional states. Clause

Form and Rule

Example

Zero conditional

to refer to all time or facts

If you buy a ticket early, you get a discount.

If + Present Simple + Present Simple

If you stand in the rain, you get wet.

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First conditional

to express what is real and possible

If I decide to go to the concert, I’ll phone you.

If + Present tense + will

If we leave before 5 o’clock, we’ll arrive in time. If we don’t leave before 5 o’clock, we’ll be late.

Second conditional

Third conditional

to express situations that probably won’t happen

If I won a million dollars, I’d travel around the world.

If + Past tense + would (could, might)

If I was Prime Minister, I’d disband immigration detention centres.

to talk about what didn’t happen

If we had hurried a bit more we would have caught the bus.

If + Past Perfect + would have (could have, might have)

If we hadn’t been so slow, we would have caught the bus. If we hadn’t stopped for that last cup of coffee, we wouldn’t have missed the bus.

Sentence A sentence is a group of words that contains at least one complete thought. A sentence must have a subject, a complete verb, a capital letter at the beginning and either a full stop, a question mark or an exclamation mark at the end. In dialogue, however, sentence fragments are acceptable. For example: “How are you getting to the footy?” “By bus.” In the reply, “By bus.”, the subject ‘I’ and verb ‘am going’ are understood or implied. This practice of abbreviating utterances by omitting ‘understood’ components is known as ellipsis. (Ellipsis is discussed in Section 5, under the heading Cohesion in this chapter.)

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Type

Rule

Example

Compound sentence

Contain two or more independent clauses joined by ‘and’, ‘but’, or ‘or’ (coordinating conjunctions)

John submitted his assignment online, but Peter submitted in hard copy.

If the subject in the second clause is the same as in the first clause, it can be left out.

I fell over and (I) twisted my ankle.

Contain a main clause and one or more subordinate clauses joined by a subordinating conjunction.

When John came home, he found that he had to submit his assignment in hard copy.

Complex sentence

4. Basic sentence structure These descriptions of sentences are within the framework of traditional grammar because many ESL students come to language classes having already been exposed to these terms and concepts. The foundational building blocks of a sentence are: subject, verb and object or complement (although sentences may not have an object or a complement). The subject usually includes a noun (or pronoun) that names a person, place or thing. The verb often follows the noun and identifies an action. The object receives the action and usually follows the verb. Complements usually follow linking verbs and tell us something about the subject. Subject, verb pattern: The girl laughed. Subject Verb Subject, verb, object pattern: The boy ate the cake. Subject Verb Object Subject, verb, complement pattern: The cake was delicious. Subject Verb Complement

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SVOCA Rule Subject

Nouns or pronouns

Verb

Auxiliaries or finite verbs

Object

Noun or noun phrase

Example

I like animals.

Or noun clauses O – (what?) (whom?)

I gave Rosy a pen.

D.O – direct object (what) I. O – indirect object (whom) Complement

Completes the meaning in the sentence Without it, the meaning is incomplete Without it, the meaning changes SVC – complements the subject

Adjunct/adverbial

SVOC – complements the object

I found her crying.

Adverb phrase

“She comes everyday.” SVA due to cold; carefully; through floods

Adverbial clause Noun phrase Why? (Reason)

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She was angry.

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now; later; after two years; in the morning here; there; everywhere; at home

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When? (Time) Where? (Place)

by bus; by mixing; through efforts manner – place – time

How? (Manner) Order of adverbs

Sentence structure SV

Subject Verb

SVO

Subject Verb Object

SVA

Subject Verb Adverbial

SVC

Subject Verb Complement

SVCA

Subject Verb Complement Adverbial

SVOC

Subject Verb Object Complement

SVOO

Subject Verb Object Object

SVOOA

Subject Verb Object Object Adverbial

5. Cohesion When speaking or writing effectively, we tie our thoughts together in such a way that the listener or reader can understand the relationship between one piece of information and another. To do this we use cohesive devices. The most common cohesive devices are reference, ellipsis and substitution, lexical cohesion and conjunctions. For information about conjunctions see section 2.11 of this unit (above).

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Reference Type

Rule

Example

Pronouns

Once something has been introduced into a text, it can be referred to by using a pronoun:

The woman picked up the melon and sniffed it. She wanted a nice sweet one for dessert that night.

The woman is referred to as she in the next sentence, and the melon is referred to as it in the same sentence, and one in the next sentence

After drinking his coffee, Peter rinsed out his cup. It doesn’t go here, it goes there!

We can also use pronouns to refer to something ahead in the text: We can also use a pronoun when the context makes it clear what is being referred to: Demonstratives

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Demonstratives (this, that, these, those, here, there) can also be used to refer to something without naming or renaming it.

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Casual employees will be granted an increase in salary from July 1. This and other important matters will be discussed at the staff meeting. These meetings are considered to be part of your work responsibilities.

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Ellipsis and Substitution

Ellipsis

Rule

Example

Ellipsis refers to the practice of omitting a word/phrase completely.

“How are you getting to the footy?” “By bus.” (We’re going by bus.) If it had been sunny, I’d have done the laundry: it wasn’t, so I didn’t. (It wasn’t sunny, so I didn’t do the laundry.)

Substitution

Substitution means we replace a word or phrase with something else.

“There are two books on the shelf.” “I’ll take the one by Walsh.” (the one = the book)

Lexical cohesion is achieved by choosing words which are related semantically. Type

Rule

Example

Repetition

using the same word or term over again.

again, and again and again

Synonyms

using words similar in meaning

exciting, exhilarating, stimulating, dreadful, awful, terrible, sound, noise

Antonyms

using words opposite in meaning

sound / silence hot / cold big / small

Hyponyms

using words that indicate the relationship of a member of a class to the whole,

roses, hibiscus, and daffodils are all hyponyms of ‘flower’.

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Meronyms

using words that show the part-whole relationship

Wheels, chassis, seats, and windows are all meronyms of ‘car’. Finger and thumb are meronyms of hand.

Collocations

using words which typically occur together,

school, teacher, student, desk, chair, classroom; fish and chips; salt and pepper; foregone conclusion; heavy rain.

6. Punctuation In English, the most common punctuation marks are; capital letters and full stops, question marks, commas, colons and semi-colons, exclamation marks and quotation marks. Punctuation is used in both written and spoken language, to show the pause and pitch of voice to make what we are saying or writing clear. Punctuation consists of both rules and conventions. There are rules of punctuation that have to be followed; but there are also punctuation conventions that give writers greater choice. Type

Rule

Example

Capital letters (upper case)

At the beginning of sentences.

The cat sat on the mat.

For the first letters of proper nouns such as names of people, places, books, movies, etc.; and For the first letters of the names of organisations, religions, and holidays. Commas

The Great Gatsby

Catholicism Christmas

Commas are used when a short pause is needed to: Separate things in a list; and Break up sentences so that the meaning is clear.

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The girl picked the blue, yellow, and pink flowers. If we do all our work, we will be able to go to the beach.

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Full stops

Full stops are used: At the end of sentences (except where a question mark or exclamation mark is needed); and

Lucca has completed his work for the day.

In some abbreviations (not where the final letter of the abbreviation is the same as the final letter of the complete word, e.g. p. for page or no. for number whereas dr for doctor has no full stop as both the abbreviation and the full word end in r).

e.g.

Question marks

are used at the end of questions.

Are you coming to dinner tonight?

Exclamation marks

are used to show strong feelings like surprise, excitement, shock.

Wow! No way!

Apostrophes

Apostrophes used in contractions show we have left something out.

I’ll = I will

Apostrophes for belonging or possession

Apostrophes used to show belonging / possession:

The horses’ stalls had been cleaned out.

For singular words, whether they end in ‘s’ already or not, add an apostrophe and then ‘s’.

The bike’s tyre was flat.

For plural words that end in ‘s’ already, just add the apostrophe at the end.

The circus’s truck pulled out of the fairground.

For plural words that do not end in ‘s’, add an apostrophe then ‘s’.

The cattle’s water supply was contaminated.

p page no.

Note: it’s = it is its = belonging to ‘it’ (just as her and his show ownership without the apostrophe ‘s’)

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Inverted commas (quotation marks)

Inverted commas are used to quote exactly what was said.

“Drop the gun!” the police officer shouted.

They are also sometimes used for names of short pieces of writing, e.g. poems, chapters. They can also be used to make a word “stand out” from the rest.

She added 'cheese and crackers' to the list.

7. Procedure for teaching grammar 7.1

Approaches

There are two ways to approach teaching grammar: Decontextualised •Grammar taught in "grammar lessons" •Taught in systematic manner •'Bottom up' approach - focus on form •Beginning with simpler forms and building towards the more complex •Unrelated to social purpose

Contextualised •Grammar taught within context on written or spoken genre •Associated with particular social function •'Top down' approach - focus on function •Associated with particular social function

Grammar teaching and learning can be contextualised when teaching recounts, by teaching past tense verbs, prepositional phrases of time and place, and conjunctions that indicate sequence and reference pronouns. When teaching procedural texts, we would focus on imperative verbs, adverbs, time, sequence and place markers. When teaching casual conversation, we would broaden the focus on verbs to include the perfect tenses. We would also teach use of discourse markers such as, “So…”, “Well…”, and feedback such as, “Oh,”, “Uh-huh,”, “Really!”, “That’s great!”, and “I’m sorry to hear that.” When teaching how to give an explanation, we would focus on conjunctions associated with cause, reason and purpose.

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These grammar focus sessions may be a segment of a lesson, or may take up a whole lesson (depending on the length of class). However, they will be directly related to the genre in focus, and the grammar content will be referred to and highlighted in relation to any texts you are working with. Grammar is rarely, if ever, our starting point for planning a lesson. Our starting point for framing lesson content is social purpose: Why are we communicating? What message do we need to convey? What are the appropriate language choices (grammar, vocab, and structure) that will facilitate my communicative purpose? A typical grammar focus within a lesson or series of lessons will include:

Presentation of the grammar point

Activities to develop accuracy

Activities to develop fluency

For more information on accuracy and fluency activities, see section 8.1 and 8.2 of this chapter below.

7.2 Present the grammar point Presenting the grammar point can be done either by giving a rule followed by examples and application (deductive), or by giving examples and demonstrations from which the students formulate a rule (inductive). Here is a very simple illustration of the difference between deductive and inductive teaching and learning Deductive •Give a rule followed by examples and application •E.g. Regular past simple verbs are formed by adding ‘ed’. These are the spelling rules for adding ‘ed’. Here is a list of regular present simple verbs. Now change them into past simple verbs. Inductive •Give examples and demonstrations from which students formulate the rule •Look at these regular present simple and past simple verbs listed on the board. What is the difference? What can we say then about forming past simple verbs? What do you notice about the spelling when we add ‘ed’? What rules can we see at work here? Inductive learning has the benefit of learning happening at a deeper level. As students engage in a problem-solving task, they are more actively cognitively involved in the statement of the rule. However, there are occasions or situations when you simply don’t have the time necessary for this approach, or the students

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don’t have the capability, at which times the deductive approach will be more expedient.

7.3

Present the form

Whether you decide to give the rule first or have students work the rule out for themselves, along with clear spoken modelling of the form, you should at some point give a written key to the formation. Many ESL texts use tables such as this one showing the formation of present continuous verbs: I

am

He She It

is

We You They

are

waiting.

Some students with low literacy backgrounds may find this kind of representation difficult to understand and apply. They may benefit more from each sentence being written in full: I He She It We You They

am is is is are are are

waiting. waiting. waiting. waiting. waiting. waiting. waiting.

The variation in formation can be highlighted by using different colours, underlining, or different print styles (italics, bold). This will assist visual learners. Some students may benefit from a more kinaesthetic approach, e.g. learning by manipulating word cards. Some will appreciate the formula: Present cont. verbs

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7.3

Present the use

We need to relate the grammar point very explicitly to the text type we are teaching. Use model texts to show examples of the grammar point. This makes a very definite link between the grammar point and its functional application. In doing so, we hope to see students transferring ‘propositional knowledge’ about language (grammar rules) into ‘procedural knowledge’ using language. Once again, we note that grammar is never taught in isolation, but always in relation to the way in which we make meaning for a specific social purpose, to achieve a communicative goal.

7.4

Present the meaning

(a) Demonstration using real items can give a very clear picture of the meaning, for example accompanying action with instruction as follows: Open the book, close the book, open the door, close the door, open the window, close the window, give the book to Mary, give the book to John… It (pointing to the ceiling) is too high to touch. It (trying to lift the table) is too big to carry (by myself). It (trying to lift the bookshelf) is too heavy to lift. The desk is bigger than the chair. The board is bigger than the book. The desk is heavier than the pencil. Using real items is not always practical, however, and pictures can be a good substitute, either quick drawings on the board, or printed pictures you have gathered. (b) Situations can also be useful for showing meaning: Her fridge is empty: Her child is sick: Her car has broken down: Her TV is broken:

She has to buy some food. She has to go to the doctor. She has to catch the bus. She has to call the repairman.

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(c) Contrasts can also highlight meaning: 1.

2.

3.

When Sandra got home, Peter ___________ (wash) the dishes. 1. had washed 2. was washing 3. washed Only the verb tense has changed, yet the meaning is considerably different. (d) Timelines can help to illustrate verb aspect. While I was walking down the street, the bus went past. went past

was walking

NOW

PAST

FUTURE

I chopped the vegetables, stir-fried them and served them with rice. chopped stir-fried

served

NOW

PAST

FUTURE

I had seen Jane speaking to Mary, so I knew they had met before the party. saw (had seen) had met speaking

knew

PAST

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8. Grammar activities 8.1

Accuracy development

Activities to develop accuracy These activities tend to be quite tightly controlled in terms of the language students must produce. We are implementing activities which require students to produce a particular structure, and our concern is with the accuracy of the production. It is also preferable to select or develop activities using topics that are meaningful and relevant to our students. Examples of accuracy exercises include:

Oral drills Though drills went out of vogue for a while, most ESL teachers and students will affirm the value of drills as an aid to memory. The challenge for ESL teachers is to make the activity meaningful and demanding enough for students to become actively cognitively engaged in language production. The more a student engages with the task, the greater the retention. The kind of prompts you use can increase the cognitive demand: Description

Example

Repetition drills such as the one below can be done without comprehension and for this reason should be used sparingly. (They can, however, provide very good pronunciation practice.)

T: Ss: T: Ss:

Do we have any flour? Do we have any flour? Do we have any sugar? Do we have any sugar?

Single word prompts are a little better than repetition drills, in that the student must remember the structure into which to insert the new word/phrase:

T: Ss: T: Ss: T: Ss:

Do we have any flour? Do we have any flour? Sugar. Do we have any sugar? Eggs. Do we have any eggs?

Ss: Ss: Ss:

Do we have any butter? Do we have any eggs? Do we have any milk?

Picture prompts require the students to remember the structure and the vocabulary:

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Situational prompts require the students to draw on their own experience and knowledge:

T: S: S: S:

You want to bake a cake. Do we have any flour? Do we have any sugar? Do we have any butter?

T: S: S: S:

You want to build a fence. Do we have any wood? Do we have any nails? Do we have any cement?

Non-communicative Activities can be placed on a continuum between non-communicative and communicative. At the non-communicative extreme we find drills or activities that do not achieve any goal other than to practise a particular form. In contrast, communicative tasks have a practical goal built into them which can only be achieved through using English. Non-communicative tasks tend to be highly controlled in terms of form, language used and content.

Communicative These tasks demand that learners use more and more of their existing language knowledge and strategies for using it, along the communicative scale, to achieve a practical goal. Practice for accuracy needn’t be completely non-communicative. A carefully planned activity can necessitate the use of a particular form or structure in order to achieve a particular goal.

Accuracy activities In accuracy activities there may be a communicative purpose in the interaction, for example to complete a form with a partner’s personal details (simulating an enrolment procedure), but the language structures used may still be highly predictable such as wh- questions, Y/N questions, and short answers. During an activity like this the teacher would circulate amongst the groups or pairs giving immediate feedback and correction.

8.2

Fluency development

Fluency activity On the more communicative end of the continuum, in a fluency activity such as a group discussion, there will be very little control exerted over language use or content, and no correction would be given during the activity, but held until after the completion of the task.

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It is important to design an activity or topic which will naturally elicit the structure you want to practice. For example:  To practise past simple verbs, an information gap could be devised based on someone’s diary entry. Students A and B are each given the same diary page with different information missing from each page. Students ask and answer questions in order to complete the blank sections of their diary pages. This will naturally elicit questions such as, “What did Helen do on Tuesday?” (past simple question form), and replies such as, “She washed the clothes.” (past simple statement).  To practise negotiations, students could be given a number of items (realia, pictures, or listed) and a list of items that they need to have in their possession by the end of the game. They must then trade with the other students using such language as, “I’ll give you … for …”, and, “Would you be willing to swap … for …?”  To practise using conditionals students could be given a situation and a number of complications from which they must develop a list of contingencies, “If x happens, we’ll …”

Written exercises Many grammar books are available that include written exercises. While it is tempting to simply copy a page of exercises (and this does provide technical practice), it is even better to contextualise the exercises to a topic that you are addressing in class. For example, if you are writing a recount about a holiday, create some exercises around the topic of holidays. This recycles vocabulary and reinforces the relevance of the grammar to the social purpose of communication, and will hopefully see our students transferring the grammar into daily use. A quick survey of a grammar book will show exercises of the following types: Description

Example

Transforming sentences.

Write the negative form.

Choose one of these words/verbs/phrases to complete the sentences. Put the verb into the correct form (positive/negative). Put the verb into the correct form (present simple/continuous). Given a picture prompt, write sentences/questions. Match sentence beginnings and endings.

Fill in the blanks with the list of words above.

Write true sentences about yourself.

I like to …..

I …… tennis every week. (/+/ play) Julie is ……….. Tennis. (play) Write a sentence to describe this picture. Match the sentence beginnings (1-10) to the endings (a-j)

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Activities to practise for fluency Our aim in teaching grammar is to see students transfer that knowledge about language into real language use. One way of encouraging this transfer, as previously mentioned, is to consistently relate the grammar point to the text type on which we are focusing in class, or to other social purposes of communication. Another way is by selecting or designing activities that reflect real language use, students being required to communicate in order to achieve some goal or complete some task (communicative activities). Any of the activities described in the chapters on teaching the macro-skills could be used for the purpose of developing fluency. For example: • • • • • • • • • • •

roleplays simulations group discussions information gaps interviews debates moral dilemmas values clarification activities such as ranking items short oral presentations show and tell sharing our own stories

9. Selecting suitable materials for teaching grammar Grammar reference books and grammar workbooks were mentioned earlier as two distinct types of texts.

9.1

Grammar reference books

A grammar reference book describes grammar concepts in detail, usually giving examples of application, but without practice exercises. These texts are useful for teachers and very advanced ESL students. Some very good examples are:  Bateman, H., Knight, L. & Tardiff, R. (1990). The Macquarie young writer’s book. Milton: Jacaranda Press. This text would be great for working with primary school aged children, as it states explanations in ways that learners of that age can easily grasp. (Also great for beginning ESL teachers to get a basic grasp!)

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 Carter, R. & McCarthy, M. (2006). Cambridge grammar of English. Melbourne: Cambridge University Press. A comprehensive guide to spoken and written English grammar and usage.  Collins Cobuild. (1990). English grammar. London: HarperCollins Publishers. This text is organised around functional grammar concepts. It has a comprehensive index, with references to specific paragraphs which are all systematically numbered for easy use. It is very detailed and precise with lots of great examples.  Collins Cobuild. (1992). English usage. Glasgow: HarperCollins Publishers. This text is organised alphabetically around vocabulary and grammatical items. To check how the word ‘although’ is used, look up ‘a’ for ‘although’. To check a spelling rule, just look up ‘s’ for ‘spelling’. Again, it has lots of great examples. It is easy to use because of its alphabetical organisation.  Cowan, R. (2008). The teacher’s grammar of English: A course book and reference guide. Cambridge University Press.  Twenty-six chapters organised around (traditional) grammar points. Lists problems that ESL students have with the point and suggestions for teaching the point.  Parrott, M. (2000). Grammar for English language teachers. Melbourne: Cambridge University Press.  Ramsay, M.A. (1990). A shorter guide to English usage for Australian students. South Melbourne: Moreton Bay Publishing. This much smaller text has helpful sections on punctuation and grammar. The grammar section combines traditional grammar terms and the more modern functional grammar concepts.  Swan, M. (2005). Practical English usage. 3rd Ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press. This text is also organised alphabetically around grammar and vocabulary.  English for Everyone. English Grammar Guide: A comprehensive visual reference. (2016). Dorling Kindersley Limited, London. This is a very useful grammar reference book that is colour coded, visual and with plenty of good examples. Consultants from both British and American English contributed.

9.2

Grammar workbooks

Grammar workbooks are written at a variety of levels to be used by students of different levels. The explanations and exercises are graded to be helpful for students of different levels. Some good examples are:

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Cambridge University Press  Elementary Murphy, R. (1998). Essential grammar in use.  Intermediate Murphy, R. (1994). English grammar in use. 2nd Ed.  Advanced Hewings, M. (1999). Advanced grammar in use. Oxford University Press  Intermediate Eastwood, J. (1992). Oxford practice grammar. HarperCollins Publishers  Elementary Collins Cobuild. (2003). Elementary English Grammar.  Intermediate Collins Cobuild. (2004). Intermediate English Grammar.

9.3

Questions to use when evaluating a grammar text

Is the organisation of the text easy for you to use?

Are the exercises contextualised (into a topic or situation)?

Are the answers included in the book?

Does it have a good index?

Are the explanations written at a level that makes it easy for your students to understand?

Does it have helpful appendices (e.g. list of irregular verbs, spelling rules)?

Does the layout of each unit make it easy to read and access the information you and your students want from it?

Does it show clearly how the structure is formed and how it is commonly used?

Are there any supporting resources (e.g. CD, supplementary exercises, CDROM, online activities)?

9.4

Alternatives to a grammar workbook

Sometimes you may want to present grammatical information in a different way from the presentation in the grammar workbook, or you may want to contextualise it into the topic you are currently addressing in your class. To illustrate, let’s look at the topical theme introduced in Chapter 11: Design and teach English syllabus,

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of buying second hand goods. Our lesson plan developed for Week 3 shows us introducing comparative statements. You have planned practice activities, and you may decide at the end of the lesson that you want to do some consolidation of the same structure next time you meet, continuing to work within the topic of buying a second hand car. You may construct a worksheet similar to the one on the following page.

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Your grammar explanation must be clear and concise. The above example achieves this by giving a few examples, and then clarifying the structural differences in a table.

10. Vocabulary building using grammatical structures In Chapter 2 we looked at how vocabulary choices are tightly connected to the text type or genre chosen and the social purpose of the text. Vocabulary can also be taught independently of texts. Higher level ESL learners can begin to extend their own vocabulary banks using grammatical structures such as prefixes and suffixes. See the table below for an example. + prefix

+ prefix

Base word

+ Suffix

+ suffix

photo

Photograph

photography

Basic

basically

Un+responsive

Response

Responsive

Dis+courage

courage

Courageous

courageously

En+courage

Anti+

Irr+esponisble

Responsible Responsibly

Dis+establish

Establish

Establish+ment Establishment+arian

In+capable

Capable

Capab+ility

We could continue with this table with almost endless possibilities. We could end up with ‘antidisestablishmentarianism’ (anti+dis+establish+ment+arian+ism) just for fun! Note how this table also connects to understanding the noun, verb and adjective suffixes to assist students in choosing the correct word for the right context and purpose of their writing. (Refer to Section 2.2)

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Summary In summary, grammar instruction, especially with adolescents and adults, is necessary and helpful. It needn’t be entirely deductive with rule memorisation and boring written exercises, but can involve a lot of active thinking on the part of the students in analysing language and inferring rules. In order to encourage transfer of learning, the application of the grammar point should be made clear in relation to the functional use of language. Finally, students should be provided with opportunities to engage in controlled practice for accuracy and free practice for fluency.

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CHAPTER 4: Teach spelling and pronunciation

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Introduction Analysis of the English language reveals the influence of each ethnic group who invaded Britain, from the Romans, to the Anglo-Saxons, to the Vikings and Normans. Each came and went leaving behind a legacy within the developing English language. Previous to the Anglo-Saxon conquest, Celtic languages had been predominant, however this changed with the introduction of Germanic dialects, so that very few traces of the Celtic language remain in old or modern English. The Viking invasion introduced words such as ‘knife’, ‘neck’, ‘cake’, ‘fellow’, ‘wrong’, ‘give’ and ‘they’. Similarly the Norman conquest brought the French influence into English with the adoption of words such as ‘sovereign’, ‘prince’, ‘government’, ‘state’, ‘parliament’, ‘nation’, ‘people’, ‘justice’, ‘attorney’ and so on. As scribes strove to retain the original spelling of these and many more adopted words, they then applied these patterns to other words. Teaching spelling and teaching pronunciation have been grouped together in this unit because learners need to understand the relationships between spelling patterns and the oral form of the word. To be able to write, the learner must be able to transform the sounds of the words that they know in oral form into written symbols on the page. In order to read, the learner must be able to decode the written form of words, some of which they already know in their oral form, and some that they haven’t encountered before. The learner must be given keys to be able to make sense of the spelling system. We will begin by looking at the International Phonetic Alphabet, then look at the relationships between sounds and spellings, spelling rules and strategies, and then move into pronunciation in relation to sound productions, rhythm, stress and intonation.

1. Teach Pronunciation As beginner readers, our primary school aged children are often taught to ‘sound the word out’, giving the impression that there is a one-to-one relationship between letters and sounds. In some languages this is true as in Spanish and Japanese, which are ‘phonetic languages’: languages in which there is a one-to-one correspondence between sounds and letters in the spelling. In a phonetic language the five vowels each have one sound, so that what you see on the page can easily be ‘read’ aloud, since the sounds produced will be consistent throughout. English, however, is not a phonetic language. School children are taught five vowel letters – ‘a,e,i,o,u’ – and that each has a ‘short’ and ‘long’ sound. Early readers are often taught short ‘a’ [ӕ] as in ‘apple’, and long ‘a’ where it says its own name [eɪ] 128

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as in ‘cake’. In fact the relationship between English vowel letters and their sounds is far less easily defined than two alternative sounds per letter. Letter ‘a’ also says [ɔ:] as in ‘ball’, and [ɒ] as in ‘swan’. Letter ‘a’ only says [ӕ] 20% of the time. In addition there are blends of two vowel sounds called ‘diphthongs’. In all, the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) gives representations of 20 vowel sounds in English.

2. International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) The IPA is a set of symbols used to represent the sounds of a language, independent of the spelling representations. The IPA can be used to represent the spoken form of any language, for example it can be used to represent Spanish, Russian, Greek or Vietnamese. It can even be used to represent the differences in pronunciation between different accents in spoken English. For example, clear pronunciation differences exist between the ways Americans and Australians speak English. The IPA rendering of ‘bath’ for each nationality will be different ([bӕӨ] or [bɑ:Ө] respectively). Within Australia you will find regional differences in pronunciation, which can also be rendered, showing the differences, by using the IPA. Do you pronounce ‘castle’ [kӕsl] or [kɑ:sl] and ‘dance’ [dӕns] or [dɑ:ns]? The charts on the following pages show the IPA symbols and examples of some of the English spellings associated with those sounds. For example, the sound [i:] can be spelled at least five different ways in English words: ‘ea’ as in ‘ice-cream’, ‘e’ as in ‘cereal’, ‘ee’ as in ‘cheese’, ‘y’ as in ‘jellybean’ and ‘ey’ as in ‘monkey’. The sound is consistent, the spelling varies.

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130

TESOL Made Practical For All Situations t tea bottle

ө thermometer

f feet coffee telephone

v vacuum leaves

l lemon lollies

p peanut happy

b banana rubbish

h hamburger

r razor wheelbarrow wrinkles

w watermelon wheelchair queen

d doctor address

ɒ broccoli cauliflower mouthwash

ɑ: star avocado

ʌ umbrella sponge

ӕ apple

n fan sunny knife

z razor cheese pans blouse

ʤ juice orange fridge digital m mirror hammer plumber

s socks dress celery dice

ʊə sewer

eə chair square

ɪə ear beer here

ʧ beach matches

ɔ: coin boy

ɑ: pilot wine fight typist

eɪ cake raisins daycare angels steak

g grapes God

j yellow yacht

ŋ sing pink

k corn keys chicken school queen ӡ measure treasure

ʃ sharpener station machine

ɑʊ mouth flower

əʊ hose coat flow yoyo

International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) chart with keywords

ð weather

ɔ: Door sauce store cork wallpaper strawberry

ə finger pizza treasure tablets razor iron devil

ɜ: fern bird worm fur

e egg bread

ʊ cook beautiful

u: spoon screwdriver blueberries

I thin

i: icecream cereal cheese jellybeans monkey

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Chapter 4

IPA Vowel Sounds - Key word chart Vowel sounds

Key words

ӕ

apple

eɪ

cake

raisins

eǝ

chair

square

ɑ:

star

avocado

e

bread

eggs

i:

ice-cream

cereal

ɪǝ

ear

beer

ǝ ɜ:

finger tablets fern

ɪ

bin

ɑɪ

steak

daycare

angels

cheese

jellybeans

money

treasure

razor

devil

pizza

bird

worm

fur

pilot

wine

fight

typist

ɒ

broccoli

cauliflower

mouthwash

ǝʊ

hose

coat

flow

ɔɪ

boy

coin

ʊ

cook

beautiful

u:

spoon

screwdriver blue

ʌ

sponge

umbrella

ɔ:

door store strawberries mouth flower

ɑʊ

wallpaper

donut

cork

sauce

Note: For classroom use, I find that having the spellings in red letters is much clearer.

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IPA Consonant Sounds - Key word chart Consonant Key words sounds banana b

132

rubbish

k

corn

keys

ʧ

beach

matches

d

doctor

address

f

feet

coffee

g

grapes

eggs

h

hamburger

ʤ

juice

orange

l

lemon

lollies

m

mirror

hammer

plumber

n

fan

knife

granny

ŋ

sing

pink

p

peanuts

happy

r

razor

wheelbarrow wrinkles

s

socks

dress

blouse

ӡ

measuring jug

ʃ

sharpener

carnation

sewing machine

t

tea

bottle

Ө

thermometer

ð

weather

v

vacuum

leaves

w

watermelon

wheelchair

queen

j

yellow

z

razor

cheese

sandals

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chicken

school

queen

telephone

fridge

digital clock

celery

dice

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2.1

Transcribing IPA

To transcribe a word or phrase into IPA, say the word aloud. Don’t sound out each letter, as this is not the way we say the words when we are speaking to a native speaker. Say the word as you would in the middle of a sentence, as though speaking to a native English speaker. Focus on the sounds rather than the spelling. Listen rather than look. Let’s start with some more straight-forward words, using Standard Australian English. doctor map shop

[dɒktə] [mӕp] [ʃɒp]

Notice that in ‘doctor’ the final ‘or’ is transcribed [ǝ]. This sound and symbol is known as ‘schwa’, and represents the sound we often (but not always) use when a vowel sound is unstressed. Take for example the word ‘political’. When you isolate the sound we make for the ‘o’ and then for the ‘a’, we hear the exact same sound [ǝ]. political appointment sequence

[pəlItIkəl] [əpɔɪntmənt] [si:kwəns]

The above IPA transcription for ‘appointment’ could vary, depending on how clearly the individual articulates the [t] sound. It could alternatively be rendered [əpɔɪnmən] if the speaker hasn’t articulated the [t] sound. It could even be rendered [ӕpɔɪntmɪnt] for the posh! Transcription into the IPA is somewhat variable, since individuals have their own way of speaking. As an English language teacher, it is important that you articulate each sound and syllable clearly, yet at the same time sound natural.

2.2. International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) Examples Words: daffodil

[dӕfǝdɪl]

petunia

[pǝtju:njǝ]

hibiscus

[hɑɪbɪskǝs]

palm

[pɑ:m]

Phrases: I was born in Scotland. [ɑɪ wǝz bɔ:n ɪn skɒtlǝnd]

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My family immigrated to Australia when I was about 8 years old. [mɑɪ fӕmli: ɪmǝgreɪtǝd tu: ǝstreɪljǝ wen ɑɪ wǝz ǝbɑʊt eɪt jɪǝz ǝʊld] We lived in Warwick for a few months. [wi: lɪvd ɪn wɒrIk fɔ: ǝ fju: mʌnӨs] Then we moved to Brisbane. [ðen wi: mu:vd tǝ brɪzbǝn]

Decoded sentences: [ɑɪ gǝt mӕri:d wen ɑɪ wǝz twenti: jɪǝz ǝʊld] I got married when I was 20 years old. [mɑɪ hʌzbǝnd ǝn ɑɪ hǝv trӕvǝld Өru: ǝɑʊt fɔ:ti: dɪfrǝnt kʌntri:z] My husband and I have travelled through about 40 different countries. [ɑɪ lʌv mi:tɪŋ pi:pǝl frǝm ʌðǝ kʌlʧǝz] I love meeting people from other cultures. [mɑɪ lɑɪf ɪz enrɪʧt bɑɪ ðӕt] My life is enriched by that.

2.3. Using IPA when teaching When teaching, we can use the IPA to make clear exactly what sound we want our students to produce, regardless of what variety of English we are teaching. How can we use the IPA in the classroom? When teaching pronunciation we can: Demonstate the sound

Describe the mechanics of producing the sound

Give examples of the sound within other words

Having done all this, it is possible that some students may still not be able to produce the sound. An additional strategy in this situation, when students know the IPA, is to transcribe the word on the board. This visual representation of the sound communicates what the students need to ‘get’ in order to be able to produce the

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sound. Students ‘see’ the sound, and produce the sound: Success! Without a doubt it is worth the effort to learn the IPA and use it as one more tool for teaching pronunciation. It provides a visual way of accurately representing the sounds we want our students to produce. The IPA can also be used when teaching spelling to show the sounds that are represented by different spelling combinations. For some students learning English will involve learning a new script. In this case, asking students to learn the IPA seems like an unnecessary burden on top of all else they are learning. It’s more likely to cause confusion than be beneficial, particularly for students who are not literate in their own language. Perhaps a helpful guideline would be to introduce the symbols as appropriate, in relation to sounds with which your particular group are having difficulty. In this way we have a symbol with which to represent a sound. We need a symbol to enable us to talk about a ‘sound’ without having to use ‘letters’ to represent the sound.

3. Standard or World English A hot topic of discussion about pronunciation, is whether it is more appropriate to teach Standard English or World English. Countries where English is the native language have their own Standard Englishes, such as British English, American English and Australian English. However, in other countries where English language is taught, and where teachers themselves are from non-English speaking backgrounds (NESB) there can be quite a variation in pronunciation. This variation extends into aspects of grammar and culture when you begin to look at World Englishes. Inner circle (e.g. UK, USA, Australia) Outer circle (e.g. Singapore, India, Zambia, Bangladesh) Expanding circle (e.g. China, Russia, Vietnam, Egypt)

Fig. 4.2. World Englishes

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Kachru (Kachru, Kachru and Nelson, 2006; Farrell and Martin, 2009) categorises the usage of English into three concentric circles: the inner circle, the outer circle, and the expanding circle. Within his framework, the inner circle represents the more traditional bases of English that are used in places like the United Kingdom, the United States of America, Canada, Australia and New Zealand. The outer circle represents countries like Nigeria, Singapore and India which were colonized by inner circle countries. In the expanding circle countries like China, Greece, Saudi Arabia and Israel use English mainly for business and international purposes. Considering the large population of English speakers located in various parts of the world, we see increasing evidence of English evolving into numerous varieties of English or “World Englishes”, each reflecting some cultural and linguistic differences. In light of this increasing diversity, the concept of teaching “Standard English” has been questioned, as the inner-circle variety of English may no longer be appropriate in all situations. At the same time, a move to teaching World Englishes is protested as being unhelpful or impractical as some varieties of English may have such significant differences as to be unintelligible to speakers of English from a different area. A clear example of a World English is ‘Singlish’ as spoken by Singaporeans, which has some grammatical differences from Standard English that would confuse speakers who do not share the Singaporean cultural and linguistic background. The English that you teach needs to be the English that the learners need to use in their context for their purposes. Also, keep in mind that the Standard English of the inner circle countries may not even be the English that is spoken in the various regions of that country. Variations can occur in pronunciation, vocabulary, phrasing and social conventions accompanying interaction. "Creature Comforts", a humorous, animated television series available on YouTube, illustrates how many regional British accents there are on one small island nation. Many English language learners however, have a particular Standard English that they would like to develop. For example, some prefer an American accent to Australian, or prefer British to American. Accents and pronunciation do matter to many English language learners and they will actively choose to go to study in a country whose pronunciation is the one they prefer. As an example, if you were learning French, would you prefer to learn a regional accent that may not be spoken much outside the region, or would you prefer to learn Standard French?

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4. Developing Intelligible pronunciation The following diagram shows the physical organs involved in speech production.

Fig 4.3 Organs of speech Sounds in English are produced when we expel air. Making a noise with an open mouth produces a vowel sound. Changing the shape of the mouth changes the sound. Blocking the airflow in any way produces a consonant sound. Generally, sounds are produced by expelling air from the lungs through the vocal folds and out through the mouth and/or nose. Modifying the airflow changes the sound produced. How to teach pronunciation by Gerald Kelly (2000, Pearson Education Limited) is a valuable pronunciation resource. It gives very clear diagrams showing the mechanics of sound production. The charts cover all the consonant and vowel sounds, giving a technical description of how the sound is produced. It also notes which language groups usually have difficulties with this particular sound: learners of Japanese origin will likely have difficulties with [l] and [r], and learners from Arabic, Chinese, German, Indian, Spanish and Turkish backgrounds may also have difficulties with [v]. Kelly also includes an appendix mapping language groups to the sounds with which they generally have difficulties.

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In addition to the more technical descriptions of sound production, Kelly includes tips for focussing on particular sounds. For example, to highlight the difference between [f] and [v], Kelly suggests: “Touch your top teeth with your bottom lip, and breathe out. Don’t use your voice. Hold the sound, and add the voice.” (p.55) This same volume also describes many activities and lesson plans for classroom practice, so is an excellent resource for teachers. Pronunciation can be incorporated into almost any lesson, using whatever text the class has been working with. After working with a listening text, the transcript of that audio text can be used for pronunciation practice, with students repeating after the teacher and then practising in pairs or small groups as appropriate. Drills can be conducted based on portions of the text. A reading text can be used in the same way. Pronunciation practice can be a lot more meaningful than drill and repetition which can be mechanical and mindless. Information gap activities can be designed to elicit a certain structure, involving a particular sound or feature. For example pronunciation of final ‘ed’, which has three different sounds, [t], [d] and [Id], could effectively be practised with an information gap revolving around yesterday’s activities. As learners convey what they did, they would use past simple verbs of which the many regular verbs end in ‘ed’. Brainstorming activities around sounds can be made competitive: You have 60 seconds to list as many words as you can, with the [S] sound at the beginning, middle or end of the word. Some other ideas suggested by Kelly include:

Play bingo with phonemic symbols on cards. Tic, tac, toe’: To get their ‘O’ or ‘X’ in a square, players must say a word that includes the sound represented by an IPA symbol in that square. Use your keyword cards to play ‘snap’. ‘Hangman’ played with phonetic symbols. Note: If you have learners from backgrounds of torture or trauma, an alternative picture is recommended, such as a flower whose petals and leaves get filled in with incorrect letters, until either all the leaves are full or the puzzle is solved.

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‘Running dictation’: A text is taped to the wall. Students work in pairs. One student from each pair runs to the wall, reads the text, returns to their partner and dictates as much as they can remember. The runner can return to the text as many times as they need to, but cannot speak to their partner from more than two feet away (ie. no calling from one side of the room to the other). Tongue twisters.

5. Articulation & Voicing In English, the consonant sounds are classified according to three dimensions:

Voicing

Place of articulation

•Voicing is the term used when a sound is made while vibrating the vocal chords (voice box) – sounds can be either voiced or voiceless.

•Place of articulation is where the sound is made and includes parts of the body.

Manner of articulation •Manner of articulation of how the sound is made, particularly how the air stream moves in producing the sound.

5.1 Place of articulation Name

Where the sound is pronounced

Example

Bilabial

Two lips together

/b/ /m/

Labiodental

Lower lip and upper teeth

/v/

Dental

Tongue tip and inner edge of upper teeth

/θ/

Alveolar

Tongue tip on tooth ridge

Palatal

Body of tongue on hard palate

/ʃ/

Velar

Back of tongue on soft palate

/g/

Glottal

Throat passage

/h/

/d/ /t/

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5.2

Manner of articulation

Name

How the sound is produced

Example

Blocked air stream before it is released Friction is cause by compressed air stream passing through a small passage Combination of a stop followed by a fricative

Stop

Fricative

Affricative Nasal

Air passes through the nose

Glide

/z/ /v/

/tʃ/ /m/ /n/

Air moves around the tongue and is unobstructed Unobstructed air stream, similar to a vowel

Liquid

/p/ /b/

/r/ /y/

All vowels and some consonants are voiced – some of the consonants are voiceless. Voiceless : / p / t / k / f / ɵ / s / ʧ / ʃ / h / As a general rule – Consonants are sounds produced by blocking the flow of air coming from our lungs. Vowels are produced without any blockage. A diphthong is a complex vowel – it begins sounding like one vowel sound and ends sounding like another, e.g. rain /rein/. An unstressed vowel is known as ‘schwa’ /ə/. The unstressed vowel can be substituted for all the vowels and can occur at the beginning, middle and final position of a word. Vowel sounds are reduced in an unstressed syllable. Compare: away

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Further examples of where the ‘schwa’ sound is used for each vowel sound: a /ə/ ago

le /əl/ candle

e /ə/ happen

al /əl/ pedal

i /ə/ pencil

ul /əl/ awful

O /ə/ cannon U /ə/ circus Letter ‘y’ as a vowel y

/i:/

try; cycle

Y

/ē/

funny

Y

/I/

sync

The regular past tense ‘ed’ can be pronounced in three different ways. Pronunciation depends on the last sound in the verb.  For the regular past tense the ending ‘ed’ is pronounced /t/ after a voiceless sound, /d/ after a voiced sound, and /ɪd/ after /t/ or /d/. Voiceless = /t/

Voiced = /d/

/t/ or /d/ ending = /ɪd/

hoped

called

branded

worked

robbed

wanted

increased

played

landed

walked

allowed

sorted

The final ‘s’ of plural and possessive words and the present simple verb tense can also be pronounced in three different ways.  Similarly, pronunciation depends on the last sound in the verb, the ‘s’ or ‘es’ is pronounced /s/ after a voiceless sound, /z/ after a voiced sound, and /ɪz/ after /s/ /z/ /ʒ/ /ʃ/ /ʧ/ and /ʤ/. Voiceless = /s/

Voiced = /z/

/s/ /z/ /ʒ/ /ʃ/ /ʧ/ /ʤ/ = /ɪz/

hopes

calls

increases

works

robs

washes

jumps

names

catches

walks

allows

places

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6. Accent & Stress What is ‘stress’? Most people are familiar with the concept of stress within words. We say ‘opportunity’ rather than ‘opportunity’. In fact incorrect stress can make speech very difficult to understand. For example, imagine sitting in an airport and hearing an announcement that says, “Passengers’ travelling to New York, please proceed to the boarding gate.” Now, imagine that English is not your native language and how much more difficult it would be to understand the announcement. So, when teaching pronunciation it is important to make clear which syllable is stressed. Stress can be said to have three features: loudness, pitch change and longer syllable. So if you want to stress or accent a syllable you can say it louder, higher or lower, or lengthen it. When a word has more than one syllable, one of the syllables is always a little louder, higher or lower, or longer than the others. The syllable with the louder stress (dynamic accent), pitch (musical accent), longer (quantitative accent) is the accented syllable. If a speaker wants to emphasise a particular point, creative use of stress/accent can alter the meaning of the communication.

These are some rules that usually work: Rule

Example

Accents are often on the first syllable

ba'/sic, pro'/gram

In words that have suffixes or prefixes, the accent is usually on the main root word

de/lay', ex/plore'

Two vowel letters together in the last syllable of a word often indicates an accented last syllable

com/plain', con/ceal'

When there are two like consonant letters within a word, the syllable before the double consonants is usually accented

be/gin'/ner, let'/ter

The accent is usually on the syllable before the suffixes -ion, ity, -ic, -ical, -

af/fec/ta'/tion, dif/fer/en'/ti/ate

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ian, -ial, or -ious, and on the second syllable before the suffix -ate In words of three or more syllables, one of the first two syllables is usually accented

ac'/ci/dent, de/ter'/mine

As previously mentioned, the schwa vowel sound [ǝ], is often heard in unstressed syllables. In fact, schwa is always an unstressed vowel sound. Understanding this feature of schwa can be helpful for learners who tend to over pronounce vowel sounds, making their speech sound quite unnatural.

6.1

A ‘stress-timed’ language

English tends towards being a ‘stress-timed’ language. That means that there is a regular rhythm within English, which can be tagged to the most important ‘content words’ of the sentence. The stressed words are equally spaced in terms of time. The words in between these content words are fitted into the time space available. Note this dynamic at work in the following utterance. Say the sentence aloud and tap the desk or clap as you say each stressed syllable. I went to the movies on the weekend with a friend. It was great. The most important content words are ‘movies’, ‘weekend’, ‘friend’, and ‘great’. Of these words, it is the stressed syllable which falls ‘on the beat’ of this regular rhythm described. The others words/syllables are spaced to fit into the available time, whether there are 2, 3 or 4 syllables to accommodate. How important is stress within sentences? Consider the difference in meaning conveyed by the following variations in stress. Say each sentence aloud, stressing the capitalised word in each instance: SUSAN gave the book to Jackie. Susan GAVE the book to Jackie. Susan gave the BOOK to Jackie. Susan gave the book to JACKIE.

6.2

(not Sharon) (not sold) (not the CD) (not Jenny)

Strategies and activities

Strategies for teaching stress and rhythm On the board, show the stressed syllable in one of the following ways: communi ̕cation

(accent sign before the stressed syllable)

communication

(use bold or different colour print)

communiCAtion

(capitalise)

communication

(underline)

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



. . . __ . Tap or clap out the stress pattern.

Activities for practising stress patterns •

Categorising words according to stress patterns. begin breakfast coffee

paper affect allow

TV printer deflect





begin

paper



•

Work out the difference in meaning conveyed by the various stress patterns. KATE wants a blue shirt. Kate WANTS a blue shirt. Kate wants a BLUE shirt. Kate wants a blue SHIRT.

•

Find a partner with matching stress pattern: words, phrases or sentences. Each student is given a card with a different word, phrase or sentence. They wander through the class saying their item aloud to find a partner with the matching stress pattern.

•

Listen to a text and underline the stressed words on a transcript.

•

Jazz chants: Responsive fragments of authentic speech, with the natural rhythm maintained. * * How are you doing? * * I’m fine, thanks.

Intonation Intonation is another feature of speech which is used to add meaning to what we say, especially information about our attitude, opinion or emotions. Practising intonation can make your focus on pronunciation a lot of fun, as you encourage learners to ‘say it with feeling’. It is often the case that students are so focussed on forming the words in a sentence that their intonation is monotonous. Where a good rapport with students has been established a humorous contrast of speech

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with and without intonation can be enough to loosen everyone up. Then students can really get into mimicking the intonation in the utterance, dialogue, story or whatever. Some grammatical patterns can be linked with intonation patterns. For example questions can have a rising or falling intonation depending on the nature of the response the speaker expects.

Are you going on holidays next week? When a rising intonation is used, the speaker doesn’t know what the answer will be; it could be positive or negative.

Are you going on holidays next week? When a falling intonation is used, the speaker is expecting a positive reply confirming their previous understanding.

Running words together Another feature of pronunciation is the way we link words, running them together. For example we introduce the [j] sound when a word ending in [i:] sound is followed by a word beginning with a vowel sound: I’m not going! [ɑIjəm nɒt gəuIŋ]. Similarly we introduce the [w] sound when a word ending in [u:] is followed by a word beginning with a vowel sound: I’m going to Australia next month. [ɑɪjm gəuin tu:wəstreIljə nekst mʌnө] We can also omit sounds in consonant clusters so that the pronunciation of the sentence flows: May I have the next dance? The [t] sound is not heard at the end of ’next’, instead we hear [neksdeəns].

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7. Teach sound-spelling relationships The following poem is a humorous, if somewhat daunting, look at English in its written form. Teaching someone to read English, one quickly becomes aware of the complexity of English spelling, with words which look alike but sound different, and words which sound the same but look different. This can cause frustration for students and teachers alike.

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Looking at A dreadful language on the previous page, we see in the first four lines, eight words that are spelled alike, each containing ‘ough’, yet each sounding different. tough bough dough

[tʌf] [baʊ] [doʊ]

hiccough thorough through

[hɪkʌp] [θɜr oʊ] [θru:]

cough lough

[kɒf] [lɒk][lɒx]

We could present this as an activity builder by the different options for ‘ough’ sounds and spellings: Word bough though through cough enough bought rough although trough

/ɒf/

/oʊ/

/aʊ/ bough

/ʌf/

/ɔː/

/uː/

though through cough enough bought rough although trough

This table can be continued with other ‘ough’ words, but we will stop here for now. We could also do the same here with ‘I’-represented by (i)- i/ ei/eigh/ etc. Further into the poem, we see words where the medial vowel sounds alike but the words look completely different, for example ‘heard’ and ‘word’, ‘meat’ and ‘suite’, ‘great’ and ‘straight’, ‘threat’ and ‘debt’. How can we help our students through this confusing maze? Learning English as our first language, we have an average of five years of exposure to the spoken language before we are expected to make sense of the written form. Not so for English language learners who are almost invariably expected to deal with written texts immediately as in daily life almost everyone is regularly required to complete forms and read and write notes.

8. Terminology The following terms are commonly used in the field of linguistics. They are not terms that we would teach students in an ESL or EFL classroom, however they are used by linguists and some teachers for describing detailed analysis of English language.



[x] represents the sound at the end of Scottish word loch.

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Morpheme

•A word such as car, or word element such as the 's' in cars, that can't be divided into smaller meaningful parts.

Morphology

•The study of morphemes. Adjective: morphological.

Morphological structure

Orthography

•The study of correct spelling according to established usage.

Phoneme

•The smallest sound in a unit of language that is capable of conveying a distinct meaning, such as the 's' in sun and the 'p' in pen. Adjective: phonemic.

Phonics

•A method of learning to read and write that concentrates on the sounds the letters of the alphabet make, not the letter names.

Phonology

•The study of how words are pronounced.

Whole language method

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•The rules and conventions that underlie conventional spelling patterns.

•Each word in the English language is presented (and learned) as a whole, indivisible unit. Whole language methods are not interested in the sounds the letters make.

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9. Teaching Methods In spite of what seems a bewildering array of spelling variations, English language students do learn to spell. Research has shown that learning to spell, and learning to read, rely on much of the same underlying knowledge, such as the relationships between letters and sounds. So, not surprisingly, teaching spelling can help students learn to read. Also, spelling is integral to the writing skill; reading, writing and spelling are a family of skills. Not all students develop the ability to spell words accurately and efficiently simply through exposure to correctly spelled words in texts or in spelling lists. Teachers should provide explicit instruction, targeted to meet their students’ identified needs in spelling. English language students will benefit from the same spelling instruction and strategies as students who are native English speakers. However, they will need a more intensive focus on the meanings of words. There is no point teaching the spelling of a word where the students have no idea of what the word means. Remember to use pictures and realia wherever possible, to build knowledge of the meaning of the vocabulary. A comprehensive spelling programme should teach or reinforce:

phonemic awareness

knowledge of the relationships between sounds and spelling patterns

knowledge of the morphological structure of written English

knowledge of spelling rules and conventions

spelling strategies for writing and proofreading

strategies to help students memorise words visually

There are various methods for teaching spelling, but whichever methods you use, it is important to cater for different learning styles - visual, look at the letters and words, auditory, listen to the sounds of the letters and words, and kinaesthetic, write and air trace the letters and words. Phonemic awareness and knowledge of relationships between sounds and spelling patterns can best be taught to English language learners by a combination of phonics and whole language approach. It is important to be able incorporate phonics training through explicit instruction and embedded in the context of authentic reading and writing tasks.

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In order to incorporate the phonics method into an approach using authentic texts with a real-life language focus, the teacher can select words that are relevant to the current area under study. For example, if the aim is to familiarise students who are new to Australia, to the supermarket and to Australian food, as a matter of practical living, the words chosen to deal with phonically could include, 'sh – o – p' and 'm-i-l-k' and can be presented first in the context of the topic of shopping. Simplify spelling instruction wherever possible, introducing words that have the same spelling patterns e.g. 'cake'/'carrot' (onset) and shop'/ 'stop' (rime). Another tip is to develop a 'tricky' words list (words that are difficult to spell) that students can access and add to as needed.

8.1

Key words

Another method of teaching the relationships between sounds and spelling is to teach a set of key words which represent the most common spelling representations of each sound. In choosing key words select words which will be relevant, meaningful and useful to your group of learners. Children, adolescents and adults all have different areas of interest. Within each of those broad groups you may find a particular area of interest, for example adolescents who are learning English in order to study in an English speaking context would benefit from the use of key words they will encounter in an academic context. Children will enjoy words they encounter in story books and cartoons. Adults deserve words that relate to their world, interests and needs. The words given in the IPA chart at the start of this Chapter were selected for use with adult learners whose end goal was simply participation in the local community. These keywords have been chosen from everyday household items, occupations and food items. These keywords can be presented in many forms. I have used them in table form as shown, with the spelling representations of the sounds written in red. They can be made into picture charts using copyright-free clipart and reproduced for your classroom use.

[eɪ]

cake

raisins

steak

tray

angels

Fig. 4.4 Sound matching activities The same pictures and keywords can be put separately onto card, and used for many matching, categorising and selecting activities.

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The keywords can be used as headings in a spelling booklet, to which students add words they find that match the sound-spelling relationship. The teacher reads the text, the students listen and read a written copy, highlighting words with the sound [eɪ]. When the reading is finished, the class makes a complete list of all the words that include [eɪ]. They then look at each word, determining the letters that represent that sound, and underlining those letters. The words can then be categorised in their spelling books under the following headings.

[eɪ] cake

raisins

steak

tray

angels

Fig 4.5 Categorising words by sound – activity Spelling patterns can be illustrated with examples and students called upon to offer the spelling of additional words: cake bake lake Now spell ‘make’ and ‘take’ and ‘awake’ When students ask (as they invariably do), “Teacher, how do you spell [this word]?”, you can answer with reference to the keyword. For example, in response to, “How do you spell break?”, you can reply, “It’s like steak.” Highlighting various consonant blends, like ‘br-‘, ‘cr-‘, ‘st-‘, and so on, also helps students to be aware of clusters of letters which represent a particular sound. Students also need to be aware of silent letters, for example: ‘b’ as in ‘lamb’ and ‘debt’. ‘g’ as in ‘foreign’ and ‘sign’ ‘k’ as in ‘knife’ and ‘knuckle ‘l’ as in ‘half’ and talk ‘w’ as in ‘write’ and ‘wrist’

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10. Teach Spelling rules Some very helpful spelling resources are available. Cobuild’s English Usage includes a very precise section on spelling which is useful as a teacher’s reference. Hazel Davidson has produced two volumes English spelling which state the most common rules in very simple form, which is very helpful for working with low literacy learners. The following rules are, once again, only an introduction. ‘Magic e’ ‘e’ on the end of a word makes the previous vowel say its name. hat → hate → infiltrate met → mete → concrete fin → fine → alpine hop → hope → elope bus → abuse → confuse ‘e’ after ‘c’ makes the ‘c’ say [s], as in face. ‘e’ after ‘g’ makes the ‘g’ say [dZ], as in cage.

Doubling final consonants If a one-syllable word ends in a single short vowel sound and a single consonant, you double the final consonant before adding a suffix that begins with a vowel. (1:1:1 ratio rule). shop → shopping step → stepped wet → wettest If the word has more than one syllable, you usually double the final consonant if the final syllable is stressed. begin → beginning (final syllable is stressed) admit → admitted open → opening (not the final syllable that is stressed) suffer → suffered

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Omitting final ‘e’ If a final ‘e’ is silent, you usually omit it before adding a suffix beginning with a vowel. live → lived → living pile → piled → piling ice → iced → icing Changing final ‘y’ to ‘i’ If a word ends in a consonant and ‘y’, you usually change the ‘y’ to ‘i’ before adding a suffix. try apply early friendly

→ → → →

tried applies earlier friendliest

Do not change ‘y’ to ‘i’ when the final ‘y’ is preceded by a vowel. stay toy

→ →

staying toyed

Do not change ‘y’ to ‘i’ when adding ‘ing’. try apply

→ →

trying applying

‘ie’ or ‘ei’ ‘i’ before ‘e’ except after ‘c’ when the sound is [i:] field (‘i’ before ‘e’) receive (except after ‘c’ when the sound is [i:]) ancient (‘i’ before ‘e’ after ‘c’ when the sound is not [i:])

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[k] sound At the beginning of words ca, co, cu car, coach, curtain ke, ki keg, kitchen At the end of words ‘ck’ after a short vowel in one syllable words back, neck, sick, lock, truck ‘k’ after ‘n’, ‘l’, ‘s’: sink, milk, risk Greek origin words: ‘ch’ chemist, character, choir

9.1

Spelling activities

Simple and easy to organize activities for teaching and practicing spelling  Match words and pictures.  Select the correct spelling from a number of choices (circle the word, pick up a card).  Look, cover, write, check. This is commonly used in primary schools and adult literacy classes. The learner looks at the word, covers it with their hand, writes it, and lifts their hand to check the original word, checks what they’ve just written, repeating this process until they feel confident they can spell that word correctly. With very low literacy learners I add two steps: After looking at the word we say it aloud and then spell it aloud several times, before covering, writing and checking. This involves auditory memory as well as visual. This will make the process: Look, say, spell, cover, write, check.  Search a text for words with a particular spelling pattern.  Given a pattern (bake, cake, lake) spell ‘make’ and ’take’.  Match alike works, put all the words with ‘-ake’ together.  Circle the word that doesn’t belong (cake, bake, tale, make).  Dictation can be done at word level, sentence level or paragraph level. With beginner learners dictating the spelling of a word is great practice in using letters (c-a-k-e), being able to produce the written form after hearing the letter name. This helps to reinforce the names of the letters.

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With beginner level learners dictate simple sentences using sight words and recently learned spelling words. (I bake a cake.) I have found it helpful to provide each student with a paper printed with one line for each word. ___ ______ ___ _______. Naturally the complexity of the text you dictate will be consistent with the learners’ proficiency. Dictation can be used at any level and is a challenging exercise for practising grammar as well as spelling.

Summary Teaching pronunciation is a matter of being aware of the sounds of natural speech and helping learners to produce those sounds. Some sounds may be completely new to a learner, if they are not included in their first language. Each ESL teacher needs to consider their students and the students’ needs in deciding what they are aiming at in relation to pronunciation. Are you aiming at native-like pronunciation? Or is intelligible pronunciation, with traces of first language influence, acceptable? Keep in mind that the younger the learner (particularly pre-adolescent) the greater the chance of developing native-like pronunciation. Learner’s goals in this regard must obviously have bearing on this decision. Someone wanting to gain an IELTS level for university entrance would be aiming at the clearest pronunciation possible. Someone needing to give oral instructions in relation to safety procedures will need to have the clearest pronunciation possible. Someone whose immediate concerns are survival English, shopping, going to the doctor, chatting with neighbours will not need the same level of pronunciation and spelling. Learners’ practice needs will also vary, depending on their language background, and how similar or different the sounds of that language are in relation to the sounds of English. Also relevant, is whether their native language script is the Latin script as is English and whether the learner is literate in their own language. Whatever your aims and the learners’ aims are, pronunciation and spelling development should be included in your lesson planning as a matter of course. As well as learning explicitly as in phonics, relate the language material and content you are teaching to real-life topics and texts. Whether it is learning pronunciation or spelling, or both of these holistically which is usually the case, provide lots of practice. Keep a store of games and activities that are fun as well as great teaching tools

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CHAPTER 5: Teach speaking

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Introduction This chapter draws on Chapter 2: English language and the genre approach and is supported by Chapter 3: Teach English grammar, Chapter 4: Teach spelling and pronunciation, Chapter 6: Teach listening, Chapter 7: Teach reading, and Chapter 8: Teach writing.

1. Spoken genres In Chapter 1: Culturally inclusive learning environment and Chapter 2: English language and the genre approach, we read that every act of communication occurs within the context of culture and of a more immediate situation. The wider culture influences the way people communicate, and so do the topic (Field), the relationship between the participants (Tenor), and whether a text is spoken or written (Mode), including what the distance is between the speaker/writer and listener/reader in terms of time and space. Culture Genre (purpose) Situation (Field, Tenor, Mode) Register Text (spoken or written)

Fig. 5.1.Based on Derewianka model, 1990 We observed that we communicate the same information to different people in quite different ways. For example, in relating the details of a car accident most people would make quite different linguistic choices depending on whether they are speaking to a friend, parent, child, spouse, employer, police officer or insurance agent. The linguistic choices would also be quite different if the recount or report was written rather than spoken.

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The distance in space and time between participants is another interesting influence on the linguistic choices that are made. What do we mean by distance? Spoken communication can be very close, as in face-to-face situations where the communication is occurring in ‘real time’, or as distant as a recorded message being replayed thousands of kilometres from the place of its recording and many years later. The more distant the speaker and listener are, the more precise and explicit the speaker needs to be. The closer the speaker and listener, the more they can rely on the context (physical and topical) to make their intended meaning clear, and so the words spoken are likely to be less concise and less explicit. See Table. Time and Space in Chapter 2, Section 2.1, Figure 2.2.

Interpersonal goal

Looking at any spoken text, we can identify a purpose for the interaction taking place. Broadly speaking, the purpose of spoken interaction is either interpersonal or pragmatic (de Silva, Joyce and Slade, 2000).

Pragmatic goals include negotiating a sale or purchase, making arrangements for an event, making an appointment or making a presentation. Pragmatic goal

We communicate to achieve some interpersonal goal, for example to establish, maintain or build a relationship, or conversely, to distance oneself from someone, increase or maintain distance.

Fig. 5.2 Interpersonal or pragmatic If we look at communication events in terms of their social purpose or function, we will observe some categories emerging or genres becoming identifiable. For example, a telephone call to arrange delivery of some purchased goods will have fairly standard stages on the side of the client of opening the call, identifying oneself, stating the need, requesting a time for delivery, perhaps responding to alternative suggestions, agreeing on a time, confirming the agreed time, and closing. A short oral presentation given in an academic context will have quite different stages, which will vary depending on the nature of the presentation: a report, explanation, synopsis, or persuasive argument. Casual conversation may include several distinct genres, e.g. narrative, anecdote, recount, observation or comment, opinion or gossip (Eggins cited in de Silva Joyce et al, 2000).

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All ESL teaching begins with an analysis of the needs of the students and what is prescribed by any curriculum in place. We need to know what the short- and longterm goals are that the students have for using English. It is helpful to know in what contexts they will be using English, or to complete what tasks. Businessmen doing an intensive English course for which they are paying premium rates will not appreciate lessons on recipes or child health care. They want to be learning and practising English for use in their business contexts. Likewise, women who have no intention of working outside of their homes, will not be motivated towards, nor will they have the exposure to, business English. We need to discover the purposes for which English will be used. With this information, we can plan our learning program to target the specific learning needs of the specific students we have in our classes, and select model texts and activities that are relevant, meaningful, and useful.

2. Text analysis The concept of genre in relation to spoken texts can be best illustrated by an analysis of a spoken text focusing on ‘functions of speech’.

Structural

S = Sales assistant

Features

C = Customer

C

Functions of speech

1 Opening,

Opening

Can you tell me what paint would be best to use on our house?

2

S

Inside or outside?

3

C

Outside.

4

It was done five and a half years ago,

5

so the paint is still in fairly good condition.

6

We just want to do it again before it starts to deteriorate.

7

Yeah, best to get it before it starts cracking and flaking.

8

Comment

What did you use last time: enamel or acrylic?

9

Ask for more info

Acrylic. It’s so much easier to work with.

10

Information exchange and clarification S

C

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Excuse me.

Line

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Ask for info Give info

Give info & opinion

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Oh yeah...

11

C

...and being able to wash the brushes out in water is great.

12

Enamel is such a pain to clean up.

13

Couldn’t agree with you more.

14

So...the main brands all have an exterior acrylic.

15

Do you want high gloss or low sheen?

16

C

Not too shiny, but I don’t want matt either.

17

S

Okay. That narrows your choices.

18

Taubmans have got this one on special at the moment.

19

But then Home Choice is the same paint and

20

it’s cheaper even at its regular price.

21

C

The same paint?

22

Ask for clarification

S

Yeah, it’s made in the same factory, same paint.

23

Clarify

C

So there’s no difference?

24

Ask for confirmation

S

Well, you might find that the cheaper brand is the tail end of a batch of paint.

25

But it’s basically the same paint.

26

C

Okay then, we’ll just take the Home Choice.

27

State decision

S

Do you want that tinted?

28

Ask for info

C

Yeah, this is the colour we’ve chosen.

29

Give info

S

Okay, I’ll just mix that for you.

30

Offer service

C

Thanks very much.

31

Thanks

S

Negotiate the selection

Closing transaction

Interject: Agreement

S

Opinion

State agreement Give info. Ask for info. Give info, clarify

Give info

Give confirming info

Fig. 5.3 Transcript – negotiation for goods and services

2.1

Whole text analysis

The analysis of a negotiation for goods and services as seen in above is helpful in that it clearly illustrates the general structure (Stages in the left hand column) of such a negotiation within the Australian culture. From the topic and the nature of the interaction we can safely assume the conversation is occurring in a paint shop or the paint section of a hardware store. We note the more casual tone which characterises negotiations in trade areas in general. Linguistic choices also give

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us information about the participants: the limited depth of technical language used and the questions asked indicate the customer is likely to be a home owner rather than a painter by trade who would be much more familiar with the Field. Outlining the stages of the conversation is helpful for the ESL learner whose home culture may dictate very different social conventions for such a situation, for example more chit-chat as a lead in, more discussion of the pros and cons, longer discussion of the quality of the product and even negotiation of the price. Transactions such as these in the Australian context are typically to the point, questions are very direct, and information is given concisely. Prices are generally fixed, although some businesses will negotiate especially when a bulk purchase is being arranged. This cultural information is important for the success of the learner’s interaction in the Australian context.

2.2

Analysis at sentence level

The next level of cultural and linguistic information such an analysis yields is in relation to the speech functions noted down the right-hand column. These show the kinds of enquiries that are appropriate, e.g. asking for information, asking for clarification, or checking information. The learner needs to be able to manage all of these speech functions, so all of these aspects (e.g. the grammar of questions) need to be made explicit and purposefully included in practice activities. The transcript can be used to give examples of such questions. In the ESL class, these questions can be analysed at sentence level to identify reliable patterns for the structure of questions. When a learner memorises such a structure, they can draw on that paradigm in numerous other situations, and be able to produce accurate questions. Exercises and activities can help learners to develop facility in the adaptation and use of particular structures. on our house? what paint Can you tell me

on an old fridge? would be best to use

on a fence? on timber floors?

what cleaning product

on windows?

Fig. 5.4 Substitution chart Learners can be drilled in use of the structure in the above Figure by prompting with pictures of various items. Show a picture of a fridge, and indicate a student to give the appropriate question.

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Single word prompts can also be given: Teacher:

Fence. Hsiu Ching?

Hawa:

Can you tell me what paint would be best to use on a fence?

Teacher:

Bicycle. Hawa?

Hawa:

Can you tell me what paint would be best to use on a bicycle?

Situational prompts require the learner to think a bit more about what they need to say. For example, clean a shower: Teacher:

You want to clean your shower. Frank?

Frank:

Can you tell me what paint would be best to use on a shower?

Teacher:

Do you really want to paint your shower?

Frank:

No. Clean.

Teacher:

Okay. So what do you want to use?

Frank:

Soap? Detergent?

Teacher:

Fine. Let’s use detergent. What’s your question now?

Frank:

Can you tell me what kind of detergent would be best to use on a shower?

Teacher:

Good. Now Jean, you want to fertilise your hibiscus bush.

2.2.1 Feedback cues The transcript in Figure 5.3 also shows the feedback the listener employs to show he is listening (“Yeah”, “Okay” – lines 8, 18), that they are interested (“Oh yeah” – line 11) and what their attitudes are (“Couldn’t agree with you more” – line 14). It is important to note that some of the attitudinal cues are communicated through tone of voice, intonation, facial gestures and body language. In this regard a transcript doesn’t convey all the information that a learner needs to know. If possible, using video or audio recordings is recommended so that these other features can be observed. For example, when the sales assistant says, “Oh yeah,” in agreement (line 11), a falling intonation is intrinsic to that agreement message. Said with a rising intonation, “Oh yeah,” could indicate disagreement, or doubtful

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questioning of the original statement; so some kind of spoken demonstration is necessary.

2.2.2 Signal words If we are going to use real-life natural sounding conversational material, we need to be prepared to explain the meaning of signal words. For example, the signal word “so” is used in line 15: “So, the main brands all have an exterior acrylic.” In this case, “so” means something like, “Let’s get back to talking about your choices.” This is quite different from the meaning of “so” in, “So there’s no difference?” (line 24) which could be rendered, “You’re saying that …”

2.2.3 Ellipsis Another linguistic feature of this interaction is the tendency to abbreviate sentence forms, e.g. “For inside or outside?” and, “Yeah, best to get to it before it starts cracking and flaking.” and, “Not too shiny …” This is known in linguistic terms as ellipsis: omission of a word or phrase which would be necessary to the sentence construction, but whose absence does not obscure the meaning. More extreme examples are found in lines 3 and 4: “Inside or outside?” “Outside.” Conventions for producing grammatical sentences are ignored. The context provides enough information for the message to be perfectly clear to the listener without a complete sentence being produced. Because this conversation is taking place face-to-face, with the articles under discussion also being present, there is a good deal of reference, i.e. substituting a pronoun rather than using the name of the item. For example, after being introduced, the paint is referred to 3 times as “it” (lines 7 and 8). In lines 5 and 7, the act of painting is referred to as “it” without the action being named previously. This reference is possible because the context is so strong that the meaning is obvious.

2.2.4 Vocabulary Introducing a topic such as painting and buying paint engenders a whole range of vocabulary specific to that Field, for example acrylic, enamel, high gloss, low sheen, matt. This text provides the context for introducing a wider range of terms which would also be associated with this Field. You could introduce the equipment necessary for painting and the verbs associated with painting. A lesson beginning with this text could be extended into a unit of work around this topic and include additional communicative tasks such as reading instructions for painting, giving spoken instructions for painting or negotiating colour choices, or arguing the merits of acrylic versus enamel. You could even extend some of this vocabulary to talk about a different kind of painting – that being painting your nails! See another example of a spoken text analysis below:

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Phone call to enquire about a car service with the local mechanic. Text type:

Phone call conversation

Social purpose:

To enquire about a car service

Field:

Car service

Structural features -Formal greeting or introduction -Customer states purpose of call

Tenor:

Customer to mechanic

Mode:

Language features

Model text Mechanic: “All-round Mechanics, Frank speaking, how can I help you?” Customer: “Hi there, I’ve got my

Spoken

Proper nouns

booked in

for a service in the name of Symonds, Terry -Question for confirmation -Agreement and further question for information -Agreement/ confirmation Acknowledgem ent and further request -Confirmation; request for confirmation of details -Agreement and another request

Symonds.” Frank: “Okay, just let me check that. Ah here it is. Rego check and full service, it?”

Adjectives

Terry: “Yep, and could you have a look at the also? not working at all.”

Adverbs

Frank: “Sure, we can do that for you.” Terry: “Thanks, great. Could I also ask that you inform me of the total cost before you start work? I don’t really want to spend a lot of on it.” Frank: “Sure, no problem. Let me just confirm your phone number. got five, four, five, one, zero nine, zero nine. Is that still correct?”

First conditional clause Pronoun Phrase

Terry: “Yes, correct. Do you think you can get that done today?”

-confirmation and possible complication

Frank: “Should be able to, unless we find a major problem. If we do find a major

Acknowledgem ent and signing off. -closing

Terry: “Okay great. Thanks for that. I look forward to hearing from you later in the day.”

problem, I’ll let you know.”

Frank: “Okay, bye for now.”

Adapted from: Butterworth, A. & Nicholson, P. (2009). Listening to Australia: Postbeginner. Surry Hills, NSW. NSW. Adult Migrant English Service. (p. 108). TESOL Made Practical For All Situations

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3. Lesson planning For now, let’s look at a lesson plan following the learning/curriculum cycle, and based on the paint shop text (see Figure 5.3). Refer to the below for a reminder about the learning cycle and scaffolding. Stage

Features of the stage

Examples of activities •

Play the dialogue on audio or video recording. Discuss who the participants are, where they are, what they are talking about, what the aims of the participants are (to buy/to sell).

•

Substitution drills.

•

Fill the gaps with the correct form.

•

Match sentence halves.

•

Drills in pairs with a variety of prompts.

•

Information gaps.

•

Match words and pictures.

•

Match words and meanings.

•

Choose the correct word to complete the sentence.

•

Find a word in the text which means ...

•

Ask students to listen and read and identify the stages.

•

Mark on OHT or data projection display.

•

Play each section and listen for details.

•

Look at things like: How much time is spent on chit-chat, discussion, negotiation, etc.? What attitudes and feelings do we observe and how are they expressed (including tone of voice, intonation, body language and facial expressions if possible)?

Introduce the text and register

Building knowledge of the field

Observe grammatical structures used (e.g. see Fig. 3.2). Do some practice exercises and activities (written and spoken).

Build vocabulary range

Analyse text structure

Modelling the text Discuss the cultural aspects of the interaction

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Stage

Features of the stage

Examples of activities

Observe turn-taking strategies

Controlled speaking practice

Transfer the genre Joint to another situation construction (e.g. shopping for upholstery fabric)

Individual Roleplays construction

•

Find the words that signal a topic change or change in the direction of the conversation.

•

Chorus repetition (after teacher) of dialogue.

•

Pronunciation focus.

•

Practice in pairs.

•

Elicit new topic through students sharing their own renovation stories.

•

Have small groups prepare a new dialogue.

•

Two group members perform the dialogue for the class (record).

•

Listen to the recording, analyse it for stages.

•

Grammar, vocab.

•

Edit the new dialogue as a class (perhaps from a cloze exercise).

•

In pairs, students choose or are assigned a new situation, and roleplay the conversation.

Until this point, the description of Teaching Speaking has been very closely tied to the material in Chapter 2, which follows the genre approach to language teaching and learning. This provides the big picture for us of how to approach teaching spoken genres. Within this learning cycle we may choose to focus on a specific grammatical structure for a while, or we may find it necessary to do some focused pronunciation practice. Pronunciation was addressed in Chapter 4, but it is now worth looking at some practice activities which can be used to develop speaking skills.

4. Practice activities At this point, having analysed our model text, and noted several aspects of grammar and key sentence structures, we begin to think about how we would help students to practise a specific aspect of spoken language. For example, looking at Figure 5.3, it is evident that in a negotiation for goods and services, many questions are used to determine which product is best for the customer. One of the question

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types used is asking which of two alternatives is preferred, e.g. line 16: “Do you want high gloss, or low sheen?” The next step in planning is to select or design activities that will facilitate practise of the specific language feature you have selected – in this case, questions regarding choice. Every language practise activity will fall on a continuum between controlled and free. These two extremes generally correspond with two goals, being accuracy and fluency respectively. In the language classroom there can emerge a tension between these two goals, and learners will differ in their preferences as to how classroom time should be spent: working on accuracy, or working on fluency. This is often related to individual learning styles, but can also be related to past educational experience. The ESL teacher is concerned with developing both accuracy and fluency and must give time for each to happen in the classroom.

4.1

Activities designed to develop accuracy

Activities designed to develop accuracy are tightly controlled. The process of the activity is carefully described, the language to be produced during the activity is tightly prescribed, and the teacher generally keeps a high degree of control over what is happening during the activity and offers immediate correction and intervention when errors occur. Chorus repetition after the teacher, or substitution drills with a variety of prompts (pictures, single words), are examples of tightly controlled speaking activities aimed at developing accuracy. These drills could very effectively be used to practise questions regarding fluency, in our unit of work emerging from the transaction involved in buying paint. Another activity involving the same question structure could be a pair forming activity. Students are given a task which involves finding the person in the class with a component that is complementary to their own. To practise questions about alternatives, students are each given a card, which they do not show anyone else in the class. Each card is part of a different pair, e.g. coffee/tea, swimming/cycling, pizza/rice. For 20 students, there would be 10 pairs of cards, each pair different from the other pairs. On each card one of the items is highlighted, and the students must ask each other the question, “Do you want (coffee or tea)?” until the person with the coffee card, finds the person with the tea card, etc. This person then becomes their partner for a very loosely controlled activity, designed to develop fluency.

4.2

Activities designed to develop fluency

Activities designed to develop fluency are less concerned with the grammatical accuracy of the language produced in the process and more concerned with ‘free’ practice. They are more concerned with the completion of a task which is dependent on being able to communicate something. The intention is that the activity gives a communicative context requiring the use of the structure we’ve been practising. The student needs to transfer newly gained knowledge and skills to the communicative task. Whether the student does use the intended structure or not is a choice they make.

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Roleplays are widely used as practice for fluency. In a roleplay, situations and characters are loosely described, the language to be used includes everything at the learners’ disposal, and the teacher does not intervene or correct during the roleplay (but may do so later). More emphasis is placed on content and achieving the communicative goal, rather than on form. Returning to our particular language focus (questions about alternatives) and moving on to roleplaying, students are given a basic menu for a fast-food outlet and asked to roleplay giving and receiving orders for food, involving alternatives like large/small, tomato/BBQ, white/wholemeal, etc. They can take turns in each role: shop attendant and customer. This activity is only loosely controlled in that while the context is well-defined, the alternatives are not explicitly stated, but hinted at through the menu. The scenario also has the students drawing on a lot of other language to fulfil both roles. In developing speaking skills, it is helpful to offer a range of activities moving from tightly controlled practice for accuracy to free activities facilitating practise for fluency. When introducing new language in the context of speaking genres we want to begin with practise activities that will offer the learner as much support and correction as necessary, and then engage in activities with less support, moving towards free activities which hopefully will still elicit the structures and vocabulary you have been focusing on in your practise for accuracy. The examples given in relation to the paint scenario follow this progression. The following examples of communicative activities have been gathered from a number of sources listed under references at the end of the book.

5. Activity examples 5.1

Picture description

a.

Students describe what they see.

b.

Students use a particular structure to describe what they see: The woman is drinking coffee. The man is reading the newspaper. The girl is eating an ice-cream. The teenagers are crossing the road.

c.

Student A describes a route on a map and Student B draws the route on their map.

d.

Students respond to questions about a picture.

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5.2

Information gaps

Two (or more) students each have a portion of information, and must use the information they have, or get more information from their partner, to be able to complete a task. They must not look at each other’s information. For example: a.

Half a crossword: Students A and B have the same crossword, each with a different half of the words filled in. They must give each other clues so that they can each complete their crossword, without looking at their partner’s paper.

b.

Students (groups of 4 or 5) each have a portion of a story, which they must relate to each other in order to create a cohesive story.

c.

Students A and B must ask and answer questions of each other to complete separate charts. Ask your partner questions to complete these descriptions of two men seen leaving the scene of a robbery last night. Do not look at your partner’s paper.

Description Height Build Hair colour Eye colour Face shape Skin tone Clothes

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Student A Suspect A 183cm

Suspect B heavy

Blonde brown Oval dark brown pants, black leather jacket

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Description Height Build Hair colour Eye colour Face shape Skin tone Clothes

Student B Suspect A

Suspect B 192cm

slim black blue square fair black jeans, brown sweatshirt

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d.

Logic puzzles: Each of 4 or 5 students in a group have some of the information which must be combined in order to solve a puzzle.

e.

Students A and B have diary pages, each with different time slots already booked up. They must negotiate a number of mutually agreeable appointment times. Ask your partner questions to make 5 appointments that are suitable for both of you. Do not look at your partner’s diary.

Monday

Student A Tuesday Wednesday

Thursday

Friday

Monday

Student B Tuesday Wednesday

Thursday

Friday

9am 10am 11am 12pm 1pm 2pm 3pm 4pm 5pm

9am 10am 11am 12pm 1pm 2pm 3pm 4pm 5pm f.

Students A and B have the same text, but each with different gaps. They must ask and answer questions of each other to complete the gaps in their texts.

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Information gap – Student A Professor Fiona Wood: Biography Professor Fiona Wood, mother of _____ children, is a highly qualified and experienced burns specialist. She is the head of Royal Perth Hospital's Burns Unit and Director of the Western Australia Burns Service. As well as working as a _______________, she is a cofounder of Clinical Cell Culture, a private company recognised in medical circles for its world-leading research and breakthroughs in the treatment of burns. She has become world renowned for her patented invention of ____________ for burns victims, a treatment which is continually developing. Where previous techniques of skin culturing required 21 days to produce enough cells to cover major burns, Fiona has reduced that period to five days. Via her research, Fiona found that scarring is greatly reduced if ______________ could be provided within 10 days. Prof. Fiona Wood's aspiration is ‘scarless, woundless, healing’. A graduate of St Thomas's Hospital Medical School in London, Fiona worked at a major British hospital before marrying Western Australian born _______ Tony Keirath and migrating to Perth with their first two children in 1987. Her exceptional leadership and surgical skills and the fact that she had the vision to plan for a large-scale disaster five years before the ____ tragedy, brought worldwide praise and recognition to the Royal Perth Hospital Burns Unit and highlighted the ground breaking research into burns treatment taking place in Western Australia. Her business, Clinical Cell Culture, came about after a schoolteacher arrived at Royal Perth Hospital in 1992 with petrol burns to _____ of his body. Fiona turned to the merging US-invented technology of cultured skin to save his life, working nights in a laboratory borrowed from scientist Marie Stoner. A friendship developed, and the two women joined forces to explore tissue engineering. They moved from growing skin sheets to spraying skin cells, earning a worldwide reputation as pioneers in their field. The company started operating in 1993 and is now planning to release its technology ________ to use the royalties to fund further burns research. Through her ___________, innovation and vision, Fiona has saved and improved countless people's lives.

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Information gap – Student B Professor Fiona Wood: Biography Professor Fiona Wood, mother of six ________, is a highly qualified and experienced burns specialist. She is the head of Royal Perth Hospital's Burns Unit and Director of the Western Australia Burns Service. As well as working as a burns specialist, she is a co-founder of ____________________, a private company recognised in medical circles for its world-leading research and breakthroughs in the treatment of burns. She has become world renowned for her patented invention of spray- on skin for ____________, a treatment which is continually developing. Where previous techniques of skin culturing required 21 days to produce enough cells to cover major burns, Fiona has reduced that period to five days. Via her research, Fiona found that scarring is greatly reduced if replacement skin could be provided within _______. Prof. Fiona Wood's aspiration is ‘scarless, woundless, healing’. A graduate of St Thomas's Hospital Medical School in London, Fiona worked at a major British hospital before marrying Western Australian born surgeon Tony Keirath and migrating to _____with their first two children in 1987. Her exceptional leadership and surgical skills and the fact that she had the vision to plan for a large-scale disaster five years before the Bali tragedy, brought worldwide ____________________ to the Royal Perth Hospital Burns Unit and highlighted the ground breaking research into burns treatment taking place in Western Australia. Her business, Clinical Cell Culture, came about after a schoolteacher arrived at Royal Perth Hospital in 1992 with petrol burns to 90% of his _____. Fiona turned to the merging US-invented technology of cultured skin to save his life, working nights in a laboratory borrowed from scientist Marie Stoner. A friendship developed, and the two women joined forces to explore tissue engineering. They moved from growing skin sheets to spraying skin cells, earning a worldwide reputation as pioneers in their field. The company started operating in 1993 and is now planning to release its technology globally to use the royalties to fund further _____ research. Through her enthusiasm, innovation and _______, Fiona has saved and improved countless people's lives.

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5.3

Games

a.

20 questions: You have 20 questions to find out what item the person is thinking of. The item can fit into three categories: animal (including humans), mineral (things made of stone or metal), or vegetable (plants, or things made from plants). “Is it an animal?” “Yes.” “Does it eat meat?” “No.” “Does it eat grass?” “Yes.” “Is it a cow?” etc.

b.

I packed my bags for London: Sitting in a circle, each person recites, “I packed my bags for a London, and I took an umbrella.” Each person adds their own item to the suitcase, first listing all the previous items mentioned, “I packed my bags for London and I took an umbrella, a camera, a towel, and a map.”. This simple game, involving lots of repetition, can be altered to many different grammatical structures, e.g. “If I had a million dollars, I would…”

c.

Celebrity Heads: A label is attached to a participant (using a sticker or safety pin) or written above their head on a whiteboard or a piece of paper. They cannot see their own label, and don’t know what it says. They must ask Yes/No questions of the audience (who can see the label) in order to work out what celebrity they are. This game can be altered to any lexical field, e.g. vegetables, occupations.

d.

Board games instructing students to talk about a certain topic when they land on a particular square. Topics can be as broad as you like for conversation practice, or as focused as you like for practice around a content area you have been studying.

START HERE→

Tell us about your family.

Describe your home.

Talk about your most recent job.

Tell us about your last holiday.

Tell us about your next holiday.

Tell us about your scariest experience. Tell us about the happiest day of your life.

Tell us about a car breakdown.

Describe your favourite outfit.

Describe your favourite food.

Tell us about your dream for the future.

Tell us about your greatest fear.

Tell us about your first day in Australia

Tell us about a great adventure.

Tell us about your favourite movie.

Tell us about your favourite novel.

Tell us about getting married.

Tell us your favourite joke.

Tell us about your first job.

Tell us about a plane journey. Tell us about an embarrassing moment.

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5.4 a. b. c.

5.5 a. b. c. d.

5.6 a. b. c. d. e.

5.7 a. b. c. d.

5.8

Short oral presentations Report Explanation Debates

Discussion groups Moral dilemmas Controversial issues Sharing own experiences / cultural practices Sentence starters (e.g. “My favourite pastime is …” “If men had babies instead of women …”)

Interviews Interview another student in the class. Interview another teacher. Invite another class to join your class and interview each other. Invite a guest speaker into the classroom, and after their presentation, interview them. Teacher (or a student) pretends to be a celebrity or famous person to be interviewed.

Surveys (limitless possibilities) Do you like …? How often do you …? Opinion surveys. Have students design their own surveys, for an extra challenge.

Roleplays

Students are assigned a situation and roles. These can be kept very simple, only requiring transfer of a sample dialogue to a new situation. Or they can be made more challenging by giving a few students some details which create a complication. It is often helpful to have the situation, roles and details printed on cards. Roleplays can involve as few as two students or many more.

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Example role play cards Victim Police officer You must get the details of the accident.

You are very nervous and shocked after the accident. You think you might faint. You are also angry at the driver who caused the accident. You keep interrupting to accuse him/her of drunk driving. Make sure the police officer gets to hear your side of the story.

Driver who caused the accident You are completely shocked by the accident. You have never had an accident before in 30 years of driving. You never drink alcohol. You believe that the other driver was talking on their mobile phone, and failed to indicate. You must convince the police officer.

5.9

Eyewitness You saw the whole thing. Choose whose side you are on, and join in the discussion, defending their actions.

Find the differences

(without looking at your partner’s worksheet!) a.

Students A and B have pictures with minor differences, and must describe their pictures to discover the differences.

b.

Students A and B each have a copy of the same written text and must ask and answer questions in order to discover the differences. Note: At the end of the activity, be sure to clarify which version is true or accurate.

Student A Koalas eat the leaves of all gum trees. They drink about 1 litre of water a day. They spend about 20 hours a day sleeping. They usually live in groups of about 10 koalas, with one dominant male.

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Student B Koalas eat the leaves of a few types of gum trees. They rarely drink water, getting all the liquid they need from gum leaves. They spend about 12 hours a day sleeping. They usually live alone, until it is time to mate.

Chapter 5

c. Students A and B have charts with minor differences, and must ask and answer questions to discover the differences. Student A Monday Tuesday

Wednesday Thursday Friday

5.10 a.

b.

5.11

Student B

fine and sunny Max 28° Min 17° cloudy with showers Max 24° Min 15° overcast Max 26° Min 17° rainy all day Max 18° Min 12° sunny and windy Max 27° Min 18°

fine and windy Max 28° Min 17° Tuesday cloudy with showers Max 25° Min 18° Wednesday a few showers Max 23° Min 17° Thursday rainy all day Max 18° Min 14° Friday rainy and windy Max 28° Min 17° Monday

Describe and arrange Student A has a number of items/pictures arranged in a particular way, and must describe the arrangement to Student B, who arranges identical items accordingly. In groups of 5, one person looks at a picture for one minute then instructs the group as to how individual cut-outs of items in the picture should be arranged.

Find someone who ...

This is a great activity for getting to know a new class. Students have a list of characteristics, like the following. They ask each other questions to find someone different to satisfy each criteria. Write student’s name here:

Find someone who ... ... likes the same food as you. ... lives in the same suburb as you. ... has the same number of children as you. ...has travelled to more than 5 countries. ...etc.

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5.12

Show and tell

Students bring an object or photograph and talk about it.

5.13

Negotiations (many possibilities)

a.

In small groups, plan a trip around Australia, with stated budget and time restrictions.

b.

In small groups, plan a party.

5.14

Rank order

In small groups, rank in order of importance a number of given items within a particular topic (e.g. “What are you most afraid of?” Possible answers: spiders, getting a cold, losing your car keys, losing your wallet, having a car accident). This will involve a lot of discussion and negotiation.

6. The teacher’s role The role of the teacher during speaking activities varies depending on whether the aim of the activity is to develop accuracy or fluency. During practice for accuracy the teacher will be as aware as possible of what each student is saying. They will correct any mistakes that occur in the use of the target structure, intervening immediately when an error occurs. At the most extreme end of the continuum described earlier, the teacher will maintain complete control of the process, indicating when learners should speak and indicating what they should say. Strategies for correcting may vary. You can: Strategy

Example

Repeat the troublesome phrase using a rising questioning intonation.

“A backbag?”

Repeat the whole utterance, emphasising the error, and using a rising questioning intonation.

“You carried your clothes in a backbag?”

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Make a comment and asking for another attempt from the same student.

“We don’t call it a backbag. Do you know what it’s called?”

Ask other students to help.

“Backbag isn’t quite right, can anyone help? What is that kind of bag called?”

Give the correct form, if students are not able to self-correct and the class is not able to help.

“I used a backpack.”

Use a facial expression.

(Once you know your students well enough for them to understand the meaning of your expression).

Indicate the type of error.

“What verb tense should that be?”

Activities towards the middle of the controlled-free continuum can be defined in terms of process and the language to be used, but they may be carried out in pairs or small groups. The teacher will be seen wandering the classroom listening closely to language production and offering feedback and correction when errors are apparent. An example of such an activity is an information gap where two students have copies of the same chart, but with different pieces of information missing. They need to ask and answer questions using specific question and statement forms in order to complete the task. However, each pair has a fair degree of autonomy in completing the task. The teacher’s role in relation to communicative activities designed to practise for fluency is to set the task up, give clear instructions, and get the learners started. The teacher can then monitor the groups to see that the activity is proceeding, prompt where necessary to get a group going again, and make notes of common errors (and successes!) which can be addressed (and celebrated!) after the activity is finished. An example of a free activity is to discuss a moral dilemma where the group must agree on a solution or resolution. The discussion is set in motion and the teacher monitors to ensure groups remain on task and do not flounder. After the activity is complete and the groups have reported back to the class on the content of their discussion and their resolution, the teacher addresses language issues that arose or became apparent during the discussion. In an ideal world, the teacher should aim to have a ratio of 1:5 – where the students speak 5 times more than the teacher in each lesson. 80% ‘teacher talk time’ and 20% student talk time.

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7. Selecting materials 7.1

Learner levels for listening

It is important to understand your learner’s level in order to create an appropriate activity aimed at their needs and abilities. The Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR) is used all over the world and provides descriptors of each of the macro-skills, for each level. Each proficiency level gives a description of an ELL’s skills in the four macro-skills of speaking, reading, writing, and listening. Reference Level Descriptors (RLD) described by the CEFR and can be located on the ©Council of Europe Website.

7.2

Topic-based materials

Many ESL teachers develop the habit of gathering and storing everything that might someday be useful. Magazine and newspaper articles, pictures, advertisements, junk mail, school newsletters, information brochures, and instruction booklets all become potential texts for use in the ESL classroom. Of course gathering all of these wonderful texts is useless if you can’t lay your hands on them when you want them. One way of organising storage of such material is by topic. Whether you invest in a filing cabinet and keep hard copies of items, or scan and file digital copies, you will need an orderly system to aid retrieval. Electronic copies are easily stored in multiple categories. For example, a newspaper article on bag-snatching can be filed in a topical folder on ‘crime’, and also according to level in a folder labelled ‘intermediate’. Resources can also be filed according to macro-skill. Whatever your system, be consistent and logical.

7.3

Task-based materials

As much as possible we want to be using authentic materials. Having determined the tasks that students need to be able to complete in English, we will brainstorm the authentic texts that might be associated with that task. Notice that with lower levels spoken texts may need to be simulated versions that have been simplified in order to make them accessible to the learner. Here are some examples of texts that could be used for task-based language learning Level

Task

Texts

Beginner

Give personal details (S)

•

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Application forms • Enrolment forms • Recordings of people giving personal details

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Elementary

Listening to the weather (L)

•

Reading timetables (R)

•

Write a short note (W)

•

Oral transaction to negotiate buying goods (S)

•

Understand spoken instructions (L)

•

Read a newspaper article (R)

•

Write a short recount (W)

•

Intermediate Give a spoken explanation (S) Listen to a current affairs report (L)

Recordings of radio weather reports • Recordings of TV weather reports • Newspaper weather sections (useful for introducing vocabulary) • School timetables Bus timetables • TV guides Real-life short notes • Recordings of messages left on telephone answering machines Shopping catalogues • Classified advertisements (2nd hand goods, etc.) • Real estate ads • Car ads

Recordings of oral transactions (simulated) • Written procedural texts (helpful for introducing grammar and vocabulary) e.g. recipes, using appliances, first aid, fire safety, evacuation procedures • Recordings of public address announcements including instructions (probably simulated), e.g. onboard flight safety instructions, the store is now closing, etc. • Recordings of telephone banking instructions Newspaper articles (some may need to be rewritten into a simplified form, retaining the authentic flavour)

Personal letters including a recount • Short stories written for adults Recordings of simulated conversations • Interviews with guest speakers •

•

Recordings of TV/radio segments from current affairs programs

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Advanced

Read an opinion text (R)

•

Letters to the editor • Political campaign propaganda • Letters of protest (e.g. community to local council)

Write a formal letter (W)

•

Participate in a formal discussion (S/L)

•

Listen to a lecture (L)

•

Read job selection criteria(R)

•

Real-life samples of selection criteria relating to areas of student interest/background

Write response to selection criteria (W)

•

Real-life/simulated samples of selection criteria as written by job applicants

Examples of formal letters from a variety of fields: business, letter requesting goods or services, letter requesting an exchange or refund, letter of complaint

Recordings of formal discussions (university, TV/radio segments) • Real-life formal discussions Recordings of lectures (university, TV reports) • Real-life lectures (attending)

Summary In teaching speaking, we will apply the theory of Register which was introduced in Chapter 2. Texts (written and spoken) are produced in the context of culture which influences the language choices made. ESL teachers need to become skilled in text analysis to be able to make explicit to ESL learners the structural and language features of a text. The learning cycle described in this unit is a helpful model for lesson planning, showing how to integrate practice activities for accuracy and for fluency, using a scaffolding approach and reducing the amount of support as the students’ proficiency increases. Finally, we have looked at how the teacher’s role during speaking activities varies in relation to its purpose of accuracy or fluency.

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CHAPTER 6: Teach listening

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Introduction Communication is a two-way process: someone sends a message, and another person receives a message. “Speaking does not itself constitute communication unless what is said is comprehended by another person. Teaching the comprehension of spoken speech is therefore of primary importance if the communication aim is to be reached” (Rivers, cited by Morley, 1991). Morley goes on to say, “Listening is used far more than any other single language skill in normal daily life. On average, we can expect to listen twice as much as we speak, four times more than we read, and five times more than we write. The importance of listening cannot be underestimated.” In daily life, listening is a very important skill, and when you look at the ESL classroom, listening plays a crucial role in the learning process itself, as it is a primary channel for receiving input. Students listen to the teacher, to other students and to recordings. Outside the classroom, students benefit from immersing themselves in English as much as possible. Language skills do not develop in isolation, but in conjunction with each other. Just as listening is part of everyday activity, the listening skill can be developed in the midst of every language lesson. When using a reading text, offer the opportunity to listen to a recording or oral reading of the text, with some listening practice activities included. Speaking and listening obviously work together. Even a lesson that has a primary focus on writing can and should include some elements of discussion or reading aloud, which offer opportunity to develop listening skills.

1. The listening skill 1.1

The listening process

Listening is an interactive, interpretive process. Learners are involved in a process of using their existing knowledge of the world and of language to interpret the sounds they are hearing, in order to “make meaning” (make sense) out of what they are hearing. We process what we hear in two ways. Firstly, we use a wide range of prior knowledge about the world and about language to make meaning. We bring to the listening task all that we know which could give us information about what is being said or what ‘might be’ being said. We interpret as much as we can and then we predict, we guess, we hypothesise. This is called top-down processing.

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Consider for example, the experience of a native English speaker and a mother of young children, engaged in an immersion language learning experience, learning Tagalog in the Philippines:

Secondly, the converse process, known as bottom-up processing, is the process of listening to the sounds, making sense of them into words, and then into sentences and finally constructing a meaning from what we have heard. Watching children’s television programs similar to the American program, ‘Sesame Street’, is good for working at this level as words are sounded out, repeated, and a visual representation displayed. An example of bottom-up processing in an ESL class might be when we teach and learn about morphemes4 which carry specific meaning. For example, a driver is one who drives, a baker is one who bakes, and a teacher is one who teaches. So what do we call someone who farms, plumbs, keeps a shop, cleans? Another example is when we teach and learn about graphemes5 and phonemes6: If ‘ay’ in 4

Morpheme: A meaningful linguistic unit consisting of a word (such as cup) or a word element (such as the -s at the end of cups) that can't be divided into smaller meaningful parts. Morphemes are commonly classified into free morphemes (which can occur as separate words) and bound morphemes (which can't stand alone as words). 5 Grapheme: The smallest unit in a writing system capable of causing a contrast in meaning. Letters of the alphabet. 6 Phoneme: The smallest phonetic unit in a language that is capable of conveying a distinction in meaning. Sounds of a language.

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‘day’ is pronounced [eɪ] then how do we say, ‘play’, ‘say’, ‘tray’, ‘maybe’, ‘payment’ and ‘away’? A combination of top-down and bottom-up processes, working from both directions, is necessary for effective listening and language learning.

Sentences

Words

Morphemes / sounds

Fig. 6.1 Top-down and bottom-up processes

1.2

Listening, affect and attitudes

‘Affect’ is a psychological term referring to attitudes and emotions, and is commonly used in the education field. When we communicate we generally reveal something of our attitudes, emotions and feelings about the subject. When we are learning to speak a second language, we often need to learn new ways of communicating our attitudes and emotions that are appropriate to the host culture. We make linguistic choices in the words and expressions we choose to convey our message, which help to convey our attitudes towards the subject. We make para-linguistic choices, altering our rate of speech, our rhythm of speech, our stress and intonation in order to convey attitude or emotion. Non-linguistic features of communication such as body language including posture, movements, gestures, facial expressions and eye contact, also communicate our emotions, feelings and attitudes. Listeners need to be able to accurately interpret all of these aspects of communication in order to gain a more complete understanding of what is being said.

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Para-linguistic Non-linguistic

Information received aurally is not truly understood unless listeners interpret the features of affect transmitted by speakers in what they say, how they say it, and what they do as they are talking. All of this is coloured by culture, so as we learned in Chapter 1, we are reminded that teaching language is as much about teaching culture as it is about teaching new words.

2. Listening strategies In Chapter 2, we noted that the situation within which communication takes place, influences the language choices made. The topic (Field), relationship between the people communicating (Tenor), and whether the interaction is spoken or written (Mode) all determine the language choices made.

Feild -

Tenor -

Topic

Relationship

Mode Spoken / Written

Fig. 6.2 Field, Tenor and Mode We were also introduced to the notion that communication is motivated by the need to fulfil a particular social purpose or function. These can be as generally classified as ‘interpersonal goals’ or ‘pragmatic goals’ as introduced in Chapter 5,

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Teach speaking. Interpersonal goals may include casual conversation, to give an invitation, to offer condolences, or to offer congratulations. Pragmatic goals may include making a complaint, arranging delivery of goods or negotiating a sale. Listening in different situations and for different purposes will also involve different levels of negotiation of meaning. We can be listening to someone faceto-face, for example in a casual conversation or an interview, and have the freedom to ask for clarification. We could be face-to-face and need to wait until later to clarify meaning, for example in a lecture. We may be listening to a recording or transmission and have no opportunity to clarify meaning, yet if we are listening to a recording (Podcast, CD, DVD, MP3) we can listen to the same text again and again and perhaps ‘hear’ more each time. Listening strategies vary with the situation and the purpose of listening.

2.2

Ways of listening

Here are a few typical listening activities from the day of a native English speaker who is a teacher, a mother, an employee and a friend.

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What we see from these few examples is that in each situation, listening occurred in different ways. As the purpose for listening varied, so did the listening strategies. While listening for information (weather report), undivided attention was given when the listener knew the required information was about to be presented, the focus being to listen for specific words and phrases. During the staff meeting, listening strategies changed according to the personal relevance of the topics and also with the nature of interaction that was simultaneously occurring, which included giving information, discussion, banter and jokes. While policy development was occurring, listening was focused on the precise wording of the policy, but while discussion was happening, listening was for the gist and general meaning of what was being said. When everyone was joking and laughing and there was a quick and humorous exchange, it’s most likely that everyone immediately forgot what had just been said. Listening to the friend was a very particular kind of listening and required particular kinds of responses.

Listen for specific words and phrases.

Listening for information

Listening for effect and or attitude

Listening for gist

Listening for general meaning

Listening for pleasure

Fig. 6.3 Listening strategies TESOL Made Practical For All Situations

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It is apparent that the context and the purpose of the listening will direct how and where our listening attention is focused. The implication of this for listening practice in the ESL classroom is that we need to highlight the different ways in which we listen in different situations and according to different purposes for listening. At times it’s okay to not understand every word. At other times it’s much more important. These examples demonstrate that we also need to vary the expected response to listening texts. Some natural responses are physical actions, some are note-taking kinds of responses, and sometimes the correct kind of verbal response is crucial to maintaining social relationship and helping a friend in need. In many listening situations we have the opportunity to ask for or offer repetition or clarification as necessary, for example in casual conversation or in negotiations. However, in addition to this two-way communication, our societal environment is also crowded with one-way communication such as public address announcements, television and radio, instructional situations and public performances. During one-way communication, there are no opportunities for interaction allowing us to negotiate the meaning. Information must also be gleaned in the first listening. When a learner is attempting to understand every word they hear, they can quickly become overwhelmed and begin to miss even vocabulary and phrases that are very familiar. Developing listening strategies appropriate to the social purpose or listening task, like listening for key words or phrases, is very important.

2.3

Levels of listening

At the micro level, a list of listening sub-skills involved in listening to conversational speech will include attending to the smaller bits and chunks of language, discriminating distinctive sounds of the target language, recognising the stress patterns of words, recognising the rhythmic structure of English, distinguishing word boundaries, and listening for particular words and phrases.

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Developmental activities at the micro level will include: Indicating when you hear a specific word; Discriminating between two similar phrases; and Multiple choice questions. At the medio level, the sub-skills involved will include: Listening for specific information; Listening for specific phrases; and Listening for grammatical structures.

Listening at the macro level is focussing on larger elements, getting the general meaning or main message of the text. Helpful activities include: Listening for the main idea; Note-taking; Reconstructing (e.g. listen to a lecture → take notes → create an outline → write an essay → give an oral report back to class); Dictogloss

Fig. 6.4 Levels of listening

Let's look at micro, medio and macro levels of listening in relation to one listening event: listening to a lecture. At the macro level, this will involve identifying the purpose and scope of the lecture, detecting the attitude of the speaker towards the subject matter, and outlining the main points. At the medio level, it will involve identifying the role of discourse markers 7 (e.g. for emphasising main points),

7

discourse markers: signal points in the text: e.g. introducing a new point, changing topics, closing

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qualifying phrases and words8, and cohesive devices 9 for relating one piece of information to another or to the whole text. And at the micro level, it will involve recognising key lexical terms and deducing the meaning of unfamiliar words from context. These kinds of listening sub-skills and strategies can be developed in the ESL classroom with specially designed activities.

2.4

Implications for TESOL

The implications of all of this for TESOL are that: (1) We will not approach the use of every listening text in the same way. We will encourage learners to listen in different ways, sometimes for precise wording or detail, sometimes for the ‘sense’ or general meaning of a discourse. (2) The tasks that we ask learners to engage in as they listen or after they listen should reflect the wide range of responses we make to listening. Rather than simply listening and answering questions, we can expand the repertoire of activities. For example, we can have learners listen and assemble some object in response. Or they could listen and interject with appropriate feedback and comments. Or they could listen to a community announcement and write a letter to their local member of parliament or councillor offering support for (or criticism of) the proposal. This variety of learning activities involving verbal, written (visual) and kinaesthetic responses is an appropriate application of Visual-AuditoryKinaesthetic (VAK) learning style theory. More about listening practice activities later. Let’s look first at the texts we will use.

3. Listening texts based on real life listening texts and situations 3.1

Identifying real-life listening texts

The workbook accompanying this textbook asks you to complete a reflection task where you create a list of every listening event that occurs in your average day. These events give a fair idea of the kinds of texts that can and should be used in the ESL classroom: casual conversations around real-life topics, interviews, 8

qualifying words and phrases: e.g. except, although, however, therefore, apparently, unfortunately 9

Cohesive devices: a word or phrase used in a text to connect ideas together

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commentaries, supermarket announcements, radio broadcasts including news and weather reports and talk-back discussions, public transport announcements, recorded telephone messages, conversations in which the participants are making arrangements, group discussions, and so on. It has been mentioned that a lot of real-life listening is not face-to-face, such as radio, television, internet and public announcements. But most other spoken communication is face-to-face, and is strongly supported by the situational context. For this reason, use of video recordings is preferable to the traditional audio recordings. From viewing a DVD or internet-based video clip, the learner has visual access to the non-linguistic cues as well as the information that the physical context gives about the interaction. This is an ideal; however, to be realistic, video facilities (and recordings) are not always readily available in some situations. So, audio recordings are a reasonable substitute. Educational institutions can buy a copyright licence which allows classroom use of material recorded from television and radio broadcasts. In addition, there are numerous good quality video series available for purchase, which simulate real-life language use. Most course books are supported by additional resources such as CD recordings. Of course, it’s also possible for the teachers themselves to speak the texts in the classroom. It is good however, for learners to listen to a variety of voices rather than just the one teacher’s voice. Using recordings also means that what is heard is the same each time it is played.

3.2

Published materials

The previous section encourages the use of real-life texts or simulated texts as much as possible, and some of those can be recorded ourselves from the radio, television, or internet. However, recording conversations or other spoken transactions and negotiations is not so easy, and home-made recordings often have lower quality sound reproduction, which proves inadequate for classroom use where it needs to be very clear. If you do choose to make your own recording, make sure you listen to it yourself before you use it in class, to make sure it is clear enough. There are some excellent visual and audio materials available at no cost, such as those at Error! Hyperlink reference not valid.www.ercwa.org.au/english-classes (Australian lessons for migrants) and www.5minuteenglish.com/listening. For the Australian context, the following resources are highly appropriate content and quality productions. The following series from NSW AMES are available at www.ames.net.au and can be ordered online: Listening to Australia (NSW AMES): Four-level series from Beginner to Advanced adults, covering day-to-day topics and situations including a variety of genres. These dialogues and interviews are specially recorded for ESL learners but are based on real-life interactions, and so the language used is very realistic. The benefit of the recordings being graded for each level is that beginners can manage

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the texts presented, and each of the succeeding levels becomes more challenging and closer to native speech in rate of speech and complexity. Books and CDs. CSWE Workbooks (NSW AMES): Three-level series based on the Certificate of Spoken and Written English which is the curriculum framework used by all AMEP language programs for adults. The units are all based on skills such as ‘Can negotiate goods and services’ and ‘Can understand an information text’. Books and CDs. Beach Street 1 & 2 (NSW AMES): Level 1 suitable for post-beginners and Level 2 for intermediate learners. This course is designed for adults settling in Australia and introduces many aspects of Australian society and services. The listening texts are very realistic and can be quite challenging as they include all the characteristics of real-life conversations and negotiations, such as overlapping and interrupting. Books and CDs. English – Have a go (Oxford University Press): For beginners, this course book has 26 units of work that revolve around the lives of the Jones family. It covers many day-to-day situations and topics relevant to young people and adults. Even though this series is getting a bit old, it is still an excellent resource and is enjoyed by students. Books, cassettes and videos. All 26 episodes have been uploaded to YouTube. Words will travel (English Language Systems): Two-level series which follows the lives and stories of the people of a small coastal town in Australia. Lots of language appropriate for tourists as well as general life situations and topics. Has a helpful focus on discourse strategies, e.g. starting conversations, keeping conversations going, showing interest, etc. International participants in the videos give exposure to a variety of accents. Engaging stories. Teacher’s book, student’s book, workbooks, CDs and DVDs. Available via http://home.exetel.com.au/els/www1.htm The Australian English Course (Cambridge University Press): Two-level series written for post-beginners and intermediate learners, focussing on real-life situations and language use. Each unit integrates the four macro skills. The course includes authentic reading texts and listening material from a range of Australian sources. ‘Out of class’ tasks in each unit help students to apply what they have learnt. Teacher’s books, student’s books, audio recordings. Hello Australia (Commonwealth of Australia): Although quite dated now (1986), this unique series contains helpful and entertaining segments: a community-type situation or drama; ‘Dr Know’, who diagnoses what has gone wrong in communication events incurring some misunderstanding; a pronunciation segment; and a game show segment. The game show segment can be very popular with learners of all ages who enjoy joining in the competition. Book and videos. Videos now available for free on YouTube. Headway Australasia (Oxford University Press): Two attractively-presented course books written for elementary and intermediate learners which feature some

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beautiful areas of Australia and New Zealand. These are aimed at university age learners but are equally appropriate for adult learners. Books and audios. Australia Network: http://australianetwork.com/learningenglish/ This fantastic internet-based resource provides a wealth of audio-visual English language learning material, including:

Passport to English

Nexus

English bites

The business of English

•preparation for IELTS test;

•learning about people and ideas with stories about Australian life and culture;

•short segments with a meaning focus on a few phrases;

•15 part series for intermediate to advanced learners, including English for meetings, presentation and negotiations;

Study English

•intermediate to advanced IELTS preparation;

Living English

•drama, Sisters and brothers, to learn basic English skills;

Ten words about

Talkabout

•explains the meaning of 10 words from each of 10 episodes of ‘This Australian Life’; •unique Australian terminology found in 10 episodes of ‘This Australian Life’.

Apart from these great Aussie resources, there are dozens of course books published in the USA and Britain with supporting audio and visual resources. These will, however, reflect American and British use of English.

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4. Techniques for practising a variety of listening skills For general listening practice, numerous published books of listening tasks are available through larger bookstores and specialist ESL bookshops, though you may need to ask for them to be ordered in. Catalogues from the publishers of ESL materials are helpful in this regard. Many books of communicative activities, many with photocopiable resources, also offer great listening practice. As students work together to complete information gap activities, roleplay, puzzles, etc., both speaking and listening skills are being developed. Activities can often be adjusted slightly to achieve your specific purpose for listening practice. Let’s look at the kinds of activities that could be used to provide practice in listening skills at the three levels introduced earlier: micro, medio and macro. As mentioned earlier, activities which develop listening skills at the micro level will involve discriminating distinctive sounds of the target language, recognising the stress patterns of words, recognising the rhythmic structure of English, distinguishing word boundaries, and listening for particular words and phrases.

4.1

Developmental activities at the micro level

Developmental activities at the micro level will include:  Bingo: Tick every time you hear the following words: • bus • train • ferry  Discriminate between two similar phrases: e.g. Which do you hear? a. I’m putting you through now. b. I’ll put you through now.  Select a picture of a person, place or thing.  Move in response to instructions (e.g. ‘Simon says’).  Write down items in the sequence that they are listed or mentioned in a text.  Listen and note how many syllables you hear.

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 Listen and categorise words according to stress placement. e.g. telephone, accountant, engineer

4.2

O₀₀

₀O₀

₀₀O

telephone

accountant

engineer

Developmental activities at the medio level

Activities which develop listening skills at the medio level will require listening for specific information, specific phrases or grammatical structures. Activities which help to develop these skills will include:  Multiple choice questions requiring listening for details. e.g. The Telstra linesman offered to come ______ . a. on Monday. b. today. c. tomorrow.  True/false questions. a. Sophia works in a bakery. True / False  Listen for discrepancies: E.g. The learners have read or listened to information or a story, and the teacher now reads a new version containing some differences. Learners must indicate the differences, perhaps by interrupting and correcting, or by asking for clarification, or by making notes, or by underlining the relevant detail in the original version of the text.  Complete a gapped text. Learners listen and use what they’ve heard to complete a text with gaps.  Picture dictation: Listen to a description and draw that picture.  Mark a route on a map as someone describes how to get from A to B.  Respond to instructions for making or using something E.g. cooking a recipe or using a microwave.  Complete a form or chart.  Listen and solve riddles or maths problems.

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4.3

Developmental activities at the macro level

Activities which develop listening skills at the macro level will include listening for the main points of a text, listening for the attitude of the speaker, listening to identify emotion, listening to identify opinion, and determining the implications of what the speaker has said. For example:  Take phone messages.  Listen to oral instructions and relay the process to another person.  Play games like Trivial Pursuit.  Jigsaw stories or mysteries, in which each person in a group hears one part of the story, and all of the information must be combined in order to complete the story or solve the mystery.  Moral or ethical dilemmas presented in oral form (e.g. simulated or recorded court case, current affairs reports) which are then discussed in small groups.  Dictogloss: The teacher reads a text three times at normal speed while learners take notes. In groups, the learners then rewrite the text in their own words. This exercise involves listening closely, but also stimulates a lot of negotiation, as the groups need to agree on the message and how to express it. Another benefit of this activity is that as the groups present their texts at the end of the activity, it is highlighted that the same message can be conveyed in many different ways and yet remain essentially the same.

4.4

Listening activities at different levels

The following gives some ideas for questions asking for the main idea of a text, in relation to different ESL levels.

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EXAMPLE 1: What shop is the man in? A B

C

Beginner EXAMPLE 2: The man is … A

B

EXAMPLE 1: 1.

What does the caller want to find out about? (a) getting a phone connected (b) international telephone calls (c) mobile phones

Elementary EXAMPLE 2: 2.

The caller sounds (a) confident (b) confused

EXAMPLE 1: 1. Why has the caller phoned the restaurant?

Intermediate

................................................................................... EXAMPLE 2: 2. What is the attitude of the receptionist? ...................................................................................

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EXAMPLE 1: 1. What are the 3 main points the politician makes?

Advanced

a. ................................................................................... b. ................................................................................... c. ................................................................................... EXAMPLE 2: 2. Is the politician in favour of or against the proposed changes? ...................................................................................

These are only a few examples of activities involving listening. ESL learners need to surround themselves with English input as much as possible. The little that can be done in class is a drop in the ocean compared to what is necessary in order to really ‘tune in’ to native speakers, to the rhythm and intonation of English use in any particular context, and to the general flow of various texts. Learners should be encouraged to listen to the radio whenever possible and watch television programs in English. A student reported that she watched the news at 5pm, then at 6 pm and again at 7pm. Each station reported the same items, using much of the same vocabulary. In preparation for listening, she scanned the daily newspaper, so that she was already aware of new vocabulary she would encounter. Students should be encouraged to visit with neighbours, and attend community activities such as craft groups and other social clubs, many of which are free or very low cost. If classroom listening practice is important, real-life listening is essential.

4.5

Suggested procedure for listening activities

The following page shows the suggested procedure for listening activities.

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1. Introduce the topic • Introduce the topic before getting the class to listen to the tape. Use a discussion or Q&A approach here so that students are activating their existing knowledge about the topic. This will help students to predict what they might hear. Brainstorm regarding possible vocab, and introduce any vocab you think might be a problem. 2. Give guiding questions • Give guiding questions to help focus the students’ attention on the main points of the dialogue. 3. First listening • First listening: Students should listen for the main idea only, to answer the guiding questions. 4. Check students’ comprehension • Check students’ comprehension by asking the guiding questions and perhaps a few more. 5. Give instructions for completing the task. • Students should understand what they need to listen for, and what they need to be able to produce after listening, e.g. complete a chart, answer true/false, tick every time you hear certain words, etc. 6. Second and subsequent listenings: • Students listen for details needed in order to complete the task that has been set, and begin working on the task. The total number of listenings depends on the complexity of the task and the aural input. Be sensitive to the students’ attitudes here: if they are determined to get the necessary information from the audio and are not frustrated, by all means repeated listening is okay; but if there is a sense of discouragement or frustration, it is better not to push on too long. 7. Check students’ comprehension • Check students’ comprehension via the assigned task.

8. Students read the text/transcript • Students read the text/transcript to find any answers they didn’t pick up through listening. You might then ask students to roleplay something from the text. For example if the listening task is a dialogue, students could take the parts of the speakers, imitating the intonation, stress and pronunciation. In this way, we are giving important controlled oral practice, and can also take the opportunity to teach the affective, social and cultural aspects of the text. Students should be encouraged to note any phrases they feel are worth memorising. Analysing the language found in the transcript can also be used to focus on grammar and sentence construction.

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5. Overcoming listening challenges 5.1

Supporting learners

Feedback from ESL students often makes the point that they can understand their teachers in their ESL classes, but can’t understand people outside of class … in the real world … where it’s important! It’s natural and appropriate when helping someone to learn, to modify our speech to accommodate the learner. However, we need to be careful that our accommodation is not in fact limiting the learner’s progress or potential. Krashen’s research on language acquisition showed that for input to be comprehensible, learners need to be able to understand about 60% of what they are hearing. He proposed that the optimal level of input therefore should be L + 1, L being the learner’s existing language level, and 1 being a stage further on. The dilemma for teachers is to maintain effective communication with their students while still offering challenging listening tasks. This means that as a learner’s facility with English increases, so should the pace at which teachers speak and the complexity of their utterances. In this way, we continue to urge our students towards understanding native speech. Likewise, listening texts need to be carefully selected so that learners can experience success in listening activities, yet are having to work at understanding, stretching their listening skills.

5.2

Using visual cues

As already mentioned, video recordings give helpful visual cues which aid listening, and when lessons are focussing on conversation or face-to-face negotiations, use of video is recommended where possible. This gives learners access to all of the para-linguistic and non-linguistic features which contribute to the delivery and interpretation of messages.

5.3

Building the context

Dealing with genres such as public announcements (e.g. supermarket, transport) or radio broadcasts, the visual cues are not part of the normal situation and so video recordings wouldn’t be appropriate. However, it is always important to aid comprehension by building the context before attempting any listening task, perhaps by using pictures or realia, or discussing the topic, or asking students to share their own experiences in relation to a particular situation. This activates in learners’ minds all of their existing knowledge about a topic and situation, making hypothesising and guesswork easier.

5.4

New vocabulary

As we build the context, we are also activating and extending the store of English vocabulary at the learners’ disposal, by reminding them of words and phrases they already know and by introducing some new ones. This can very effectively be done 202

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by brainstorming vocab in connection with the topic or situation, or by listing vocab on the board as stories are shared, asking learners themselves to contribute as much as possible. Dealing with important vocabulary before you start is very important. Helping students to relax about not understanding every word is also very important. It is very common to observe students frantically searching their electronic dictionary for words when they should be listening to the text. By the time they have found the word they were looking for, the text has finished and they have heard very little. There are at least two ways to help students to relax with not understanding every word. Firstly, after having introduced the topic and essential vocab, give 2 or 3 very general questions and ask the students to listen only for the answers to these questions. The questions should focus on the main point of the text, for example, “Is the customer happy or angry? What are they doing: buying something or returning something?” Secondly, having listened to the text and answered those two questions, make a point of asking, “Did you need to understand every word to understand what was happening?” Learners will reliably answer negatively. Later, after exercises requiring listening for details (e.g. where, what time, who said this?), ask a similar question, “Did you need to understand every word to be able to get that information?” This message, repeated several times, will usually help anxious learners to relax and listen rather than panic over missing some words. If this encouragement doesn’t work, ban the use of dictionaries while the recording is playing, and encourage learners to write down the word they want to look up. They can do it later.

5.5

Prediction

Encouraging learners to predict what they might hear is another important teaching and learning goal. The culture or philosophy of education in many parts of the world does not encourage learners to anticipate, question or reason for themselves, and so these are skills which have never been applied in their learning processes. Asking questions like, “What do you think he will say?” helps to activate the strategy of predicting and drawing on one’s own life experience and knowledge of the world. It can also help to uncover cultural differences which may seriously complicate or compromise communication. Watching a video segment without the sound can be a fun way to practise prediction.

5.6

Listen more than once

Differing opinions exist about whether or not repeated listening to the same text is helpful or not. Some say that since real life rarely offers the opportunity for repeated listening, we should not offer that in the classroom. Others think that repeated exposure to the same text enables learners to ‘hear’ more each time they listen. However, language learners themselves have found repeated listening to be helpful, particularly in the early stages of learning.

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5.7

Using transcripts

It is beneficial to give students (after all exercises have been completed) a copy of the transcript. We then listen and read, and it’s amazing to see “the lights go on” as people suddenly understand something that had been just sounds moments before. We then use that transcript to practise the dialogue or conversation or text aloud, using it for pronunciation practice. All of these activities reinforce the listening experience they have just had, and transfer the same language into another macro-skill.

5.8

Listen to manageable chunks

Finally, if a listening text is too long, learners tend to lose concentration. If you want to work with a long text, present it in sections, working with each one before moving on to the next. At lower levels, you may even need to pause the text as the answer to each question is heard, to give learners adequate time to write their answers or respond appropriately. Just as we need to increase our rate and complexity of speech as learners’ proficiency develops, this breaking up of texts should only be used when necessary for a reasonably successful listening experience. Listening audio texts themselves should vary for the level of the learners from a simple, short 10 second audio to up to 1 min for higher level learners.

6. Principles for teaching listening comprehension 6.1. Active participation Listening comprehension activities should demand active, overt student participation. In other words, they should require the students to do, say or write something. This is quite different from listening for pleasure, which may not require any response, yet can still be valuable.

6.2

Simple questions

Questions should be easy to understand. Students should not need to spend 10 minutes understanding the question before they can listen to the recording or presentation.

6.3

Accompany with communicative tasks

Listening activities are made more purposeful by requiring students to complete some communicative task after they have listened to the text. This creates motivation for remembering and helps to develop concentration. It’s important that

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students understand the task before they listen, so that they know what to listen for.

6.4

Teach, don’t test

Listening lessons (as opposed to assessment tasks) should “teach”, not “test”. There should be no pass/fail attitude associated with the activities. Check students’ answers to let students know how they are progressing. Celebrate successes. Listening is very difficult and students often need a great deal of encouragement in relation to listening. Congratulate students on what they did hear, rather than focussing on what they didn’t get, and encourage them that the more they practise (i.e. the more they listen) the more they will understand.

6.5

Reliable equipment

Equipment needs to function reliably, and the volume and clarity must be such that it can easily be heard throughout the classroom. A counter on the CD, DVD or computer player is invaluable for an efficient return to a particular point.

6.6

Preparation

Preparation is vital. Firstly, teachers should listen to the recording themselves beforehand, the whole way through, so that they can anticipate any problems and judge whether the task is manageable. Secondly, prepare the students for listening (building knowledge of field/activate schema) for example by looking at pictures or discussing the topic to bring to conscious thought all that students already know about the topic. It is also imperative for the students to read the questions before they listen so that they are not focused on reading when they should be listening.

8. Listening without written activities Adrian Tennant describes “process listening” in which the students are not expected to answer written questions, but engage with the text in a more natural listening process. He suggests asking a series of questions such as: How many people are speaking? What do you think they are talking about? What words did you hear that helped you identify the topic? Can you think of any other words you might hear when people are speaking about this topic?

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These questions avoid the ‘testing’ atmosphere that many listening (written) activities evoke. They allow the student to listen in a more relaxed way to the whole text, rather than scrambling through aural input for the ‘correct’ piece of information. After listening once, the class can be asked to:

Listen again and see if you can hear any of the words that they brainstormed earlier as being associated with the topic.

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Write some questions about what you heard. Pass those questions to a partner.

Listen again, to answer the questions that your partner wrote.

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9. Example listening lesson plan Learning Outcome:

Students can understand a TED Talk

Stage

Features of the Stage

Activities

Time

1) Tell the students that we are going to listen to a TED talk called “try something new for 30 days”. Check if they know what Introduce Topic a TED talk is? Ask them to 10 mins predict that the talk will be about Build 2) Discuss the topic of trying new knowledge of things. field Build vocabulary Discuss difficult vocab + idiomatic 10 mins range language from the TED Talk. Ask the students to listen out for the following: Give guiding Why does Matt Cutts like trying new 1 min questions things? What kind of things did he try? First listening Watch the video. 3 mins Listen to model Check text Check comprehension 1 min comprehension Give instructions for Give the students a true or false Production what needs to chart. Ask the students to listen to 2 mins stage 1 be produced these things next time. after listening Second and Listen to model subsequent Watch the video again 3 mins text listening Production Students begin Students get some time to 1 min stage 2 working complete the chart Check Check the Discuss the students‘ answers. 4 mins comprehension students' work Put up transcript. Ask the students Students read Students check to point out where on the script we 5 mins text/transcript own work can find the correct answers. The students write down their own list of 4 things they want to add to Production Discussion of their life and 4 things they want to 20 mins stage 3 topic subtract. The students present and discuss their lists. Evaluation of student performance Monitor students answers during vocab exercises and listening comprehension questions.

Fig. 6.5 Example listening lesson plan - Developed by Erica Tamm (2021)

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10. Monitoring ESL learners’ listening One of the most unhelpful questions an ESL teacher can ask is, “Do you understand?” Depending on cultural background, many students will respond positively whether they do understand or not. We need to ask them to do something that shows they have understood. Tasks based on listening texts must require some kind of overt response. We cannot gauge learners’ listening ability without some action (e.g. sequence pictures, combine blocks, operate a piece of equipment), or a spoken or written response that demonstrates comprehension. The teacher needs to know that the learner could not have completed the task without gaining information from the listening text. In terms of monitoring students’ progress, in addition to checking their demonstrations of comprehension, we can be observant as they are listening and completing tasks. Do the students seem relaxed and confident, or is there a high level of anxiety? What are they doing as they are listening: fumbling with dictionaries, reading the questions, staring into space, taking notes? These cues can tell us something of each student’s affective attitude towards the task, what strategies they are employing and how well they are engaging with the task. There is little that teachers can do to help a learner to ‘hear’ more. We can offer more activities. We can offer opportunities to listen to the text again, if not in class, then later. We can give copies of transcripts in the hope that the visual representation will help learners to ‘hear’ what’s being said. We cannot ‘correct’ a learner’s listening in the way we would correct their writing or speaking. We can, however, encourage our students regarding their successes. We need to try to motivate learners to immerse themselves in English as much and as often as possible outside the classroom. e need to provide positive listening experiences in the classroom.

Summary In teach listening, we learn that listening skill and listening strategies are important knowledge when it comes to teaching in the ESL classroom. We have learned that listening is an important skill for daily life both inside and outside of the classroom and that these skills develop in conjunction with each other. As language teachers, it is imperative that we assist our students in the use and development of these skills. We have also learned that listening strategies can be applied in diverse situations and for various purposes at differing levels of negotiation of meaning. In other words, listening strategies vary with the situation and the purpose of listening. The language teacher shows through the provision of a range of differing text types, example responses, planned lessons and use of texts based on real life listening texts and situations, that we approach each listening text differently. Finally, an effective language teacher monitors their students progress to check comprehension, learning, and development. 208

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CHAPTER 7: Teach reading

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Introduction As we saw in Chapter 6: Teaching listening, understanding a second language, whether listening or reading, is an incredibly active process of decoding input, relating it to existing knowledge about the world and about language, hypothesising and guessing. To read successfully, we need to be able to look at a whole text and understand its purpose, understand how the various parts of a text are related to each other, understand the particular meaning created when certain words are combined, decode symbols, and decode words. We also need to be able to evaluate a text, gauging the attitude of the writer and their intended meaning, and the effect or influence they desire to have on the reader. We need to be able to think critically about what is and what isn’t being said, and what agenda may underlie the language choices a writer has made. We will begin by looking at how to teach basic reading skills. Some of our students will come from language backgrounds which use a script other than the Roman Script used for writing English (e.g. Chinese or Arabic scripts), and some students will come to our classes with very low literacy in their first language. We will look at using authentic texts, and the reading strategies we use when reading for different purposes. We will also look at how skills for critical literacy can be developed in an English language program.

1. Foundational reading skills and conventions 1.1

The relationship between oracy and literacy

When an ESL learner comes to us with no knowledge of Roman Script or with very low first language (L1) literacy, we will obviously need to include familiarisation with Roman Script in our teaching and learning program. The first decision we need to make is when reading and writing should be introduced. Language learning research (Williams and Roberts, 2011; Rigney, 2010; Hirsch, 2006) shows that the learning process is made easier by focusing initially on developing oracy (speaking and listening) before introducing reading and writing. You need to know words before you can write words. You need to know words in order to add more words to your vocabulary. When we look at the process of learning our first language, we see that children generally spend more than five years developing their speaking and listening language skills before we introduce reading and writing. This means that when we introduce the written form of a word, we are giving a visual representation of something that is already known on one level. Adults do not have the luxury of five 210

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years of learning to speak before learning to read and write. Real-life needs, as well as learning activities, push the need to develop reading and writing skills as early as possible. Coming from a western educational background, our classroom experience is generally one which has a rich variety of methods of input. With physical resources such as whiteboards, smartboards or data projectors considered standard equipment for most classrooms, our teaching and learning styles are highly visually oriented. There is great benefit in presenting new information in a number of ways, with the visual reinforcing the auditory. Rothwell and Kazanas (1998), on the power of visual communication, say:

In terms of learning styles, visual strategies include note-taking, doing written exercises, and mapping information into diagrams and tables. In terms of teaching strategies, we try to reinforce oral presentations with a visual representation of the same information, and then involve learners in some kind of exercise, often involving writing. Learners with low literacy levels struggle with many of the learning activities typical of ESL classes, simply because they do not yet have the necessary literacy skills. Learners of this profile have special needs that require specific attention. Burns (1990) and Hood (1990) both refer to research showing that the higher the level of oracy, the easier the literacy acquisition process – and conversely, the lower the oracy, the more difficult the literacy acquisition. They propose, however, that rather than avoid reading and writing activities with low level learners, we should introduce both spoken and written forms of the language, ensuring that the language presented is accessible to the learners. We can do that by ensuring that topics are sufficiently familiar to the learners so that the context then supports the language development. We can use learners’ own life experiences as subject matter, or a shared experience such as an excursion or hands-on activity like cooking or craft to establish a very supportive context. We can ensure that written forms are simple. Learning to read is much easier when the words are already known in their oral form. Learning to read and write in a first language is a matter of learning the visual representation of words and phrases that already hold meaning for the learner. Learning to read and write, for the first time, in a second language, is complicated by the fact that the learner is also just learning the meaning of the words they are

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encountering in print. In this situation, it is invaluable to have the assistance of a tutor or teacher who is bilingual (speaks both English and the L1 of the learner/s). With low literacy background learners who already know some English in its spoken form, it makes sense to develop literacy in relation to the written form of language items they already know. For example, they can answer questions and answers about self, family, background, present living situation, and day to day topics such as food, shopping and health, etc. If they already know the words they are learning to read and write, there is one less learning step along the way, and adding new language to their existing knowledge is a relatively simple matter. Since many of these learners come from cultures with strong traditions in oral story-telling where stories are told and retold, and passed down from one generation to another, it makes sense to use narratives and recounts as core texts in the process of learning to read. Stories can be used to introduce many other kinds of texts. For example, a story about a visit to a doctor introduces the vocabulary and phrases relevant to that situation, but it can also provide the springboard to look at texts such as registration forms, prescriptions and instructions on the use of medicines. Helping learners who have little or no first language literacy and who also have very little spoken English, is a process of introducing meaning through pictures, realia, video clips, mime, and logic. Learners practise using that vocabulary in its spoken form before introducing the written form. The challenge is to introduce language that is useful, and yet in a manner and sequence that is controlled enough so that the complexity of English spelling is not overwhelming. See below for some examples of reading texts at each level:

Beginner

• Letters of alphabet • Simple words - shopping lists - ingredients - supermarket junk mail - simple recipe • Short sentences - short paragraph - note • Name, address, telephone, etc - simple form

Elementary

• More complex words and sentences - longer paragraphs • Greater range of junk mail • SImple newspaper articles, information brochures, simples stories (possibly modified) • Common forms used in everyday life

Intermediate

• Tange of information brochures, letters, newspaper articles used in everyday life • Longer stories • Range of genres

Advanced

• Range of genres • Printed material used in everyday life • Printed material relevant to learners' interests

Fig. 7.1 Learner levels 212

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1.2

Recognising the letters of the alphabet

Learners who have never used the Roman Script before will need to develop visual recognition of the upper and lower case forms of each of the letters of the alphabet. In developing original materials, Comic Sans font is good to use with low level learners, as it most closely resembles the printing form that learners will practise producing. A large font size (about 18pt) is also used while learners are becoming familiar with the new letters. Because we need to be able to talk about letters, at this stage we need to teach the names of the letters: a, b, c, d, e ... The names of the letters are also necessary for being able to spell aloud, for example your name, children’s names, street name, suburb, etc. This is a very important skill from the earliest days of language learning, as learners are often asked for their personal details. The following exercises are examples of some activities that are useful for developing character recognition as well as discriminating between letters that are similar. The first two exercises ask the learner to identify the letters that are the same. Learners to whom printed text is completely new often confuse ‘b’, ‘d’, ‘p’ and ‘q’. The first two exercises below ask the learner to identify the letter that is the same as the one on the left. The next two exercises ask the learner to identify the letter that is different from the one on the left. Both of these exercises develop learners’ awareness of the differences between letters. This kind of exercise developing visual discrimination is particularly important with learners who are pre-literate. Matching from left to right also helps reinforce the left to right movement of the eye, as in reading. Circle the same letter. a b h

q d m

g p h

a g n

o b r

N E D

M L O

Z T Q

Circle the same letter. M F O

W F C

Cross out (X) the different letter. a b h

a b n

a d h

c b h

a b h

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Cross out (X) the different letter. A B H

A B N

A P H

V B H

A B H

Another exercise that helps to develop visual recognition of each letter, is to ask the learner to circle every ‘b’ on a page of text. The text may be as simple as a scattering of random letters on a page, or a labelled diagram (e.g. parts of the body). However, it may be as complex as a page from a magazine, which will have various fonts, colours and sizes of print. Obviously, this latter example is a more demanding exercise and not suitable for someone who has never previously dealt with written texts. Pre-literate learners initially need clear, uncluttered texts and worksheets. It is of primary importance that the teacher model good handwriting in all handouts and board work. By this I mean that capital letters should be used appropriately, at the beginning of proper nouns, sentences, acronyms, etc., and not in the middle of words. Learners need to see a clear and consistent model. The correct use of capitals is very important. Rightly or wrongly, if a job application form looks like it’s been completed by a three year old, it will be unlikely to receive due consideration.

1.3

Read from left to right

Japanese is written in columns from top to bottom, starting at the top right-hand corner of the page. Korean is written similarly, and with each sentence beginning a new line. It is common for Korean learners writing in English to start a new line for every new sentence. This is an aspect of first language literacy that can interfere with writing in English where, in many genres, paragraph construction is important to the flow and cohesion of the text. Arabic, as mentioned earlier, is written from right to left. Pages in books in each of these languages mentioned open the opposite way to books written in English, opening on the left, rather than on the right, so that books start from the ‘back’ as we know it. Remember: Reading and writing from left to right may be a new experience for some students.

1.4

Teach sound-spelling relationships

There are a number of ways to approach teaching spelling (which is involved in teaching reading and writing), ‘graphophonics’, ‘phonographics’ and rules. One of the choices we need to make in an ESL literacy program, is whether our starting point for teaching spelling and reading will primarily be on letters or sounds.

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In contrast, in the phonographics approach, we use sounds as our starting point, and state that [eI] is spelt ‘ea’ in ‘steak’, ‘a’ in ‘angel’, ‘a-e’ in ‘cake’, ‘ay’ in ‘day’ and ‘ai’ in ‘raisins’. This is the process we use when we write: we start with the oral knowledge of the word, how it sounds, and we encode it into letters.

Phonographics

The graphophonics approach to reading and writing introduces letters and teaches the sounds associated with each letter or blend of letters. A teacher will make a statement like: (letter) ‘b’ says [b] (sound), and ‘ba’ in ‘back’ says [b&]. This is the decoding process with use in reading: looking at the letters and decoding how they will sound.

Both graphophonics and phonographics have merit, just as teaching spelling rules has merit. Our job is to present ways of understanding English spelling that learners can grab hold of and use to decode what they are reading and to create their own texts as they write. To begin developing awareness of sound-spelling relationships, use very simple words with short vowel sounds: bat, cat, fat, hat, mat, pat, rat, sat. These 8 words introduce 9 consonant sounds and the short vowel sound [ӕ]. When the learner has mastered these 8 words, introduce another short vowel sound, for example [ɪ] in bit, fit, hit, mit, pit, sit, then [e] in bet, get, let, met, pet, set, wet. Gradually introduce each short vowel sound, using pictures and short stories to convey the meaning of these new words. Little by little, we can introduce other vowel sounds and their many and varied spellings, but it is important not to overwhelm with too much at once. At the same time, there is a great need to introduce the language that is most needed and used when someone enters a country where English is the first language: questions and answers for giving personal details (name, address, etc.), and their written forms. Learners will learn the oral forms of the questions and answers and then look at the written cues that are found on application and registration forms. Many of the words in this lexical field (e.g. name, telephone, occupation, married, single) are not simple words with short vowel sounds that have a one-to-one sound-spelling correspondence. In these cases, since we haven’t yet developed a framework for explaining the more intricate spelling rules or connections, to some extent the words are being learnt by sight. There are strategies that can make this process easier however, like breaking the words into syllables (te/le/phone), and pointing out that ‘ph’ sounds [f]. TESOL Made Practical For All Situations

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Very soon, or at the same time, we can work on talking about ourselves and our families, and introduce the written form of the vocabulary. We begin with content that is familiar, and provide the language to express what learners already know. It is vital that any written language we introduce be linked with its meaning, so we will use new vocabulary in simple, meaningful sentences or very short paragraphs or stories. Extending from these meaningful contexts, we will use and reuse the same vocabulary in written exercises that require both visual recognition of the word and linking the word with its meaning. For example, matching words and meanings; using the words to complete new sentences; unscrambling sentences from the short story or paragraph; doing word puzzles (e.g. wordsearch, crossword).

2. Authentic or adapted real-life texts 2.1

Identifying real-life texts for reading

We live in a highly literate society where we are bombarded with print: newspapers, supermarket catalogues, solicitation letters, community information letters from council representatives, emails, business letters, pamphlets, school newsletters, bills, terms and conditions, billboards, television advertising, magazines, internetbased information and entertainment, etc. ESL learners need to be able to deal with all of these texts just as you and I do. It is therefore very helpful that we would address such texts in the classroom. Using completely authentic texts in the ESL classroom has a number of benefits. On the other hand, there can be some drawbacks to using authentic materials. Benefits They introduce real-life English rather than a sanitised version produced for ESL learners. Learners get to know a version of English that they will see and be able to use. It makes ESL study very purposeful, meaningful and relevant to the learner’s daily life. This generally builds student interest and motivation.

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It helps learners to see everyday reading material as accessible to some degree, even if they can’t understand every word. When learners begin to accept that they don’t have to understand every word to be able to make use of a text, they are more likely to engage with that text in the first place.

It makes it easy to focus on the particular reading strategies appropriate for specific reading purposes.

Drawbacks

The level of language used is not always appropriate for low-level learners, in which case we may decide to rewrite the text, retaining as many authentic features as possible, but making the language more accessible for our particular group of learners. Authentic language is often flawed or twisted to create an impression: “Boyz Toyz”, providing a model that we do not want to see replicated (except where appropriate, as in advertising). If we are going to invest time developing worksheets or other materials based on an authentic text, we will want to be able to use them more than once. We need to choose articles which will not quickly date or become obsolete.

Advertising and ’Junk mail’ is a great learning resource, and best of all, it is free! We can use real-life letters from schools, real-life local newspapers, real-life advertisements, and so on. Free local newspapers are filled with news about the local community and so engender a closer link between migrants and their adopted community.

2.2 Selecting texts appropriate for use with specific groups of learners One text can often be used with more than one level, by adjusting the task we ask the students to complete. For example, at the beginner level, we can use supermarket catalogues for learning the names of food items, prices, numbers, discount phrases, department names and everyday shopping language. Learners at the elementary level can use the same catalogues to work on comparative adjectives and statements (e.g. “Which is cheaper: Radiant or Dynamo laundry detergent?”). Newspaper articles can be used with beginners to find and highlight specific words, with elementary learners to match headlines with articles, with

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intermediate learners to sequence scrambled paragraphs, with advanced learners to respond by writing a letter to the Editor. In all of our teaching, we want to use topics and texts that are relevant to our learners. If a class consists mainly of Somalian women who have no employment goals and want to learn English to be able to effectively live in their communities and look after their family in this context, you will want to use texts relevant to their needs. Examples will include school newsletters, letters from teachers and principals, medical brochures, social security and Medicare forms, terms and conditions on library use, instructions for using a microwave, rental agreement forms, and so on. If a class consists mainly of late teens and early twenty-year olds preparing for university study, we will choose a completely different range of texts, some day to day and some academic in nature, but still revolving around their particular needs. Students involved in retail or hospitality industries will appreciate texts relevant to their activities, and these are also interesting for most students.

2.3 Adapting real-life texts for use with learners of lower levels If we are going to use authentic or adapted real life texts with our ESL students, we can:

Select texts that are appropriate for use with specific groups of learners.

Adapt real life texts for use with learners of lower levels.

As mentioned earlier, we may choose to adapt an authentic text to make it more readily accessible to a particular group of learners, ensuring that the complexity of

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the text is consistent with the level of skills and knowledge at the learner’s disposal to interpret the text. Current events make great topics for any class, but it can be difficult or impossible to find a text that could be read successfully by elementary learners. These learners want to be able to converse with neighbours about what is happening in the news. They simply lack the language to be able to do so. We could try using a newspaper article to introduce new vocabulary and phrases, opening up another topic for communication with neighbours, but the volume of new vocabulary and the complexity of the phrasing in newspaper articles often make the text a point of frustration for low-level learners. If we want these students to be able to read a whole newspaper article, not just skimming and scanning for information, we may need to rewrite it to an appropriate level, and structure the lesson so that new vocabulary is dealt with at appropriate stages of the lesson. We will introduce essential vocabulary before reading the text. Essential vocabulary is vocabulary without which the article could not be understood. Other new vocabulary can be addressed while reading the text, using the context as much as possible to determine meaning, rather than relying heavily on dictionary use. The rewritten article may have some simplified vocabulary and sentence structure (syntax). The following article is an example of an original text and a simplified version produced for an elementary class.

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New degree for nursing in Japan Nurses in Japan can now study a master’s degree in nursing through Griffith University. The Nissoken Group in Japan will deliver the lectures. In the new program, nurses can stay in Japan and study for the degree via distance education. The course is translated into Japanese. Nurses all over Japan can study the degree. Dr Elizabeth Patterson is the Dean and Head of Griffith University’s School of Nursing. She says, “Registered nurses can study at home and continue to work and look after their family.” At the beginning of the course, students will attend one week of classes at Griffith University’s Campus at the Gold Coast. In Japan, qualified staff will teach the course using written materials. A Japanese liaison officer will also help with each course. Griffith University already works together with the Nissoken Group delivering a Bachelor of Nursing (postregistration) course. Since 1998, 700 students have graduated. The first group of students for the new Masters of Nursing will start in August this year.

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2.4

Resources

Although you may recognise the benefits of using authentic materials relevant to the learners’ needs and experience, you may find yourself in a teaching situation where authentic English materials are not readily available, or where you simply do not have the time to be developing new resources for every class. A myriad of prepared ESL resources have been published. ESL teachers need to be able to evaluate these resources and gauge whether or not they will suit the needs and interests of their students. You may also find yourself in the situation where an institute has prescribed a text for your use, and you need to adapt it and augment it. Among the wealth of resources available are: Course books: complete packages including reading, writing, speaking and listening, usually with accompanying CD and sometimes video.

Courses focusing on one of the macro-skills: speaking, listening, reading or writing.

Courses focusing on pronunciation, conversation, discussion.

Books of games and activity ideas, many of which include resource sheets, making preparation even easier. English for specific purposes: business, workplace, academic English.

Grammar reference books.

Grammar workbooks, including exercises and answers.

Many ESL teachers, given the freedom to choose, tend to select portions of material from a variety of sources, rather than confine their program to one text. In particular, if you are teaching English from a task-based or functional English approach, and you need to save time by using some prepared materials, you will likely need to use a number of sources.

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Using one course book can have some definite advantages: most of the preparation is already done, and it provides a clear framework and systematic coverage of content, which is a definite bonus for inexperienced teachers. There are drawbacks to using a course book, however, in that once committed to using a text you may find the level is too low or too high for your group of learners. Teachers can become lethargic using a course book and lose creativity; lessons become mechanical, and motivation wanes all around. In addition, it’s hard to find a course book that will appeal to all learners in any group, since interest in topics varies.

3. Evaluating Published materials In perusing published materials then, we need to have some criteria against which we will evaluate them.

Language

Level

Content:

Skills:

Appearance:

Resources:

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• Is the language used appropriate for your learners’ context? Is it noticeably American or British? Is it the variety of English which your students are wanting to use?

• Is the level of the material appropriate for your group?

• Does the material address the tasks your group needs to be able to complete in English? • Are the topics relevant to your group of learners?

• Does the material offer activities to develop the four macro-skills? • Does the material address the specific functions you want? • Is the material attractive? • Is there enough ‘white space’ on the page to suit lower level learners? Or is it too crowded? • Is there space to write answers? • Will you need to buy supporting resources, e.g. CD, DVD, workbook? • Are there free supplementary resources downloadable from the publisher’s website?

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Where access to the internet is available, a plethora of resources become available for use or adaptation. That can be a real time-saver. You can also get caught with poorly designed materials and inaccurate information. Anyone can put up a website – but not everyone has a good quality control process with regard what is uploaded to their site. That means that teachers accessing resources need to take more than a superficial look (title, topic, focus) at downloadable material, and check all content in a worksheet, or processes in an activity, before supplying it to students. All the same criteria presented above, will also apply to online resources. Here are a couple of extra considerations:

Vocabulary:  Check that the vocabulary is appropriate to the local use or target situation use. Between regions (e.g. Britain, USA, Australia) you will find distinct differences in vocabulary.

Grammar:  Check the explanation given. Is it consistent with what you have already taught or what you intend to teach, or any other materials you want to use?  Check that the material really does address the point of grammar that you want to address. For example: You want to focus on prepositions of place. You search “prepositions of place – worksheet”. Your search results points you to a worksheet. You need to check: Does the worksheet really teach what you want? Does it only teach prepositions of place or does it also teach direction or even time? Are your students ready to extend into that extra material or do you need to adapt the material first?

Adaptability:  Can you adapt the resource to better suit your class in terms of topic and or activities? Can you work with the format in which it is provided?

Cost: Some websites offer free resources, while some have a registration fee but offer some free sample resources. Here are a few more reputable sites: http://australianetwork.com http://www.onestopenglish.com/ http://www.breakingnewsenglish.com/ http://www.english-to-go.com/ http://www.esl-galaxy.com/ http://www.eslcafe.com/ (long-standing, widely used site, lots of links) http://www.english-online.at/index.htm (Easy English articles to read online – pay to download and print)

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4. Reading for social purposes: tasks, texts and strategies The way that we read a novel is different from the way we read a website giving information. When we open a webpage, we scan the homepage until we find the tab that indicates the category of information we are looking for. We click on the tab, opening a new page, and begin scanning the entries there, which may be further broken down into categories or topics. We continue to select appropriate tabs until we have found the specific information we want. When we read a novel, we read every word from the first page of the story to the last. When we read unsolicited business mail, we check the subject line for the topic; then we may skim the text to gauge the main message or purpose of the letter. When we read an email from a friend, we take our time over it, and will likely reread it a time or two before replying. When we read a bill, we look first at the amount due and the due date; then we look at the itemisation included in the account. University students learn to use the table of contents and the index to find relevant sections of a book or journal article, skim that portion of the text for relevant points, then isolate the paragraphs they would likely want to refer to in their essay. Each reading task mentioned above involves quite different reading strategies, which match the purpose for which we are reading. Part of the ESL teacher’s task is to highlight different reading strategies for different texts and different tasks. Learners from low literacy level backgrounds will particularly benefit from this training.

What do you do when you read a text? Understand purpose of whole text Understand relationships between parts of the text Understand particular meanings through word combinations Decode symbols Decode words Evaluate the text Gauge attitude of writer and writer’s agenda Gauge intended meaning Consider effect or influence on the reader Think critically about what isn’t said

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Often, when learning a second language, people want to understand everything that’s on the page. It is common in ESL classes to see some learners desperately flipping dictionary pages, or plugging word after word into electronic dictionaries, wanting to know the meaning of every word on the page. E-readers make this process a little more streamlined, but the constant interruptions still reduce reading efficiency and effectiveness. While the learner may (though it’s doubtful) end up with an extensive vocabulary, they haven’t read the text in the way that they would in real life. They have spent far longer on the text than necessary to find out the information required. They have lost sight of the purpose of the text, and the purpose of reading that text.

5. Learning activities to develop reading strategies and skills The following skills are central to effective reading, but are used for different purposes.

5.1

Decoding

When there are no hints as to the content of a text, we depend on decoding letters to understand words. However, as soon as there is a meaningful context, we tend to bring our own interpretation to the word according to its general ‘shape’ and the sense of the text rather than according to the letters it is made up of. This text illustrates the capacity of the brain to make meaning: “Aoccdrnig to rscheearch at an Elingsh uinervtisy, it deosn't mttaer in waht oredr the lttres in a wrod are, the olny iprmoatnt tihng is taht the frist and lsat ltteser are in the rghit pcleas. The rset can be a toatl mses and you can sitll raed it wouthit porbelm.” This is bcuseae we do not raed ervey lteter by it slef but the wrod as a wlohe.”

Decoding is a very basic skill and is usually surpassed by the understanding gained from the context and whole word recognition. However, we do need to include in our programs training in sound-spelling relationships. This is covered in more detail in Chapter 4: Teach spelling and pronunciation.

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5.2

Prediction

This is another very helpful reading strategy. When we read texts in our first language, we frequently have a good idea of the content before we actually read. Book covers give us a hint of what’s in the book, photographs and headlines hint at what articles are about. The moment we get these hints, our brain starts predicting what we are going to read. Vocabulary comes to mind, our life experience and knowledge is activated, expectations are set up, and we are ready to begin actively reading. Addressing reading texts in class, then, we should ask the learners to predict:

What information the text will give.

5.3

What ingredients might be listed in a particular recipe, and what some of the procedural steps might be.

The arguments for and against a proposed building development, before reading letters to the editor on that issue.

Constructing meaning

As we have discussed, we need to encourage learners to make use of both topdown and bottom-up strategies when trying to understand the meaning of a text. This means that we will involve them in predicting, in using their knowledge of the world and of language, in using the context provided by the text, and in decoding.

5.4

Using contextual clues

When trying to work out the meaning of an unknown word, we can use the text around about it. Sometimes the sentences before or after a new word will contain an explanation of a new concept being introduced, so reading around the unknown vocabulary can give us clues as to its meaning. Paying attention to the part of speech can help us to work out the meaning of the new word – is it a noun / verb / adverb / adjective? Which words close to it does it seem to relate to? From what we already know about the topic, can we make a logical deduction about the meaning? (Beare, n.d., para 5)

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5.5

Scanning

This is surveying the text for particular pieces of information. This reading strategy means that we do not read every word and every line; on the contrary, such an approach would stop us from scanning effectively. We will predict key words and scan the text for those words and synonyms thereof. This is an appropriate strategy for reading texts such as brochures, advertisements and bills. Having spoken about a particular place of interest in your city, or in preparation for visiting it together as a class, distribute copies of a brochure about the same place, and ask learners to find what time it opens and closes, how to access it by public transport, how to get more information, how much entry costs, and so on. Other texts that are usually scanned include the Yellow Pages, timetables, TV guides and buy and sell classified advertisements.

5.6

Skimming

This is casting our eyes over a text to get a general idea of what it’s about. If we try to gather all the details at this stage, we will get bogged down, and may not be able to get the general idea because we are concentrating too hard on understanding specifics. When we skim, we may look at abstracts, introductions, chapter titles and subheadings, and at the first or last sentences of paragraphs which are usually the “topic sentences”. We skim texts when we are trying to determine if a text will likely contain the information we need. School and university students will regularly use skimming to gauge the potential usefulness of a text. Likewise, people in business may need to find legislation or guidelines pertaining to a new development, and will need to peruse several documents to find the relevant information. In the ESL classroom, we might: Identify the relevant paragraphs and chapters by using the table of contents and index.

At lower levels, match titles, headlines and pictures to articles.

Identify key words and phrases.

Sort advertisements into categories.

Write a title for an unnamed text.

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5.7

Reading for pleasure

This kind of reading is very different from reading for information, skimming and scanning. This is a much slower process, where learners can take as much or little time as they want over the text, paying as much or as little attention to detail as the individual wishes. Many ESL readers are available at different reading levels and can be made available to students to borrow and read at their leisure. Some class time may even be devoted to individual reading. Students could read along with story tapes, read aloud in small groups or pairs, or listen to a song while reading the lyrics.

5.8

Reading for detailed comprehension

This must be seen as something completely different from skimming and scanning, where a reader takes the time to address the detailed aspects of the text. This may be applied to reading for pleasure. It may also be applied to reading a text such as an instruction manual, a contract, or terms and conditions of use or warranty, where the details can make a significant difference to the service or benefits you receive. There are times, texts and purposes for reading, when this kind of detailed and meticulous reading is very appropriate. Students could be asked to: Identify devices used to highlight information (e.g. font, size, bold type, lexical cues).

Read the text and write questions which are then given to another student or group to answer. Work in pairs, each given a copy of the same text which differs in a few details. They must ask and answer questions about the text to discover the differences.

Make notes under given headings

5.9

Other activities

 Continue writing a story after the beginning has been read.  Suggest what happened before the section of the story you are reading.  Compare and contrast information from two texts.

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 Discuss a response to a controversial article or proposal.  Present the information or story in a new way, for example in a picture or diagram.  Sequence the events in a story, or points of information in a report (pictures or words).  Summarise arguments.  Read a situation and roleplay the situation or the continuation.  Find a word or phrase in the text which means …  Compare a written text with a picture or diagram to find the differences.  Read a text and list advantages and disadvantages.  Read a problem or mystery and suggest a solution.  Read and answer questions: main idea, details, sequence (multiple choice, true/false, short answer, complete the sentence).  Read the text and complete a chart or fill in a form.

6. Writing comprehension exercises When using authentic texts, you may choose to develop comprehensions exercises, as an activity to focus student reading and recycle material. A few principles to guide your writing of exercises include: Ensure the answers are within the text and do not depend on knowledge outside of the text.

Sequence questions according to the sequence in which the answers occur in the text. Comprehension of the questions should be within the students’ proficiency – i.e. they should not need to use their dictionary to work out the meaning of the question. Use slightly different wording from that which is found in the text, so that students must use understanding and not simply find the same words in the text. Include questions that will prompt a variety of reading strategies: skimming, scanning, looking for main ideas, and reading for details.

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7. Critical literacy Critical literacy is the skill of reading (or listening) “between the lines”. The reader asks questions such as:

Who created the text and for whom?

What was the intended purpose of the text?

What is the text about? What is its central message or main point?

What did the writer hope to achieve through the text?

Why was the text created?

What other ways are there of writing about this topic?

Critical literacy recognises that texts are created within a cultural and sociopolitical environment and are often far from neutral. In fact, very often the text is designed to persuade the reader (or listener) to believe something in particular, want something, or do something. Texts have a role in introducing and promoting ideas that establish and sustain the systems of society. If we assume that texts and their writers are neutral, that they have no agenda or purpose, then we participate in maintaining the status quo that they promote (Usher, Bryant and Johnston, 1997). The techniques used to achieve the goal range from the subtle approach to the sledgehammer approach. Cues are embedded in vocabulary choices, structural features, formatting choices and images included. Effective reading or listening involves using all of the background knowledge we have – cultural knowledge, social attitudes, and the opinions or views of particular groups in society – in order to interpret the text, make sense of it, or construct meaning from it. When the reader has the same background knowledge as the writer, the text will more easily be understood. Working with ESL learners will involve an element of peeling back the layers of a text, or making explicit the techniques used to communicate values, attitudes and power relationships. Classroom activities organised around a reading text should help students to identify the source of a text, examine its biases and purposes, gauge its accuracy, question its credibility, decide its relevance to the reader’s own life and community, and assess the values and attitudes it conveys.

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Critical literacy skills can be developed at every level of language development from beginner to advanced (Van Duzer and Cuningham, 1999), by using a text of the appropriate level of simplicity or complexity and designing activities that are appropriately pitched. Beginners can indicate their emotional response to a number of posters, e.g. an advertisement for a festival, a warning about a flu virus, or a political candidate’s entreaty to vote for them. Advanced learners will be able to respond to newspaper articles or online newsfeeds about current events, which are far more complex texts demanding a far more linguistically complex response. It would be natural to feel that ESL learners have enough to learn, without loading critical literacy on top of it. Interestingly, Wallace (cited in Alford, 2001) reports that second language learners have ‘cultural distance’ from authentic texts. For once, this cultural gap can work in their favour, as the attempts of the writer to influence the reader are more obvious to someone outside of the culture of the target language.

8. Reading activities As well as the above reading strategies, there are many different reading activities that can support the strategies you’ve chosen for your lessons. Here are a few ideas:  Big Book Story - for younger learners/readers to follow and predict using pictures.  Strip story - the teacher cuts up a story or parts of, then asks students to rearrange into the correct order.  Deliberate variations – students read a story silently. Vocab is pre-taught. Teacher then freely re-reads or re-tells story again, with deliberate mistakes, students must discuss in groups to identify the errors.  Cloze activity – students have a text with every 5th or 7th word missing. Students can work in pairs/groups to identify the missing words.  Story-picture matching – for lower-level learners this is a good way to get them understanding simple story processes.  Using newspapers/ authentic materials – students have a list of questions from articles in the newspapers with the page numbers given. Students work in pairs to identify the answers, however person A has one set of questions, person B another set – students work together to answer all questions.

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9. Example reading lesson plan Learning Outcome:

Students can read and understand a newspaper article

Objective

Activity Introduce text type: Newspaper article. Discuss: What is a newspaper article? Do you like reading the news? How/when/where/why do you read the news?

Introduce topic Introduce new vocab Introduce & read text

Reading for meaning Reading for details

Writing about the topic Speaking about the topic Evaluation of student progress

Discuss the topic of the article, Kanye West: Who is it? Introduce some vocabulary from the article. Match words + explanations Prediction activity: What do they predict the text will be about + discuss structural features Students read the article out loud. They read one sentence each. Text sourced from: https://breakingnewsenglish.c om/2110/211021-ye.html (level 3 – slightly rewritten) Discuss Read for main ideasquestions: What is Kanye´s new name? Why did he want to change his name? Discuss for detail-questions Where does Ye live? What is Ye´s last name? Why did Ye put notices in the newspaper? What does the word “ye” mean? The students write a short text about their name/nickname/if they want to change their name + everyone reads their text out loud Students discuss naming traditions their countries

Grouping

Time

Materials / Resources

Whole class

10 mins

PowerPoint slides YouTube clip

Whole class

10 mins

Whole class

10 mins

Whole class

2 mins

PowerPoint slides

Whole class

8 mins

PowerPoint slides

Individual

10 mins

Whole class

5 mins

PowerPoint slides

PowerPoint slides PDF of article

PowerPoint slides

PowerPoint slides

Listen to students while they read and discuss the reading comprehension questions

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10. Giving feedback and correction Feedback in relation to reading activities should be consistent with the appropriate reading strategies for the text type and purpose of reading. For example, suppose a beginner class is reading a simplified medicine label, and are asked to find how much to give an adult, how often it can be given, and the total amount per day. Our feedback and correction (if necessary) will refer to key words, because when we’re reading an information text for specific details, we will use key words to quickly locate what we are looking for. The key words would certainly have been introduced earlier in the lesson. Or if an intermediate class has been asked to match titles with paragraphs, your feedback and correction will direct them to the topic sentences in the paragraphs. Feedback which directs learners to think again about how to read a particular text for a particular purpose will reinforce the skills we are trying to develop.

Summary All reading begins at foundational reading skills and conventions whether an adult learner or child and as ESL teachers we will be faced with a diverse range of educational backgrounds within the classroom. To meet with this challenge, language teachers need to be prepared for teaching both low and high literacy learners. Preparation may look like planning to teach recognition of the letters of the alphabet, reading from left to right, and sound-spelling relationships. Learning to read, can be facilitated through the introduction, use of, and adaption of authentic and real-life texts that are appropriate for every level of learning. It is also important that we consider appropriate material for each specific group of learners to support their learning goals and outcomes. Reading skills and strategies are significant for learners to understand and have opportunity to practise within the classroom. These skills and strategies can be developed through well thought out lesson plans, activities, writing comprehension exercises and use of critical literacy. Further development of these can be encouraged through the use of teacher feedback and correction, enabling students to see where they have been successful and where there is room for improvement.

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CHAPTER 8: Teach writing

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Introduction Teaching writing to speakers of other languages, like each of the macro-skills, encompasses the full range from true beginners, in this case pre-literate learners, to those at advanced levels of English writing proficiency, who are preparing for academic study or professional contexts. This unit will begin by addressing teaching foundational writing skills, and will then review concepts introduced in Chapter 2: English language and the Genre approach, providing a broad framework within which it is possible to prepare writing lessons for each level of learner.

1. Teaching foundational writing skills and conventions Learners who have little or no first language literacy skills represent a very small percentage of ESL learners. Their learning needs are unique and the magnitude of the learning process is intensified in direct proportion to how little spoken English they have. Learners who have some spoken English have the advantage of already knowing the meaning of words they are learning to read. Learners who have no spoken English and no L1 literacy skills are not only learning to read and write (a complex task in itself), but at the same time are learning the words (the meanings) they are using. In many ESL contexts, for example in heterogeneous classes where learners are from a variety of linguistic backgrounds, the teacher very often does not share any common language with the learner. In this situation, pictures, realia, videos and mime become extremely useful. In Chapter 7: Teach reading, we introduced the foundational skills of being able to identify the letters of the alphabet, and here we will address the process of learning to write the letters. These skills can be effectively developed simultaneously. ESL students needing to learn to read and write from a zero proficiency level (preliterate) are relatively rare. ESL literacy learners can be described by two intersecting continuums relating L1 literacy and oral English skills (see Figure 8.1 below).

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High level of oral English

With good oral English skills, the ESL literacy student has the advantage that they are learning the visual for of words that they already know in their spoken form

Low L1 literacy level

With high English oracy and high L1 literacy skills, the development of English literacy skills can be rapid. The learner is using words they already know, and transferring literacy skills from one language area to another

High L1 literacy level

With little or no spoken English, and little or no L1 literacy, the learner is faced with a process of learning the meaning of new words, intitially without the visual representation (written form) that aids memory. Then as English literacy skills develop this new knowledge is applied to the new vocabulary, and the relationship between the spoken and written forms becomes established

Existing L1 literacy skills are applied to the ESL context so that new symbols quickly become associated with sounds (and vice-versa), and new vocabulary is aquired in spoekn and written form simultaneously

Low level of oral English Fig. 8.1 L1 literacy and English oracy as they relate to ESL literacy development

1.1

Teaching handwriting

Primary school materials abound for teaching handwriting and can be just as useful for adults, though they tend to be decorated with fluffy bunnies and cute puppies. When teaching adults it is preferable to use materials that are designed for adults and reflect their stage of life, interests and needs. Where pictures are used, these could be common household objects, occupations, food items, etc. Published adult literacy materials are very helpful and appropriate at this stage, but developing your own materials for learning the alphabet is easy, cheap and avoids copyright restrictions. Learners simply need written models of the letters, and

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space to overwrite and copy. If you decide to use pictures of objects to illustrate a particular letter, use objects that will be part of the daily life of an adult. For example, use ‘father’ rather than ‘feather’ to represent ‘f’. Learners who have never written before may need to be taught how to hold a pencil and how to move the hand from the wrist rather than moving the whole arm from the shoulder. Some learners may need to practise copying shapes and patterns like the ones in Figure 8.2, to begin developing the fine motor skills necessary for writing before beginning to copy letters.

Fig. 8.2 Shapes and patterns for developing fine motor skills In working with adults at this level it is important to be sensitive to the affective response to exercises that may seem childish. The above activities are helpful, and for many adults, giving assurance that this is an important step in learning to write nicely is all that is needed to overcome any embarrassment. Many adults are not embarrassed at all to be asked to do these exercises, simply appreciating the opportunity to be in class and learn, and happy to go along with whatever the teacher says is necessary. Our job is just to be aware of the learner and their approach, including attitude, to their work of learning, and make the whole experience as dignified and effective as possible. The practice examples shown in Figure 8.3 are included to highlight some practical aspects of developing materials. Figures 8.3 and 8.4 each show different styles of lines for practising handwriting. Figure 8.3 is very common, with the dotted line to show the height of the ‘body’ of lower case letters. It also has a space inserted between sets of lines, so that ‘heads’ and ‘tails’ don’t get tangled! Figure 8.4 illustrates the ‘tangling’ that happens when this space is not provided: see letters ‘g’ and ‘n’, ‘j’ and ‘R’. The profusion of solid lines and dotted lines in both examples however, prove confusing for pre-literate learners. It is common to set a copying task that seems very straightforward, and come back in a few minutes to find writing placed incorrectly on the lines, without regard for whether a line is solid or dotted. The lines that we have carefully provided to guide the writing are a source of confusion, and if we don’t have a common language with our learners, the only way we can communicate the use of the lines is to keep pointing and demonstrating.

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Fig. 8.3 Examples of lines for writing practice

Fig. 8.4 Examples of overlaps and insufficient spacing An alternative is to use ordinary lined notebooks. Ordinary ruled paper is definitely less confusing to look at. Show learners how to write on every second line, rather than every line. This gives the space between the lines to avoid tangling. Using ordinary ruled paper also defuses any sense of being treated like children, and consistent reminders and demonstrations of the size of letters in relation to each other and their placement in relation to the lines, is very effective. On another practical note, 2B pencils have nice soft lead that write easily and smoothly and also rub out well with a nice soft plastic eraser. A beginner practice sheet might look like this:

Fig. 8.5 Examples of writing on single-lined paper

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The physical act of writing is made easier or more difficult by the order and direction in which the strokes are produced. When children are taught handwriting, they are given specific instruction about where to start each letter, whether to move the pencil up or down, or from left to right / right to left. Learning to produce each letter according to these instructions makes moving from one letter to the next a smooth, flowing action which results in a neater product. Diagrams can be useful to illustrate the order and direction of strokes. For example, lower case ‘p’: As we demonstrate writing the letter ‘p’ on the board, we say, “Start here at the middle, go down past the line. Then go back up, and when you get close to the top, go out to the right and around in a circle.” Or more simply: “Down, up, out and around.” Fig. 8.6 Writing letter ‘p’ As soon as possible, move from copying letters to copying text that is meaningful to the learner, for example their name and address, and then short sentences about themself and their own family: My name is Farida Shariff. I am married. I have three children. I come from Afghanistan.

1.2

How to refer to different sizes of letters

Finally, you need to decide whether you are going to refer to letters as ‘big letters’, ‘upper case letters’ or ‘capital letters’, and ‘small letters’ or ‘lower case letters’. Saying ‘big’ and ‘small’ may be easier, but ‘capitals’ and ‘small’ may seem more adult to the learner.

1.3

Teaching how to spell out important words

Working with ESL literacy learners, spelling is a huge mountain to be scaled. Understanding the connections between sounds and letters takes considerable time. Many English speakers struggle with spelling. How much more difficult must it be for someone who has not grown up with the visual reminders and input of an English-speaking community and education? Even at a very early stage, encourage learners that there are some things worth memorising and being able to write quickly: spelling of family name, first names, children’s names, address, etc. Developing spelling awareness can start at the same time. Chapter 7: Teach reading introduced the idea of using simple words to begin teaching sound-spelling relationships: bat, cat, fat, hat, mat, pat, rat, sat. By using pictures and short, simple stories, we can also convey the meaning of these words. These short stories could be used as texts to copy for handwriting practice. Matching words and pictures helps develop the visual recognition of the new 240

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words, and then asking learners to write the correct word next to its picture involves more writing practice. Exercises asking learners to write in missing words from sentences from the same short stories simultaneously develops the reading and writing skills. The remainder of this unit focuses on the genre approach to teaching writing and assumes that learners have well-developed control of the foundational writing skills we have been discussing until now.

2. Needs analysis The theme of needs analysis runs strongly through this training manual, as the needs of the students should always be our primary concern, along with the curriculum requirements imposed by the educational institution or program. While many adults rarely write anything beyond shopping lists and telephone messages, many others have the need to develop quite advanced writing skills, for example those wishing to study in an academic arena or work in a professional capacity. Still others will need to be able to write simple reports on jobs completed, or notes to school teachers, or fill in an accident report. In addition to future writing needs, we need to remember that written exercises are a valuable learning tool and practice activity. When learning to give an oral recount, writing a recount is great practice. It is often in writing that grammar needs become more obvious and can be addressed effectively. The writing process is slower than speaking, giving the learner more time to think about what they are saying, with the opportunity to review and revise. For some students, writing will be closely aligned with their preferred learning style. So there are good reasons for including writing as a learning activity in ESL classes.

3. Analysing written texts In Chapter 2, a variety of written genres were introduced: argument, explanation, narrative, procedural text, information text and recount. This is not an exhaustive list of written genres. However, an example of each of these genres was given with some of the typical structural and language features highlighted. Genre simply means text type. Just as narrative can be called a genre, so could lists, notes and messages, advertisements, memos, and any other “type” of text. Letters can be classified as personal or business. The contents of letters may include samples of a number of genres. For example, a letter to a friend may include a recount of an experience, some instructions (e.g. directions for where to pick them up from the train station) or some information about a tourist destination recently visited. Similarly, the varying nature

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or purpose of business letters would lead us to classify some sections of a letter as an information text, some as a procedural text (as they outline terms and conditions), some as a complaint or expression of appreciation. It is essential that ESL teachers be proficient in text analysis and planning instruction that helps students to be able to write texts of different genres. You must be able to identify the structure of the text in terms of what is happening or being achieved by each stage of the text. A procedural text, for example, will include a title, aims, list of equipment, steps of the procedure, and perhaps some extra notes. Each text type will have a range of grammatical features which are commonly used, so planning a unit of work will include a focus on specific grammar points. Practice in text analysis is provided in the workbook. Chapter 11: Design and teach English syllabus gives a more complete explanation and example of planning at the syllabus level and then developing lesson plans.

4. Planning a unit of work This section will describe two approaches to teaching writing which are commonly applied in ESL, and a variation called ‘controlled narrative’.

4.1

The process approach to writing

The words, “It’s a process,” are readily applied to most areas and activities in life these days, and in relation to learning to write, it is important to see writing as ‘a process’. When we write a text, we review and revise, rewrite and rephrase until we are happy that we have adequately expressed ourselves – or until the deadline arrives! It’s a process. “Process writing” is a term commonly used in education to refer to the approach that involves drafting and redrafting and editing a piece of writing towards publishing the final product (Stanley, 2003). Using a process writing approach, the teacher interacts and collaborates with students as they develop their pieces of writing. Feedback and correction is part of the writing process. Research shows that feedback is more useful between drafts, when the writer has the opportunity to incorporate changes into the product. “Process writing” is often described as having five stages: pre-write, draft, revise, edit, and publish. The following summary of an article in Teaching English (‘Approaches to process writing’, 2003) helps us to see the outcome of each stage in the process: 1. Pre-writing activities are designed to stimulate the writer’s creativity. They will include brainstorming, planning, generating ideas through description, comparisons and contrasts, and discussion. Some reflection on the intended audience is helpful, as is thinking about sources of information for research. Research is then carried out.

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2. Drafting will include putting some of these preliminary ideas into writing with a greater focus on the content rather than concern with accuracy of form. 3. During revision, teacher and student will perhaps conference to address the issues of text structure and grammar. 4. Editing is the final stage of polishing the text and may involve peer-editing and proofreading, during which spelling, punctuation and grammar are scrutinised. 5. Finally the text is ready for publication – that is, ready for its intended audience to read it.

Prewrite

Publish

Edit

Draft

Revise

Fig. 8.7 The process approach to writing

4.2

The learning cycle approach to writing

Chapter 2: English language and the Genre approach introduced the ‘learning cycle’, which is another very helpful approach to teaching writing as a process. The learning cycle follows the stages of: building knowledge of the field, modelling the text, joint construction, and individual construction. Review the given outline of a sample unit of work (‘Writing an opinion text: Travelling as a tourist within Australia’) in Chapter 2 section 5. The activities in the building knowledge of the field stage are intended to activate existing content knowledge10 and extend that knowledge in relation to the topic. Students often comment that writing activities in class are boring or difficult, so this pre-writing stage when we prepare for writing, can include lots of discussion and group or pair work which involves interaction between students. Choosing topics that are relevant and interesting can also help motivate students towards

10

Content knowledge: knowledge about the topic or concepts involved in the topic.

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writing. Some explicit focus on vocabulary is important at this stage, as is a focus on any particular grammar which will be needed for the new text. Modelling the text will include some analysis of one or more model texts, looking specifically at the structure and the linguistic choices being made. Activities will draw the learner’s attention to these aspects. In joint construction, the class will write a text together with the teacher, or small groups will write a text while the teacher moves from group to group assisting as required. As you do so, guide the writing by giving prompts related to the structure of the text (e.g. stages, paragraph construction, discourse markers11), and the kind of language necessary (what verb tenses, whether participants are specific or general, cohesive devices12, etc). This should be a highly interactive part of the lesson, as all students contribute to the collaborative writing effort. Discussion arising as part of the process, for example about what section to include a particular piece of information, or how best a sentence should be structured, will see students articulating the principles you have already focused on together. At this stage, an observant teacher will glean lots of information (informal formative assessment) about what the students have learned and what might need reviewing. The negotiation involved in collaborative writing, highlights that writing is a process. During individual construction, you will take the role of consultant, reviewing the text with the learner and guiding them in an editing process.

11 12

4. Individual construction

1. Building knowledge of the field

3. Joint construction

2. Modelling the text

Discourse markers: identify significant points in the text, e.g. stages or transitions. Cohesive devices: words or phrases that link parts of a text, or show how one part is related to another, creating cohesion.

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4.3

Unit plan example

The unit plan example below shows a curriculum cycle approach to lesson planning for the macro-skill of writing. As you can see, a unit of work can be spread across many lessons under one topic, theme, or skill being taught. Learning Outcome:

Students can read and understand a newspaper article

Objective

Activity

Grouping

Macroskil (s,l,r,w)

Time

Introduce topic Knowledge of Field

Brainstorm Australian animals (b) Picture prompts: Discuss pictures of Australian animals (b)

Whole group + small groups

Speaking, listening

1x 30 mins

Materials / Resources Whiteboard and whiteboard markers Pictures of animals

The students read the model text (f) The students and the teacher go through the text together (f)

Modelling the Text

Grammar activity 1: Activity about verbs in past and present tense (g)

Printed copy of the text Pairs Whole class

Grammar activity 2: The students play a game of charades where they need to act as different verbs. The answers need to be provided in past tense (g)

Joint Construction

Reading, Speaking, Listening,

1x 40 mins

An electronic copy of the text for the smartboard Worksheets

Divide students into groups, assign paragraphs and discuss the content of paragraphs.

Whole class

The students write a recount about their visit to the Wildlife Park. Each group write a paragraph each

Whole class

Small groups

Speaking, Listening, Writing

2x 40 mins

Whiteboard and whiteboard markers Plain paper or notebooks Pencils

The teacher and the students discuss the

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text together and make changes. Introduce activity

Individual Construction

The students write a recount about when they did something special with their family (i)

Individual

Writing

Extension task: Students who finish early are challenged to extend the recount (j)

Evaluation of Student Performance

The teacher walks around and observes the students writing process. The students hand in their recounts once they are finished.

Individual

Writing evaluation

3x 30 mins

Printed copy of activity instructions Pencils Extension task handout

Printed copies of activity instructions to assess assignment

Fig. 8.8 Example writing unit plan - Developed by Erica Tamm (2021)

4.4

Controlled narrative

To make writing interesting, and to encourage the practice of revising a piece of writing in order to develop it further, Jackie McEvoy (2003) describes an activity or process which she calls Controlled Narrative Writing. This is very effective with lower level writers, but could easily be adapted for higher levels. The process, as she describes it, involves the following steps (next page):

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Teacher reads a simple story (about 4 sentences), stopping after each noun so that the students can suggest appropriate adjectives, which the teacher notes.

Teacher selects adjectives and reads the embellished story again, this time stopping after each verb, asking the students to suggest appropriate adverbs, which the teacher notes.

Teacher selects adverbs and reads the embellished story, this time stopping to ask questions about circumstances to further develop the story by adding more information.

Students then follow the same process in pairs, developing a story step by step.

For homework, assign a new short story for students to embellish individually, or ask students to write their own short story and follow the process for developing it.

Each of these three processes allow practice activities to move from controlled to uncontrolled, providing the learner with a high level of scaffolding or support at the beginning with autonomy increasing in proportion to capability.

5. Feedback and error correction In this section, feedback and correction are described in relation to the stages of the learning cycle. The teacher’s role with regard to feedback and correction will vary with each stage of the learning cycle. These guidelines can be adapted to whatever process you are following, so that you are giving appropriate feedback through appropriate mechanisms throughout the construction of a text.

5.1

Building the knowledge of the field

As you engage in learning activities to build knowledge of the field, the teacher will be very actively involved in acknowledging students’ existing knowledge, monitoring the language they use to relate that existing knowledge, and giving

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correction where necessary. Strategies for correcting may vary. You can indicate an error by: underlining the error, and asking student to selfcorrect;

correcting errors selectively (e.g. in relation to particular grammar point); marking errors with a code (see Figure 8.8 below) which indicate the type of error, and asking student to self-correct; noting in the margin which line contains an error, and asking student to self-correct;

correcting all errors.

T = Verb tense P = Punctuation WO = Word order Prep = Preposition WW = Wrong word λ = Word missing Sp= Spelling

SVA = Subject/verb agreement S/P = Singular/Plural [ ] = Not necessary ?M = Meaning not clear

Fig. 8.8 Codes indicating error type in student writing (Soars, 1996; Harmer, 2001) If students are not able to self-correct, this indicates an area of new learning or one that has not been correctly or adequately assimilated when addressed previously. This is the time to do some additional focused work on the area giving problems. For example, if students are working on recounts and are making many mistakes in forming past simple and past continuous verbs, or (at higher levels) present perfect and present perfect continuous verbs, then this is the time to have another session focussing on forming these kinds of verbs, and highlighting when they are used.

5.2

Modelling of the text type

During modelling of the text type, and the text analysis that this involves, the teacher will monitor learning activities closely and correct any misunderstanding regarding the text structure or language choices, continually reinforcing the

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aspects which have been highlighted. This is a formative stage and the clearer the learner’s understanding of the features of the genre, the easier it will be for them to transfer that knowledge to another topic.

5.3

Joint construction stage

During the joint construction stage, the whole class may be working together as one group, in which case the teacher’s role in correction will continue as before. However, if the joint construction is being attempted in small groups, the teacher will circulate among the groups, spending time with each as necessary to keep the writing process moving forward, and guiding the construction of the text. Correction strategies at this stage should primarily be prompting students to selfcorrect, and to monitor their own work, encouraging them to look at the text and ask themselves questions such as, “Does the first paragraph tell me who, what, when, where?” or, “Have you described how they were feeling as well as what they were doing?” Students learn here that writing is a process in which we revisit and revise the text in our effort to produce an effective text.

5.4

Individual construction stage

During the individual construction stage, the teacher will again circulate within the class, offering assistance where required. This can be fairly informal, but it is worth making a point of spending some time with each student, reviewing their writing and offering guidance. Time spent with individual students gives the teacher opportunity to work with each one on areas of weakness, picking up on things that perhaps haven’t been apparent in whole class activities, or areas which the rest of the class doesn’t really need to address. Though the time is limited, this individualised attention is invaluable in terms of correction and input, but also in terms of building confidence and lowering affective barriers to learning through encouragement and affirmation. Again, at this stage, your correction and feedback should be directing the student towards self-correction where possible, and engaging in discussion of the merits and weaknesses of the text. Look at the text organisation and ways of signalling the various sections of the text (discourse markers such as First, Then, After that, Finally). Look at the vocabulary and grammar. Don’t forget to respond to the content. Engage with the writer in terms of the message they are communicating. “That’s very interesting.” “I didn’t know that about Bolivia.” “You must have been very proud of her!” “What a wonderful surprise!” Our students are people who are far from their origins. Whether migrants by choice, or refugees because of circumstances beyond their control, our students have all lost their previous degree of supportive relationships. Esteeming them as people who have stories of their own to tell and knowledge of the world to share, will help them to relax with the classroom as a positive place in which to learn and grow … and it enriches our lives!

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6. Selecting materials suitable for a range of levels 6.1

Learner levels

It is important to understand your learner’s level in order to create an appropriate activity aimed at their needs and abilities. The Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR) is used all over the world and provides descriptors of each of the macro-skills, for each level. Each proficiency level gives a description of an ELL’s skills in the four macro-skills of speaking, reading, writing, and listening. Reference Level Descriptors (RLD) described by the CEFR and can be located on the ©Council of Europe Website.

6.2

Selecting materials

When evaluating the appropriateness of resources for particular levels we will obviously gauge the level of the grammar, the complexity of the texts, and the degree of difficulty of the exercises. But there is another important consideration that varies according to the level, and that is the layout and design of the materials. Beginners can be overwhelmed by pages crowded with print. A student, who has never read before, presented with a page crowded with exercises printed in a small font size, will be overwhelmed, confused and discouraged. A crowded page makes the task of reading all the more daunting. In addition, there must be sufficient space to complete the written exercises; more space needs to be allowed at the beginner level. The following pages are examples of exercises written for adults learning to read and write for the first time. Each section would be printed as an A4 page for use in class. This is what is comfortable and manageable at this stage of reading and writing development.

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Write the price for each item. apples $3.59/kg

grapes $4.69/kg

capsicum $5.69/kg

bananas $2.49/kg

carrots $1.79/kg

bread $1.79

potatoes $1.89/kg

lettuce $1.49ea

tomatoes $3.29/kg

garlic $8.29/kg

cheese $7/kg

pears $2.79/kg

Unscramble the sentences from Jackie goes grocery shopping. the supermarket is at Jackie Jackie is at the supermarket. are cheap the apples today ____________________________ she needs vegetables some ____________________________ steak her husband likes ____________________________ some grapes buys she ____________________________ buys she some cheese quickly ____________________________ some eggs buys she for breakfast ____________________________ is the cashier Sharon ____________________________

ITEM apples bananas tomatoes pears grapes lettuce cheese bread potatoes

PRICE

Read the story and answer the questions. What day is it? _______________________ Where is Jackie? _____________________ Jackie buys some apples. Yes / No Jackie buys some bananas. Yes / No Jackie buys some vegetables. Yes / No Jackie buys some cheese. Yes / No Jackie buys some pears. Yes / No Jackie buys some garlic. Yes / No Jackie buys some capsicum. Yes / No Jackie buys some lettuce. Yes / No Jackie buys some tomatoes. Yes / No Jackie buys some potatoes. Yes / No Jackie’s children like grapes. Yes / No Jackie’s family likes salad. Yes / No Jackie’s husband likes steak. Yes / No

Texts should become more complex as the learners’ English level increases. The following bank brochure could be used with elementary to intermediate learners depending on the task you set. For elementary learners you will focus comprehension exercises on the main points presented in the largest font, and with intermediate learners you could also tackle the fine print. Intermediate learners could be asked to compare this brochure with a similar one from a competing credit union or bank.

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CAR LOANS from 8.95%

Home Loans from 6.2%p.a. fixed for 6 months* Terms and conditions apply *Then reverts to standard budget home loan rate applicable at that time (CURRENTLY 6.45%p.a.) for owner-occupied borrowers.

INVESTMENT LOANS from 7.6%p.a.

Frequent flyer points PLUS Up to 55 days interest free with a Central Union Credit Card

2897 1111

3168 1111

5971 1111

Sydney

Melbourne

Canberra

Terms and conditions apply on all products shown. Full terms and conditions, fees and charges available on application. Central Union Banking Company acts as an agent for various insurers. All loans subject to our lending policies and credit criteria. Interest rates accurate at time of printing but subject to change.

Insurance $100,000 building and $30,000 contents for less than $8 per week (includes multiple policy discount) Conditions apply $30,000 contents for less than $5 per week Conditions apply

3342 1111

Mix ‘n’ match car and personal loans New options include no-deposit car loans*

Brisbane

www.centralunion.com.au

Central UnION BANKING CO. meeting all your banking needs Along with complexity of text, the difficulty of the task should also be commensurate with the level of the students. Upper-intermediate students learning to write formal letters could be given the following letter along with comprehension exercises and vocabulary questions, followed by the challenge to write the letter of complaint that preceded the receipt of this reply (next page).

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Golden Crown Dairy Products Consumer Services PO Box 123 Gordonville Qld 4555 Tel: 1800 455 455 Fax: 07 3345 4555 14 March 2013 Mr W Mitchell 8 Wolston Place Gordonville Qld 4555 Dear Mr Mitchell, Thank you for contacting Golden Crown Dairy Products with your concerns about Golden Crown Tasty Cheddar Cheese. It is possible that mould may spoil an unopened product if the seal is not completely airtight. Although not necessarily obvious, any break in the seal, no matter how slight, can allow mould from the environment to enter the pack and subsequently spoil the product. We are sorry to hear that in this instance you found the quality of this product was not of a satisfactory standard. To improve the quality of our products, your concerns have been forwarded to our Quality Assurance Manager for review. Golden Crown Dairy Products would like to take this opportunity to apologise for any inconvenience this situation may have caused. Please find enclosed reimbursement to cover the cost of your purchase. Golden Crown Dairy Products welcomes your feedback as it allows us to further improve the quality of our products and service. We look forward to your continued enjoyment of Golden Crown Dairy Products. Yours sincerely, Sharon Masters CONSUMER SERVICES SUPERVISOR

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Again we must have a retrieval system that allows us to locate texts easily. It has already been suggest that one way of organising files is by level (beginner, elementary, intermediate, advanced). Within the level file, you can have a series of files labelled according to task type. This would give you a collection of files for beginners, that might include learning outcomes such as ‘reading short notes’, ‘using an alphabetical index’ or ‘filling in forms’. Then you’d have another collection of files for elementary learners, including such learning outcomes as ‘reading an information text’, ‘giving spoken instructions’ or ‘making an invitation’. As suggested earlier, you will benefit from filing two copies of the same text: one by topic and another copy by level and learning outcome.

7. Example writing lesson plan and activities 7.1

A writing lesson plan

Following the learning/curriculum cycle Learning Outcome

Students can write a review

Genre/Text Type

Review

Social Purpose of Text

Being able to write reviews about movies they have watched/books they have read

Building Knowledge of Field

Stage

Features of the Stage

Activities

Resource

Group

Time

Introduce text and register

Introduce text and discuss type: reviews. What is a review? Where can we find reviews? What type of things do people usually review?

PowerPoint slide

Whole group

5 mins

PowerPoint slide

Whole group

10 mins

Build vocabulary range

Go through movie-related vocabulary: genres + discuss: what type of movies do we like? Movie vocabulary: jobs

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Modelling the text

Modelling the text

Observe grammatical structures used. Do some practice exercises and activities

Analyse structural features

Passive voice, simple past tense: Present the rules, activity to change sentences from active to passive voice. Activity to practise saying sentences in passive voice. Read the review (sourced from https://premierskillsenglis h.britishcouncil.org/ptbr/node/5031?page=3)

PowerPoint slide

Whole group

15 mins

PowerPoint slide

Whole group

10 mins

PowerPoint slide

Whole group

10 mins

Look & discuss structural features Analyse linguistic features

Look and discuss linguistic features Discussion: Is it common to review things in your country? Do you believe it is important that a movie has good reviews? Do you usually leave a review after buying something?

Discuss the cultural aspects of the written task

Teach a spelling point: Say that before we write, we will practise a bit of spelling. 1. Go through rules for double consonants after CVC words. 2. Get students to check for errors in a text. 3. Get students to spell words in the chat.

5 mins PowerPoint slide

Whole group

+ 20 mins

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Joint construction

Transfer the genre to another situation but stay with the same genre

Individual construction

Chapter 8

Written task or other free practice activity

Evaluation

We try to agree on a movie that we have all watched and write a review about it together.

Everyone writes their own reviews I give feedback + we discuss the reviews

PowerPoint slide

PowerPoint slide Google doc

Whole group

15 mins

Individu al

20 mins + 15 mins

Monitor students while they are working on the vocabulary and spelling tasks Evaluate the students written reviews

Fig. 8.9 Example writing lesson plan - Developed by Erica Tamm (2021)

7.2

Writing activities

Just as discussed in the preceding chapters of this textbook, activities need to be connected to the topic, vocabulary and focus of each lesson. Writing activities should require students to demonstrate their understanding of the lesson objective by writing something, whether it be a word, sentence, or paragraph. In the lesson plan above (Figure 8.9), you will see that ‘modelling of the text’ comes first, follow ed by completing the text together with the teacher in a ‘joint construction’. This enables the students to see how the structure fits together while being guided by the teacher’s instruction. Modelling is an extremely important stage of any lesson. Controlled or accuracy activities should enable students to practice structure or language/grammar development with immediate feedback or correction from the teacher. Fluency or free activities need to allow the student to demonstrate their understanding on their own. See below for examples of accuracy and fluency writing activities.

7.2.1 Accuracy activities As discussed, accuracy activities need to be controlled by the teacher. They may have only one correct answer. Students need to demonstrate they understand the structure and language features taught during the lesson. The teacher should only focus on correcting the structures and language features focused on in the lesson or subsequent lessons. Some accuracy activities may include:

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Beginner

Elementary

Intermediate

Advanced

    

Letter writing practice Spelling a word correctly Writing personal details Filling in a gap fill activity Using common icons/signs – students write the words next to the picture

   

Completing a simple application form, or part of Writing a short recount or narrative, or part of A diary entry Memory game – students write down a list of items displayed on a tray  Picture definitions

     

Writing a longer recount or narrative Completing a procedural text Re-writing news headlines as complete sentences Writing a number of paragraphs on a specific topic Drafting an essay or oral presentation Using 1 object taken from a box, students must write a 1 minute talk on that object

 All of the above but to a higher and more difficult standard  Practice use of more technical and higher level vocabulary  Practice of all genres  Practice of academic text structures  Re-writing proverbs with a clearer meaning or explanation  Speed writing

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7.2.2 Fluency activities Following on from the accuracy or controlled practice activities, the teacher should then set up a similar activity where ‘free’ or uncontrolled practice is offered to students. This enables them to again practice without immediate feedback and allows the student to follow on from practice activities and examples. Feedback and correction should be given at the end of the writing activity. These activities may be the same or similar to the accuracy examples listed above, however the topic or situation may change slightly to encourage individual and creative thought. Some example activities are listed below:

Beginner

Elementary

Intermediate / Advanced

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 Writing personal details  Free practice of letters, words, basic sentences  Write a short thank-you note  Write a family tree  Running dictation  Daily diary  Comic strip writing

 The teacher provides a list of icons/pictures, students then write the meaning in full.  Students write a recount of their weekend events  Free letter/email writing  Diary entries  write a short personal description for a social media account  write a memo  write an email  write a simple paragraph  write a postcard  the teacher shows a news headline to students; students then rewrite the headline out in full sentences.  rewriting proverbs in simple language  speed writing – show one word or topic to students. They then have 2 minutes to write as many sentences on that topic as they can. The idea is to practice fluent writing on any topic using correct sentence structure.  provide an unpunctuated text, students must punctuate it correctly.  academic paragraph writing  essay writing

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Summary Similar to the skill of reading, writing also begins at the foundational level. Writing skills and conventions such as handwriting, letter sizing, and spelling may need to be incorporated into the lesson for low literacy learners. The requirement for this can be determined through a needs analysis of each student and then appropriate planning. The learning cycle described in this unit is a helpful model for lesson planning, showing how to incorporate both accuracy and fluency activities at each stage of the model. A few other lesson plan examples where given, such as the controlled narrative and the process approach to writing. Finally, we have learned in this unit that as for all lesson planning and execution, it is imperative that appropriate feedback and error correction happens through the planning process, during and after each lesson and at the end of each unit of work.

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CHAPTER 9: Teach English using technology

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Introduction As teachers preparing students for the 21st century world of work and study, we do our students a grievous disservice if we ignore the development of computer skills. “Literacy, today, is increasingly electronic and telecommunicational.” (Murphy-Judy as cited in Schcolnik & Kol, 1999) The term digital literacy is becoming more and more widely used and recognised as referring to the ability of people to communicate using technology. Success in lifelong learning, employment, and even social connection is increasingly determined by the individual’s ability to engage through technology (Huffaker, 2004). Technology is being used more and more for engagement with social issues, having a voice and influencing the way our societies work. Access to education is increasingly dependent on the student’s degree of digital literacy. In 2003-2004, e-learning comprised 3% to 4% of activity in vocational education and training (VET) in Australia. In 2008, 36% of all VET incorporated e-learning (DEEWR), and in 2010 this had risen to 43%. This rapid increase in delivery mode highlights that competency in digital literacy skills is essential for success in education. The imperative to include the development of digital literacy in English language training is clear. The benefits of using technology to assist language development are also clear and some of these benefits are outlined in section 2 of this chapter. A process for assisting learners who are beginners in English language development as well as digital literacy is described in section 3, and suggestions for teaching word-processing are described in section 7. Just as the use of technology in education is increasing, the range of technologies commonly available has also increased exponentially and many of these are within the reach of many ESL students. ESL students come from a wide range of socioeconomic backgrounds, some with a wealth of material resources behind them, others from refugee backgrounds, who may have very little in terms of material possessions. Even so, a mobile phone is almost standard personal equipment these days, and a wide range of ‘apps’ are available for language learning. A small sample of language learning apps are reviewed in section 9 of this chapter. Computers, in one form or another, are found in the majority of homes, and for those who cannot afford an internet connection at home, many public libraries and community centres provide free internet access. A variety of internet-based resources are described in section 4, and ESL software is described in section 6. Another technological wonder of this era is the interactive whiteboard, and its use is described briefly in section 10.

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1. Critical literacy A major issue in relation to use of technology, which must be considered in relation to all aspects of use of technology and use of information gathered via the internet, is the need for users to be discerning. Whether we are gathering information for entertainment value, or for use toward gaining employment or use in employment, for training purposes or research in relation to education, ‘readers’ must develop critical literacy skills. While there is an abundance of great material available on the internet, there is also an equal amount of rubbish. The danger lies in indiscriminate use of information found on the internet. Students need to learn how to gauge the author’s credibility, authority and accuracy (Davis, 2006). They need to question the source and the credibility of the information offered. Questions that help us to evaluate websites could include:

Who has written this information? What are their qualifications or credentials for writing about this topic?

What is their purpose in writing?

Who is hosting the information? Is it a commercial website aiming to sell a product? Is it a politically oriented website with a strongly persuasive element? Is it a government department website?

Critique of sources is very important in academic research and writing. Strategies for effective searching include using well-chosen key words, scanning site addresses for reputable sources such as university sites and journals which have credibility in the academic field, or discriminating by the couple of lines from the site that your search results show, to assess which sites actually address your area of interest. Chapter 13: Teach English for academic purposes, section 4.2, expands on these strategies.

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2. Benefits of using technology The benefits of using computers to assist language learning as reported by Lee (2000) can be extended to use of technology in general and include:

Unpressured participation: •With appropriate ESL programs, students can each work at their own pace. ‘Quieter’ students who would normally be reluctant to participate in a discussion may be encouraged to contribute online when they can do so in an unhurried and less-pressured environment. Increased motivation: •Motivation increases when tasks and methods are relevant and interesting. In this day of increasing technological literacy demands, learners are motivated towards developing computer skills. Enriched learning experience: •Using computers can allow learners to use programs and activities that capitalise on learning styles that may not be well-accommodated in classroom-based activities. Use of the internet opens up access to some great resources. A class can ‘travel’ together to any part of the world, visiting places of interest, investigating cultures and researching scientific phenomenon. Through email or blogs we can interact with a wide and diverse range of people. Use of authentic materials and language in authentic communication: •This is currently one of the main principles underlying language teaching and learning, and use of the internet brings a seemingly limitless supply of authentic language direct to our computer terminals. Students can practice completing real forms, finding information from up-to-date timetables and weather charts, locating real job vacancies, finding out how and where they can get the qualification necessary for the job they want to do, finding recipes and instructions for how to do or make something. The possibilities are endless. Development of much needed technological skills: •Computer skills are becoming increasingly sought after by employers and are an absolute necessity in most tertiary study contexts. In many workplaces the use of computers is routine and employers value employees’ abilities to use basic programs for word-processing, managing data, and email. Experiential learning:

•Learners are using English as they use computers to complete tasks, for example researching a topic, planning a class excursion. Along the way they will need to look up the meanings of new words and grapple with new grammatical constructs. All of this is done within a field of knowledge that is personally meaningful, thus increasing recall.

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Understanding writing as a process: •Using computers greatly eases the processes of review and revision in writing. For a language learner this is a real bonus, as newly created texts invariably need some correction. Revisiting texts on the computer is far less onerous (and far more environmentally friendly) than writing with pen and paper, and therefore editing is far more likely to happen, if it can be done electronically. Increased flexibility in the teaching and learning schedule: •The internet as a 24/7 system makes the classroom open anytime you want. Teachers can post input via blogs, or give feedback and correction via email, and students can engage in group work at a time that suits them rather than within the constraints of class hours. Development of a global view of the world: •One of the effects of high speed travel, the internet, international trade and international participation in matters of local security, is that we are all residents in a global village, and as such community consciousness must rise above physical or geographical location.

The reasons that many teachers still hesitate to use technology to assist English language learning, revolve around:

Cost of initial investment in hardware, software and internet access;

Lack of time to prepare adequately for using computers; and

The need for professional development in using software and in how to integrate use of computers and other technologies into a language program designed to meet specific language needs.

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Boulter (2007) reports a range of use of technology by teachers in universities in the Asia-Pacific region. In her thesis, Boulter reports that even wit h adequate access to technology, most teachers made limited use of it in the classroom. Teachers in Taiwan use it less than teachers in Australia and Thailand. Teachers with less than ten years teaching experience tended to use technology more. The research also shows use of technology decreasing the older the teacher is. One factor stands out to increase use of technology among teachers, and that is professional development. Davis (2006) and Morgan (2008) both advocate that the success or failure of integrating technology into our classroom activities is dependent on directing the activities towards achieving the learning outcomes at which the language program is aimed. Teachers who are accountable to meet prescribed language outcomes will need to plan carefully in order for use of computers to be productive towards achieving those goals. Teachers are advised to plan use of technology carefully, lest classroom effort be diverted into activity that does not address the stated target learning goals. While technology has been hailed as having the potential to revolutionise the classroom and learning in general, for a long time the use of computers was limited to activities that mirror behaviourist methodology: grammar and vocabulary exercises and drills (multiple choice or select the correct word) and pronunciation practice (listen and repeat drills). These activities seemed to have been developed in an environment where there was little collaboration between technical experts and language teachers. This is changing, however, as experts from each background learn about their intersecting fields, and the result is an increasing range of ways that the language learning process can capitalise on computer technology. Of course, the implementation of these technologies is dependent on ESL/EFL teachers becoming proficient with the applications available. In fact, much can be done without specialist ESL/EFL software. One of the most valuable things a language teacher can do is include word-processing, email, and using the internet in their repertoire of computer based activities. These are helpful skills and will certainly help prepare our students for the many real world situations in which these skills are necessary. The scope of computer use in language learning is increasing at a phenomenal rate, with the advent of chat rooms, blogging and podcasting, which all involve real-life communication.

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Some pointers to keep in mind when planning English language learning activities using technology:

Before the lesson starts, make sure the computers you will use are loaded with all the necessary software (e.g. media players for tasks that require viewing video or listening to audio recordings) or that interactive whiteboards are calibrated.

Have a clear objective or task, and enlist students’ agreement to stick to the task. There is a great temptation, if the task is too hard or boring (and even if it’s not!), to simply tune into some favourite music via the internet.

Give clear instructions: What site are students to go to? What are they looking for? What do they need to do with the information they find?

Pair more experienced or confident computer users with those who are less experienced.

Encourage students to talk about what they are doing, as they are doing it. After the task is finished, discuss language issues.

Ask students to explain what they have just discovered. + Use the information discovered as a discussion starter.

3. Beginner digital literacy This section will really just serve to remind us that we cannot assume that all of the learners in a class will already be competent users of computers or other forms of technology. This section will describe how we might meet the learning needs of beginners who have not used a computer before. We can transfer to other technologies the process which involves starting with a description of the hardware and then looking at the way it functions along with the language involved in the processes.

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You may have a class, or some students in a class, that are at the true beginner stage of computer literacy: never touched one before! In this case you need to be able to explain the absolute basics. Some very basics will include: Naming the parts of a computer: •e.g. monitor, screen, keyboard, keys, mouse, printer, etc. Naming the parts of a screen: •e.g. toolbars, icons, scroll bar, cursor, ruler, ribbon, etc. Command verbs relating to the use of a computer: •e.g. Start up, Click on, Left click, Right click, Double click, Scroll up/down, Enter, Save, Delete, Highlight, Copy, Paste, etc. Abstract notions relating to computers:

•e.g. program, virus, internet. A very helpful tool for developing procedural worksheets for use with a class, is to create a ‘screenshot’, a picture of what you see on your screen. The steps for creating a screenshot vary depending on what device and operating software you are using. The instructions for different devices can be found by performing an internet search.

For example, in Microsoft Windows you can: 1. Press and hold Windows logo key + Shift key + S key (letter S) 2. Using the snipping tool, select the area you want to copy 3. If you see a thumbnail in the corner of your screen, click it to edit and save the screenshot. Or paste the screenshot where you want it by pressing and holding the crtl key + v key (letter V)

Fig. 9.1 Instructions for creating a picture of your screen

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Having inserted the screenshot into your document, you can then use any of your picture tools to edit the image as you need: enlarge, reduce or crop the image. The image below (Figure 9.2) was created by copying and pasting the same image as Figure 9.1, then cropping away most of the picture, so that the remaining picture is the toolbar wanted for the current instructional focus. The new image was then enlarged so that the icons are easily visible.

Fig. 9.2 Screen shot: a small portion of Fig. 9.1 cropped and enlarged Working with learners who are developing reading and writing skills for the first time, it may help to develop some kinaesthetic activities, to help them become aware of the different parts of a computer or of the screen. For example, by printing, laminating and cutting up the same image (Figure 9.1) we can create a jigsaw of the features of a screen (Figure 9.3). These pieces can be used to reassemble the screen. The teacher can name a component and the students select the appropriate card and hold it up. These simple activities help students become familiar with the appearance of the items on the screen, and with the words that are found there. Learners of all levels can be introduced to computers.

For example, in Microsoft Windows you can: 4. Press and hold Windows logo key + Shift key + S key (letter S) 5. Using the snipping tool, select the area you want to copy 1. If you see a thumbnail in the corner of your screen, click it to edit and save the screenshot. Or paste the screenshot where you want it by pressing and holding the crtl key + v key (letter V)

Fig. 9.3 Jigsaw pieces for use with students from low literacy backgrounds

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Getting back to basics with some students, will mean helping them to learn how to start up a computer, how to log on to the institute system, how to open programs, how to use programs, how to open an internet connection, how to access websites, and how to find the information and services available within websites. Other students will be ready to get on and complete whatever task you set them. Tutor assistance in mixed ability classes is invaluable, as a lot of one-to-one help may be needed. Peer tutoring, more experienced students helping less experienced students, can also be used effectively. This needs close monitoring however, as it is easy for the more experienced student to simply take over and complete the task and the other remain no better equipped for the task than before. Encourage the more experienced student to see this exercise as an opportunity to develop their skill in giving instructions and explanations in English, and that the process will require them to keep their hands off the keyboard and tell the other student what they need to do.

4. Use internet based resources and activities The internet opens up a host of different kinds of reading, writing, listening and even speaking activities that can be used simply as practise activities or as part of project-based learning. In this section we will look at a small sample of the opportunities available.

4.1

Using ESL sites

Thousands of ESL websites have been set up and include a myriad of exercises on vocabulary, grammar, pronunciation, listening, reading and writing. Many sites have moved beyond the electronic worksheet (click on the correct box for multiple choice questions) and now use video clips and sound recordings to enable good listening practice. The variety of tasks available is amazing. Search any of the following categories (on the next page) and you will gain access to hundreds of websites set up for ESL practice.

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Suggested search categories Culture

Dialogues

Dictionaries / Reference marerials

ESL for children

ESL games

ESL quizzes

Grammar usage

Idoms and slang

4 Macro skills

Survival English

Spelling / Pronunciation

Palpals / Keypals

Tests - IELTS, PTE, TOEFL

Vocabulary

These websites are just a few of the many that provide links to thousands of websites that are set up specifically for teaching and learning English language: • www.eslcafe.com • www.ieltsspeaking.co.uk/speaking-practice/ • http://enjoy-learningenglish.blogspot.com.au/ The Australian Network is a great example of a website that includes video segments with English language learning lessons and activities. It can be found at http://australianetwork.com/learningenglish/ The BBC radio website includes downloadable radio podcasts from the BBC news with a focus on vocabulary and pronunciation and can be found at https://www.bbc.co.uk/learningenglish/ These few examples do not even constitute the tip of the iceberg. The volume of online ESL/EFL learning material is incredible. You will need to give very clear instructions on what sites students will need to access, and some may need instruction in how to navigate their way around the site. Take the time to point out the features of a website with students who are newcomers to cyberspace. Once again, screenshots are very useful for orienting students to a new website before they get their hands near a keyboard. Just create and print an annotated copy of the home page before you begin using a site. If your computer lab has a data projector, demonstrate the use of the site (using the projector) before students start up their computers.

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Click here to find a job.

4.2

Click here for English teachers.

Click here for the chatroom, photos, podcasts and ESL links.

Using ‘regular’ websites

The amount of information available on the internet is overwhelming. Searching the internet has been described as akin to “trying to get a drink of water from a gushing hydrant” (Warschauer, Shetzer & Meloni, cited in Davis, 2006). For students working in a second language, finding what they want or need can be an equally overwhelming task. Davis (2006) advises, “We cannot send our students off without specific goals in mind, training how to use the sites, procedures on how to accomplish the tasks, and an explanation of how the students will be evaluated for the activity.” The important lesson to learn from those words of caution is that the tasks we plan for our classes must be manageable. Planning manageable tasks is a matter of: stating clearly what information want students to locate;

where they should look; and

what we want them to do with the information when they’ve found it.

Though a little dated now, Sperling’s Internet activity workbook (1999) provides a helpful model for planning lessons incorporating internet searching. Each unit begins with questions to ask a “Key Pal” (internet equivalent of the traditional

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pen pal). Online chatting, emailing and blogging are common social activities. Language instruction can very easily capitalise on this real-life communication. This chat at the beginning of a new unit acts as a stimulus to engage the students with the topic and activate what they already know about it. Controlled interaction can be set up between classes via email, private chat rooms or blogs. Sperling’s activities then go on to assign tasks involving searching the internet. For example, a unit on architecture asks students to find the ten tallest buildings in the world, then to find out about skyscrapers in specific cities in the world. The unit is interspersed with discussion questions which could be carried out face-to-face in small groups in the computer lab or back in the classroom, or could be conducted online via a private chat room or blog. Follow-up activities include a focus on new vocabulary, and a short writing task which should be posted on a class Bulletin Board or blog. Analysis of the use of English to complete the tasks shows that students are reading English texts, responding by writing or speaking in English about the material, and listening to each other in discussion. There is no doubt about the language learning value of these activities. In a world where pamphlets and paper fact sheets are being replaced by pages on a website, students need to develop skills in using the internet. The importance of this should not be underestimated. Access to information is an important part of empowerment. As information becomes more and more internet-based, power and control over one’s life becomes more and more closely linked with the ability to navigate the internet. A request for information is often answered with the phrase, “Just go to our website and download the factsheet. It’s all there.”

4.3

“Blogging”

Web Logs or ‘blogs’ have been usefully employed in language teaching and learning. A blog is generally described as a journal or newsletter posted on the internet that is frequently updated and intended for general public consumption. It doesn’t necessarily need to be limited to journaling though and could also be defined as a process or a format rather than a particular type of content (Downes, 2004). “Blogging” refers to updating the blog and a “blogger” is someone who keeps a blog. Blogging in education can be used as a low cost mechanism for getting students sharing ideas, creating texts together, publishing for the whole world to see, engaging in a community of discussion and meaning making. Blogs can be set up for individuals, a class, or a network of classes. Blogs can be open for anyone to upload a contribution, or password controlled so that it is a private members-only forum.

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Some guidelines for using blogs in education: Give clear instructions for the class use of a blog by setting tasks related to your curriculum. For example, students could be asked to respond each week to a new topic or statement. These topics can each become a line of discussion that continues for as long as it is useful in generating ideas and language. Create a class newsletter with each student contributing something throughout the term. Ask students to post summaries of readings they are completing as part of the course. Ask students to reflect on learning activities: what they did, what they learned, and what steps they need to take next in learning. Corporately create an agreed code of conduct regarding communicating in ways that are respectful of each other as individuals and tolerant of different ideas, belief and opinions. While we interact with each others’ ideas and statements and may express agreement or disagreement, we must communicate in ways that are respectful and preserve courtesy.

Allow freedom of expression: Reducing emphasis on correct spelling and grammar will allow students to express their thoughts more freely. It should also be a forum in which participants can express their opinions without censure or censorship.

Blogging is as much about reading as it is about writing, and by engaging in discussion of topics of relevance (that perhaps may not be candidly addressed in the physical environment of an educational institution) students will be actively reading for meaning.

Your class blog can be a tool for gathering feedback on learning activities. Include some photos or video clips and ask students to describe what they did, and reflect on what they learnt through different activities. Blogs can also be used to post information about your course and upcoming events. Edublogs (found at https://edublogs.org) is a host site for weblogs set up for educational purposes. Anyone can set up a weblog for free.

4.4

Social networking media

Twitter provides daily phrases and links to the latest English Network video episodes. It’s so easy to access via mobile phone that public transport commuting time can always be well spent. Here are a couple of “Tweets” on Twitter from the Australia Network Learning English group.

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https://twitter.com/english4today Facebook also provides a forum for learning and practising English, where learners can access video clips and daily phrases prepared for English language learners, and also contribute comments and ask questions. https://www.facebook.com/learnenglishonline2

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4.5

Skype

http://education.skype.com/resources Here is the invitation from Skype in the classroom: “Meet new people, discover new cultures and collaborate with classes from around the world, all without leaving the classroom.” Sounds great, doesn’t it? A quick look at the homepage reveals a great list of subject areas including languages.

Going further, you discover invitations to join other classes around the world in conversations and projects. Here’s an example:

Grade 7th – Class connection via Skype About this Skype lesson I am looking for classes outside Turkey who would like to partner with a class in Istanbul to share about their countries culture and perhaps shared a story that is native to your country. You would speak to/with a class who serve students in grades 7 and ages 12-14. Please contact me at [email protected] if you are interested in partnering. We are accepting individuals or classrooms from any country especially in Europe because of time zone! All are welcome!

4.6

Zoom (https://us02web.zoom.us/)

Similar to Skype, is the conferencing and meeting platform ‘Zoom’. Zoom has taken off in recent years the more preferred meeting platform. It also offers opportunity for teachers to share their screen and lesson content as needed. It has a chat function that can be used to send private or whole group messages as well as emoticons for student responses and reactions.

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The teacher can create pair work or small group work through the use of ‘breakout rooms’ and monitor each room as needed. An annotate function allows the teacher to write on the screen during the lesson if needed. Zoom meetings can also be recorded if necessary. There are free accounts allowing a meeting to run for 40 minutes at a time or paid plans.

4.7

TED – ed (http://ed.ted.com)

TED (bringing together people interested in Technology, Entertainment and Design) started in 1984 as a conference. Now TED includes a website which offers the opportunity for people to connect. The TED-ed (as in ‘education’) section of the website hosts video clips with learning activities: watch, think (exercises/questions), and dig deeper, which includes more information and links to other material. You can customise a lesson to make it suit what your own class is doing or you can create your own lesson based on a YouTube clip.

4.8

Podcasts and YouTube

‘Podcast’ is a combination of two words: ipod and broadcast. Podcasts are audio recordings that you can listen to online or offline (right click, ‘Save target as’, select folder, ‘Save’). YouTube is a collection of video recordings accessed via http://www.youtube.com. The range of topics available is huge, so you can find audio-visual material to suit the learners in your class and develop your own listening activities. Students can make their own recordings and publish them in a blog online. Listening to a self-recording heightens awareness of performance and increases motivation towards accuracy. Creating a podcast or video to post on YouTube can create an authentic use of language.

4.9

Your own website (e.g. http://www.wix.com/)

Load your own materials onto your own website for use by your own classes. You could offer your students a completely personalised delivery of material developed especially for their specific learning needs. This is another platform for students to access written and recorded audio-visual material chosen specifically for them. It could also be a platform for a Flexible Delivery ESL program.

4.10 Epals (e.g. http://en.community.epals.com/teachingresources/default.aspx) Years ago, ‘pen pals’ linked students across the globe through exchange of letters written with pen and paper. These days, the turnaround time on communication between and across continents is made far more time-efficient through the internet. E-pals Global Community is one organisation that serves to link students, classes and teachers for projects or dialogue. Their database can be searched in

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respect to topic or subject, language, age, location, number of students, and preferred method of collaboration.

4.11 Prezi (http://prezi.com/learn) Prezi is an alternative to PowerPoint for creating digital presentations. Rather than a series of slides, the presentation runs from a single slide, with the capacity to zoom in and out on various elements of the slide, so that you can look at the big picture and the details without having to flick back and forth between separate slides. You can present an integrated view of the relationships between all the information delivered. Students and educators can get a free licence to use Prezi.

4.12 BuddyPress (http://buddypress.org) BuddyPress is built to bring people together. It works well to enable people with similar interests to connect and communicate. Some of the fantastic uses suggested are:

A campus wide social network for your university, school or college.

A niche social network for your interest topic.

An internal communication tool for your company.

A focused social network for your new product.

4.13 Padlet (www.padlet.com) Padlet is an interactive online writing tool, where teachers and students can write notes or longer texts as needed. It can be shared over conferencing tools such as Zoom/Skype so that instant viewing can be seen. Anyone with the direct Padlet link can view and write notes at the same time. Teachers can add homework instructions, assessments or just activity ideas for students. Students can create a note and add their writing content. All writing can be saved, until deleted. This makes writing lessons a little easier when teaching online. There are free and paid accounts available.

4.14 Kahoot! (www.kahoot.com or www.kahoot.it) Kahoot! is an online interactive gaming tool for games and quizzes. You can create your own quiz activities for students. There are free accounts and paid accounts that give you access to existing games. Simply link your students to the quiz/game via a QR code or URL link, then begin to play. You can do this on a computer or

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smart phone. This can be used for accuracy and fluency practice and of course just for fun!

4.15 Learning Management Systems (e.g. Moodle https://moodle.org) Moodle is one example of a Course Management System (CMS), also known as a Learning Management System (LMS) or a Virtual Learning Environment (VLE). Moodle is a web application that educators can use to create effective online learning sites. To work, it needs to be installed on a web server somewhere, either on one of your own computers or one at a web hosting company. It can be used by large institutions or small groups of students, to deliver a complete course or simply to add some extra practice for students. Just as other online applications can accommodate forums and collaborative learning across the globe, Moodle can assist in facilitating such learning communities.

5. Assessment of online participation Many courses utilising and LMS include participation in online discussions or forums as part of their assessment processes. Elliot (2010) offers guidance for considering learning outcomes and developing activities that encourage knowledge-building, rather than simply posting short set pieces that sit in the online repository undiscussed and undeveloped. He suggests that characteristics of a good rubric should include:

It is expressed as criteria with performance benchmarks.

It uses holistic marking which reward the learner’s final level of mastery.

The criteria should be valid measures of the course objectives.

The criteria should not merely reward ‘participation’, but academic achievement.

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6. ESL software As with internet ESL practice sites, the range of activities available on CD-ROM (or via more advanced digital devices) includes all the macro-skills, grammar and vocabulary. A list of “must have” software would seem to be in order here. However, the range of products available is now so extensive and varied that I believe it is more helpful to provide a list of questions to consider in selecting software for your English program. Needs analysis is always the starting point for program and lesson preparation. In the same way, this is our starting point for selecting software. Our primary concern is with the needs of the students and the prescriptions of the program. Questions to consider: Who are your students? (e.g. age, language level, computer skills, needs and interests)

What are the learning goals?

Is the software easy to use and navigate?

Is it attractive/easy on the eye?

Will the students learn something through using it? Do the students think about language to complete the task?

Is the methodology consistent with your own techniques and philosophy?

What operating system and hardware are you using?

What is the learning situation? (e.g. selfaccess/independent study, computer lab with supervision, class activities)

What computer skills do the teachers have? What training can they access?

What is the budget?

Just as with any computer activity, make sure your students know what they need to do in order to complete a task. If it is a game, demonstrate how to play before the students begin playing on their own. Draw their attention to what they are doing with language, how they are using language in task completion. Using a data projector for this demonstration is ideal, so that the whole class is getting the same instruction at the same time.

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7. Teach word-processing skills One of the most useful computer skills we can pass on to our students is to be able to use a word-processing program such as Microsoft® Office Word. Students heading for employment of any kind will need to produce a résumé. Students heading for employment in areas that include clerical duties, sales or service provision will need to be familiar with a variety of applications including wordprocessing. Students heading for academic study will need to be able to use a computer to produce assignments. This is a valuable skill relevant to the needs of a wide range of people.

7.1

Teach basic functions of a word-processing program

While word-processing programs are becoming “smarter” with many built-in formatting features and templates, there is value in teaching how to format a document using the basic features of the program. As a guide, users of a word-processor need to know how to:

Type: upper case, lower case, and punctuation

Open, save and close documents

Set and change margins

Set and change line spacing

Set and change tabs

Select or change a font, its style (bold, italics or underline), size and colour

Correct typing using backspace, delete, insert, undo or by overtyping

Select, cut, copy and paste sections of text

Use dot-points and numbering

Use highlighting, shading and borders

Use tables

Insert images, charts and diagrams

Print files

Manage files (naming, shifting, copying, attaching to emails, backing up).

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7.2

Designing word-processing tasks

Whatever kind of text types your students are learning to write, have them produce a copy on the computer. If you are practising writing recounts, make a first draft on the computer, print it, revise it on paper, correct it on the computer and print it again. Drafting and editing are important steps in the writing process, and they are made so much easier through use of a word-processor. Making corrections becomes less of an onerous, pointless activity demanded by the teacher, and more of a process of polishing and improving for publication, which is far more motivating. Report writing will give good practice in the use of headings, dot-points and font styles. Give a scrambled text and ask students to cut and paste to unscramble. Writing instructions for making something will give good practice in numbering and line spacing. Provide the pictures of a process and ask students to write one instruction for each picture. Writing a résumé is a good opportunity to practice using tabs, or a table, to format text with side headings. Creating a brochure is good practice in using columns, a variety of fonts, images and shapes. Again, the only limit is your imagination.

7.3

Giving assistance

The initial stages of developing computer or digital literacy often seem chaotic, with teacher and tutors running between students, helping them along and keeping them on track. In the midst of calls for help, knowing how limited your time in the computer lab is, it is easy to take over rather than to give clear instructions and wait for the student to do it themselves. Resist the impulse to take over, as there is far greater satisfaction and sense of success for students if they are able to follow your instructions and do it for themselves.

8. Select or design activities using technology 8.1

Microsoft® Office PowerPoint

Microsoft® Office PowerPoint remains a brilliant resource for customising input for beginners. The following interactive slide shows a section of a PowerPoint created to assist beginners with low level literacy skills to develop the links between letters and sounds, in a phonics approach to learning to read.

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Fig. 9.4 Grammar PowerPoint The large slide pictured here shows that the letter ‘o’ has 4 different sounds. Each ‘o’ on the slide is hyperlinked to one of the following four slides, which each feature one of the sounds. When the learner clicks on an ‘o’, for example the fourth ‘o’, the page skips to slide 34, where we hear three words in which the letter ‘o’ sounds [ ] (sponge, love, mother). Each word is relevant to adult learners and the meaning can be represented with a picture. The learner can click on the icon that looks like a loudspeaker to listen again to the sound on its own or each of the words. Clicking on the reverse arrow at the foot of the slide takes the user back to the main slide, which shows all of the letters of the alphabet. PowerPoint can be used to set up matching and copying exercises, and it can all be personalised to your students’ needs, to vocabulary or structures you are working on, to activities you have done as a class, and using video clips you have created for your students. The benefits to be gained from PowerPoint are not only for beginners. Have learners of any level prepare a PowerPoint presentation about something they have learnt, or about a class excursion. Why? Because it is fun, creative, easy and motivates students to write in English. Creating a PowerPoint also adds a visual element to students’ oral presentations. Schcolnik and Kol (1999) describe the benefits of integrating use of PowerPoint into oral presentations. Developing the presentation and creating slides demands that the student organise and summarise their information into a clear and logical framework. Creating a slide presentation to accompany an oral presentation, for example, develops the skills of creating an outline and clearly stating main points. Using the tool of PowerPoint is motivating in itself, as students take pride in creating something attractive and professional. Skills that are not dependent on language knowledge are displayed, bringing a sense of capability and

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accomplishment. In addition, students report gaining a new way of expressing themselves, being able to support their oral presentation with diagrams, pictures and even video footage. Listeners report being able to follow their classmates’ presentations much more easily when slides are displayed (Schcolnik & Kol, 1999). Delivery of the oral presentation is strongly supported by the use of the slides, which increases the presenter’s confidence for speaking in front of groups. As a modern equivalent of the traditional ‘palm card’, PowerPoint presentations discourage the transcription of every word, as content must be distilled into key phrases, and the speaker must move away from reading to “speaking about” the topic. Because PowerPoint is commonly used in workplace and tertiary settings, competent use of this tool is a valuable technical skill.

8.2

Microsoft® Photo Story

This is another simple program that is good fun to use with ESL classes. Photo Story allows you to compile a collection of photos, add captions, voice-over narration, and background music. Capitalise on excursions by taking digital photos, then have students create a narrated audio-visual about that excursion. Other hands-on activities and demonstrations, for example cooking, first aid, or changing a car tyre, can be captured in photos and used to develop presentations that describe the process or give instructions for someone else to follow. Ask your students to plan a story, take the photos, and build the Photo Story with narration and music.

8.3

Email

Activities suggested by Belisle (1996) for using email include: Dialoguing: o Students dialogue with the teacher: journal, questions, feedback. o The teacher communicates with students: announcements, assignments, homework. o Students dialogue with other students: social events and announcements. Real-time dialoguing or discussion, with responses and replies going back and forth and copies (cc) going to all members of the group. Interactive writing assignment: drafting, reviewing and revising via email. Students are graded not only on final product but also on their engagement with the process. One perfect paragraph: A text is sent back and forth between teacher and students until it is completely correct. Reconstruct a scrambled story: The teacher sends out a scrambled story or text and students must send it back fixed. Submit an assignment as an email attachment.

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9. Mobile phone apps M-Learning (mobile learning) through use of smart phones turn mobile phones into devices for learning wherever you are. Facebook and Twitter are two of the most common mobile phone apps that provide English language learning material. Many other apps are available; some are free, others cheap, and others quite expensive. Most reviews reflect that you generally get what you pay for, though there are some reasonable free and cheap apps to be found buried among the many that are not worth the time spend downloading. Here are a few examples, representing a range of prices, which have been positively reviewed for content, appeal and ease of use. 1. Learn English (http://ames.edu.au/apps) - This Adult Migrant English Service production has several free sample lessons; however, the cost of ongoing use is fairly high compared to other apps. Users are able to watch videos, complete with grammar and vocabulary practice. 2. Word challenge - Vocab game, many categories, race to answer questions in 60 seconds. Share your score on Facebook. 3. English Grammar in Use Tests - Based on CUP’s book of the same name. Includes practice, tests, scores and stats. 4. British English Gengo Flashcards - Has sound and is helpful for pronunciation. 5. Cambridge Advanced Learners Talking Dictionary - As complete as the paper/CD-ROM version. Worth the money. 6. IELTS Master Vocab Guide - Designed to supplement the book. 7. Conversation English - 20 lessons with short audio dialogue with animated video. Read transcript. Comprehension questions and other exercises. 8. Cambridge Clear Speech – Learn by listening with four fun games that improve your pre-intermediate English pronunciation. A new way for learners of English to practise speech, mixing audio and visuals across 400 challenging questions. 9. Duolingo - a language learning app that allows learners to progress in their language studies. It has regular revision quiz activities before moving on to other lessons.

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10. Interactive Whiteboard Using an interactive whiteboard involves three components: a computer, a projector, and the interactive whiteboard. Whatever runs on your computer will be visible on the board, but there is more to this technology than simple projection: You can interact with the image on the board without having to return to your computer. You can think of the pen that you use on the board as being like a mouse. Alternatively, you can think of the board as a huge touch screen with a special pen or stylus. You can ‘click’ to select or activate something displayed on the whiteboard just as you would ‘click’ on an icon or element of a screen on your computer. Work on the board can be saved to your computer for reuse, review or revision at a later date. You can work with images, write on the board, and use interactive software.

11. Creating a filing system As mentioned earlier, gathering all of these wonderful texts is a waste of time and space if you can’t get your hands on them easily when you want to use them. An efficient filing system is a must. No doubt you will have your own ideas about how to file materials, or your system will evolve as your needs become apparent, but the following can be a guide or a starting point.

11.1 Filing by grammar point In order to find materials on a particular grammar point, it’s helpful to have things filed accordingly. The categories I have found useful are:

adjectives

adverbs

articles

prepositions

conjunctions

questions

conditionals

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Within verbs I have a file for:

each verb tense

modal verbs

common verb tense combinations

verb + -ing/infinitive

11.2 Filing by topic It is also helpful to file materials according to topic, so that when you are developing a unit of work around a topic, gathering appropriate texts is simple. Topics of interest and use will become obvious with time as you get to know your students. Topics will vary considerably depending on the age of your learners.

11.3 Filing by learner level Filing items according to level is another helpful system. Within the level divisions categorise materials according to skills or tasks. For example:

Beginners

Elementary

Intermediate

Give personal details

Participate in casual conversation

Participate in a discussion

Tell a short recount

Understand spoken information texts

Understand a short oral presentation

Write a short note

Read procedural texts

Read a protocol document

Follow classroom instructions

Write a short report

Write an exposition

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11.4 Filing multiple copies You may find it helpful to file copies of some items in more than one place, for example according to topic, and according to level and skill, and according to grammar point. Then no matter which is your starting point for planning, you can simply open a file and select appropriate materials.

12. Strategies when teaching online It’s important to realise that online teaching is vastly different from the usual face to face teaching when it comes to providing instructions, feedback, and engaging students. Keep these 20 points in mind when preparing for your online teaching. 1.

Be personal and friendly, but don’t reveal all of your personal information.

2.

Keep to a first name basis as much as possible. Ask students what name they prefer to be called by, as some students have an English ‘nick name’ to make it easy to meet people.

3.

Ask students to name themselves using their preferred name on Zoom or the platform you are using.

4.

Modelling is extremely important – with introductions start with yourself. A good way to do this with a new class is to introduce yourself and three things you’re willing to share.

5.

Then ask each student to introduce themselves and provide 3 things.

6.

Explain the focus of the lesson or series of lessons. Keep it as simple as possible.

7.

Use pictures/visual aids as much as possible to enhance learning. Connect pictures with vocab or instructions. (see Fig. 9.5 below)

Fig. 9.5 Example online activity

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8. It is better to use more slides with less content than to cram a lot of information into one or two slides. Remember some of your students may be joining from a phone. 9. When providing reading texts on a slide, spread the text over one or more slides to make the font big enough for all to read. You can number the lines if it helps for lower level students and for comprehension exercises. This is also helpful when highlighting answers, vocabulary or grammar structures you are teaching. 10. Use highlight, bold or colour coding to emphasise the vocabulary or grammar structure you are teaching. (see Fig. 9.6 below)

Fig. 9.6 Example online activity 11. Write down the answers the students give. You can do this using

annotation tools or directly onto the power-point page. Make sure you highlight the grammar structure they use, even if it is wrong. This makes a good lead in to your teaching area. 12. Teach your language skill or structure giving examples and modelling. 13. Ask students to provide answers in a joint class activity. Here it is a good idea to ask students individually and make sure you ask eve ryone, for inclusion. 14. Write down students’ responses in the power-point or shared document, highlight or colour code the most important aspects. 15. If someone gives a wrong response, ask the student to self-correct or ask another student to provide an answer in a peer correction method. 16. Give instructions to complete an accuracy activity using different words or vocabulary but keeping to the same structure/grammar point you have been teaching.

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17. Whether you are asking for a spoken response or a written one, make sure your fluency activity is clear. You can use breakout rooms (in Zoom ) or similar for pair or group work. Once you bring the class back together, direct questions and ask for responses from individual students by name. Write these down on the slides/screen if possible. Ask the students to identify the grammar structure or vocabulary used, to check their comprehension. 18. Remember that during pair or group work in breakout rooms, you can move yourself from room to room to monitor student progress. 19. Be encouraging to all students as you finish off the lesson. Conduct a brief overview of what you’ve covered. Ask students what they learned. 20. Ask for student feedback on the lesson as a whole.

Summary Technology in English language learning is simultaneously a means and an end. On the one hand, it is a very flexible and creative tool or means for facilitating language learning activities. On the other hand, the ability to use technology involves skills which open up people’s options for employment and study. Learning to use a computer is an end in itself. By integrating the use of the internet into language learning, we can involve students in real-life language use without having to leave the classroom. With careful consideration of the background of the learner, and careful planning with regard to the rate of introduction of new technologies, learners at all levels of English language proficiency can benefit from the integration of technology into their learning program.

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CHAPTER 10: English teaching approaches and methods

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Introduction The use of the terms ‘approach’ and ‘method’ in literature regarding TESOL methodology can be confusing as some authors use them interchangeably while others apply them with more discrete definitions. Here they are used to refer to different levels or scopes of description of language learning. An approach refers to a broad perspective on language teaching and learning, the theoretical approach in which basic beliefs about the nature of language and of language learning are considered. A method refers to a defined process or plan for teaching and learning, including techniques and activities. A method will describe what teaching and learning activities are associated with an approach. Having made the above distinction, I would add that it seems that the term “methodology” is sometimes being used in academic circles to encompass approach and method, and to identify concepts at different levels: theoretical framework and practical application. For example, we can talk about the communicative approach which views language as being the tool by which a goal involving communication is achieved, and that language acquisition and learning occurs in the context of carrying out communicative tasks. This is the broad picture about the nature of language and of language learning, commonly associated with the communicative approach. We can also talk about communicative methods as including a number of named methods (e.g. task-based, experiential). We can also understand a teaching and learning program organised around communicative tasks and activities as being a communicative method. Some methods have been clearly identified and named, for example Total Physical Response (see below) is recognised as a method, but not as an approach. It is clearly associated with learner-centred approaches, but is also used within the framework of communicative language teaching and learning. Methods such as these are named methods in this text. While some courses focus on one particular method, it is more common to find a combination of methods being applied in a learning situation. Analysis of classroom activities will also identify techniques from a number of methods. Some techniques are common to a number of methods.

Implications for TESOL Theories regarding language learning have really only been articulated, discussed and researched in the last 150 years. What is apparent from the descriptions we have of a variety of approaches and methods is that approaches and methods have often emerged in response to success or lack of success of a particular

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method in relation to particular learning goals or desired outcomes. The influence of earlier approaches and methods can be seen in later models of language learning and teaching, with some characteristics or techniques remaining evident until now. A key to evaluating methodologies is to keep in mind the goals of the learner, both in terms of the learners from the stage in history during which the methods were developed, and in relation to learners in current times. Why are these people or groups of people learning English? Is their goal to be able to communicate with native speakers of English? Is the communication going to be spoken or written? What are the motivations for learning? Motivations and goals were and are diverse: understanding civilisation, intelligence gathering, covert operations, business, agendas of social change and immigration, to name a few. It is expected that particular methodologies will be more expedient than others at meeting specific learning goals and that some learning styles will be a better match for particular methods. Recognising that learners have different learning style preferences, it is helpful to also analyse the various approaches and methods in terms of what each has to offer. How might a particular approach or method accommodate a learning style or how might it disadvantage learners who are not strong in that learning style? Learners bring to the learning situation preconceived ideas about how teaching and learning should occur: what the teacher will do, what the students will do, what activities will be engaged in, what output will be expected for assessment purposes. Cultural views of education are important factors to consider when evaluating approaches and methods, in our quest for what will benefit the learners we work with.

1. Traditional approaches 1.1

Grammar-translation approach: 1800s

The grammar-translation approach to language learning dates back from the late 1800s to early 1900s. The perception of a well-rounded education at that time included the study of classical languages, e.g. Latin and Ancient Greek, and their classical texts. The purpose of studying these languages was not necessarily to be able to use them for communication; rather it was believed that someone who could read classical texts, in the texts’ original languages, would be well-socialised or civilised, having strength of character and a broad understanding of life. Perceived additional benefits were the development of logical thinking and an improvement in the standard of the learner’s first language use. The grammar-translation approach methodology focused almost exclusively on written work, with very little, if any, development of oral skills. Testing was conducted through translation exercises.

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Learning activities included: translating passages from L1 to L2, and from L2 to L1, involving translating word by word (with little attention to content or meaning in the process)

learning grammar rules (often long, elaborate explanations)

applying grammar rules in translation exercises

analysing the grammatical structures in passages

completing written exercises

drilling verb conjugations

parsing (identifying parts of speech of words in a sentence)

memorising lists of words, often unrelated to passages

comparing the grammar of L1 to L2

using texts graded for level of difficulty

While the grammar-translation approach is generally seen as outdated, there is evidence of its positive influence on current language learning methods.

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Aspects that are worth incorporating into language learning programs include:

a

b

Grammar and vocab need specific attention. In a skills-based program, accuracy can tend to be sacrificed for the sake of fluency development or communicative ability. Staged and graded introduction of concepts and language can assist acquisition as concepts or structures are built upon. Combined with a focus on real-life language needs and fluency practice, this is a helpful approach to language learning.

c

A focus on sentence construction is helpful as a foundation for producing language.

d

Use of L1 for grammatical explanations can be far more expedient at times than labouring on in the L2, where meaning is clouded by insufficient comprehension of the explanation.

e

Translation is a valid use of language. The skill of interpreting will always be in demand, for example in professional settings such as the medical field.

f

A focus on accuracy gives learners the security of knowing what is right and wrong, and the opportunity to develop good language habits.

1.2

Direct approach: 1900s

In the early 1900s, due to changes in the industrial climate, along with increased international trade and travel, there was a much greater need for people who were able to communicate in foreign languages. The grammar-translation approach was failing to produce this communicative competence, and so in a huge pendulum swing, teachers began to experiment with techniques more closely resembling first language learning strategies. These new methods proved popular in Europe where travel was convenient to places where the foreign languages were used, opening the opportunity to practise communicating.

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All instruction should be in the L2. L1 is never used in the classroom.

Speaking must be welldeveloped before introducing reading or writing.

Reading is introduced before writing.

Grammar-translation methods or techniques should be avoided as they draw on L1 skills.

Grammar should be acquired inductively through observation and analysis of L1 input, not by learning rules.

The direct approach is based on the belief that second language acquisition should follow the same process as L1 acquisition. Therefore the direct approach emphasises:

Meaning: Language is for communication, for conveying meaning.

Oral skills: Valued and promoted. This stands in stark contrast to previous views in which language learning was regarded as an intellectual exercise of translating written texts, having little, if anything, to do with spoken communication.

Correct pronunciation: Valued because the aim is communication. Exclusive use of L2 from the earliest stages of learning: Children don’t use another language in learning to speak, and the direct approach promotes that adults are better off without the interference that L1 can cause. Interference: Negative transfer from L1. That is, something (e.g. a grammatical structure or a similar word) from L1 which ‘doesn’t work’ in L2.

Dialogues: Listening to, repeating and memorising.

Pictures and realia: Used to establish meaning/context.

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Influences of the direct approach can be seen in modern teaching. The direct approach is clearly the forerunner of the audiolingual method which also relies heavily on repetition and memorisation of dialogues. It was endorsed by Krashen, who promoted comprehensible input13 and positive affect14 as important factors in second language acquisition. It shares many common principles with TPR15 (L2 used exclusively, listening before speaking, and before reading and writing). Many communicative speaking tasks share the same underlying principles as the direct method: complete the task using only L2 and focus on fluency rather than accuracy, with communication being the most important aim. The popularity of the direct approach waned due to the difficulty in supplying teachers who were native speakers or had native-like proficiency, a necessary qualification.

1.3

Reading approach: 1900s

The depression in the 1930s meant that overseas travel was not as common and the need for speaking skills in foreign languages once again declined. There remained, however, a need for well-developed reading skills in some areas, for example in academic and scientific studies. The frustration caused by the short supply of teachers who could facilitate learning through the direct method, precipitated a pendulum swing back to methods focusing on reading and writing. The aims of the reading approach are:

To develop reading ability;

To develop current and/or historical knowledge of the country of the target language.

Krashen’s Input Hypothesis: Optimal learning conditions are achieved when learners receive input in L2 that is within the range of their ability to comprehend but stretches them towards the next level. 14 Affect: Psychological term referring to attitudes and emotions. 15 TPR (Total Physical Response): Method involving responding (usually non-verbally) to commands by completing the action required (see 5.4 in this unit). 13

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Features of the reading approach include:

Exclusive emphasis on reading comprehension: using a whole text approach, using the context to guess the meaning of new vocabulary. Lots of reading is done, in and out of class. Vocabulary: Seen as more important than grammar, vocabulary is increased quickly, though sequenced according to difficulty.

Graded input: Readers were developed and graded according to difficulty. Vocabulary is graded according to difficulty.

Grammar: Only that useful for reading comprehension is taught.

Translation: Appreciated as a helpful exercise.

Teacher: Doesn’t need good oral proficiency.

2. Behaviourist Approaches Behaviourism became popular in the 1950-60s and its influence was felt in language teaching methods. The two best-known theories of behaviourism are:

1. Classical conditioning, investigated by Pavlov (and his dog!), pairing two stimuli to produce the desired response.

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2. Operant conditioning, in which specific behaviours are either reinforced through reward or avoidance of punishment, or are suppressed through withdrawal of rewards or use of punishment.

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Applied to language learning and teaching, we see the emergence of methods that focus on the development of correct language habits. A particular stimulus (phrase, question, command) will automatically elicit a particular response in its correct form.

2.1

Structural grammar

A structuralist grammar describes the relationships that underlie all instances of speech in a particular language (Eastman, 2007). The development of a structuralist approach to grammar came about as a result of disenchantment with traditional grammar, which was essentially a description of Latin grammar applied to English. Difficulty arises in using the grammar of one language (e.g. Latin) to describe the grammar of another language (e.g. English) when the systems of those two languages do not match. Inconsistencies between the two result in convoluted explanations. In contrast, a grammar discrete to a particular language (structural grammar) can adequately and accurately explain that one language. Structuralism observed the positions of words within a sentence and what type of relationship each carried with the other words in the sentence. Structural grammar truly focused on the function of words and sentences. Not only do structuralists concentrate on the function of words, but also on the characteristics of words (Glauner, 2000). Structural grammar can be classified as a descriptive grammar, in that it describes grammar in relation to samples of language use. Based on analyses of texts at sentence level, it can be anticipated what part of speech will be required to complete a gap. If leave now, we’ll catch we later, walk quickly, miss too slowly verb adverb verb Fig. 10.1

the bus. the train. the show. the beginning. noun group

Sentence structure in structural grammar

The analysis of the sentence in Figure 10.1 gives a clear structure into which alternative vocabulary can be substituted to create grammatically correct sentences. We can see what kind of verbs need to go in each slot. We can see where an adverb can be placed. We can alter the topic of the sentence, change the vocabulary used, maintain consistency with the parts of speech illustrated, and produce a grammatically correct sentence. Within the behaviourist approach, structural grammar provides correct models of language, which, memorised and analysed, drilled and rehearsed in stimulusresponse drills to develop automaticity, become the backbone of the learner’s developing framework of the new language.

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Programs begin with simple structures and build up to more complex structures. Errors are addressed immediately so that incorrect use or bad habits do not become ingrained, and so that correct language use or good habits are instilled. Structural grammar is at the heart of the situational and audiolingual methods of language teaching and learning. Structural grammar and language is evident in many textbooks and classroom practices today. It has value in providing grammatical frameworks which can be used and adapted by the learner in new situations.

2.2

Situational approach

In this approach new vocabulary and structures are introduced within the context of a situation: at the supermarket, at the doctor, at the office. It developed as a reaction to the reading approach, which neglected to develop speaking and listening skills. It capitalised on the functional goals of the learner, e.g. to use English to go to the doctor. This approach was dominant in Britain in the 1940-60s.

2.2.1 Aims 1. Accuracy in pronunciation and grammar.

2. Automaticity: quick and accurate response in spoken interactions.

3. Language appropriate for a variety of situations.

4. Transfer of particular structures between a variety of meaningful and relevant situational contexts. For example, request structures can be used in many situations including at a shop, at home, at school, or with tradespeople.

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2.2.2 Features of the situational approach

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

• Structure is the starting point in planning. • New vocabulary and grammar are presented within a situational context, often using concrete items to build context. • Strong emphasis on spoken language. • Learning is achieved through drilling, mimicry and repetition until correct habits are formed.

• The target language is used in the classroom. • Language structures are presented in order of difficulty or complexity, beginning with easier structures. • Practice of structures moves from controlled to free practice. • Reading and writing are delayed until a sufficient lexical and grammatical base is established.

These days, many course books show evidence of the situational approach, with units of work centring around visits to the doctor, workplaces, retail outlets, public transport, and so on.

2.3

Audiolingual method

The audiolingual method is based on the premise that language consists of a collection of patterns or structures, and language learning is a process of habit formation or learning to use those patterns correctly. Material is practised and practised with intense focus on accurate reproduction in terms of structure and pronunciation, until the correct production becomes automatic. Eventually, in response to a certain stimulus, the learner will automatically produce a correct and appropriate reply. The underlying belief is that practice makes perfect. Audiolingualism involves intensive guided conversation and drills with a native speaker. Mimicry and repetition are foundational learning strategies, along with

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memorisation of vocabulary. Learners memorise prescribed dialogues, with a native speaker helping them to refine pronunciation and intonation. Substitution drills train learners to use structures in different situations. Learners then engage in roleplay with a native speaker, drawing on language resources gained through the previous memorisation of dialogues.

2.3.1 Features of the audiolingual method

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• New material is presented in the form of a dialogue.

• Mimicry and memorisation of set phrases are the main learning activities.

• Structural patterns are taught using repetitive drills.

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• Little or no grammatical explanation is provided; grammar is taught inductively and introduced in order of difficulty.

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•Vocabulary development is limited until all common structures have been learnt

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•Skills are sequenced: listening, speaking, reading and writing are developed in order.

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• Great importance is given to precise native-like pronunciation, stress, rhythm and intonation. Activities are tightly controlled.

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• Successful responses are reinforced; great care is taken to prevent learner errors. Correction is immediate and consistent.

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2.3.2 Process

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• Dialogue is used to introduce new material (vocabulary and structures). The context of the dialogue makes meaning clear. • Examples are used to model the target pattern.

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• Drills (mimicry, repetition, substitution, stimulus-response) are used to develop automaticity in producing the new pattern.

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• Transposition of patterns into the negative and questions forms is used for grammatical development.

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• Application of the new pattern in a guided conversation is used to consolidate knowledge and transfer the new skills to a new context.

3. Cognitive Approaches Behaviourist theory was based on the belief that children learn languages through imitating their parents and others. Chomsky challenged this idea, proposing as an alternative view that children listen to language input and develop hypotheses which they then test out. For example, a child who says, “I goed to my friend’s house,” has overgeneralised his hypothesis that to talk about the past he needs to add ‘ed’ to the verb. This overgeneralisation gives us insight into the process happening in the child’s language development. From raw language input (what he hears), he is forming an internal and unarticulated framework of rules, which he then applies in his language production. Observation of the increasing complexity of children’s speech as they develop cognitively gives additional evidence of the development of language schemata including knowledge about sentence structure, grammar, spelling, punctuation, vocabulary and cohesive devices. In addition, children are testing out different ways that knowledge can be used or applied.

3.1

Language Acquisition Device

Chomsky suggested that a section or a function of the brain could be labelled the Language Acquisition Device (LAD). This LAD takes care of building up the internal framework (schemata) for understanding language input and for creating meaningful language. This involves a subconscious process of seeking

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consistencies and inconsistencies, comparing and contrasting, and formulating hypotheses. Language learning is approached with a view to developing this cognitive map or framework of rules which govern the creation of meaningful language. It is an analytical approach of rule acquisition, in contrast to the behaviourist approach, which relies on habit formation. Along with the concept of the LAD, there is the notion that all languages have a common structural basis: a universal grammar. It is postulated that this universal grammar is innate to every human being and languages are learnt and processed according to this grammar. Research findings exist which both support and refute the concept.

3.2

Critical Period Hypothesis

Much discussion has been generated on the question of whether there is an ideal period in a person’s life for language learning to occur. Some say that unless a language is learned in the first few years of life, native-like proficiency will never be achieved. Others cite evidence that some adult learners do achieve accuracy in a second language, but usually still retain traces of a first language accent or pronunciation. While it is recognised that processes and rate of language learning change with age, strengths can be seen in learners in both the early and later years. Children are certainly more adept in the area of pronunciation, however adults are often able to master new structures and vocabulary at a greater rate, as they have existing schemata into which they assimilate and accommodate new language information. On the other hand, older learners display weaker short-term memory faculty, and expend greater effort in memorising new language material.

3.3

Individual differences

Other differences between individual learners have come into focus through the study of cognition in relation to language learning.

3.3.1 Background Learners come from an infinite variety of backgrounds, with differences evident in relation to: Cultural background: This affects general knowledge and worldview. The way a person sees the world, their conceptualisation of how society works, and their understanding of the nature and functioning of relationships, are examples of factors which will affect their language learning process. Cultural background can also affect the freedom of the individual to engage in learning activities, for example in mixed gender classes. Where a history of conflict between ethnic groups or prejudice exists, interaction in learning situations can be hindered.

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Language background: Learning is affected by how closely the L1 is related linguistically to the L2. The closer the systems of grammar and similarity in vocabulary between the two languages, the easier it is to accommodate and assimilate new language information. In addition, the greater the level of literacy acquired in L1, the easier the development of literacy skills in L2.

Educational background: Generally, the more highly educated the learner, the easier the transition to a second language.

3.3.2 Personality and affective factors The individual’s personality and other affective factors can influence the learning process. The affective factor refers to attitude and emotions in relation to language learning Motivation Motivation is a key to success. The more motivated, the more effort is made, the more resources are expended in the pursuit of the learning goal. Motivation can be intrinsic, a desire from within to integrate into the community or simply a love for language learning. Motivation can also be extrinsic, coming from an external need, such as employment, study or immigration requirements. Peer pressure combined with the need for belonging can be an external source of motivation towards language learning. Acculturation Krashen developed a theory that the more motivated a learner is to associate with speakers of the target language, the greater the progress. Success in language learning is enhanced by a positive attitude towards the target language, the speakers of the target language, and the culture associated with speakers of the target language. Culture shock or culture stress can inhibit motivation and progress in language learning. Self-esteem The language learning experience can challenge the core of an adult’s self-esteem, when beginning efforts to speak sound like those of a two or three-year old. For some personality types, it can take a great amount of determination to overcome the embarrassment experienced during initial attempts to communicate. Fear of ridicule, criticism or rejection is a powerful factor that can paralyse an individual into

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inaction or silence, or conversely can push them to study and practise diligently and so reduce awkwardness. Identity First language is an intrinsic part of an individual’s identity. This is very clear with older migrants to countries such as Australia who come from an English-speaking background, but absolutely refuse or are incapable of adjusting their accent or speech patterns to achieve easier communication. Their way of speaking is so closely tied to who they are and their heritage that adoption of another way of speaking seems a betrayal not just of where they have come from, but of who they are. Tolerance and Ambiguity In the beginning stages of language learning, the learner is doing well to understand a word here and there. With diligent study and practice this can quickly increase to very familiar phrases. As the store of vocabulary increases and sensitivity to contextual clues develops, the learner can begin to guess the ‘gist’ of what is heard. Through all of these stages, frustration can run high with the sense of being ‘outside’ or ‘in the dark’. There is a need to become comfortable with not always understanding, yet maintain determination to increase comprehension.

3.3.3 Cognition Stage of cognitive development affects the process of language learning. Children have a far greater capacity to learn intuitively, through subconscious processing of the raw language data that surrounds them in the form of people talking to them or near them, and hearing radio and television. This facility is reported to diminish around the time of puberty and adolescence, and more explicit teaching of grammar becomes necessary. At this stage of life, there is also a higher expectation regarding the pace of learning. Functional use of a new language needs to be achieved within months rather than years. Adults have the advantage of an existing schema of a language (L1) into which they can assimilate information about the new language. This can mean that language production commences early, within days or weeks, compared to children learning their first language who have a silent period of 18 to 24 months before speaking. Adults are also more aware of the enormity of the task before them and can be overcome by discouragement. Adults usually have developed learning strategies and a particular style that they prefer. These strategies and activities can be applied to the learning task from the beginning.

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3.3.4 Neurological factors A question long debated in second language acquisition is whether or not there is an ideal age at which to learn a second language. This is commonly referred to as the ‘Critical Period Hypothesis’ and states that the ability to acquire language is related to ageing and there is an ideal period of time to attain a language, after which it is no longer possible. Researchers on both sides of the argument cite evidence to support their (opposing) positions. A thorough review of literature from both sides is provided by Pelin Gul (2009) in her paper, Critical Period Hypothesis for Second Language Acquisition: A Review of the Literature, available from http://www.academia.edu. Her summation: “It is hypothesised that native-like attainment of second language acquisition is influenced by social, educational and motivational factors such as age of immigration and amount of second language education.” When considering neurological factors involved in language learning, we are looking at a highly specialised area of understanding of brain and nervous system function, and it is well beyond the scope of this text to attempt a detailed explanation of neurological functioning in relation to language development. However, dabbling into the research abstracts available online tempts one with a range of statements that may be inspire deeper investigation. Aphasia is difficulty on producing or comprehending language. It may range in severity from the ability to remember words to being unable to speak, read or write. It is usually a result of brain damage – perhaps after a stroke or other acquired brain injury or damage from infection. Speech-language pathology can provide therapy and most acute aphasia patients can recover some or most skills. A study by Flege, Frieda and Nozawa (1997) challenges the view that development of pronunciation is solely influenced by the learner’s stage of neurological development. Most people would agree that children have greater potential than adults, to develop native-like pronunciation. This research gives evidence that the amount of L1 use in daily life may also influence L2 production accuracy. Trauner, Wulfeck, Tallal and Hesselink (2000) propose evidence that widespread nervous system dysfunction is related to language impairment. The lowest language scores were found in children with the most abnormal neurological findings. Stowe, Havekort and Zwarts (2005) report that functional neuroimaging has produced new evidence about the areas of the brain which are necessary and sufficient for language processing. The implications for TESOL, of recognising differences between individual learners, is simply that in teaching we must be aware of the multitude of factors affecting the learning process, and do what we can to accommodate learners according to their backgrounds and needs.

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4. Learner-centred approaches In a learner-centred approach, the characteristics and needs of the learners as individuals become central to curriculum development. If the language being learned is fulfilling learners’ needs, they will be more motivated towards the effort involved in learning, because what they are learning is empowering them to have greater control of their lives. The impact of the emotional response to the learning situation should not be underestimated. People learn more easily if they are relaxed rather than fearful and anxious. In the learner-centred classroom, an atmosphere of trust and dignity is the ideal towards which teachers strive and which they encourage their students to help establish and maintain. Each of the following methods has benefits and will be applicable to particular learning needs or learner characteristics.

4.1

Community language learning

This method is based on the fundamental human need to be understood and to be involved relationally (in community) with others while attempting to fulfil one’s personal values and goals. Developed by Charles A. Curran, the method reflects counselling techniques adapted to the personal and language problems a learner is experiencing. The ‘language-counsellor’ (teacher), who is a native English speaker, must establish a relational environment and atmosphere of trust, empathy, acceptance and confidence in the learner. The students must be very supportive of each other, tolerant of mistakes and have a high level of trust for each other.

Process: Learners nominate topics they want to talk about. They sit in a circle and initiate conversation. The teacher moves around the outside of the circle, only assisting when requested. The teacher is seen as a resource person, and students take full responsibility for their language learning. The learner is supported in every step of gaining independence in speaking. In the initial stages of learning, the learner is fully dependent on the teacher. A learner expresses to the teacher in L1 what they want to say to the group. The teacher reflects the content back to the learner in L2. The learner then turns to the group and says in L2 what the teacher has modelled. This dependence is reduced as the learner gains confidence to contribute to the discussion without the teacher’s prior modelling. 308

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Other learning activities: These interactive sessions can be recorded to form the basis for more formal lessons addressing particular needs as they are identified.

Group work: discussion, preparation of a conversation, summarising a presentation or story to relate to the class.

Record conversations.

Transcribe recordings.

Reflect on group interactions and learning processes.

Listen to monologues from teacher or other learners.

Free conversation.

4.2

Suggestopedia – forerunner of Accelerated Learning

This method was originally developed by George Lozanov in Bulgaria. Today, his work has developed into a widely accepted approach called ‘Accelerated Learning’. It is based on the premise that by assisting learners to reach a mentally relaxed state, enormous amounts of vocabulary can be absorbed in a relatively short period of time. Proponents offer suggestopedia or Accelerated Learning as a system for liberating the mind from negative attitudes and emotions towards language learning, thereby increasing confidence, receptiveness and assimilation of input. Suggestopedia has more recently been renamed ‘de-suggestopedia’ reflecting the aim of removing learners’ negative self-conceptions. Central to the approach are the attitudes and messages that the teacher displays (“suggests”), recognising that if a teacher is despairing of students’ success, the students are more likely to fail, but if the teacher communicates in every way that learning is a positive experience, the student is capable of success, and victory is within reach, then students’ learning is far more effective. Part of the teacher’s role is to help students to move beyond their own perceptions or beliefs about their limitations in learning. This role requires the teacher to have well-developed emotional intelligence, social competence and observation skills.

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Elements of Accelerated Learning: Knowledge about the human brain: using all we currently know about effective teaching and learning. Emotional state: recognising the influence of emotion or affect on our learning. The learning environment: all aspects of the physical environment encourage fun, engagement and experimentation in a discovery mode of learning. The role of music and the arts: music can aid memory function, and arts enhance learning at both conscious and subconscious levels. Personal motivation: helping learners to tap into personal goals and vision. Multiple intelligences and learning styles: using a variety of learning types and activating a range of intelligences. Imagination/metaphors: enriching learning activities with games, colour, physical movement, visualisation to bring stronger meaning to any subject. Suggestion and de-suggestion: learning new, positive, productive ways of seeing self and subject, and unlearning old, negative, unproductive ways of viewing self and subject. Team learning and cooperation: we learn with each other and from each other as we collaborate and cooperate in team work. Improvement and results: learning is relevant, and progress is measurable.

Features of suggestopedia: The teacher must show absolute confidence in the method.

The teacher is respected as an expert in the L2.

Physical environment, music and texts are all vital in the learning process.

The text might include high frequency phrases targeted for learning, as well as messages that learning is easy and fun.

Syllabus consists of texts of about 1200 words with a vocab and grammar list.

Courses usually comprise 4 hours a day, 6 days a week, for 30 days of classes, covering 10 units of study (12 hours/unit).

Sessions have an expected routine or ritual.

Wall decorations are used to create a relaxed atmosphere, and include elements of language that will be learned.

Puppets, costumes and artifacts are used in dramatic presentations to engage the imagination.

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Key Elements for developing an accelerated learning approach include: Develop a ‘learner-centred’ approach Develop activities that involve the learner and the learning approach Create presentations that are multisensory and multidimensional Develop presentations to reach a variety of different learning styles Change the pace and teaching style every 20 minutes Create activities that promote collaboration amongst learners Incorporate mental imagery and visual effects

4.3

The Silent Way

The designer of the silent way, Caleb Gattegno, saw language as groups of sounds, associated with specific meanings, organised into sentences by grammar rules. In the 1950s he developed a system of using symbols, for example coloured rods (Cuisenaire rods), pictures or situations to represent different linguistic components. Other classroom resources include wall charts of vocabulary and phonics. Gattegno’s conceptualisation of learning is that it is achieved by the learner, not by the teacher. The teacher’s role in learning is to aid the learner in a process of problem-solving and discovery, so that the learner is completely engaged in the task of understanding how something works, in this case language. The teacher helps the learner to become aware of something that needs to be learned.

Learning is aided by the use of physical objects and kinaesthetic activities.

Three

Learning by discovery is more effective than learning through repetition.

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Three principles of the silent way are: Problem-solving is central to learning.

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Sample process:  Introduce comparisons: “The red rod is smaller than the blue rod.” Introduce word ‘rod’: hold up one rod at a time and say, “Rod.” Introduce colours: Hold up a red rod and say, “A red rod.” Introduce numbers: Hold up two blue rods and say, “Two blue rods.” Introduce comparisons: “The red rod is smaller than the blue rod.” Introduce prepositions of place: “The red rod is beside the blue rod.” Introduce prepositions of direction: “I’m putting the red rod into the box.” The rods can also be used to represent different items, for example people and objects, which are then used as prompts for learners to explore variations of a model sentence incorporating the ‘person’ or object indicated by the rod which the teacher has pointed to or held up. These lessons are structured very tightly so that the teacher can lead the students in such a way that the teacher speaks as little as possible and the learners speak as much as possible.

4.4

Total Physical Response (TPR)

TPR, developed by James Asher, involves learners engaging in some physical action in response to the teacher’s directions. “Stand up. Open your book. Close your book. Open the door. Close the door. Open the window. Close the window.” It is suggested that the game-like atmosphere of the activities reduces stress and encourages a positive attitude in the learner. TPR capitalises on the trace theory of memory: the more often or intensively a memory connection is traced, the stronger the memory will be. By associating new language material with a number of senses, the retention is increased. TPR is a very useful technique for use with beginners to introduce new vocabulary, systematically building on what has gone before. It is great for building confidence, as learners experience instant success.

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TPR would seem to have limitations, as not all language functions (anything beyond instructions) involve a physical demonstration, however teachers who have become skilled in using TPR claim that it can be used at all levels to help students internalise new vocab and grammar.

Understanding is demonstrated through action.

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New vocabulary is developed through the use of commands.

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Understanding is developed before speaking.

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Basic characteristics of TPR: Students speak when they are ready.

Procedure: 1 2 3 4 5 6

Teacher says the command as she does the action. Teacher says the command as teacher and learners do the action together. Teacher says the command and learners do the action. Teacher tells one learner at a time to do the action. Learners command the teacher, who does the action. Learners command each other.

It is reported that this procedure can be used to teach up to 36 items of vocabulary in one session. Be aware though, that the process is quite intense and learners can become exhausted quite quickly. The secret is to switch back and forth to other techniques. TPR should be used as one of a number of techniques or methods. After engaging the right side of the brain through physical movement, it is recommended to move into activities engaging the left side of the brain such as dialogues, stories and patterned drills. Input to both sides of the brain is considered best for optimal assimilation.

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Benefits of TPR, reported by Asher (cited by Segal Cook, 2003): Instant understanding of the target language, regardless of academic aptitude.

High-speed, longterm retention.

Stress-free and fun.

5. Communicative approaches The most recent influential approach to language learning is the communicative approach, and a greater focus is given in this text to its various forms. Central concerns of this approach include:

Process

The process of language learning occurs through meaningful communication, so that within the classroom, learners will be engaged in activities that require them to use English to complete specific meaningful tasks.

Content

The content of language learning must be useful, relevant and appropriate for communication in the real world. From a sociolinguistic orientation, language is seen as being as varied as the contexts within which it is used. Language use changes with the cultural context in which it is being used, and in accordance with the social purpose it is being used to achieve. What is appropriate and effective for achieving a specific goal in one situation will not be appropriate or effective in another situation or for achieving another goal.

A syllabus can be based upon topical themes, situations or semantic (meaning) criteria. The communicative approach is concerned with doing things with language rather than learning about language. Its primary aim is to develop fluency. It is oriented towards tasks that reflect real-life language needs and situations, and is based on the fact that real-life communication is not completely predictable but usually involves some negotiation of meaning, involving checking and clarifying. Communicative language teaching and learning reflects the problem-solving nature of communication: every communication event involves attempts to exchange information, using a variety of strategies to overcome difficulties and ensure comprehension.

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The main role of the teacher is to facilitate learning through communicative activities. As such, the teacher will set up an activity, observe learners as they complete the activity noting areas of success and struggle, assist learners to reflect on language use and language learning and address areas of learning made apparent in carrying out the activity. Language learning is seen as a process of trial and error, of experimenting with language use in real life or simulated attempts to meet communication needs. Reflecting on language use can aid the learner in recognising the underlying rules of language use and organisation (Richards, 2006). Concern and discussion centre on the perceived neglect, within communicative language teaching, of accuracy development. To guard against this outcome, the teacher must diligently analyse tasks to identify the language necessary for successful communication and completion of the task. This analysis will include an enquiry into what sentence structures are featured, what aspects of grammatical competence need to be developed and what areas of vocabulary must be addressed. Some of these needs can be identified through observing learners as they complete tasks, but proactive planning involving text and task analysis can anticipate these needs so that a teacher is well-prepared for the needs that become apparent during task completion.

5.1

Communicative activities

Communicative activities in an ESL class can be characterised as a task that can only be achieved by using English, creating the need for learners to communicate with someone else. Within the program it is common to find activities such as the following. This is only a small selection. The possibilities are only limited by your imagination. Information gaps Two or more learners are each given a different portion of the information necessary to achieve a given task. They must each share the information they have in order to complete the task. For example, they may each have the same timetable with different details blanked out. They would have to ask and answer each other’s questions in order to complete the timetable. Barrier games Two learners sit where they cannot see each other or any materials they are using. They must ask and answer questions, or give directions to their partner in order to complete some task. For example, Student A and Student B each have a diagram of a room, and cut out pictures of pieces of furniture. Student A arranges the furniture in her room, and describes it to Student B, who must arrange his identical pieces of furniture to match Student A’s arrangement.

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Discussion groups Groups can be assigned a topic for discussion, and be required to develop a product as a result of their discussion. For example, they must rank a number of items according to importance, or write a travel itinerary for a trip, or create an advertisement for a new product. Interviews & Debates Learners can write their questions before interviewing another student, their teacher or another teacher, or a guest speaker. Surveys Learners survey all of the members of a class and prepare a report of results, or recommendations for action based on the results. Roleplays Two or more learners are each given a short description of a situation and their role in it. They act out the situation, impromptu. Interest can be added by including a complication in the situation. Find the differences Learners are given two pictures, or two written texts, that are almost identical, and must ask and answer questions to find the differences.

5.2

Natural Approach

One approach which is clearly identified as communicative is the natural approach developed by Tracey Terrell and Stephen Krashen and described in their book, The natural approach (1983). Foundational to the approach is the distinction between language acquisition and language learning. Within this approach, acquisition is defined as the natural, unconscious process of becoming a user of a language, in the same way as children would learn their first language: using language for meaningful communication. Language learning, in contrast, is the overt formal process of studying and practising language use. Terrell and Krashen argue that only acquisition leads to competence. Their approach is recognised for the articulation of several hypotheses which have become influential in the field of second language acquisition. The monitor hypothesis states that learning functions as a monitor or editor of language production. That is, as a learner produces language that has been acquired, and the learning function checks and revises that language produced.

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Communicative approaches give an increased recognition of the role of the learner in analysing language and developing ‘rules’. The natural order hypothesis maintains that grammatical structures are acquired in a predictable sequence, and efforts to acquire those structures in a different order are counterproductive. While many current coursebooks follow a similar pattern of introducing grammatical concepts, communicative approaches in general have become more responsive to the need for grammatical instruction as provoked by the genre or social purpose. The input hypothesis, in relation to acquisition, states that the ability to understand a language develops when the learner receives input that is just slightly beyond their current level of comprehension. When the learner is supported by a sufficient level of comprehensible input, they have the capacity to acquire language enabling them to move to the next level, and so on. An important principle of the natural approach is that comprehension develops before language production. The affective filter hypothesis describes the correlation between emotional state and attitudes and the level of success in language acquisition. Positive attitude and emotion opens the way for learning or acquisition to occur, whereas negative affect blocks it. The natural approach uses a wide range of techniques and activities to provide comprehensible input in the classroom. As its focus is on using language for meaningful communication, it is firmly located within the communicative approach to language learning.

5.3

Functional-notional approach

The functional-notional approach sees language as being associated with a number of functions which can be related to notions. Within the framework of method we see that it uses situations to introduce appropriate functions and notions, focusing on communicative use of language. Due to the importance of this approach in current ESL learning, it is explained here in more detail. It is also relates to Chapter 11: Design and teach English syllabus. A function can be defined as the social purpose of a communication event, e.g. make a request, make an offer, make a complaint, express an opinion, recount an event. Notions are the words used to express meaning including nouns, pronouns,

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verbs, prepositions, conjunctions, adjectives or adverbs. This is best illustrated through some examples in Figure 10.2 below. Function

Notions

Describe a problem to a doctor

parts of the body adjectives describing symptoms

modal verbs quantities terms of courtesy sizes Buying goods question words colours prices qualities question forms: yes/no WhObtain information Tags Polite forms short answers Giving personal spelling aloud details saying numbers Giving a spoken modal verbs prepositional phrases (time, place) invitation Accepting and polite forms conjunctions (reason) refusing adverbs invitations Fig. 10.2

Functions and notions

The functional-notional approach recognises the impact of the cultural context and situation on the choices that are made as language is generated. These choices are influenced by the topic of communication, the identities of the parties communicating, when and where the communication is occurring, and whether the communication is spoken or written. Finocchiaro (1983) described five broad functional categories of language:

Personal: expressing emotion and attitude.

Interpersonal: establishing and maintaining relationships and degree of intimacy/distance.

Referential: talking or reporting about things, actions, events or people.

Imaginative: discussions involving elements of creativity and artistic expression.

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Directive: attempting to influence the actions of others, accepting or refusing direction.

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Limitations of the Functional-notional approach While there are many benefits of this approach for communicative fluency and competence, there are also limitations where the breakdown of language into functions and notions is not so straight forward. Academic learning for example cannot be simply broken down this way, but involves more complex understanding of English text structures and genres.

5.4

Task-based syllabuses

Long and Crookes (1992) describe a task-based syllabus as using tasks to present appropriate language samples to learners. This input is processed cognitively by the learners, who are then given opportunity for comprehension and production of language, bringing it into the range of communicative approaches. The task always focuses on something that is done, not something that is said, (e.g. enrolling a child in school). This task is then analysed for all of the communication involved in achieving this goal: reading information about the school, asking questions to get more information, making an appointment for an interview, introducing yourself to the registrar, answering questions about the child’s educational history, filling in forms, meeting the new teacher, etc. These communication events are then analysed to identify the areas of structure, grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation and culture that should be included in the teaching and learning program. The Functional-notional approach is closely related to the task-based syllabus in that implicit within a task, e.g. enrolling a child in school, there will be a number of functions indicated: greeting, stating purpose/making request, asking for information, giving information (S/W), closing the transaction, and leave-taking. Each of these notions will elicit a focus on a particular area of vocabulary. Assessment in a task-based program will be by way of task-based criterionreferenced tests, whose focus is whether or not learners can perform the task to a level specified by the criteria. The emphasis is on the processes and strategies involved in completing tasks successfully. These tasks are often expressed as learning outcomes, such as: Can participate in a conversation involving an explanation. Assessment of this outcome might be a choice of roleplays:

You are a student and need an extension on the due date for an assignment.

You are a shift worker and want to swap shifts with a coworker.

You need to explain to the mother of your child’s friend why your child can’t attend a birthday party because of cultural or religious reasons.

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Harmer (2001) describes task-based learning as the PPP method (presentation, practice, production) in reverse: beginning with production as the learners complete a task using all of their language resources, reflecting on the successes and difficulties experienced in the activity, and finally addressing learning needs that have been made evident through carrying out the task. As a problem-solving approach to communication and learning language, this strategy has a lot to offer. The debriefing or reflection stage of the learning process can be a powerful tool for developing learner autonomy as learners are trained to discern their gaps in knowledge and skills in relation to communication.

5.5

Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL)

Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) emerged in the early 1990s (Coyle, Hood & Marsh, 2010), not as a new form of language education, nor a new form of subject education, but as a new way of combining both language learning and content learning. CLIL falls within the communicative approach since language learning is applied within authentic contexts for real-life language use. The need for CLIL has risen dramatically with the effects of globalisation on education: students from any language background can engage in study in an English-medium content course. This creates the need for content-specific language development.

5.5.1 What is CLIL? CLIL is not just using a second language to learn content, but learning content and language simultaneously. This dual focus is the aspect of learning that is emphasised by CLIL. Ball (2013) suggests, “If you teach EMI (English as a medium of instruction), LAC (language across the curriculum), CBI (content-based instruction) or CBLT (content-based language teaching); if you work in Bilingual Education; if you’re a subject teacher working through the medium of a foreign language, or a language teacher bringing in content into your English lesson, you work within the area of Content and Language Integrated Learning.” Within this description, we see considerable overlap between CLIL, English for Academic Purposes (EAP) and English for Specific Purposes (ESP) in which learners focus on the language necessary to complete a particular line of study or to fulfil the duties of a particular vocation or profession. Immersion programs (e.g. as found in secondary schools in Australia) are a good example of CLIL, in which students learn content (maths, science, etc.) through a new language (e.g. French or Japanese). The content instruction necessarily includes language instruction as this communicative knowledge and skill is still developing. It is helpful to think of modes of delivery of CLIL as falling somewhere on a continuum between one end of the spectrum, a language program in which some content material is used, and the other end of the spectrum, which is completely subject-led and may or may not include specialist language teachers. A variety of

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delivery strategies will range between these, with varying levels of focus on language and content.

5.5.2 Characteristics of CLIL Learning content through the medium of a foreign language will involve: recognising the role that language plays in the learning process seeing language development as integral to content-area knowledge and skill development supporting the development of content-area knowledge and skills by conscientiously developing the relevant language embedding relevant language development within content-area tasks finding an effective approach to focusing on both meaning and form, where the balance may shift towards more towards one or the other at different times

Three-way focus on language (Coyle, Hood, and Marsh, 2010):

Language of learning: Developing language needed for accessing the basic concepts and skills of the theme or topic (e.g. vocab and genre).

Language for learning: Developing language needed to operate in the learning environment (e.g. participating in pair work, group projects, tutorials, discussions, questioning).

Language through learning: Based on the principle that effective learning involves language and thinking; learning is clarified, reinforced and deepened through articulation. As learners talk or write about what they are learning, language teaching and learning will respond to the emerging needs.

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5.5.3 Benefits of CLIL CLIL streamlines education. Institutions have often struggled to find funding or teachers for adjunct language programs related to content areas. CLIL streamlines content and language into one classroom and one holistic learning experience. When the class teacher is addressing language needs, there is no longer the need for auxiliary programs for developing language. This approach demands that content teachers address the language, literacy and numeracy demands that are implicit in the content. Learner motivation is high because there is immediate application of the language. For success in the future, through gaining and sustaining employment and continued skill development, language learning is an essential key.

5.5.4 Implications

CLIL Teachers need to develop skills and knowledge about the language of their subject. They also need to be able to create tasks which offer learners access to this language. Teachers have to adjust and expand their range of techniques in order to accommodate the language development aspect (e.g. offer opportunities for recycling of content via group work , tasks) (Kelly, 2013).

Learning activities need to involve higher-order thinking, with active learning techniques that involve processing of material – using input to produce something.

Implications

Coyne et al (2010) advocate for highly communicative processes and activities to be used for learning: learners articulating their learning, discussing with other learners and with teachers as learning progresses, asking and answering questions along the way.

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Materials need to be developed with language learners in mind. (This is actually good for all learners.) Adjustments could include addition of glossaries to texts, wider margins for note-taking and use of plain English writing standards.

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5.6

Experiential language learning

A learner undertakes a real-life meaningful enterprise involving communicating in English. Examples might be a course of study (e.g. automotive mechanics, hospitality or digital photography), employment or volunteer work (school canteen, library, assistant in a child’s class, visiting residents in an aged care facility). As the learner engages in the task, they reflect on communication events and the difficulties experienced. These difficulties then become the focus of language learning. The teacher is a consultant, co-reflector and resource person working with the learner who is being apprenticed, through a process of reducing support, into selfdirected language learning. This role sums up the life-long learning concept as applied to second language acquisition. Language learners can always continue to learn and develop their language skills. Real-life language use provides motivation and stimulus towards learning in specific areas.

5.7

Genre/text based learning

Genre is a category of text that is characterised by similarities of form, style or social purpose, and include types such as: narrative, description, discussion, explanation, exposition, information report, procedure recount, commentaries, interviews, news broadcasts, casual conversations and oral presentations. The genre approach to teaching English language has developed from the perspective of sociolinguistics in which ‘texts’ are created to achieve specific social purposes. The concept of genre and a process for teaching English language using the curriculum cycle described by Derewianka, is described in Chapter 2 Fig. 2.1 where a sample task-based syllabus is given. Within this task-based syllabus, you will see the use of model texts of a particular genre, joint creation of a similar text and individual construction of the same text type, perhaps in relation to a different topic. This use of model texts, in analysing language used and text structure and using that information to produce similar texts, is at the core of the genre approach to English language teaching. ‘Text’ refers to a stretch of language (can be written and/or spoken) that is held together through meaning and forms a unified whole. The words, “Do not cross”, are a text because the meaning of the words is contained as a unified whole. A novel would be considered a text. However, if a single paragraph was taken from a novel and understanding the meaning of that paragraph was dependent on ideas that appeared in the novel before or after the selected paragraph, then for the purposes of our definition for English language teaching, that piece of writing would not be classed as ‘a text’. Texts could include transcripts of telephone conversations, transcripts of doctorpatient discourse, instruction manuals, recipe books, school newsletters and

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current affairs reports. The genre/text type approach utilises many of these texts to teach language. For example, the text chosen for a lesson may be the transcript of a dialogue: “Making an appointment at the doctor.” Chapter 5 gives an example of a spoken text used as the basis for language learning: a transcript of a negotiation between a customer and salesperson in a hardware store is analysed for structural and language features (see Chapter 5, Fig. 5.3). Ideas for controlled practice are also described in Chapter 3 (see Chapter 3, section 8) and various prompting strategies given. Characteristically, the genre approach using a text-based syllabus is a structured, communicative language approach. The type of texts chosen for study, are the type of texts that students can use in social contexts in the real world. Language structure is analysed and its social purpose is examined. The texts are practised by the students, in controlled to free activities. The sample lesson plan given in Section 3 of Chapter 5, shows how the 4 macroskills can be involved in activities relating to either a spoken or written text. The macro-skills are always used together and developed together in language learning. The sample lesson also shows the progression from controlled practice, beginning with substitution drills, to free or uncontrolled practice, in the form of roleplays. Importantly, a wide variety of activities and techniques can be used in the delivery of a genre/text-based course, but the aim is always that the students will develop the skills and knowledge to be able to communicate effectively in the real world, using the language they have learnt in the classroom.

6. Postmethod Pedagogy Is there one perfect method? Many ESL teachers will say that they take an eclectic approach to methodology, selecting components of an approach or method that fit the needs of the students in the class or the learning goals which must be achieved. Kumaravadivelu (2003) argues that there is no perfect method. He states that methods are limited and limiting. No one method can respond to the particular sociopolitical context in which the learning situation is located. He proposes that teachers need to respond to each teaching and learning context in which they practice and develop a context-sensitive approach and method for each situation. He advocates the empowerment of teachers in the role of theorist, “In short, the framework seeks to provide a possible mechanism for classroom teachers to begin to theorize from their practice and practice what they theorize.” (p.43) The framework he refers to is the Postmethod Pedagogy which is developed in response to three parameters:

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Parameter of particularity – pedagogy must be relevant and specific to a particular linguistic, sociocultural and political context;

Parameter of practicality – theory is generated by practitioners (teachers), as they engage in a process of action-reflection (bottom-up);

Parameter of possibility – impacts upon the local sociopolitical reality of power and social organisation.

Learner-centred methods – concerned with language use and functional uses of language);

Three

Language-centred methods – concerned with linguistic forms or grammatical structures;

Two

One

Kumaravadivelu describes three categories: Learning-centred methods – concerned with learning processes.

Addressing these categories, he proposes ten micro-strategies: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

Maximise learning opportunities; Minimise perceptual mismatches; Facilitate negotiated interaction; Promote learner autonomy; Foster language awareness; Activate intuitive heuristics; Contextualise linguistic input; Integrate language skills; Ensure social relevance; Raise cultural consciousness. TESOL Made Practical For All Situations

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Implications Postmethod pedagogy describes what teachers have been doing for decades: analysing the learners’ needs and their learning context and selecting and implementing appropriate and effective learning strategies and activities. However, it goes beyond this description by elevating the role of teachers, practitioners, to the role of theorist – naming teachers as the determiners and definers of method. Some critics question whether the average teacher has the knowledge and skills necessary to pick and choose methods responsibly. Articulating Postmethod Pedagogy as an approach to teaching highlights the importance of pre-service and in-service teachers in developing knowledge, skills, authority and autonomy.

Summary Study of the history of TESOL is useful for the development of current teaching practice. Evaluation of each approach and method reveals strengths that can be creatively and constructively applied within the TESOL field today. Intrinsic to such evaluation is consideration of the learners we are working with, their individual and collective characteristics and needs. It may be that for learners of some particular backgrounds aspects of one method or another might be the most appropriate way to begin the learning experience. Learners from backgrounds of very traditional educational methodology may need some familiarlooking activities before they are able to embrace the advantages of a task-based approach or loosely structured communicative activities. Learners from backgrounds of torture and trauma may benefit from programs with predictable routines which might include the relaxation techniques and activation of subconscious learning inherent in suggestopedia. These are just two examples that require us to look beyond what is routinely being done, and find the ways of teaching and learning that are going to best suit each particular group of learners. In looking at new and current practices within the language teaching world, online ESL classes have become a more common trend, due to the recent pandemic and restrictions on classroom learning. The advancement in technology has made this even more possible through smart phones and computers and new apps that allow a high level of learner engagement from across the globe. Virtual classrooms may soon be the norm and this may have an impact on current and future methodologies.

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CHAPTER 11: Design and teach English syllabus

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Introduction Your syllabus16 is your plan for teaching a series of lessons, building towards a goal or outcome. These goals will vary according to your students’ needs and purpos es for studying English. We want to teach English that is relevant, meaningful, useful and interesting for our students. You may teach the same students for a block of four weeks, ten weeks, or a year. You may teach them several times a week, or only once. Regardless, in order for your time together to be effective it is necessary to have a plan, albeit a flexible one, but a plan that has a definite goal in mind. You may be in a teaching situation where the curriculum,17 or the overall framework for the course, is prescribed or given to you. This curriculum framework should make the learning goals clear, so that you know what you are aiming for. Standards or benchmarks are often described in detail, giving clear targets for learning outcomes. Alternatively, you may be in a situation where you are given no guidance, just instructed to ‘teach them English’, in which case you will need an approach which helps you to gain direction for your teaching. Whatever your situation may be, your job as a teacher is to plan a series of lessons that work towards achieving specific goals. The syllabus is the summary of those lessons. It includes: (1) an overview of the content to be covered in each segment of the learning program, (2) how many sessions you will have and how long they will be, (3) the delivery methods for each session, and (4) the timing and nature of assessment items. This unit will help you to know how to go about analysing your students’ needs and developing a syllabus based on those needs or learning goals. ESL students have diverse end goals after studying English. Some may be pursuing employment, some may be headed for academic study or training in a trade, and some may simply want to participate in the community, managing the tasks of day-to-day living. The planning of a syllabus can have a number of starting points. The syllabus can be planned around grammar, with each unit of work focussing on a particular grammatical feature. It could be planned with vocabulary as its focal point, though this is less common. A functional syllabus would have units of work centred around functions such as instructing, requesting or persuading. Syllabuses can be organised around situations, for example ‘At the post office’ or ‘At Centrelink’. A topic-based syllabus will have units of work based on topics, e.g. holidays, health and employment. This unit takes a practical approach to helping you develop the skills needed to write a syllabus and lesson plans. It will discuss how to develop a task-based Syllabus – a plan for a cohesive series of lessons. Curriculum – a guiding framework prescribing outcomes (what the student will be able to do) and assessment benchmarks (standards for ‘successful’ performance). 16 17

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syllabus, and will show how a section of the syllabus is then developed into a lesson plan. We will also give a simplified outline of a topic-based syllabus. A task-based syllabus is very similar to a functional syllabus. At the end of instruction, students should be able to complete particular tasks using the necessary English. For example, students may want to be able to buy second hand goods after reading advertisements in a newspaper or other source. Our syllabus therefore should include instruction and practice in the English and cultural practices associated with buying second hand goods. At the end of the unit, the students should be able to enter into such a negotiation, with appropriate language forms and with some insight into what is culturally appropriate. To develop a syllabus which includes the necessary language and cultural input, we need to be able to:

analyse the communicative task

articulate guidelines with regard to cultural practices, what is/isn’t appropriate

identify the stages typical of such a transaction

identify the language forms and vocabulary required

Chapter 2: English language and the Genre approach is foundational to this unit. In syllabus and lesson planning you will apply all of the analytical skills you have been developing through that chapter, and other chapters including Teach speaking, Teach listening, Teach reading and Teach writing. It is advisable to complete those units before attempting this unit. In this unit we will analyse one task, develop a sample syllabus, and then move into planning a lesson based on that syllabus.

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1. Needs analysis for developing a task-based syllabus Syllabus planning always begins with needs analysis that considers the learners’ needs and institutional constraints such as curriculum, physical environment and organisational requirements. Each of these factors must be considered in your planning. A training plan must consider the venue and equipment needs, plan enrolment processes and comply with scheduling requirements. The size of the group will affect your planning as will any special needs among the learners. You will need to assess whether any special equipment or support will be necessary for any learners. You also need to be aware of administration procedures and accountability structures. Whether or not a curriculum framework has been prescribed in your teaching context, the more meaningful, relevant, useful and interesting your English lessons are, the more motivated students will be. Some teaching situations will require you to file a planned syllabus before you have even met your students. This is far from ideal and should be avoided. Some institutes may have a process in which you file your syllabus within a certain timeframe, for example within the first 25% of the term. In very relaxed situations, where little accountability is demanded, you may not be required to file a syllabus at all. Whatever the situation, the maxim, “Fail to plan and you plan to fail,” rings true. If our aim is to teach to learners’ needs, then the second approach mentioned above of allowing an introductory period, to get to know your students and their specific needs, is recommended. We can still comply with the prescriptions of a curriculum framework, but take the time to get to know the students’ interests and areas of application, and then tailor the course to meet the students’ needs. The first step of the needs analysis process is to describe the learners in your group or class. In adult education we always want to keep in mind that the learners come to the classroom with many varying life experiences. These experiences can be a rich resource in the classroom, as students share with each other what they already know and have experienced. Previous knowledge is part of the adult learners’ schemata – or internal framework of knowledge – which can support the acquisition of new knowledge as it fits into the existing framework. Despite previous learning, adults still benefit from appropriate support through the learning experience. A process of scaffolding learning works well with all adults just as it does all learners. Scaffolding means providing a high degree of support when the learner needs it, and lowering the level of support as competence increases, helping the learner to move towards independent performance and continued autonomous learning. Adults also benefit from understanding why they are being asked to perform specific tasks or complete a task in a specific way. Include adult learners in the

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process of planning overall learning goals, and the processes towards achieving those goals. Explain the reasons behind activities, “When we do roleplays in class, such as asking for information at the chemist, we become more confident to do it in a real chemist shop.” Other differences between individual learners will also affect your planning. You will need to consider the following:

educational background

language backgrounds

gender

cultural background

previous ESL study

L1 literacy level

occupations (past, present, future goals)

ages

As mentioned in Chapter 1, which focused on culture and learning processes, all of these aspects affect the way a person learns language. The ways in which these aspects might affect what happens in the classroom are numerous. For example, if the class is comprised of people from one language background, some use of L1 in the classroom may be helpful, especially in peer tutoring situations. However, if a wide variety of languages are represented you may want to have an ‘English only’ rule. If the learners are mainly older, you may need to plan a slower pace of learning. Age may also affect choice of topic areas. Educational background influences the way students approach learning; some students may not be familiar with or value your classroom practices, for example group work. There may be some women in the group who for cultural or religious reasons will not want to work with men. Some nationalities may not be as receptive to each other as you would like. Asking these questions about your students helps you to gauge what approaches and activities might be most appropriate or effective, and what practices or groupings might create difficulties. To gather information about your students’ needs, survey your group of students with regard to topics of interest, tasks they need to complete in English, macroskills in which they feel they have a weakness, and what the situations are in which they already use English.

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With the characteristics of a particular group of learners in mind, we then need to establish what their task-based goals are. The example suggested earlier, of buying second hand goods, can be relevant for many different learners. International students may need to furnish a flat economically. Migrants may want to buy a second hand car. Business people may want to outfit a business with second hand furniture or equipment. For the purpose of demonstrating syllabus development, we will use the task of buying second hand goods as the communicative task around which our syllabus is developed. In addition we need to consult whatever curriculum requirements are in place. What are the standards set? What are the assessment tasks? What conditions are prescribed for assessment? In accredited training in Australia, training organisations are held highly accountable for compliance with all of these aspects; hence, we must ensure that we have given adequate instruction and practice in the skills being assessed. As already stated, careful planning can ensure compliance with curriculum requirements and a program tailored to your students’ interests and needs.

2. Task analysis After needs analysis, the next step in the process is to analyse the tasks that learners will be required to perform at the end of instruction. We need to itemise what is actually done, step-by-step, in order to complete the task. We need to note language structures used. We need to clarify stages in the communication process, and the functions of each stage. In relation to buying secondhand goods, a number of communicative tasks may be involved, for example:

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Read advertisements

Compare information gathered (one item against another)

Make an initial enquiry by telephone

Arrange to inspect the item

Check the item in a face-to-face encounter with the vendor

Make a request for demonstration or test-drive (if applicable)

Negotiate and accept or refuse the deal

Arrange the transportation of the item (if applicable)

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Each step in the process involves specific language structures and cultural conventions. An analysis of each step might result in a list like the following: 1.

Read newspaper or other advertisements. 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4

2.

Locate a specific section of classified ads. Locate a specific set of items within a section. Understand abbreviations (e.g. RWC, VGC, PC, ONO). Identify specific information (e.g. contact details/times).

Compare information gathered. 2.1 Use adjectives to describe. 2.2 Use comparative statements (e.g. more expensive than …). 2.3 Use superlative adjectives (e.g. the most expensive, the cheapest). 2.4 Make value statements (e.g. A clear RWC for a car is more important than the colour of the vehicle!).

3.

Make an initial enquiry by telephone. 3.1

3.2 3.3 4.

Check the item in a face-to-face meeting. 4.1

4.2 4.3 4.4 5.

Stages of the transaction: open, identify self, state purpose, ask if the item is still available, ask questions for more information, ask to see the item, arrange a suitable time, get address, check/confirm, close. Grammar: Question forms (casual and polite, tag questions), request forms (e.g. Could I come to see it today?). Vocabulary: Formulaic utterances (e.g. Good morning, Thanks very much.), field specific items.

Stages of the dialogue: Greeting, introductions, small talk, lead-in to purpose of meeting, making comments, asking questions, giving feedback. Grammar: Question forms. Vocabulary: Interjections (e.g. oh yeah, really, hmmm). Cultural: e.g. How you may/may not physically handle an item, facial expressions, body language, showing interest/disinterest.

Request a demonstration, trial or test-drive (if applicable). 5.1 5.2

Grammar: Request forms (casual, polite). Cultural: What is appropriate/not, what the vendor should do, what the buyer can do.

Vocabulary will obviously be addressed throughout, and since we are going to shape our program so that it applies to the needs of a number of different people (e.g. students, migrants, business people) we will be applying everything we learn TESOL Made Practical For All Situations

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to a number of different second hand purchasing situations or contexts. We might observe and practise buying furniture, appliances, cars, jewellery, or a host of other items. Ask your students; see what interests them! Whenever possible, show that what we are learning learn in class is transferrable to other situations, contexts, processes or aims.

3. Identifying language learning needs Already in the above itemisation we have identified several points of grammar that we will want to teach:

Modal verbs

Adjectives, comparatives and superlatives

Request forms: casual, polite

Comparative statements Question forms: casual, polite and tag

Once we have decided on what fields we are going to use in our lessons, we will also need to identify vocabulary items. For example, if we cover ‘buying a second hand car’ we are going to need to introduce vocabulary, including abbreviations, such as: road worthy certificate (RWC), mileage (Kms), engine, motor, etc. as well as classic phrases such as, “How many Ks has it done?” “Has it ever been in an accident?” “What’s the consumption like?” “How does it run on dirt?” Cultural aspects of the whole transaction can be introduced through watching a video segment together. It would be interesting to include reflection on students’ home countries cultural practices, followed by small group discussions, and then a whole class feedback session where all the different cultural practices are noted and compared with those in the host culture. This comparison is not to rank one culture above another, but to point out the differences, and that differences are valid; they are just different ways of achieving the same goal. What may be very appropriate and expected in one country may be quite offensive in another. The

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aim in our learning program is to equip learners for conducting the transaction in a particular cultural and social setting, so they need to know what will work best where they are now living. Roleplays are a great way to observe whether cultural information is being assimilated and applied. If you are able to video-tape students doing roleplays, this can be an excellent way to analyse the transactions as a class. Of course, this needs to be done with sensitivity, but once a good classroom atmosphere of cooperation, mutual respect and trust has been established, this has the potential to be a lot of fun and very helpful.

4. Syllabus planning 4.1

Programming language learning needs into a syllabus

As mentioned previously, we need to gauge our learners’ interests and needs, and canvassing the students at the beginning of term can help us to select topics or fields relevant to the learners. We then need to sequence the introduction of relevant language points within the context of lessons based on authentic materials and transactions. Below is a syllabus for ten (10) classes of three (3) hours each, which will cover buying second hand goods in relation to cars, furniture and musical instruments. This syllabus probably has a little more detail than necessary. Each section under ‘Field and activities’ can easily be developed into a lesson plan. The advantage of this amount of detail is that in the event that you are unable to make a class, a supply teacher can continue following your program, ensuring continuity and progress towards fulfilment of the program’s goals. Note: In the following syllabus plan, students’ home culture is abbreviated to C1 and the host culture is C2.

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SYLLABUS PLAN 1 Class: Lower intermediate Task: Buying second hand goods Lesson 1

2

Field and activities

Grammar, vocab & resources

Introducing the learning outcome and texts • Share own experiences of buying/selling second hand • Brainstorm texts advertising second hand goods • Peruse “Trading Post” or “Classified ads” from newspaper, looking at structure and organisation • Race to find sections / items • Decode the abbreviations in some ads: rewrite in full Second hand cars (from classified ads) (Part 1) • Read some newspaper ads • Comprehension exercises • Find specific info • Info gap – Text A/B • Listen to tape of initial enquiry by phone → listening comprehension exercises, listening for information, analyse transcript for stages and vocab, use for pronunciation practice

Grammar & Vocab • Section headings • Brand names • Common abbreviations Resources • “Trading Post” • Newspaper classifieds • Websites Cultural focus • Describe C1, introduce C2 Grammar & Vocab • Abbreviations re cars • Vocab re cars • Phrases re buying/selling cars • Stages of a phone call making an enquiry • Phrases for opening and closing call • Note ‘feedback’ Resources • Newspaper car ads • Worksheet • Info gap – cards • Tape & worksheet • Transcript Cultural Focus • Compare date info between C1 & C 2

3

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Second hand cars (Part 2) • Review transcript • Substitution drills on important structures

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Grammar & Vocab • Phone call phrases for introducing self, stating purpose, closing call • Question forms

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• • • • •

Practise in pairs and perform as scripted dialogue Describe your ideal car Find your ideal car in the newspaper Roleplays (telephone call) Comparison statements

• • • • • • • • •

Is it…? Does it…? How many…? How old…? What time…? Request form Could I…? Adjectives Comparatives

Resources • Transcript • Substitution drills • Newspaper car ads • Roleplay cards

4

5

Cultural Focus • Listening for affect/ tones in C1 & C2 Second hand cars (Part 3) Grammar & Vocab • Discuss C1 process for • Recycle vocab checking out a second hand • Review question forms car, and protocol of • Review requests negotiations • Relevant cultural norms • Watch video of checking out a • Phrases for making an car (local situation) offer • Comprehension exercises, • Review comparative including listening for question adjectives forms • Superlative adjectives • Listening for specific Resources information • Video • Identify C2 practices – • Worksheet discuss differences • Transcript • Analyse stages of interaction • Roleplay cards • Pronunciation practice • Practise in pairs Cultural focus • Roleplays • Compare C1 and C2 • Info gap: Comparative statements Furniture (from garage sales) Grammar & Vocab • Teams: On a house floor plan, Vocab specific to furniture Question forms in each room, list the items of Feedback furniture you would find. • Brainstorm places/ways you Resources can buy second hand furniture Newspaper classifieds (C1 & C2) Worksheet • Share own stories of garage Video sales / flea markets Worksheet TESOL Made Practical For All Situations

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•

6

7

8

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Find listings for garage sales in classifieds • Worksheet: find specific info • Watch video of garage sale • Comprehension exercises including listening for question forms and feedback • Analyse stages • Observe cultural aspects • Pronunciation practice • Simulated garage sale Furniture (from second hand shop) • Review vocabulary: 20 Qns • Introduce new situation (2nd hand shop) • Brainstorm questions you would ask about a dining set • Discuss C1 & C2 • In pairs write dialogue • Perform for class • Value statements • Grammar worksheet: question forms Musical instrument (from school newsletter) • Vocab: match pictures and names of instruments • Share own/children’s music skills • Introduce scenario • Read school newsletter ad • Comprehension and specific info exercises • Class plan outline/structure of a phone call to make initial enquiry, and request inspection by music teacher • Pairs: Write dialogue of telephone conversation, buyer and seller • Practise and perform • Peer evaluation and feedback Musical instrument (from school newsletter) (Part 2) • Listen to tape of telephone call: buyer and music teacher

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Magazines and newspapers for cutting up Cultural focus New abbreviations for new topic

Grammar & Vocab • Vocab specific to furniture • Question forms • Feedback • X is more important than Y. Resources • Grammar worksheet Cultural focus • Tagged items/bartering Grammar & Vocab • Vocab specific to musical instruments • Question forms • Conditionals: “If the music teacher says it’s OK, I’ll buy it.” • Feedback Resources • Vocab worksheet

Grammar & Vocab • Recycle vocab • Question forms • Feedback • Review request forms

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9

10

requesting and arranging inspection • Comprehension and listening for details • Pronunciation practice • Practise as dialogue in pairs • Brainstorm Qns buyer will want to ask music teacher after inspection complete • In pairs write dialogue for conversation: music teacher reporting back to buyer. • T conferences with pairs to assist, give feedback and correction • Pairs practise then perform • Roleplays phoning the seller to negotiate purchase/not. Review: • Vocabulary all fields • Grammar: Question forms • Roleplays: mixture of situations

•

Phrases for checking or clarifying

Resources • Tape • Worksheet • Transcript • Roleplay cards

Grammar & Vocab • Recycle vocab • Question forms • Feedback Resources • Roleplay cards

Assessment Fig. 11.1 Syllabus plan

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SYLLABUS PLAN 2 Class: Intermediate and upper intermediate Task: To learn and improve all aspects of the macro-skills of listening, speaking, reading and writing and including vocabulary, grammar pronunciation, and spelling. The environment is used as the unifying theme for this series of lessons Lesson 1 Vocab and grammar

Learning outcome/s, Field and activities Performance criteria: Understanding vocabulary (associated with the environment) and grammar. Grammar points – explain specific types of nouns and pronouns – possessive, relative, indefinite, personal etc. Involvement in class – introductions, discussions etc. Field and activities: • Introduce teacher (T) and students (Ss) – “getting to know each other. • General discussion of the environment, terminology etc. • Display video on words used in discussions on the environment. • Display text on environment for discussion. • Frequently display words associated with the environment. • Focus on vocabulary and grammar – synonyms /gap fill /brainstorming. Display sentences for Ss to analyse when using certain words in context. Accuracy and fluency practice activities: T to assign paragraphs from text for Ss to summarise in dot points for accuracy, then expand dot points into sentences for fluency.

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Grammar, vocab and resources Grammar and vocab: Grammar: Explain specific types of nouns and pronouns – possessive, relative, indefinite, personal etc. T to put up sentences for Ss to analyse environmental words, especially with respect to nouns and pronouns. Have students work in pairs for gapfill/brainstorming. Vocabulary: Environmental vocabulary taught throughout lesson synonyms /gap fill /brainstorming. Resources: Zoom – with screen share – use of power point summary of lesson plan. Videos/transcripts/activity handouts Cultural focus: Assuming the Ss already have a varying grasp of English. Be aware of cultural mores e.g. difference between status/genders etc. Try to neutralise these in an appropriate manner when they become evident and prevent certain students expressing themselves.

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Learning outcome/s, Field and activities 2 Performance criteria: Spelling Demonstrate improved skills in (as well as spelling, as well as speaking and speaking pronunciation. and pronunc- Field and activities: iation). Review previous lesson. Explain today’s lesson. Lesson

Grammar point: adjectives and pronunciation of the letter c. Discuss –adjectives, their various forms and uses in grammar, especially as related to the environment. Explain different pronunciations of the letter c (hard k sound or soft s sound). Accuracy activities: Show text on climate change. T to read out individual word or words and Ss to write them down, focusing on spelling. Then Ss to recite words back to GT, with a focus on pronunciation. Fluency activities: Individual Ss to read selected sentences from text. T to observe and correct pronunciation when required.

Grammar, vocab and resources Grammar and vocab: Grammar: Main grammar points to discuss – adjectives. Adjectives – various types, comparative/ superlative. Sounds of c (hard k or soft s) Display text about the climate change and understand be able to spell the words used. Also general discussions used to teach grammar. Ss to analyse sentences using certain words in context. Focus on adjectives - their various forms and uses in grammar, especially as related to the environment. Vocabulary to be taught throughout lesson using environmental issues as examples. Synonyms/gap-fill exercises/brainstorming to be used for both grammar and vocabulary. Resources: Zoom – with screen share – use of power point summary of lesson plan. Videos/transcripts/activity handouts Cultural focus: Again, assuming the Ss already have a varying grasp of English. Students may need to understand cultural idioms relevant to the culture they are in.

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Lesson 3 Speaking (incl listening and pronunci ation)

Learning outcome/s, Field and activities Performance criteria: Demonstrate improved skills in speaking (as well as reading and pronunciation).

Grammar, vocab and resources

Field and activities: • Review previous lesson. • The lesson structured around speaking. • Show video on rhythm, stress and intonation. • Watch video on plastic pollution, then have students read aloud the writing on each frame. • Vocabulary addressed by Ss reading (and speaking) a displayed transcript on the environment. Ss to recite after the T each sentence (or phrase).

Vocabulary: Pronunciation to be a feature of this lesson. T to correct pronunciation as required. Again, vocabulary to be taught throughout the lesson using words associated with the environment. Focus on past, present and future verbs. Ss to think up synonyms, use gap fills, role plays and brainstorming. Resources: Zoom – with screen share – use of power point summary of lesson plan.

Accuracy activity. Individual students to recite frames from video.

Videos/transcripts/activity handouts

Fluency Activity. Ss to spend 5 minutes practicing speaking and then writing down answers to questions of waste in their home towns.

Cultural focus: Practice of using cultural idioms and expressions to determine level of understanding may be necessary.

Grammar point - Simple past, present and future tense verbs discussed. Students may already have a good grasp of this.

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Grammar and vocab: Grammar: Verbs: Simple past, present and future tense verbs discussed.

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Lesson 4 Listening

Learning outcome/s, Field and activities Performance criteria: Demonstrate improved skills in Listening. Field and activities: • Review previous lesson. • Explain lesson aims and outcomes. • Play video on climate change. Stop video after each section. • Ss to jot down MAIN points from each section to recite back later. • Question students about understanding language/terms used etc. • Explain abbreviations and write in full. Grammar point: explain and discuss phrasal verbs, verbs, adverbs and prepositions. Practice for accuracy: Ss to read back dot point and other Ss to these write down and recite back when asked. Practice for fluency: Ss to read back sentences (as exactly as possible) that the teacher reads out to them during the formal assessment.

Grammar, vocab and resources Grammar and vocab: Grammar: Phrasal verbs - verbs, adverbs and prepositions. Vocabulary: Phrasal verbs Synonyms/gap fill exercises/brainstorming to be used for both grammar and using environmental issues as examples vocabulary. - Understand the vocabulary associated with the environment and climate change. - Introduce learning outcome and text/form - Common abbreviations Resources: Zoom – with screen share – use of power point summary of lesson plan. Videos/transcripts/activity handouts Cultural focus: Understanding the recycling opportunities and differences in C1 and C2.

Tell Ss that at the end of this lesson this lesson there will be an assessment FOR learning of the student’s performance, (assessing “in-class” task informally). T will read out some short sentences for students to write down as exactly as they can and then repeat back to T.

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Lesson 5 Reading (and writing, listening and speaking)

Learning outcome/s, Field and activities Performance criteria: Demonstrate improved skills in reading. Field and activities: Review previous lesson. Project and distribute transcript on the renewable energy. Discuss projected text. Accuracy: T to read whole text slowly, then T to read each sentence (or phrase) and have Ss repeat after T. Fluency: Ss to read out whole section assigned to them, with minimal inouts from T. Grammar point: Focus on simple verbs – past, present and future,

6 Writing (and reading)

Performance criteria: Demonstrate improved skills in writing (as well as reading and pronunciation) Field and activities: Review previous lesson. Explain today’s lesson plan. Show text on environment and T to read through it. Accuracy activity: T to slowly read through made up text on the lessons covered so far. Ss to note down any adverbs and adjectives they hear. T to then demonstrate next task – Ss to fill in the gaps of the adjective/adverbs displayed. Ss to write their answers on Padlet. Fluency activity: T to read out the first sentence of a made-up story (holidays). Ss to then make up to more sentences which follow on from that - Ss to show what they have written on Padlet.

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Grammar, vocab and resources Grammar and vocab: Grammar: Taught throughout lesson when reading whole article, sentences and clauses. Focus on verbs. Vocabulary: Synonyms/gap fill exercises/brainstorming to be used for both grammar and using environmental issues as examples vocabulary. Resources: Zoom – with screen share – use of power point summary of lesson plan. Videos/transcripts/activity handouts Cultural focus: Compare C1 and C2 renewable energy opportunities. Grammar and vocab: Grammar: Focus on adverbs and adjectives. Vocabulary: Again, vocabulary to be taught throughout the lesson using words associated with the environment and holidays. Resources: • Zoom – with screen share – use of power point summary of lesson plan. • Use of PADLET for Ss to show writing skills. • Videos/transcripts/activity handouts Cultural focus: Students demonstrate their understanding of the differences/similarities of C1 & C 2

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4.2

Performance criteria and learning objectives

Performance criteria are generally prescribed within a set course or qualification identifying the necessary skills that need to be achieved for the said course. They are often small achievable statements called ‘criteria’ that students need to demonstrate to be satisfactory in a particular skill. A number of connected criteria may be needed to demonstrate a particular ‘element’ of a course. Each ‘element’ then can be combined for students to complete a unit of a course. You can see an example by looking at the mapping of each unit of competency in your workbook theory tasks for this course. Learning objectives however, as we have looked at in previous chapters of this book, relate more directly to the lesson at hand. A learning objective establishes the goal for that particular lesson. It may take a number of lessons or series of lessons for a performance criteria to be taught, demonstrated and assessed. We cover more on the assessment of performance criteria in the next chapter. For now, let’s look at an example using Unit 1 of this course, which relates to Chapter 1. The Unit of competency is titled ‘Create a culturally inclusive learning environment’. Within this unit there are a number of different elements that need to be met. One of these being: Element 1. ‘Analyse cultural concepts’. This is then demonstrated through specific performance criteria, one of which is: 1.1 ‘Research and Analyse own culture. Students then demonstrate their understanding of this performance criteria though activities or in this case a ‘workbook task’. The assessment that relates to this Chapter 11, Design and Teach English syllabus, provides the stated performance criteria for you. It is important then to understand how to break these down into learning objectives for each necessary lesson. To achieve this you might ask yourself a number of questions, such as: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

What speaking skills do the learners need to complete these criteria? What listening skills do the learners need to complete these criteria? What reading skills do the learners need to complete these criteria? What writing skills do the learners need to complete these criteria? What grammatical structures do the lear ners need to complete these criteria? 6. What technical vocabulary is necessary for the learners to understand and complete these criteria? From this list of questions, you can begin to frame your syllabus, by establishing the set learning objectives for each lesson or series of lessons.

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5. Plan lessons based on communicative language learning methodology 5.1

Integrate the FOUR macro-skills

The above syllabus outlines activities that will involve the students as much as possible in communicating. This is the essence of communicative language teaching and learning: learners will be involved in communicating while they are learning. We are quick to recognise with many practical skills that we benefit from hands-on activity. If we are learning to use a computer we need to be hands-on as soon as possible, to see our actions linked with the results or outcomes. In learning a second language the more we can use the language while we are in the learning process, the better. “Use it or lose it” can aptly be applied to language. There are good reasons for integrating the four macro-skills, speaking, listening, reading and writing, in lessons: As we use the new language input with each of the four macro-skills, we are recycling content, reinforcing and consolidating learning. Edgar Dale, a twentieth century educationalist, developed a model of learning illustrating the benefits of involving as many senses and learning styles as possible in each lesson. People generally remember 10% of what they read, 20% of what they hear, 30% of what they see, 50% of what they see and hear, 70% of what they say and write, and 90% of what they say as they perform a task.18 Dale’s point was that the more senses involved in the learning process, the more the learning is consolidated and internalised. His model has been updated to reflect that the depth of learning increases as more senses are used, moving learning outcomes from lower order of list and describe, to analyse and evaluate. Integrating the skills more closely matches real-life language use as we rarely use one skill in isolation. We read a newspaper and discuss it with friends or family. We listen to our telephone answering machines, and we write a note or e-mail to pass on information. In conversation we act as both speaker and listener. Integrating the skills within lessons also makes our lessons more interesting with variety in activities and in levels of intensity. Ultimately, integrating the four macro-skills demonstrates that language is for communication, and communication can begin at the most basic level. In addition to planning as much communicative activity into the lesson as possible, and integrating the four macro-skills, we want to plan lessons that progress from: 18

Edgar Dale, Audiovisual Methods in Teaching, 1969, New York: Dryden Press.

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(1) presenting new language, to (2) conducting controlled practice for accuracy, to (3) allowing free communication to practise for fluency. In this regard the syllabus presented earlier does not give enough detail to show how you are going to do that. This level of detail should be included in your lesson plan. We will now take Lesson 3 outlined in the syllabus document we have just looked at and develop a lesson plan that fulfils our three criteria:

Integrates four macro-skills;

Uses communicative language teaching methodology;

Moves from presentation, to controlled practice for accuracy, to free practice for fluency.

Objective Set the scene for the lesson – introduce vocab (1)

Present grammar (2)

Activities Skills Show pictures of a S/L number of second hand cars Elicit descriptions, expand vocabulary (adjectives) – write on board Comparison S/L statements Model and elicit comparative statements about the same pictures – write some statements on board Review abbreviations – C1v C2

Group Class

Materials Pictures

Time 10 mins

Class

Same pictures

20 mins

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Objective Practise grammar for accuracy (3) Consolidate (4)

Review yesterday’s content

Focus on structures (5)

Pronunciati on practice

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Activities Race to write as many comparative statements about the cars in 3 minutes. Give groups one picture each. Each group must make comparative statements that show how their car is better than another group’s car. Listen to recording Comprehension Qns, some for details Listen and repeat opening, introducing and closing phrases Substitution drills based on: How old is it? Does it have central locking? How many kilometres has it done? What time can I come to see it? Scripted dialogue (transcript) Repeat after teacher, addressing difficulties as they arise Practise in pairs

Skills S/L/W

S/L

Group Small groups

Materials Same pictures

different small groups

Same pictures

Time 5 mins

5 mins

L

Class

Tape player

L/S 20 mins

L/S

Class

Transcript

25 mins

Transcript R/L/S

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Class Pairs

10 mins

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Objective Semicontrolled practice (6)

Review reading classified ads (7) Semicontrolled practice (8)

Practise for fluency (9)

Conclude lesson (10)

Activities Info gap (1) Describe your ideal car (2) Ask and answer questions to complete a table (ask at least 3 diff students) Find your ideal car in the classified ads

Skills W S/L

Give your criteria list to your partner. Ask and answer questions to check that the chosen car meets all criteria Roleplays – telephone call about an advertised car Read role cards Prepare and practise roleplays (3) Choose a couple to be performed for class (4) Peer feedback Revise key points covered Remind/discuss with class how they can apply what they learnt today in real life

R/S/L

Group

Materials

Indiv Pairs

Worksheets

Time

20 mins

R

Indiv

Pairs

Newspapers from last class or last weekend Car ads

10 mins

15 mins

S/L

Pairs

Role cards

30 mins

S/L

Class

Whiteboard 10 mins

Fig. 11.2. Lesson plan

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In most general English classes, a helpful distribution of time among the four macro-skills is:

40% speaking

30% listening

20% reading

10% writing

Obviously, this would change dramatically in a writing skills focus class, or other specialty classes. The lesson plan (Figure 11.2) goes back and forth between presenting new language material and practising for accuracy. (The following numbers refer to the numbered sections of the lesson plan.) The lesson begins by (1) revising existing vocabulary and introducing new vocabulary items, it immediately moves into (2) presenting a new grammatical structure in which that vocabulary can be used. Reference to understand abbreviations can be the cultural focus here. The new grammar is presented and followed up by two activities (3 & 4) which practise the structure for accuracy, the second activity being a little freer, though still fairly controlled in that the language should be predictable. At this stage of the lesson, the teacher circulates around the class correcting students at every opportunity. Some new sentence structures (questions) are then brought into focus (5) and practised for accuracy. The info gap (6) combines practice of the two areas, vocabulary and question forms, as students are asked to quiz each other as to the features of their ideal car. Again, the teacher is moving through the class and correcting students as necessary. The teacher should also make note of some errors (and successes!) to mention to the class as a whole at the end of the practice activity. No need to name names, just recount what you heard or write it on the board, and ask for correction from the class. The previous lesson is reinforced (7) as students are asked to look again at the classified ads to find their ideal car. Then the same question and answer routine (8) is used to consolidate use of the question forms introduced earlier. This is still practice for accuracy, so it is still appropriate to be correcting students diligently. Finally, we move into free language use in the form of roleplays (9). Roleplays are unscripted, so students must use all the language at their disposal in order to communicate with their partner in the situation described in their role card. This is a time when students are allowed to focus entirely on getting their message across, without the distraction of interruptions and corrections. Correction comes after the activity has been completed. You may take note of hitches in communication and present them again to the class later for some brainstorming on how the message could have been made clearer. Note that pronunciation has been integrated into the lesson, using the transcript as the content. As you get students to repeat after you, you will hear the sounds and phrases that cause difficulty. In the midst of this mimicry activity, stop and

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focus on that sound or combination of sounds. Remember to address intonation. While students are practising in pairs, encourage them to ‘say it with feeling’. This is the time for a bit more individual work, listening to each pair for a short while and working with them exclusively. Any individual attention that you can give is appreciated. Always plan a definite conclusion (10) to your lesson. This is a good opportunity to recap on the key points you have covered in the lesson and reinforce how students can use what they have learnt in class in their everyday lives. It also gives the session a feeling of “completeness” and definite closure. Now to check if this lesson plan meets our criteria:

1

•Does it integrate the four macro-skills: 40/30/20/10? - Yes

2

•Does it include communicative activities? - Yes (though predominantly fairly controlled)

3

•Does it move from presentation, to practise for accuracy then fluency? Yes

In addition, it:

4 5

•Covers the language structures we identified as intrinsic to buying second hand goods. •Gives cultural information relevant to buying second hand goods.

6. Topic-based syllabus Having now worked through a task-based syllabus and seen how it is expanded upon to develop a lesson plan, we will now look briefly at a topic-based syllabus. To develop a topic-based syllabus, we will choose an overall theme and explore sub-topics within that theme. As we look at different aspects of the theme or topic, we will think about the real-life tasks that our students will need to complete in English, and the texts associated with those tasks. For example, if we choose health as our syllabus topic, we will take into consideration the learners in the class and their specific learning needs in relation to health. The sample topic-based syllabus below is planned for a class of students from varying backgrounds that includes mothers of school-aged children and workers. Mothers will probably receive information at some time about healthy lunches or

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seasonal infectious sickness. Workers will be required to attend Work Health and Safety training sessions, and to complete incident reports. Each of these tasks involves specific texts: a brochure about healthy lunches, a flyer about whooping cough, and a diagram about safe lifting. These texts become the stimulus material for our lessons. The following syllabus outline is only a brief sample of a topic-based syllabus. The development process followed these steps:

Decide topic

Consider learners in the class and list subtopics relevant to their needs and interests

List texts (written and spoken) in relation to each task

List language features that will need addressing in relation to each task and text

HEALTH Topic Healthy Diet

Personal hygiene

Women’s health

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Tasks • Kids snacks • Nutritional information on packaging • Mum giving children instructions – teeth cleaning • Hair care • Read Info brochure re local women’s clinic and services • Go for a mammogram

Texts • ‘Healthy lunch boxes’ brochure • Food packaging labels • “Good brushing” pamphlet • Pamphlet on head lice • Info brochure re local women’s clinic and services • Registration form • Selfexamination

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List tasks associated with each sub-topic

Language focus • Vocab (food groups, ingredients, vitamins, etc.) • Quantity, frequency • •

Command verbs Adverbs (carefully, thoroughly)

• •

Verbs/processes prepositions

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Topic Exercise

Men’s health Infant health

Tasks • Casual conversation with walking partner • Listen to information about skin cancer • Assemble an exercise machine • Attend baby clinic

Texts • Dialogue script • Video recording of health advice re skin care

Language focus • Interjections, subject changes, Q&A, culture re comments

•

Instruction manual

•

•

Registration form Dialogue: nurse and mother

• • • • •

•

• WHS

• Explain Safe lifting technique

•

Poster including diagrams (procedure for safe lifting)

• • •

Command verbs, location, quantity, quality Q&A Command verbs Frequency Description Past tense (recount) Present simple (habit) Describing: adjectives, adverbs Verbs Position

7. Evaluation of Programs Program evaluation is an important part of syllabus development and implementation. Best practice in teaching recommends that teachers engage in a constant process of evaluating their program at all stages of delivery. Evaluation is always done with improvement and development as the aim, so that learners have plenty of opportunity to achieve their learning goals. The litmus test of good teaching is whether or not students are progressing well towards their learning goals. The following items provide a helpful checklist:

       

Lessons plans are appropriate to learners. Activities are appropriate to learners. Resources are appropriate to learners. Syllabus content is appropriate to learners. Monitoring strategies are appropriate to learners. Feedback strategies are appropriate to learners. Chosen genres are appropriate to learners. Model texts are appropriate to learners.

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Summary This chapter has provided a process for developing a task-based syllabus, and a shorter description of developing a topic-based syllabus. In summary, the processes of developing task-based and topic-based syllabuses will include these basic steps: Task-based syllabus 1.

2. 3.

4. 5.

6. 7. 8.

Analyse students’ needs to determine what task to teach (e.g. buying second hand goods). Analyse the task. Identify a range of situations in which the same basic task will be completed (e.g. car, furniture, musical instrument) Identify the stages of the task. Identify the language forms and vocabulary required to complete the task. Note cultural practices in relation to the task. Note texts associated with the task. Gather or create model texts.

Topic-based syllabus 1.

2. 3. 4.

5. 6.

Analyse students’ needs to determine overall topic and subtopics. List tasks associated with each sub-topic. List texts (written and spoken) related to each topic. List language features that will need to be addressed so that students can complete the tasks associated with each topic. Explicitly teach any vocab relevant to the topic/s. Include cultural focus areas as needed.

Our syllabus gives us a clear outline of the content we aim to cover in each lesson, and is clearly working towards the end goal of the students being able to use English for a specific purpose (in the case of the task-based syllabus) or for a variety of purposes in relation to a particular topic. We worked into each syllabus all the language features we noted in relation to tasks and texts. In this way, we ensure that we address grammar within a meaningful and relevant context. From our task-based syllabus, one lesson was selected from which a lesson plan was developed. The lesson plan is a much more detailed plan, showing how each aspect of language will be presented, practised for accuracy and practised for fluency. Again, the lesson plan contains sufficient detail that a supply teacher could easily follow the plan and maintain the continuity of the learning program. Your ability to plan a purposeful learning program is central to the effectiveness of your class times, which are all aimed at the achievement of learning outcomes.

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CHAPTER 12: Assessment of English language skills

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Introduction Assessment, testing and evaluation of student performance are all ways of referring to the the processes involved in judging levels of knowledge, or competence in a particular skill. To simplify your reading process, the terms ‘assessment’ and ‘evaluation of student performance’ are used interchangeably. You will read about the variety of levels of ‘seriousness’ of assessment or evaluation of student performance and this will be explained in terms of ‘high stakes’ or ‘low stakes’ assessment. In addition, you will read about formal and informal methods of assessing. You will also read about the different purposes of assessment and the different uses of assessment results, and how these vary in formal and non-formal educational settings. Finally, the process of developing assessment items and recording methods is outlined.

1. Assessment in ESL Contexts 1.1

Benefits of assessment

Assessment has always been a part of schooling: weekly tests or periodic quizzes to see how the students are progressing, end of term tests to record achievement. The announcement that a class is having a test usually elicits groans from the students and a flurry of “cramming”. Few students have a positive appreciation of the value of testing, primarily because the benefits of testing are rarely explained or otherwise made explicit. Even the word ‘test’, for most students, has only negative connotations, with a clear pass/fail association. Often the administration of “tests” adds to this perception: examination conditions, one-chance type methods of testing, testing knowledge rather than performance. It is very important that ESL teachers help students to develop a positive appreciation of assessment. This comes from understanding the purpose and method of assessment being used.

1.2

High stakes or low stakes

Assessment that contributes to the judgement of student performance for the purpose of making a pass-fail decision, is considered ‘high stakes assessment’. That is to say that the result of the assessment will be used to describe the student’s proficiency or competency in a particular area of knowledge and or skills. The results of a high stakes assessment or evaluation of student performance, will have a direct impact on the external outcomes associated with the course of study. A favourable result will create opportunity while a negative result may close or delay an opportunity. ‘High stakes assessment’ may take place as a one-off, end-of-course assessment, however an accumulation of assessment events administered at various stages in the training program could also combine to give an overall result.

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High stakes assessment may relate to other areas of empowerment (other than gaining an accredited qualification). It could be part of a process of applying for employment or further education. In these cases, the assessment or evaluation of performance is high stakes, since the results will have bearing on whether an opportunity will open up or close. ‘Low stakes assessment’ will include monitoring of student performance so that the teacher can make decisions about what to re-teach, review, recycle, repeat, consolidate, when the teaching process can move on to delivery of new content, or development of a different skill, and what new material, content or skill to move on to. Low stakes assessment informs the teacher and the student about how the student is progressing in relation to the learning goals. It does not have an immediate impact on the student’s success or failure in the training program or in relation to external goals.

1.3 The context of our discussion – formal and non-formal educational settings Before we can begin our discussion about assessment of ESL learning, we need to describe the contexts within which assessment takes place. This text, written in Australia for use internationally in training for the Cert IV in TESOL and Diploma in TESOL, will attempt to contextualise statements about assessment within a wide range of formal and informal educational contexts.

1.4 Formal education qualifications

contexts

–

assessment

for

In Australia, all accredited qualifications and delivery of courses must conform to a national set of standards which assures nationally consistent, high-quality training and assessment in Australia’s vocational education and training (VET) system. This is the context within which formal assessment, in relation to accredited qualifications, takes place in Australia. Many other countries have similar systems of standardisation, while some may have little or no such constraints. Where there are standardisation measures in place, the performance of students in an accredited language program must be assessed according to the performance criteria prescribed by the qualification. A small sample of accredited English language programs in Australia include:

Certificate in spoken and written English;

Certificate in English for employment, study and life;

Certificate in English language skills;

Certificate in foundation English language skills.

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The point here is that assessment within an accredited English language qualification will be a prescribed process, with prescribed performance criteria, range statements and conditions.

1.5 Non-formal contexts – evaluating student performance as part of the learning program Non-formal contexts include community-based English classes where no accredited qualifications are awarded. In non-formal educational settings, assessment or evaluation of performance should always be ‘low stakes’. A poor assessment or evaluation of performance will not result in disadvantage or fewer opportunities. Assessment, or evaluation of performance in community-based, non-formal educational settings will be used to contribute to the learning process. An effective teacher, in any context, will actively and constantly gauge student performance. This evaluation of student performance is an essential element of good teaching practice. These benefits are described in section two of this chapter.

1.6

Formal and informal methods of assessment

This chapter describes a range of assessment methods that range from formal to informal. This is distinct from formal and non-formal educational settings. Informal assessment methods can be used in both formal and non-formal educational settings. Differences between formal and informal assessment methods include: •

The conditions within which the assessment information is gathered. Assessments conducted under exam-like conditions will be considered formal (e.g. under supervision, within a timeframe, with specified limitations regarding access to support), whereas assessment information gathered through day-to-day classroom activities where varying levels of support are available or accessed will be considered informal (ETS, 2003).

•

The data that is gathered during formal assessment is reportable against statistical data gathered, such as percentiles, standard scores or benchmark performances (Weaver, 2013). Data that is gathered informally is not generally rated within a standardised measurement framework; however, it can contribute to the picture of how a student is progressing.

Sections 2 and 3 of this chapter explain the importance of using assessment or evaluation of student performance as part of the teaching and learning process. They paint the background understanding about assessment that gives us confidence that assessment is an essential part of the teaching and learning process. Section 4 and 5 of this chapter describes the process of designing, administering and reporting assessment.

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2. Forms of assessment and types of evidence This section will describe some methods of evidence collection. Evidence is the product we can display to show that performance to a certain standard has been demonstrated. Employers, educational institutions, immigration departments and other bodies want to know that the result you are reporting can be verified. Storing or recording evidence of assessment is part of the responsibility of the assessor/training organisation that issues the qualification. Some examples of evidence are: Observation of direct (actual) demonstration – Student performs a task, observed by an assessor. Observations are recorded and stored.

Indirect observation – Use of photographs or video when an assessor is unable to be present.

Third party reports – documented and verified (e.g. from an employer or workplace supervisor).

Products – e.g. essay, letter, report, procedural text.

Traditional question and answer – written or oral (e.g. multiple choice, fill-in-the-blank and short answer).

Oral presentation.

Project.

Participation in discussion or tutorial – with record of participation.

Collection of learner documents and work samples.

Portfolio – collections of evidence compiled by the student.

Student selfassessment – a student's personal statement on their performance (not sufficient in isolation).

Observation of satisfactory performance – criterion referenced (e.g. roleplays, simulated workplace tasks).

Recording of assessment results and storage of evidence are addressed in section 5.4 of this chapter.

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3. Purposes of assessment 3.1

Reasons for testing

The following reasons for assessment (adapted from Ur, 1996), are a helpful starting point for appreciating testing as more than a pass/fail indicator. Teachers and students alike, in formal and non-formal educational settings, will benefit from understanding the variety of reasons for assessing. This means that the ESL teacher needs to communicate to the class the reason for the assessment process. Students also need to understand how much is/isn’t riding on their performance in this one assessment event: What percentage/portion of the overall assessment does it constitute? Will there be a second chance? What will be the impact or consequence of my result in this assessment? For example, if I perform poorly, will I lose the opportunity for employment? If I perform well, will I gain access to enrolment in training? In other words: how high are the stakes?

3.1.1 Give the teacher information A teacher can learn a lot about what students have mastered (either previous to or through current classes), and where problem areas lie. This information feeds into syllabus and lesson planning. In this case the assessment result does not directly contribute to a final pass/fail result. Assessment or evaluation of student performance is an essential element of syllabus planning and ongoing development that is responsive to student needs. This is important in both formal and non-formal educational settings. At the stage of lesson planning, teachers need to keep in mind that at various points of the teaching/learning process, they will need to determine whether the student has understood what they have set out to teach. It is important from the outset, that you consider how you are going to check student progress. What are you going to do to find out if the student is learning? How will you use the knowledge of student success or failure to inform your own teaching? How are you going to record student results?

3.1.2 Give the students information Assessment results give students an idea of what they need to continue working on, and what their current achievement level is in relation to their learning goals. In the previous chapters (Teach speaking, listening, reading, writing, grammar) reference has been made to giving feedback and correction. This is an essential part of the learning process, so that students clearly understand what they have achieved, and what they still need to develop or improve. This is helpful in both formal and non-formal educational settings; however, care and sensitivity is recommended. In community-based classes, where student attendance is voluntary, students attend with a wide range of goals, expectations and capacities. Part of the teacher’s role in this situation is to gauge those factors and respond in kind. If the

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students are strongly motivated to a fast pace of learning, then testing as a mechanism for directing student learning is helpful. Some students attend community English classes in large part for the social contact that they provide. Some attend such classes because they find that they don’t cope with formal education classes and whatever pressures are perceived to be associated with the program. These students will likely appreciate freedom from assessment and anything that looks like it. Their learning happens more productively without that (real or perceived) pressure.

3.1.3 Motivation to study Helpful feedback and correction, whether based on formal testing or informal observation, can motivate students to put effort into learning. Students can feel a sense of purpose in working towards assessment tasks and then (hopefully) a sense of satisfaction with the evidence of achievement afterwards. The right amount of stress can be a helpful dynamic. Care needs to be exercised with students who have experienced torture or trauma or who have mental health concerns. On the one hand, such students can respond well to the challenge of a test; but if the stakes are too high, tests can cause debilitating stress which affects not only their learning but other areas of life. Therefore the teacher needs to be sensitive to what would be an appropriate level of challenge that doesn't induce inappropriate levels of stress. This can be a difficult "juggling act" for the teacher, especially if these students are studying an accredited English language course that contains formal testing.

3.1.4 External reasons Students may be studying English as a prerequisite to some other course of study, or to increase employment or promotion opportunities. Assessment results record achievements, which can be provided as evidence to educational institutes or employers. This is classic high stakes assessment, and as such it is imperative that we implement and administer the assessment task well, giving the candidate the greatest chance of performing at their best, and to provide verifiable evidence.

3.1.5 Gives a sense of structure to the course Assessments are easily recognisable milestones in a learning program. They give students and teachers something to aim for, and on completion give evidence of learning gains (or not!).

3.1.6 Useful review or practice activities An assessment process can actually be a very productive learning activity if constructive feedback is given afterwards.

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3.2

Uses of assessment information

Gronlund (1995) elaborates on assessment for four purposes or uses. These should be appropriately integrated into the learning program, whether it is formal or non-formal education. The methods used in a non-formal environment can be very informal, so that students can be unaware that assessment or evaluation of performance is taking place, thus minimising pressure.

3.2.1 Diagnostic assessment Used to determine the level of student performance at the beginning of instruction. The results of this assessment will be used to place the student in the most appropriate class or group, in terms of level and content. It may also help teachers to determine syllabus content to some extent as they gain information about areas of weakness and strengths in student knowledge and skills. In addition, it can provide a baseline for measuring at the end of instruction how much learning has taken place.

3.2.2 Formative assessment Used to monitor learning progress during instruction. This is often done informally, through teacher observation of in-class tasks, or through quizzes, and gives the teacher an idea of how students are progressing in relation to the learning goals. This information is used to plan future instruction, what needs to be reviewed, and how soon to move on to new content.

3.2.3 Assessment of learning skills In ESL, as in other fields of education, teachers also need to be aware of students who are having difficulty learning that seems to be out of the ordinary. When a student makes the same error consistently, or has difficulty in a particular area of learning (e.g. memorisation, listening, spelling, reading), some enquiry or observation can be helpful towards understanding where the difficulty is coming from. Is it interference from L1? Is it a physical problem: hearing impairment, speech impediment, debilitating headaches or other chronic pain? Is there some neurological problem hindering reliable word associations, or visual recognition? Is it a problem with concentration or memorisation? Some of the factors impinging on successful learning are readily identified and addressed. Other difficulties may be beyond the training of the teacher and it may be appropriate to consult a specialist. The role of the teacher is to observe and respond appropriately within the scope of their training, and to advise or resource when the need goes beyond that scope.

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3.2.4 Summative assessment Used to assess achievement at the end of instruction, summative assessment measures the learner’s performance after instruction and practice in relation to the learning goals. It is often this result that is used as evidence to fulfil entry requirements for courses of study or employment.

3.3

Types of assessment

These descriptions are given as background to the nature of assessment processes or methods. It is important when designing the assessment process and items (e.g. quiz, project, demonstration) used that we consider the way in which the information will be used. These types of assessment each have appropriate and inappropriate applications. We need to identify exactly what we want to report on in order to select the best type of assessment. This section is most applicable to assessment occurring in formal educational situations.

3.3.1 Norm referenced vs Criterion referenced In norm-referenced assessment students are accorded a ranking in relation to the whole group. Each student’s test scores are compared with the scores of the other students in the group. Students are competing with each other for grades. A bellcurve is often used to apportion grades, e.g. the top 5% of students receive an ‘A’, the next 20% of students receive a ‘B’, the next 50% of students receive a ‘C’, the next 20% receive a ‘D’ and the final 5% receive an ‘E’. This means that on one occasion the top 5% of students receiving an ‘A’ may have achieved scores of between 85 and 90%, while on another occasion the top 5% of a different group of students achieved test scores of between 90 and 97%. All of the students received an ‘A’, despite the disparity in scores. Attempts to avoid this kind of disparity occurring include moderation of assessment items and moderation of assessment of student performances. In criterion-referenced assessment students are assessed against specified criteria. The criteria are made explicit to both assessor and student, so that both know exactly what is being aimed for and what is required for successful completion. This means that every student who fulfils the criteria is successful and receives the same result of Satisfactory (S) in relation to a task or Competent (C) in relation to a Unit of Competency or a Module. Those who are not successful receive a result of Not Yet Satisfactory (NYS) or Not Yet Competent (NYC) and may usually resit the assessment. For a resit, a different task is set through which competency can be demonstrated. These assessment results are not graded ‘A, B, C’ etc., but are simply recorded as NYS or NYC.

3.3.2 Informal vs Formal In some situations, it is enough for the teacher to record observations of student performance in class that satisfy assessment criteria, and to make a suitable record of dates of achievement. Assessment therefore can be happening all the TESOL Made Practical For All Situations

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time, without the student even being aware of the process. This lowers the impact of a poor performance in any one event, as the student has the opportunity every day in every activity to demonstrate competency. This reduces stress. It also means that teachers are assessing the student’s consistent performance under normal conditions. This is informal assessment. In other situations formal assessment is required, with demonstrations of competency being carried out under test conditions.

3.3.3 One-off vs Portfolio Many courses rely on a one-off assessment at the end of the course for demonstration of competency. This is a risky practice for a number of reasons:

1

2

3

•Students can get lucky and ‘fluke it’.

•Students can ‘cram’, relying on short term memory, to get them through, then be unable to complete the same tasks a week later. •Students can suffer anxiety or nervousness which diminishes performance. One-off assessment is by nature high stakes: students only get one chance to demonstrate competence.

An alternative to this approach is to gather items of work produced by the student into a portfolio which becomes evidence of competency. This has the advantage of being collected over a period of time, will often show the skills development taking place throughout the course, and shows that the student has not ‘fluked it’ or ‘crammed’ in order to pass. A portfolio is evidence of developing skills and then consistent performance. A portfolio can provide great encouragement as it gives concrete and visual evidence of skill and knowledge development and achievement of learning goals.

3.3.4 Discrete vs Holistic Discrete point assessment items test each aspect of the information or skill individually. Holistic assessment items assess all of the necessary skills and underlying knowledge in the context of completing one task or project. For example, we could test grammar by having students complete a number of discrete point exercises focusing on past simple verbs, conjunctions, phrases of time and place. Exercises might include changing the verbs into past simple, circle the appropriate conjunction, fill in the correct preposition of time or place. However, we could test the same points of grammar holistically by asking students

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to write a short recount of an event, in which they must use 5 past simple verbs, 3 conjunctions, 2 phrases of time and 2 phrases of place. When teaching language for communication, the most appropriate method of assessment is to require the student to use language in a meaningful communicative context. We will usually choose to assess holistically. When teaching a course ‘Preparation for TOEFL’ (Test Of English as a Foreign Language), we will use more discrete point testing which more closely reflects the nature of the TOEFL exam.

4. Validity, reliability, fairness and flexibility These terms represent the core principles according to which assessment is designed and administered. They are important in both formal and non-formal educational settings, but are non-negotiable in formal education and high-stakes assessment.

4.1

Validity

Does the task measure what it set out to measure? To be valid, an assessment item should be:

4.1.1 Consistent with course content We should not be testing something that has not been covered in class. We cannot assess the ability to write an expository essay if we have not studied expository essays in class.

4.1.2 Consistent with the knowledge, skills or attitudes it set out to test For example, strictly speaking, if a test is intended to assess listening, performance should not rely on being able to write the answers, or even read the questions. If a test is designed to assess reading ability, we should not insist on grammatically perfect responses to questions.

4.1.3 Concerned with the intended uses of the results For example, the test results for a course that focuses on English for a vocational context, should not be used as evidence for the ability to study in a formal academic context.

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Our methods of assessment should be consistent with the language and communication skills the course is designed to develop. In general, this means designing an assessment process that requires performance of the communicative task which we have been developing. If, in our course, students are learning to participate in a group discussion, then our assessment method should involve our students participating in a group discussion. If students are learning how to write formal letters, our assessment method should involve writing formal letters. Communicative tasks can be assessed against a list of performance criteria. Some ESL courses are designed to prepare students for taking standardised ESL tests, such as the International English Language Testing System (IELTS) examination, Test Of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL) or Test Of English for International Communication (TOEIC). Assessment during and at the end of these ESL courses should reflect the learning goal of being able to take the particular exam, so the assessment will be completion of test items of similar construction to those in the standardised exam.

4.2

Reliability

4.3

Consistency in the ratings given by different assessors to the same piece of work (inter-rater reliability).

three

Consistency in an assessor’s decisions about different pieces of work of the same standard, or different pieces fulfilling the stated criteria (intra-rater reliability).

two

one

The consistency with which a test measures what it is intended to measure. In reliable assessment there should be:

A set of criteria, or a marking scale, against which every piece of work is assessed.

Fairness

Do all students have equal opportunity to demonstrate achievement of the learning goal? This principle recognises that students have different characteristics and come from different circumstances, for example gender, ethnicity, language, race, socioeconomic circumstances or geographical location. Fairness in assessment does not mean that every student will complete the same assessment item or task, but that every student’s performance will be judged according to the same criteria. Some adjustment of task, considering individual student differences, is possible.

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4.4

Flexibility

Can students negotiate certain aspects of the assessment process? Assessment can be adapted to meet student need. This is the response to the fairness principle. Flexibility means that assessment can occur in a range of contexts. Reasonable adjustment may mean adapting learning materials and methods to be more appropriate or accessible to individual learners, adapting the physical environment, adjusting the assessment procedure or evidence gathering methods. Any method of assessment will have inherent strengths and weaknesses. It is important to evaluate the method and materials used to administer it. Formal vocational education in Australia requires a formal validation process to be undertaken in relation to all materials and assessment tools used within the delivery of training for an accredited qualification. The following table gives examples of assessment tasks for one communicative function in each of the macro-skills. Each has some strengths and weaknesses. It is a tiny sample, given here to raise some awareness of weaknesses. A validation process includes evaluating and correcting weaknesses.

Speaking Participating in a spoken interaction involving an explanation

Listening Can understand a spoken information text

Method Roleplay • recorded • assessed against set criteria

Strengths • requires demonstration of skill (valid) • criterionreferenced increases reliability

Weaknesses • if pairing students with each other, some students may work well together some may not • one student may dominate the conversation

Listen to recording and answer questions (written or spoken)

•

requires demonstration of skill (valid) students all hear same text under same conditions (reliable) answers are either correct or incorrect (reliable)

•

requires demonstration of skill (valid) students all read same text under same conditions (reliable) answers are either correct or incorrect (reliable)

•

•

•

Reading Can read a formal letter

Read a formal letter and answer questions

•

•

•

•

using written questions means that reading ability is also being tested requiring written answers is dependent on writing ability

requiring written answers is dependent on writing ability

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Writing Can write a short personal letter

Method Write a short personal letter • responses are rated against set criteria

Strengths • requires demonstration of skill (valid) • students all write same text type under same conditions (reliable) • answers are rated against same criteria (reliable)

Weaknesses • administered under test conditions negates the ‘process’ dynamic of writing

5. Assessment design and administration In this section, the process of developing a valid and reliable assessment tool will be described. An assessment tool “contains both the instrument and the instructions for gathering and interpreting evidence in an assessment process.” (Department of Training and Workforce Development, Western Australia, 2012, p.5). An assessment tool includes the context and conditions of the assessment, the tasks, an outline of the evidence to be gathered, the performance criteria and requirements for administration, recording and requirements. The assessment instrument includes the tasks, the outline of evidence and the performance criteria. For the sake of giving a practical example of assessment design and administration, the assessment of one particular task will be referred to throughout this section. Our example will be a speaking skill, chosen for a number of reasons:

Assessing writing in some ways is easier since evidence gathering is a straightforward process, and the evidence can be reviewed again and again.

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Assessing the evidence produced through listening and reading tasks is also relatively straightforward since answers are generally right or wrong. Assessing speaking skills offers more of a challenge.

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Imagine your class has been practising making appointments by telephone. The following steps guide us through the process of developing a valid and reliable assessment tool.

5.1

Identify skills to be assessed

The first step in designing an assessment tool is to state clearly, as a learning outcome, the skill being assessed: Can use the telephone to make an appointment.

5.2

Establish the benchmarks for assessment

Secondly, we must state the conditions under which assessment will take place, and the criteria against which the performance will be assessed. Conditions: Sympathetic interlocutor, for example another teacher or tutor.

May ask for clarification or repetition.

Real or simulated situation (i.e. using telephones or intercoms, sitting in positions where the interlocutor can be heard but cannot be seen).

Conversation should be recorded.

Performance criteria:  Uses appropriate greeting and closing strategies.  Uses appropriate strategies for checking, clarifying or asking for repetition.  Uses appropriate vocabulary.  Provides information as required.  Uses correct time phrases (e.g. at 3pm, on Tuesday, in the afternoon)

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5.3

State the task

The instructions to the student/s must be unquestionably clear. What must the student do to demonstrate competence? The task instruction below tells the student what they need to do.

Instructions to a student being assessed Choose one of the following situations and roleplay it with your teacher/tutor: 1. Your son/daughter is very sick. Phone the doctor to make an appointment. 2. You are a university student. You need an extension on the due date for an assignment. Phone to make an appointment to speak to the lecturer. 3. It is 30th June and you need to lodge your tax return. Phone your accountant to make an appointment.

The student is being assessed in their ability to make a phone call to make an appointment. The instruction tells the student what they must do: roleplay one of the situations with their teacher. The performance criteria (detailed on the assessment record sheet that follows in 5.4) tells the student to what standard they must perform. The performance criteria and conditions under which the assessment will take place, must be discussed with the student prior to the moment of assessment.

5.4

Construct the assessment record and cover sheet

To enable effective reporting, you must keep a record of assessment procedures and results. One way of doing this is to construct a cover sheet for each assessment item like the one illustrated in Figure 12.1 below. This cover sheet is also useful for ensuring that students have a clear understanding of the task and the criteria against which they will be assessed.

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Institute name: ______________________________________________ Student’s name: ____________________________ Result: __________ Class: ___________ Assessor’s name:___________________________ Can use the telephone to make an appointment. Choose one of the following situations to roleplay with your teacher or tutor: 1.

Your son/daughter is very sick. Phone the doctor to make an appointment.

2.

You are a university student. You need an extension on the due date for an assignment. Phone to make an appointment to speak to the lecturer.

3.

It is June 30 and you need to lodge your tax return. Phone your accountant to make an appointment.

Conditions: 1.

Sympathetic interlocutor, for example another teacher or tutor.

2.

Real or simulated situation (e.g. using telephones or intercoms, or sitting in positions where the interlocutor can be heard but not seen).

3.

May ask for clarification or repetition.

4.

Conversation should be recorded.

Performance criteria: 1.

Use appropriate greeting and closing strategies.

2.

Use appropriate strategies for checking, clarifying or asking for repetition.

3.

Use appropriate vocabulary.

4.

Provide information as required. Use correct time phrases (e.g. at 3pm, on Tuesday, in the afternoon).

Fig. 12.1

Sample assessment cover sheet

Within formal educational settings, assessment results are accessible to stakeholders such as school staff, students, parents, funding bodies or employers in apprenticeship and traineeship programs or referring agencies. The exact reporting needs and provisions will vary between situations. The responsibility of the teacher is to know and understand who will have access to assessment results and for what purpose. The role of the teacher is to ensure that results are recorded accurately and appropriately within whatever system is in place. The cover sheet in Figure 12.1 is given as a sample of information that you may be required to store within an institute. A checklist next to the performance criteria listed in Figure 12.1 would be marked off whether each criterion is satisfactory (S) or not yet satisfactory (NYS) with the overall outcome marked as competent (C) or not yet competent (NYC). The result

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could be stored electronically within the institute’s system, as well as in hard copy in an appropriate secured facility.

5.5

Administer the assessment

In undertaking the assessment task you must be careful to adhere to the conditions of assessment prescribed. Some negotiation and adjustment may be necessary and justified where disability or other circumstances affect the student’s ability to perform to the same standard or within the same conditions as they would in a real-life situation. At times you will be required to record the assessment to store as evidence of demonstration of competence. This evidence may also be required for moderation purposes to ensure inter-rater and intra-rater reliability. Before beginning the assessment task, the student should know exactly what behaviour or performance is expected. You need to ensure they know what they must do. They should also be aware of the standards against which their performance will be judged. As with all teaching and learning activities, the atmosphere and physical environment should be positive, creating a relaxed situation in which assessment can take place. Where students are preparing to undertake an IELTS or other exam, assessment conditions should reflect those of the standardised exam.

5.6

Make the assessment decision

Once the evidence is gathered, make a judgement against each of the performance criteria as to whether the student’s performance met the demands. Where uncertainty exists, have another teacher examine the evidence (written text or recorded oral text) and judge it against the performance criteria. Within the criterion-based assessment, students are graded as ‘satisfactory or not yet satisfactory’, with the overall result recorded as ‘competent or not yet competent’. Each performance criteria must be met for a satisfactory grade and competent grade to be given.

5.7

Give feedback

A responsible assessment process includes giving feedback to the students with regard to their performance. This involves telling them whether or not they passed, and if not, what areas need improvement before undertaking a retest, what the student can do to further develop competence and when the retest will take place.

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5.8

Review the assessment process

As a matter of routine, assessment processes should be evaluated by teachers and students, to ensure that an effective process is in place. Any difficulties should be discussed to determine whether they relate to student knowledge or to the conduct of the assessment process. Problems with the process need to be rectified for subsequent administrations of the assessment item.

6. English language proficiency tests This section introduces English language assessment that occurs outside of ESL teaching programs, often for the purpose of determining a candidate’s suitability for entry to an academic or training program, or for employment. For example, the entry requirements for a Certificate IV or Diploma of English Language Teaching (TESOL) are as follows: Students must achieve a minimum or equivalent score of:  IELTS 6.0  PTE Academic 51-58  TOEIC 750  TOEFL (paper) 550  TOEFL (CBIT) 213  TOEFL (IBT) 79-80  Cambridge Exams FCE-A  ILSPR 3  CEFR B2 Students may come to your class in preparation for taking one of the following exams. Some institutes offer courses specifically for preparing to take the IELTS, TOEFL or TOEIC exams. ESL books designed for preparing for these exams also exist in proliferation. The most common of these English language proficiency tests are: ILSPR: International Second Language Proficiency Rating Scale

PTE: Pearson test of English

OET: Occupational English Test

IELTS: International English Language Testing System

TOEIC: Test of English for International Communicat ion

TOEFL: Test of English as a Foreign Language

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Please note that the following information is correct at the time of publication; however, these language proficiency assessments are continually being improved and changes may occur between editions of this text.

6.1

ISLPR

“The ISLPR is a scale that describes the development of second or foreign language proficiency in adolescent and adult learners. More precisely, it is a set of four subscales for the macro-skills of speaking, listening, reading and writing. These subscales trace the development of the target language from 0 (no ability to communicate in the target language) to 5 (indistinguishab le from a native speaker of the same socio-cultural background). There are intermediate ‘plus’ or ‘minus’ levels, giving a total of 12 levels in each subscale. Eight of these levels are described in detail (i.e. a page of rich description for each level in each macro-skill). The description includes a statement of the kinds of tasks that people at that level can perform (with the contexts they can perform them in) and the kinds of language forms they use when performing those tasks (with detail about accuracy, fluency, appropriateness, etc.). The descriptions assume real-life, communicative language use.” (Elaine Wylie Centre for Applied Linguistics and Languages (CALL) Griffith University, 2005). ISLPR is not an exam with a centralised or standardised bank of questions or tasks. ISLPR is a scale, not a test. The scale is designed to be used by assessors to describe the proficiency level of the candidate. In relation to each macro-skill the assessor assigns tasks, using authentic texts, which will push the candidate to perform at their upper limit of proficiency. In an ISLPR assessment, the candidate will be interviewed conversational style for about 20 minutes. This section of the assessment may also include some roleplay: “You are beginning a new course today. I am your teacher. Ask me any questions you like about the new course.” This constitutes the speaking portion of the assessment which is recorded. The interviewer matches the candidate’s performance against the ISLPR scale, which has very detailed descriptors. The recording allows a second assessor to rate the candidate if need be. The candidate will then be asked to listen to recorded texts (all authentic) and respond in some way. For example, they may be given a scenario before listening, like, “It’s Saturday. You have a terrible toothache. You ring the dentist, but only get an answering machine. Listen to the message and then tell me what you will do.” This task is very true to life, and the candidate’s response will indicate their level of comprehension. The candidate is then given an authentic written text, given a few minutes to read it, and is then asked questions which test comprehension. For example a candidate might be asked, “Tell me in your own words what this section is about,” or, “What should I do if …?”

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Finally the candidate is given two writing tasks to complete within a 60-minute time limit. The writing tasks are also simulated real-life tasks, like, “You have booked and paid for a 5-day bus tour of Sydney and the Blue Mountains. However, the company that employs you has suddenly cancelled your leave and you won’t be able to go on the tour. Write to the tour company to request a refund.” For more information on the key features of each macro-skill visit islpr.org/keyfeatures-of-each-macro-skill

6.2

IELTS

The IELTS exam has two modules: ‘Academic’, to determine a candidate’s suitability for undergraduate or graduate study, and ‘General’, for work, training, community participation and study at lower levels (e.g., diploma, high school). The exam has 4 sub-tests: listening, speaking, reading and writing. The candidates are given a rating on each of 4 scales (S/L/R/W) and a composite rating, which is the average of the four ratings on the macro-skills. Because all test scores can be rated on the scale there is no pass or fail. Each subtest begins with easy questions and gets progressively more difficult. The tests follow a standard format, but the questions are varied every time the test is administered. The listening test (30 minutes) has 40 questions based on 4 texts on social or life situations (one conversation and one broadcast), education and training (one conversation and one broadcast). The reading test (60 minutes) has 40 questions based on 3 authentic texts. Texts are all taken from journals, magazines, books and newspapers. Question types include multiple choice, gap-fill, matching and answers of up to three words. The writing test (60 minutes) includes 2 tasks. The first task asks you to describe information presented graphically with a minimum of 150 words. The second task is a formal essay of a minimum of 250 words. Both tasks must be attempted. The speaking test (11-14 minutes) has 3 sections. Candidates talk about their interests, family, life and topics of a general nature. In the second section they have one minute to prepare to talk for 1-2 minutes on a specific topic. The examiner then asks one or two questions about the topic at the end. Finally you discuss more abstract ideas connected with the theme of the prepared talk. See the following websites useful in supporting students with IELTS and other Cambridge exams - www.flo-joe.co.uk and www.cambridgenglish.org

6.3

TOEFL

TOEFL is accepted in over 130 countries. It is administered in two modes: paperbased in authorised test centres where internet access is not available, and internet –based which is now the main mode of delivery. The test has four sections (speaking, listening, reading and writing) which take about four and a half hours to complete.

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In the reading section (approx. 50-75 minutes) 30-40 questions are asked about 3 or 4 academic texts. In the listening section (approx. 40-60 minutes) 39 questions are asked about lectures, classroom discussions and conversations. The speaking section (approx. 15-20 minutes) includes 1 independent speaking task and 3 integrated speaking tasks. The writing section (approx. 50 minutes) includes 2 tasks in which you must write an essay based on the reading and listening tasks and support an opinion in writing. There are multiple internet websites available with information and practice tests on the TOEFL exam.

6.4

TOEIC

The TOEIC® Listening and Reading test is a valid assessment of English-language reading and listening skills for the workplace. It is used worldwide by employers. Its focus is effective communication in English with coworkers and clients across borders and cultures. It is a paper and pencil administered test. The listening test (45 minutes) consists of 100 multiple-choice questions relating to photographs, questions and responses, conversations and talks. The reading section (75 minutes) consists of 100 multiple-choice questions based on incomplete sentences, text completion, short passages and double passages (pairs of reading texts with 5 questions per pair. Online websites such as https://www.examenglish.com/TOEIC have more information on this testing system.

6.5

Pearson Test of English (PTE)

Pearson offers a suite of English language tests which include PTE Academic, PTE General and PTE Young Learners. The Academic Test is a computer-based test of academic English, intended to provide a score relevant to international study. The test is conducted in one session of approximately three hours (with an optional 10 minute break) and covers the four macro-skills. In the PTE Academic, students record their responses in the speaking assessment section of the test. If the student does not respond within 3 seconds their answer is not recorded. Writing is completed on the computer and each question item is closed after a specific period of time. Video clips including different varieties of English (e.g. British, American and Australian) are played once and used to assess

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listening. The reading and listening test aspects are completed separately. There are about 20 different types of questions across the four macro-skills. The general and young learner tests are partly administered by trainer local examiners and at present are available in a limited number of territories. The focus of the general test is on communicative use of English for real-life situations. It has two parts, a written paper testing listening, reading comprehension and writing skills. The spoken test is assessed locally and moderated in the UK. The PTE Young Learners is a suite of four integrated skills tests created around the adventures of the Brown Family. The test has four levels and begins with testing use of structures and functions in realistic contexts and, later, language use in specific communicative tasks. For more information see websites such as https://ptetutorials.com/testformat.html

6.6

Occupational English Test (OET)

The Occupational English Test (OET) is a joint venture between Cambridge Assessment English and Box Hill Institute of Australia for healthcare professionals to demonstrate their English language skill competencies. For overseas students in Australia studying a course in healthcare, such as nursing, students must pass the OET to gain employment. There are twelve different healthcare professions that the OET test covers. The test reflects real workplace tasks that healthcare professionals would participate in. To find out more about this assessment visit www.occupationalenglishtest.org

Summary In this unit we have discovered the purposes, levels, process and methods of assessment, and the importance of positive assessment appreciation for both the ESL teacher and student. The method of assessment can be found in identifying whether an assessment is high stakes, low stakes, formal or informal. The purpose of assessment is shown by understanding the reason for testing, use of assessment information and the type of assessment. We have learned in this unit the process of developing valid, reliable, fair and flexible assessment which are core principles according to the design and administration of assessment. Finally, we have become acquainted with some of the English language proficiency tests that are on the market with varying purposes and processes.

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CHAPTER 13: Teach English for academic purposes

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Introduction Every semester, students from non-English speaking backgrounds (NESB) enrol in universities around the world in which English is the medium of instruction. In addition to the burden of studying through the medium of a second language, these students are often far from home, experiencing culture stress, and having to negotiate their way through an educational system which has well-established processes and a culture all of its own, both of which are unfamiliar to the new arrival. After graduation, the need for competence in using academic English continues as English is increasingly used worldwide as the language of scholarship, including research and participation in disciplinary communities (Hyland, 2009). It is widely recognised that EAP begins at kindergarten (Hyland, 2006), and many international education programs for children include an element of English language instruction from early childhood and through the primary, middle and high school years. The focus of this chapter, however, will be limited to EAP at the tertiary level. The long term goals of students from NESB are as diverse as the courses available to them. There are, however, similarities that extend across courses and disciplines in terms of the kinds of activities students will be expected to engage in during their studies. The starting point for looking at teaching English for academic purposes (EAP) is to identify the learning needs of the students in relation to the tasks they will have to complete within the academic context (Zhu and Flaitz, 2005). ESL for academic purposes must include development of the skills associated with academic tasks and contexts, e.g. listening to lectures, participating in group discussions and tutorials, reading academic texts, and writing academic papers. This unit will outline learning needs to be considered when planning training programs for EAP, and suggest some appropriate teaching and learning activities for language development in relation to:

speaking tasks involved in academic study

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EAP and culture An important aspect of TESOL which must not be neglected in EAP is the need to address the cultural context in which English is being used (Bell, 1998). Within the scope of teaching participation in a discussion, for example, there will be a need for some explanation of what behaviour is acceptable or expected in that situation and training in appropriate ways to express attitudes and opinions. An incredible variation exists between different cultures with regard to what is acceptable and appropriate in terms of physical action, tone of voice, volume or intensity of linguistic choices. Some people may appear overly aggressive, others may appear non-participatory, factors which will impinge on results if participation in tutorials is assessed. Zhu and Flaitz (2005) report that students expressed the need for training in cultural competence, when to ask questions, how to agree or disagree with the lecturer or discussion participants, and in understanding cultural references in lectures and readings. At the same time, Cheng (2000) cautions practitioners in the ESL/EFL field against assuming that cultural preconditioning is the reason behind some Asian students appearing ‘quiet’, arguing that students claim to have a strong desire to participate in classroom activities. Cheng suggests that apparent reticence or passivity are the result of differences in teaching methodologies and insufficient language proficiency. In addition, we must consider individual differences that may not be related to culture. People with a reserved disposition may be intimidated by someone with a dominant or aggressive personality. The point is that we must not assume that all differences are culture-related. Another aspect of culture that must be addressed is the variation in roles and responsibilities of teachers and students between cultures. Culture stress can be alleviated to some degree by understanding the differences that are being experienced. If a student has an expectation that the lecturer will take a personal interest in their concerns and problems, and that expectation is not met, negative emotions and attitudes can be triggered, creating a barrier to learning. If a student’s whole educational experience has been one in which repetition by rote of large chunks of information is valued and esteemed, then a new understanding regarding the appropriate use of and reference to sources must be developed. The student needs to understand the local educational culture, its value system, and ways of behaving.

1. Streams within EAP Within the EAP field there are two streams: ESAP English for Specific Academic Purposes (e.g. medicine, engineering, economics) and EGAP English for General Academic Purposes (e.g. listening and note-taking, academic writing, reference skills, seminars, discussions). ESAP will have an exclusive focus on the specific text types used in that discipline and will use content-based materials for language

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instruction; English for medical studies will focus on understanding and creating spoken and written texts on medical themes and in genres typically associated with the medical field and profession. Where possible, development of academic English should use content from the intended field of study. In institutional EAP settings this is usually only possible when there are sufficient enrolments of students with the same area of interest to create a class with a specific content focus. An EAP program that uses texts and tasks from one field is ideal for developing the language skills needed by ESL students who are intending to study in that field. Using authentic materials introduces the most relevant vocabulary, text types and tasks. English, in this learning program, becomes a means to an end (Brown, 2004) as language learning is situated in a relevant and meaningful context. This leads to more enduring learning (Baik & Greig, 2009). Development of content-based programs will require consultation with teachers and lecturers in the content areas. Use of authentic materials is ideal, although materials from a lower academic level may be necessary for introducing new vocabulary within grammatical structures of a manageable level. Thematic units of work that explore a few concepts in depth, are preferable to a broad but superficial coverage of content. At all times the primary focus of the EAP program must remain on language development, but using relevant content in terms of texts and tasks facilitates this most effectively and generates motivation.

2. Develop listening skills for participation in academic contexts The most obvious language needs of students in academic settings are classroom, study and research tasks. Zhu and Flaitz (2005), however, draw our attention to reports of difficulties experienced by students in relation to administrative processes, such as completing registration procedures by telephone necessitating responding appropriately to computer-generated recorded prompts. Social interaction with peers from a variety of language backgrounds is another area that is not immediately obvious. Each of these areas affects the performance of students in the academic context. Student participants in Zhu and Flaitz’s research project reported difficulties created by lack of cultural knowledge. They gave examples of terminology associated with classroom procedures such as, “I’ll take up the assignment on Tuesday,” meaning that the assignments would be collected, rather than their interpretation that the assignment would be discussed on Tuesday.

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2.1

Listening to lectures

In second language listening, extended monologues are challenging and exhausting. Characteristics of the lecturer’s speech that can hinder comprehension include rapid rate, how well the information is organised, how clearly the important information is signalled and lack of explanation or definition of special terminology. Conversely, a medium rate of speech which is clearly enunciated can make a very significant difference to the amount of information that is understood. In addition, using phrases that signal main points or important details eases the task of distinguishing what is important and what is not, an area of frustration reported by many students from NESB. Similarly, discourse markers are used to show the relationships between various ideas. It is helpful if the speaker makes a clear distinction between fact and opinion. Developing these communication skills will help every listener, not only those from NESB. Perhaps our lecturers need as much training in effective communication as our students need in understanding them. Another area in which difficulty is experienced is in taking notes while listening. Students need to be able to identify the most important information, decide when to write so that they don’t miss something important, and write notes quickly that will be legible and meaningful later. Awareness of cohesive devices and discourse markers as mechanisms for signalling main points, sub-points, relationships between ideas, degree of certainty, etc., is a key to effective listening. Students need to develop sensitivity to the use of stress and volume for signalling important points. Learning and practice activities focusing on these features can help to develop skills in relation to listening problems reported by students from NESB. (a) Identifying main points and sub-points: In lectures, the speaker will usually use discourse markers to help the listener to follow the argument, by using words or phrases such as, “The most important aspect of ...” or “Of primary concern is ...” or “It is significant that ...”. Sub-points are indicated by phrases such as, “One aspect of this ...”, followed by, “Another aspect ...” or “Within this category we see evidence of a, b, and c.” Peterson (1991) suggests using lecture transcripts to raise awareness of cohesive devices and discourse markers. Have students circle cue words, then apply this knowledge by listening to recordings of other lectures and identifying the main points. Main points are often stated in the introduction and restated in the summary or conclusion of the lecture. Analysis of transcripts drawing attention to these structural features of the lecture genre will remind students to listen especially carefully during the opening and closing sections. Stress within sentences and variation in volume are common techniques for indicating a main point or some important information. Listen to or watch a recorded lecture asking students to indicate when they feel the lecturer has used stress or volume, and to state the essence of the point indicated.

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Multiple choice questions are a common exercise for practising identifying the main point: From these four options select the main point. Another strategy for identifying main points is to listen and list the sub-points and state (or choose from a number of possibilities) a main point which they all reflect. Activities involving categorising information can help to develop the skill of working from parts to whole (bottom-up processing). (b) A skilled lecturer will give listeners more than one opportunity to hear the same information. They do this by paraphrasing (using different words to say the same thing), repeating (using the same words again), or expanding on ideas by giving examples or describing in greater detail. A skilled listener will recognise whether or not input is new information. Text analysis that highlights these communication strategies will help students know how to streamline note-taking. (c) Differentiating between fact and opinion can similarly be developed by a focus on cue words and phrases as well as development of vocabulary. Contrasting vocabulary items is one way to show difference in meaning:

Communicating fact

Communicating opinion

(i)

This confirms that ...

It would seem that ...

(ii)

Research revealed that ...

Common sense tells us ...

(iii)

Koalas are marsupials.

Whales apparently have a death wish, beaching themselves in droves.

Fig. 13.1 Vocabulary items used to communicate fact and opinion

In the above examples, the signals are given by:

the verb

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Intonation is also used to communicate whether something is fact or opinion, and certainly to communicate the speaker’s attitude towards some information. Again, analytical viewing of recorded lectures can help to develop awareness of these non-linguistic aspects of communication. (d) Using top-down processing skills such as prediction can increase comprehension as the possibilities that have been identified (predicted) are more easily recognised when they are heard. Peterson (1991) suggests practising prediction by listening to the introduction to a lecture, listing anticipated points, then listening to the rest of the lecture to check. Prediction skills can be engaged by checking the course outline for key points. Reading assigned material before attending the lecture will introduce key terms and points. Reviewing the assignment description will also help to focus listening during the lecture. (e) Note-taking is another valuable study skill and an area where the development of this skill in English is beneficial. Note-taking in English will ensure that correct terminology is recorded, and help the student to avoid the extra step of translation as they listen. Students should practise writing summaries, in English, in dot point form, in their own words. It is also helpful to demonstrate and practise a number of different note-taking formats: linear (main points and sub-points), mind mapping, cluster notes, hierarchical notes.

L1 background - degree of similarity to/diff. from L2

Educational background - general knowledge - L1 literacy level

Individual differences in lanaguage learning Neurological factors health - short-term memory - sight and/or hearing loss

Stage of cognitive development - early childhood - childhood - adolescence - adulthood

Fig. 13.2 Note-taking method: Clusters. Created during a workshop about adult education.

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speaking

•participate in discussions •give an oral presentation •casual conversation

listening

•listen to lectures •participate in discussions •recorded messages

reading

•read textbooks and journals •read internet based resources •read administration procedures

writing

•write an explanation •write a discussion •write an application

Fig. 13.3 Note-taking method: Linear. Created during a discussion about learning English.

Education

Vocational Training

TAFE

Private providers

University

Private providers

Primary school

Public

Home-schooling

Private

High school

Public

Home-schooling

Private

ACCESS

Fig. 13.4 Note-taking method: Mind map created while listening to a lecture about the provision of education in Australia. 386

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Note-taking is also encouraged as a learning strategy. Transcribing notes as soon as possible after the lecture (preferably within 24 hours) becomes a helpful review exercise and reinforces learning. It is also helpful to develop a system of abbreviations and symbols that speed up the writing process (Lebauer, 2010). Here are some examples: cf

(confer) = compare

i.e.

(id est) = that is

e.g.

(exempla grate) = for example

NB

(nota benne) = note well

no.

(numero) = number

etc.

(et cetera) = and so on

=

equals/is equal to/is the same as

≠

is not equal to/is not the same as therefore, thus, so because

+

and, more, plus

→

gives, causes, produces, leads to, results in, is given by, is produced by, results from, comes from rises, increases by falls, decreases by

Unfamiliar vocabulary should be noted and looked up during the review and transcription process. A few activities for practising note-taking skills as you practise listening include:  Listen and complete a skeleton outline of the lecture.  Listen once and identify the main points, then listen again to note the subpoints and examples.  Listen and classify or categorise information into a table.  Given a list of conclusions, note the evidence for each cited in the lecture.  Listen and create a diagram to illustrate the content.

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Finally, different lecturers, fields and disciplines will conduct lectures differing in level of formality and students need to become aware of the cues that indicate the level and therefore what protocol is appropriate in terms of when and how to ask questions and negotiate meaning. A helpful exercise once again is to watch recordings of lectures and note differences in procedures and cues.

2.2

Listening in discussions and tutorials

Kim (2006) reports that East Asian graduate students rate whole-class discussions, raising questions in class, and engaging in small-group discussions as the most common academic oral classroom activities. Their greatest concern is associated with leading and participating in whole class discussions. Formal oral presentations and listening comprehension were perceived as the most important skills for academic success in graduate courses. Group discussions are a very challenging listening situation for second language speakers. Communication in these situations is characterised by overlapping, interrupting, breaking in to the discussion, short and long turns at speaking, expressions of agreement or disagreement as a group member is speaking, and so on. It is definitely one of the ‘messier’ communication events. For someone operating in a second language, following the discussion can be very difficult. They need to be able to ask other participants to speak clearly and at a medium pace, and to ask for repetition when necessary. Simply listening is usually not enough. Each member is expected to participate by speaking, and a portion of the course grade is often awarded in relation to participation in discussions and tutorials. Strategies to increase listening effectiveness include:

Look at the speaker and observe non-linguistic cues (body language)

Take notes

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When facilitating listening practice in your EAP classes, apply the principles discussed in Chapter 6: Teach listening:

Use real-life texts

•easily accessed via websites, podcasts, recordings of current affairs and documentaries.

Comprehensible input

•gauge the level of the text so that students should be able to understand 60% of what they hear.

Use visual cues

•lectures, discussions and tutorials are generally face-to-face and so it is worth including training in interpreting nonlinguistic and paralinguistic aspects of communication.

Build the context

•Discuss the topic and context before listening so that students are prepared for what they will hear.

Address new vocabulary

•Prepare for listening by anticipating vocabulary and adding new items to the list. After listening, address any vocabulary that was unknown and essential for understanding the text.

Listen more than once

•with academic lectures being routinely podcast, repeated listening is a real-life possibility.

Listen in chunks

•break the listening task into manageable sections.

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Listening practice should require that the students demonstrate comprehension by completion of a realistic task. For example:

Listen and note the main points.

Listen and take notes according to specified categories.

Listen and note the speaker’s opinion and how they communicate that.

Listen and note the phrases that signal new points.

Listen and note how one person manages to interrupt another speaker.

3. Develop speaking skills for participation in academic contexts The most obvious classroom speaking tasks in the academic context are:

small group discussion

giving oral presentations

leading tutorials

asking or answering questions

Integral to language skills training is developing an understanding of the culture within which texts are created and the culturally-specific ways of using language. An analysis of the language used to complete these tasks will give EAP teachers a starting point for skill development.

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3.1

Preparing students for participating in discussions

Small group and class discussions are activities found in western educational contexts from early ages. Young children are invited to share their thoughts and opinions, and are simultaneously schooled in the protocol for doing so: one person speaks at a time; each person signals when they want to speak (usually by putting their hand up); each person is allowed to finish what they are saying; and disagreement is directed towards ideas rather than people. Duff (2006) reports on a two year ethnographic study of Asian background ESL students in mainstream social studies classes in a Canadian school. Observations show that success in class was dependent on, among other things, participation in discussion, knowledge of local culture and current affairs, ability to express critique and to enter quick-paced interactions, all requiring a great deal of confidence. Many of these protocols become more subtly expressed with maturity. For example, signalling that you are going to speak is achieved by taking a breath or shifting in your seat, and negotiating whose turn it is when there is no longer a teacher to nominate the next speaker involves making eye-contact with other would-be speakers at which point one speaker is deferred to. When discussions become heated, turn-taking can become more a matter of volume than courtesy. This can be thoroughly intimidating for someone working in a second language, especially if their home culture is one in which smooth interpersonal relationships are valued more highly than having your opinion heard. Cultural orientation towards discussion is imperative. Watching video recordings of real-life discussions can be very useful for noting the discourse strategies being implemented, including:

signalling readiness to speak

maintaining the speaking position

snowing agreement

expressing disagreement

stating opinions

interrupting

speaking under time-pressure (formulating statements quickly)

giving examples

formulating questions

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Along with identifying such discourse strategies, students need practice in a safe environment in order to develop the skills and the confidence to be an active participant in discussions and tutorials in a mainstream academic setting. In terms of cultural orientation, it is also important to understand that in a western context relationships are not dependent on total agreement. Friendships and working relationships survive disagreement provided that personal criticism is avoided.

3.2

Preparing students for delivering oral presentations

Presenting in a second language is a daunting task. Familiarity with the way presentations are carried out will help to reduce fear and anxiety. The structure of oral presentations is usually prescribed as part of the assignment description. Students from NESB may need assistance in interpreting the requirements relating to each section of the presentation. Analysis of a variety of oral presentations will help students to become aware of the various stages of oral presentations. Draw attention to the phrases used to signal the beginning of each stage, or the transitions between stages. Highlight the opening and closing statements. Did the presentation include provision of a written outline or summary, and how was it presented? Other language features of presentations you might observe together might include words and phrases that are used to show the relationships between different pieces of information, for example contrasting or comparing, cause and result. You might look at words and phrases that convey attitude or degree of certainty or possibility. Practising giving presentations is essential for developing confidence. Assign topics or negotiate topics with students for them to prepare and deliver oral presentations in the ESL class. In preparation for delivery, work with students to gather information in note form, then categorise relevant information under headings reflecting each stage. Select and apply appropriate words and phrases for marking the transitions between each stage of the presentation. It can be helpful to practise giving oral presentations first to one person, then to a small group, before finally standing before the whole class. Feedback at each stage can help the presenter to further refine or develop their presentation. This process helps to build confidence. Students should evaluate each other’s presentations against criteria that reflect the structural features of an oral presentation. Feedback and correction should address structure and language primarily, but attention should also be given to the content of the presentation. The process of peer evaluation reinforces awareness of the structural and linguistic features of oral presentations.

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3.3

Preparing students to ask and answer questions in class

Students in western academic contexts are expected to ask for clarification or more information when necessary. Students need to be able to ask clear questions targeting specific information. Students also need to be aware of the appropriate stages of the learning activity to ask questions. This will vary with the nature of the activity (lecture, classroom activity, field trip, tutorial, small group discussion, etc.). Students will need practice in:

the grammar of questions

forming questions asking for repetition

forming questions asking for clarification

forming questions asking for more information

Students also need to be able to respond to questions in class. One difficulty reported to Zhu and Flaitz (2005) is related to the speed with which students are expected to respond to questions. It takes time to process the incoming language, formulate an answer, and then to decide how to express that in L2. Again, activities that assist fluency development will be the greatest help here. Competitions in which students race against the clock (e.g. begin speaking within 5 seconds) to give an oral answer to questions on areas of interest and expertise serve to increase confidence and the speed of thought processes. One of the greatest hurdles for students from NESB is confidence. Activities that are as much fun as they are a challenge will help students to move beyond natural inhibitions and ‘have a go’. Having established through games and competitions in which students have demonstrated that they are able to make themselves understood, that they are able to discuss, and negotiate meaning, ESL teachers need to encourage those students that the same skills come into play in a regular academic context.

3.4

Preparing students for leading tutorials

Tutorials are a commonly used teaching and learning activity in academic settings. Many tutorials are facilitated or led by students of the same discipline studying at a higher level or from the year ahead. Some courses incorporate peer tutorials led by students enrolled in the class, and these tutorials often contribute to the assessment process. Preparation for leading a tutorial motivates the leader to become thoroughly familiar with that area of the subject matter. In formulating questions for discussion and other group activities, the leader’s learning is reinforced and consolidated. TESOL Made Practical For All Situations

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Facilitation techniques in tutorials include: an introduction to the topic from the leader

an ice-breaker discussion question

a more involved debate

scenarios based on role

sub-groups developing an argument either in support of or against a provocatively framed question

more technical explorations of the information presented in readings

discussion

Communicative functions in the context of tutorials will likely include:

describe

define

exemplify

classify

compare and contrast

agree and disagree

Developing these skills in the ESL classroom could involve:  Observing and analysing tutorials (real, recorded or simulated) making explicit the language features associated with the techniques and functions listed above.  Providing opportunities to apply the language observed in a new topical context.  Watching or listening to a tutorial in segments, pausing to practise asking questions in relation to what has just been discussed: “What question could you ask at this point?”  Watching or listening to a tutorial in segments, pausing to interject arguments or contradictions, or to make a statement of agreement: “What could you say right now to show that you agree/disagree?”  Leading and participating in tutorials on a variety of topics in the ESL classroom, with the requirement that each participant contribute at least one statement agreeing or one statement disagreeing, or interject one question, etc. 394

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4. Develop reading skills for participation in academic contexts The bulk of reading as a student in an academic context is directed towards completion of assessment items: research projects, written assignments and theses and study for exams. The volume of reading involved is extensive and requires development of different reading strategies for different reading purposes.

4.1

Skimming, scanning and speed

Skimming is used to gain an overview of the contents and structure of a whole book, a section of a book or an article. Having identified a book or article that may be relevant to the study topic, students need to narrow the scope of reading to sections that will be instructive towards answering the research or assignment question. Through perusing headings and subheadings, casting our eyes over pages of materials registering keywords and concepts, we can identify sections of material that we will then read in detail. When skimming, we pay attention to introductions, topic sentences (usually the first sentence of a paragraph), titles, captions for illustrations, words or phrases in bold or italics (Cox and Hill, 2011). Students from NESB need to practise the skills of predicting from headings and identifying keywords and their synonyms. One activity from Cox and Hill (2011) to develop the skill of skimming is:

Activity

•Students race each other to skim a text and choose the outline which best matches what they read.

Scanning is used to locate specific information on a page. When scanning, you do not read every word; rather, it involves looking for keywords relating to the target concepts, then reading around about those keywords (in the previous or next sentence) to establish the meaning contained in the text.

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A few activities from Cox and Hill (2011) to develop the scanning skill include:

Activity

Activity

Activity

•Given a list of words that are included in a provided text, scan the text for each word on the list, and note the paragraph numbers in which the word is used. •Scan the text for each word on a given list, and use the context to explain the meaning of the word.

•Students race each other to find paraphrases of the statements given and mark the paragraph number in which they are found.

Reading speed is integral to effective and efficient reading. Reading that is too slow can hinder comprehension. Students need to be able to process, in their shortterm memory, longer stretches of text, in order to distil the general meaning and create a framework of meaning within which to interpret unfamiliar vocabulary.

4.2

Critical literacy

Critical literacy skills are vital in western academic contexts. Freebody and Luke (1990) describe readers in four roles, the fourth of which is our concern in talking about critical literacy:

Code breaker

•Able to employ basic reading skills of decoding to read a text.

Text participant

•Able to employ a range of existing knowledge and skills in making sense of a text.

Text user

•Able to use a variety of text types to achieve a variety of social purposes.

Text analyst

•Able to discern the dispositions and orientations of the communication of information.

Students need to be able to read and evaluate the content of texts. In doing so the reader must be aware of the effect of particular ways of communicating information, as McPeck (1981) suggests, “... the appropriate use of reflective scepticism.”

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Barclay (1991) offers a series of questions that encourage students to begin thinking critically: What do you think the reasons for this are?

How did you come to that conclusion?

What was your reasoning on that? What were you thinking when you worked out that answer?

Underlying these questions is the need to know: What is the writer’s attitude?

How has that attitude been communicated? What is the reader supposed to think or do after reading the text? (How is the reader being positioned?)

Some activities for developing critical thinking skills include: Analysis of advertisements is a quick method of raising awareness of techniques, subtle and unsubtle, that are used to position the reader. This skill needs to be transferred to written articles, raising awareness of the fact that texts are created with the objective of representing or promoting a particular viewpoint or position and convincing the reader to share that position.

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Ask students to compare articles on the same topic, taken from different sources: newspaper, magazine and journal articles, internet, TV news and current affairs reports. In what ways do the reports differ? Do different attitudes come through? Where more than one attitude is represented, does one come across as more acceptable or favoured than the others? Is the audience persuaded towards a particular stance, opinion or attitude? How is this transference of attitude achieved? What language mechanisms have been used? What evidence or support of statements has been given? Evaluate and rate statements (sources given) as to how believable they are. Discuss the reasons that you have/lack confidence in each statement. Predict the biases of various organisations or groups of people about a topic.

Develop a list of criteria for rating credibility of sources.

Use a list of criteria (for credibility) to check a variety of sources giving information about the same topic. Read a newspaper or online article or editorial about a current event and discuss what you understand from ‘reading between the lines’. What opinions or connections is the writer hinting at but not stating explicitly? Read a newspaper or online article or editorial about a current event and discuss what the possible or probable next actions or outcomes will be in relation to the issue.

4.3

Structural and language features of written texts

Vocabulary range needs to be wide in order to cope with academic texts, and in this regard the benefits of content-based ESL curriculum are easily recognisable. Vocabulary development is intrinsic to an ESL program that uses textual input relevant to the intended course of study. In EAP classes where a range of intended study areas are represented, it might be possible to individualise and specialise learning activities by designing tasks that are general in description, and which students apply to a self-selected text relevant to their academic field of interest. For example, ask students to create a glossary of terms drawn from an

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introductory chapter in a core text of the course they intend to study. Each term should then be used in a sentence. In relation to vocabulary, an important skill is guessing the meaning of words from their context, including surrounding words and general meaning of the surrounding text. Often there are phrases defining or explaining technical vocabulary in that same paragraph or even sentence. Readers should look past unknown words or phrases to see if an explanation or examples have been included in the text. Readers can also use knowledge of any base word identifiable within the new word, as well as knowledge of morphemes such as prefixes and suffixes, to assist in working out the meaning. This saves time and the disorientation caused by moving between text and dictionary. Knowledge of structural aspects of academic writing can also aid the reading process. Each academic discipline will make use of particular text types to fulfil their particular communicative needs or purposes. Tertiary students need strategies to increase the effectiveness of their reading of a variety of text types. They need to know where to start looking for the most relevant parts of a book, journal or web-based text. Using tables of contents and indexes are basic reading skills thoroughly mastered by most students by the tertiary stage of education. We can also quickly locate relevant information by using abstracts and introductory chapters to gain a clear summary of the contents of a book. Similarly, in each chapter the introductory paragraph will give an overview of the contents of that chapter, and the final paragraph often gives a summary of the chapter. Knowing how the information will be organised within the text makes it easy to access what is most needed. Topic sentences within paragraphs are most commonly located at the beginning and occasionally at the end of the paragraph. Identifying these sentences is another strategy for focusing reading on relevant portions of the text, and understanding the main points or most important information. Other material in the paragraph supports the content of the topic sentence including examples, further explanation or evidence to substantiate an argument or position. Cohesion and the devices used to achieve it are an area worthy of individual attention, though they clearly fall within the above category of text structure. Cohesive devices include reference (use of pronouns, demonstratives and comparison), ellipsis and substitution, lexis (repetition, synonyms, antonyms and collocation) and conjunctions (additive, temporal, causal, adversative, continuatives) (Collerson, 1994). These devices are used to show how one piece of information or one section (e.g. sentence or paragraph) of a text relates to another. Understanding of the implications or meaning created by their selective use is important. In the ESL class, a focus on these grammatical features in text analysis will help to develop stronger skills for understanding the meaning of texts.

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4.4

Note-taking and referencing

Skilful and strategic note-taking from journals, articles and texts is essential with the amount of reading and writing involved in academic study. The ability to summarise and to paraphrase is invaluable in study and research, as is the ability to organise notes systematically. Notes are useless if you cannot find what you need when it comes time to write. It is important to develop the habit, when taking notes, of recording the source of all information and content. Notes should always include the complete reference for the source, so that referencing is a simple and easy task. Practice in the referencing style applicable to the student’s discipline is also essential. All students need to understand that plagiarism is not acceptable in western institutions and often means an immediate fail. With the expansion of information sharing via the internet, referencing has become more complex than ever before. A great tool for every student is a referencing guide such as is provided in student resources on the websites of many universities. For examples, see the University of Canberra’s Guide to Referencing (http://www.canberra.edu.au/library/attachments/pdf/referencing-guide.pdf – available for download) or Queensland University of Technology’s CiteWrite Guide to Referencing (http://www.citewrite.qut.edu.au/ – provides guides for APA, Harvard, and law school styles).

4.5

Research skills

Effective research begins with defining the search, or understanding the assignment task. In a focus group inquiry into understanding the academic language needs of international students, Zhu and Flaitz (2005) interviewed librarians, who reported that misinterpretation of assignment questions was a major problem. Tasks and questions at a tertiary level are usually constructed using very precise vocabulary, which is phrased concisely to point to a particular type of relationship or implication or outcome which should be examined, described, discussed or reported. One way to increase comprehension of questions and tasks is to practise deconstructing assignment tasks. The verb generally indicates what text type is expected in response: discuss, evaluate, select and justify your choice, etc. These are examples of ‘task’ words, or what is expected to be done. A particularly helpful strategy in deconstructing assignment tasks is to develop a list of questions provoked by the task, so that if all the questions are answered, the task will be completed. Identifying the most important ‘content’ words allow the student to focus on the specific vocabulary and technical resources that might need to be investigated.

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By further identifying the ‘limiting words’, the student can focus on the areas that limit the discussion, so as to not become distracted or go off on tangents not required by the assessment task. The following example is only one part of a six-part assignment task, but it serves to illustrate the process of reframing the task into a set of questions.

Task:

ldentify and explain (a) the harm and its indicators; and (b) individual, family & environmental factors of concern. This involves providing a clear statement of your concerns for the client; and identifying the protective needs of the client (i.e. what do they need in order to be safe).

Becomes a list of questions: •

What type of harm do you see in the individual? Give a clear description.

•

How did you notice the harm? What evidence (indicators) do you see of the harm? Give a clear description.

•

What things about the family concern you?

•

What things about the environment concern you?

•

What are the protective needs of the client? What do they need to have in order to establish or increase their safety? How can the client become safe?

Another area to cover in looking at academic reading, is to discuss the appropriate sources of evidence for academic writing, the most common being books, journals, websites, newspapers, magazines and documentary films. Referencing will be covered in the next section on writing. Assignment tasks will often indicate particular sources that should be referenced. Sources fall into three categories: primary, secondary and tertiary. These categories are distinct from each other in terms of proximity to the original event. Primary sources are closest to the original event, research or experience, e.g. an original letter/diary/journal, original notes from an experiment or research, a literary work, performance or work of art. Secondary sources are usually based on a primary source, e.g. a literary critique based on a poem, play or novel, a history book based on primary historical sources, or a scientific report based on primary experimental notes. Tertiary sources are a further step away from the primary source and can be based on secondary sources, e.g. a journal article reviewing a number of different approaches (secondary sources) to a subject, a book of

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readings presenting different perspectives on the subject matter you are studying, a text book reviewing and interpreting a number of scientific discoveries, experiments or approaches (Uni of Sydney, 2006-2012). Students need to be able to evaluate the credibility of sources and will be assisted in the development of this skill by some of the activities suggested earlier in relation to critical literacy skills. Evidence used in academic writing must be reliable, accurate, objective and up-to-date. A credible source (paper-based or online) will have some or all of the following:



Evidence of research: footnotes or references that indicate the document is well-researched.



The writing and publication process involving quality control. The document has been reviewed by peers or an editor has been involved.



Material must be current. Check references. Check research dates.



If a source contradicts what most or all other authors are saying, check their evidence carefully before citing.

Even greater care must be taken with citing online sources, as there are often no quality control measures in place: anyone can have a website and upload any statements they want. There are, however, many online sources that are of a very high academic standard. In evaluating online sources, you should also check: What type of website it is:  Commercial sites (.com or .co) have a vested interest in the information and statements they upload.  Organisations and professional associations (.org) may have useful information, but can still promote a particular bias.  Government (.gov) are usually informative and high quality, but often with limited scope.  Academic (.edu) are designed for users in the academic field. Professional or lots of advertising.  Does it take you straight to the organisation or a myriad of advertising websites? Authorship is acknowledged. Uncredited information has little value. Note that you are likely to find higher quality information using a search engine such as Google Scholar or library databases (Evaluating source quality, 2010).

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5. Develop writing skills for participation in academic contexts Western academic contexts require a greater volume of extended writing genres than educational contexts from other cultures. Students who enter a western academic system without having developed the skill of writing lengthy texts in their first language, are doubly disadvantaged: (1) by working in a second language, and (2) by being inexperienced and unskilled in the writing of longer texts.

5.1

Systematic approach – genre theory

A systematic approach to teaching academic writing is based on genre theory, with a focus on the audience, the purpose of communication, text organisation and style (Swales & Feak, 2004). Some genres commonly associated with academic writing include: essays (usually 1,500 – 6,000 words): expository, argument, comparing and contrasting multiple texts, summaries

literature reviews

laboratory reports

case studies

comparisons

research proposals

research papers (3,000 – 6,000 words) including data commentary and report of a problem, process and solution

dissertations (6,000 – 20,000 words)

theses (30,000 – 60,000 words)

Earlier, in relation to developing reading skills, it was mentioned that students need practice in understanding assignment questions and tasks. Students need to be able to determine the genre for their response. Will it be an explanation, a persuasive text, a report or another genre? This instruction is found in the ‘command’ word used, e.g. discuss, compare, analyse. The ‘topic’ and/or ‘focus’ are the other parts of the assignment task that it is vital to understand correctly. Students need to practise identifying the topic and what they are expected to address about the topic. So asking questions such as, “Discuss what?” and then, “Discuss what in relation to what?”

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Text analysis activities that highlight the stages and language features of specific text types unlock the mechanics of writing for specific purposes. With a structural outline to follow and training in use of cohesive devices and reference, students can compose well-organised texts that meet the assignment requirements. Kongpech (2006) reports on his use of a genre-based approach to teaching academic writing with students in Thailand. He followed the teaching-learning cycle described by Hammond et al (1992) using the following activities noted below in relation to the stages of the cycle.

Building knowledge of the field Use written and graphic materials. Brainstorming. Dictagloss. Video and notetaking. Group oral presentations. Students select relevant material for texts. Expand vocabulary and conceptualisation of the topic in English.

Modelling the text Text analysis re social purpose and organization. Grammar work.

Joint negotiation/construction Independent Writing on a construction different topic of immediate 3 drafts, each concern. reviewed by teacher with feedback given in relation to structure and grammar.

Fig. 13.5 Kongpech’s techniques in a genre-based approach to teaching academic writing Kongpech reports that the process was generally well received and the end result was increased confidence and a clearer grasp of what was expected in terms of academic writing. Students did express that they would like most time to be spent on the independent writing stage rather than the earlier stages. They wanted to practise writing! Kongpech suggested, on reflection, that more explicit explanation of the purpose of the activities in the earlier stages would have helped students to have a greater appreciation of the foundational work in developing awareness of text structure.

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5.2

Sub-skills

Sub-skills within academic writing include: describe

define

exemplify

explain

classify

hypothesise

compare

show cause and effect

contrast

justify

sequence

conclude

Students need practice writing statements and paragraphs fulfilling each of these functions.

5.3

Preventing plagiarism

When writing in a second language, the temptation towards plagiarism is a constant dilemma. Students from educational backgrounds that value rote memorisation of long passages, seeing that as evidence of learning, need to be aware that in western educational contexts: (1) Use of lengthy quotations is discouraged in favour of explanations in your own words, with the original source acknowledged and referenced. (2) All quotations must be encased by quotation marks, acknowledged, and referenced. (3) Where someone else’s ideas (long or short) are incorporated into a new work, the original author should be acknowledged and referenced. Training in paraphrasing, summarising, using synonyms and varying active and passive voice along with correct referencing will help students to make appropriate use of source material.

5.4

Features of academic texts

In Chapter 2 we introduced various genres and the ‘Genre Approach’ to teach English. For a basic guide to some of the structural and language features of texts refer back to this chapter and the associated workbook tasks to revise your understanding. For some information on other academic text structures see below.

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Textbooks – the purpose of a textbook is to provide foundational or skill knowledge on a specific vocation or education level. Tip: review this textbook for structural and language features. Literature review – the purpose of these papers is to expose and compare academic literature against each other. To provide multiple viewpoints and how they compare. Thesis Documents – the purpose of a thesis document is to provide high level academic papers on specific areas of research. These papers are generally more than 30,000 words in length and contain multiple references, in-text referencing, and footnotes for example. They begin with a ‘thesis statement’ which introduces the argument or topic that the writer hopes to prove or disprove from their research writing. Research Findings – these academic documents present results or findings of specific research undertaken. They will often use statistical data and tables to present the research results. Essays- these can be based on a variety of topics and purposes, both general and academic. They typically consist of an introduction, body containing the main points or examples and a conclusion or summary of points. Essays can also be presented in an argument style. Reports – these may be based on a specific vocation such as science reports, accounting reports etc., so often vary in their technical language and structure. Some may provide figures or tables, while others may simply present standard information based on events or facts. It may be helpful to find actual examples of the above academic texts to assist in your understanding of the main structural and language features.

Summary Task analysis reveals the skills needed to be successful in an academic context. Development of listening, speaking, reading and writing skills in relation to these tasks can be purposefully targeted through a genre-based approach to language learning, highlighting textual features of specific text types. With these keys and well-developed grammatical competence, students can confidently and capably create and interpret texts as required. It is relatively easy to identify the language tasks engendered by the formal activities of academic study, but it is helpful to recognise and address the language tasks that run alongside these formal requirements: the need to socialise with peers in a variety of settings outside of class, during breaks between classes, on weekends, within informal study groups, the need to interact with administration and library staff, and so on. Strictly speaking, these activities are not generally the focus of an EAP course, but a quick activity focusing on something more lighthearted can be a useful mechanism for relieving the intensity of EAP.

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CHAPTER 14: Teach English for specific purposes

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Introduction Globalisation has resulted in English becoming the language of international communication through every level of industry, commerce and government, whether we are talking about a construction worker or CEO, a press secretary or prime minister. Many people from NESB or for whom English is a Second Language seek employment in specific vocational or professional fields (e.g. nursing, education, law or hospitality) in English-speaking countries or with a group which has an international focus. Each specific vocation or profession involves the use of a large amount of very specific language, generating some very specific language learning needs. Meeting this language learning need is the driving force behind of a field of English language teaching commonly referred to as English for Specific Purposes (ESP). ESP is therefore not one course; it refers to a multitude of courses and programs.

1. The purpose of ESP Programs A home-maker learning English doesn’t need to know how to write a grant proposal, engage in a courtroom debate or explain the workings of the refrigeration system in a road transport vehicle. Appropriately, the language for those tasks will probably never be included in a general ESL course. However, we often hear the complaint that someone has spent 3 years studying English (in general ESL classes) but still cannot manage the language demands of a job. English for Specific Purposes is the solution to that dilemma. ESP tailors language tuition to the target employment positions so that the individual can develop adequate language proficiency for the tasks that the job entails. Any business that has an international component (whether that be ordering goods from overseas or working with a multi-national company) the need for English has never been so great and the need will only become greater. ESP is also appropriate for students preparing for a training program or tertiary education, for example law or engineering, in a university where English is the medium of instruction and assessment. Studying English in a program that introduces the vocab, grammar, genres and culture of the proposed field of study will increase the potential for successful completion of the qualification. English for Academic Purposes (EAP) is one application of ESP, which has developed into a major branch of education in its own right. EAP is addressed separately in Chapter 13. English for Specific Purposes (ESP), as the title suggests, is directed by the need to be able to complete a specific task or group of tasks that are often related to a

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particular vocational or professional role. Each industry has its own sphere of language use in terms of tasks, texts, vocabulary, grammar and cultural conventions. The learner’s current or proposed uses of English determine the field and genres that will be the focus of their language learning. The spoken and written texts found in the context of the role become the texts used to develop English language skills for understanding and creating texts. ESP is as diverse as is the range of employment roles in the world today. The best English language programs are learner-centred, designed to meet the needs of the learners. ESP takes that learner-centredness to the maximum degree, contextualising language development within a defined field (topic or subject area) and range of text types as dictated by the functional demands of the role. The role prescribes the vocabulary, grammar, genres and cultural skills that constitute the learning goals or outcomes. A powerful benefit of ESP is that the language learning capitalises on a field with which the learner is either: (1) already familiar, and/or (2) highly motivated towards as it is an intended area of employment. Both cases mean that there is strong motivation to learn the relevant language. If the learner already has a framework of knowledge onto which the new language knowledge can ‘hook’, the language acquisition process will be easier. If the learners already know about car mechanics, it will be a simpler process for them to learn the terms referring to the components of a car engine and the processes involved in servicing it. Fiorito (2005) says that the students' ability in their subjectmatter field improves their ability to acquire English. They already have the context they need to assimilate how the subject-matter content is expressed in English. Learners who are preparing for study or training in a specific area, for example child care, will be more successful in their study if they have already acquired some of the terms used in that field. Learners who are already studying will find their study aided by the language development focus provided by an adjunct ESP program.

2. ESP programs breakdown 2.1

ESP programs and their development

There is no ‘one’ ESP program. As we’ve already heard, they are specific in field, which will define the vocab, grammar, genres and culture included in tuition. The degree to which the program will focus on each macro-skill (speaking, listening, reading, writing) is also determined by the specifications of the role. Language instruction for a personal assistant will have a greater emphasis on developing writing skills, while a more appropriate emphasis in a language program for a hairdresser will be speaking skills, for checking and clarifying the client’s needs. The starting point in planning an ESP program is analysis of the learner’s needs, so that the program is specifically tailored to meet their specific language needs.

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In this chapter, in order to ground our understanding of ESP, we will look at some examples of ESP courses that will give us an idea of the variety of delivery options for ESP, and to learn from ESP practitioners how they go about program design and developing materials and resources. This chapter will then guide you in researching the learner’s needs and applying syllabus design techniques to create a learning program.

2.2

ESP learners

If the learner’s needs are the starting point for program development, it’s helpful to be aware of some of the characteristics of ESP learners that have been identified by practitioners over the years (Dudley-Evans, 1998; Gatehouse, 2001; Harding, 2007; Papajohn et al, 2002):

Many learners are busy: studying English language, studying their vocational or professional course, working, and family responsibilities.

Learners are usually adults, with some secondary school learners.

Most learners come with strong motivation linked to an employment goal. Many learners are already qualified in the non-linguistic skills associated with the field.

ESP Learners

Some learners may be required by an employer to be in class.

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Many learners are developing the nonlinguistic skills simultaneously with the associated English language skills.

This may be a learner’s first ESP or language learning experience.

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2.3

ESP programs

Some characteristics of ESP programs that have been noted include:

 Linked to a set of non-linguistic skills (e.g. electrical work).  Usually have a single topical focus (e.g. nursing, law, business).  Generally designed for intermediate or advanced students.  Can be designed for beginners.  Mixed level classes are common.  Will often use activities and methods from the field of study as the basis of language development activities.

 Develop skills for autonomous learning so that learner independence can continue after the program concludes.

 Develop learner independence through skills for accessing information in the employment situation.

 Emphasis on experiential and participative learning.  Use authentic texts: written and spoken.

2.4

Range of ESP fields

A quick browse of ESP course books published by Cambridge University Press gives us a list of fields and disciplines that is both fascinating and daunting. The list is fascinating in that it effectively displays the breadth of application of ESP, even though this list is very limited in comparison with the possibilities. No doubt, many more ESP courses exist that address additional specific purposes. The list is daunting as it makes us aware of the high level of specialist knowledge that may be required in teaching ESP. Fields include English for:

Aviation

Call centres

Computing

Engineering

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Finance

Hotel industry

Human resources

Information and communications technology

International law International Maritime Organisation's Standard Marine Communication Phrases Job-hunting

Management

Marketing

Media

Medicine

Nursing

Scientists

Tourism

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2.5

ESP learning goals

We can see from this list that the content of each of these courses is going to involve very different sets of vocabulary, very different grammar focuses varying according to the register of the transactions typical of each context, very different genres as authentic texts from each field are studied, and very different cultural insights relevant to each of the social contexts in which duties would be performed. These differences are effectively illustrated by the contrast between the outcomes prescribed by two ESP programs: one for students of law, and one for students of nursing. Students in the ESP program for students of law, facilitated by Feak and Reinhart (2002), will develop language and skills appropriate for the following eight competencies:

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

•Able to handle cases, including briefing (oral and written) and applying legal principles to the facts of a case. •Understand the court system, common law and precedent.

•Locate and use appropriate legal resources.

•Use electronic legal databases.

•Write academic legal documents, using legal footnoting procedures.

•Carry out and present legal research.

•Participate in legal dialogues.

•Participate in in-class and complete exams.

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The ESP program for students of nursing described by Hussin (2002) includes a focus on the following competencies:

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

•Take a nursing history

•Observe and record vital signs.

•Read and write nursing care plans.

•Give and receive nursing handovers.

•Read and write progress notes.

•Make and receive telephone calls.

•Write discharge summaries.

•Write referral letters.

•Write incident reports.

•Present patient education sessions.

•Use counselling skills.

•Use assertion skills.

•Participate in team meetings.

Those two very different sets of competencies point to two completely different sets of vocabulary, texts, aspects of grammar and cultural considerations.

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2.6

ESP teachers

The role of an ESP teacher is described as multi-faceted (Dudley-Evans & St. John, 1998; Harding, 2007) including:

role of an ESP Teacher

teacher or language consultant

collaborator (with content expert)

course designer and materials provider

evaluator – of materials, course and delivery

researcher

assessor

From the above list of topics that ESP might address, and the outcomes listed relating to two different courses, it becomes obvious that many ESP courses are going to require the involvement of teachers with specialist or content area knowledge. It may be that one teacher will be trained for delivery of both ESL and the skills of the particular vocation or profession. Where that is not the case a partnership is imperative. It is easy to see that the most effective delivery of English for nursing will require the involvement of a trainer who really knows about nursing. Where a qualified nursing trainer is also trained for ESL, that one person would be able to deliver English language training for nursing. Alternatively, a nursing trainer will collaborate with an ESL teacher. This could happen through a team-teaching arrangement where the two teachers each deliver some sessions, or perhaps even share input in some sessions. Another option is that a content-area teacher assists with the development of English lessons that are delivered by the ESL teacher as a separate class as an adjunct language component of a nursing course. A breakdown of the allocation of tuition within an ESP program for Health Science developed by Gatehouse (2001) adds to our picture of how an ESP program might run. The 25 hours of class time each week consisted of the following:

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8 hours of Integrated Language Learning

• ESL instructor

6 hours of Health Science Lectures

• content instructor

4 hours of Workplace Communication

• jointly facilitated

3 hours of Medical terminology

• content instructor

2 hours of Pathophysiology

• content instructor

2 hours of Applied Computer Skills

• ESL instructor

Where an ESP program relies on cooperation and collaboration between specialists in ESL and the content-area, demonstrations of mutual respect and esteem will build the program’s credibility with the learners and build positive attitudes towards all the trainers. This can be achieved when managers or industry partners explicitly and overtly affirm the program and validate the content, or if they act as mentors and role models for the learners. In an ESP program for management, it was discovered that training participants, of their own initiative, made excellent tutors (Baxter, Boswood & Peirson-Smith, 2002). The focus of the training was developing the skill of writing committee papers, which is a naturally collaborative process. The trainees, without prompting, began working together outside the classroom, resulting in significant transfer of knowledge. This example highlights the benefit of using the activities and methods of the field as language learning activities. Some ESP programs integrate self-access multi-media delivery involving online delivery of content and online completion of tasks and even assessment items.

2.7

Resources & Materials

Key to the effective delivery of ESP is the use of authentic texts, both written and spoken. This will involve gathering samples that can be used for text analysis, comprehension development and stimulus for producing similar texts. Authentic texts bring culture-rich input to the classroom, because they have been generated within a specific socio-cultural context. In addition to appropriate vocabulary and grammar, they expose the class to real-life material for discussing the social conventions that are at play in that specific interaction in that specific situation.

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From an authentic text, you can develop activities that develop the range of vocabulary, focus on grammar, raise awareness of text structure and make explicit the features that make the text cohesive. Use travel or tourist brochures in your ‘English for tourism’ class. Use health fact sheets and treatment plans in your ‘English for nursing’ program. Use a recording of a call from a telemarketer in your ‘English for call centres’ program. These texts will allow you to look at cues within the text through which the writer communicates whether something is fact or opinion, or look at the difference between and information or procedural text, or identify what the writer or speaker says to achieve a particular purpose such as to persuade the reader or listener of a particular belief or towards a particular response. Preparing materials can be time-consuming and for that reason it is also efficient to survey professionally published resources. Many such resources will contain some material that is helpful within your program. Johns (as cited in Gatehouse, 2001) suggests that the only real solution is to develop a pool of materials accessed by many teachers delivering training in the same field. Academic texts in the field are another source of material. Depending on the level of the class, the materials may have to be adjusted by simplifying structures and controlling the introduction of new vocabulary (Lopez & Perea Barbera, 2002). Technical dictionaries could also be used productively in the ESP classroom and will certainly be an important resource for ongoing independent learning. Internet-based resources can also be used. Fact sheets are a handy source of reproducible material as they are designed to be distributed for educational purposes. Realia can introduce a kinaesthetic approach to language development. In a program designed to teach English for hotel work, set a table with linen, cutlery and crockery suitable for a banquet to introduce the appropriate vocabulary to name the items, the verbs for giving and following instructions as well as ways of describing the position of one object in relation to another.

2.8

ESP learning activities

While in the sheltered and supportive environment of the ESP classroom, roleplaying will be extremely useful for developing fluency and confidence. If learners are willing it can be invaluable to video record roleplays then watch the replay to assess the performance against criteria, using the whole exercise to address specific areas of weakness that need improvement. The ESP program may (perhaps should) also involve some participation in real-life workplaces. This can be as low key as a field trip. An ESP program for international medical graduates in residence, described by Eggly (2002), includes a bus tour of the city which had a reputation for problems associated with violence and alcohol and substance abuse. The bus trip took the graduates through ‘nice’ areas as well as the problem areas and centres to which they would refer patients. They reported that the trip reduced their anxiety about the city and its alleged problems. TESOL Made Practical For All Situations

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A supervised practicum (‘prac’, a practical course of study) fulfilling a mainstream course requirement can also provide immersion in a real-life workplace with excellent potential for language practice and further development in response to emerging needs. A good starting place to understand this has been described by looking at ‘8 job skills you should have’ as presented by Youth Central of the Victorian Government 2018. For more information see https://www.youthcentral.vic.gov.au/jobs-andcareers/plan-your-career/8-job-skills-you-should-have Gatehouse (2001) describes the program she designed, ‘Language Preparation for Employment in the Health Sciences’, as having two distinct phases: language delivery and employment awareness, the latter being facilitated by a local agency. The practical application of the language being studied is essential for effective acquisition.

3. Developing a learning program in ESP 3.1

Identify the role for which the learner is preparing

In line with all that has been discussed to this point, the starting point for planning your learning program is needs analysis, looking at the student’s learning needs, that is the purpose for which they will use English. This will involve asking questions which help you to narrow the field, such as: What is the specific purpose for which you are learning English? In what vocation or profession will you use English?

In what role will you use English? Where (social context) will this role take place? (e.g. commerce, environmental, vocational, institutional)

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Needs analysis will require collaboration and cooperation with all stakeholders. These might include (but not be limited to):

staff at a variety of levels in the workplace 3rd party /

clients of the workplace

external stakeholders

Stakeholders

management of the workplace

students / learners

industry standards bodies*

trainers

*Where training needs to reflect the prescribed industry standards Specific fields may include, but not be limited to, the wide ranging list of topics found in section 2.4 of this chapter. If you find yourself faced with the situation of a group or class of students needing language development in a variety of ESPs, an approach referred to as experiential learning programs can assist in program development. In brief, experiential learning programs ensure that learners are engaged in real-life activities conducted in English. It is this real-life activity that provides the stimulus and direction for language devel opment. For example, learners may be engaged in a work experience program, volunteer work, employment, mainstream study, a social group or community service organisation. The possibilities are endless. Any real-life involvement, in which language is used in some way, will highlight gaps in knowledge and therefore indicate necessary areas of learning. The role of the teacher, where students are pursuing different topical or task focuses, is to coach the students in independent learning skills: setting learning goals, developing plans for reaching those goals, reflecting on real-life communication and learning experiences and planning next steps in learning. Classroom time is therefore spent, not on language learning as such, but on prompting the process for continued learning. Reviewing Chapter 11 of this

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textbook will also help you understand how to create a syllabus and series of lessons, but for a more specific purpose of English.

3.2

Identify the specific tasks and texts involved in the role

When the field and social context have been identified and defined, you can begin analysing the role in terms of the tasks that will be completed in English and the texts with which the individual will have to deal or the interactions in which they will need to participate. Having identified specific tasks and texts, you will engage in text analysis to determine the structural and linguistic features that are intrinsic to each genre indicated. For example, if the role demands report writing, you will analyse samples of authentic reports from the field, listing structural features, aspects of grammar, specific vocabulary, aspects of spelling, punctuation and pronunciation that will likely need development. You have already practised this in Chapter 2: English language and the Genre, approach so you will be familiar with the skill. Let’s ground this within a real-life example. This example is not a complete picture but is sufficient to illustrate the information we are seeking that guides the development of the learning program.

What are the tasks that may be typical for a hotel concierge in Australia?

1

2

3

•Provide information to hotel guests.

•Give advice, guidance to hotel guests.

•Give assistance to hotel guests.

4

•Lead a team (forms, train and nurture a strong team) which may include assistant concierges, porters, commissioners and valet parking attendants.

5

•Give instructions, explain situations, explain contingencies, encourage and provide correction.

6

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•Develop a positive working relationship with service suppliers.

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What texts will a concierge create or use?

Brochures

Schedules and timetables

Directories

What lexical fields are indicated by the role? Topical areas introducing specific vocabulary will include:

recreation facilities

entertainment

transport

hotel services

sightseeing

restaurants

luggage

Which macro-skills (L/S/R/W) are most used in the role?

Speaking

Listening

3.3

Create a learning plan

From this initial list you can create a learning plan. Please refer to Chapter 11: Design and teach English syllabus, for a detailed description of this process.

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Define a series of learning outcomes, e.g. giving information (to guests about local attractions).

Sequence learning outcomes to ensure a logical progression.

Allocate an appropriate timeframe for each learning outcome to be achieved. Your timeframe should fit in with the overall time that you have to teach the course. Identify and/or create learning activities to develop English skills required for the specific purpose.

3.4

Gather and develop materials

Now that you have your plan, you will need to identify and/or create resources for use in learning activities. Remember to use authentic materials as much as possible, however take the time to check if some of the many published resources might fulfil some of your needs, particularly audio visual recordings of interactions.

3.5

Evaluate the program

A learning program is a work in progress, constantly under review to ensure that it continues to meet the needs of the students. Sources that feed into the process of evaluating programs include: results of formative student assessment and feedback from all stakeholders. Stakeholders who can give helpful feedback include learners, teaching colleagues (ESL and content experts), workplace supervisors and workplace colleagues. Mechanisms for gathering feedback include surveys, interviews (formal or informal) and progress reports. Feedback is often expressed in general terms, but we are particularly interested in checking that:

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

lessons plans are appropriate to learners;



activities are appropriate to learners;



resources are appropriate to learners;



syllabus/curriculum is are appropriate to learners;

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

monitoring strategies appropriate to learners;



feedback strategies appropriate to learners;



chosen genres are appropriate to learners;



model texts are appropriate to learners.

In addition to gathering feedback about the effectiveness of the training, it is important to ensure that any practical or workplace component is also running smoothly and that both learners and supervisors are being adequately supported in the process. Responding to feedback can at times contribute to the development of a resource that is needed in the workplace. In a management-focused ESP program, it emerged that there was the need for a template for writing committee papers. The ESL teacher in consultation with the ESP course participants developed a template which facilitated the efficient and effective construction of committee reports. Management were very happy with this outcome: value-added ESP training.

4. Suggested reading Orr (2002) has edited an excellent volume (English for specific purposes, published by TESOL, Inc.: Virginia) of case-studies describing 12 ESP programs: 6 universitybased and 6 workplace-based. Each of the ESP providers give details of the distinctiveness of their programs in terms of mode of provision, staffing, development of the program, sourcing materials, learning activities and some evaluation of the success of the program. This sharing of experience is the lifebreathe of teaching and these case studies prompt us to think about best practice and inspire creativity in the planning and delivery of ESP programs.

Summary English for Specific Purposes is a term describing highly specialised and contextualised English language instruction that will likely be included within or alongside a mainstream training program or workplace. ESP is a powerful way to meet the real-life needs of people preparing for employment, seeking employment and is essential for their long-term success in employment. An ESL teacher who can also teach the skills of a particular vocation or profession is a valuable specialist. An ESL teacher who can work collaboratively with content specialist teachers and trainers is a valuable team member. In today’s globalised workplace, ESP should be an integral part of every vocational and professional training program.

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CHAPTER 15: Teach English to early childhood learners

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Introduction TESOL in any context can involve a lot of fun and games, but possibly never more so than when the learners are in the early childhood years. This unit will report on TESOL methods for working with children between the ages of 2 and 6 years, focusing on their developmental stage in relation to language and the practical uses of language at that stage of life. The different contexts in which TESOL is implemented with very young learners include:

Overseas English programs run by private companies/institutes, in countries where English is not the language of the surrounding community. EFL classes for young children are common in countries such as Japan and Korea.

International schools using English as the teaching medium are often initially established to service the educational needs of expatriate workers in countries where English is not the local language. English may or may not be the first language of the students. These schools often expand to include children of wealthier local families who can afford to pay ‘international rates’ for education.

ESL childcare groups, formed to care for children whose mothers are studying ESL. This situation occurs most often as an adjunct to adult ESL programs where mainstream childcare options are inaccessible.

NESB learners in mainstream childcare groups, where children from NESB are included in kindergarten and pre-school classes conducted completely in English, which is also the language of the surrounding community. This is a complex learning situation, which includes children whose first language is English alongside children who use another language at home and may have used English very little. In this situation, teachers must be aware of theory and practice regarding children developing bilingually, and the need for cooperation with parents and carers, which supports the continued development of the first language at home. Bilingualism is recognised as a strength in social, personal and cognitive development.

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At the same time, parents and carers are needed to support the child’s English language development in order to give a good foundation for starting school if their education is going to be conducted in English. “A good grasp of language is synonymous with a sound ability to think. In other words language and thought are inseparable.” (Vygotsky, as cited in Clarke, 2009). ‘Finding your place in the world’ is a significant aspect of lifespan development, and language competence plays a major role in children’s cognitive development as well as social development and sense of wellbeing in their community setting. Positive self-esteem is encouraged through acknowledgement, acceptance and appreciation of the whole individual, including their race, class, ethnicity, religion, language, and ability. In a multicultural mainstream childcare and education program, diversity must be overtly valued. This can be done through sharing items and themes of cultural variety to which children will be able to relate. In addition, we must also consider the increasing cross-cultural and multi-lingual aspects of children having one parent who may be a native English speaker. This may present an accelerated learning aspect to any child who is exposed and encouraged to speak English at home, at school and in their own wider community. Every class and group is different, and the learning contexts described above are quite distinct from each other, creating different dynamics and requiring some adaptation of teaching strategies. The first category listed above, EFL programs in overseas language institutes, will possibly see children enrolled for weekly classes of an hour or two. In this situation, all or most activities will be teacher-led and changes in activities will be frequent. Some teachers in this situation describe lesson plans in which they change to a different activity as often as every 5 minutes! The final category, where a learner from NESB with little or no prior use of English is included in a mainstream childcare group, will see students immersed in an English speaking group for 6 hours a day, up to five days a week. In this situation, the group leader must accommodate the ESL needs of one child or a few children within the general learning program at the appropriate age level. For these children from NESB, Tabors (1997) describes language acquisition as generally following this sequence: 1

The child continues to use L1 in the L2 classroom until the child realizes that L1 is not effective in this situation.

2

The child enters a silent period while he gathers information about the L2, through listening and watching, and may experiment with L2 use.

3 4

The child begins to use words and phrases in L2. The child’s use of L2 for meaningful communication increases in range and effectiveness.

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It is important that the teacher is aware of these stages and accommodates the silent period without pressuring the child to communicate before they feel ready. This silent period can vary in length with cases documented that report as little as a few weeks to 2½ years (Tabors, 1997). There is evidently a correlation between age and length of the silent period; the younger the child, the longer the silent period. It is also noted that during this stage, children are still usually attempting to communicate non-verbally. Every child is different, with different interests, different levels of independence, different feelings about being separated from mother and home, different rates of development, and different levels of ability and confidence in first language use. Every child however, enters the program with some skills and knowledge, and should be regarded as competent and capable for the task of acquiring lots of new skills and knowledge. Children learn best (Holliday, 2004):

when they feel secure and have a sense of belonging

by interacting with others

when they see a clear model of how to do something

by using language in meaningful ways

when they receive positive reinforcement

by engaging in active learning experiences

when others relate to them as an individual with unique needs and interests

Some general hints common to all teacher training resources focusing on this special group of learners include:  Keep the atmosphere relaxed and friendly at all times.  Provide variety in the pace of activities: use lively games and action songs to use up extra energy, and have some deliberately quiet, settled and restful activities.  Use brightly coloured real items as much as possible. Very young children do not yet cope with abstract notions.  Use movement in as many activities as possible. Learning, particularly at this stage of development, will be enhanced by kinaesthetic memory triggers. Songs and chants with movement and action provide this (Levin, 2006).

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 Songs and rhymes provide repetition of vocabulary and phrases, increasing retention.  Use puppets and teddy bears to animate conversations and stories.  Model everything (e.g. line up, clean up).  Praise, praise, praise. Use positive reinforcement to encourage acceptable behaviour.  Be firm but kind.

1. Language use in the early childhood years Studies into the optimal age for language learning, provoked by the Critical Period Hypothesis, have highlighted advantages associated with different stages of life and development. Early childhood is clearly identified as being the stage at which learning is most intuitive, a process of subconsciously analysing raw language input and constructing an unarticulated internal framework governing interpretation and creation of meaningful language. Young children don’t learn to speak by learning about nouns, verbs and adjectives. They learn through listening and experimenting with language use. The process of rule formation that obviously happens is a subconscious one. Rules are developed and modified as new information is received, registered and assimilated into a growing schema. Research confirms that younger children have an advantage over older people in acquiring native-like pronunciation (McLaughlin, 1992). Thoughts are that the vocal apparatus is still flexible enough to be able to produce new sounds. In addition, it would seem that ‘hearing’ sounds not included in our first language is a capacity that reduces with age. Young children, however, are able to recognise or distinguish a wide range of sounds, and learn how to produce those sounds. The pace of learning in early childhood is congruent with the pace of learning the first language, provided the same kind and level of supportive environment and stimulus is experienced in relation to the second language. A very young child will acquire a second language at the same pace and level at which their developmental stage indicates in relation to language development in general. Contrary to common belief, young children do not in fact learn more quickly or more easily than older learners. Adolescents and adults can assimilate the same language content and structures in a fraction of the time, because they already have a complex language schema and have developed learning strategies. However, young children and their teachers probably have a lot more fun in the process!

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1.1

First language development

In preparing to teach very young children, it is important to understand the stage of development they are in. Planning for second language development should consider the level of achievement that is accepted as normal for each step along the way. The following table summarises features of first language development throughout the first 6 years. These stages and features should not be seen as discrete from one another, rather as a continuum of development. It is realistic to expect that children of different ages might be placed at the same developmental level, some children achieving the features of L1 skills earlier or later than indicated in this guide. Age

Vocabulary

Language Use

1 ½ years

20 words

• Speech is ‘telegrammatic’: omitting less important words. • Ability to remember rhymes and songs. • Unclear pronunciation. • Vocab: nouns, some verbs, some pronouns, some location words.

1 word sentences 2 years

270 words

• Language is for playing, sharing and enjoying things. • Gradually working out rules and language for themselves. • Parents encourage more acceptable language forms. • Pronunciation developing but still immature. • Adults respond to content rather than grammar.

2 ½ years

Child:

425 words

3 years 900 words 3-4 word sentences

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“Look. Dog.”

Adult: “Hmmm – not a dog. That’s a cow. Look at the cow. What does a cow say?” • ‘Parentese’: Carers use repetitious, easier and more familiar words, engaging intonation, shorter sentences. • Vocab: Adding quantifiers and question words to previous list. This reflects the child’s stage of cognitive development involving enquiry and investigation. • Perception of speech sounds not in L1 decreases. Exposure to a L2 helps continued perception of a wider range of sounds. • Pronunciation considerably improved. • Enjoys chanting and repeating to explore language sounds. • Adding in parts of speech. (“Mummy is cooking dinner,” instead of, “Mummy dinner.”) • Can share personal experience with some prompting.

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3 ½ years

1200

4 years 1500

4 ½ years 1800 5-6 word sentences

5 years

• Listens to and understands conversation, stories, songs, poems. • Initiates conversation. • Acquires 4-6 words per day in daily experiences. • Vocab: incorporating connecting words (and, because, but, if), emotional state words, category names, family member terms. • Major improvements in pronunciation. • Mistakes with past tense irregular verbs, and plurals. • • • •

Begins to use complex and compound sentences. Very few pronunciation errors. Expands vocab daily. Conceptual clusters (seed, stem, leaf, roots), more time words, money words, complex emotion words. • Understands explanations when concrete support, direct observation, or with reference to past experience. • Mastered most rules for sentence structure. • Fewer mistakes with irregular verbs and plurals.

2200 6 word sentences

5 ½ years

2300

6 years

2500 longer

• • • • • • • •

Major grammatical rules assimilated. Enjoys jokes involving plays on words. Can express thoughts and creative ideas. Infers word meanings from context. Informational books take on increasing importance. Specialised words (e.g. dinosaurs), category names. Will apply a known word to gaps in vocab. Expresses conditionals (‘if’).

conversation 6 years +

More words, more complex, eventually use ‘if’, ‘so’, ‘therefore’, etc.

Fig. 15.1. Stages of language development (adapted from www.pbs.org) The implication of looking at stages of language development is that in our teaching of ESL/EFL, we will expect a child to do only that which they would normally be able to do in their first language.

1.2 Functions and social purposes of communication by very young children To very young children, the world revolves around them and their needs. They use language to solicit the meeting of their day-to-day needs: expressing hunger, thirst or toilet needs, expressing wants, being hurt or tired, playing and socialising. All of these functions provide stimulus and content for language learning.

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Hoover (2006) recommends that children should all learn to answer simple questions about themselves, for example, “What’s your name? How old are you? What’s your mummy’s name?” These are important phrases if the child ever becomes accidentally separated from his or her parent in a public place. It is important to remember, working with very young children (and even older children and teenagers) that concept development is happening at the same time as language acquisition is taking place (Ashworth & Wakefield, 2005). Not only is the child learning the words ‘circle’, ‘square’ and ‘triangle’. They are also learning that a circle is the shape of a ring or a clock or a bowl, and a square has four sides that are the same length, and a rectangle is the shape of a book and a door and a cupboard. When we teach this vocabulary, we must ensure comprehension of the related concepts. Hoover (2006) describes using the meaningful context of daily routines for teaching hygiene: In a sing-song voice, as you’re walking towards the bathroom, you chant: “I have to go to the bathroom. I have to go to the bathroom. I have to go to the bathroom.”

Likewise, when washing hands, accompany the action with a narration, using the same sentence structure, clear pronunciation and a rhythmical rendition that makes the sentence easy to remember:

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Categories and examples of concepts include: Identification of objects: naming (and later labelling) body parts, clothing, classroom and household objects. Beware of introducing written forms too early, before children are developmentally ready (i.e. before 4 years of age). Classification: colour, shape, size, number function; comparing and contrasting. Where possible, check how different cultures classify, name or group colours. While green and yellow are generally recognised as two distinct colours, some cultures group these as shades of one colour.

Spatial relationships: where things are.

Temporal relationships: past, present, future, before, after, while, etc.

Emotional and familial relationships: love, hate, happiness, sadness, loyalty, family, kinship. Check definitions of who is a sister or an aunt or an uncle, as these are culturally determined. Don’t assume that everyone understands family relationships the same way.

Ordering and sequencing: small to large, first to last (time), youngest to oldest, brightest to darkest, quietest to loudest.

Equivalency: different shapes can have the same volume, etc. (This can be ‘discovered’ when using containers of different shapes in water or sand play).

Formal pre-school or preparatory programs for children aged 5-6 years, will have an introductory literacy and numeracy focus as part of their program. Children are surrounded by literacy practices from the time they are born, exposed to print, signs, images, symbols and sounds.

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Development of literacy awareness can be continued in group settings through experiences such as (Beecher and Arthur, 2001):

Drawing and scribbling (on paper or computer).

Cooking.

Using environmental print in activities (e.g. from posters, signs, food packaging, clothing, TV, computer).

Constructing with blocks, boxes, straws and blu-tac, and any other bits and pieces.

Using signs, maps and timetables (can be simplified for each age group).

Simulating reallife situations, for example a corner shop, using empty food packages, supermarket catalogues, ‘post-its’ for price tags, boxes and bags for packing, toy register and play money.

Playing games and songs involving counting and making sounds.

Creating a story with pictures and words about a shared experience or excursion (digital photos or children’s drawings).

2. Planning a learning program The more enjoyable learning activities are, the more actively children participate. The more active their participation, the more skill they will acquire. Ashworth and Wakefield describe a learning centre in which a number of learning stations are set up around different activities: blocks, art, drama, sand, water, books, table toys, music, maths and science. As each station is explored and used regularly the children learn language that accompanies the actions involved, building vocabulary and short phrases and gradually moving to longer sentences. These stations can each be enjoyed together as a whole class, by small groups or individually at different times during your program. Providing time for individual access of activity stations will encourage children to focus development on areas of interest and work at their own level and pace.

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A few key factors to consider when planning learning programs are that they should include (Holliday, 2004):

2.1

different groupings throughout the session

materials appropriate for the learning activity and stage of development

routine

rules for behaviour, use of equipment, and definition of responsibility

Task-based learning goals

Total Physical Response is a method of language learning developed to facilitate language acquisition in a process that reflects natural language learning: the way that children learn their first language. Teachers of very young learners just need to think TPR. Ideal activities involve the children copying what the teacher is doing as the teacher is saying what they’re doing, then children doing the action and saying what they are doing at the same time. Mention was made earlier of functions of language use associated with the early childhood years: expressing hunger, thirst or toilet needs, expressing wants, being hurt or tired, playing and socialising. Each of these areas of language use can and should be included in the learning program. Children should be encouraged and expected to use English for communication in the ESL/EFL classroom as much as possible. In an ESL situation where the teacher does not speak the child’s first language this will be essential anyway, so we may as well encourage it for all members of the group. Children need to follow classroom instructions and will learn through following the model and prompts provided by the teacher, other aides and other children. Stories and play acting that revolve around daily routine can be used to introduce and practise talking about what we do each day, when we do it, what we use, wear and say while we’re doing it, and so on. As children are encouraged and prompted to use English in all their classroom interactions, they will learn the language of play, sharing and negotiating. These are all examples of task-based language learning: using language to achieve social purposes or functions. A task analysis should produce a list of functions and notions involved in achieving that task. For example, playing in a small group with blocks will involve:

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Functions

Notions

asking for blocks

size

complying with request: giving blocks accompanied by a statement

shape

refusing the request: withholding blocks accompanied by a statement

colour

offering blocks

suggesting what block is needed

protesting when a block is taken

Fig. 15.2. Functions and notions relevant to a group of children playing with blocks Each area of play or activity can be analysed in the same way, giving the teacher a clear picture of language needs that are very relevant to the classroom and any play context. An analysis of interactions at a variety of stages of the program throughout the day will evoke another selection of functional language needs. Identify what the children say or should say when they arrive at the class, at snack and meal times, at rest time, when a new child joins the class, when someone is hurt or when it’s time to go home. A good learning process will move through stages of reducing scaffolding or support as the learner increases in independence for completing tasks. The teacher will introduce new tasks with a demonstration, assist students as necessary, encourage children as they become competent in the task to work on their own or to help each other, and plan extension activities for gifted children (Holliday, 2004).

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2.2

Activities

Things that parents and teachers automatically do to stimulate language development are:

talking to the child

listening to the child

asking open-ended questions

naming things around them

checking and clarifying

expanding the child’s statement into a longer statement

reading to the child

offering a good model of language use

Use of puppets, fingerplay, rhymes and songs with actions and movement, all involve repetitious language use which is great for language learning, and are also used to develop the following skills related to this stage of life (Department of Education, 1993):  fine motor skills  coordination of arms and legs  ability to follow directions  attention span  knowledge about world  enjoyment of language and movement Children love stories, and they are a great way to establish a meaningful context within which new vocabulary, sentence structures and concepts can be introduced and practised. Stories can be read again and again, providing repetition which aids recall. Before reading, children should be encouraged to predict what a story is going to be about. During reading they should be asked to anticipate what is going to happen next. After reading they could be asked to imagine what other adventures might follow, or to reflect on why someone in the story did something. This encourages the children to be engaged with the story and active in thinking about

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it and processing it. Involving the imagination helps to develop the skill of prediction, which is of great advantage in all reading, at all stages of life. Use props and costumes to bring stories to life, making the experience as concrete and easy to understand as possible. Reading is generally a quiet or more settled activity, but it can be used as an introduction for drama, roleplays or games that centre on the same theme. Stories that have repetitive patterns are great for memorising new sentences. Compose chants from the story line. Practise saying them in different ways: like a mouse, like a giant, like a lion, baby’s sleeping so say it in a whisper. Make things that appear in the story, and as you make them use the same vocabulary again and again. With access to the internet no teacher need ever be stuck for ideas. Descriptions of games and activities abound. Many of these activities use only simple materials or resources that are standard in early childhood centres or classrooms. Team games are fun and boisterous and great for syphoning off excess energy. Watch out for reticent children, though, who can be overwhelmed by the intensity of competition. Play some games that are non-competitive, where children compete only against themselves, perhaps by providing identical sets of cards or blocks for each child, who each follows your instructions using their own set. Here are a few examples of games that work well with young learners: Spread out cards with pictures of recently learnt vocabulary, the teacher calls a word, and students select the picture card and hold it up. Children who don’t remember the words will quickly begin to copy others, so the activity will still be good for learning, if you follow up each instruction with question and answer, or everyone repeating a sentence using the word. This can be done individually or in pairs with sets of small cards, or it can be made a team game using A4 size laminated pictures, with students lining up on one side of the room and racing to pick up the nominated item from the floor on the other side of the room. ‘Simon says’ is basically TPR with a condition added. Use this game to practise classroom instructions, everyday actions, parts of the body, colours (touch something red), shapes (point to something square), and so on. Laminate a picture showing the outline of a body. Laminate and cut up pieces of clothing to fit the body using different colours and patterns. Students take turns selecting the item of clothing nominated by the teacher (a red skirt, a blue shirt). They are then blindfolded and positioned in front of the ‘body’. The class guides their placement of the item of clothing with phrases like, “Go up, go down, go left, go right.”

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The teacher calls out, “Make groups of...”, and children form groups, as quickly as possible, according to the characteristic (number of people, same colour of clothes/hair/eyes, length of hair, etc.) Without the children seeing, put an item in a soft bag with a drawstring at the opening. Pass the bag around, for each person to feel, and try to name the object in the bag. Stem sentences: “I’m going to the park to...” Children each say an activity and try to repeat the ones that have gone before, so that each child is listing all the activities already mentioned. This game can be altered to any theme: “I went to the doctor because I had a sore...” “I’m going to the supermarket to buy...” Songs have been written about most topics: days of the week, months of the year, numbers, ABC, shapes, patterns, and colours. What hasn’t been written can easily be written by changing the words to familiar tunes. Songs are fun and easy to remember if they are kept simple and repetitive. Vernon (2006) reminds us that every song and game is a language learning activity. It should involve using some English, either reviewing phrases or vocabulary learned previously, or practising language introduced in today’s lesson. Beginning phonics can be introduced with children from the age of 4½. Jolly Phonics (JP) have produced a program for introducing the basic sounds associated with each phonogram, and describe the following actions to accompany practising the sounds. Again kinaesthetic techniques complement visual and auditory memory triggers. The actions described below would need to be introduced in a way that makes the meaning of the action clear, for example puffing out candles or pretending to be a mouse: use pictures, puppets and toys. Action

JP

IPA

s

s

Weave hand in an s shape, like a snake, and say ssssss.

a

ӕ

Wiggle fingers above elbow as if ants crawling on you and say a, a, a.

t

t

Turn head from side to side as if watching tennis and say t, t, t.

i

i:

Pretend to be a mouse by wriggling fingers at end of nose and squeak i, i, i.

p

p

Pretend to puff out candles and say p, p, p.

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n

n

Make a noise, as if you are a plane - hold arms out and say nnnnnn.

c k

k

Raise hands and snap fingers as if playing castanets and say ck, ck, ck.

e

e

Pretend to tap an egg on the side of a pan and crack it into the pan, saying eh, eh, eh.

h

h

Hold hand in front of mouth panting as if you are out of breath and say h, h, h.

r

r

Pretend to be a puppy holding a piece of rag, shaking head from side to side, and say rrrrrr.

m

m

Rub tummy as if seeing tasty food and say mmmmmm.

d

d

Beat hands up and down as if playing a drum and say d, d, d.

g

g

Spiral hand down, as if water going down the drain, and say g, g, g.

o

ɒ

Pretend to turn light switch on and off and say o, o, o, o.

u

ʌ

Pretend to be putting up an umbrella and say u, u, u.

l

l

Pretend to lick a lollipop and say l l l l l l.

f

f

Let hands gently come together as if toy fish deflating, and say f f f f f f.

b

b

Pretend to hit a ball with a bat and say b, b, b.

ai

eɪ

Cup hand over ear and say ai, ai, ai.

j

ʤ

Pretend to wobble on a plate and say j, j, j.

oa

əʊ

Bring hand over mouth as if you have done something wrong and say oh!

ie

ɑɪ

Stand to attention and salute, saying ie ie.

ee or

i: O:

Put hands on head as if ears on a donkey and say eeyore, eeyore.

z

z

Put arms out at sides and pretend to be a bee, saying zzzzzz.

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w

w

Blow on to open hand, as if you are the wind, and say wh, wh, wh.

ng

ŋ

Imagine you are a weightlifter, and pretend to lift a heavy weight above your head, saying ng...

v

v

Pretend to be holding the steering wheel of a van and say vvvvvv.

oo oo

ʊ u:

Move head back and forth as if it is the cuckoo in a cuckoo clock, saying u, oo; u, oo. (Little and long oo.)

y

j

x

ks

Pretend to take an x-ray of someone with an xray gun and say ks, ks, ks.

ch

ʧ

Move arms at sides as if you are a train and say ch, ch, ch.

sh

ʃ

Place index finger over lips and say shshsh.

th th

Өð

Pretend to be naughty clowns and stick out tongue a little for the th, and further for the th sound (this and thumb).

qu

kw

Make a duck's beak with your hands and say qu, qu, qu.

ou

ɑʊ

Pretend your finger is a needle and prick thumb saying ou, ou, ou.

oi

ɔɪ

Cup hands around mouth and shout to another boat saying, Oi! Ship ahoy!

ue

u:

Point to people around you and say you, you, you.

er

3:

Roll hands over each other like a mixer and say ererer.

ar

ɑ:

Pretend to be eating a yoghurt and say y, y, y.

Open mouth wide and say ah. (UK English) Flap hands as if a seal, and say ar, ar, ar. (US English)

Fig. 15.3 Kinaesthetic approach to teaching beginner phonics, by Jolly Phonics (JP). Note: IPA = International Phonetic Alphabet.

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2.3

Plan a learning program

In planning a learning program for young children these aspects of TESOL should be incorporated into every activity: presenting any new language involved, practising new and old vocabulary and phrases, monitoring language use, and giving feedback and correction. Following one theme for a number of lessons or even weeks works well with young children. It is recommended that a content area be covered in depth rather than broadly. This gives the opportunity to review and reuse new vocabulary and phrases while developing conceptual knowledge of a topic. Themes around the seasons of the year allow a focus on the weather (What kind of weather do we have in summer?), the environment (What do we need to do in the garden in summer?), clothes (What kind of clothes do we wear in summer?), colours (What colour flowers can we see in summer?), food (What food do we like to eat in summer?), and so on. Songs, games and stories can follow the theme. Childcare leaders, and kindergarten and pre-school teachers all advise establishing and sticking to a routine. Routine can be enhanced with songs. PreK.com suggests songs for cleaning up, saying good-morning and good-bye, lining up, going to lunch, walking in a line, washing hands, waiting, welcoming newcomers to the group and saying happy birthday. Make transitions between activities smooth by giving advance notice, with an announcement, a chant, a bell or a song. Knowing what’s happening helps children to feel safe. Ensure that one activity is cleaned up to satisfaction before a new activity is begun. Resources available for young learners may depend on which culture you are teaching in and which ‘English’ they are learning, British English or American English. Some language schools in countries such as Vietnam for example, may differ in which ‘English’ they teach. You may be required to use American English resources for some schools and British English for others. Some useful resources to access might include: ‘Show and Tell’ -a coursebook for young learners ages 4 – 6yrs (American English) https://twinkl.com or https://twinkl.com.au a useful website with specific ESL/EAL/D support material, linked to the Australian curriculum (British English) If teaching young Japanese students, the following website might be helpful: https://genkienglish.net/teaching

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3. Monitoring and evaluating ESL learning It is important to be aware that the expectations regarding evaluation of student performance can vary to a huge degree, depending on the context in which you are delivering ESL tuition to early childhood learners. In EFL situations, and in some strongly academically-oriented programs, there will be the expectation that you will be able to report language-specific learning gains. In that situation you may be expected to implement a set of tests and report the results. Alternatively, you may be provided with or expected to develop checklists or benchmarks against which you will evaluate the performance of each student. In mainstream childcare programs, you may find that evaluation of performance is spoken of more in terms of development, recognising that all children develop at their own pace, and with some skills developing more quickly than others. Language development is one area considered among others including sense of identity, social awareness, sense of well-being and learning skills. In this context we are talking about children whose language development is occurring in two or more languages simultaneously, usually with a language other than English being used at home. In each situation, parents and carers will be interested in what their child is learning and able to do. The onus is on the teacher to be able to offer evidence of learning gains and achievements. The aim of this section is to describe appropriate methods of evaluation and giving feedback, with the understanding that the results of such evaluations will contribute to the learning program development, incorporating strategies for further skill development.

3.1

Feedback and correction

Working with children in the early childhood years, we are interacting with people as the foundations of who they are and who they will be are at one of the most crucial stages of development. Pedagogy relating to this age group will emphasise, among others, the following principles (Commonwealth of Australia, 2009): Secure, respectful and reciprocal relationships: Teachers support children in developing a strong sense of well-being, by interacting positively with the child. They need relationships in which trust and emotional support allows them to feel respected and valued, enabling children to learn about collaboration and teamwork, and to experiment and explore their world of learning. The manner in which we relate to children and respond to them in terms of monitoring behaviour and performance and giving feedback must reflect the value we place

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on the position of trust we have been given. The teacher’s role is to build up, and not to tear down. Behaviourist research and theory gives much encouragement to reward the behaviour we want to see repeated. The spirit of a child glows under the light of encouragement, and withers under the scorch of criticism. High expectations and equity: Teachers believe in the capacity of every child to achieve. Children progress well when the significant people in their lives believe in them and encourage them in their efforts. The teacher’s role is to champion the cause of their students. Teachers are the main cheer squad for learners who are striving to achieve. Feedback should focus on recognising the positive, acknowledging what can improve and helping children to be motivated and confident to try again. Respect for diversity: Teachers need to value and esteem the variety of cultures that learners were born into, and the aspirations that the home cultures hold for their children. When the whole person is recognised and valued, including their entire cultural heritage, the person experiences permission to process input and experiences within the framework of their whole life. A child who has dietary restrictions, whether that be for physical, cultural or religious reasons, must have freedom to live and learn without feeling excluded because of their ‘difference’. Interest in and celebration of different cultural events is part of developing healthy multicultural communities. Teachers need to explicitly include a focus on cultures represented in the local community, and to demonstrate interest and inclusion.

3.2

Methods

Evaluation of student performance in the early learning years involves gathering rich and meaningful evidence of what children know, can do, and understand. This evidence is gathered from the child’s context of play and interaction with other students, teachers and parents in the educational setting. Observation of language use is best done within normal classroom activities, rather than as a separate ‘test’ activity. All evaluation occurs through observation of behaviour, actions, creative activity, and efforts at communicating including dialogue or even self-talk. Teachers observe learning gains, taking note of “how children have engaged with increasingly complex ideas and participated in increasingly sophisticated learning experiences” (Commonwealth of Australia, 2009, p.38). Recognition is awarded to small forward steps as well as big steps. At this stage of life, we will focus on the child’s success, choosing to encourage the behaviour that we want to see repeated.

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Early Childhood Australia (2012) describes the benefits of using a portfolio as evidence of performance, saying that portfolios focus on the growth of the individual child, providing a holistic perspective on growth and development. What can we include in a language development portfolio for a very young learner? Digital technology enables us to record entire communicative events. Parents who would rarely hear their child play ‘in English’ can hear them telling stories or describing pictures in English. Comparisons of performance over time will give a clear indication of progress. We can ‘scribe’ children’s stories, as they verbalise descriptions of their pictures, writing below the picture or on the reverse side of the paper, what the child has told us. This constitutes evidence of real-life language use, and should be gathered into the child’s portfolio. As children begin to write their own name, a sample of their efforts gathered throughout the year will give a clear indication of learning gains. In a portfolio we can also include a log of books that have been read to the child and videos viewed. We can document observations of children playing alone, in pairs, in small groups and participating in whole class activities. Observations can include anecdotes – factual, non-judgemental notes of children’s activity. Material in a portfolio should be organised so that a chronological viewing of works of a similar nature can be viewed in the sequence of production, enabling an evaluation of skill development by comparing current work to earlier work. A portfolio is not compared with the work of another child. It is the evidence of the development of one child over time. We can use checklists to focus our observations. Many government education authorities have developed their own set of standards and benchmarks. Teachers need to be very familiar and conversant with whatever standards are already in place for the teaching context. A very helpful example is found in Belonging, being and becoming: The Early Years Learning Framework for Australia (Commonwealth of Australia, 2009). This document outlines five learning and developmental outcomes, with extensive examples of evidence listed. These examples can be used to prompt the teacher’s observations of and reflections on learner performance. Such examples can also be used to guide planning of activities.

3.3

Focus of evaluation

What are we specifically looking at when we talk about evaluating language performance in the early years? Clarke (2009) advises that it would be inappropriate to judge children on grammatical ability in the early stages of learning a second language; rather, we should focus on communicative competence, i.e. the learner’s ability to communicate with others, interact with others and make themselves understood. To illustrate the kind of features we could be looking at in terms of developing communicative competence, we will look at the communication-focused outcome included in the ‘Foundations for learning: Relationship between the Early Years Learning Framework and the Australian Curriculum’, (Commonwealth of Australia, 2012), which states: Children are effective communicators. TESOL Made Practical For All Situations

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This is further described: Children interact verbally and non-verbally with others for a range of purposes. Children engage with a range of texts and gain meaning from these texts. Children express ideas and make meaning using a range of media. Children begin to understand how symbols and pattern systems work. Children use information and communication technologies to access information, investigate ideas and represent their thinking.

Each of these dot points is then expanded upon with examples of observable behaviours, and is accompanied by teaching behaviours that encourage and elicit such demonstrations.

Summary Teaching English as an additional language, to very young children, is going to involve lots of play-like activities – exactly what these children would be doing in a childcare, kindergarten or pre-school class. The added dynamic is an intentional focus on developing the language that goes along with each activity. Language acquisition in this stage happens naturally, as long as input of an appropriate level is provided within a positive, safe and supportive environment. Recall is promoted by using movement, rhythm and melody. And the whole process should be lots of fun!

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CHAPTER 16: Teach English to primary school-aged learners

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Introduction This unit is specifically designed for trainees preparing to work with primary school-aged children. It examines the characteristics of language use of learners at this stage of life and development and their learning goals, with application to ESL techniques for classroom and tutoring situations. Teaching children is one specialised field of education, while teaching ESL/EFL to children is another level of specialisation, and each of the teaching contexts described below is yet a further level of specialisation. I encourage you to read this unit as an introduction to the field, not as an ‘everything-you-need-to-know’ text. The aim of this unit is to direct your thoughts to analysing the needs of the group of learners you are teaching and the teaching-learning context within which you find yourself working. There is a wealth of training material and resources available addressing teaching children, a few of which are listed at the end of this unit.

1. The learning context ESL teachers may find themselves being asked to teach primary-school aged children in a variety of settings:

English as a Foreign Language (EFL) classes in countries where English is not the language of the host community.

ESL classes outside of a mainstream educational program, e.g. short term holiday programs, school exchange trips, ELICOS (English Language Intensive Courses for Overseas Students) programs. ESL classes as an adjunct to a mainstream educational program, e.g. where learners are extracted from their mainstream class for some time each day or week. ESL support in mainstream classrooms, with a teacher-aide or tutor either working alongside a learner doing the same activity as the class, or doing alternative activities but within the physical environment of the mainstream classroom. ESL in the mainstream, where you are engaged as a mainstream teacher, but have one or a number of ESL learners, whose needs you must cater for within the mainstream educational program, without extra ESL support staff.

Private one-to-one tuition in the home.

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Ideally education is learner-centred, with the learner’s needs as the driving force behind planning a program. In reality, different teaching situations will likely impose their own agendas regarding learning. For example, overseas institutions may focus on general English; mainstream teachers will need their learners from Non-English Speaking Background (NESB) to be able to complete the same range of classroom and homework activities as other students; and private tuition may take any number of focuses. In addition, people other than the learners have ideas about what the aims and content of the program should be, and what should be prioritised. Parents will have an idea of what they are trying to achieve in having their child learn English, with specific applications for English use in mind (e.g. future study or employment options, or perhaps simply increased social status). The learners will have some feelings about learning English. It is often not their choice to be learning English. We cannot assume that participation is willing or appreciated. Regardless, all children would undoubtedly prefer it to be a fun and interesting experience. The following general principles will be relevant to most teaching contexts and to the motivations of various stakeholders.

2. General principles for teaching children ESL teachers need to take into consideration the developmental stage of the learner. There is a big difference between what a 6-year-old child can do and what a 12-year-old child can do, both in terms of physical coordination and degree of abstractness of the task. Areas of interest will also vary greatly depending on the developmental level and personalities of the children. Literacy levels will also vary greatly. The following points draw on and combine principles outlined by Phillips (1993) and Harmer (2001).

2.1

Tasks must be achievable

The children need to be able to understand what they are to do in each activity, and the task must be achievable. In preparing activities, therefore, the teacher must keep in mind the child’s existing skills and what can realistically be expected for a child of that age to achieve. Consideration of the child’s background of learning is also important. There may be times when the child needs to ‘learn how to learn’, or how to participate in certain learning activities.

2.2

Tasks must be engaging

As well as being achievable, tasks need to be stimulating and engaging and therefore intrinsically motivating. Again the teacher must consider stage of

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development as well as language proficiency and find a balance between providing scaffolded learning experiences, in which the learner is supported as much as necessary, reducing the level of assistance as competence and autonomy increase. Children enjoy challenges within security, and this can be a powerful drive in the learning situation.

2.3

Speaking, listening and doing should predominate

Activities involving speaking, listening and doing something should predominate. Children need to be active, moving, touching, using all of their senses to receive and process stimuli in the learning process. They will also benefit from brightly coloured posters and displays that reflect the current theme of learning, or concepts that are applied to all learning. Over time, a preference for specific learning styles will develop, but in these early years it is good to capitalise on all of the brain’s receptive strategies, and to encourage recognition of the benefit of different learning strategies that may carry on into adulthood. Obviously, the kinds of activities that are going to work well will include games and songs, activities that require some action (physical response), tasks involving manipulating items, simple, repetitive stories and speaking activities.

2.4

Writing development must be age-appropriate

It is imperative that written activities correspond with the children’s stage of development. Children of 6 or 7 years of age are beginner writers in their first language. When they do anything involving writing in an ESL/EFL class, they are (1) learning to write and (2) learning to use English for writing.

2.5

Learning environment and atmosphere must be positive

A child’s relationship with the teacher is a powerful influence on success or lack of success in learning. Children want the approval of the significant people in their lives, one of whom is their teacher. Encouragement and affirmation build positive feeling and lower affective barriers to learning. Individual attention is important for building a good rapport.

2.6

Interaction should be based on concrete experience

Children enjoy talking about themselves and their experiences, so it makes sense to exploit what they are already motivated towards doing. Talking about events that are not happening right at the moment (e.g. happened in the past, or are future events), or about objects and people that are not physically present at the moment, is a skill that develops through the childhood years. Younger children need very direct prompting to be able to put their thoughts into words and to relate their experiences effectively. As the teacher prompts, the child develops models of communication: for telling about people, for describing things, for recounting events, for giving instructions. Bakes (2004) offers the following principles for application to teaching ESL to children (see also sections 2.7 – 2.10). 450

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2.7 Language is learned through meaningful interaction

exposure, use and

We need to immerse learners in a language rich environment appropriate to their needs and level of development. Children aged 6 will need to learn the language of play, of classroom instructions, of stories and procedures. The language needs of children aged 12 may include those same areas, but of course will be more complex and increasing in abstractness, and covering a broader range of genres. We need to provide opportunities to listen to, read and participate in the creation of texts in such areas.

2.8 Language is best learned in ‘real-life’ contexts for real purposes The more urgently the need to communicate meaningfully is felt, the greater the motivation will be. Time spent in play-like activities involves children in using English relevant to play. When a child wants to participate in a game, the likelihood of them making attempts at communication is very high. Participating in games is fun and encourages socialisation. A cooking activity brings the language of instructions alive, with a very tangible reward for getting it right. Learning the meaning of classroom instructions brings its own sense of satisfaction and belonging as the child learns to fit into a new situation and respond appropriately. The ability to complete class assignments makes for a more successful educational experience in the school context. McLaughlin (1985) states, “Speech must contain a message and there must be a need to communicate that message.” Rote memorisation and repetition of grammar rules will not help a child to apply or implement that rule in language use. The focus at all times should be on using language to achieve functional goals.

2.9 Language is learned through need and the willingness to approximate Learning to ask to borrow something in an appropriate manner brings the reward of cooperation and fulfilment of a need. When the need is urgent, a learner will try to use all the language resources at their disposal to try to see that need met. Those attempts at language use may be faulty, but still effective. Communication can successfully be achieved without 100% accuracy, and experimentation with language is a helpful part of the learning process and hypothesis building and testing that goes on. The willingness to ‘have a go’ is essential for learning through experimentation. Most children are eager to try things out, less aware of risks, less embarrassed than adults by mistakes.

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2.10 Language is learned when the learner feels supported, comfortable and successful We all know the negative effect of a scary, intimidating or boring teacher and/or uncomfortable learning environment on (1) the learning process and (2) the learning outcomes. The converse is also true: a learning atmosphere and environment that is relaxed, comfortable and safe leads to much more positive learning outcomes. ESL teachers need to provide a space that is comfortable, and an engaging program of activities. This is easily done in a class in which all children are learning ESL/EFL. In mainstream classes, where you have a mixture of English speakers and children from NESB the teacher will need to proactively encourage and perpetuate an appreciation in all students of the language learning process and the effort involved in language learning. Through modelling, children who are native English speakers will learn to include, empower, esteem and encourage language learners in their midst. Peer tutoring is an inclusive strategy that can have a powerful influence in developing a sense of community responsibility among classmates for the learning goals of students from NESB.

3. Needs analysis The first task of the ESL teacher is to identify the stakeholders in the learning program, and then interpret the learning needs, taking into consideration the agendas of those stakeholders. In each of the learning contexts described earlier there are a different set of stakeholders, i.e. people or bodies who want to see specific outcomes from the learning program. These parties are motivated by different factors, not all of which are primarily concerned with the children enrolled in the program. Parents may be concerned for their child’s education and personal development. Funding agencies (e.g. employers, government agencies, sponsors) may be concerned about the benefit to society achieved by these children having English training and will require evidence of success in order to approve continued funding. Educational institutes feel pressure to provide the required evidence of learning to funding bodies, and may structure learning programs and assessment to fulfil that mandate. These factors cannot be ignored in the development of a learning program, but nothing should compromise a primary concern with each child’s wellbeing and development as a whole person. As discussed, when teaching children, their developmental stage must be considered.

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This encompasses the purposes for which children use language, some of which are:

describing

transacting

informing

retelling

reviewing

explaining

requesting

composing →

(formulating, organising and presenting ideas)

evaluating

socialising

Some helpful questions to facilitate the needs analysis process in any context include:

For what purposes or goals will the child be using English?

What is the age of the child?

What are the child’s interests?

What stage of language development is average for a native speaker of this age?

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If teaching is occurring within a language institute (e.g. ELICOS or overseas) helpful questions for needs analysis include: Is there a prescribed curriculum, and what learning goals does it state? Is there a prescribed text, and what topics, grammar, functions or notions does it cover? Will there be students of varying ages in the class? What size will the class be? Will there be any specialist teachers for subject areas? What assessment processes will the learners have to undertake and when? What resources and equipment will be available? e.g. readers, games, maps, CD players, computers. What amount of time will be allowed for physical activities and excursions? Will there be sufficient room for a variety of activities within the classroom? Is there a media room, stage or recreational room? If teaching relates to a mainstream educational program, need analysis should include these questions: What tasks is the mainstream class undertaking at the present (e.g. maths activities, projects, art work, sports activities)? What are the language needs (e.g. genres, grammatical structures, vocabulary) associated with completing those tasks? Where is the learner in relation to those language needs? How much does the learner understand about the concepts integral to the tasks or topics? What assessment activities will the learner be required to complete and when? Is extra ESL support provided? If so, is it conducted inside or outside of the class? How many hours are allocated to each student each week? In what social situations (e.g. play ground, canteen or school bus) are the learners participating and what are the associated language needs?

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If teaching relates to private tutoring: What are the stated aims of the parents in engaging you as tutor of their child? Will a parent be nearby at tutoring times? Will a budget be allocated for excursions? Is the child able to express any specific task with which they are experiencing difficulty?

4. Responding to language learning needs in planning learning programs For the sake of grounding this unit we will look at a few examples of real-life ESL tuition situations working with children. 4.1

ESL support in mainstream situations Situation 1: As an ESL support person (ESL specialist teacher, teacher aide or private tutor) you are asked to help a student from NESB to complete a project assigned to a mainstream class of Grade 5 students (9 – 10 year olds). Note that this does not mean you are to do the work for the student, but to empower them for doing the work. Within the context of a unit of work on ‘Sound’ the students were all asked to complete the following task:

There are numerous advantages to an ESL curriculum where the language needs of primary school-aged children from NESB are addressed within the context of the topics and concepts that their class is studying (Brown, 2004). In this approach English becomes a tool for achieving success in the classroom, lifting motivation towards language learning, because it is intrinsic to the broader task of ageappropriate concept development. All language use in this context is meaningful and functional and materials used are authentic. Technical vocabulary is learnt in context resulting in longer term retention. It may be necessary, initially, to use

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materials written for a lower level to develop vocabulary and understanding of concepts, before moving on to age-appropriate materials. Pennington (2006) advises that schools can support all learners, but especially those from NESB, by:

       

activating student’s background knowledge presenting tasks that are complex and challenging encouraging students to become active learners emphasising and promoting success having high expectations including explicit language teaching making learning meaningful using lots of discussion and reflection

A process of working with the student to complete the task might look something like this: 1. Together with the student, look at the vocabulary used in the task description (e.g. design, construct, musical instrument, instructions, use). Address any comprehension issues. Take this opportunity to teach vocabulary for a variety of musical instruments. Ask your student to tell you about any instruments they or anyone in their family can play, about their lessons, about any traditional instruments they know about from their home culture etc. Also, take this opportunity to briefly review the genre of instructions, because as you work together you’ll be listing the steps for constructing the instrument. 2. Brainstorm together about possible instruments the child could make. Ask the student for their ideas. Talk about the pros and cons of trying to make each instrument, decide together which instrument he or she will tackle. If lack of language inhibits this process, ask the child to draw the instrument they would like to make. You can then work on developing the language to describe the instrument. 3. List resources you will need. This is another opportunity to expand vocabulary, and as you work together you will be using the same words again and again. Talk about where you will find each of the things you need; another vocabulary opportunity, and also for teaching and practising prepositions of place (e.g. in the kitchen, in the supermarket, on the table). The student should gather these items and bring them to your next session together.

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4. Make the instrument. As you work together making the instrument, write a list of the parts of the instrument (e.g. body, neck, tuning pegs, etc.). Draw a diagram and label it. Make a list of the things you are doing as you do them. This list will become the outline for your instructions for how to make the instrument. 5. Write the instructions. First review the genre, using a model text. Draw attention to the stages: title/goal, materials, steps (procedure). Note the language features: command (imperative) verbs, prepositions of place, and details of size and time. Practise writing instructions using a skeleton text. Figure 16.1 is an example about making a bush bass:

Use the words in the box to complete the instructions. stick tie hammer string drill bush bass

wooden box broom handle

How to make a ________________________ Materials: ________________________ ________________________ ________________________ ________________________ ________________________ ________________________ Steps: 1. _______ a hole in the ______________. 2. Push the ____________ through the hole, into the wooden box. 3. 4. 5.

______ a _______ to the top of the broom handle. ______ a nail into the corner of the box. Tie the other end of the string to the ____.

Fig. 16.1 Gapped text: How to make a bush bass

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After some practice with a model text or texts, elicit and write the instructions for making the instrument the student has made. Your elicitation might go like this:

As you elicit and write the instructions together, you will use the same vocabulary over and over again and reinforce the sentence structure appropriate for giving instructions.

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1. Prepare for the oral presentation. 2. Model and record a short oral presentation (maybe about the bush bass again). 3. Ask questions to check the student’s comprehension, replay the recording if necessary. 4. Analyse the recorded text: • • •

Focus on the text structure: What did I tell them about first? What did I tell them about next? (What it is. What the parts of the instrument are. How you play it.) Focus on cohesive devices: What did I say to show I was going to talk about something new? (The first thing, the next thing, finally) Listen to the sentence structures: o You hold the broom handle like this. o You have to put your foot on the box, like this, to stop it from moving. o You pluck the string with your finger. o What kind of persuasive language and tactics were used?

5. Have the child tell you how to make the instrument they made. Record this presentation if possible, then review it continuing to work on the language used, the sentence structures and other aspects of grammar. 6. Prepare palm cards and practise, practise, practise. The ideal we are aiming for is that the student will be able to talk about his/her creation from palm cards. Some students may have the courage to do this, but many will need the security of reading the whole presentation word for word. This should be negotiated with the mainstream class teacher, taking into account the stage of L2 acquisition the student is at, the personality of the student and their sense of acceptance and comfort level in the class.

4.2 English as a Foreign Language (in non-English speaking countries) If there truly is no documentation regarding curriculum in place, it would be wise to discuss with your supervisor the weekly assessment mandate. If assessment items are already in place, analysis of the items will offer some guidance:

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What macroskills are to be tested? •(e.g. Listening, speaking, reading, writing)

Will specific functions be tested? •(e.g. following oral instructions, asking for and giving information)

Will specific lexical areas be tested? •(e.g. colours, numbers, shapes)

It is also worth investigating what resources are at your disposal or what budget is available for making resources. With assessment and resource constraints clarified, you can begin planning with all the creativity you have. In planning programs for children we need to consider 3 domains (Bourke, 2006):

Experiential:

Learning process:

Language content:

•Language learning needs to relate to the child’s world. This suggests we need to contextualise learning activities within topics of interest to children. These topics will be reflected across a variety of activities including stories, games, fun activities, creative activities, songs, chants, rhymes, working in pairs or groups.

•Comprehensible input must be provided in a safe and comfortable environment. Children need the opportunity for lots of interaction, yet beginner language learners need the freedom to have a silent period, that is a period in which they receive language input and are allowed to process it without being forced to produce language. During this stage learners usually engage in some experimentation with language, and begin to speak more freely as they grow more confident and able.

•The learning program should also include an explicit focus on form, text structure, sentence structure, grammar, vocabulary and pronunciation. This must always occur in a meaningful context. Topic-based lessons or units of work, best facilitate children interacting with and through language in meaningful ways. A topic is used to generate and focus language development, providing the scope to review and reuse vocabulary, grammar, whole sentences and texts. Reinforcement and consolidation of learning happens naturally.

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This focus on topics and tasks corresponds with children’s stage of cognitive development which is still firmly located in concrete operations, working with real things, and real-life, meaningful tasks. Through working together children engage in a discovery mode of learning, free to make errors in a relaxed environment and so to experiment with language use. Children naturally correct and support one another in learning, as they work on projects or play games together.

4.3

ESL holiday programs

Based on the principle of using learners’ own experiences, the language program could be built around the sightseeing program and include some of the following elements and activities. 1. Language for sightseeing: Obtain copies of any brochures or maps of places that will be visited. Use these texts as the basis of lessons. After addressing new vocabulary you could have the students engage in a wide variety of communicative activities, for example: • • • • •

Roleplay situations in which they need to ask for information. Roleplay telemarketing conversations. Work in groups to plan an itinerary for a 3 hour visit to a particular place. Plan a radio advertisement. Debate whether animals should be kept in captivity for human entertainment.

2. Using public transport: Find out what transport arrangements are already in place. Can any of the outings be done by public transport, so that you can cover the language associated with use of buses and trains? Obtain copies of timetables, and after instruction have students plan a travel route and schedule. Students could phone for information about group bookings and discounts. Actually implementing the proposed travel plan creates a sense of urgency to get the information right. 3. Learning about local culture. 4. Learning a local song or two. 5. Recounting events and experiences: Take digital photos on all excursions. Write recounts or reports about excursions including photos in the final edition for publication into a booklet to take home as a memento of the trip.

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6. Writing a report: For example, about animals the students have seen, landforms they have visited, a comparison of the local transport system and that of their home country. The possibilities are wide and varied.

Any of the activities above could be undertaken by learners with an elementary level of English proficiency, except for the debate which probably requires intermediate proficiency. There are a myriad of possibilities for engaging students in meaningful language use which has immediate relevance. Let your imagination run riot, just remembering to keep tasks manageable and meaningful. As for evidence to take home to Mum and Dad, each student could be given a scrapbook, clear book or ring binder into which they stick journal entries, recounts and reports, songs, photos of in-class activities, worksheets relating to excursions, and descriptions of roleplays and other tasks.

4.4

With stated learning outcomes

Planning a language learning program when learning outcomes are already stated is a relatively simple task involving analysing the outcome for the inherent skill and language components. For example in relation to retelling or recounting a past event, we would need to teach: sequence markers

time markers

past tense verbs

place markers

conjunctions

With the learning outcomes stated and language needs listed, decide on topics of interest and relevance which will facilitate teaching and learning activities that build towards the learning outcomes. Topics must be of interest and relevance to the learners. Remember that the more real the communication need is, the higher the learner motivation. Decide on realistic tasks that your particular group of learners would engage in, in relation to the learning outcome. For example, a group of 5 year olds will not need to ask about group discounts for public transport, but they will need to ask where the bathroom or lunchroom is. Five year olds might be asked to put in sequence pictures showing actions as the teacher mentions each one in telling how to do something. Twelve year olds might be expected to write the instructions for a procedure. Having analysed the institutional requirements and the learners’ language needs, topics and tasks can now be formulated into a series of lessons. Our learning program (syllabus) will look something like this:

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Learning outcome: Can engage in group planning activities Lesson

Topic

1

Planning a picnic

2

Planning an excursion

3

Planning a concert

4

Planning a sports competition

Language focus

Resources

Vocab: food equipment games Expressing likes/dislikes Vocab: scheduling transport Expressing opinions Vocab: types of entertainment Stage equipment/props Roles of people involved Talking about abilities/talents Vocab: types of sports Equipment Roles of people involved Stating procedures/rules

realia pictures Timetables brochures Pictures/video musical items other types of entertainment Pictures/video of sports Rules of play

5. Planning and implementing lessons Lessons could follow any number of patterns, for example: 1. Introduce the topic 6. Close the lesson

2. Develop vocabulary

5. Practise for fluency

3. Introduce a language form 4. Practise a language form for accuracy

The only limits to the variety of activities you could do in the classroom are your imagination and restrictions in the physical environment. The more active and interesting the activities are, the better student motivation and participation will be.

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5.1

Activities to introduce the topic may include: Look at pictures and talk about our own experiences.

Play a game. Give out chunks of play dough (or alfoil) and ask students to make something relevant (e.g. a piece of sports equipment, an animal, etc.).

Announce, “Today we’re going to…”

Listen to a story. Assume a character: dress as a baseball/football player and talk about or demonstrate the sport/topic. Show the contents of a realia box: “What do all of these things make you think of?”

5.2

Activities to develop vocabulary may include: Jigsaw activities e.g. parts of the body, rooms in the house, sentence fragments, story segments. I spy with my little eye … e.g. initial sounds, numbers, description Flash cards Magazine pictures • • • •

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Describe people: appearance, clothing, character. Describe places: appearance, what happens there. Describe an event: what happened before, what’s going to happen next. Match with labels (body parts, objects, clothing, food items).

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Picture cards e.g. Match pictures and words, snap with word cards, ‘memory’ with word cards, categorise, select the picture described, sequence the pictures in the order they are described, pick out the odd one. Guess who/what Teacher describes someone/something and students select the corresponding picture from a number of cards/magazine pictures. Word clusters e.g. Bathroom - wash basin - mirror Bedroom

- shower

Laundry - washing machine - ironing board

-bed - dressing table

Home

Scavenger hunt e.g. Find all the blue things. Find anything with number 3. Find things beginning with ‘s’. Find the items listed. Intermediate level young students can search for items by following cryptic clues. A prize can be a great motivator! Bingo Any vocab area: Use word cards, picture cards, numbers. Vary your cues: Give the word, give a clue (you use it to write with: pencil). TPR (Total Physical Response) “Open your book, close your book, open the door, close the door, open the window, close the window…” Gradually introduce new objects and new verbs, then prepositions, “Put your book on the table, put your book under the chair.” This can even be used for more complex grammar like conditionals: “If you can swim, clap your hands. If you can run very fast, stamp your feet. If your name has an ‘A’ in it, put your right index finger on your left ear.” Children greatly appreciate outdoor games such as volley-ball, touch football and handball and will rapidly acquire language in these situations.

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Fill in the gaps Use picture clues inserted into the text. Give the opposite meaning of the word in brackets. (Janet lives in a [big]______ house.) No gaps: Write a basic text without adjectives or adverbs. List some adjectives and adverbs in a box, and ask students to insert them into the text in appropriate places. Acrostics Items from within a lexical area, matched to letters of student’s name, or another object within that lexical field. e.g. Pineapple, Apricot, Melon. Flower Power Is a less gruesome image (adaptation of Hangman), in which petals are coloured in when an incorrect letter is nominated. Dramatic presentations • radio plays • impromptu acting • character impersonations performance of scripted plays or skits Writing a class jazz chant • Use the names of all the students with a fact about them. e.g. “Gung Sung likes kim chi for breakfast.” “Roberto rides his bike to school.” “Xiu visited her grandmother yesterday.” Information gap crosswords Intermediate students: Students A & B each have a copy of the same crossword, but with a different half of the answers completed on each crossword. Students take turns to give each other clues about the missing items.

5.3

Techniques for introducing a language form Use pictures.

Demonstrate.

Use puppets to model or demonstrate.

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Use situations.

Use word cards to form sentences.

Watch video segments from children’s programs or cartoons.

5.4

Activities to practise for accuracy Sentence starters (can be played as memory games) I packed my bag for … (the Gold Coast, camping, skiing). When we go to Seaworld tomorrow, I’ll (watch the dolphins, ride on the corkscrew, eat fairy floss). When school finishes today, I’m going to… Plastic toys/animals Useful for classifying, sorting according to description, identifying from clues, practising prepositions. Cooking/craft Involve students in planning, shopping, writing recipes/instructions, measuring, mixing, etc. Picture description Teach prepositions of place then describe a picture which each student draws from your description (picture dictation). Student A has a complete picture. Student B has the same picture with some items missing. Students ask and answer questions to discover the differences and Student B draws in the missing items. Class surveys (any topic) Tongue twisters (pronunciation) Computer-based activities Korean children are used to computer-assisted teaching. Blackboards are not used in Korea and whiteboards are increasingly less used. Classes are accustomed to technologically advanced presentations so be prepared to use the computer in the classroom and to have students use

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computers for additional learning activities. Asian children love setting up their own websites: prepare one together in English!

5.5

Activities to practise for fluency Simulations e.g. shopping: Student A given pictures of ‘items’, Student B given a shopping list and budget. Barrier games i.e. Student A gives instructions to Student B who is behind a barrier and cannot see Student A: directions, picture description, describing/selecting pictures, describing/sequencing pictures, putting a puzzle or Lego blocks together to match a model.

Board games Make your own: Sight words, following directions, body parts, etc. Excursions Plan, find out bus info, write invitations and RSVPs or plan a picnic. Visit a local attraction, take photos (digital are great for inserting into worksheets), write recounts, write reports, and write instructions for how to get there. Drama Teacher tells a story and students act it out (another form of TPR). Listen and draw E.g. a route, a picture. Roleplays

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6. Giving instructions Giving instructions? Easy! Or so it seems, until you try to explain to children what they need to do. For example, to complete a “Find the differences” activity, students each have a version of the same picture, with a number of differences. Without looking at their partner’s picture, students describe the picture they hold, or ask questions about their partner’s picture, until they discover what the differences are. It seems straight forward. But how will you explain this to a group of students whose English proficiency is elementary level? It is essential to plan your instructions before you have to give them. Bradshaw (2005) suggests the following tips for planning and delivering instructions.

6.1

Planning instructions

 Only include essential information that the children need to carry out the activity.

 Use simple vocabulary and structures that the children will be familiar with.  Plan the actions you want the children to perform.  Break the instructions into short sentences, each containing a key step.  Make sure that the steps are in a logical order, and that no steps are missing.

 Don’t include information about what you are doing (“I’m giving out the cards.”) This just clutters the instructions.

 Plan gestures you can use to accompany the steps.

6.2

Delivering instructions

 When you are ready to begin the activity, make it obvious that you are about to give instructions.

 Remember to use silent pauses and gestures to punctuate and clarify the meaning. Watch the students to gauge comprehension.

 Always use a demonstration where possible.  Don’t forget to check that the children have understood the instructions. Get a demonstration of what they will do. Never just ask, “Do you understand?”

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7. Tips for behaviour management  Give lots of encouragement and praise.  Always be aware of what is going on in your classroom. Circulate around the room.

 Know and use students’ names.  Start off being firm. You can relax later, whereas it’s difficult to regain control of a class gone wild because you started off with standards that were too low.

 Be fair and consistent in dealing with students. Include students in the negotiation of class rules at the beginning of a course, perhaps considering consequences for inappropriate behaviour and rewards for good behaviour.

 Do not shout or engage in any form of (or even threat of) physical violence.

 Keep students busy in activities which are interesting, motivating, fun, developmental and likely to be a successful experience.

 Children enjoy floor activities, so ensure you move them about throughout the day.

 Not every activity will ‘work’ with every group every time. Always have a back-up activity prepared for such moments.

 Be aware that after a boisterous activity it can be very difficult to settle a class into quiet grammar exercises! It works better if the boisterous activity follows the subdued one.

 Children the world over metamorphose on windy and rainy days into unruly characters. Be prepared with additional fun activities, like movies, on these occasions.

 Ensure that the sound feature on electronic dictionaries is turned off in the classroom.

 Most Asian children will bring electronic gadgetry into the classroom. Make it clear from the beginning that these are not to be used in class time.

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 Being well-prepared not only means that the students are kept too busy to get into mischief, it increases your own confidence which in turn helps to win the trust of the students.

 Be aware that many children have little sense of road rules. If you are heading out of the school grounds require children to walk and talk in ways that are safe and courteous.

 One trick is to learn a few pertinent behaviour management expressions in the student’s native language!

8. Some further background information 8.1

Developmental sequence

Some studies show that children learning a second language follow the same order of acquisition as learning their first language. Other studies show differences in the order of acquisition (between first and second languages) linked to first language background: where there is syntactic or morphological congruity between structures in the two languages, children will tend to rely on first language rules.

8.2

“Interlanguage”

Interlanguage refers to “a separate linguistic system that reflects the learner’s attempts to match the target language” (McLaughlin, 1985, p.15). Pidginisation (a variety of the L2 characterised by L1 transfer) can occur where children have little or no contact with native speakers, and the ‘interlanguage’ becomes the medium of communication, but it does not correspond entirely to the language system used by native speakers. This is often the case in ‘international schools’. To avoid interlanguage becoming the standard form, Canale and Swain (cited in McLaughlin, 1985) argue for emphasis on grammatical accuracy from the beginning.

8.3

Language play

Cekaite and Aronsson (2005) report on research concerning children’s use of humour, jokes and fun during play activities to negotiate meaning, and rehearse language use. They recommend integrating language play into language learning. They cite examples of children having fun with language in a number of ways. Children were observed playing the ‘Memory Game’, deliberately mislabelling items (as a joke) and manipulating language structures as they did so. This was seen as productive in the sense that the children were working creatively with a TESOL Made Practical For All Situations

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grammatical aspect of language use. Though their joking meant that they intentionally produced incorrect labels, they had correctly applied the rule. Fun was also had manipulating sounds and words that sound alike. This is also seen as productive as in the process of joking the youngsters negotiated and clarified the meanings of vocabulary items.

8.4

Resources

Resources available for primary-school aged learners may depend on which culture you are teaching in and which ‘English’ they are learning, British English or American English. Some language schools in countries such as Vietnam for example, may differ in which ‘English’ they teach. You may be required to use American English resources for some schools and British English for others. Some useful resources to access might include: Let's Go 2 (ages 7-8) Let's Go 3 (ages 9-10) Let's Go 4 (ages 11-13) Family & Friends (ages 5-12) (American English) https://twinkl.com or https://twinkl.com.au a useful website with specific ESL/EAL/D support material, linked to the Australian National Curriculum.

Summary In teaching children of primary school age we must consider institutional requirements, agendas of stakeholders and learners’ needs. Intrinsic to analysing learning needs is consideration of the learners’ stage of development. Teachers must be aware that language learners in these years of life are also developing understanding of concepts, so instruction must include concept development alongside the language focus. Learning activities should involve action and movement as often as possible, drawing on the capacity of children to learn through all of the senses.

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CHAPTER 17: Teach English to teenage learners

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Introduction In this Chapter we will focus on the learning needs of teenagers, the themes and topics that emerge as appropriate and relevant, approaches to teaching and learning and evaluation of performance that may be particularly suited to this unique developmental stage, with ideas for some techniques and activities.

1. TESOL with teenagers 1.1

The learners

As we look at the communicative needs of teenagers in general, we find a range of contexts in which teenagers endeavour to fulfil a variety of social purposes. Needs analysis looks at the specific context and the relationships with the people involved in communication transactions and recognition of the different styles of communication used in each of those relationships. The skills of text analysis and task analysis are explained in more detail in TESOL Made Practical, and this unit applies those skills. It is important to recognise that teenagers are no longer children and cannot be treated as children. They are in a transitional stage moving towards adulthood and its attendant roles and responsibilities. The implication for ESL teaching is that our process of teaching must enhance and encourage that growth. The challenge for teachers of teenagers is to encourage self-confidence and help students to move towards self-directed and independent learning, while maintaining a purposeful ESL learning program. To facilitate this growth towards self-directed learning, Putcha and Schratz (1989) advocate that students should be included in discussion regarding instruction processes, debriefing after new activity types, describing and evaluating what happened and what learning is perceived to have occurred. These discussions also gave the teachers the opportunity to explain the purposes behind the processes or activities chosen. In addition, the development of social skills is also addressed as an intrinsic component of the language program. It is interesting to note what teenagers report to be the characteristics of a good teacher (Ur, 1996). Respect and care for the individual as well as having high standards in planning and delivering teaching programs are qualities that are appreciated. These qualities are evident in the following list.

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A good teacher:  cares about his/her teaching  controls the class firmly  treats students with fairness and respect  knows and uses students’ names  plans interesting lessons  plans active and effective learning activities  takes time to talk to and help students outside of the class

1.2

The learning contexts

ESL (English as a Second Language) refers to English being taught within a community setting in which English is the main language of communication. EFL (English as a Foreign Language) refers to situations in which English is not the language used by the community outside of the classroom. ESL and EFL programs are developed for many different purposes, including:

extra-curricular English programs with a general English focus

holiday programs

English for Academic Purposes (EAP)

English immersion programs

ESL within or alongside mainstream educational programs

Private tutoring

The purpose or motivation for learning English is an important consideration in our needs analysis as these purposes indicate the primary focus for language study. From this point of view, there are two distinct areas of TESOL with teenagers, each with a different primary focus of study. The two areas are general English programs (e.g. holiday programs, extra-curricular programs for personal skill development) and programs designed to prepare young people for Englishmedium academic contexts or to support young people enrolled in mainstream English-medium academic programs. The latter area can be clearly divided again according to the educational background of the learners: those who have benefited from a good standard of education and apart from language have academic skills on a par with their peers, and those who have been disadvantaged in education.

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The current humanitarian resettlement program in Australia, has seen this country (like others) absorb refugees from nations torn apart by war and acts of genocide. With the arrival of young people who have had limited formal education, there is an urgent need for teaching and learning strategies that effectively develop language, literacy and numeracy. Issues faced by high school students, reported by teachers in mainstream classes (Directorate of School Education, Victoria, 1993), include:

The need to adapt quickly to a new educational culture. Difficulty is common where a student’s past educational culture has not valued or placed importance on common high school practices such as in-depth analysis, presenting and justifying opinions and group work. The heavy workload. For ESL students, the reading and listening involved in research is very time-consuming and students may have little or no experience in self-directed research.

Insufficient knowledge of key words and background information.

Insufficient knowledge of the styles of writing and speaking for different purposes (genres) used in the new educational context.

Under-developed literacy skills, especially where students are from backgrounds of poverty and/or displacement resulting in minimal or disrupted formal schooling.

Depression, anger and/or physical symptoms may be experienced as a result of trauma, displacement and settlement adjustments.

These issues give us some indication that an ESL program for these learners must be much longer and broader than those provided for learners well-educated in L1 from relatively affluent backgrounds.

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1.3

Implications for teaching

Each of these groups of learners will have specific learning goals, some of which may overlap between groups, some of which will be quite distinct from the others. General ESL/EFL courses can explore an extensive range of topics of interest to teenagers, and include lots of fun, game-type activities that stimulate English language production. EAP classes, preparing students to participate in academic contexts, will have a much narrower focus on the type of texts students will encounter and be expected to produce in academic contexts. Activities are of necessity more academically oriented, but this does not mean that the learning program cannot be creative and fun. Assisting students from NESB within or alongside mainstream educational classes will address these same aspects of academic English, but will also need to be sensitive to gaps in content knowledge. Where there has been a background of disrupted education, or limited exposure to information and concepts, general knowledge and basic literacy and numeracy skills are often underdeveloped. The Directorate for School Education in Victoria (1993) has suggested strategies for teachers of ESL students in the mainstream: Develop key vocab. Underline/highlight key vocab, provide a glossary or develop personal notebooks of key vocab. Don’t assume content knowledge. Preview topics with a broad introduction. Provide extra information written for a lower level in simpler English. Present tasks and information visually. Demonstrate, use pictures, models, diagrams and posters. Use group/pair work. Assign roles to group members: leader, note taker, reporter, time keeper. Provide handouts and choose resources carefully. Be aware of culturally specific info that needs to be explained. Reinforce main points with a summary at the end of each lesson.

One thing that ESL teachers of teenagers agree on is that motivation is built through learning goals that are relevant, topics that are intrinsically interesting and activities that provide challenge. Puchta and Schratz (1989) piloted and reported

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on the implementation of units of work, with a humanistic approach to teaching, designed specifically with the developmental needs of teenagers in mind. One of their main aims was to establish rapport between students and teacher and to break away from traditional classroom activities into much more engaging communicative activities. The teachers hoped to see the students so caught up in the activities that communicating in English became much more natural and prolific. Though now a little dated, their work is worth looking at, giving a description of using metacognition with groups of teenage ESL learners. A dynamic worth noting and being prepared for is the varying degree to which teenage learners will be willing to discuss and converse with their peers in English. In mono-cultural, monolingual classes of teenagers who already know each other well, it can initially be very unnatural for these young people to interact with each other in English. Where tasks are routine and formulaic, completion in English is easily accomplished. Where tasks are interesting and challenging, it seems the temptation to resort to L1 to express ideas is strong. This seems to indicate that the motivation towards communicating ideas effectively is so strong that it overrides the motivation to practise English to achieve the same communicative goal. This dynamic is defused when classes consist of students who come from a variety of cultural and language backgrounds and English is the only language they have in common. The challenge for the teacher of the former type of class is to provide sufficient motivation for speaking English that students will be selfdisciplined or easily redirected to use English.

2. Analysing the language use of teenagers 2.1

Nature of communication of teenagers

We all make choices about how we relate to or communicate with different groups of people. The way that we relate the same event to different people will vary, depending on factors like the impression we want to make, what we do and don’t want to reveal and the outcome we want to achieve. Teenagers relate to individuals or groups of people in different ways. The ways in which they relate to siblings, friends, peers outside of their social group, parents, teachers, employers, adults they like and adults they don’t like will all vary. That is natural. Part of the role of an ESL teacher is to encourage a variety of communication strategies and modes that are appropriate for different settings in society. In this stage of life, where individuation and establishing identity are major goals, and individuals often experiment with different kinds of behaviour, it is important that teaching include explicit instruction about what kind of behaviour, speech and writing is appropriate in a variety of situations. Without being condescending, this needs to be integrated into the ESL program, so that learners can develop effective communication strategies and techniques.

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In the adolescent stage of life it is expected that individuals will make the transition from relating as a child, to relating as an adult. TESOL with this age group must therefore integrate the development of important social skills: like using eyecontact, appropriate body language and communicating directly, clearly and confidently. The instinct many teenagers seem to exhibit towards detachment and minimalist interaction must be overcome. In this day and age “communication” and “teenagers” have become almost inseparably linked with “technology”. Bovitz (2007) reports, “When teens were asked about their communication style, some reported that they feel they are less able to communicate effectively in person since they do so much of it online.” When a teenager routinely sits in the car and text-messages a friend to say they are outside the door, ready to go, you may wonder where they ever learn the interaction involved in knocking on a door. Some teens show reluctance to phone a friend’s landline, being unsure of what to say if the parents answered. This could be remedied through direct coaching for speaking with parents of friends. It is real life communication and foundational to a strong community and society. Interaction with the parents of friends would previously have built confidence in our young people for speaking with potential employers or other adult authority figures. If these basic social skills are to be developed they will need to be much more explicitly and intentionally targeted in the education of teenagers. The internet is reportedly used by 87% of 12-17 year olds, and of those users 75% prefer instant messaging to regular email. This new method of communication has given birth to a whole new method of written expression. What educators are noting is that the abbreviations and conversational style of instant messaging and texting is making its way into texts created for school assignments. There is strong resistance from within educational establishments to accepting this new way of writing as ‘standard English’ and therefore appropriate in final products. However, some teachers propose that creative energy can be harnessed by giving students the freedom to use any kind of language in brainstorming and first draft writing. They maintain that the creative process is enhanced by using forms that come easily. This is similar to the approach of encouraging students not to worry about spelling in a first draft, but to attend to that later. In the same way, standardising language used can be part of the revision and editing stage of writing.

2.2

Social purposes of communicative interactions

In considering TESOL with teenagers, we recognise that communication styles alter depending on who the teenager is talking with or writing to, whether they are peers, teachers, parents, other adults or younger children. The language choices made will also vary depending on the purpose or desired outcome of the communication event. As you prepare to teach your group of teenagers, you will

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consider the social contexts in which they will use English, the relationships those situations incorporate and the purposes of the interactions that take place. As an introduction to this kind of analysis, sections 2.2.1 and 2.2.2 look at the example of the academic and social communication needs of high school students from NESB, preparing to join a mainstream high school program and section 2.2.3 looks briefly at more general English programs.

2.2.1 Academic roles In relation to academic roles, aside from the huge task of studying in a second language, the students will need to handle administrative issues, especially where parents are not present in the country or have limited English themselves. A list of communicative functions in the academic area includes:

Speaking

Listening

Reading

Writing

• completing procedures such as enrolment, excursion arrangements, etc. • discussing and negotiating logistics such as timetable conflicts, transport issues • participating in pair and group work • participating in discussions in small groups and classes • delivering oral presentations • negotiating assessment processes, forms and deadlines (as these can often be adjusted for students from NESB) • • • • •

listening to information sessions (formal and informal) listening to assembly addresses listening in class participating in pair work, group work and discussions listening to recorded educational resources (video, CD, radio, TV)

• reading communications from school to home (especially where parents are not present or unable to read English) • reading procedural and information texts such as student handbook, newsletters and excursion forms • reading in content area: textbooks, journals and novels

• completing administrative forms • completing class related assignments (in-class work, homework and assessment items) including essays, reports, descriptions

Fig. 17.1 Sample of academically and administratively oriented language tasks in high school context 480

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This list is just a sample of the very practically oriented needs that are essential for the success of the high school student from NESB. ESL class work should introduce each of the spoken and written genres that will be encountered in content area classes, and focus on developing the skills necessary for understanding and producing such texts.

2.2.2 Social functions In terms of social functions in the academic context, language needs will revolve around making and maintaining social relationships, relating to a homestay family and filling practical needs for goods and services. The following table includes a small sample of relevant skills: • • • •

• •

beginning, continuing and closing conversations talking about likes/dislikes discussing home and host cultures participating in discussion: expressing agreement/disagreement, approval/disapproval, etc. negotiating transactions for goods and services: asking, checking, clarifying, arranging, confirming talking about self and own family, asking about host family relating past experiences talking about the future: hopes and dreams, family expectations negotiating the way things are done in the homestay household making arrangements for activities watching TV and radio programs

• • • •

teen magazines internet websites instant messaging (apps, internet, mobile phone) social media (Facebook, Instagram TikTok etc.)

• • • •

instant messaging (apps, internet, mobile phone) emails blogs social media posts (Facebook, Instagram TikTok etc.)

• • Speaking + Listening

• • •

Reading

Writing

Fig. 17.2 Sample of socially oriented language tasks in high school context

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These social needs introduce the opportunity for a lot more fun-oriented activities and including activities focusing on social goals will help to provide a break in the heaviness and intensity of an EAP program.

2.2.3 More general English programs In contrast to the very focused nature of an EAP program, holiday programs and general English programs provide scope for all sorts of fun learning activities on topics of interest to teenagers. A quick survey of ESL coursebooks compares reasonably well with a list of topics found to be common in the conversations between teenagers in London (see Figure 17.3). Perhaps though, preparation for the ‘real world’ needs to be a little more adventurous in terms of subject matter, if students are to cope with real-life conversation about issues surrounding sex and sexuality, drugs, racism and so on.

Topics common in ESL course books designed for teenagers

• • • • • • • • • • • •

sport music multi-media telecommunications relationships adventures mysteries extreme sports the future travel the environment current issues

Topics revealed by corpus analysis of London teen-talk (Stenstrom et al, 2002) • • • • • • • • •

social networking romance sex partying and drinking the body pastimes and hobbies (pop culture, cinema & TV, music, computers) ‘bad’ things drugs and addiction race relations

Fig. 17.3 Sample of topics relevant to teenagers

2.3 Linguistic features of teenagers’ spoken and written English Stenstrom et al (2002) note the use of slang in the speech of London teenagers as a means of protesting social taboos as established by the older generation. Slang is reportedly also used by teenagers to establish bonds within their own social group that work to strengthen group cohesion and exclude those that the group

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decides do not belong. Appropriate use of the ‘in’ terms and slang are important to social integration among teenagers. The use of slang is now even more prominent with the changes in social media messaging, text abbreviations and new social media platforms that teenagers continue to create and interpret ‘new’ terms including emojis and emoticons. A list of current emojis can be found on https://getemoji.com/ . Skill in language use during the teenage years continues to develop, with increasing facility in implementing more complex structures both at sentence level and text level. In addition, during adolescence individuals become more capable of abstract thought and conceptualisation, and so we see language being used to describe and relate more complex items, processes and ideas. This capability is reflected in the expectations written into educational curriculums, and students are required to complete written and spoken tasks of increasing complexity, and to interpret and evaluate spoken and written texts that are more densely constructed. In the high school years, students are expected to be able to read and write essays that compare and contrast, describe or define characteristics of objects, systems, processes, ideologies, philosophies, historical events and works of art, to name just a few. They are to evaluate, synthesise and infer. They must form opinions and express them with attendant justifications and evidence to support their arguments. Developing the ability to deal with these more complex age-appropriate texts is the ultimate goal of academic preparatory programs. This goal is recognised as a challenge even for students from a highly literate background who have received a sound education and so have well-developed conceptual knowledge. Cummins (cited in Wyman, 2006) says, “...research has shown it takes 2-3 years to acquire proficiency in social language and 5-7 years to learn the academic language of schools.” Wyman comments on the need for adequate time and effective strategies within the educational program that enable the language learning process. In fact, mainstream teachers affirm that techniques that benefit learners with need in the areas of language and literacy benefit all learners. For students from a background of disrupted schooling, the challenge is multiplied ten-fold. These students have often also experienced inadequate resourcing and input, resulting in low levels of literacy and numeracy skills, lack of general knowledge necessary for participation in mainstream schooling situations and underdeveloped learning strategies and skills. With the current emphasis in education on access and equity, we must acknowledge that for most of these learners, a long term plan for scaffolded learning will be required, if these young people are to reach their potential. Even at high school level, the learning cycle outlined in TESOL Made Practical For All Situations is ideal for developing awareness of different text types and how they are constructed. The learning cycle includes building knowledge of the field or topic and addressing concepts and key vocabulary inherent in the area of study.

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Modelling the text will include analysing the structure of the type of text the student will be expected to produce. During this stage of the cycle, there should be explicit instruction on aspects of grammar typical of these texts, especially noting how cohesion is achieved. Students need to know how to make apparent the relationships between pieces of information and between sections of the text, for example what devices are used to introduce new information or to refer back to information already given. Students then need to practise writing such texts in a scaffolded approach which allows them to begin with a high degree of expert support, and move through stages of support being reduced as their own capability increases, towards the goal of independent writing. The learning cycle is very intentionally directed towards dealing with and producing specific text types or genres. Learning activities within the different stages can be varied and with some creativity can be made interesting and challenging. For example, in building knowledge of the field, on a field trip to a museum or other relevant place, students could be enlisted in a ‘scavenger hunt’ for information or vocabulary. In the stage of modelling the text, learners could complete a ‘jigsaw’ made up of a split sample text. An information gap can be created using 2 versions of the same text, with different parts of the text missing from each, then, in pairs, students ask and answer questions in order to complete both copies with the correct information. Crosswords can be used to reinforce the meanings of new vocabulary. The object is to provide stimulating and engaging learning activities that address the key learning objectives in terms of developing content knowledge and concepts, vocabulary, grammar and knowledge of text construction. Short (1999) describes how classes can use metacognition to develop particular skills. The example below shows how metacognition is used to help develop the skills involved in delivering oral presentations. The suggested procedure is: Introduce the skill in focus: in this case, oral presentations. Students free-write about their own experiences giving oral presentations. The teacher models a bad oral presentation. The class debriefs by listing the faults in the presentation. The teacher models a good oral presentation. The class debriefs and brainstorms the keys to good presentations and how to prepare for presentations.

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Students free-write about their own preparation process. From an oral presentation self-evaluation form students select one criterion as a goal for personal improvement. Throughout the term students deliver oral presentations to the class, who then debrief and evaluate each presentation together. As all students participate in the explicit evaluation process, awareness increases of the characteristics of a good presentation, and how they are achieved. It is easy to see more general English programs or holiday programs that are largely recreational as much more light-hearted, and in a sense the stakes may not be so high for learners in these kinds of programs. However, the ones paying for the courses usually want assurance that value for money is being delivered, and so a purposeful learning program is still essential. Your learning program should have clearly stated goals: what the students should be able to do in English by the end of the course. Learning goals should reflect the communication needs of the group and your activities should be chosen and designed to achieve those learning goals. Topics should reflect the interests of your group. Questions that could be used to determine the communication needs of your student/s include:

Where do you speak English?

Do you use English on the phone/internet?

Who do you speak to in English? Who would you like to speak to in English?

What do you speak with each of those people about?

What tasks do you use English to complete? (e.g. use public transport, arrange purchases, go to the doctor, translate for parents to arrange the services of a tradesperson, etc.) If you could pick anyone to speak to in English, who would that be and what would you speak about?

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Finish this sentence: “I wish I could use English to ...”

Who decided to enrol you in this English class? What do they want you to be able to do in English? (How do you feel about that? Might be handy to have some idea of the attitude the learner brings to the class.)

2.4

Learning activities with a communicative focus

Communicative tasks, by nature, require the learner to use English to achieve a particular goal. For example, the learner may have to ask questions in order to complete a chart, or negotiate with a partner or small group to make the decisions involved in planning an event, or write a letter to the editor of a newspaper or magazine in response to an article appearing in this week’s issue. The learner can use all of the English available to them, in order to complete the task, but communicative tasks can also be planned to draw on a particular point of grammar or follow the pattern of a particular genre. For tasks to be effective there must be motivation for the learner to complete the task. Motivation is built by choosing or designing tasks that:

are based on topics that are of interest to the learners

use authentic texts

are achievable (both the text and the complexity of the task are of an appropriate level)

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are enjoyable (even fun!) and / or competitive

reflect real-life communicative tasks typical in the teenage years

develop social skills

build skills for participatory and selfdirected learning processes

integrate a number of the macro-skills within a task or project

have a multi-media approach: watch a video clip on YouTube, complete an online survey, post a comment on a news website

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The following list is a small sample of activities that could be adjusted and adapted for use with different topics. Use lists such as this one, and descriptions of activities in ESL resource books and internet sites, to design tasks that are customised to suit your group of learners, the topics you are studying and the text types you are working on.

2.4.1 Find someone who... (develop vocab, practise question types) This is a great activity for getting to know each other. With teenagers include some weird criteria like, “can eat jelly with chopsticks”, “can roll your tongue”, “can say the alphabet backwards”. It could also be adapted for different topics: for example, in a class studying the parts of the body, assign each person to be one of the parts. The handout simply lists the parts of the body: hands, feet, nose, ears, etc. Students must ask each other questions to identify who is what part of the body, but they cannot use the name of the part of the body in their question. So they cannot ask, “Are you the hands?” Rather they must ask questions like, “Can you hold a knife and fork?” or, “Can you move a person from here to there?” When they find the person who matches the criteria, they write the name of the person against the relevant part of the body on the handout.

2.4.2 Get in order (develop awareness of text structure) In this activity students are each given one component of a split text, and must line up in the order needed to reconstruct the text. This can be used with all kinds of texts: procedural/ instructions, recount, argument.

2.4.3 Conversation circles (speaking practice, topic development, vocab) Students are divided into two groups which form concentric circles, the outer circle facing in and the inner circle facing out, forming pairs with one person from each circle. A topic is given and those pairs talk about it for 2 minutes. When a signal is given (e.g. teacher claps), the inner circle moves one pace to the right, so that new pairs are formed. A new topic is given, and new pairs talk for 2 minutes on the new topic. A signal is given, new pairs form, etc. Topics can be conversational in nature, or they could reflect subpoints in a particular field you are studying, for example an ecosystem, or systems of government.

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2.4.4 Half a crossword (develop vocab) Two copies (Papers A and B) are made of the same crossword, with a different half of the answers completed on each of A and B. Paper A includes the clues for the words missing from the puzzle on Paper B, and vice-versa. Students work in pairs, one student with Paper A, and the other with Paper B. They take turns asking for and giving each other clues to the missing parts of their puzzle. For extra challenge, no clues are given, and students make up their own clues for the words that they do have, in order to prompt their partner to complete the missing words in their crossword.

2.4.5 Information gap (develop grammar, vocab, content knowledge) An information gap is a category of activities rather than the name of one particular activity. It refers to activities in which someone has information that someone else needs in order to complete a task. Info gaps can be done in pairs where only one person is lacking information, or both are lacking some information and sharing must go both ways. Info gaps can also be done in groups. Here are a few examples. These activities are easily adapted for different topics or grammar points. Two copies (A & B) are made of the same information text (e.g. report), each with different words or phrases deleted and the gaps indicated by lines. Students work in pairs (one with sheet A and the other with sheet B) and ask and answer questions to discover the missing information.

Two copies (A & B) are made of the same graphical information text (e.g. a timetable) with different details missing. Students work in pairs (one with sheet A and the other with sheet B) and ask and answer questions to discover the missing information.

Four people in a group are each given different pieces of information that need to be combined in order to achieve a task. For example, in order to classify a number of animals into species, members of the group must share the information they have been given about each animal, without showing the written information to anyone.

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2.4.6 Songs (develop vocab, grammar, enjoyment) Check out the favourite bands and songs, and capitalise on this interest to develop vocabulary or grammar. Write a cloze of the lyrics to be completed as students listen to the song. Increase the challenge by making two versions that have different words deleted, so that students need to (1) listen and complete, then (2) check with each other to complete the lyrics. This requires good pronunciation and perhaps spelling aloud.

Listen for a specific grammar point. Practise using the grammar by singing the song.

2.4.7 Interviews (develop content knowledge, vocab, grammar, listening, speaking) Arrange a guest speaker. Students prepare questions beforehand. This may involve some research on the topic, and vocab development. Where possible record the interview and develop exercises to be completed after viewing the recording: gap-fill, match words and meanings, true/false questions, identify the main ideas, take notes, questions for discussion, analysis of the transcript – how are certain functions achieved (e.g. giving evidence, introducing a new point, explaining a term or concept), what grammatical structures are used?

2.4.8 Field trip scavenger hunts (develop content knowledge, vocab, following instructions) Pre-plan a number of ‘items’ to be collected by following prompts on an instruction sheet: e.g. In a museum, “Go to the Australian Outback display. What did the women use for washing clothes?” Ask students to write the name of the item, the reference number of the item, or to draw a picture of the item.

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2.4.9 Write the script (develop grammar, vocab, content and cultural knowledge) Watch a short video recording without sound (e.g. a 5 minute Mr Bean segment), and write a dialogue or a narration.

Hand out a comic strip from which the words have been deleted. Students write what the characters are saying.

2.4.10 Double entry reading log (develop content knowledge, vocab, grammar) Divide a sheet of paper from top to bottom. After reading a paragraph students write a summary on the left side of the paper, and on the right side note anything they didn’t understand, any questions or a list of new vocab. Questions recorded on the right side of the paper can be directed to other students, and then become the focus of a lesson.

2.4.11 Graphic organisers (develop content knowledge, vocab) After reading a text, organise notes into a graphic organiser, for example a mind map, hierarchical diagram, flow chart, list or retrieval chart.

2.4.12 Quizzes (develop content knowledge, vocab, grammar) If you can make a quiz look and sound like a game show, enthusiastic participation is guaranteed. Competition (especially if there is a prize!) is a wonderful motivator.

2.4.13 Questionnaires (develop content knowledge, vocab, grammar) 2.4.14 Discussion in small groups with reporting back to the class (develop content knowledge, vocab, grammar, fluency) 2.4.15 List pros and cons (develop content knowledge, vocab, grammar) 2.4.16 Roleplays and simulations (develop content knowledge, vocab, grammar, fluency)

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2.4.17 Running dictation Cut up a text into sentences, enough for one sentence per pair of students in the class. Each sentence and each pair of students has a matching number. The sentences are stuck on the wall outside of the classroom. One member of each pair sits at the desk ready to write, while the other member runs outside, reads the sentence that has his number, then runs back in to dictate to his partner as much as he can remember. When all the running dictation has finished, the whole class must negotiate to reconstruct the original text in order.

2.4.18 Graffiti board Make using English fun by hanging butcher’s paper or poster card on the wall, and allowing students to write up thoughts.

2.4.19 Letters to fan clubs Many celebrities have their own websites, to which students can post feedback and comments.

2.4.20 Keypals See Chapter 9 about using technology for ideas about linking your students with other English language learners or native speakers across the globe.

2.4.21 Write to politicians, news forums and organisations’ forums on current issues Once again, much of this kind of writing can be done on line, via websites. Discuss current issues in class, and draft a persuasive text, opinion text or even encouragement on a relevant website.

3. Creating a learning program 3.1

Identify and state task-based learning goals

The starting point for planning a learning program is the question: What should the learner be able to do at the end of the course? Our needs analysis helps us to form those learning goals. Teachers, students and other stakeholders (often the ones who pay the bills) find it helpful to have a clear statement of learning goals. The understanding of the nature of language use that underlies this training material is that language use is functional, that is we use language to achieve specific purposes (e.g. to buy something, to arrange a meeting time, to express an

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idea, etc.). Our learning goals should therefore be statements of what we can do with language. For example:

Can participate in a small group discussion;

Can read a scientific report;

Can write a description of a system.

Where you have been provided with prescribed learning outcomes, the skills you will focus on are immediately apparent. To plan your English training program, you will simply need to analyse the texts indicated by the skills, for topical areas, the points of grammar, and text structures that will need to be addressed. For example, one learning outcome for a group of 14 year old students preparing for integration into a mainstream Year 9 high school program, might be: Can write a report about an animal. This outcome would generate the following focuses for language development:

Topics and vocabulary •

•

General o names of animals o categories Technical vocab associated with a particular animal: o appearance o behaviour o habitat o food o reproduction o predators

Text structure • •

• • • • •

Introduction general statement/s about main characteristics Sub-topic 1 Sub-topic 2 Sub-topic 3 Sub-topic 4 Summary

Grammar • • • • •

Present simple verbs Referring to general participants Indicating time Indicating location Cohesive devices: introducing a new sub-topic, reference

Fig. 17.4 Example of aspects of language related to a learning outcome Where there are no prescribed statements of learning outcomes, but a coursebook is provided, a survey of the materials will help to frame your planning. Many coursebooks produced in recent years, with teenage learners in mind, follow the 492

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pattern of a number of units of work organised around a theme, within which one or two main points of grammar are introduced and systematically practised. Each unit usually includes some spoken and written texts based on authentic texts, oriented towards general interest genres such as magazine articles, radio or TV interviews or casual conversations. In general English course books, written for teenagers, there is rarely any specific focus on academic texts or genres. You will find that in a text specifically focused on academic English. However, you may find that some activities include skills that are transferrable to communicative needs in the academic setting. As an example, we will look at a unit from an intermediate level coursebook published in 2005. Unit topics include: yourself, memories, international travel, life stories, career success, entertainment media, socialising, machines, the future, mysteries, rules and dilemmas. The unit focusing on rules includes a grammar and pronunciation focus on obligation and permission in the present and the past, vocabulary development in relation to litigation, sentence structures and linking words for expressing your opinion and agreeing or disagreeing with others’ opinions. This is all very helpful language, and applicable in a wide range of situations. This transfer of learning or skills to other areas of life or other topics is exactly what we want our students to be able to do when they leave the classroom. We want them to be able to express their opinions, agreement or disagreement. So some statements of learning outcomes in relation to this unit of work might include:  Can express own opinion  Can express agreement or disagreement  Can demonstrate understanding of regulatory signs  Can demonstrate understanding of written rules  Can participate in a discussion about a controversial topic  Can read and demonstrate understanding of a magazine article Statements of this kind generalise the skills introduced in the unit of work, so that students (and parents) can see their application in the wider context of life outside of the ESL classroom. Expressing opinions is not only limited to the topic of rules, just as participating in discussions of controversial topics encompasses a wide range of situations. In fact, in class I would endeavour to broaden the class’ application of these skills to a number of other topics involving expressing opinion, agreeing and disagreeing. In some teaching contexts you may be provided with neither learning outcomes nor a coursebook. In this situation your needs analysis will be the source from which you develop the goals of the English language program. You simply need to discover when, where, with whom and for what purpose English is or will be used. These needs then become your stated learning outcomes.

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3.2

Selecting and sequencing teaching and learning activities

Once again we will refer to the learning cycle as a helpful framework within which to develop communication skills. A clear process is to plan units of work which: Introduce

•introduce the topic so that you can start from what is known and move into what is unknown;

Build

•build content knowledge including key concepts and vocabulary;

Teach

•teach the structure of appropriate text types or genres;

Develop

•develop the areas of grammar typically featured in those texts; and

Scaffold

•use a process of scaffolded learning to apprentice learners into using and creating appropriate texts.

A unit of work like this will be delivered over a number of lessons, and possibly over a number of weeks, depending on how often and for how long your class meets.

Summary As with every group of learners and teaching situation, we must approach teaching teenagers ready to learn about this particular group and their specific needs and structure the learning program, within whatever constraints exist, to meet those needs to the best of our ability and available resources. It is important to remember that students from backgrounds of trauma and/or deprivation will likely have special needs in the areas of literacy, numeracy and concept development. Teenagers are moving towards adulthood, and are undergoing some intense redefining of identity and position in the world and in relation to other people. They need to learn new ways of relating, and behaving that are appropriate for a variety of new situations. All this happens in the midst of the hormonal and physical changes that accompany adolescence. Teenagers need understanding, boundaries and inclusion as far as is possible in decisions that affect them.

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CHAPTER 18: Use music, art and drama to teach English

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Introduction This unit focuses on ways that music, art and drama can be used to stimulate language production in a wide range of ESL/EFL learning contexts. It’s easy to think of these techniques being appropriate for children and young people, and miss the potential benefit for adults. With learning style preferences in mind, the benefits of using art and drama are obvious for learners who prefer kinaesthetic and tactile activities. Similarly, using music will be particularly helpful for auditory learners. Using art and drama in teaching and learning activities will also benefit visual learners. So rather than think of techniques involving the creative arts being for the young, consider them in terms of the learning style preferences of the people in your classes. In the words of drama teacher, Johanna Wallace, using drama in ESL is, “...about unlocking the language that students already have.” The same could be said of using music and art in English language classes. With the stimulus before them, students respond by appropriating all the English they have accumulated as theoretical knowledge, and turn it into active language use. The creative arts in second language teaching can also be used to stimulate focused or controlled practice of a particular grammatical form. More about these specific applications later.

1. Music There are a host of good reasons for using music in ESL/EFL classrooms. On the affective level, music creates a relaxed and positive atmosphere increasing the effectiveness of the learning experience. Music helps us to get in touch with feelings and emotions and to learn how to express sentiment. Music stimulates natural creative talents as well as imagination. It is a fun way to vary classroom routine. In terms of students’ access to English, music is often a major source of incidental English input in their lives. Murphy (1992) describes a class of teenagers coming alive when he surveyed them about the songs produced by a list of top 40 artists. Their level of engagement lifted dramatically, and he reports that the language they voluntarily produced was more adventurous both in complexity and depth of meaning. Success in language learning is promoted by including topics that students are interested in. Music can be used to focus on particular language structures (e.g. If a picture paints a thousand words), grammar (e.g. Waltzing Matilda: past simple verbs, prepositions of place and direction), lexis or vocabulary fields (e.g. Head and shoulders, knees and toes: parts of the body), and topics.

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Music can be used to introduce a theme. Even playing the first 30 seconds of a familiar song or piece of music that has common associations, can start students thinking about the topic, remembering vocabulary and concepts. Music can also be used to aid concentration, with non-invasive, background style music which has a regular beat being recommended. Beare (n.d., paragraph 8) recommends different music as backgrounds for different activities:

Grammar – Mozart, Haydn, Bach, Handel, Vivaldi; Imagination exercises (descriptive writing, speaking) – Ravel, Debussy, Satie; Current affairs, News in the World – Rap (for inner cities and their problems), Ethnic Music from the discussed countries; Making Future Plans – Fun upbeat jazz ("Take Five" by Dave Brubeck);

Discussing “Serious” issues – the "serious" Germans: Beethoven, Brahms.

Fluency is aided through use of music. Rhythm makes reading flow more smoothly. Memorising whole phrases is made much easier when it is supported by melody or rhythm. Being able to recall such phrases without great effort builds “automaticity”. Automaticity involves knowing what to say and being able to produce the necessary language quickly and without stumbling (Newham, as cited by Abbott, 2002). Since taste in music can vary so widely, Paul Sanderson (1998) recommends involving students in the choice of music. He suggests the following three activities (Figures 18.1, 18.2, 18.3) as ways to get to know the musical tastes of the students in your classes. Consulting your students will further increase motivation towards activities using music, as a sense of ownership and empowerment is established by being included in decision-making.

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1.1

Activities to help you choose music

Musical choices

1

Select several pairs of extracts of music. (Selections within pairs should be significantly different from each other, e.g. rap and opera, pop and reggae, rock and classical).

2

Play about 30 seconds of each of the first pair of extracts. Review the names of the genres.

3

Students individually decide which of the 2 extracts they like better, then shift into groups of like-minded students.

4

Each student chooses a partner from within their group to explain the choice they made. (Make a note of how many students liked what kinds of music.)

5

Students change partners (now with someone who likes the other kind of music). Explain why they did NOT choose the opposite type of music.

6

•Move on to another set of extracts.

Fig. 18.1 Planning: Musical choices Acknowledgements: Inspired by ‘Forced choices’ in Grammar in Action (1983) by C. Frank & M. Rinvolucri (Prentice Hall)

Inclinations Make a line on the floor to show the following continuum

Not at all true

Completely true

Students must stand somewhere along the line, to display their position on the continuum in relation to statements like the following: I hate Jazz / I haven’t got any cassettes and CDs / Learning English songs can help me with my English / I like all kinds of music / I sing really well / Classical music is brilliant / I’d really like to listen

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to songs in class / Singing in front of other people doesn’t bother me / English and American music is best / I can play a musical instrument well / Music playing in class disturbs me / I know the words of a song in English / I regularly buy a music magazine / I always try to understand the words of English songs / I never go to concerts / I never study at home with music playing / Rap is rubbish Along the way, ask students to share their thoughts, explain their position, etc. At the end of the activity have some open discussion.

Fig. 18.2

Planning: Inclinations

This activity will give you lots of information about the students’ musical preferences and about their attitudes towards using music as a medium for learning.

Propositions Do a class survey to check the accuracy of statements such as: • Nobody in the class likes jazz. • Everybody in the class regularly listens to music. • Most people in the class have at least 50 songs on a YouTube/Spotify playlist. • Everybody in the class likes singing. • Only one person in the class wakes up to music in the morning. • Most people in the class hate classical music. • Only one person in the class has been to a concert recently. • Nobody in the class sings in a choir. • At least one person in the class has been to a concert recently. • Nobody in the class is taking music lessons. • Half the people in the class cannot study with music. • Most of the people in the class sing in the bath or shower. • No-one in the class has played in a band. • Everybody in the class has posters of rock/pop stars on the wall. • Only a few people in the class prefer classical music to rock. • At least five people in the class buy a music magazine. • Only the teacher cannot sing in tune. • Nobody in the class likes rap. • Everybody in the class can dance rock’n’roll. Fig. 18.3 Planning: Propositions

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Things to keep in mind when choosing songs that you would like the class to sing: 1. The tune should be fairly simple. What is considered melodic is thoroughly influenced by the home culture experience. Some students may find it difficult to ‘hear’ the melody in western-style music and songs. Stick to tunes that are clear and simple enough for most people to follow. 2. The rhythm should also be fairly even or regular. 3. The range of the melody from the lowest note to the highest note should be within the range of the average person. Songs that extend too low or too high will be too difficult to sing. 4. The words should be sung at a slow to medium-pace. This is especially important for older learners. 5. The vocabulary used should be relatively familiar and suitable for the age group. 6. The meaning should be accessible. Songs are often very abstract, or include a collection of thoughts and ideas strung together as fragments. You need to gauge the ability of your students to relate to the meaning of the language used. 7. Content should be family-friendly, avoiding obscenity or anti-social messages. Think carefully about what you (and the institute you work for) want to communicate to your students about the host culture.

1.2

Ideas for using music Listen to a song and complete a copy of the lyrics where some words have been omitted. Listen to a song and answer comprehension questions.

Listen and correct mistakes in the written copy.

Use songs to practise pronunciation.

Use songs as the basis for a discussion about culture. Listen to music without lyrics and describe the images it evokes for you: Where are you? Who else is there? What are you all doing? What can you smell? What noises can you hear?

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Listen and talk/write about the emotions the music suggests to you. Extend this to writing or speaking about the (possible) situation that precipitated such emotion/s. Use music to signal the stages of a lesson: beginning, calm down and stop. Background music during writing activities.

Give an oral report on your favourite band or piece of music. Students write their own listening activities for other students to complete. Ask students to highlight the words in the song that have the following meanings, for example: wanderer pool of water tin can for boiling water sheep food bag

Once a jolly swagman camped by a billabong Under the shade of a Coolibah tree And he sang as he watched and waited ‘til his billy boiled….

Rewrite the words of a familiar song. For example, Schoepp (2006) suggests using the song, “Sailing”, made popular by Rod Stewart, to focus on present continuous verbs. Ask students to rewrite with own words, eg. “I am writing, I am writing, in my notebook, to my friends…” Learn to sing a song together. Listen to a ballad and write the story from the point of view of one of the characters, or dramatise the story in a play. Translate a song in L1 into English or vice-versa.

Dictate a song. 20 questions about musicians / bands: “Do they play rock?” “Is the singer a male?” This is great practice in making Yes / No questions.

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Roleplay interviewing an artist or band. Print the lyrics of a song, each line on a separate strip of paper. Scramble. Listen and sequence the lyrics. Find someone who … … sings while they work … plays the guitar … doesn’t like Italian music … prefers rap to rock

1.3

Songs and grammar

Murphy (1992) offers this list of songs categorised according to points of grammar:

Present You are my sunshine My bonnie He’s got the whole world When the saints go marching in Little boxes Let it be

Future

She’ll be comin’ round the mountain We shall overcome What shall we do with the drunken sailor?

Present continuous Are you sleeping? (Brother John) Oh what a beautiful morning Sailing (Rod Stewart)

Modals Blowing in the wind

Past simple Yankee doodle Yesterday Banks of the Ohio Oh Suzanna! The marvellous toy

Past continuous Tennessee waltz

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Imperatives You can leave your hat on Leaving on a jet plane

Imperatives You can leave your hat on Leaving on a jet plane

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Conditionals

Present perfect Streets of London Where have all the flowers gone?

If I had a hammer El Condor Pasa With a little help from my friends

Prepositions

Past perfect Last night I had the strangest dream

Present perfect continuous

I’ve been working on the railroad Abraham, Martin and John (Marvin Gay)

There’s a hole in the bottom of the sea

Questions Blowing in the wind Streets of London Where have all the flowers gone? What have I done to deserve this? Who’s that girl?

For a list of more modern songs, see the following: Song

Teaching Point

1. ‘Do you like Bananas?’ unknown

Yes/No questions

2. ‘Friday I’m in Love.’ By The Cure

Days of the week

3. ‘My Favourite Things’ by Rodgers/Hammerstein from’ The sound of music’

General vocabulary/lists

4. ‘Somebody that I used to know’ by Gotye

Past constructions

5. ‘All my loving’ The Beatles

Future simple

6. ‘Counting stars’ by One Republic

Verb tense review

7. ‘If I were a boy’ by Beyonce

Subjunctive

8. ‘Across the universe’ by The Beatles

Gerunds

9. ‘Call me maybe’ by Carly Rae Jepsen

Past constructions

Fig. 18.4. 9 Hip Modern Songs for teaching English to all levels (Fluentu, 2021) https://www.fluentu.com/blog/educator-english/songs-for-teaching-english

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1.4 Thinking outside the box: Using music as an aid to memory Working with survivors of trauma and torture Merran Martin (2001) became aware of the damaging effect of such experiences on the memory and concentration. She developed a process in her teaching practice drawing on a TESOL methodology originally known as suggestopedia, more recently known as accelerated learning, using music in her classroom to aid relaxation and memorisation. Suggestopedia is described as a combination of physical relaxation, mental concentration and suggestive principles that strengthen a person’s ego and expand their memory capabilities. A main feature of this methodology is to present new language ‘dynamically’, through such means as realia, drama and video, to the accompaniment of relaxing music. Background music is used often to help establish and maintain a positive and relaxed learning environment, but also to stimulate memory function. She writes (p.88), “I wanted to observe how relaxation techniques might assist the students to achieve the following objectives:  To memorise a large amount of vocabulary related to a set of themes.  To understand target vocabulary at an appropriate level.  To be able to translate this vocabulary into their native language.  To understand the vocabulary in written form.  To communicate confidently in spoken and written form, using the vocabulary at an appropriate level.  To apply the vocabulary in real-life settings." She often used statements like, “English is easy. You can learn English. You will remember these words,” to build students’ confidence and establish positive attitudes towards learning and speaking English. Her lessons were conducted in a pleasantly refurbished room, and included the following stages: Welcome: relaxing mood music. Warm-up: casual conversation about families and lives. Review: vocab from previous lessons reviewed in context. Presentation of new language in a dynamic way, for example using of realia, examples in context, etc.

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Reinforcement: activities using the new and previously acquired language. Relaxation: For the final 10 minutes of the lesson, the overhead lights were turned off, the curtains were drawn, and all work was put away. Baroque music (with a tempo of 60 beats/minute) was played. Baroque music, in particular, has been documented as an aid to long-term memory function. In this atmosphere of quiet and calm, the teacher leads a basic relaxation exercise. (Close your eyes, breathe deeply, relax each part of your body.) This helps to calm each individual, helping them to feel receptive. The technique was conducted each lesson for a complete term and then evaluated. Although relaxation techniques were a new experience for most students, there was unanimous approval of the practice and a desire to continue. Of 12 students, 10 reported that relaxation helped them “a lot” in learning new English words, and 2 said it helped “a little”.

2. Art Art can be used in language classrooms to inspire students’ creative language use, just as music can. Children thrive on creative activities, and language learning happens painlessly in amongst arts and crafts activities. A fantastic resource, full of great activities designed for eliciting particular language structures and features, is Andrew Wright’s book Art and crafts with children, published by Oxford University Press. Examples of some activities are: Make an animal out of playdough or modelling clay, all the while talking about the parts of the body, proportion and shape.

Learn to draw comics and talk about shape and position, comparisons and feelings.

Invent a machine and learn to describe the parts and their functions.

Make a colour wheel and learn the names of colours.

Make an advertisement and talk about likes, dislikes and opinions.

Make postcards and learn to write short messages.

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Inviting students of all ages to share examples of their traditional art and craft esteems the rich cultural heritage these people bring with them into our communities, and accords dignity by valuing what they are able to share and the artistic skill their work displays. Ask students to demonstrate the creation of some of their traditional crafts, and at the same time focus on the language used to explain or describe actions. For adults who have never previously held a pencil, there is a high risk of embarrassment about the struggle of learning to write, especially when their children seem to learn this skill so easily. Giving adults the opportunity to display the fine motor skills in which they are already proficient, in creating traditional crafts, affirms their status as adults and experts. Perhaps this affirmation will ease the struggle.

2.1

Activities using art

2.1.1 Picture description can be used at any level

Describe own family photographs, or photographs of family celebrations and activities. (Beginners to Advanced)

Describe a painting or photograph. What is happening in the picture? Who are the people? What are the relationships between the people? Where is this place? What season is it? What kind of environment? What time of day? Find the differences: Students in pairs each have a copy of the same picture, but with minor differences. By describing the features of the picture, and not looking at their partner’s picture, students must discover the differences between the two versions. This provides great practice in asking questions, and in describing shapes, patterns and positions. (Elementary to Advanced)

What happened before/after: With a picture as the starting point, learners can write or speak about the situation that led up to the moment captured in the picture, or tell the story of what transpired afterwards. (Intermediate to Advanced)

Personalise a story: Students can be asked to put themselves in the place of one of the characters in a picture and describe their feelings, what’s happening and the sights and smells around them. (Intermediate to Advanced)

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2.1.2 Sculpture For students whose preferred learning style is tactile, using their hands to make something can help them to express themselves in words as they talk about their creation.

Give students a piece of alfoil (aluminium baking foil) or a pipe cleaner, and ask them to shape it into a representation of something (e.g. their day so far, the most precious thing in the world to them, their life in their new country), then explain it to the class. Give teams a packet of straws and a strip of “blue-tac” or plasticine, and ask them to create something (e.g. the ideal house). Appoint 2 or 3 students to judge the creations against a set of criteria. Each team is given the opportunity to display and explain their creation, describing its merits. The judges will need to justify their decision by comparing and contrasting each creation.

2.1.3 Following instructions

Listen and make or do something

2.2

Read and make or do something

Using clip art in learning materials

Pictures and images are invaluable in communicating meaning. They can also be used effectively to elicit particular grammatical structures, for example comparisons, or vocabulary fields. Pictures have been used for teaching since people could make marks in sand or on rocks. Computers, scanners and word processing create incredible potential for creating special purpose materials, specifically designed for your students according to their needs. Clip art, available on the internet or from stock images in power-points, is a great resource for including graphics in worksheets created by you, for your students, to meet their needs!

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enlarge or reduce it in size;

stretch it tall or squash it short;

squeeze it thin or pull it out fat;

flip it to produce a mirror image of the original;

annotate it with speech bubbles;

modify it using programs such as Microsoft “Paint”;

reproduce it on small cards for matching, card games, bingo or snap; insert it into documents; use it in PowerPoint displays; make it into wall charts.

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You can insert pictures from your computer, stock image library or online sources easily through the Microsoft Windows app on your computer. It represents a vast array of visual material that can be used in language learning. Units of work can be supported visually in all of the materials you use: worksheets, activity cards and wall charts. The only limit is your imagination.

3. Drama To some extent we all ‘roleplay’ our way through lives, internally rehearsing meetings or negotiations, putting on a brave face when unwell, responding appropriately to challenging situations through learned skills. Drama is a normal part of everyday life. Most people have the capacity to enter into an imposed circumstance and engage in behaviours that meet the needs of the circumstance. Learning that comes through experience is often valued and perceived by the learner as highly significant, even though the same lesson could have been learnt on an intellectual level through reading a book or watching a documentary. Many people are much more confident to bake a cake, if they have learnt the process through a supported, hands-on cooking lesson, or confident to change a wheel, after doing it under instruction, loosening the wheel nuts, placing the jack, raising the car and removing the wheel. For language learners, roleplay, simulations and dramatisations are the equivalent of the hands-on learning experience. The language classroom should be a safe, controlled environment in which learners feel secure to experiment with language use. In the classroom, there is no risk of terrible consequences should a breakdown in communication occur: no business deal will fall through, no-one will be given the wrong medication, no meal will be spoiled. This is the ideal opportunity to practise, to have a go, to see what works and what doesn’t. Earlier, we discussed one of the benefits of using songs is that through memorisation (easier with songs) learners gain whole chunks of language which can be put to use as needed. The same can be said for memorising and performing a scripted dialogue or play. By memorising lines with correct pronunciation, intonation and rhythm, learners increase their store of “stock phrases” which can be used automatically, without great effort, and with a good level of fluency. In fact, quite complex grammatical forms can become familiar structures when introduced in the context of a drama or play, practised until their production becomes automatic, analysed for their grammatical construction and then applied to other contexts or situations. Remember that memorisation for performance involves deep understanding of the meaning, attitude and emotion reflected in the words.

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Wessels (1987) lists the potential benefits of drama in language teaching: The acquisition of meaningful, fluent interaction in the target language.

The assimilation of pronunciation, intonation and rhythm in a fully contextualised and interactional manner.

An improved sense of confidence in the student in his or her ability to learn the target language.

The fully contextualised acquisition of new vocabulary and structure.

Burke and O’Sullivan (2002) add that: Teachers and students can concentrate on pronunciation.

Students are motivated.

Students are relaxed.

Students use language for real purposes.

Risk-taking (insulated) results in heightened language retention.

Community is created.

Students and teachers can approach sensitive topics.

For drama activities to be well accepted, and for students (particularly adults) to engage enthusiastically, students need to be assured of the intrinsic learning value. We are not simply filling in time or trying to liven up the classroom. There is a purpose for using drama as a learning activity. Discuss the benefits of learning through doing, contrasting this with learning theory in a setting removed from its application. Ask students how readily they are able to use vocabulary or structures that they have ‘learnt’ in a grammar class, in contrast to how readily they are able to use language they have already used in a dialogue or roleplay. Make your students aware of the language goals associated with the activity. This can be achieved through your building towards the drama activity by reviewing language items (vocabulary, grammar) which will be drawn on in this activity, and

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after the activity by reviewing some of the language produced, giving feedback and correction, and by highlighting the grammatical structures you observed in use. Students need to sense your excitement and enthusiasm, too, before they will enter into these activities wholeheartedly. Students from traditional learning backgrounds also need to be nurtured or apprenticed into these learning activities. Fear of looking silly, of making mistakes, of ‘getting it wrong’, all inhibit participation and fluency. Students need lots of assurance that ‘having a go’ is a very good thing, in fact it can be more important than ‘getting it right’. Willingness to take risks is one of the main characteristics of a successful language learner. As we encourage and affirm attempts, celebrate successful achievement of the aims of a task and highlight examples of good language use, students will understand that the classroom is a safe place in which to gain experience using language. They will then relax with this performance oriented learning technique so that we can constructively address examples of communication breaking down. Students will learn to appreciate the effectiveness of learning through doing. In her drama-ESL classes in Hong Kong, working with children, Wallace (2007) identified three clear stages the children went through as they adjusted to doing drama activities for the first time.

Initially there was resistance to the activities, born of fear of the unknown and fear of failure. When students understood that there would be no reprisal for ‘mistakes’ and that ‘having a go’ was more highly valued than scant but correct participation, they soon loosened up and joined in with gusto.

As students took to heart the encouragement to act out imaginary situations, the perception developed that rules, in general, had been disbanded. They were in this great place of freedom, and silliness and naughtiness set in! This perception of lawlessness had to be corrected and a new set of boundaries for what behaviour was and was not acceptable were established.

With clearly defined boundaries or ground rules in place creativity flourished, language use abounded and fluency increased.

To break through the initial stage of fear, activities for building confidence in drama activities and group building exercises are helpful. It is helpful to begin with more controlled and clearly structured activities before moving towards improvisation. This may take the form of using a scripted dialogue before trying roleplays which are unscripted. It may also help to use quite concrete methods of introducing and

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establishing a context, for example using story books, pictures or some play acting of your own. Then you are ready to invite your students to step into new roles.

3.1

Process for using drama

The following process for using drama and games is suggested by Wallace (2007): Establish the rules for drama activities. Involve the participants in establishing what the ground rules will be. This should make the guidelines much easier to maintain. Some basics include: English only, respect each other at all times, do nothing that will hurt someone else, allow enough space for everyone to particpate safely. Explain and demonstrate the activity, modelling what action and language will be needed. This is the stage at which you remind students of structures you have been studying and will draw on in this activity. You may also need to pre-teach some vocabulary essential to the activity. Pronunciation is also addressed at this point. Do the activity. During the activity the teacher must closely monitor progress. Is it going according to plan? Are students using the target language as intended? Redirect if possible without breaking the flow of the activity. Are the students positively engaged in the task? Prompt groups that get stuck, without taking over. Is the goal likely to be achieved? Make note of any language ‘gaps’ or inadequacies that should be addressed with the class. Keep an eye on behaviour. Debrief: When a task has gone well, the final step is to evaluate the exercise with the students. What language did they use? Comment on some phrases or structures that were used well; celebrate all successes. Analyse interactions that were not successful and elicit suggestions from the class as to how something could have been said differently, or provide the correction yourself if the class is unable to. Consolidation or extension: Adults (parents and students) often like to see some kind of written product as evidence that the activity has produced learning. A worksheet using associated vocabulary and grammar, or eliciting a description of what happened, or an extension of the activity, will be appreciated.

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3.2

Activity ideas Charades can be used to practise verbs or names of objects. Give each group a picture. The students must act out what happened leading up to the scene pictured, ending with the members positioned as the characters in the picture are. Roleplays can be used to practise a language skill the class has been working on. The list is only limited by your imagination. (e.g. asking for a refund, applying for a job, inviting a friend to the movies, asking for an extension on an assignment, explaining the cause of a car accident) Simulations are, in a sense, an expanded roleplay, and may include props with the players working towards completion of an assigned task. For example, students are given a budget and a shopping list (or may have to write their own shopping list) and must buy or trade for items. Other students are given items (real or pictures of the items) which they have for sale. The task can be further complicated, requiring negotiation, by making the budget insufficient for the purchases, or by creating a shortage of a particular item so that buyers are in competition with each other. Mysteries are another simulation that can work well, with each person in the class being assigned a different character to play. A mystery is described (something has gone missing, or a murder has occurred) and all of the characters are gathered in one place. Their task is, through talking with each other, to discover the solution to the mystery. Often these characters have a trademark phrase or mannerism that they use again and again. Every member of the cast is active in the situation described to the level at which they are comfortable. Give student/s an item (anything! E.g. a knitted shawl, an old watch, a hammer) and ask them to tell the class the story of this item in their life. Students can invent a story or relate something factual from their own life.

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Walk into your classroom immersed in a character, acting out some situation or conversation. Obviously, the students only hear your side of the conversation, but can interpret what is going on in the wider, unseen context. When you finish acting, and emerge from the character, have the students tell you what was happening, who you were, who you were talking to, and what might happen next. Ask students, in pairs, to continue the conversation. As you tell a story, have the students act out the narrative as you speak. Have the students act out, not just read, a dialogue from a course book. Use short scripted plays in a ‘Reader’s Theatre’ mode, with students taking parts and reading their part from their seat. The following activities are provided by Johanna Wallace as examples of effective activities for use in ESL/EFL classes: Categories: Participants sit in a circle and begin a one-two rhythm (Clap-snap, or slap the legs-clap). One person says, in rhythm, "I am thinking of ….." whatever the category is, and then says something that fits the category. On the second beat after the first person, the second person says something that fits the category, and so on around the circle. Example: "I-am-thinking-of-kinds-of-fruits" (Clap) "Apple" (Clap) "Orange" (Clap) "Strawberries" (Clap) "Banana" (Clap) "Watermelon". It is okay if saying the category items takes longer than one beat, because of multiple syllables, but the participants are not allowed to pause for more than one beat between the end of the last person’s item and their item. Everyone continues this process until someone gets stuck or repeats an item. When this happens, the participants can either start over with a new category, keeping the person who got stuck in the circle, or the person who got stuck could be "out" and the same category could be repeated until there is only one person left. If everyone stays in, the leader could time the participants to see how long they can continue. Clumps: (to practise characteristics) Players walk around in the space, leader can endow them with different characteristics, physical or personality, or the participants can simply be themselves. The leader calls out a number and players race to get into groups of that number. The leader can add complexity by then giving a noun which players then have to represent with their group, for example, “Groups of three wearing the same colour.”

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Have you ever ... This is a warm-up game designed to encourage listening, speaking and movement. Participants sit in a circle on chairs. One person stands in the middle and asks a question starting with the form – “Have you ever …?” For example, “Have you ever eaten chicken?” “Have you ever kissed a girl?” If this is true for any of the participants they must stand up and find a new chair. The person in the middle tries to steal someone else’s chair, leaving a new person in the middle to ask another question. Note: Change the forms and tense of the questions: “Will you ever …?” “Tonight will you …?” Knees on blue: A body part and a colour are called out, and the students have three seconds to get that body part onto an object of that colour. Come to my party (name game): The participants sit or stand in a circle. The leader says, “We are having a party, and everyone has to bring something for the party that begins with the same first letter as their name. My name is JANINE, and I am bringing a bag of JELLYBEANS.” The person to the leader’s right says his name and item, and then repeats the leader’s name and item: “My name is ERIK; I am going to bring EGG SALAD. This is JANINE, who is bringing JELLYBEANS.” Each person in turn introduces him or herself, announces his or her item, and repeats the name and item of everyone who preceded them. This means that the last person has to remember everyone in the group, or at least try. The leader should encourage others to help out when participants get stuck on someone’s name or item, with verbal or pantomimed clues. Story, story, die! In this game all the students will be telling a story. Each student is responsible for telling the story while the director is pointing at them. When the director switches from one player to another, the other player must pick up the story without stuttering, repeating words, or making grammatical errors. If any of the players makes such an error the audience should yell, “Die!” Be careful who you play this game with; be sensitive to the possible effect on students who have a background of trauma.

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This is a book: The class sits in a circle and the leader hands an object (e.g. a book) to the left. The leader says, “This is a book.” The student receiving the book says, “This is a what?” The leader replies, “This is a book.” The first student then passes the book to the next student saying, “This is a book.” The second student says, “This is a what?” The first student then asks the leader, “This is a what?” The leader replies, “This is a book.” The first student then tells the second student, “This is a book,” and the second student tells the third student, “This is a book.” The third student asks back, student by student, to the leader, “This is a what?” and the answer is returned through each student, “This is a book.” This is complicated when the leader passes a second object, perhaps a pencil, to the right. The same procedure of statement, question, statement, is followed on that side of the circle as well. The fun is created and great concentration is required when the two objects cross and the students are then passing questions and answers about both objects back to the leader.

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3.3

Using movies in the language classroom

“Movies can be a useful tool in the writing class, stimulating thought, topics, and theses that engage attention and foster interest in even the most reticent students.” (Cook, 1995, p.6) Cook recommends choosing a short movie segment (3 or 4 minutes) which contains no dialogue. The absence of dialogue pushes students to observe the many contextual clues and reduces dependence on understanding every word. He describes structured and supported writing activities that help students develop skills of transforming their observations into well-structured essays. These activities focus on:

Learning how to observe

Beginning with a realistic, clearly defined task

Working through a process of generating and organising ideas systematically and carefully

Cook reports that students transferred these skills to their writing in content areas. An increase in confidence and comfort with the writing process was also evident. Before watching a movie with your class:

 Watch the whole movie, right through, to assess content suitability. As the teacher, introducing this movie as stimulus material in your classroom, you need to be ready to deal with whatever themes are raised by the movie.

 Prepare or use a ready-made synopsis to explore themes before watching  Introduce any vocabulary or phrases, especially colloquialisms, that are essential to understanding the movie. While you watch the movie:

 You may choose to watch a movie in instalments, checking comprehension along the way. You may even decide to watch a movie over a number of lessons, interspersing language focus activities along the way. After watching the movie:

 Initially ask questions that are looking for fairly superficial responses, for example, the images, sounds or lines that were particularly memorable.

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 Recycle vocabulary from the movie in written activities such as a cloze or gapfill.

 Use the themes as stimulus for discussion or writing activities.  Ask students to write a description of a character from the movie.  Watch a segment again with the sound turned down, and ask students to write the script for the interaction taking place. This could be done individually or in pairs or groups according to the number of participants in the movie segment.

Summary Music, art and drama are much more than a fun way to fill in some time, and as we’ve seen in the examples given in this unit. They can provide meaningful, focused and productive learning activities. Let us not ever limit our appreciation of music, art and drama to providing a novel medium for delivering a learning activity. The arts unlock creative energy that enriches the learner’s engagement with the target language by activating the creative capacity of each person’s min d. Music, art and drama can also be used to engender the relaxed, supportive environment in which learning is most effective. Explore the possibilities, enjoy and be amazed!

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CHAPTER 19: Work with volunteers in English programs

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Introduction People from a wide variety of backgrounds participate as volunteers in the provision of a diverse range of services. ‘Volunteer’ in this unit refers to someone who is fulfilling a role as an unpaid worker. This unit is focusing on the role of supervising or co-ordinating programs in which volunteers participate, with attention to the responsibility to provide a program that works well for the volunteers, for the ESL learners and for the organisation or institute. ESL programs in which volunteers work may be:

Institution-based programs

Community organisation-based programs

Programs may focus on:

small groups whole families

classes

English programs one-to-one tuition

adolescents

children

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Programs generally look for volunteers who:

are fluent in speaking, reading and writing English are available to fulfil a minimum time commitment, usually expressed as a number of hours per week, and a number of months are able to travel to the training location, whether that be the learner’s home, a community centre or an educational institute are willing to share any skills and knowledge they have: using computers, mechanics, hobbies, interests etc. may be able to offer bilingual tuition satisfy any background checks required by local law (e.g. the ‘Blue Card’ in Australia for working with people under 18 years of age) have a positive attitude towards learning (especially with adult learners), and a desire to learn and grow as an individual enjoy and feel comfortable working with people from Non-English Speaking Backgrounds (NESB), particularly people with low literacy or who have had little formal education are patient (especially in cases where progress is slow)

are sensitive to different cultural backgrounds and learning styles

are respectful of the learner’s right to confidentiality have good interpersonal skills, and are able to relate to people from diverse backgrounds are reliable, dependable, supportive and encouraging

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Benefits that volunteers receive include: the satisfaction of seeing another human being learn and knowing that you helped new friendships

experience to add to a résumé

expanding world view

personal and professional development

Volunteers in an ESL program can fill many different roles, including:

interviewing new students

teaching

advertising the program (social media, articles, ads, staffing booths)

demonstrating and teaching computer skills, art and craft, other skills

assisting in a library

administration

organising social events

organising refreshments

assisting with transport

soliciting donations or materials

writing funding and grant applications

data entry

writing a newsletter

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1. Recruiting volunteers 1.1

Locate sources of volunteers and promote the program

Volunteers come from different stages of life and different backgrounds. While many volunteers in ESL programs are native speakers, migrants who are proficient in English can be very effective assistants in the language learning process and may be just what is needed to provide bilingual assistance for a low level learner. In many volunteer programs you will find retirees, shift workers, university students, trainee teachers, stay-at-home parents or members of service organisations (Lewis, 2002). In planning to recruit volunteers, the first step is to identify in your local area the methods of getting the news out to people in these particular demographics. Local newspapers and radio stations sometimes run community notices for free. Newsletters written and distributed by schools, clubs, churches and other community organisations are often willing to include a notice describing an ESL program, making the request and giving contact details for enquiries. An information session gives opportunity for people who are interested in volunteering to come, hear more detail about the program and ask questions, before they make a commitment. At an information session, you should: •

Outline the program’s aims and logistics: o o o o

Who are you targeting as learners? What is the main learning focus (e.g. conversation, literacy, life skills, etc.)? Will you be running classes or co-ordinating one-to-one tutoring? Will the lessons take place in a centre or in learners’ homes?

•

Describe the roles available for which volunteers are required.

•

State any prerequisite qualifications or other eligibility requirements (e.g. background check).

•

Tell about any training that will be provided and whether or not it is compulsory. Will volunteers who already have training and/or experience be required to complete your training program? What ongoing training and/or mentoring will be available or expected?

•

State the minimum time commitment involved.

•

Explain the process of application, and give people the opportunity to begin that process immediately.

•

Explain your processes for monitoring the program, its personnel and outcomes, as well as the opportunities for volunteers to address any issues arising within the program.

•

Give time for questions.

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1.2

Define the roles and responsibilities of volunteers

The process by which you define the roles and responsibilities of volunteers can range from highly consultative (including the volunteers in defining their own roles), to completely prescriptive (where volunteers are asked to fulfil the duties of a prepared job description), or be somewhere in between, where the program has some flexibility. The process you choose will be influenced in part by your personal preferred style of leadership, but will also be governed to some degree by the nature of the program, how high profile it is, how tightly controlled it will be run and what constraints are imposed by institute or curriculum. Whichever process is used, it is recommended that an end product should be a written job description to which the volunteer is committing, copies of which are retained by the volunteer and by you or the organisation. Volunteer Adult Literacy Programs in Washington State (2007) recommend areas that should be addressed in the written agreement should include: Duties (e.g. scheduling lessons, becoming familiar with instructional materials and techniques, preparing for lessons) Reporting requirements (e.g. record of lesson content, log book of lesson times and duration, attendance roll for classes) Time commitment (___ hours/week for ___ months) Training and skill development commitments; Accountability processes Benefits Support available for volunteers from the organisation or program It is important that teachers, with whom volunteers are working in a tutoring capacity, should agree to work within the agreed parameters, not asking the volunteer to take responsibility for things that are outside of their expertise or level of comfort. In this regard, there is an advantage to individually negotiated volunteer job descriptions, in that volunteers who are experienced trainers (e.g. retired teachers), and who are willing, can have a high level of involvement in the planning and implementation of lessons. However, volunteers without that background in education should only be asked to complete tasks for which they have been adequately trained and in which they have demonstrated competence. At all times, volunteers should be able to access the level of support they require to be able to fulfil the required tasks.

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Aspects of support that are vital to the successful partnership between teacher and tutor are (Singleton, 1999):

 Teachers should provide whatever materials and resources are necessary for the learning tasks you want the tutor to implement.

 Teachers should plan how to use the volunteer most effectively: working with individual students or small groups who need extra support to complete class tasks, working with an individual or small group on alternative material, roving around the class assisting wherever necessary.

 Teachers should make time to go over plans for each session with the tutor, so that they can be somewhat prepared for activities and the processes and instructional techniques they will involve. It is often best to model what you want the tutor to do and say, how much and what kind of help to give, what kind of questions they should be asking, the kind of prompts that will be most beneficial to the learning process, when it’s OK to tell the learner the answer and so on. Support must also be readily available to volunteers who work one-to-one with learners, outside of a supervised classroom. Support to these volunteers should include: Pre-service training in the skills of needs analysis, goal setting and learning activities.

Access to a bank of materials and resources appropriate to the level and content area of language they are targeting.

Access to advice from a teacher or co-ordinator.

Access to someone with whom they can co-reflect on a regular basis.

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2. Training volunteers 2.1

Funding

In preparation for implementing your training program, check whether any funding is available from your local or federal government. Government Departments of Education often have a budget to support programs that promote language, literacy and numeracy learning. Community groups may also be interested in sponsoring this worthwhile program.

2.2

Planning

Just as we have seen that needs analysis is the starting point for all planning in ESL programs and lessons, needs analysis is the starting point for planning our volunteer training. The first step therefore is to analyse the tasks involved in the roles and responsibilities of the volunteers, and from that analysis formulate learning goals. As an example we will look at the classic volunteer role of an ESL tutor who will work one-to-one with a learner. Volunteer ESL tutors will need to be able to:

1

2

•Communicate with sensitivity to culture and educational background

•Analyse ESL learner’s needs

3

•Use authentic spoken and written texts relevant to the learner’s real-life experiences

4

•Be familiar with the structure of a variety of spoken and written genres, and the aspects of grammar that are associated with those text types

5

6

7

8

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•Explain spelling patterns and rules

•Explain English grammar; •Demonstrate and facilitate practice of the correct pronunciation of English words and phrases •Engage learners in conversation

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Training should be provided in relation to each of these aspects of the role of the volunteer. When we talk about training in grammar and spelling, both of which are like gargantuan mountains, it is realistic to say that we can provide an introduction, a framework, a basic understanding. It is more important that the training should prepare volunteer tutors to be able to identify the points of grammar in which the learner needs instruction, and to know how and where to find information, exercises and activities that will meet the learning need. A volunteer who is going to have an administrative role, should receive training appropriate to completing the tasks inherent in the job. A small sample of administrative duties that imply training needs is:

Prepare enrolment forms

2.3

Assist students with enrolment as necessary

Prepare attendance rolls

Set up a system keeping record of assessment completed

Screening volunteers

A training program is a good opportunity to assess the suitability of individual volunteers for your ESL program (Volunteer Ad Lit Programs in Washington State, n.d.). While we need to be careful not to make hasty judgements, we do have a responsibility to assess whether a trainee does have what it takes to develop the skills for teaching ESL. We also need to be aware of personality traits that may cause problems in relating to learners or even team mates, and either be prepared to address the issues or have a mechanism for not accepting someone as a volunteer. We have a responsibility to provide a positive learning environment, and that includes ensuring that workers have the ability to pass on skills and to relate positively and helpfully to those with whom they interact.

3. Including volunteers in your program 3.1

Registering Volunteers

In any context, institute or community-based, it is recommended that you have your volunteers complete a registration form. This is the easiest way to gather and store information that you will need to be able to create the most appropriate match between volunteer, teacher, learner and/or program.

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Information that is helpful when registering volunteers includes:

full name

contact details

identification provided

police check verification (if applicable)

age group

times of availability

geographical areas possible for them to travel to when teaching preferences regarding learners and/or program, type (e.g. gender, culture, level of English proficiency, one-to-one, classroom, vocational) previous experience in delivering training

employment background

hobbies, interests, other skills

There should also be space to note the program name, class name, or individual that the volunteer will be placed with.

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3.2

Empowering volunteers

When assigning tasks to volunteers we need to:

Make sure the volunteer is trained for that task Give clear instructions as to what is and isn’t expected as far as performance goes Ensure the volunteer has the necessary materials and resources

Advise the volunteer where they can get assistance if needed

4. Mentoring and monitoring Many volunteers begin tutoring having completed quite basic training and continue to develop their skills as they work within the ESL program. Ideally, a volunteer program will have a mentoring component built in, where the volunteer engages in co-reflection and evaluation regarding their involvement in the program, either with a teacher that they are working with, or with a co-ordinator. The personal contact integral to mentoring is an important element in a volunteer program, for a number of reasons, including: • • • •

To monitor the performance of volunteers and ensure the quality of the ESL tuition To ensure that volunteers are adequately resourced and supported To ensure that volunteers receive any additional training they need To maintain personal contact and the sense of being appreciated

In the same way that we have a responsibility to recruit only personnel who are suited for the roles and tasks we are inviting them to take on, we have a responsibility to ensure that the quality of service, needed for our ESL students, is being maintained. Just as paid members of staff are required to perform to standards, it is reasonable to expect that volunteers will perform to agreed standards. For a program to deliver quality training, all members must be capable of and committed to doing the job well. Build into your volunteer program points at which evaluation takes place as a standard procedure. This process should be discussed in the orientation phase of

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inducting new volunteers. It is recommended that evaluation and review processes be presented as a positive dynamic rather than being an intimidating prospect. Knowing the standards that volunteers are expected to meet will produce a secure environment: everyone is clear about what is and isn’t expected. Knowing that there will be regular opportunity to discuss any problems also helps to create the sense of security that everyone will be well looked after. A regular evaluation process gives opportunity for affirming the positive contribution of the volunteer, encouraging and hopefully motivating them to continue in their volunteer role. It also provides a very natural opportunity for both volunteer and teacher or coordinator to discuss things that might need to change or improve. Any problems discussed should be treated with confidentiality. Where mediation is needed between parties, negotiations should be undertaken with sensitivity to find a solution that will solve the problem without anyone losing face or being hurt.

5. Avoiding volunteer burn-out or abuse The mentoring process mentioned above is essential for safeguarding the wellbeing of the volunteer. Big-hearted volunteers can easily find themselves agreeing to endless requests for help and ending up overcommitted and exhausted. When this is accompanied by feeling under-appreciated, burn-out can quickly set in, and volunteers withdraw from programs: a sad ending to an effort that has usually started out with great enthusiasm and hope. The following points are particular points that the program coordinator should be watching out for.

5.1

Roles and responsibilities

Ensure that the volunteer’s activities fall within their negotiated roles and responsibilities. As a teacher, having a capable volunteer work with you, it can be very tempting to pass more and more responsibility their way. While some volunteers may welcome the extra challenge and take it all in their stride, others may be unable to refuse a request and find themselves overworked and stressed, or out of their depth and stressed. Even worse is that the learner/s may become stressed if the volunteer is unable to fulfil the request adequately. Adding duties to an individual volunteer’s job description should be negotiated with care.

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5.2 Adequate resources Ensure volunteers are adequately resourced for any tasks they are assigned. In this regard it is imperative that a bank of materials and resources is maintained to include materials that are current, appropriate, varied, learner-centred and have a basic skills focus. The resource bank should be easy to access, and assistance in locating and selecting materials should be available if needed.

5.3

Demonstrate appreciation, recognition, celebration

Demonstrate appreciation of the contribution of volunteers through recognition and celebration events. When possible, invite volunteers to be ambassadors for the program, allowing them to tell their stories of success and fulfilment. These stories will be one of the greatest encouragements for others to join in, but in asking volunteers to share their stories we give recognition and esteem for the effort that they invest, often sacrificially.

5.4

Keys to success in working with volunteers

Finally, some keys to success in working with volunteers from Singleton, (1999): Communicate clearly. Let there be no misunderstanding or ambiguity Give lots of feedback

Get feedback from volunteers about activities they’ve led

Get feedback from ESL students about how it’s going

Know when it’s not a good match and do something about it

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Summary Volunteers provide extra people-power for a program, making individual tuition possible where there has not been the personnel available previously. Volunteers also bring a wealth of life experience that can enrich and enhance an ESL program. Volunteers are generally encouraging and caring people, and often have the time to spend with people who need help. In this way they are often able to have quite a holistic approach to language learning, being in touch with parts of the life of the learner that might never be addressed in a classroom setting. In terms of settlement and cultural adjustment this caring and involvement is invaluable.

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CHAPTER 20: Establish community-based English classes

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Introduction Our communities are filled with people who on the one hand like to be useful or helpful, and people who on the other hand need help. The contribution of community groups who offer services for little or no monetary gain should never be underestimated. On one level, people with limited resources are able to avail themselves of services that would otherwise be out of the question. On another level, the benefits associated with these non-profit endeavours can go far beyond the financial relief they provide. Community-based services, often staffed by volunteers, usually have a strong relational focus, meeting the deeper social needs of people marginalised by a variety of socio-economic factors. Their programs also tend to be quite flexible, with the capacity to focus on the needs of the user. Community-based English classes offer learners (1) the opportunity to continue learning, (2) a flexible and hopefully comfortable learning environment, (3) social contact and (4) an increased support network. Community-based English classes offer volunteers a fulfilling role which is an investment in the local community and society.

1. Getting started: evaluating the need Setting up an English class or program should be in response to a recognisable need. We need to research the local community to ascertain who the potential students are, what options are already available to them, why they aren’t accessing those options, and what alternative delivery arrangements might be more appropriate. Some questions to ask about people from Non-English Speaking Background in our local community:

What nationalities are represented?

How long have they been in Australia?

Are they eligible for government funded programs?

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How much ESL tuition have they had in the past? Where? When? What involvement do they already have in the local Englishspeaking community? Where do they live?

What transport do they usually use?

What are the employment patterns?

Some questions to ask about the ESL provision available:

What government funded provision is available?

What private ESL institutes (e.g. ELICOS colleges) are available?

Are there private tutors available?

Are any other community groups already providing ESL classes?

If there are existing ESL options, we need to ask what the reasons are that people are not using these services. Some areas to look at might include: Cost

Inability to access childcare

Family or work commitments

Methods of tuition employed

Timing, scheduling, or frequency of the classes

Affective factors (e.g. fear of assessment)

Transport problems

Health issues: Physical or mental health

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Taking into consideration the characteristics of potential learners and their reasons for not accessing existing ESL options, is there an alternative delivery option that may be more appropriate? With any delivery mode there are advantages and disadvantages, one program that will meet a particular set of needs better than another delivery mode will. In your process of designing a program to meet the need in your area, consider the advantages and disadvantages of the following options:

Free ESL classes

Low-cost ESL classes (e.g. small fee to cover copying)

Drop-in centre with individualised or small group tutoring

Groups for particular learner profiles Home-based tutoring

Conversation groups

(e.g. mothers of young children, low literacy level learners, business people)

Having identified a need, and designed an ESL program that you believe will meet that need, you will need to recruit and train volunteers. See Chapter 19 for ideas of how to go about establishing and maintaining a volunteer program within an ESL program.

2. Arrange a suitable venue If you are a member of a community group that owns or rents a suitable facility, negotiating the use of that facility for your program should be relatively simple. If you don’t have access to such a facility, then this step will require building some relationships and promoting your vision. First, you need to decide what constitutes a suitable venue, and key considerations will include: • • • •

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Cost Usefulness of the space available for your purposes (this will vary depending on the format you want to use for your program) Time availability Location, including accessibility via public transport

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Migrant Resource Centres, churches, Scouts, Rotary and Lions Clubs are often favourably disposed towards such projects. Second, you will need to negotiate the terms and conditions of use, including:

 Cost of hire and utilities  Scheduling  Arrangements for accessing the facility (unlocking/locking)  Responsibilities for set-up and pack-up  Responsibilities for cleaning Finally, it’s always good to have confirmation of your agreement regarding arrangements in writing.

3. Arrange necessary equipment Assess what equipment you will need to be able to run the kind of program you have decided on. Some questions to consider: What kind of tables and chairs will be most suitable, and what physical arrangement will be best? Do you need a whiteboard? What size? How many?

Do you need a data projector, computer and internet? Do you need access on site to a photocopier? What payment is necessary? How will this be monitored and received? Once you’ve determined what equipment you need, find out whether it is available at the facility, and whether will it be available for your use. Or will you need to provide your own equipment and, if so, will you be able to store your equipment securely on site? If you need to provide equipment you may like to try soliciting donations from the community, local businesses, churches or other organizations. Phone your local council and state and federal governments to see whether there might be any funding available for such community projects, and how you might go about making an application.

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4. Arrange insurance cover Insurance needs will vary according to your local laws. Programs run under the auspices of registered groups are usually covered by the public liability insurance of those groups. Phone your local authority to find out what applies in your area. You may need to consider such insurance as ‘professional indemnity insurance’ for your own business. This insures you against any potential complaint or claim on you or your personal business regarding your ESL teaching skills etc. Make sure you research any state government laws and legal obligations that may apply also.

5. Apply for funding You may discover that the program cannot run on a zero budget. There may be costs associated with rent, printing materials, insurance or purchase of equipment. You may need to pay someone to provide training for your volunteers. Once again, phone your local authority and state and federal governments to see whether there might be any funding available for such community projects, and how you need to go about making an application. Again, you may like to try soliciting donations from local businesses or community members. Generally speaking, proposals follow a prescribed form, asking for specific information. Guidelines for writing a proposal are usually available from the body to which your application will be addressed.

6. Recruit students Once you’ve ascertained the need and shaped a program to meet the need, you need to get the word out there to potential ESL students. Some low-cost methods of advertising include: Flyers, posters or announcements need to be short and sharp. Remember, the people we want to read them might not read much English! Announcements in local newspapers, which usually have a section for community announcements

Community or Church billboards and newsletters

Community bulletin boards in shopping centres and parks

Flyers distributed with school newsletters

Letter-box drop (fliers distributed by volunteers to residential mail boxes)

Social media posts in online community groups

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Here’s a sample flyer:

When potential students make contact or come along to class, you will need an enrolment or registration process. The information you ask for on your registration form doesn’t need to be any more detailed than:

name

address

telephone number

emergency contact details

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You may use the enrolment process as an opportunity to assess the student’s reading and writing by asking for some more detailed, but still relevant, information such as: •

date of arrival in Australia

•

previous English language study (L2)

•

languages spoken (L1)

•

previous educational history

•

current English usage (e.g. what situations, texts)

•

language learning goals

•

current employment

•

employment goals

7. Recruit volunteers For more detail on working with volunteers, see Chapter 19 of this textbook. Volunteers are unpaid workers who generally determine their own level of commitment to a program or project. Some will already have some skills relevant to the ESL program. Some may require training (formal or informal) before being able to participate. Before signing up volunteers it is helpful to have a clear idea of what the staffing needs of the program are. The roles within a community-based ESL program can be quite varied, so they can involve people with varied backgrounds and experience. For example, a program can include: Teachers Tutors who might: • • •

assist lower level learners assist low literacy level learners work one-to-one with students with special needs (e.g. preparing for a driving test or job interview)

Assistants who might:

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• • • • • •

monitor student progress in class and assisting where necessary demonstrate new activities demonstrate new language nurture (encouragement has an enormous impact) participate in roleplays and simulations prepare refreshments (if the group has a social focus as well as learning English)

Small group teachers (extension activities, conversation, discussion); Substitute teachers while class teacher conferences one-to-one with students; Interviewers Leaders of a hands-on activity in an area of special interest or talent Logistical roles (e.g. set-up/pack-up, unlock/lock up); Administrative assistants (e.g. process registrations, photocopy). Note: Be aware of any legislated regulations regarding workers. For example anyone in Australia working with or near people under 18 years of age will be required to undergo a ‘Working with Children Check’, with specific legislation and requirements varying between states. Sources of potential volunteers include:

members of cultural associations

members of the local community

members of help-oriented groups such as churches and Rotary

retired teachers

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To recruit volunteer workers, you will need opportunities to promote the program, involving: •

visits to help-oriented groups

•

approaches to individuals

•

media coverage, for example a short article in local newspapers or radio bulletins

You will need to:

describe the program

describe the anticipated roles of volunteers describe the benefits of volunteering (fulfilment, social contact, contribution to community and society, lifelong learning, stimulation) Though some volunteers already have useful TESOL skills, many who will make great workers will need and want appropriate training. Many TAFE colleges run training in Volunteer ESL Tutoring. This is often a free course which includes some volunteer tutoring as part of the assessment requirement. If you have enough volunteers, a TAFE institute may be persuaded to run a course especially for your group, using your ESL program for your practical assessment requirements. Alternatively, government funding may be available for such training. You may decide to plan and deliver your own training, focusing on the skills that will be in greatest demand in your ESL program. A good example of community classes is the ‘Edmund Rice Centre WA’ -you can view relevant resource modules via https://www.ercwa.org.au/english-classes ‘Language for living in Australia’. Whatever training you decide to go with, you will need to provide thorough orientation to your volunteers, as to the nature of the program and their role/s and responsibilities within it. You should have a registration process and form for volunteers. This enables you to gather information about your volunteers and store it for easy access.

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8. Place ESL students into program Thoughtful placement of students into appropriate groups is essential for an effective program. Placement assessment can be done prior to your first class, or it can be the substance of your first class. Placement assessment will involve using techniques to gauge the current ability of each student to complete communicative tasks in relation to each of the macroskills: speaking, listening, reading and writing. Speaking and listening are effectively assessed through a conversational style interview. Beginning with simple questions relating to personal information (e.g. address, phone number, length of time in Australia, etc.) the interview can move into areas of interest, with the interviewer asking more and more demanding questions (e.g. asking for opinions, asking about emotions and feelings) until the student’s upper limit is reached. It is important to finish on a positive note, so when the student begins to struggle, return the questioning to a level that the student can manage with comfort. Reading assessments are straight forward with students being asked to read a text and answer some questions. Have on hand texts and tasks aimed at a range of levels, extending the student until they reach their upper limit. Students can answer orally or in written form. Obviously oral questioning is more teacher intensive and time consuming. It is also recommended that you have a range of writing tasks on hand. If you have already been able to gauge the student’s general level of proficiency through the speaking or reading assessments, go straight to a task that you think will be manageable but challenging. Tasks might include writing a short letter, a recount, an opinion text about some current issue, or an explanation of information presented in diagrammatic form. If students are all being assessed during the first class, you may want to divide the class into two groups, with half working individually on reading and writing assessments while the others are taking turns having their speaking and listening interviews. Groups formed according to proficiency level will usually be the most effective learning arrangement, as all students are then able to work at a level that challenges them. At times, however, you may choose to organise the groups according to different criteria. You may choose to form groups according to gender, or according to a particular focus (e.g. English for driving, or English for tax returns!).

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9. Manage the ESL program With the program established, you just need to keep it humming along. You may find the need to engage in some or all of the following tasks: Keep a record of any donations, other income and expenditure. Ensure compliance with terms and conditions of use of facility. Ensure compliance with health and safety standards and procedures, for example: • • • • •

identify health and safety risks report requirements for hazards safe use and maintenance of relevant equipment emergency procedures sources of health and safety information

Keep attendance records; Solicit evaluation and feedback from teachers, for example: • • • • •

evaluation of physical environment and resources evaluation of program’s effectiveness in terms of learning gains evaluation of program’s efficiency feedback as to level of support required feedback as to problems encountered and successes achieved

Monitor teachers’ performance and give feedback. Remember volunteers give sacrificially of their time and deserve lots of support, appreciation and encouragement. Our support in terms of resourcing with materials and ideas for activities can be very helpful.

Solicit evaluation and feedback from students, for example: • ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪

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evaluation of physical environment and resources evaluation of program’s effectiveness in terms of learning gains evaluation of program’s efficiency evaluation of teacher’s performance evaluation of materials used evaluation of course content evaluation of learning activities feedback as to problems encountered and successes achieved

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Summary Establishing and maintaining a community-based English class or program can be a thoroughly rewarding experience. In order to create a program that runs well, it is worth researching the needs in the community, then putting some forethought into the kind of program that could best meet those needs. A community-based ESL program can be a significant community-building and enriching activity, as members of the community get to know each other through their interaction. Such programs benefit not only the students, but also the volunteers.

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Appendices

APPENDICES Appendices

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Appendices

Appendix A: Lesson plan pro-forma Objective

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Activity

Group

Skill

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Time

Materials/Resources

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has/have + past participle (present ‘ to have’ + past participle)

David has spoken to Maria. Has David spoken to Maria? David hasn’ t spoken to Maria.

Harry has walked to school. Has Harry walked to school? Harry hasn’ t walked to school.

Present perfect

David hasn’ t been speaking to Maria? Has David been speaking to Maria? David hasn’ t been speaking to Maria.

am/is/are + -ing (present ‘ to be’

David is speaking to Maria. Is David speaking to Maria? David isn’ t speaking to Maria.

Harry is walking to school. Is Harry walking to school? Harry isn’ t walking o school.

Present continuous

Harry has been walking to school. Has Harry been walking to school? Harry hasn’ t been walking to school.

I/You/We/They walk He/She/It walks Qns and Negatives use aux. ‘ to do’

David speaks to Maria. Does David speak to Maria? David doesn’ t speak to Maria.

Harry walks to school. Does Harry walk to school? Harry doesn’ t walk to school.

Present simple

Present perfect continuous

had + been + -ing (past ‘ to have’ + past participle ‘ to be’ + present participle)

David had been speaking to Maria. Had David been speaking to Maria? David hadn’ t been speaking to Maria.

Harry had been walking to school. Had Harry been walking to school? Harry hadn’ t been walking to school.

Past perfect continuous

has/have + been + -ing (present ‘ to have’ + past participle ‘ to be’ + present participle)

+ present participle)

had + past participle

was/were + -ing (past ‘ to be’ + present participle)

David had spoken to Maria. Had David spoken to Maria? David hadn’ t spoken to Maria.

David was speaking to Maria. Was David speaking to Maria? David wasn’ t speaking to Maria.

Harry was walking to school. Was Harry walking to school? Harry wasn’ t walking to school.

Past continuous

Regular: Add suffix ‘ ed’ Irregular: memorise Questions &Negatives: Use auxiliary ‘ do’

Harry had walked to school. Had Harry walked to school? Harry hadn’ t walked to school.

David spoke to Maria. Did David speak to Maria? David didn’ t speak to Maria.

Harry walked to school. Did Harry walk to school? Harry didn’ t walk to school.

Past simple

FORMATION

Past perfect

IRREGULAR

REGULAR

English verbs are divided into regular and irregular verbs. The following table uses the same basic sentence to show how the various past and present tense verbs are formed. Each box displays the statement, question and negative.

Appendices

Appendix B: Verb tenses – examples and formation

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550 Polite questions. Did you want to see me now?

Polite questions. I was wondering if you could help me.

Events in past. I woke up and got out of bed. General past. She lived in London. Regular and habitual action. The group met at the library each week, while the room was available.

Duration. We were listening for 3 hours! Temporary situation. He was working at home. Changed development/progress. Her English was improving all the time. Something which continued to happen before and after a particular time in the past (interrupted past). The guests arrived while I was cooking dinner.

Talking about the past and concerned with something which happened at an earlier time. I had heard it was a good movie, so we decided to go and see it.

Talking about the past and you are concerned with something which has started at an earlier time but was still continuing. It was getting late. I had been waiting there since two o’ clock. Duration. We had been reading for two hours at that stage. Changed development/progress. Their income had been increasing steadily before the recession.

Past continuous

Past perfect simple

Past perfect continuous

PRESENT

Past simple

PAST After ‘ if’ , “ unless’ , ‘ supposing’ . If I had the money, I’ d buy a car. After ‘ it’ s time’ , ‘ would rather’ , ‘ wish’ It’ s 10 o’ clock; time you went home. Less direct, more polite. I wondered if you were free this

FUTURE

Appendices

Appendix C - Summary of verb forms and their uses

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Present perfect simple

Present continuous

Present simple

An action in the past with a result in the present. I have lost my wallet. Concerned with the present effects of something that happened at an indefinite time in the past. I havent’ heard from Jill for ages. Started in the past and is still continuing until now. They have lived here since 1993.

Something arranged for the future (usually use an adverbial to state when). We’ re playing tennis this afternoon.

Doing something now. I am cooking dinner. Action continues to happen before and after a particular time without stopping. Temporary situation. They’ re living in a unit at the moment. Changing/developing/progressing. The children are growing up quickly. Repeated actions or events happening around the moment of speaking. John’ s seeing a lot of Rhonda lately. To talk about something happening around a particular time that we are thinking of. She doesn’ t like to be disturbed if she’ s working.

An action in the past with a result in the present. I have lost my wallet. Concerned with the present effects of something that happened at an indefinite time in the past. I havent’ heard from Jill for ages. Started in the past and is still continuing until now. They have lived here since 1993.

Something scheduled or timetabled to happen in the future. The next train leaves at 2:15 in the morning.

General present. Steven works at Citibank. Regular or habitual action. I phone my Mum every week. To report facts/general truths. Koalas eat eucalyptus leaves. Instructions. Turn left at the corner. Formal correspondence. I enclose my cheque. Promises. I swear I’ ll never do it again. Series of events, happening as we speak. First, I take a bowl, then I break two eggs into it.

Introductory statements. I hear you’ re getting married. Quotations. I’ m sure you remember what Hamlet says about suicide.

FUTURE

PRESENT

PAST

Appendices

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TESOL Made Practical For All Situations To say a future event is very close. The plane is about to take off.

To talk about plans, arrangements and schedules, and to give instructions. The Prime Minister is to visit Beijing. You are to clean your room before you go out.

Future be + about + infinitive

Future be + infinitive

Looking back from a time in the future, and you are talking about something which will have happened at a time between now and that future point. In another two years, you will have left school. To say something will be in progress at a particular time. This time tomorrow, I’ ll be lying on the beach. Giving info or predicting events not yet decided or obviously on the way. I’ ll probably be home late tonight. Express intentions or attitudes towards other people: offers, requests, threats, promises, announcements of decisions. I’ ll carry that for you.

Looking back from the present and guessing that an action will be finished. I’ m sure they will have arrived by now.

An action in the past that is still continuing. We have been waiting here since 2 o’ clock. Duration. They have been playing all morning. Changing/developing/progressing. The DVD industry has been developing quickly. To emphasise something that continued to happen for some time. I’ ve been working hard all day.

An action in the past that is still continuing. We have been waiting here since 2 o’ clock. Duration. They have been playing all morning. Changing/developing/progressing. The DVD industry has been developing quickly. To emphasise something that continued to happen for some time. I’ ve been working hard all day.

FUTURE

Future shall/will

Future perfect

Present perfect continuous

PRESENT

PAST

Appendices

Appendices

Appendix D – Irregular verbs Infinitive arise awake be bear beat become begin bend bet bind bite bleed blow break bring broadcast build burn burst buy cast catch choose cling come cost creep cut deal dig do dive draw dream drink drive eat fall feed feel fight find fly forget forgive freeze get give go grow hang have hear hide hit hold

Past simple arose awoke was/were bore beat became began bent bet bound bit bled blew broke brought broadcast built burnt burst bought cast caught chose clung came cost crept cut dealt dug did dived drew dreamt drank drove ate fell fed felt fought found flew forgot forgave froze got gave went grew hung had heard hid hit held

Past participle arisen awoken been borne beaten become begun bent bet bound bitten bled blown broken brought broadcast built burnt burst bought cast caught chosen clung come cost crept cut dealt dug done dived drawn dreamt drunk driven eaten fallen fed felt fought found flown forgotten forgiven frozen got given gone grown hung had heard hidden hit held

Infinitive hurt keep kneel know lead lean learn leave lend let lie light lose make mean meet mow pay put quit read ride ring rise run say see sell send sew shake shine shoot show sing sink sit sleep slide smell speak spend spread stand steal swell swim swing take teach tell think throw understand wear write

Past simple hurt kept knelt knew led leant learnt left lent let lay lit lost made meant met mowed paid put quit read rode rang rose ran said saw sold sent sewed shook shone shot showed sang sank sat slept slid smelt spoke spent spread stood stole swelled swam swung took taught told thought threw understood wore wrote

Past participle hurt kept knelt known led leant learnt left lent let lain lit lost made meant met mown paid put quit read ridden rung risen run said seen sold sent sewn shaken shone shot shown sung sunk sat slept slid smelt spoken spent spread stood stolen swollen swum swung taken taught told thought thrown understood worn written

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554

TESOL Made Practical For All Situations t tea bottle

ө thermometer

f feet coffee telephone

v vacuum leaves

l lemon lollies

p peanut happy

b banana rubbish

h hamburger

r razor wheelbarrow wrinkles

w watermelon wheelchair queen

d doctor address

ɒ broccoli cauliflower mouthwash

ɑ: star avocado

ʌ umbrella sponge

ӕ apple

ð weather

ɔ: Door sauce store cork wallpaper strawberry

ə finger pizza treasure tablets razor iron devil

ɜ: fern bird worm fur

e egg bread

ʊ cook beautiful

u: spoon screwdriver blueberries

I thin

i: icecream cereal cheese jellybeans monkey

n fan sunny knife

z razor cheese pans blouse

ʤ juice orange fridge digital m mirror hammer plumber

s socks dress celery dice

ʊə sewer

eə chair square

ɪə ear beer here

ʧ beach matches

ɔ: coin boy

ɑ: pilot wine fight typist

eɪ cake raisins daycare angels steak

g grapes God

j yellow yacht

ŋ sing pink

k corn keys chicken school queen ӡ measure treasure

ʃ sharpener station machine

ɑʊ mouth flower

əʊ hose coat flow yoyo

Appendices

Appendix E - International Phonetic Alphabet chart with key words

Appendices

Appendix F - Key word charts VOWEL KEY WORDS SOUNDS ӕ

apple

eɪ

cake

raisins

eǝ

chair

square

ɑ:

star

avocado

e

bread

eggs

i:

ice-cream

cereal

ɪǝ

ear

beer

ǝ

finger tablets

ɜ:

fern

ɪ

bin

ɑɪ

steak

daycare

angels

cheese

jellybeans

money

treasure

razor

devil

pizza

bird

worm

fur

pilot

wine

fight

typist

ɒ

broccoli

cauliflower

mouthwash

ǝʊ

hose

coat

flow

ɔɪ

boy

coin

ʊ

cook

beautiful

u:

spoon

screwdriver blue

ʌ

sponge

umbrella

ɔ:

door store strawberries

ɑʊ

mouth

wallpaper

donut

cork

sauce

flower

Note: For the purpose of this black and white text, a grey highlight has been used. For classroom use, however, having the spellings in red letters is much clearer.

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Appendices

CONSONANT KEY WORDS SOUNDS

556

b

banana

rubbish

k

corn

keys

ʧ

beach

matches

d

doctor

address

f

feet

coffee

g

grapes

eggs

h

hamburger

ʤ

juice

orange

l

lemon

lollies

m

mirror

hammer

plumber

n

fan

knife

granny

ŋ

sing

pink

p

peanuts

happy

r

razor

wheelbarrow wrinkles

s

socks

dress

blouse

ӡ

measuring jug

ʃ

sharpener

carnation

sewing machine

t

tea

bottle

Ө

thermometer

ð

weather

v

vacuum

leaves

w

watermelon

wheelchair

queen

j

yellow

z

razor

cheese

sandals

TESOL Made Practical For All Situations

chicken

school

queen

telephone

fridge

digital clock

celery

dice

Appendices

Appendix G – International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) Examples Transcribe the following words into the IPA: daffodil

[dӕfǝdɪl]

petunia

[pǝtju:njǝ]

hibiscus

[hɑɪbɪskǝs]

palm

[pɑ:m]

Transcribe the following phrases into the IPA: I was born in Scotland. [ɑɪ wǝz bɔ:n ɪn skɒtlǝnd] My family immigrated to Australia when I was about 8 years old. [mɑɪ fӕmli: ɪmǝgreɪtǝd tu: ǝstreɪljǝ wen ɑɪ wǝz ǝbɑʊt eɪt jɪǝz ǝʊld] We lived in Warwick for a few months. [wi: lɪvd ǝn wɒrIk fǝr ǝ fju: mʌnӨs] Then we moved to Brisbane. [ðen wi: mu:vd tǝ brɪzbǝn] Decode the following sentences: [ɑɪ gǝt mӕri:d wen ɑɪ wǝz twenti: jɪǝz ǝʊld] I got married when I was 20 years old. [mɑɪ hʌzbǝnd ǝn ɑɪ hǝv trӕvǝld Өru: ǝɑʊt fɔ:ti: dɪfrǝnt kʌntri:z] My husband and I have travelled through about 40 different countries. [ɑɪ lʌv mi:tɪŋ pi:pǝl frǝm ʌðǝ kʌlʧǝz] I love meeting people from other cultures. [mɑɪ lɑɪf ɪz enrɪʧt bɑɪ ðӕt] My life is enriched by that.

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Appendices

558

TESOL Made Practical For All Situations

Glossary

GLOSSARY Glossary

TESOL Made Practical For All Situations

559

Glossary

Glossary accommodation

new knowledge does not ‘fit’ an existing schema, so the schema must adjust or expand to integrate the new knowledge

affect

psychological term referring to emotions and attitudes

antonym

word exactly opposite in meaning to another

approximation

a learner’s imperfect attempt to produce language

assimilation

new knowledge ‘fits’ the existing schema and is added without need for change

cloze

an exercise where words are deleted at regular intervals (e.g. every 10th word) and a student inserts an appropriate word

collocation

words that ‘go together’ (e.g. ‘strong’ tea, not ‘mighty’ tea)

construct meaning

speaking, listening, reading or writing to create or garner meaning

continuum

an un-delineated scale on which the measurement of a characteristic between two extremes can be indicated

Critical Period Hypothesis

theory that there is an optimal period in life (age range) for learning a second language

dialogue

a scripted conversation

discourse markers

words or phrases that signal a significant point in a text

EFL (English as a Foreign Language)

Where the language of the local community is not English, then English is said to be a foreign language (in that geographical situation). The teacher and students often share L1.

ESL (English as a Second Language)

Where the language of the local community is English, thereby supporting acquisition. Students in one class may come from a variety of language backgrounds.

ethnocentrism

attitude that one culture is superior to another or to all others

genre

text type

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TESOL Made Practical For All Situations

Glossary

Input Hypothesis (Krashen)

Optimal learning conditions are achieved when learners receive input in L2 that is within the range of their ability to comprehend but stretches them towards the next level.

interference

Negative transfer from L1. That is, something (e.g. a grammatical structure or a similar word) from L1 which ‘doesn’t work’ in L2.

interlocutor

the people involved in a speaking transaction

L1

first language, mother-tongue

L2

second language

lexical item

a word or phrase

lexicon

bank of vocabulary items

linguistic

to do with language

make meaning

to make sense or interpret a written or spoken text, or to construct a spoken or written text in order to communicate a particular meaning

metacognition

reflecting on the process of learning, what learning has taken place, and how did that learning occur

mimicry

repeating what you have heard

NESB

people from Non-English Speaking Background, having one or more of the following characteristics: Overseas-born recently arrived in Australia; and/or Overseas-born, who are long-term residents but living in non-English-speaking households; and/or Australian-born whose parents were born in a nonEnglish-speaking country.

schema/schemata

a cognitive framework for understanding something (e.g. language)

SO

someone

sociocultural

to do with the social and cultural environment, acceptable behaviour

ST

something

synonym

word that has the same meaning as another

syntax

sentence structure

text

any piece of spoken or written language

TL

target language, the language to be learnt

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Glossary

TPR

Total Physical Response: Method involving responding (usually non-verbally) to commands by completing the action required.

utterance

something said

Common Acronyms Some common acronyms you’ll hear when teaching English are: ESL

English as a Second Language

EFL

English as a Foreign Language

EAL

English as an Additional Language

ESOL

English for Speakers of Other Languages

EIL

English as an International Language

L1

First Language or Native Language

L2

Second Language

SLA

Second Language Acquisition

ELD

English Language Development

ELT

English Language Teaching

EAP

English for Academic Purposes

ESP

English for Specific Purposes

NESB

Non-English Speaking Background

TEFL

Teaching English as a Foreign Language

TESL

Teaching English as a Second Language

TESOL

Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages

562

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Glossary

REFERENCES References

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