Technical Means for Underwater Archaeology 3031275012, 9783031275012

Citation preview

Earth and Environmental Sciences Library

Mikhail Klyuev Anatoly Schreider Igor Rakitin

Technical Means for Underwater Archaeology

Earth and Environmental Sciences Library Series Editors Abdelazim M. Negm, Faculty of Engineering, Zagazig University, Zagazig, Egypt Tatiana Chaplina, Antalya, Turkey

Earth and Environmental Sciences Library (EESL) is a multidisciplinary book series focusing on innovative approaches and solid reviews to strengthen the role of the Earth and Environmental Sciences communities, while also providing sound guidance for stakeholders, decision-makers, policymakers, international organizations, and NGOs. Topics of interest include oceanography, the marine environment, atmospheric sciences, hydrology and soil sciences, geophysics and geology, agriculture, environmental pollution, remote sensing, climate change, water resources, and natural resources management. In pursuit of these topics, the Earth Sciences and Environmental Sciences communities are invited to share their knowledge and expertise in the form of edited books, monographs, and conference proceedings.

Mikhail Klyuev · Anatoly Schreider · Igor Rakitin

Technical Means for Underwater Archaeology

Mikhail Klyuev Russian Academy of Sciences Shirshov Institute of Oceanology Moscow, Russia

Anatoly Schreider Russian Academy of Sciences Shirshov Institute of Oceanology Moscow, Russia

Igor Rakitin Russian Academy of Sciences Shirshov Institute of Oceanology Moscow, Russia

ISSN 2730-6674 ISSN 2730-6682 (electronic) Earth and Environmental Sciences Library ISBN 978-3-031-27501-2 ISBN 978-3-031-27502-9 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-27502-9 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland

Annotation

This book deals with various aspects of the technical support of underwater archaeological research in marine and freshwater areas. The relevance, specificity and subject composition of underwater archaeological investigations are considered. Factors of submerging archaeological artefacts are outlined. Basic equipment to support underwater works as well as special and auxiliary equipment for the remote survey of the seabed and underwater archaeological research is described. The results of the use of technical facilities in underwater archaeological investigations of submerged ancient Greek cities Fanagoria and Patraeus in the Taman Gulf of the Black Sea as well as submerged Neolithic settlements on the Sennitsa Lake in the Pskov Region of Russia are given. Describes the technical means of studying shipwrecks in the northern Black Sea, as well as the wrecked liner “Titanic”. The book is intended for students, postgraduates and archaeologists who are interested in the specifics of underwater archaeological research and are planning to carry it out, as well as for a wide range of all interested persons.

vii

Contents

1

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1 4

2

Factors of Flooding of Archaeological Artifacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

5

3

Basic Equipment for Underwater Archaeological Research . . . . . . . . . 3.1 Base ship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2 Diving Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3 Submersible Vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4 Hydraulic Ejector and Soil Pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.5 Site Marking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.6 Conservation of Artifacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

9 9 11 15 17 18 19 22

4

Special and Auxiliary Equipment for Underwater Archaeological Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1 Echo Sounder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2 Multibeam Echo Sounder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3 Side-Scan Sonar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4 Sub-Bottom Profiler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.5 Magnetometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.6 Underwater Photogrammetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.7 GPS, Underwater Navigation and Communications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.8 Auxiliary Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

23 23 25 25 26 28 31 31 33 34

Technical Aspects of Underwater Archaeological Research in Ancient Fanagoria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1 Brief History of Ancient Fanagoria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2 Reasons for the Partial Flooding of Fanagoria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3 Technical Methods for Studying Underwater Fanagoria . . . . . . . . . . 5.4 Underwater Archaeological Work in Fanagoria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

35 35 37 37 42

5

ix

x

Contents

5.5 Findings and Artifacts of Underwater Fanagoria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 6

Technical Aspects of Underwater Archaeological Research in Ancient Patraeys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 6.1 Brief History of Ancient Patraeys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 6.2 The Collapse of Stones in the Underwater Patraeys, Its Study with the Help of a Sub-Bottom Profiler and Interpretation . . . . . . . . 51

7

Technical Aspects of Underwater Archaeological Research of Neolithic Settlements on Lake Sennitsa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

8

Underwater Archaeological Research of Sunken Ships in the Black Sea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.1 Study of the sunken battleship “Empress Catherine the Great” . . . . 8.2 Study of the Sunken Cargo Ship “Sacco and Vanzetti” . . . . . . . . . . . Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

9

61 62 64 68

Technical Means of Studying the Liner “Titanic” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85

10 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 About the Authors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 Links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91

Chapter 1

Introduction

Underwater archaeology differs from traditional one in the fact that archaeological research is carried out in an underwater environment at elevated hydrostatic pressure that is dangerous for people (at the bottom of seas, rivers, lakes, flooded caves, etc.), as a result special technical equipment is required. First of all, this concerns the use of technical means to protect the underwater archaeologist himself, namely the use of scuba gear, which ensures human life in a dangerous underwater environment. At the same time, it should be taken into account that the use of scuba gear imposes a number of restrictions on the ability of an underwater archaeologist to stay at a certain depth for the required period of time and, to a certain extent, limits his mobility. When conducting deep-sea archaeological research, even underwater inhabited vehicles are used to protect the archaeologist. Along with this, underwater archaeology requires the use of a number of basic technical means for the engineering support of underwater research. It also requires the use of special technical means for preliminary research and mapping of underwater archaeological sites in order to identify the location and possible composition of archaeological anomalies (according to the detection classification features) for their subsequent archaeological research and identification. As a result, underwater archaeological research is very expensive, which pays off with the uniqueness of the results, since the underwater environment more reliably protects the integrity of historical artifacts from looting and destruction. It should be noted that the composition and temporal periodization of artifacts of underwater archaeology are almost identical to those on land, with some adjustment for the long-term impact of the aquatic environment, which must be taken into account. The subject of composition (artifacts) of underwater archaeology includes settlements, buildings, temples, burials, port facilities, mechanisms (ships, aircraft, weapons), religious and household items, etc., which are flooded due to various

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 M. Klyuev et al., Technical Means for Underwater Archaeology, Earth and Environmental Sciences Library, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-27502-9_1

1

2

1 Introduction

Fig. 1.1 Periodization of artifacts of underwater archaeology

Fig. 1.2 Map of 2640 Stone Age and Early Bronze Age underwater archaeological sites in Europe (including the Middle East)

reasons. At the same time, underwater artifacts range from the collapse of stone blocks to flooded cities, from stone megaliths and statues to marble sculptures and tombs, from stone knives, arrowheads and clay amphorae to gold coins, jewelry, silverware and porcelain dishes from sunken ships, from wooden galleys to the metal “Titanic”, from ancient weapons to modern military equipment, etc. For the time periodization of underwater artifacts, traditional categories and concepts are used, such as the Stone Age, the Bronze Age, the Iron Age, the Middle Ages, Modern Times, etc., taking into account the factors of the impact of the aquatic environment (Fig. 1.1). Despite its uniqueness and high cost of technical equipment, underwater archaeological research is becoming more in demand. Thus, the number of sites of underwater archaeological research of the Stone Age and the Early Bronze Age alone in Europe (including the Middle East) is quite significant and amounts to about 2640 (Fig. 1.2) (Bailey et al. 2020). There is also a very large number of underwater artifacts of the Second World War—sunken ships and aircraft (Fig. 1.3—Europe, Africa, Atlantic) (Argyropoulos and Stratigea 2019). Also of considerable interest, especially for the adjacent Eastern European countries, are underwater archaeological studies of the ancient Greek colonies-settlements of the Black Sea (Fanagoria, Hermonassa, Pantikapeon, Khersones, etc.), of which there were dozens and were partially flooded due to changes in its coastline (Fig. 1.4).

1 Introduction

3

Fig. 1.3 Map of the location of underwater artifacts of the Second World War—sunken ships and aircraft off the coast of Europe, Africa and the Atlantic

Fig. 1.4 Map of the Greek colonies of the Black Sea

Therefore, underwater archaeological research is becoming increasingly important and attractive among professional archaeologists and specialists, as well as among many interested individuals and organizations, provided they have the appropriate legal permissions. This stimulates an ever-increasing interest in the specialized technical knowledge necessary for the practical implementation of underwater archaeological research.

4

1 Introduction

References Argyropoulos V, Stratigea A (2019) Sustainable management of underwater cultural heritage: the route from discovery to engagement—open issues in the Mediterranean. Heritage 2(2): 1588– 1613 Bailey G, Galanidou N, Peeters H, Jöns H, Mennenga M (2020) The archaeology of Europe’s drowned landscapes: introduction and overview. In: Bailey G, Galanidou N, Peeters H, Jöns H, Mennenga M (eds) The archaeology of Europe’s drowned landscapes, vol. 35. Springer, Cham, Coastal Research Library, pp 1–23

Chapter 2

Factors of Flooding of Archaeological Artifacts

The main factors in the flooding of archaeological artifacts are the following: – change in the seas level (regression and transgression) and reservoirs due to global and local climate changes (glaciation, warming, humidification, drainage, etc.); – local vertical foundering and landslides of coastal land due to tectonic movements, earthquakes, volcanic eruptions and other factors; – losses due to emergency flooding of objects (ships, aircraft, ammunition, equipment, etc.). Changes in the World Ocean, seas and reservoirs levels due to global climate changes in the past, such as global glaciation, warming, humidification, etc., led to a shift in the coastline. As per Fig. 2.1, fluctuations in the level of the World Ocean reached about 120 m over the past 25 thousand years and about several meters over the past 5 thousand years. Along with this, the alternation of climatic glaciations and warmings led to the formation of lakes and flooded caves with an unstable coastline. Ancient people, partially gravitating towards the coastline, moved behind its shifts, leaving habitable places with archaeological artifacts to the aquatic environment. Another flooding factor is vertical foundering, landslides, mudflows and coastal land collapse due to tectonic movements, earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, rainstorms, etc., which can be both gradual and instantaneous (catastrophic) in nature (Fig. 2.2). Another loss factor is the emergency flooding of ships, aircraft, ammunition, equipment and other artifacts due to various unfavourable factors—weather conditions, human errors, man-made accidents, military operations, etc. (Figs. 2.3 and 2.4). It follows from the above that underwater archaeological artifacts can be located not only on the sea or freshwater bottom, but also be buried in its thickness, i.e. the artifacts are completely out of visual check. But even being at the bottom, artifacts

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 M. Klyuev et al., Technical Means for Underwater Archaeology, Earth and Environmental Sciences Library, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-27502-9_2

5

6

2 Factors of Flooding of Archaeological Artifacts

Fig. 2.1 Change in the World Ocean level in the past Fig. 2.2 Tectonic land shifts (vertical black arrows) and horizontal dumps (horizontal red arrow)

Fig. 2.3 Sunken ancient ship

2 Factors of Flooding of Archaeological Artifacts

7

Fig. 2.4 The wreckage of a B-17 in Croatian waters, World War II

can be covered with a layer of silt, calcareous and siliceous deposits, calculi, algae, shells, etc., which makes it difficult to visually identify them. This necessitates the use of special technical means for the search, detection and identification of underwater artifacts on the sea and freshwater bottom and in its thickness.

Chapter 3

Basic Equipment for Underwater Archaeological Research

Basic equipment for underwater archaeological research includes: – – – – – –

base ship; diving (scuba) equipment; submersible vehicles; devices for scattering and removing soil; equipment for marking polygons; equipment for the conservation of artifacts.

3.1 Base ship The base ship is the basis for underwater archaeological work (except for purely coastal ones). It should provide the following functionality: – Accommodation and delivery of underwater archaeologists and equipment from the pier to the work site and back; – necessary mode of maneuvering during underwater operations; – operability of underwater equipment and life of the crew; – etc. The characteristics of the base ship depend on the parameters of the underwater archaeological work, such as the depth of the site, duration, volume of artifacts, the need to keep the ship at the site, etc. Therefore, the type of base ship varies widely—from an inflatable boat and a small boat to a marine vessel (Figs. 3.1, 3.2, and 3.3).

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 M. Klyuev et al., Technical Means for Underwater Archaeology, Earth and Environmental Sciences Library, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-27502-9_3

9

10

3 Basic Equipment for Underwater Archaeological Research

Fig. 3.1 Inflatable motorboat for coastal underwater archaeological works

Fig. 3.2 Boat for coastal underwater archaeological works

3.2 Diving Equipment

11

Fig. 3.3 Small marine vessel with a motorboat for underwater archaeological works

3.2 Diving Equipment Diving equipment ensures the life and work of an archaeologist under water. Its objective is to provide the function of breathing, protection from hydro-static pressure and ensuring the mobility of the underwater archaeologist. Diving equipment is divided into light and heavy. Light diving equipment is used at depths up to 60 m, and when using special breathing mixtures, even deeper down to a record 330 m. It includes scuba gear, wetsuit (optional), mask, fins, gloves, watch, depth gauge, knife, etc. (Fig. 3.4). Scuba is divided into open-circuit devices, when the used breathing mixture is released into the environment, and closed-circuit, when the used mixture is cleaned and used for further breathing. An open-circuit scuba consists of one or two cylinders with a compressed breathing mixture (air, oxygen-helium, oxygen-helium-nitrogen, etc.) with a pressure of about 200 atmospheres and a volume of about 7 L. A reducer is connected to the cylinders, which reduces the pressure of the mixture to 6 atmospheres. A lung machine is connected to the reducer, which ensures the scuba diver’s breathing with a mixture with ambient pressure and the removal of exhaled air (Fig. 3.5).

12

3 Basic Equipment for Underwater Archaeological Research

Fig. 3.4 Underwater archaeologist in scuba gear and wetsuit at work

Fig. 3.5 Open circuit scuba device

In a closed-circuit scuba, a closed isolated air circuit is organized, which includes a carbon dioxide absorber, a source of oxygen supply and is used for inhalation and exhalation of the scuba diver (Fig. 3.6). When ascending from a depth, a scuba diver needs a so-called decompression. The fact is that when diving to a depth, the surrounding hydro-static pressure of

3.2 Diving Equipment

13

Fig. 3.6 The principle of operation of a closed-circuit scuba

water increases (by 1 atmosphere for every 10 m of depth). This leads to an increase in the concentration of nitrogen in the blood of a scuba diver when he breathes an air mixture (21% oxygen, 78% nitrogen, etc.). When rising from depth, hydro-static pressure drops and excess nitrogen is excreted from the blood. If the rate of ascent is high, a nitrogenous effervescence of the blood, called decompression sickness, can set in, leading to death. Therefore, the ascent of the scuba diver must be accompanied by stops at certain depths, the duration and depth of which is regulated by special decompression tables, depending on the duration and maximum depth of the diver’s work. Figure 3.7 shows 14 decompression tables for ascents from depths of 12–51 m. In each table on the left, the working depth in meters and the time without decompression are indicated in large print (for example, 12 140' means depth of 12 m, time without decompression - 140 min; 15 72' means depth of 15 m, time without decompression - 72 min). On the right, against a blue background, the duration of stops is indicated in minutes at depths of 3, 6, 9, 12 m, depending on the time spent in minutes (blue background) at the working depth (for example, for 15 72' : 84 4 3 m—when working for 84 min at a depth of 15 m, the scuba diver must stop for 4 min at a depth of 3 m). Heavy diving equipment is used for a person to work at great depths up to 600 m. It consists of a diving suit with equipment attached to it, which is lowered on a cable with a life support hose from the base ship (Fig. 3.8). The diving suit provides visibility, mobility and performance of the diver due to the transparent helmet, movable joints

14

3 Basic Equipment for Underwater Archaeological Research

Decompression Tables

Fig. 3.7 Decompression tables for diving depths of 12–51 m

and manipulators. Diving suits are divided into hard ones, which provide atmospheric pressure inside themselves (decompression is not needed), and soft diving suits, which work at ambient hydro-static pressure (decompression is needed). The record diving in a hard diving suit in 2006 was made by the US Navy diver Kellie Chouest, reaching a depth of 610 m outside the bathyscaphe. More information on this themes can be found in Alexandrov (2011), Korobkov et al. (1981), Korovin (1994).

3.3 Submersible Vehicles

15

Fig. 3.8 Heavy diving suit with cable suspension and life support hose

3.3 Submersible Vehicles At depths of more than fifty meters, underwater archaeological research is carried out mainly with the help of submersible vehicles. An submersible vehicle is a small vessel or technical device (apparatus) used to perform a variety of tasks in the water and at the bottom. By type, they are divided into two main categories—habitable submersible vehicles (with a person on board) and submersible robots (without a person). According to the depth of immersion, submersible vehicles are conditionally divided into vehicles for shallow depths (up to 200 m), medium depths (up to 2000 m) and deep-sea (over 2000 m). According to the degree of dependence on the supporting vessel, they are divided into autonomous (capable of submerging, floating and moving independently) and non-autonomous (connected to the supporting vessel with a cable or hose). Types of submersible habitable vehicles by design features include the following categories: – a bathyscaphe, which is equipped with a float filled with gasoline and is capable of diving to any (including extreme) depths of the World Ocean (Fig. 3.9);

16

3 Basic Equipment for Underwater Archaeological Research

Fig. 3.9 Submersible habitable autonomous deep-sea vehicle “Trieste”

– autonomous deep-sea vehicles that carry equipment for underwater operations (manipulators, cargo compartments, drills, sensors, etc.) (Fig. 3.10); – devices with a compartment for divers to enter the water, which are equipped with a hyperbaric compartment for exit/entry and transportation of divers; – rescue deep-sea vehicles, which are equipped with a docking device, an airlock and a passenger compartment for rescuing submarine crews; – multi-seat tourist submarines, which serve for underwater excursions, have a passenger compartment and additional windows; – and etc. Submersible uninhabited vehicles are divided into: – ROVs (Remotely Operated underwater Vehicle), which are submersible robots connected to the surface vessel by a cable and controlled by the ship operator (Figs. 3.11 and 3.12); – automatic submersible vehicles, which are fully autonomous submersible robots operating according to a given program or signals to hydro-acoustic signals. More information on this themes can be found in Ageev et al. (1981), Ageev et al. (2005), Yastrebov (1976), Shostak (2011), Voitov (2002).

3.4 Hydraulic Ejector and Soil Pump

17

Fig. 3.10 Submersible habitable autonomous deep-sea vehicle “Mir”

Fig. 3.11 Uninhabited remote-controlled submersible vehicle (ROV)

3.4 Hydraulic Ejector and Soil Pump To wash and remove soil from the bottom at the site of underwater archaeological work, a special device is used—a hydraulic ejector (Fig. 3.13). The hydraulic ejector consists of a water pump installed on the base ship, which pumps the surrounding water and releases it under pressure through a thin hose to the tip of the hydro ejector (Fig. 3.14). The tip is a return nozzle in which water is erupted from a thin hose under

18

3 Basic Equipment for Underwater Archaeological Research

Fig. 3.12 Uninhabited remote-controlled self-propelled depth robot for archaeological research in the Taman Bay of the Black Sea

pressure into a wide cavity and released through a wide hose to the base ship, where it enters the flushing tray. At the same time, a decrease in pressure is formed at the open end of the wide nozzle, as a result of which the bottom soil is sucked into the nozzle and enters the base ship through a wide hose, where it is washed through the tray. As a result, archaeological artifacts at the bottom are freed from the soil, and their elements settle in a tray on the base ship. Figure 3.15 shows a diver eroding the soil with the help of a hydraulic ejector tip located on the base ship. In addition to the hydraulic ejector, a soil pump based on a suction pump is used to remove the bottom soil, which creates a reduced pressure in the working head (Fig. 3.16). Note that the preliminary removal of the soil is carried out by washing it with a stream of water.

3.5 Site Marking Special engineering structures are used to mark the underwater archaeological site (Fig. 3.17). They or their anchors are fixed firmly on the sea bottom, and in shallow water they are removed in case of approaching stormy weather. The structures can be in the form of a spatial grid with a set step and divide the archaeological site under study into spatial cells with assigned numbers. To set the scale, measuring rulers are attached to the structures. The structures can also take the form of vertical poles. In shallow water, the coordinates of the structure can be determined using GPS navigation, and in deep water areas, using the underwater hydro-acoustic navigation

3.6 Conservation of Artifacts

19

Fig. 3.13 Hydraulic ejector—device for blurring and removing soil around archaeological artifacts

Fig. 3.14 The tip of the hydraulic ejector (on stone)

system. Separate significant underwater artifacts can be marked with hydro-acoustic transponder beacons.

3.6 Conservation of Artifacts Underwater artifacts have been in an aqueous (salty marine or fresh) or muddy environment for a long time and are affected by it. During rising to the surface, they

20

3 Basic Equipment for Underwater Archaeological Research

Fig. 3.15 A diver scouring the ground using a hydraulic ejector located on the base ship

Fig. 3.16 Underwater soil pump (suction pump)

can quickly collapse under the influence of drying, air and sunlight, as a result of which they need conservation (Fig. 3.18). The degree of negative impact depends on the type of artifact material—wood, leather, bone, ceramics, glass, stone, ferrous metals, non-ferrous metals, precious metals, etc. Organic materials such as wood, leather, and textiles can deteriorate and fall apart in a matter of hours if left to dry without proper treatment. Other materials such as bone, glass, and earthenware will slowly devitrify and, in extreme cases, become a pile of shards if not preserved. Note that the simplest method of temporary conservation is to store artifacts in a tank with sea or fresh water, depending on where the artifact was taken from. The conservation process includes the following steps:

3.6 Conservation of Artifacts

Fig. 3.17 Underwater archaeological site marking

Fig. 3.18 Preparing an underwater artifact for conservation

21

22

3 Basic Equipment for Underwater Archaeological Research

1. Desalination is the process of removing soluble salts. It is carried out by longterm immersion of the artifact in fresh water (possibly with the addition of disinfectants). 2. Cleaning—the process of removing lime and siliceous deposits, stones, corrosion, stains, dirt, etc. from the surface of the artifact. It is carried out by washing in running water, mechanical methods (using surgical scalpels; pneumatic, ultrasonic and sandblasting; water streams under pressure), special chemicals, electrolytic reduction, etc. 3. Strengthening—gluing and connecting parts of the artifact. Produced with the help of special adhesives, frames, staples, holders, knitting needles, etc. 4. Drying—the process of removing water from the pores of the artifact material. It is carried out by slow drying, vacuum freezing, alcohol drying, etc. Usually combined with subsequent treatment. 5. Disinfection—the process of removing living microorganisms from the surface and from the pores of the artifact material. It is carried out by processing the artifact in a disinfecting chemical liquid or gas. 6. Treatment—the process of introducing special chemical liquid compositions into the pores of the artifact material to strengthen and preserve it. Note that at great depths, human remains completely dissolve in sea water in a few years due to a lack of calcium carbonate, which makes up the skeleton.

References Ageev M, Nikiforov V, Kasatkin B, Kiselev L, Molokov Y, Rylov N (1981) Automatic submersibles. Shipbuilding, Leningrad, 224 p Ageev MD, Kiselev LV, Matvienko YV et al. (2005) Autonomous underwater robots: systems and technologies. Nauka, Moscow, 401 p Alexandrov YI (eds) (2011) Underwater technologies and facilities for the development of the World’s Oceans. Arms and Technologies, Moscow, 779 p Korobkov VA, Levin VS, Lukoshkov AV, Serebrenitskiy PP (1981) Underwater technology. Shipbuilding, Leningrad, 240 p Korovin VP (1994) Foreign technical means in oceanology. RGGI, St. Petersburg, 196 p Shostak VP (2011) Robotic submersibles and their manipulators. Chicago, Megatron Publishing, 136 p Voitov DV (2002) Underwater manned submersibles. Publishing house AST Astril, Moscow, 303 p Yastrebov VS (eds) (1976) Oceanological teleoperated vehicles and robots. Shipbuilding, Leningrad, 176 p

Chapter 4

Special and Auxiliary Equipment for Underwater Archaeological Research

Special and auxiliary equipment for underwater archaeological research includes: – – – – – – –

echo sounder (ES), multibeam echo sounder (MBES), side-scan sonar (SSS), sub-bottom profiler (SBP), magnetometer (including metal detector) gps navigation (GPS), cameras, lighting, compressors, generators, batteries, etc.

4.1 Echo Sounder An echo sounder is a hydro-acoustic device for measuring the depth of the bottom, which consists of a hydro-acoustic transmitter and a receiver (hydrophone) of a probing sound pulse. The principle of its operation is to measure the propagation time of a short sound pulse along the hydro-acoustic beam from the emitter to the bottom and from the bottom (as a result of reflection) to the receiver, recalculating this time into depth when taking into account and controlling the speed of sound in water (Fig. 4.1). Echo sounder data, together with navigational information about its position, makes it possible to build a map of the depths of the archaeological site, which is called a bathymetric bottom map (Fig. 4.2).

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 M. Klyuev et al., Technical Means for Underwater Archaeology, Earth and Environmental Sciences Library, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-27502-9_4

23

24

4 Special and Auxiliary Equipment for Underwater Archaeological Research

Fig. 4.1 The principle of operation of the echo sounder Fig. 4.2 Bathymetric map of the seabed of Blue Bay near Gelendzhik town in the Black Sea

4.3 Side-Scan Sonar

25

Fig. 4.3 The principle of operation of a multibeam echo sounder

4.2 Multibeam Echo Sounder A multibeam echo sounder is a hydro-acoustic device for more efficient mapping of the seabed, which consists of a hydro-acoustic transducer and, unlike an echo sounder, an array of receivers (hydrophones). Due to the presence of an array of receivers, a swath of hydro-acoustic beams is formed in the transverse direction to the movement of the vessel, which is similar to a swath of echo sounders (Fig. 4.3). This allows you to simultaneously measure the depths in the entire strip of the seabed, thereby increasing the performance and resolution of the bathymetric survey (Fig. 4.4).

4.3 Side-Scan Sonar Side-scan sonar is a hydro-acoustic device for obtaining hydro-acoustic images of the seabed surface and objects. It also consists of a hydro-acoustic transmitter and a receiving antenna, which, unlike an echo sounder, forms two lateral hydro-acoustic beams relative to the direction of the shipTs movement, narrow in the longitudinal direction and wide in the transverse direction (Fig. 4.5). A probing pulse also propagates along these beams, the intensity of the seabed response of which forms a hydroacoustic image. Side-scan sonar provides a good visual representation of the structure of the seabed surface and objects located on it, but provides only approximate information about their actual depths and coordinates (Fig. 4.6).

26

4 Special and Auxiliary Equipment for Underwater Archaeological Research

Fig. 4.4 Bathymetry of the seabed area with a sunken ship according to multibeam echo sounder data

Fig. 4.5 The principle of operation of the side-scan sonar

4.4 Sub-Bottom Profiler A hydro-acoustic sub-bottom profiler is a device for revealing the internal structure of the seabed and is a type of echo sounder. It differs from the echo sounder by a significantly lower frequency of the sounding hydro-acoustic impulse, which, as a

4.4 Sub-Bottom Profiler

27

Fig. 4.6 Side-scan sonar image of an ancient sunken ship

result, penetrates deep into the seabed sediments and, being reflected from heterogeneities that differ in sound speed and density, reveals the internal structure of the seabed and seabed objects (Figs. 4.7, 4.8, and 4.9) (Heine et al. 2020). In this case, the boundaries of heterogeneities are displayed along the range axis, and their length— along the ship’s displacement axis. Such heterogeneities can be seabed sedimentary layers and rocks, hulls of sunken ships, mechanisms and weapons, household items, stones and buildings, etc. In this case, objects can be steel, non-ferrous metals, stone, ceramic, glass, wood, etc.

Fig. 4.7 The principle of operation of a sub-bottom profiler

28

4 Special and Auxiliary Equipment for Underwater Archaeological Research

Fig. 4.8 The internal structure of the seabed according to sub-bottom profiler data

Fig. 4.9 Seabed structure with a buried galley (highlighted in yellow outline) according to subbottom profiler data

4.5 Magnetometer Magnetometer is a device for remote measurement of magnetic field characteristics and magnetic properties of materials. In this case, one should take into account the bipolar nature of the magnetic field—the presence of inseparable northern and southern magnetic pluses. Magnetometers are divided into the following types of devices: – magnetostatic, based on the phenomenon of the mechanical action of a magnetic field on a sensor-magnet; – induction, based on the phenomenon of electromagnetic induction; – quantum, based on the phenomena of free ordering of the precession of nuclear (nuclear magnetic resonance) or electronic (electron paramagnetic resonance)

4.5 Magnetometer

29

magnetic moments in an external magnetic field, quantum transitions between magnetic sublevels of atoms, as well as quantization of the magnetic flux in a superconducting circuit; – others, which are based on the curvature of the trajectories of charged particles in a magnetic field (Hall and Gauss effects), the rotation of the plane of polarization of light in a magnetic field or the field of a magnetized sample, a change in the length of a magnetized rod under the action of an applied field (magnetostriction), etc.; and – a type of magnetometer is a metal detector that reacts to the presence of metal objects, based on the phenomenon of unbalance of the electromagnetic circuit in the presence of a metal object near it. To study the magnetic anomalies of the seabed, the magnetometer is towed behind the ship moving along the network of tacks and measures the magnetic field values with position determination (Fig. 4.10). These anomalies are various magnetized objects at the seabed and in its thickness—steel hulls of sunken ships, steel and castiron mechanisms, weapons and household items, ceramics, stones and rocks with residual magnetization, etc. When the magnetometer moves over such an anomaly, the values of the magnetic field change, which is recorded by the equipment. Based on the collected data array, a map of seabed magnetic field anomalies is built (Fig. 4.11). Note that a hand-held magnetometer (metal detector) can be moved by the underwater archaeologist himself in the process of studying the seabed (Fig. 4.12). All mentioned methods for studying the underwater archaeology of the seabed is shown in Fig. 4.13.

Fig. 4.10 Principle of magneto metric survey of the sea seabed

30

4 Special and Auxiliary Equipment for Underwater Archaeological Research

Fig. 4.11 An example of a magnetic anomaly map. A magnetized object on the sea floor (red–south, blue–north magnetic poles of the object)

Fig. 4.12 Underwater metal detector in the hands of a scuba diver

More information on this themes can be found in Kiri and Brooks (1988), Orlenok (1997), Shalaeva and Starovoitov (2010).

4.7 GPS, Underwater Navigation and Communications

31

Fig. 4.13 A set of methods for archaeological study of the seabed

4.6 Underwater Photogrammetry Underwater photogrammetry allows you to determine the shapes, sizes and spatial relative positions of objects from their photographic images (Fig. 4.14). In this case, the photo/film camera is fixed on a rigid tripod or rails, and then archaeological artifacts are shot from different angles. Then, based on the images, the geometric and color parameters of the objects are calculated.

4.7 GPS, Underwater Navigation and Communications For navigation of objects on the surface and in the atmosphere of the Earth, the satellite Global Positioning System (GPS) is used, which provides the determination of distances, time and location in the World Geodetic System (WGS 84) by means of radio signals. GPS allows you to determine the location in almost any weather anywhere on Earth (excluding polar, underground and underwater areas) and nearEarth space. The system consists of an orbital constellation of satellites (about 32 satellites) and ground stations for their support (about 10), which emit special radio signals in the gigahertz range (Fig. 4.15). The users of the system are an unlimited number of compact GPS receivers that receive radio signals from satellites and calculate their position taking into account the parameters of their movement. The

32

4 Special and Auxiliary Equipment for Underwater Archaeological Research

positioning error using the GPS system in normal mode is about 2 m, including coastal marine areas, and when taking into account corrections from local base receivers with precisely known coordinates, it is up to 0,1 m. Radio signals do not propagate underwater, so hydro-acoustic (ultrasonic) signals are used for underwater navigation. The underwater navigation system (“long base” type) consists of three sonar transponders 1, 2, 3 located on the bottom (Fig. 4.16). The positioned underwater object S emits a special hydro-acoustic signal that reaches the transponder beacons and is relayed by them back to the object’s receiver. At the same time, the propagation times of this hydro-acoustic signal from the object to each of the three responder beacons and back are measured, according to which the slant ranges of the object to the responder beacons R1, R2, R3 are calculated taking into account the vertical sound profile in the water. The positions of the transponder beacons themselves are calibrated by special methods. To exchange information between the submersible S with the base ship V, a hydroacoustic communication channel G is used (Fig. 4.16), based on the use of hydroacoustic (ultrasonic) signals. To do this, with the help of special equipment, a digital signal (information or digitized speech) is converted into a multi-frequency hydroacoustic signal with frequency, phase or other modulation, which is transmitted through the aquatic environment, and then received and demodulated. For speech transmission, an underwater telephone is also used, based on the heterodyning of a speech signal to an ultrasonic frequency and its transmission through the aquatic environment. There is also an exchange of short messages between scuba divers under water by means of a hydro-acoustic modem. Fig. 4.14 Underwater photogrammetry

4.8 Auxiliary Equipment

33

Fig. 4.15 GPS navigation system

Fig. 4.16 Underwater navigation system with transponder beacons

4.8 Auxiliary Equipment Auxiliary equipment provides support and complement to the main underwater archaeological equipment. Auxiliary equipment includes underwater photo/television cameras (Fig. 4.17), underwater lighting, compressors for recharging scuba tanks, electric generators,

34

4 Special and Auxiliary Equipment for Underwater Archaeological Research

Fig. 4.17 Underwater photo/tele camera in the waterproof box

batteries, etc., as well as numerous accessories and gadgets for orientation, movement and communication underwater. This equipment is constantly being developed, supplemented and improved, providing more and more convenience and opportunities in underwater archaeological research.

References Heine E, Golja M, Habersack H et al (2020) Reflexionsseismische Messungen in Fließgewässern und Stauräumen. Österr Wasser- Und Abfallw 72:202–212 Kiri P, Brooks M (1988) Introduction to geophysical exploration (Translated from English) Moscow: Mir, 382 P Orlenok VV, Marine Seismoacoustics (1997) Textbook of Kaliningrad University. Kaliningrad. 178 P Shalaeva NV, Starovoitov AV (2010) Fundamentals of seismoacoustics in shallow water areas (Textbook). Publishing house of Moscow State University, Moscow. 256 P

Chapter 5

Technical Aspects of Underwater Archaeological Research in Ancient Fanagoria

5.1 Brief History of Ancient Fanagoria Let us briefly touch upon the history of ancient Fanagoria (Figs. 5.1, 5.2) (Chkhaidze 2012; Zastrozhnova 2019). Fanagoria is an ancient Greek city on the southern coast of the Taman Bay of the Black Sea. Fanagoria was founded in the sixth century BC (about 540 BC) and existed until the tenth century AD, having survived numerous conquests (15 centuries). The city was a center of crafts (construction, repair of ships, production of tools, ceramics, jewelry, etc.) and controlled the surrounding territories. Grain was grown on fertile lands, which was exported to Athens. Animal farming, fishing, hunting, wine production were developed, which were also partially exported. It was a rich city that survived various periods of history and was subjected to the invasion of various conquerors. In the “Greek” period of the city’s history, goods were brought here from different countries of the Mediterranean. In Fanagoria there were majestic marble temples and large public buildings. The streets of the city were paved with stone and broken shards. On the seashore, local residents built a large port, and at the end of the fifth century BC, the ancient city became part of the Bosporan kingdom. In the first century BC, Fanagoria took part in an uprising against the Pontic ruler Mithridates Eupator. For active actions against this king, Rome granted independence to the city. At the beginning of a new era in Fanagoria, as well as throughout the Bosporus, a period of prosperity began. But it did not last long—in the III century, these places were captured by the Scythians. A century later, the city was almost completely destroyed by the advancing tribes of nomadic Huns. However, despite the losses, with the invasion of the Huns, the Bosporus kingdom did not cease to exist and continued to exist until the beginning of the sixth century. In 527, under Emperor Justinian I, a Byzantine garrison was placed here, and olive oil, wine, glass and red-lacquer dishes were imported from Constantinople to Fanagoria.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 M. Klyuev et al., Technical Means for Underwater Archaeology, Earth and Environmental Sciences Library, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-27502-9_5

35

36

5 Technical Aspects of Underwater Archaeological Research in Ancient …

Fig. 5.1 Modern view of Fanagoria from north to south from the Taman Bay

Fig. 5.2 Location of Fanagoria, Patraeys, Hermonassa and Pantikapeon ancient Greek settlements in the Taman Bay on the north of the Black Sea

For a short period from 632 to 665. the city became the capital of the Great Bulgaria, and at the beginning of the seventh century—one of the administrative centers of the Khazar Khaganate. It is known that Fanagoria was the place where one of the very first communities of Jews and Christians in the Black Sea region was formed. This is confirmed by

5.3 Technical Methods for Studying Underwater Fanagoria

37

the results of numerous archaeological excavations. In 16 AD, a Jewish synagogue appeared in Fanagoria. In addition, tombstones with crosses, fragments of ceramics with Christian symbols, as well as a grave cross made of bronze dating back to the sixth century were found in the ancient city. The history of Fanagoria is interrupted in the tenth century. Archaeologists have established that the city was not burned or completely destroyed. Most likely, the people who lived in it packed their things and left their homes, fearing a barbarian invasion. A small settlement, which remained on the site of a once rich city, existed until the eleventh century. And then for many centuries the ancient settlement was abandoned.

5.2 Reasons for the Partial Flooding of Fanagoria The reasons for the partial flooding of Fanagoria are explained by two hypotheses. According to one, the partial flooding of the ancient settlements of the northern Black Sea region (including Fanagoria) was due to tectonic movements in the geological structures of the Kerch-Taman trough. According to another, this flooding is due to the so-called Fanagorian regression, which consists in the fact that in ancient times (fourth century BC) the level of the Black Sea was lower than the modern one. This hypothesis was formulated by Soviet scientists in the 1950s based on the fact that the remains of a significant number of ancient settlements on the Black Sea are currently partially or completely under water (Fanagoria, Patraeys, Acra, Khersones, Olivia, etc.). The contradiction of this theory lies in the fact that the connection between the Black and the Mediterranean Seas in antiquity was undoubtedly not interrupted, and no traces of a lowering of the Mediterranean Sea level were found. Fanagoria ancient settlement consists of the southern land part with dimensions in the west–east direction of about 1000 m and north–south of about 600 m, as well as the northern underwater part with dimensions of about 1000 and 300 m, respectively, and depths from 0 to 2 m, which is of interest to the underwater archaeology (Fig. 5.3).

5.3 Technical Methods for Studying Underwater Fanagoria In a preliminary study of the underwater part of Fanagoria, only a part of the methods described above was used, namely, echo sounding, seabed thickness profiling and magnetic profiling, while other methods, multibeam echo sounding and sonar survey of the bottom, turned out to be unacceptable due to the shallow depth and the presence of algae at the seabed. A typical scheme of the movement of a ship with equipment during archaeological seabed profiling is shown in Fig. 5.4. The bathymetric map (depth map) of the underwater part of Fanagoria, obtained with the help of an echo sounder, is shown

38

5 Technical Aspects of Underwater Archaeological Research in Ancient …

Fig. 5.3 Map of ancient Fanagoria

Fig. 5.4 A typical scheme of the movement of a vessel with equipment during hydro-acoustic profiling

in Fig. 5.5. It provides information about the depths at various points of the archaeological site and thus allows planning the duration of underwater work and the ascent mode of scuba divers-archaeologists. A narrow-beam parametric sub-bottom profiler was used to obtain information about the internal structure and objects of the seabed. With its help, a number of bottom and intra-bottom objects (the so-called hydro-acoustic anomalies) were discovered. As a result, a catalog of images and coordinates of hydro-acoustic anomalies of the seabed in underwater Fanagoria was compiled. These anomalies, as noted

5.3 Technical Methods for Studying Underwater Fanagoria

39

Fig. 5.5 Bathymetric map of the bottom (depth map) of the underwater part of Fanagoria

above, may correspond to the hulls of sunken ships, mechanisms and weapons, household items, stones and buildings, etc. In this case, objects can be steel, non-ferrous metals, stone, ceramic, glass, wood, etc. As an example, Fig. 5.6 shows a hydro-acoustic anomaly of the seabed thickness in the area of the stone pier of ancient Fanagoria with underwater archaeological excavations, and in Fig. 5.7—in the area of a flooded ancient Greek wooden galley.

Fig. 5.6 Hydro-acoustic anomaly of the seabed thickness in the area of the stone pier of ancient Fanagoria with underwater archaeological excavations according to sub-bottom profiler data. Below you can see the first divisible reflection of the signal from the surface of the water

40

5 Technical Aspects of Underwater Archaeological Research in Ancient …

Fig. 5.7 Hydro-acoustic anomaly of the seabed thickness in the area of the flooded ancient Greek galley according to sub-bottom profiler data. Below you can see the first divisible reflection of the signal from the surface of the water

The location of some archaeological objects and artifacts of the underwater Fanagoria, discovered through echo sounding and hydro-acoustic profiling, and then identified as a result of underwater archaeological work, was mapped (Fig. 5.8). Here the red cross is a flooded crane; orange square—flooded gimbleted longboat; blue star—a sunken steamer; black arrow—flooded galley; anchor—flooded Turkish anchors; yellow triangle—ancient pier; brown rhombus—artificial island; S (burgundy line)—the boundaries of the stone pier; L (sand line)—the boundary of the limestone pier. Along with this, a magnetic survey of the bottom of the underwater Fanagoria was made using a magnetometer with the identification of magnetic bipolar (north and south magnetic poles) anomalies. Based on the results of this survey, a map was compiled of the location of magnetic anomalies on the seabed of the underwater Fanagoria (Fig. 5.9). These anomalies, as noted above, correspond to various magnetized objects at the seabed and in its thickness, such as the steel hulls of sunken ships,

Fig. 5.8 Location map of some objects of underwater Fanagoria

5.3 Technical Methods for Studying Underwater Fanagoria

41

steel and cast iron mechanisms, weapons and household items, ceramics, stones and rocks with residual magnetization, etc. To increase the information content, maps of hydro-acoustic (Fig. 5.8) and magnetic (Fig. 5.9) anomalies, as well as coastal terrain, were combined into a summary map of underwater Fanagoria anomalies (Fig. 5.10).

Fig. 5.9 Map of the location of bipolar magnetic anomalies on the bottom of underwater Fanagoria

Fig. 5.10 Summary map of hydro-acoustic and magnetic anomalies in underwater Fanagoria

42

5 Technical Aspects of Underwater Archaeological Research in Ancient …

5.4 Underwater Archaeological Work in Fanagoria Underwater archaeological work in underwater Fanagoria was carried out by two main methods—the method of drainage and the method of underwater work (Kuznetsov et al. 2019, 2021). The drainage method involves the creation of a waterproof platinum around the archaeological site under study and its complete drainage with a pump (Fig. 5.11). With this approach, archaeological research is similar to land surveys, taking into account the remaining soil moisture. The method of underwater work involves archaeological research directly in the underwater environment using special underwater equipment. In this case, scuba gear is used, and due to the shallow depths in underwater of Fanagoria (0–2 m), staying under water is limited only by the supply of breathing mixture, and decompression is not required. In this case, a typical research plan includes: 1. preparation of the carrier ship and diving equipment for underwater operations; 2. visual inspection of the site by reconnaissance scuba divers; 3. remote research of the archaeological site by hydro-acoustic, magnetometric, photographic and other methods; 4. mapping the results of visual and remote sensing; 5. making a decision on the establishing of underwater archaeological excavations points; 6. preparation and transportation of the hydraulic ejector and soil pump to the underwater excavation point;

Fig. 5.11 Archaeological research by the method of drainage in underwater Fanagoria

5.4 Underwater Archaeological Work in Fanagoria

43

7. erosion of the underwater excavation and collection of archaeological artifacts, samples and information; 8. lifting of archaeological artifacts and samples to the carrier ship; 9. completion of underwater archaeological work. Figures 5.12–5.17 show some stages of archaeological work in underwater of Fanagoria.

Fig. 5.12 Archaeologists scuba divers wash away the soil with a hydro ejector

Fig. 5.13 Cleaning artifacts from soil using a hydraulic ejector

44

5 Technical Aspects of Underwater Archaeological Research in Ancient …

Fig. 5.14 Cleaning artifacts from soil with a soil pump

Fig. 5.15 Drawing up a plan for the location of underwater artifacts

5.5 Findings and Artifacts of Underwater Fanagoria The findings and artifacts of underwater Fanagoria are very diverse and include (Kuznetsov et al. 2019, 2021): – Ancient Greek ceramics (Figs. 5.18, 5.19) and paintings (Fig. 5.20);

5.5 Findings and Artifacts of Underwater Fanagoria

Fig. 5.16 Numbering of found artifacts preparation for photo/video shooting

Fig. 5.17 Collection of archaeological artifacts

45

46

5 Technical Aspects of Underwater Archaeological Research in Ancient …

Fig. 5.18 Ancient greek pottery

Fig. 5.19 Fanagoria amphora stamp

– – – – –

Ancient Greek galley (Fig. 5.21); limestone (Fig. 5.22) and stone piers; ruins of buildings (Fig. 5.23); stone slab with Greek text (Fig. 5.24); ancient Turkish anchors (Fig. 5.25);

5.5 Findings and Artifacts of Underwater Fanagoria

Fig. 5.20 Ancient Greek painting on ceramics

Fig. 5.21 Ancient greek galley

– etc. (Fig. 5.26).

47

48

5 Technical Aspects of Underwater Archaeological Research in Ancient …

Fig. 5.22 Limestone pier

Fig. 5.23 Building ruins

5.5 Findings and Artifacts of Underwater Fanagoria

Fig. 5.24 Stone flag with Greek text

Fig. 5.25 Ancient turkish anchor

49

50

5 Technical Aspects of Underwater Archaeological Research in Ancient …

Fig. 5.26 Underwater archaeologist with Fanagoria artifacts

References Chkhaidze VN. Fanagoria in the VI-X centuries. Moscow: Triumph Print, 2012, 590 p Kuznetsov V, Olkhovsky S, Zavoykin A. Underwater archaeological research in Fanagoria. Nature, 1, 2019, 57–67 Zastrozhnova EG. Fanagoria. History of archaeological study (late XVIII – mid-twentieth century). St. Petersburg, Ed. Nestor-History, 2019, 306 p

Chapter 6

Technical Aspects of Underwater Archaeological Research in Ancient Patraeys

6.1 Brief History of Ancient Patraeys Patraeys, like Fanagoria, is an ancient Greek city on the northern shore of the Taman Bay of the Black Sea opposite Fanagoria across the bay (Figs. 5.2, 6.1). Patraeys was founded by the ancient Greeks in the sixth century B.C. as the center of an agricultural district. In the fourth century B.C., under King Satyr I, it became part of the Bosporan kingdom. Patraeys reached its greatest prosperity in the fourth-second centuries B.C., when the area of the urban core was about 8 hectares. Its northern part “Upper City” (Fig. 6.2) was fortified with a moat, and most of the “Lower City” (Fig. 6.3) is now under water at a depth of 0–2 m. The city was surrounded by extensive agricultural land. Under King Asander in the first century B.C., a fortress was built in the city (Fig. 6.2). It was rectangular in plan, had an area of about 7000 sq. meters, 4 corner and 2 gate towers. The fortress was part of the defense system of the Taman Peninsula, which consisted of 11 fortresses. Around the middle of the first century B.C., Patraeys was destroyed, later existed as a rural settlement. Maintained economic and political ties with ancient Fanagoria.

6.2 The Collapse of Stones in the Underwater Patraeys, Its Study with the Help of a Sub-Bottom Profiler and Interpretation In 1960–1980, in the underwater “Lower City” of Patraeys, scuba divers discovered and began to study the collapse of stones in an area of about 70 × 70 m with an elevation of about 1 m of unknown origin and purpose.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 M. Klyuev et al., Technical Means for Underwater Archaeology, Earth and Environmental Sciences Library, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-27502-9_6

51

52

6 Technical Aspects of Underwater Archaeological Research in Ancient …

Fig. 6.1 Modern view of Patraeys from south to north from the side of the Taman Bay

Fig. 6.2 Plan of the fortress of the “Upper City” in ancient Patraeys

Subsequently, this collapse of stones was investigated using a narrow-beam parametric sub-bottom profiler. Figure 6.4 shows a typical section of the bottom structure in the region of rock breakup according to the profiler data. The figure shows the location of the boundaries and the shape of the collapse section. In the process of research, a number of such sections were obtained, on the basis of which a plan for the collapse of stones was made (Fig. 6.5).

6.2 The Collapse of Stones in the Underwater Patraeys, Its Study …

53

Fig. 6.3 View of the flooded “Lower City” in Patraeys. In the background is a hydraulic ejector

Fig. 6.4 The structure of the bottom in the region of the collapse of stones according to the subbottom profiler data

While making the plan, such concepts as “foundation” (outer boundaries of the collapse), “walls” (local maxima of the collapse height) and “towers” (absolute maxima of the collapse height) were used. On the plan of the collapse of the stones, the “foundation” is indicated by green icons, “walls”—blue, and “towers”—red (Fig. 6.5). It is apparent from the plan that the collapse of the stones has a fairly regular shape, oriented to the cardinal points northwest/southeast and northeast/southwest in the form of a cross. In this regard, it was suggested that the collapse of the stones was a fortress or a temple located in the subsequently flooded “Lower City” of Patraeys.

54

6 Technical Aspects of Underwater Archaeological Research in Ancient …

Fig. 6.5 The plan of the collapse of stones in the underwater Patraeys

Chapter 7

Technical Aspects of Underwater Archaeological Research of Neolithic Settlements on Lake Sennitsa

Lake Sennitsa is located south of the city of St. Petersburg (Fig. 7.1) (Mazurkevich and Dolbunova 2011). In the area of the modern village of Dubokrai, there were Neolithic pile settlements of the Stone Age (4–3 thousand B.C.), partially flooded by the waters of the lake (Fig. 7.2). The depth of the lake is 0–2 m. Archaeologists from the State Hermitage Museum of the Russian Federation are carrying out work on Lake Sennitsa. Stone and clay ships, flint and bone tools, figurines, accumulations of coals and bones were found here. Many items are decorated with patterns. The cultural layer is partially hidden under water (Fig. 7.3). The flooded settlements were studied remotely using a narrow-beam parametric sub-bottom profiler. A map of the location of the lines of movement is shown in Fig. 7.4. As a result of the research, a number of hydro-acoustic images of the bottom section were obtained, one of which with an underwater mound (presumably) is shown in Fig. 7.5. It shows the surface of liquid silt, Neolithic land buried in it and an ancient mound (in the center), according to profiling data, a map of the location of underwater mounds (1–8) on Lake Sennitsa was built (Fig. 7.6, mounds 1–8).

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 M. Klyuev et al., Technical Means for Underwater Archaeology, Earth and Environmental Sciences Library, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-27502-9_7

55

56

7 Technical Aspects of Underwater Archaeological Research of Neolithic …

Fig. 7.1 View of Lake Sennitsa

Fig. 7.2 Lake Sennitsa map

7 Technical Aspects of Underwater Archaeological Research of Neolithic …

Fig. 7.3 Archaeological artifacts of Lake Sennitsa

Fig. 7.4 Map of the location of profiler survey traffic lines on Lake Sennitsa

57

58

7 Technical Aspects of Underwater Archaeological Research of Neolithic …

Fig. 7.5 Cross-section of an underwater mound on Lake Sennitsa according to sub-bottom profiler data

Fig. 7.6 Location map of underwater burial mounds (1–8) on Lake Sennitsa

Reference

59

Reference Mazurkevich A, Dolbunova E (2011) Underwater archaeology of rivers and lakes in Russia. Underwater Archaeology (6):54–62

Chapter 8

Underwater Archaeological Research of Sunken Ships in the Black Sea

One of the objectives of underwater archaeology is the discovery and study of sunken ships (Fig. 8.1). Ship sinking factors include: – – – – –

severe weather conditions, navigation errors, technical issues, military losses, intentional flooding, etc. Detection of sunken ships is a rather difficult task, due to:

– lack of exact coordinates of flooding, – turbidity of waters and poor illumination at depth, – difficulties in identifying ships, etc. The reasons for searching for wrecks are: – – – – –

material and historical value, the uniqueness of the equipment, environmental hazards, the need for engineering work, extraction of human remains, etc. Search methods for wrecks include:

– visual (shallow depths), – hydro-acoustic (echo sounder, multibeam echo sounder, sub-bottom profiler, sidescan sonar), – magnetometric, etc.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 M. Klyuev et al., Technical Means for Underwater Archaeology, Earth and Environmental Sciences Library, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-27502-9_8

61

62

8 Underwater Archaeological Research of Sunken Ships in the Black Sea

Fig. 8.1 Sunken ship on the seabed

8.1 Study of the sunken battleship “Empress Catherine the Great” The battleship “Empress Catherine the Great” (Fig. 8.2) was launched on May 24, 1914 in the city of Nikolaev (north of the Black Sea) (Yolkin and Kurnosov 2003). The length of the battleship was about 170 m, width—about 28 m, draft—about 8.4 m. There was a large amount of ammunition on board. During the Civil War on June 19, 1918, the battleship was torpedoed by the destroyer Kerch in the Tsemess Bay near Novorossiysk in order to avoid being captured by the enemy. Currently, the battleship lies on a flat bottom with the keel up at a depth of about 40 m (Fig. 8.3). Visibility in the water at the flood site is less than 15 m (when there is no “snow”). In the 1930s, while trying to lift the battleship, an underwater explosion of ammunition occurred, as a result of which a hole was formed in the side and a funnel at the bottom. The coordinates of the battleship at the bottom are well known. The battleship was studied remotely using a narrow-beam parametric sub-bottom profiler. The scheme of vessel movement with the profiler is shown in Fig. 8.4. As a result of the research, a number of transverse and longitudinal hydro-acoustic images of the battleship sections were obtained, one of which is presented in Fig. 8.5. It shows the bottom surface, layers of bottom sediments, the inverted position of the battleship (keel up, in the center), the hold of the battleship and the funnel from the explosion of ammunition (left). Based on the profiling data, a depth map (bathymetry) was built in the area of the battleship flooding (Fig. 8.6a) with an explosion crater measuring 25 × 15 m and up to 3 m deep (blue area), as well as a three-dimensional image of the sunken battleship (Fig. 8.6b). On this basis and taking into account the photographs of the battleship, its drawing on the bottom was made (Fig. 8.7).

8.1 Study of the sunken battleship “Empress Catherine the Great”

63

Fig. 8.2 Battleship “Empress Catherine the Great” 1916 year

Fig. 8.3 Flipped hull of the Battleship “Empress Catherine the Great” on the seabed now. “Sea snow” is visible

64

8 Underwater Archaeological Research of Sunken Ships in the Black Sea

Fig. 8.4 Scheme of tacks in the area of the flooded battleship

Fig. 8.5 Cross section of the battleship (in the center) and funnel (left) per the sub-bottom profiler. Layers of bottom sediments are visible

8.2 Study of the Sunken Cargo Ship “Sacco and Vanzetti” Dry-cargo ship “Sacco and Vanzetti” (Fig. 8.8) during the Second World War on April 15, 1943 was blown up by a mine in the north of the Black Sea near the city of Gelendzhik (Yolkin and Kurnosov 2003). When flooded, the ship split into bow and stern parts and sank at a depth of about 40 m. About 60 people died. Visibility in water less than 15 m (when there is no “sea snow”).

8.2 Study of the Sunken Cargo Ship “Sacco and Vanzetti”

65

Fig. 8.6 Depth map (bathymetry) (a) and 3D sonar image of the battleship (b). Overturned hull— Red, funnel from the explosion of ammunition—Blue

Fig. 8.7 Drawing of the flipped battleship “Empress Catherine the Great” at the seabed

66

8 Underwater Archaeological Research of Sunken Ships in the Black Sea

Fig. 8.8 Dry-cargo ship “Sacco and Vanzetti” 1930-s yers

The dry-cargo ship was studied remotely using a narrow-beam parametric subbottom profiler. As a result of the research, a number of transverse and longitudinal hydroacoustic images of the sections of the dry-cargo ship were obtained, one of which is presented in Fig. 8.9. It shows the bottom surface, layers of bottom sediments, the position of the cargo ship (in the center) and the internal decks of the cargo ship. According to the profiling data, a three-dimensional hydro-acoustic image of the dry-cargo ship was built (Fig. 8.10). On this basis and taking into account the photographs of the dry-cargo ship, its drawing on the bottom was made (Fig. 8.11).

8.2 Study of the Sunken Cargo Ship “Sacco and Vanzetti” Fig. 8.9 Cross-section of a dry-cargo ship according to echo sounder (top) and sub-bottom profiler (bottom). The layers of bottom sediments and the internal decks of the cargo ship are visible

Fig. 8.10 Three-dimensional hydro-acoustic image of the stern of a dry-cargo ship. Green, yellow, red—decks of the ship

67

68

8 Underwater Archaeological Research of Sunken Ships in the Black Sea

Fig. 8.11 Drawings of the stern (a) and prow (b) of the dry-cargo ship “Sacco and Vanzetti”

Reference Yolkin AV, Kurnosov SY. Shipwrecks of the Black and Azov Seas (Handbook). Publisher: LLC “DILIT”, Togliatti, 2003, 104 p

Chapter 9

Technical Means of Studying the Liner “Titanic”

The British transatlantic passenger steamer (liner) “Titanic” was launched on May 31, 1911 at the Harland & Wolff shipyard in Belfast by order of the White Star Line shipping company (Table 9.1). The “Titanic” was divided into 16 watertight compartments, had a double bottom, two four-cylinder triple expansion steam engines and a steam turbine, had a speed of up to 23 knots, was electrified and radio-equipped, had 4 elevators, as a result of which it was the most advanced liner of its time. The “Titanic” was equipped with exquisite interiors, promenade decks, restaurants, a golf course, a tennis court, Turkish baths, a hairdresser, a gambling hall, a palm garden, a swimming pool, Louis XVI style first-class cabins, jewelry safes, etc. The liner was equipped with 762 cabins, which were divided into three classes, provided space for 2435 passengers, and the crew of the liner was about 900 people. On board the “Titanic” there were 20 lifeboats with a capacity of up to 1178 people. April 10, 1912 at noon, the “Titanic” liner set off on its first (and last) journey along the route Southampton (UK)—New York (USA) with stops in Cherbourg (France) and Queenstown (Ireland). When entering the Atlantic Ocean, there were 1317 passengers and 908 crew members on board the liner, a total of 2225 people. On April 14, 1912, at 23:39 onboard time, an iceberg about 20 m high above the water was discovered 370 miles southeast of Newfoundland at a liner speed of 22.5 knots about 650 m straight ahead. The liner tried to turn, but in less than 1 min there was a side collision—the iceberg bent the ship’s skin and it burst at the seams. As a result of this, the tightness of 6 compartments was broken, the flow of water into the hull was about 7 tons per second, and the liner began to slowly sink. First of all, women and children were put into the boats, although some men also ended up in the boats. At 02:20 on April 15 (2 h and 40 min after the collision), the prow of the “Titanic” disappeared under water, the stern rose above the water at an angle of almost 45° and the liner sank at a depth of about 3800 m, taking lives of 1513 people (Fig. 9.1). 712 survivors (189 crew members, 394 women and children, 129 men) were picked

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 M. Klyuev et al., Technical Means for Underwater Archaeology, Earth and Environmental Sciences Library, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-27502-9_9

69

70

9 Technical Means of Studying the Liner “Titanic”

Fig. 9.1 The sinking of the “Titanic”. German artist Willy Stöwer

Table 9.1 The main characteristics of the “Titanic” Characteristic

Value

Tonnage

52,31 thousands tons

Length

269,1 m

Width

28,19 m

Height

18,5 m

Draft

10,54 m

Engines

Two four-cylinder triple expansion steam engines and a steam turbine

Power

55 thousands Horse Power

Propulsor

3 three-bladed propellers

Travel speed

23 knots (43 km/h)

Crew

899 people

Passenger capacity

2435 people

Lifeboats

20

up by the steamer “Carpathia”, which arrived at the accident site around 04:00 a.m. and delivered them to New York. The wreckage of the “Titanic” was discovered in the area of its sinking at a depth of about 3800 m (water pressure of 400 atmospheres) by underwater archaeologist

9 Technical Means of Studying the Liner “Titanic”

71

Fig. 9.2 Towed underwater vehicle “Argo” with a video camera, lighting and side-scan sonar

Robert Ballard on September 1, 1985. They were identified by one of the ship’s steam boilers and lay 13.5 miles southeast of the distress call sign. In this case, the Argo towed underwater vehicle (Fig. 9.2), equipped with a video camera, lighting lamps and side-scan sonar, was used, which was towed at a height of 15–30 m above the seabed surface and participated in the survey of the “Titanic”. Note that in June 1989, the sunken German battleship of the Second World War, the “Bismarck”, was discovered off the coast of France with the help of “Argo”. Further surveys of the wreckage of the “Titanic” were carried out using deep-sea manned submersible vehicles “Alvin” (Fig. 9.3), “Nautil” (Fig. 9.4), “Mir” (Fig. 9.5) and others, the main characteristics of which are given in Tables 9.2, 9.3, and 9.4, as well as with the use of remotely controlled submersible vehicles. One of the legendary deep-sea manned submersibles is the USA “Alvin”, owned by the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution (WHOI), Massachusetts, USA. With its help, in April 1966, off the coast of Spain near the city of Palomares, at a depth of 777 m, a hydrogen bomb was discovered, lost during an USA nuclear bomber accident. In 1977, “Alvin” discovered hydrothermal vents around the Galapagos Islands. Since 1986, “Alvin” has been involved in the study of the wreckage of the “Titanic” and filmed it. Another vehicle to study and raise the wreckage of the “Titanic” since 1987 has been the “Nautile”, which belongs to the French Research Institute for Exploitation of the Sea Ifremer and is based on the ship—carrier. It was also used to search for the black boxes of the 2009 Air France Flight 447 crash in the Atlantic Ocean. Along with this, from 1991 to 2005, USA film director James Cameron used two Russian deep-sea manned submersibles “Mir” to film and study the wreckage of the “Titanic”. The Mir devices are similar in design and belong to the Institute

72

9 Technical Means of Studying the Liner “Titanic”

Fig. 9.3 USA deep-sea manned submersible “Alvin”

Fig. 9.4 French deep-sea manned submersible “Nautil”

9 Technical Means of Studying the Liner “Titanic”

73

Fig. 9.5 Russian deep-sea manned submersible “Mir” Table 9.2 Characteristics of the “Alvin”

Characteristics

Value

Energy supply reserve

57,6 kW h

Operating/maximum speed

0,5/2 knots

Operating/limited submersion depth

4500/7000 m

Ballast weights

4

Crew

3 people

Autonomy

6–10 h

Life support

72 h

Illuminators

3

Manipulator

Present

Onboard remote-controlled mini robot Present, distance 60 m ROV Length

7,1 m

Width

2,6 m

Height

3,7 m

Payload

680 kg

Mass

14,5 tones

In operation

Since 1965

74 Table 9.3 Characteristics of the “Nautil”

9 Technical Means of Studying the Liner “Titanic” Characteristics

Value

Energy supply reserve

50 kW h

Operating/maximum speed

1,5/2,5 knots

Operating/limited submersion depth

6000/7500 m

Crew

3 people

Autonomy

10 h

Life support

120 h

Illuminators

3

Onboard remote-controlled mini robot ROV

Present, distance 60 m

Manipulator

Present

Attachment

Present

Length

8,0 m

Width

2,7 m

Height

3,8 m

Sphere

Titanium, diameter 2,1 m

Mass

19,5 tones

In operation

Since 1984

of Oceanology. P.P. Shirshov RAS. The first apparatus was used for professional lighting, and the second for recording high-quality film and video of the wreckage, interior and artifacts of the “Titanic”. At the same time, the stock of 70 or 35 mm film in the box of the device was enough for about 20 min of shooting during the entire dive. Based on these materials, documentaries were created for the IMAX cinema system, the feature film “Titanic”, and live reports from the “Titanic” were made on the “Discovery Channel”. In addition, the “Mir” vehicles delivered passengers to the wreckage of the “Titanic”. The design of these deep-sea manned submersibles includes: – a frame on which all elements, devices and assemblies of the apparatus are fixed, – a solid sphere with a diameter of about 2 m and a thickness of about 5 cm with portholes, which ensures the life of the crew at atmospheric pressure, – syntactic buoyancy, which ensures the neutral weight of the vehicle in the water, – ballast water tanks (volume of about 2000 L), cargoes (in some designs) and a supply of compressed air, ensuring the immersion and ascent of the vehicle, – a nickel–cadmium battery with a voltage of 250–500 V and an energy capacity of 50–100 kW h, which is the power source of the vehicle (it can be dumped as ballast in case of emergency ascent), – hydraulic marching, lateral and vertical propellers, an electric motor and a hydraulic system pump that ensure the movement of the vehicle in all directions,

9 Technical Means of Studying the Liner “Titanic” Table 9.4 Characteristics of the “Mir”

75

Characteristics

Value

Energy supply

100 kW h

Buoyancy reserve

290 kg

Horizontal speed

Up to 5 knots

Vertical speed

Up to 40 m/min

Operating submersion depth

6000 m

Maximum submersion depth

6170 m

Crew

3 people

Life support

246 h (3,4 day)

Maximum payload

290 kg

Manipulator

Present

Onboard remote-controlled mini robot ROV

Possible to install

Dry weight

18,6 tones

Length

7,8 m

Width

3,8 m

Height

3m

Sphere diameter

2,1 m

Illuminators

3 (thickness 23 cm)

Main illuminator diameter

200 mm

In operation

1987–2011 years

– life support and control systems of the vehicle, – navigation and communication systems on the surface (GPS positioning and radio communication) and under water (hydro-acoustic positioning and hydro-acoustic communication with a range of about 10 miles), – hydro-acoustic devices (echo sounder, side-scan sonar, etc.), providing information about the objects surrounding the vehicle, – executive manipulator devices that allow manipulations with surrounding objects, – brackets for mounting external equipment and a garage for an onboard remotecontrolled mini robot ROV, – other equipment (underwater illuminators, deep-water rotating boxes with photo, film and video cameras, measuring devices, etc.). The stages of operation of the vehicles on the wreckage of the “Titanic” included: – installation at the bottom of a hydro-acoustic navigation system with bottom transponder beacons and its calibration, – survey of the landfill by hydro-acoustic (echo sounder, side-scan sonar, subbottom profiler) and magnetometric (magnetometer) means to compile detailed maps of the location of the “Titanic” objects,

76

9 Technical Means of Studying the Liner “Titanic”

– drawing up a work plan and working out the maneuvers of the vehicle on the wreckage of the liner, – preparing the vehicle for operation, charging the battery, air tanks, ballast bins and photo/film, checking all systems of the vehicle, – lowering the vehicle into the water from the carrier ship, – dive to the “Titanic”, which takes about 2,5 h, – work on the “Titanic” for about 10–12 h, – ascent of the vehicle, which takes about 2,5 h, – detection of the vehicle, its towing to the carrier ship and lifting on board, – removal of captured photo/film reels from watertight boxes and waste containers. The process of submerging a submersible manned vehicle consists in filling the ballast tanks with outboard water (or attaching loads), as a result of which the vehicle acquires negative buoyancy and begins to sink to the bottom. Before approaching the seabed, excess water is removed from the ballast tanks (or part of the cargo is dropped), the vehicle restores neutral buoyancy and it hovering above the seabed. In this case, the movement of the vehicle is determined by the marching, side and vertical propellers, the typical horizontal speed is about 1 knot, and the maneuvers of the vehicle are complicated by the presence of seabed currents. For the ascent, additional removal of water from the ballast tanks (or complete dumping of cargo) is carried out, as a result of which the vehicle acquires positive buoyancy and rises to the surface. It should be noted that cargo dumping was practiced, in particular, on the “Alvin” submersible, but was not used on the “Mir” submersibles. Underwater navigation of the vehicle was carried out using a hydro-acoustic system of three bottom transponder beacons, providing an accuracy of underwater positioning of 3–5 m. Voice communication with the surface carrier ship was carried out through a hydro-acoustic channel. The operational video image was also transmitted to the carrier ship via a hydro-acoustic channel at a rate of about one frame per minute. For photo and video shooting in the interior of the “Titanic”, an onboard remotecontrolled mini robot (ROV) was used (Figs. 9.6, 9.7, and 9.8). It is powered and controlled from the board of the vehicle by means of a cable up to 60 m long and equipped with a TV camera and lamps. The robot transmits a video image to the operator on board the vehicle, guided by which, the operator takes the robot out of the garage on board the vehicle and leads it to a predetermined place on the seabed or a room on the sunken ship. If entangled, the cable is cut off and the robot is lost forever. The list of works of the devices on the “Titanic” included filming, photo and video filming outside and in the interior of the liner, collecting and raising artifacts from the bottom and from the interior of the “Titanic”, sampling the materials of the liner, installing commemorative signs on the wreckage, etc. Studies have shown that during the death of the “Titanic”, it split into prow (length about 180 m) and stern (length about 100 m) parts (Fig. 9.9). The rupture occurred in the area of the boiler rooms and the engine room of the liner, and at that moment the passengers who escaped on the boats heard a terrifying sound. The bow part is

9 Technical Means of Studying the Liner “Titanic”

77

Fig. 9.6 Remote controlled mini robot ROV “Jason Junior” on the “Titanic”. Piloted from the submersible “Alvin”

Fig. 9.7 Remote-controlled mini robot ROV “Robin” on the “Titanic”. Piloted from the submersible “Nautil”

evenly located on the slope of a small underwater canyon, has retained its integral shape, rises above the seabed by 6 m, is immersed in seabed sediments by 18 m and is oriented to the north. Its damage from the starboard side as a result of a collision with an iceberg is a series of 6 longitudinal slots, the total area of which does not exceed 1 square meter (Fig. 9.10). The stern part is located 600 m east of the prow and is a chaotic pile of torn metal fragments. The hull is badly rusted, shrouded in icicles and rust deposits, bears traces of numerous destructions, and the decks are eaten away by sea worms. Around these parts, on an area of about 1 km2 , there are

78

9 Technical Means of Studying the Liner “Titanic”

Fig. 9.8 Remote-controlled mini robot ROV “Dunkin” on the “Titanic”. Piloted from the submersible “Mir” to a distance of 30 m

debris, boilers, a propeller, aggregates, household items and personal belongings of the passengers of the liner, as well as a debris field about 1600 m long and about 1000 m wide. The results of archaeological work on the “Titanic”: – photo, film and video materials of the appearance, wreckage, aggregates, interiors and artifacts of the “Titanic” (Figs. 9.11, 9.12, 9.13, 9.14, 9.15, and 9.16), – mosaic photos of the prow and stern of the “Titanic” (Figs. 9.17, 9.18), – Artifacts from the “Titanic” raised to the surface (safes, suitcases, suitcases, documents, dishes, utensils, bottles, clothes, shoes, watches, accessories, banknotes, jewelry), – samples of the material of the “Titanic” hull raised to the surface, – no human remains have been found because they have completely dissolved in sea water in three quarters of a century, – delivery of tourists to the wreckage of the “Titanic”, – Laying of memorial signs. The “Alvin” submersible made an initial visual inspection of the wreckage of the “Titanic” and obtained hundreds of hours of video footage and tens of thousands of still images. Thousands of objects and artifacts fell into the field of view of the camera. With the help of a manipulator, a memorial plate was placed on the deck of the stern of the “Titanic” with the inscription: “In memory of those who died with the “Titanic” on the night of April 14–15, 1912.”

9 Technical Means of Studying the Liner “Titanic”

Fig. 9.9 Scheme of the sinking of the “Titanic”

Fig. 9.10 Holes (A-F) on the hull of the “Titanic” from an iceberg

79

80

9 Technical Means of Studying the Liner “Titanic”

Fig. 9.11 “Titanic” prow

Fig. 9.12 “Titanic” stern

A lot of items and artifacts from the “Titanic” were raised using the French “Nautil” vehicle. To lift them, they used syntactic blocks and huge bags of diesel fuel with positive buoyancy, to which baskets were attached. These structures were previously lowered to the seabed and held there by multi-ton cargoes. “Nautil” pilots collected the findings and loaded them into baskets using manipulators, and then freed these structures from cargo. As a result, the structures floated and raised dozens of objects and artifacts to the surface at a time. In total, for the entire period of work, “Nautil” provided the recovery of about five thousand objects and artifacts, as well as obtaining hundreds of hours of video recording and about ten thousand photographs,

9 Technical Means of Studying the Liner “Titanic”

81

Fig. 9.13 Promenade first class on the “Titanic”

Fig. 9.14 First class cabin with electric fireplace. To the right is ROV “Dunkin”

including high resolution for compiling a mosaic picture of the wreckage of the liner. In particular, from the “Titanic” and from the wreckage site the following was raised: – – – – – – – –

jewelry made of gold and silver, gold and silver pocket watches, safe from second class cabins, a leather bag with jewelry, gold coins and US banknotes (belonged to the first-class passengers of the Beckvis couple), a bronze cherub with a lamp in his right hand and bronze candelabra, porcelain, ceramic, silver and copper utensils, leather suitcases, clothes and shoes, doctor’s bag with medical instruments,

82

9 Technical Means of Studying the Liner “Titanic”

Fig. 9.15 Turkish baths on the “Titanic”

Fig. 9.16 Artifacts from the “Titanic” at the seabed

– – – –

ship’s compass, binoculars, bollards and rynda, bottles of wine, champagne and cognac, and much more, the total mass of small artifacts raised was about several tons, items raised to the surface were specially processed and conserved.

9 Technical Means of Studying the Liner “Titanic”

83

Fig. 9.17 Mosaic photo image of the prow of the “Titanic”—side (top) and top (bottom) views

Fig. 9.18 Mosaic photo image of the stern of the “Titanic”—side (top) and top (bottom) views

Hundreds of items from the “Titanic” are now in many museums around the world, in particular in the National Maritime Museum in Greenwich, in the museums of Memphis and Hamburg (Figs. 9.19, 9.20, and 9.21). In addition, these artifacts were exhibited in the maritime museums of Stockholm, Malmö, Gothenburg and Oslo. Note that the remains of the “Titanic” lie in neutral waters and no one has the right to own them, although attempts have been made to assign exclusive rights. Currently, all restrictions on underwater work at the site of the wreck have been lifted. More information on this themes can be found in Sagalevich (2017), Walter Lord (1949), Sinead Fitzgibbon (2012).

84

Fig. 9.19 Dishes from the “Titanic”

Fig. 9.20 “Titanic” passenger Banknotes

9 Technical Means of Studying the Liner “Titanic”

References

Fig. 9.21 Some jewels from the “Titanic”

References Sagalevich AM (2017) Depth. Moscow: Yauza. 352 P Sinead Fitzgibbon (2012) Titanic: history in an hour. HarperCollins. 90 P Walter Lord (1949) Last night of “Titanic”

85

Chapter 10

Conclusion

In conclusion, we note that underwater archaeology is becoming more and more in demand, both from specialists and from its many adherents. It uses the achievements of various branches of modern science and technology, which are only briefly considered in this paper. It is impossible to fully describe all the features, subtleties and secrets of the presented problems within the limited scope of this book. A number of significant issues that can only be covered by relevant specialists (in particular, the historical, cultural and legal aspects of underwater archaeology) were not considered here. For additional acquaintance with the topic of underwater archaeology, the following works should be recommended: Alexis et al. (2011), Bowens (2009), Bass (2013), Bass (2003), Ruppé and Barstad (2002), Green (2020), Delgado (1998). We hope that more detailed works on the presented topics will be published in the future.

References Alexis C, Ford B, Hamilton DL (2011) The Oxford Handbook of maritime archaeology. OUP USA, 1203 p Bass G (2003) Underwater archaeology: ancient peoples and countries (archaeology under water). Edited by Perfilyev O.I. Tsentrpoligraf, Moscow, 200 p Bass GF (2013) Archaeology beneath the sea. Boyut Publishing, Published, p 403 Bowens A (2009) Underwater archaeology: The Nautical Archaeology Society (NAS) guide to principles and practice. Publisher, Wiley-Blackwell, p 272 Delgado JP (1998) Encyclopedia of underwater and maritime archaeology. Yale University Press, New Haven, London, 496 p Green J (2020) Maritime archaeology. A technical Handbook. Elsevier, p 490 Ruppé CV, Barstad JF (eds) (2002) International handbook of underwater archaeology. Springer, New York NY, p 881

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 M. Klyuev et al., Technical Means for Underwater Archaeology, Earth and Environmental Sciences Library, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-27502-9_10

87

About the Authors

Mikhail Klyuev Graduated from the Faculty of General and Applied Physics of the Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology in 1986. Senior Researcher of the Shirshov Institute of Oceanology of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Doctor of Physics and Mathematics Sciences. The area of scientific interests is the development of seismic-acoustic methods, geophysical models, interpretations and equipment for studying the structure and objects of the seabed. Applied research in marine geology, hydro-acoustics and underwater archaeology. Author and co-author of more than 100 scientific publications.

Anatoly Schreider Graduated from the Faculty of Geology of Moscow State University in 1966. Chief Researcher of the Shirshov Institute of Oceanology of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Doctor of Geology and Mineralogy, Professor. The area of scientific interests is geophysics, tectonics and geodynamics of the ocean floor, as well as the magnetic field of bottom oceanic rocks. He is a leading expert in the field of the chronological scale of linear ocean magnetic anomalies. Author and co-author of more than 200 scientific publications, including 14 collective monographs.

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 M. Klyuev et al., Technical Means for Underwater Archaeology, Earth and Environmental Sciences Library, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-27502-9

89

90

About the Authors Igor Rakitin Graduated from the Krivoy-Rog Mining Institute in 1977 as a mechanical engineer. Leading engineer of the Shirshov Institute of Oceanology of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Doctor of Technical Sciences, Associate Professor. His area of scientific interests is the development of drilling rigs for deep-sea submersibles, methods of marine geological sampling and technical equipment for submersibles. Participant in marine geological expeditions and underwater deep-diving. Directly participated in expeditions to the sinking of the liner “Titanic”. Author and co-author of about 50 scientific publications.

Links

Screen Modified, http://phanagoria.info/upload/resize_cache/iblock/925/750_ 900_1/%D0%BF%D1%8B%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%81. jpg. Fig. 1.1 Authors. Fig. 1.2 Modified, https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Map-of-Europe-showingthe-general-distribution-of-known-underwater-settlements-and-find_fig1_340 544306. Fig. 1.3 Modified, https://www.researchgate.net/figure/World-war-WW-II-shipwr ecks-a-In-Europe-and-b-in-the-Mediterranean-credit-GEBCO_fig1_333566927. Fig. 1.4 Modified, https://maritimehistorypodcast.com/ep-028-unlocking-the-pon tus-euxinus/?shared=email&msg=fail. Fig. 2.1 Modified, https://my.mail.ru/community/antigravity/0136C625ECAC EDE2.html. Fig. 2.2 Authors. Fig. 2.3 Modified, https://i0.wp.com/jobbiecrew.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/ 01/0map1a.jpg?. Fig. 2.4 Modified, http://www.ochevidets.ru/blog/33860/. Fig. 3.1 Authors. Fig. 3.2 Authors Fig. 3.3 Authors. Fig. 3.4 Modified, http://phanagoria.info/upload/resize_cache/iblock/648/750_ 900_1/648c322628ee3131314fedecd79cb83e.jpg. Fig. 3.5 Modified, https://megabook.ru/media/%D0%90%D0%BA%D0%B2% D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B3%20(%D1%81%D1%85% D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B0). Fig. 3.6 Modified, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ b4/Semi-closed_circuit_rebreather.PNG/1280px-Semi-closed_circuit_rebreat her.PNG. © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 M. Klyuev et al., Technical Means for Underwater Archaeology, Earth and Environmental Sciences Library, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-27502-9

91

92

Links

Fig. 3.7 Modified, http://www.diveschool.spb.ru/wp-content/uploads/2009/11/ img070.jpg. Fig. 3.8 Authors. Fig. 3.9 Modified, http://spohelp.ru/photos/0004/1257/custom_im_02.jpg. Fig. 3.10 Modified, https://pulse.mail.ru/article/zoloto-kolchaka-pogruzhenies-premer-ministrom-i-drugie-priklyucheniya-apparatov-mir-na-bajkale-513524 3880199118796-3868382709968846016/. Fig. 3.11 Modified, https://subboat.ru/. Fig. 3.12 Authors. Fig. 3.13 Modified, https://www.dilettante55.ru/2015/01/blog-post_29.html. Fig. 3.14 Modified, https://tetis.ru/diving/stati_o_dajvinge/uwphoto/osoben nosti_fotosemki_v_podvodnoj_arheologii/. Fig. 3.15 Modified, https://www.korabel.ru/equipment/item_view/129852.html. Fig. 3.16 Authors. Fig. 3.17 Authors. Fig. 3.18 Authors. Fig. 4.1 Modified, https://studyposter.blogspot.com/2020/08/explain-how-sonaris-used-to-study.html. Fig. 4.2 Authors. Fig. 4.3 Modified, https://www.getit01.com/p2017112926755/. Fig. 4.4 Modified, https://www.dreamstime.com/stock-photo-bottom-sea-bat hymetric-view-sunken-wreckage-passenger-ship-ms-georg-buchner-who-wasexecuted-multi-beam-sonar-image35788260. Fig. 4.5 Modified, https://xn--80aaxridipd.xn--p1ai/mobilnye-poiskovo-obsled ovatelskie-kompleksy-nautilus/. Fig. 4.6 Modified, http://balticseaheritage.com/Baltic-sea-heritage-sonar-scansystem/ch_lang/ru. Fig. 4.7 Modified, https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00506-020-00673w/figures/1. Fig. 4.8 Authors. Fig. 4.9 Authors. Fig. 4.10 Modified, https://ets.wessexarch.co.uk/recs/how-we-study-the-seafloor/ geophysical-survey/. Fig. 4.11 Authors. Fig. 4.12 Modified, http://phanagoria.info/press-center/photo/podvodnyy-otryad2017/. Fig. 4.13 Modified, https://www.ocean4future.org/savetheocean/archives/49660. Fig. 4.14 Modified, http://phanagoria.info/press-center/photo/podvodnyy-otryad2017/. Fig. 4.15 Modified, https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-lVcAh_c5sSE/VijpeNcQhhI/ AAAAAAAABCE/8xBntNbM5lE/s1600/sands_aquisition_catLG.jpg. Fig. 4.16 Authors. Fig. 4.17 Modified, https://techbullion.com/advancements-in-underwater-cam era-tech-opening-new-vistas-in-marine-life-tourism/.

Links

93

Fig. 5.1 Modified, http://phanagoria.info/upload/resize_cache/iblock/ea3/750_ 900_1/1%20%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%8C% 20%D1%81%20%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%8F.jpg. Fig. 5.2 Authors. Fig. 5.3 Modified, http://www.krimoved-library.ru/books/antichnaya-arheol ogiya-severnogo-prichernomorya21.html. Fig. 5.4 Authors. Fig. 5.5 Authors. Fig. 5.6 Authors. Fig. 5.7 Authors. Fig. 5.8 Authors. Fig. 5.9 Authors. Fig. 5.10 Authors. Fig. 5.11 Modified, http://phanagoria.info/press-center/photo/podvodnyy-ras kop/. Fig. 5.12 Modified, http://phanagoria.info/press-center/photo/podvodnyy-otryad2018/. Fig. 5.13 Modified, http://phanagoria.info/press-center/photo/podvodnyy-otryad2015/. Fig. 5.14 Authors. Fig. 5.15 Authors. Fig. 5.16 Authors. Fig. 5.17 Modified, http://phanagoria.info/press-center/photo/podvodnyy-otryad2017/. Fig. 5.18 Modified, http://phanagoria.info/press-center/photo/podvodnyy-otryad2018/. Fig. 5.19 Modified, http://phanagoria.info/press-center/photo/podvodnyy-otryad2017/. Fig. 5.20 Authors. Fig. 5.21 Modified, https://neptunworld.com/2014/12/podvodnaya-fanagoriya2014/. Fig. 5.22 Modified, http://phanagoria.info/press-center/photo/podvodnyy-ras kop/. Fig. 5.23 Modified, http://phanagoria.info/press-center/photo/podvodnyy-ras kop/. Fig. 5.24 Modified, http://phanagoria.info/press-center/photo/podvodnyy-ras kop/. Fig. 5.25 Modified, http://phanagoria.info/press-center/photo/podvodnyy-otryad2016/. Fig. 5.26 Modified, http://phanagoria.info/press-center/photo/podvodnyy-otryad2018/. Fig. 6.1 Modified, https://ruf.ru/rabotyi-podvodnoj-gruppyi-patrejskogo-otryadafanagorijskoj-arxeologicheskoj-ekspediczii-instituta-arxeologii-ran-v-2013godu.html.

94

Links

Fig. 6.2 Modified, http://www.krimoved-library.ru/books/na-beregah-bosporakimmeriyskogo7.html. Fig. 6.3 Modified, https://ruf.ru/rabotyi-podvodnoj-gruppyi-patrejskogo-otryadafanagorijskoj-arxeologicheskoj-ekspediczii-instituta-arxeologii-ran-v-2013godu.html. Fig. 6.4 Authors. Fig. 6.5 Authors. Fig. 7.1 Authors. Fig. 7.2 Modified, https://r.historyrussia.org/sobytiya/archeology/podvodnye-inazemnye-issledovaniya-na-ozere-sennitsa-v-pskovskoj-oblasti.html. Fig. 7.3 Modified, https://www.fontanka.ru/2021/03/13/69810686/. Fig. 7.4 Authors. Fig. 7.5 Authors. Fig. 7.6 Authors. Fig. 8.1 Modified, https://rare-gallery.com/1155821-sports-ship-boat-sea-watervehicle-underwater-shipwreck-coral-reef-diving-biology-scuba-diving-ocean. html. Fig. 8.2 Modified, https://www.rgo.ru/ru/article/yubiley-imperatricy-ekaterinyvelikoy-0. Fig. 8.3 Modified, https://www.neizvestniy-geniy.ru/cat/photo/podvodnoe/115 924.html?addLike=-1. Fig. 8.4 Authors. Fig. 8.5 Authors. Fig. 8.6 Authors. Fig. 8.7 Modified, https://profdive.ru/linejnyj-korabl-svobodnaya-rossiya/. Fig. 8.8 Modified, https://guideadvisor.ru/gelendzhik_17/pogruzhenie_na_suh ogruz_sakko_i_vantsetti_1423. Fig. 8.9 Authors. Fig. 8.10 Authors. Fig. 8.11 Modified, https://scuba-divers.ru/dayving-atlas/suchogruz-sakko-i-van tsetti-rek-dayving.html. Fig. 9.1 Modified, https://www.salon.com/2022/04/23/7-facts-about-titanic-sur vivor-violet-jessop_partner/. Fig. 9.2 Modified, https://www.facebook.com/NatGeoMuseum/photos/a.931274 79186/10156949779799187/?type=3. Fig. 9.3 Modified, https://thirdpodfromthesun.com/2018/04/02/e4-alvin-and-theocean-deep/. Fig. 9.4 Modified, http://oosif.ru/obitaemye-pa-francii. Fig. 9.5 Modified, https://en.topwar.ru/22138-legendarnye-miry-otmechayut-yub iley.html. Fig. 9.6 Modified, https://www.pvsm.ru/diy-ili-sdelaj-sam/265316. Fig. 9.7 Modified, https://www.ecagroup.com/en/30-years-ago-eca-got-involvedinspection-titanic-wreck. Fig. 9.8 Authors. Fig. 9.9 Modified, https://fotoload.ru/foto/557348/1024x768/.

Links

95

Fig. 9.10 Modified, https://vk.com/wall-119625604_24. Fig. 9.11 Modified, https://produkproduktukaas.blogspot.com/2021/08/titanicunderwater-underwater.html. Fig. 9.12 Modified, https://drikus.club/16104-titanik-1912-god.html. Fig. 9.13 Modified, https://artmisto.com/photo/tech/11081-100-let-so-dnya-gib eli-titanika.html. Fig. 9.14 Modified, https://screenmusings.org/movie/blu-ray/Titanic/pages/Tit anic-0017.htm. Fig. 9.15 Modified, https://gugegot.livejournal.com/435942.html?view=com ments. Fig. 9.16 Modified, https://dayoneday.com/2019/10/11/titanic-then-and-now-30photos/23/. Fig. 9.17 Modified, https://ic.pics.livejournal.com/kot_de_azur/31835946/768 067/768067_original.jpg. Fig. 9.18 Modified, https://ic.pics.livejournal.com/kot_de_azur/31835946/768 067/768067_original.jpg. Fig. 9.19 Modified, https://bigbenas.eu/italijoje-vyksta-daiktu-titaniko-paroda/. Fig. 9.20 Modified, https://artmisto.com/photo/tech/11081-100-let-so-dnya-gib eli-titanika.html. Fig. 9.21 Modified, https://jewelrynewsnetwork.blogspot.com/2012/11/a-titanicjewelry-exhibition.html?m=1.