Teaching Secondary Science Through Play [1 ed.] 9781499490084, 9781499490060

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Rosen Classroom Published in 2015 by The Rosen Publishing Group, Inc. 29 East 21st Street, New York, NY 10010 Copyright © 2015 by Christopher Harris and Patricia Harris, Ph.D. First Edition All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form without permission in writing from the publisher, except by a reviewer. Cataloging-in-Publication Data Harris, Christopher. Teaching secondary science through play/by Christopher Harris and Patricia Harris, PhD p. cm. — (Teaching through games) Includes appendix. ISBN 978-1-4994-9006-0 (paperback) 1. Science — Study and teaching — Activity programs. 2. Science — Study and teaching (Secondary) — Activity programs. 3. Teaching — Aids and devices. I. Harris, Christopher, 1977-. II. Harris, Patricia. III. Title. Q181.H37 2015 507.1—d23

Manufactured in the United States of America

Code Word: goscience Use the code word above to register for an account on the series website at http://teachingthroughgames.com. Or, if you have already registered, use the code to add this book to your existing account. The website contains the readings and sheets referenced in this book as well as additional game elements. There is also a discussion forum where you can share successful practices and ask questions. Photo Credits: cover © hyside/www.istockphoto.com; cover, pp. i, 73, 74, 75 (atom) © Sashkinw/www.istockphoto.com; p. i (molecule) © cdascher/ www.istockphoto.com; p. iv © Pgiam/www.istockphoto.com; p. vii © www.northstargames.com; pp. viii, 27 © www.hungryrobot.com; pp. viii, ix, 44, 74, 75 © www.dicehatemegames.com

CONTENTS Introduction The Game of Science The Science of Games

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Game 1: Evolution 1 The Science 1 Defining Evolution 1 Natural Selection 2 Mutation 2 Genetic Changes 3 Exploring Cause and Effect 3 Healthy Ecosystems 5 Why This Game Works 6 Lesson Plan 1A: What determines survival of a species? 8 Primary Source Document: From On the Origin of Species 12 Lesson Plan 1B: What components of an ecosystem determine survival of a species? 20 Game 2: Strain 24 The Science 24 Cellular Structures 24 Cellular Resources 25 The War Within Us 26 Why This Game Works 27 Lesson Plan 2A: What is the relationship between the components of a cell? 28 Primary Source Document: “On Cells as the Basis of All Tissues of the Animal Body” 32 Lesson Plan 2B: How do cells work and fight within our bodies every day? 37

Game 3: Compounded 41 The Science 41 A Brief History of the Periodic Table 41 Elements and Compounds 42 How Compounds Are Formed 43 Why This Game Works 44 Lesson Plan 3A: What is a compound? 45 Lesson Plan 3B: How are compounds different from mixtures of elements? 49 Game 4: Bolide 53 The Science 53 A Definition of Vectors 53 Adding and Subtracting Vectors 54 The Physics of Car Racing 57 Why This Game Works 57 Lesson Plan 4A: How can vectors be applied to real life activities? 58 Lesson Plan 4B: What concepts from physics might apply to racing? 63 Notes

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Appendix 1 Curriculum Alignments

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Appendix 2 Important Details Worksheet Cellular Structure Worksheet An Introduction to Compounded

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About the Authors

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Introduction

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The Game of Science It is easy to write a book about teaching science through games because at the heart of it, all science is a game. This might be a bit of an oversimplification, but grant me a moment to expand upon the metaphor. To fully understand the similarities of science and games, we must first explore the definition of a game as a particular form of play. Game designer and researcher Jane McGonigal defined games in Reality is Broken in broad terms. “When you strip away the genre differences and the technological complexities, all games share four defining traits: a goal, rules, a feedback system, and voluntary participation.”1 Or, we can take a broader view. McGonigal refers to a famous definition offered by psychologist Bernard Suits in his book The Grasshopper: Games, Life and Utopia in which he simply stated that “playing games is the voluntary attempt to overcome unnecessary obstacles.”2 Between these two interpretations, I think we can come up with a very strong understanding of games as a particular form of play. Games have goals and rules to define behavior during play and establish a desired end result. Unlike other play, games establish a system of feedback that provides players with both formative and summative assessments. Finally, like all play, participation in a game must be voluntary. The defining feature of game play however is that the players voluntary agree to remain within the boundaries of the rules with a further understanding that the rules exist primarily to create unnecessary obstacles to challenge the players. So how is this like science? Unlike other academic disciplines, the sciences are bound by both natural and imposed rules. The rigorous rules of scientific experimentation have been established, as unnecessary as they may seem to outsiders, as a way to ensure reproducible results from experiments. Like a game—where the agreed upon rules let players reproduce similar experiences in a journey toward an end goal—the goal of science is to work toward the truth by following rules of experimenting. In many ways, science is a cooperative game; the scientist doesn’t win individually, but rather is truly successful when v

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other scientists can reproduce the same results. Sure, it would be easier to make wild claims about untested drugs as snake oil salesmen did in years past, but in modern times we have learned that ingesting radioactive materials and poisons is not a good idea. Scientists voluntarily agree to bind their work to a rule set that helps ensure accuracy and validity. Then, like in a game with a feedback system of points or checks, there is a system of feedback from peer review of results that helps keep everything on track. Science is also like a game in that it explores boundaries and limitations; constantly poking around the limits to discover new knowledge. In Everything Bad Is Good for You, Steven Johnson refers to the constant pressing of boundaries as “probing” and talks about the skill as being a key learning attribute mastered through game play. Like gamers, scientists have to be constantly wondering about what is just beyond their current limits. When asked about creativity in science, famous astrophysicist Neil DeGrasse Tyson talked about the unique ways in which scientists can be creative: Creativity is seeing what everyone else sees, but then thinking a new thought that has never been thought before and expressing it somehow. It could be with art, a sculpture, music or even in science. The difference, however, between scientific creativity and any other kind of creativity, is that no matter how long you wait, no one else will ever compose “Beethoven’s Ninth Symphony” except for Beethoven…Whereas in science, you can’t just make stuff up and presume that it is a proper account of nature. At the end of the day, you have to answer to nature. Since everyone has nature to answer to, your creativity is simply discovering something about the natural world that somebody else would have eventually discovered exactly the same way. They might have come through a different path, but they would have landed in the same place…Your creativity is not a boundless creativity.3

Similarly, the rules are set in a game, yet players continue to find new ways to work within the shared rule set to win. All of the possible loopholes and combos are there for finding, but some players are more creative and so find them first. vi

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The openness and flexibility of many modern tabletop games— especially those referred to as “euro-style”—are some of the things that make them so wonderful for use in teaching and learning. In the science games selected for inclusion in this book, you will see very open-ended game play; creativity and discovery of new ways to succeed will be greatly rewarded. Like science though, the games are bound by rules that define the scope of possibilities. Players will need to probe the rules and find ways to creatively push the limits.

The Science of Games There are many games that deal with scientific subjects and the scientific process, but some rise to a higher level in that they employ exact scientific processes and terminology. In this book we will explore four such games that are incredible direct-instruction materials. The first two games explore two aspects of biology and the living environment. The third game addresses chemistry, and the final game is a direct application of physics. After discussing the science and applicability of each game, we will present two lessons that discuss how the game can be used and extended. The lessons will also include writing prompts, additional research activities, related texts for reading lessons, and enrichment opportunities. We start with Evolution (North Star Games, 2014), a game initially designed by a professor of biology at Moscow University. This game provides a flexible simulation that explores evolution, natural selection, and the predator/ prey interactions within a healthy ecosystem. The lessons included look at how the game can be turned into a cooperative game that shows vii

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the need for predator/prey relationships within a thriving ecosystem. Another variant we developed reinforces the need for balance and the role of natural selection by exploring what happens in ecosystems that either have no predators or have super-predators. In the second game, we are also exploring natural development, but on a much smaller scale. Strain (HungryRobot Games, 2011) looks at the battleground of microorganisms that are fighting within our bodies every day. Players build up organisms with organelles and cytoplasm to fight against viruses and other players. The game provides a very effective way to learn the extensive vocabulary of this field in biology. Lessons explore issues around bioengineering and genetic modification. The first lesson presents a simplified version of the game to help students get up to speed in their role as bioengineers. Compounded (Dice Hate Me Games, 2013) puts players in a chemistry lab exploring the creation of compounds from elements. Be careful, though, as some compounds are unstable and can start a lab fire. Did you relegate a carbon and two oxygen atoms to form a CO2 extinguisher? In the first lesson, sheets provide a way to help students understand how Compounded works and allows from a whole class experience stepping through the game for the first time. The second lesson pushes students to explore new aspects of chemistry. viii

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The final game in the book explores a key concept within physics: vectors. In Bolide (Ghenos, 2005) players are driving a Formula 1 car around a track. They can make any movement they want as long as it obeys the limitations of momentum. Players will gain a deeper understanding of vectors when they realize that they have far too much east-west momentum as they enter a corner. The lessons explore how the game can be used as a base to teach adding/subtracting vectors and more. To better see how momentum works, take pictures of each turn in the game and create a stopmotion video of a whole race.

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n this chapter, we will be using Evolution (North Star Games, 2014) to explore the biological process of the same name. Originally designed by a professor of biology at Moscow University, Evolution has been redesigned with updated artwork and some new mechanisms that better reflect the natural world. This game isn’t a direct simulation of evolution; there are no data charts or regression tables. Instead Evolution offers opportunities to see evolutionary mechanisms in action. This is a chance to take a high level and long-term look at natural processes that normally take thousands or millions of years. Despite its casual approach, the game does provide great opportunities for learning and exploring many different aspects of evolution, making it an incredible learning tool.

The Science Defining Evolution Before delving into specific aspects of evolution demonstrated in the game, let us first come to a common understanding on some of the vocabulary and science involved in the discussion. Briefly defined, evolution is a natural process by which organisms change over time through variations in successive generations. This process is closely intertwined with genetics as most evolution occurs through slow changes in heritable traits. Traits, the specific aspects of an organism like a human’s eye color, are determined by genes; collectively the set of inherited genes for an organism are called its genotype. When talking about the observable traits themselves, however, we talk about an organism’s phenotype, a word drawn from Greek for “to show.” Changes in phenotypes between generations of the same species are called alleles. In the game Evolution, each species phenotype is created with a set of trait cards that are played onto the species board. In 1

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nature, the phenotype is comprised of the genotype and environmental impacts. Evolution can happen as a result of changes in either the genes or the environment. There are three primary mechanisms for evolutionary change:

Natural Selection This is the classic understanding of evolution as detailed by Charles Darwin in The Origin of Species. As Darwin noted during his review of different species on the Galapagos Islands, some closely related species had developed different traits that seemed to be a response to the different environments in which they were found. Some finches had developed long beaks for piercing cactus fruits while others had developed larger, short beaks for tearing cactus flesh. Individual organisms that have a specialized trait—an allele—that better matches the environment in which they are found will be more successful. The initial change resulting in a longer beak better able to pierce cactus pears may have resulted from a mutation, but it ended up being a favorable change. The first finch with a longer beak was more successful in feeding on a source of food that other finches couldn’t access. As that bird bred, the gene for a longer beak must have been inherited by successive generations who also enjoyed the same success. Over time, this favorable mutation was naturally selected; that is birds that inherited the trait were more successful than individual birds that didn’t inherit it. The birds with longer beaks had more food and were able to reproduce more than the other birds. What is most amazing about this process is that the long beak mutation was likely necessary because the cactus plants were also evolving at the same time. Cactus plants that had sharper thorns or tougher skins survived against the assault of hungry finches and produced more seeds for more resilient cactuses. Mutation As has been noted, another mechanism in evolution is mutation. Though natural selection may be the long-term mechanism for evolution, a mutation is often the triggering event. Mutations are changes 2

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that happen in the genotype of an organism when the DNA is somehow changed from one generation to the next. Mutations are random events, but on an evolutionary scale mutation bias can lead to changes across an entire species as mutations with no real positive or negative impact carry through generations. This is different from natural selection, in which positive mutations are reinforced based on a beneficial fit within the environment.

Genetic Changes There are three types of genetic changes that can occur. Genes and DNA are incredibly complex patterns, and it is possible for minor errors to occur. Alleles can experience genetic drift—small changes in the genotype that may slowly reinforce or eliminate different alleles purely by chance. Another view of what happens in genetic changes is that the DNA experience genetic hitchhiking, also referred to as genetic draft, in which changes in the genotype are more based on the fact that some traits tend to be inherited together in a linkage. Some genetic changes can then “hitchhike” along in a linkage that is successful. The third type of change is gene flow. As species reproduce, genes flow within that population of organisms. As the genotype changes, the local species may develop to a point that it is different enough from the original species that the local population can no longer reproduce with the original species.

Exploring Cause and Effect Evolution provides an excellent platform for exploring the cause and effect of natural selection within the predator/prey relations in any ecosystem. In nature, the process typically involves subtle changes over long periods of time and many generations, but we can use this game to simulate the impact in a greatly condensed timeframe. After establishing a thriving ecosystem with two basic, omnivorous species who happily spend their days eating the available plant food and gaining population to offset being eaten (figure 1), let’s see what happens if one of our prey species develops camouflage (figure 3

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Figure 1

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2). Suddenly the carnivore is able to find and catch only one species; the other’s camouflage lets it survive. This means that the predation, previously spread across two species able to repopulate fast enough to sustain the losses, is now focused on just one species. The carnivore quickly depletes the population, and the prey species, unable to keep up with the losses now that it is the only prey, quickly goes extinct, leaving the carnivore unable to sustain previous population levels (figure 3). If some of the carnivores have better eyesight than their brethren, though, they will be able to catch the camouflaged prey and survive to reproduce and pass along the genes for keen eyesight (figure 4). The ecosystem rebalances, though likely with reduced populations for both species for quite some time. In the constant battle of natural selection there are two options: evolve or go extinct.

Healthy Ecosystems Evolution can also be used as a learning tool beyond the genetics of evolution. As demonstrated in the above example, the game does a nice job of simulating ecosystems and the ongoing interactions between flora and fauna: the plants and animals of a habitat. Some students may shy away from the violence of nature where some animals survive by killing and eating others, but we can use Evolution to demonstrate the importance of predators in a healthy ecosystem. This question has real world implications; consider for example the ongoing debate over the reintroduction of wolves in the western United States. By creating a special Evolution deck that removes the carnivore cards, we can see what happens when herbivores are allowed to reproduce unchecked. Either play a regular game using the carnivore-less deck, or set up a quick demonstration with three species. For the demonstration, each round determine plant food by rolling three regular six-sided dice. This will result in a range of three to eighteen foods; rolling eighteen will support the full six population for each species, anything less will result in deaths. Each species starts with the fertile trait allowing it to receive a new population each round. How sustainable is this ecosystem? 5

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If each species starts with just a single population in the first round, there will be a gradual growth of population over time. On average, there will be nine foods a round, so for the first few rounds there will be a surplus of food. With plenty of food, species will reproduce more readily. By the third turn, however, a total population of nine across our three species means we have reached the limit of average food per round. As populations continue to grow, we are now eating away the surplus of food; when the surplus runs out starvation will set in. How high did populations get before the food surplus ran out? What happened next? Don’t forget about natural selection. The first time a species goes hungry, we have to account for the introduction of new traits. If one species develops a longer neck allowing it to access food sources beyond the reach of other species, it will receive additional food before others. The adapted species will survive and the other two will die off faster. As population falls, and perhaps some species go extinct, the available plant food will rebound. A surplus may begin to form again resulting in renewed population growth. The cycle of population surges and mass starvations begins again. Overpopulation is a real world issue. Hunting seasons are carefully managed in attempts to replace the population-balancing role that carnivores would fill if we hadn’t killed most of the wolves. Some find hunting to be brutal and offensive, but if the other option is massive overpopulation and mass starvations then there is some question as to which option is more humane.

Why This Game Works Evolution can be a tricky subject to teach. Even leaving aside the controversy that the topic can create, there is a lot of science happening behind the scenes of this process. When we speak of evolution, we are really talking about a complex set of interconnected concepts. Genetics, heredity, predator/prey relationships, food webs—all of these contribute to the adaptation and development of species over time. Time itself is the other challenge; in nature, evolution happens 6

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over long periods of time with each successive generation exhibiting subtle differences that must often be viewed over thousands of years to see the real change taking place. Evolution provides a relatively scientifically accurate simulation of these complex concepts. Players can see the phenotypes of species and experience the results of mutations in genes that manifest as new traits, like the ability to burrow or the presence of a defensive shell. Within the game, though, these changes happen immediately as opposed to over thousands of years. This is genetics at an incredible pace, which allows players to see natural selection at work as successful phenotypes thrive and poorly adapted species go extinct. The game can also be used to simulate interactions within an ecosystem between flora and fauna. Herbivore populations that are unchecked by carnivores will quickly outpace the available food supply, leading to episodes of mass starvation and potential extinctions. At the same time, carnivores must adapt as their prey develops defensive traits or risk starvation themselves. As a variant to regular gameplay, you can turn this into a cooperative game where players are working together to create the healthiest ecosystem as scored by total food consumed by all species. Are scores higher with or without carnivores present? As a game, Evolution is quite fun. This is one of the key features that makes it such a great learning tool. Players are drawn in by the relatively simple rule set, beautiful graphics, and easily understood science. Our job as facilitators of play-based learning is to reinforce the science in the game. During play, stress the academic vocabulary involved; ask players about the phenotype (observable traits) of their species and refer to natural selection as successful species thrive. Have players talk about their decisions and explain choices that they make. This helps them think more critically about strategy and decision making while also reinforcing the science behind better choices in gameplay. For a higher level of reflection, have students keep a logbook for a game in which they journal each turn of play talking about the scientific reasoning behind each choice they make. The writing should include a hypothesis and results. 7

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Lesson Plan 1A Essential Question What determines survival of a species?

Vocabulary The following vocabulary words are important concepts: • • • • • • • •

Ecosystem Evolution Phenotype Genotype Allele Trait Natural selection Mutation

Suggested Reading Resources Primary Source Document: “Natural Selection,” Chapter IV from Charles Darwin’s On the Origin of Species. This document is included after the lesson in an annotated form with vocabulary underlined and some important passages for close reading highlighted; it is available online at www.teachingthroughgames.com for printing. Other Sources: The Basics of Evolution Written by Anne Wanjie Published by Rosen Publishing Group, Inc., 2013 ISBN: 9781477705575

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Understanding Genetics: Evolution: The Adaptation and Survival of Species Written by Kristi Lew Published by Rosen Publishing Group, Inc., 2010 ISBN: 9781435895348 Charles Darwin and the Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection Written by Fred Bortz Published by Rosen Publishing Group, Inc., 2013 ISBN: 9781477718025

Mini Reading Lesson While you are reading the available text material or the suggested reading resources, attempt to answer the following question: How does natural selection work within the process of evolution to help a species survive? Introduce the vocabulary words above. They can be introduced even if they are not in the specific reading you have chosen.

Guided Practice Have students preview any headings and subheadings in the reading they have been asked to do. Have students read the selections. Read and Discuss Have students reread each section of the text and discuss the following: • • • •

Why is natural selection called “survival of the fittest”? How was natural selection misinterpreted in Darwin’s time? Why don’t we notice evolution continually happening? What is domestic selection and how is it different from natural selection? • What did Darwin mean by “fortuitous destruction” and how is this action connected to survival of the fittest? 9

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Model Introduce the game, following the rules in the box, and explain the components of the game. The animal boards represent a specific species with markers to indicate population and size of that species. Cards will be played onto the species boards that make up the traits of that species (its phenotype). Explain that playing different cards represents a species mutating with an allele (a new trait that will be tested by natural selection). Encourage students to carefully consider the ecosystem in which their species will live. Are there many predators? Is there a limited food supply? Make sure students are thinking strategically and scientifically about their play. Have students play the game and keep a journal of each turn. This will slow down the game play but will help them think more critically about the moves they are making and the potential impact of their choices of traits. Journal entries could include a hypothesis and a review of the results. Another way to modify play to facilitate thinking about choices is to have students play as a team of two or three. Then they have to talk about what they are going to do.

Independent Practice Remind students of the vocabulary introduced for their reading and ask them to attempt to include that vocabulary in appropriate ways in the writing activities they do. Writing Activities Narrative: Assume the role of a predator. You have the ability for human thoughts and speech. Write a series of at least five Facebook-style posts explaining your frustration as your prey evolves new defensive traits. Be sure to describe how you plan to survive this challenge.

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Inform or Explain: Explain how natural selection works within a predator/prey relationship in a given ecosystem. This could include two animals or an animal and a plant species. Express an Opinion: Is domestic selection, for example the selective breeding of bigger chickens or a new species of dogs, a beneficial or harmful circumvention of natural selection?

Sharing/Reflection Have individuals or groups share and discuss their work with the class.

Assessment Collect completed formative assessment (activity for model section) and writing activities and review. The journal from the model section should include references to the current situation in the game ecosystem and hypotheses about how a trait being played might help a species thrive. Students should also include reflection of the impact the new trait had and if it was successful. In the writing pieces, look for proper use of vocabulary terms like “phenotype,” “genotype,” and “allele”. In the opinion piece, students should consider both sides of the argument and defend their position using specific examples.

Extension Activities Further Research: Research the advances being made in genetic engineering as a way to manipulate the genotype of a species for exact results. What impact does this have on the world? Important Details: Have students identify ten important details to know about evolution and natural selection, and have them justify their choices of those details using the Important Details sheet in the appendix and available online at www.teachingthroughgames.com for printing. Answers will vary. 11

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On the Origin of Species, Chapter IV Charles Darwin. From the 6th edition, 1872. How will the struggle for existence, briefly discussed in the last chapter, act in regard to variation? Can the principle of selection, which we have seen is so potent in the hands of man, apply under nature? I think we shall see that it can act most efficiently. Let the endless number of slight variations and individual differences occurring in our domestic productions, and, in a lesser degree, in those under nature, be borne in mind; as well as the strength of the hereditary tendency. Under domestication, it may truly be said that the whole organisation becomes in some degree plastic. But the variability, which we almost universally meet with in our domestic productions is not directly produced, as Hooker and Asa Gray have well remarked, by man; he can neither originate varieties nor prevent their occurrence; he can only preserve and accumulate such as do occur. Unintentionally he exposes organic beings to new and changing conditions of life, and variability ensues; but similar changes of conditions might and do occur under nature. Let it also be borne in mind how infinitely complex and close-fitting are the mutual relations of all organic beings to each other and to their physical conditions of life; and consequently what infinitely varied diversities of structure might be of use to each being under changing conditions of life. Can it then be thought improbable, seeing that variations useful to man have undoubtedly occurred, that other variations useful in some way to each being in the great and complex battle of life, should occur in the course of many successive generations? If such do occur, can we doubt (remembering that many more individuals are born than can possibly survive) that individuals having any advantage, however slight, over others, would have the best chance of surviving and procreating their kind? On the other hand, we may feel sure that any variation in the least degree injurious would be rigidly destroyed. This preservation of favourable individual differences and 12

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variations, and the destruction of those which are injurious, I have called Natural Selection, or the Survival of the Fittest. Variations neither useful nor injurious would not be affected by natural selection, and would be left either a fluctuating element, as perhaps we see in certain polymorphic species, or would ultimately become fixed, owing to the nature of the organism and the nature of the conditions. Several writers have misapprehended or objected to the term Natural Selection. Some have even imagined that natural selection induces variability, whereas it implies only the preservation of such variations as arise and are beneficial to the being under its conditions of life. No one objects to agriculturists speaking of the potent effects of man’s selection; and in this case the individual differences given by nature, which man for some object selects, must of necessity first occur. Others have objected that the term selection implies conscious choice in the animals which become modified; and it has even been urged that, as plants have no volition, natural selection is not applicable to them! In the literal sense of the word, no doubt, natural selection is a false term; but who ever objected to chemists speaking of the elective affinities of the various elements? — and yet an acid cannot strictly be said to elect the base with which it in preference combines. It has been said that I speak of natural selection as an active power or Deity; but who objects to an author speaking of the attraction of gravity as ruling the movements of the planets? Every one knows what is meant and is implied by such metaphorical expressions; and they are almost necessary for brevity. So again it is difficult to avoid personifying the word Nature; but I mean by nature, only the aggregate action and product of many natural laws, and by laws the sequence of events as ascertained by us. With a little familiarity such superficial objections will be forgotten. We shall best understand the probable course of natural selection by taking the case of a country undergoing some slight physical change, for instance, of climate. The proportional numbers of its inhabitants will almost immediately undergo a change, and some 13

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species will probably become extinct. We may conclude, from what we have seen of the intimate and complex manner in which the inhabitants of each country are bound together, that any change in the numerical proportions of the inhabitants, independently of the change of climate itself, would seriously affect the others. If the country were open on its borders, new forms would certainly immigrate, and this would likewise seriously disturb the relations of some of the former inhabitants. Let it be remembered how powerful the influence of a single introduced tree or mammal has been shown to be. But in the case of an island, or of a country partly surrounded by barriers, into which new and better adapted forms could not freely enter, we should then have places in the economy of nature which would assuredly be better filled up if some of the original inhabitants were in some manner modified; for, had the area been open to immigration, these same places would have been seized on by intruders. In such cases, slight modifications, which in any way favoured the individuals of any species, by better adapting them to their altered conditions, would tend to be preserved; and natural selection would have free scope for the work of improvement. We have good reason to believe, as shown in the first chapter, that changes in the conditions of life give a tendency to increased variability; and in the foregoing cases the conditions the changed, and this would manifestly be favourable to natural selection, by affording a better chance of the occurrence of profitable variations. Unless such occur, natural selection can do nothing. Under the term of “variations,” it must never be forgotten that mere individual differences are included. As man can produce a great result with his domestic animals and plants by adding up in any given direction individual differences, so could natural selection, but far more easily from having incomparably longer time for action. Nor do I believe that any great physical change, as of climate, or any unusual degree of isolation, to check immigration, is necessary in order that new and unoccupied places should be left for natural selection to fill up by improving some of the varying inhabitants. For as all the 14

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inhabitants of each country are struggling together with nicely balanced forces, extremely slight modifications in the structure or habits of one species would often give it an advantage over others; and still further modifications of the same kind would often still further increase the advantage, as long as the species continued under the same conditions of life and profited by similar means of subsistence and defence. No country can be named in which all the native inhabitants are now so perfectly adapted to each other and to the physical conditions under which they live, that none of them could be still better adapted or improved; for in all countries, the natives have been so far conquered by naturalised productions that they have allowed some foreigners to take firm possession of the land. And as foreigners have thus in every country beaten some of the natives, we may safely conclude that the natives might have been modified with advantage, so as to have better resisted the intruders. As man can produce, and certainly has produced, a great result by his methodical and unconscious means of selection, what may not natural selection effect? Man can act only on external and visible characters: Nature, if I may be allowed to personify the natural preservation or survival of the fittest, cares nothing for appearances, except in so far as they are useful to any being. She can act on every internal organ, on every shade of constitutional difference, on the whole machinery of life. Man selects only for his own good; Nature only for that of the being which she tends. Every selected character is fully exercised by her, as is implied by the fact of their selection. Man keeps the natives of many climates in the same country. He seldom exercises each selected character in some peculiar and fitting manner; he feeds a long and a short-beaked pigeon on the same food; he does not exercise a long-backed or long-legged quadruped in any peculiar manner; he exposes sheep with long and short wool to the same climate; does not allow the most vigorous males to struggle for the females; he does not rigidly destroy all inferior animals, but protects during each varying season, as far as lies in his power, all his productions. He often begins his selection by some 15

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half-monstrous form, or at least by some modification prominent enough to catch the eye or to be plainly useful to him. Under nature, the slightest differences of structure or constitution may well turn the nicely-balanced scale in the struggle for life, and so be preserved. How fleeting are the wishes and efforts of man! How short his time, and consequently how poor will be his results, compared with those accumulated by Nature during whole geological periods! Can we wonder, then, that Nature’s productions should be far “truer” in character than man’s productions; that they should be infinitely better adapted to the most complex conditions of life, and should plainly bear the stamp of far higher workmanship? It may metaphorically be said that natural selection is daily and hourly scrutinising, throughout the world, the slightest variations; rejecting those that are bad, preserving and adding up all that are good; silently and insensibly working, whenever and wherever opportunity offers, at the improvement of each organic being in relation to its organic and inorganic conditions of life. We see nothing of these slow changes in progress, until the hand of time has marked the long lapse of ages, and then so imperfect is our view into long-past geological ages that we see only that the forms of life are now different from what they formerly were. In order that any great amount of modification should be effected in a species, a variety, when once formed must again, perhaps after a long interval of time, vary or present individual differences of the same favourable nature as before; and these must again be preserved, and so onward, step by step. Seeing that individual differences of the same kind perpetually recur, this can hardly be considered as an unwarrantable assumption. But whether it is true, we can judge only by seeing how far the hypothesis accords with and explains the general phenomena of nature. On the other hand, the ordinary belief that the amount of possible variation is a strictly limited quantity, is likewise a simple assumption. Although natural selection can act only through and for the good of each being, yet characters and structures, which we are .

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apt to consider as of very trifling importance, may thus be acted on. When we see leaf-eating insects green, and bark-feeders mottled-grey; the alpine ptarmigan white in winter, the redgrouse the colour of heather, we must believe that these tints are of service to these birds and insects in preserving them from danger. Grouse, if not destroyed at some period of their lives, would increase in countless numbers; they are known to suffer largely from birds of prey; and hawks are guided by eyesight to their prey, — so much so that on parts of the continent persons are warned not to keep white pigeons, as being the most liable to destruction. Hence natural selection might be effective in giving the proper colour to each kind of grouse, and in keeping that colour, when once acquired, true and constant. Nor ought we to think that the occasional destruction of an animal of any particular colour would produce little effect; we should remember how essential it is in a flock of white sheep to destroy a lamb with the faintest trace of black. We have seen how the colour of hogs, which feed on the “paint-root” in Virginia, determines whether they shall live or die. In plants, the down on the fruit and the colour of the flesh are considered by botanists as characters of the most trifling importance; yet we hear from an excellent horticulturist, Downing, that in the United States smoothskinned fruits suffer far more from a beetle, a Curculio, than those with down; that purple plums suffer far more from a certain disease than yellow plums; whereas another disease attacks yellow-fleshed peaches far more than those with other coloured flesh. If, with all the aids of art, these slight differences make a great difference in cultivating the several varieties, assuredly, in a state of nature, where the trees would have to struggle with other trees and with a host of enemies, such differences would effectually settle which variety, whether a smooth or downy, a yellow or a purple-fleshed fruit, should succeed. In looking at many small points of difference between species, which, as far as our ignorance permits us to judge, seem quite unimportant, we must not forget that climate, food, &c., have no doubt produced some direct effect. It is also necessary 17

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to bear in mind that, owing to the law of correlation, when one part varies and the variations are accumulated through natural selection, other modifications, often of the most unexpected nature, will ensue. As we see that those variations which, under domestication, appear at any particular period of life, tend to reappear in the offspring at the same period;— for instance, in the shape, size and flavour of the seeds of the many varieties of our culinary and agricultural plants; in the caterpillar and cocoon stages of the varieties of the silkworm; in the eggs of poultry, and in the colour of the down of their chickens; in the horns of our sheep and cattle when nearly adult;— so in a state of nature natural selection will be enabled to act on and modify organic beings at any age, by the accumulation of variations profitable at that age, and by their inheritance at a corresponding age. If it profit a plant to have its seeds more and more widely disseminated by the wind, I can see no greater difficulty in this being effected through natural selection, than in the cotton-planter increasing and improving by selection the down in the pods on his cotton-trees. Natural selection may modify and adapt the larva of an insect to a score of contingencies, wholly different from those which concern the mature insect; and these modifications may affect, through correlation, the structure of the adult. So, conversely, modifications in the adult may affect the structure of the larva; but in all cases natural selection will ensure that they shall not be injurious: for if they were so, the species would become extinct. Natural selection will modify the structure of the young in relation to the parent and of the parent in relation to the young. In social animals it will adapt the structure of each individual for the benefit of the whole community; if the community profits by the selected change. What natural selection cannot do, is to modify the structure of one species, without giving it any advantage, for the good of another species; and though statements to this effect may be found in works of natural history, I cannot find one case which will bear investigation. A structure used only once in an animal’s life, if of high importance to it, might be modified to any extent by 18

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natural selection; for instance, the great jaws possessed by certain insects, used exclusively for opening the cocoon — or the hard tip to the beak of unhatched birds, used for breaking the eggs. It has been asserted, that of the best short-beaked tumbler-pigeons a greater number perish in the egg than are able to get out of it; so that fanciers assist in the act of hatching. Now, if nature had to make the beak of a full-grown pigeon very short for the bird’s own advantage, the process of modification would be very slow, and there would be simultaneously the most rigorous selection of all the young birds within the egg, which had the most powerful and hardest beaks, for all with weak beaks would inevitably perish: or, more delicate and more easily broken shells might be selected, the thickness of the shell being known to vary like every other structure. It may be well here to remark that with all beings there must be much fortuitous destruction, which can have little or no influence on the course of natural selection. For instance, a vast number of eggs or seeds are annually devoured, and these could be modified through natural selection only if they varied in some manner which protected them from their enemies. Yet many of these eggs or seeds would perhaps, if not destroyed, have yielded individuals better adapted to their conditions of life than any of those which happened to survive. So again a vast number of mature animals and plants, whether or not they be the best adapted to their conditions, must be annually destroyed by accidental causes, which would not be in the least degree mitigated by certain changes of structure or constitution which would in other ways be beneficial to the species. But let the destruction of the adults be ever so heavy, if the number which can exist in any district be not wholly kept down by such causes,— or again let the destruction of eggs or seeds be so great that only a hundredth or a thousandth part are developed — yet of those which do survive, the best adapted individuals, supposing that there is any variability in a favourable direction, will tend to propagate their kind in larger numbers than the less well adapted. If the numbers be wholly kept down by the causes just indicated, as will often have been the 19

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case, natural selection will be powerless in certain beneficial directions; but this is no valid objection to its efficiency at other times and in other ways; for we are far from having any reason to suppose that many species ever undergo modification and improvement at the same time in the same area.

Lesson Plan 1B Essential Question What components of an ecosystem determine survival of a species?

Vocabulary The following vocabulary words are important concepts: • Predator • Prey • Carnivore • Herbivore • Omnivore

Suggested Reading Resources Primary Source Document: The chapter from Darwin’s On the Origin of Species may be reused or continued in use from the first lesson. Other Sources Biomes and Ecosystems Edited by John Rafferty Published by Britannica Educational Publishing, 2011 ISBN: 978161530321

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Mini Reading Lesson While you are reading the available text material or the suggested reading resources, attempt to answer the following question: How do the roles and characteristics of predators and prey create balance in an ecosystem? Introduce the vocabulary words on the previous page. They can be introduced even if they are not in the specific reading you have chosen.

Guided Practice Introduce a second play-through of the game, but this time with some modifications. Before playing, remove all of the carnivore trait cards from the deck. This means that there will not be any predators in the ecosystem. Discuss as a group what students think will happen within the ecosystem. Record the group’s thoughts for review after the game demonstration. Play and Discuss After demonstrating the revised game, discuss the following: • Was the group’s prediction of what would happen in the ecosystem of the game correct? • Were there any surprises in the play? • Did the removal of carnivores from the ecosystem reduce the value or usefulness of some traits? • What would happen if instead of removing the carnivore cards, some of the herbivore trait cards where removed? Cite some examples of changes and their impact. • How does the revised playing of the game emphasize the need for natural selection?

Model Have groups of students play the game as per the rules with a full set of cards, but with a revised victory condition. Each table of players

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will combine all of their food points for a total score for the ecosystem they created. For smaller groups, compare ecosystem scores over multiple plays to compare results. The goal is to have students work cooperatively to create a well-balanced ecosystem with strong relationships between predators and prey. The most efficient ecosystem will generate the highest population and thus the highest total food consumption for a higher ecosystem score. Have each group write a brief explanation of the strategy they used and rate its effectiveness. What could be changed to make the ecosystem more successful?

Independent Practice Remind students of the vocabulary introduced for their reading and ask them to attempt to include that vocabulary in appropriate ways in the writing activities they do.

Writing Activities Narrative: Have each student develop a story line for an ecosystem of his or her own design introducing a human component. Write an imaginary journal that was kept over ten generations on the changes humans introduced and their impact on the system. Inform or Explain: Explain the need for balance in an ecosystem, using specific examples to support your position Express an Opinion: Explore the argument between ranchers and those that would protect the wolf from bounty hunting. Take a position on either side and defend that position. Suggest possible outcomes of your position, both positive and negative ones.

Sharing/Reflection Have individuals or groups share and discuss their work with the class.

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Assessment Collect completed formative assessment (activity for model section) and writing activities and review. Responses from the model activity should include descriptions of how ongoing predator/prey relationships were established to increase the amount of food cubes being scored each round. Students should realize that larger prey animals are a more efficient way to feed multiple predators as more food is generated with the loss of only a single population of the prey. For the narrative piece, students should discuss the impact of selective breeding and changes to ecosystems through land development and killing of predators. For the opinion piece, students should carefully consider both sides of the argument using newspaper articles and other resources. They should also use knowledge gained in the demonstration and gameplay to inform their opinion.

Extension Activities Further Research: We looked at the impact on an ecosystem from removing predators. What happens when a super-predator evolves within an ecosystem? You can explore this within Evolution by playing the game as if every carnivore also has the Intelligence trait, allowing the player to discard a card to negate any defensive trait, on a prey species. In this instance, allow Intelligence to be used multiple times each turn. People to Know: Have students research an important environmental activist or advocate, such as Rachel Carson, Jane Goodall, Ansel Adams, David Attenborough, Jacques-Yves Cousteau, Franz Webber, John Muir, or others. Students should compile a brief biography of the person and his or her work, as well as important dates that can be added to a class timeline.

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train (HungryRobot Games, 2011) explores evolution on a different level—a much more microscopic level. Players will need to develop and evolve their microscopic organisms to survive in a hostile environment. The game explores the constant microorganism war that wages inside our bodies on a daily basis as organisms fight viruses to keep us healthy. In the game, players are bioengineers building organisms able to thrive within a competitive environment. The basic structure of the organism is scientifically accurate, which makes this game an effective way to introduce the extensive vocabulary of cellular biology.

The Science Cellular Structures Each organism card in the game serves as the central nucleus around which players will place cytoplasm and organelles. There are four different nucleus cards having two, four, six, or eight active slots that, when completely filled, give the player that number of points. Sounds easy enough; you just have to play out cards to fill the slots around the organism’s nucleus and gain points. The difficulty is that the other players are working against you by attacking your organism with viruses and toxin attacks. All of this is quite scientific. Cells in our body are quite complicated, consisting of a nucleus and many other parts that are well beyond the scope of this brief review. The majority of the cell, however, is composed of cytoplasm. Cytoplasm consists of cytosol, organelles, and inclusions. In the game, however, the cytoplasm deck focuses on cytosol, ectoplasm, and cytoskeletons. Cytosol, mostly water, accounts for about 70 percent of a cell’s volume; in the game this is reflected in the cytoplasm deck, consisting 24

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mostly of cytosol cards. The cytosol cards are a basic building block that will fill many of the slots around your organism. They provide some additional resistance and a small amount of resources. The cytosol portion of a cell is reinforced by the cytoskeleton that, despite the name, is not made of any sort of bone. The cytoskeleton is actually a framework of proteins that provides structure and protection for the cell. Unlike bone, the cytoskeleton is very flexible and dynamic; it can move and change as needed depending on the environment and role of the cell. In the game, the cytoskeleton cards provide higher levels of resistance for the organism but don’t contribute any resources. The cytoplasm of a cell is contained within and protected by an outside membrane called the ectoplasm. In the game, ectoplasm cards provide a higher level of resources as compared to the basic cytosol cards. Also contained within the cytoplasm of a cell are organelles, specialized structures found within a cell that carry out specific tasks. For example, cilium are organelles that support movement of external materials within the body (as opposed to flagellum, which move that particular cell). Cilia are found on almost every cell, but some cells have special motile cilia that promote movement. When you cough up mucus from your lungs, it was the motile cilia in cells lining the lungs and windpipe that moved the mucus up from the lungs to where it could be coughed out. In Strain, the cilium card is played onto an organism as an organelle. Then it can be activated to move a tile between organisms, mirroring the actual role of cilium in our cells. There are many different organelles in the game that provide specialized powers and abilities.

Cellular Resources Playing out new organelles costs resources and in Strain also draws upon the actual science of cellular functions. The primary resource within the game is ATP—adenosine triphosphate—a molecular energy source that is constantly being generated and used within cells in a constant recycling action. In the game, cytosol and 25

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ectoplasm cards from the cytoplasm deck as well as some of the organelle cards generate ATP. For example, the mitochondrion organelle card—depicted on the card as a factory—produces four ATP each turn. In cells, the mitochondrion is where most ATP production happens. The cells within our body are constantly producing, using, and recycling ATP throughout our lives. Though at any given moment the actual mass of the total ATP in our cells is not that impressive, the same resources are being used and recycled so often that we can use a total mass of ATP about equal to our body weight during a day.

The War Within Us The other major card type found in Strain is a virus. These cards depict actual viruses and are used as a primary attack vector in the game. Viruses are played on other players’ organisms to slow them down; organisms with viruses cannot be scored, and some viruses attack their host with ongoing negative effects. For example, the rhabdoviridae card forces the host organism to attack with its entire available toxin at the start of each round. Since the toxin resource typically comes from cytoplasm cards that also produce ATP, this can severely limit the growth potential of the organism and the player. Why does this card work like this? The effect of the card and the depiction of a figure with a foaming mouth become obvious when you know that one of the more famous rhabdoviruses is rabies. To get rid of viruses or to attack another player’s organisms, you will need to use available toxins found within your cells. “Toxin” is a general term that refers to any type of agent created by a cellular process that disrupts other cells. Within Strain the cytosol and ectoplasm cards are the primary generators of toxins, but other cards can also contribute as well. For example, the trichocyst organelle card generates two toxins per turn or can be discarded to instantly destroy any other tile. In cells, trichocysts are found along with some cilia and flagella; they are a thin thread that can be fired like an arrow to destroy invading cells.

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Elements that are toxic at a cellular level are referred to as being cytotoxic. In medicine, cytotoxicity is used in chemotherapy to attack cancerous cells. Most cellular death in cases like this is through necrosis, where the structure of the cell is compromised in a process called lysis. In Strain, cytotoxic attacks are successful when the level of toxicity overwhelms the resistance of the combined tiles on the defending organism such that toxicity damage cannot be spread out to keep at least one defense on each tile. Therefore, the total resistance of an organism might be higher than the toxicity of the attack, but if the toxicity cannot be spread out and absorbed without reducing any tile to zero defense then tiles will be lost. If an organism itself is reduced to zero resistance, it experiences necrosis and can be considered lysed, or destroyed.

Why This Game Works The simple reason why this game is such an effective part of biology instruction is that it uses the extensive vocabulary of cellular biology. More importantly, it uses the vocabulary correctly. The cards have been carefully designed to represent the many different structures

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and activities within a cell. The clever illustrations also provide hints at what the organelle does, for example, the depiction of the mitochondria as an ATP factory. Playing Strain is like flipping through a deck of flashcards, only in this case the players are actively engaged with the terms and their use within context strongly reinforces a deeper understanding of the concept. As a card game, we can also break Strain down to use the components in new ways. Pull all of the blue organelle cards out of the petri dish deck and pass them out as a research assignment. Have students explore the science behind their organelle and report back as to the actual function of the organelle within a cell. They can also rate the effectiveness of the portrayal of the organelle on the card both in terms of illustration and card action. The same can be done with the virus cards.

Lesson Plan 2A Essential Question What is the relationship between the components of a cell?

Vocabulary The following vocabulary words are important concepts: • Cytoplasm • Cytosol • Cytoskeleton • Ectoplasm • Organelle • Virus • ATP

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Suggested Reading Resources Primary Source Document: “On Cells as the Basis of All Tissues of the Animal Body” from Microscopic Investigations on the Accordance in the Structure and Growth of Plants and Animals Pages by Theodor Schwann, 1839. Schwann was a German physiologist credited with early work defining cell theory. Although scientific understandings have evolved, reading this initial reporting on cells provides insight into the process of scientific discovery. Other Sources: The Basics of Cell Biology Written by Anne Wanjie Published by Rosen Publishing Group, Inc., 2013 ISBN: 9781477705483 The Components of Life Edited by Kara Rogers Published by Britannica Educational Publishing, 2011 ISBN: 9781615303243 The Cell Edited by Kara Rogers Published by Britannica Educational Publishing, 2011 ISBN: 9781615303144 Cells Up Close Written by Maria Nelson Published by Gareth Stevens Learning Library, 2013 ISBN: 9781433983382

Mini Reading Lesson While you are reading the available text material or the suggested reading resources, attempt to answer the following question: How do 29

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the different parts of a cell contribute to the function of the cell within a larger organism? Introduce the vocabulary words on page 28. They can be introduced even if they are not in the specific reading you have chosen. Guided Practice For this first lesson, students will be working with the components of Strain but not playing a full game. Using the cards from the game, explore the basic structure of a cell. Cards within the game are broken into three decks: the organism deck serves as the nucleus for the cell, the cytoplasm deck fills the cytoplasm region of the cell, and organelles are found in the petri dish deck. For this lesson, ignore the red virus cards and the grey chain reaction cards from the petri dish deck. Looking at the cytoplasm deck, discuss why the three types of cards—cytosol, cytoskeleton, and ectoplasm—might have been included in the numerical distribution found. Using the organelles found in the petri dish deck, have students compare the organelles found in the game with actual cell structures. Read and Discuss Have students reread each section of the text and review the cards to discuss the following: • What are the primary elements of a cell’s structure? • What is the role of each element in the working of a cell? • What different types of organelles provide specialized functions for different cells? • How accurate are the portrayals of cell structures on the cards within Strain? Model In small groups, have students work cooperatively to build cells using the cards from Strain. Give each group four cards from the organism deck. Have students start by adding cards from the cytoplasm deck to the spaces around the nucleus card. The cytoplasm cards generate 30

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ATP each turn based on the number in the green test tube in the lower left corner of the card. Groups can use that ATP to add organelles to their cells, paying the ATP cost for the organelle as shown in the green battery icon in the lower right corner of the organelle card. This is the basic mechanism of game play that they will repeat during the full play-through of the game in the following lesson. After building the cells, each group should fill in the cellular structure sheet listed in the appendix and available at www. teachingthroughgames.com for printing. The sheet presents a sample cell as would be found in Strain and asks the students to identify the parts. Students will need to explain how the cell structure developed. Independent Practice Remind students of the vocabulary introduced for their reading and ask them to attempt to include that vocabulary in appropriate ways in the writing activities they do. Writing Activities Narrative: Two scientists, working in the late 1600s with a newer, more powerful microscope, are finally able to see cells for the first time. One scientist notices that animal and plant tissue seem to be built from common elements, but the other scientist disagrees. Write two short letters from each to the other discussing their findings and interpretations of what they have seen. Inform or Explain: Describe the components of cell structure, including appropriate diagrams. Describe the function of at least four different types of organelles. Sharing/Reflection Have individuals or groups share and discuss their work with the class. Assessment Collect completed formative assessment (activity for model section) and writing activities and review. On the cellular structure sheet 31

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students should have accurately identified the parts of the cell depicted. They will need to infer some information. For example, the most common card type would obviously be cytosol based on their knowledge of cells. The narrative piece will be challenging for students. A major point of disagreement in early biology was that some felt it impossible that humans, animals, and plants could all share a common cellular structure. If this idea is expressed in the students’ writing, consider that a very sophisticated response. Extension Activities Further Research: Have students research new findings in cellular structure. This is a constantly changing field as new discoveries are made. Further Research: Have students compare the early cell theory proposed by Schwann in the primary source document included in the lesson with current understandings of cell theory. Compare and contrast the science including the available tools.

“On Cells as the Basis of all Tissues of the Animal Body” From Microscopic Investigations on the Accordance in the Structure and Growth of Plants and Animals Pages, by Theodor Schwann, 1839. The young cells contained within the cartilage-cells (see plate I, fig. 8, ff) may be regarded as the elementary form of the tissues previously considered, and may be described as round cells having a characteristic nucleus, firmly attached to the internal surface of the wall. As the above were proved to correspond with the vegetable cells, it follows, that it is only necessary to trace back the elementary structure of the rest of the tissues to the same formation, in order to show their analogy also with the cells of plants. In some tissues this proof is easy, and immediately afforded; in others, however, it is obtained with 32

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much difficulty, and it would frequently be altogether impossible to demonstrate the cellular nature of some, if the connection between the different steps in this investigation were lost sight of. The difficulty arises from the following circumstances: 1st. The minuteness of the cells; in consequence of which it is not only necessary to use a power magnifying from 400 to 500 diameters, but it is also frequently, indeed generally found impossible to press out their contents. 2dly. The delicate nature of the cell-membrane. When this has a certain density, its external as well as internal outline may be recognized, and the distinction between it and the cellcontents may thus be placed beyond a doubt. But if the cell-membrane be very delicate, the two outlines meet together in one line, and this may readily be regarded as the boundary line of a globule, not enclosed by a special enveloping membrane. 3dly. The similar power of refraction possessed by the cell-wall and cell-contents, in consequence of which the internal outline of the former cannot be observed. 4thly. The granulous nature of the cell-membrane, which when the contents are also granulous, cannot be distinguished from them. Lastly, the variety of form presented by the cells, for they may be flattened even to the total disappearance of the cavity, or elongated into cylinders and fibres. From these circumstances, many of the cells which now come before us for consideration, have been described as mere globules, or granules, terms which do not express their true signification, and even when they were spoken of as cells, or cells furnished with a nucleus, the description rested only upon a slight analogy, since but very few of them (for example, the pigment-cells), were proved to be actually hollow cells. But—as the precise signification of the nucleus is unknown, and as the cell-membrane is not proved to be anything essential to those cells (and this follows from their accordance with vegetable cells), upon the analogy with which the proof of the cellular nature of the rest of the globules provided with a nucleus will be based,—there is no contradiction involved in the supposition that a nucleus may be contained in a solid globule as well as in a cell. 33

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From the difficulties of this investigation above detailed, it will be seen that a given object may really be a cell, when even the common characteristics of that structure, namely, the perceptibility of the cell-membrane, and the flowing out of the cell contents, cannot be brought under observation. The possibility that an object may be a cell, does not, however, advance us much; the presence of positive characteristics is necessary in order to enable us to regard it as such. In many instances these difficulties do not present themselves, and the cellular nature of the object is immediately recognized; in others, the impediments are not so great but that the distinction between cell-membrane and cell-contents is at-least indicated, and in such cases other circumstances may advance that supposition to a certainty. The most important and abundant proof as to the existence of a cell is the presence or absence of the nucleus. Its sharp outline and dark colour render it in most instances easily perceptible; its characteristic figure, especially when it encloses nucleoli, and remarkable position in the globule under examination, (being within it, but eccentrical, and separated from the surface only by the thickness of the assumed cell-wall,) all combine to prove it the cell-nucleus, and render its analogy with the nucleus of the young cells contained in cartilage, and with those of vegetables, as also the analogy between the globules under examination, in which it lies, and those cells, consequently the existence of a spherical cell-membrane in the globules, extremely probable. More than nine tends of the globules in question present such a nucleus; in many the special cell-membrane is indubitable, in most it is more or less distinct. Under such circumstances, we may be permitted to conclude that all those globules which present a nucleus of the characteristic form and position, have also a cell-membrane, although, from the causes before specified, it may not be perceptible. The different tissues will also afford us many instances of other circumstances which tend to prove the existence of an actual cell-membrane. An example of what is referred to would be afforded by an instance, in which a certain corpuscle (furnished with a nucleus) , about the cellular nature of which a doubt existed, could be proved to be only a state of 34

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development, or modification in form, of an indubitable cell. The cell-nuclei and their distance from each other when scattered in a tissue, also serve as indications, when the outlines of the cells have to be sought for. They likewise serve to guide conjecture as to the earlier existence of separate cells, in instances where they have coalesced in the progress of development. When a globule does not exhibit a nucleus during any one of the stages of its development, it is either not a cell, or may at least be preliminarily rejected, if there be no other circumstances to prove it such. Fortunately, these cells devoid of nuclei are rare. In addition, however, to the cellular nature of the elementary structures of animal tissues, there are yet other points of accordance between them and the cells of plants, which may generally be shown in the progress of their development, and which give increased weight to the evidence tending to prove that these elementary structures are cells. The exceedingly frequent, if not absolutely universal presence of the nucleus, even in the latest formed cells, proves its great importance for their existence. We cannot, it is true, at present assert that, with regard to all cells furnished with a nucleus, the latter is universally the primary and the cell the secondary formation, that is to say, that in every instance the cell is formed around the previously existing nucleus. It is probable, however, that such is the case generally, for we not only meet with separate nuclei in most of the tissues, distinct from those which have cells around them, but we also find that the younger the cells are, the smaller they are in proportion to the nucleus. The ultimate destiny also of the nucleus is similar to that of the vegetable cells. As in the last named, so in most animal cells it is subsequently absorbed, and remains as a permanent structure in some few only. In plants, according to Schleiden, the young cells are always developed within parent cells, and we have also seen such a development of new cells within those already formed in the chorda dorsalis and cartilage. If, however, any doubt existed as to whether the primary cells of these tissues were formed within previously existing parent cells, none such can arise in reference to many of the tissues next to 35

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be considered. We shall indeed frequently meet with a formation of young cells within older ones, but it is not the rule, and does not occur at all with regard to many of them. The following admits of universal application to the formation of cells; there is, in the first instance, a structureless substance present, which is sometimes quite fluid, at others more or less gelatinous. This substance possesses within itself, in a greater or lesser measure according to its chemical qualities and the degree of its vitality, a capacity to occasion the production of cells. When this takes place the nucleus usually appears to be formed first, and then the cell around it. The formation of cells bears the same relation to organic nature that crystallization does to inorganic. The cell, when once formed, continues to grow by its own individual powers, but is at the same time directed by the influence of the entire organism in such manner, as the design of the whole requires. This is the fundamental phenomenon of all animal and vegetable vegetation. It is alike equally consistent with those instances in which young cells are formed within parent cells, as with those in which the formation goes on outside of them. The generation of the cells takes place in a fluid, or in a structureless substance in both cases. We will name this substance in which the cells are formed, cell-germinating material (Zellenkeimstoff), or cytoblastema. It may be figuratively, but only figuratively, compared to the mother-lye from which crystals are deposited. We shall refer to this point at greater length hereafter, and only anticipate our subject with this result of the investigation, in order to facilitate the comprehension of what follows. In the previous section of this work we have discussed in detail the course of development of some of the animal cells, having taken the chorda dorsalis and cartilage for our examples. We are now required to prove, as far as is possible, that all the tissues either originate from, or consist of cells. We separate this investigation into two divisions. The first treats of the Ovum and Germinal membrane, in so far as they form the common basis of all the subsequent tissues. 36

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The second division embraces the permanent tissues of the animal body, with the omission of the two already described.

Lesson Plan 2B Essential Question How do cells work and fight within our bodies every day?

Vocabulary The following vocabulary words are important concepts: • Virus • Toxin • Necrosis • Lysis • Resistance

Suggested Reading Resources The Chemical Reactions of Life Written by Britannica Educational Publishing Edited by Kara Rogers ISBN: 978161530328 The Basics of Biochemistry Written by Anne Wanjie Published by Rosen Young Adult, 2013 ISBN: 978161477727072 Bacteria and Viruses Written by Britannica Educational Publishing Edited by Kara Rogers ISBN: 9781615303069

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Mini Reading Lesson While you are reading the available text material or the suggested reading resources, attempt to answer the following question: How do cells interact with other cells and with invaders like viruses? Introduce the vocabulary words on the previous page. They can be introduced even if they are not in the specific reading you have chosen.

Guided Practice Introduce the full rules of Strain for students to play. In the discussion, point out the virus cards and the toxin production on cytoplasm and organelle cards as seen in the red test tube in the bottom right corner. Toxin production allows a cell to attack another cell. If the level of the toxin attack overwhelms the resistance of the other cell, parts of the cell will be destroyed or the whole cell will be lost. Read and Discuss Have students reread each section of the text and discuss the following: • • • •

What is a toxin? What is a virus? How can toxins and viruses be used for beneficial purposes? How do cells fight off viruses in our body?

Model Have students play through a full session of Strain. The game end conditions can be modified as needed to use a lower point value to have a shorter game period. Because this is a card game with a higher level of chance as compared to strategy, students will have to reflect and infer from their play experience after they have finished the game. Students should address these questions within a reflective writing piece: What might have happened differently in the game? 38

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What can be inferred about cellular structure and cell theory from the game play? How does chance factor into the cellular level activities within our bodies?

Independent Practice Remind students of the vocabulary introduced for their reading and ask them to attempt to include that vocabulary in appropriate ways in the writing activities they do. Writing Activities Narrative: Describe an epic fight scene between an invading virus and a defending cell. Use creative imagery and descriptive language to highlight the struggle being waged. Inform or Explain: How does chemotherapy work? Express an Opinion: Despite the claims being discredited by scientific research, some people still feel that vaccines are harmful and elect not to vaccinate their children. Should this objection be allowed? Defend your position in scientific, moral, and ethical terms.

Sharing/Reflection Have individuals or groups share and discuss their work with the class.

Assessment Collect completed formative assessment (activity for model section) and writing activities and review. The reflective writing from the model section should address the questions raised. In particular, the reflection on the element of chance in our bodies might be expressed as the random mutation of cancerous cells. The narrative piece is meant to be a bit of over-the-top fun. This is a chance to push 39

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students to think about aesthetics within the logic of science. For the opinion piece, scientific, moral, and ethical considerations should all be raised. It is critical, however, that any scientific points made be backed by peer-reviewed and accepted research findings.

Extension Activities Further Research: Bioengineers are manipulating viruses and other cells to create organic motors that can be used to deliver medicine or power organic engines within our bodies. Explore this new field of bioengineering and talk about some new developments. Important Details: Have students identify ten important details to know about cellular structure and cellular interactions and have them justify their choices of those details using the Important Details sheet in the appendix and available online at www.teachingthroughgames.com for printing. Answers will vary.

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ith every aspect of the game, down to a scoreboard built atop the periodic table, designed to evoke a chemistry lab, Compounded (Dice Hate Me, 2014) is a great resource for teaching chemistry.

The Science A Brief History of the Periodic Table The creation of the periodic table is attributed to Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleyev who published his table of elements in 1869. He built on earlier work of other scientists and drew on the definition of an element from the 1600s. Elements were then defined as substances that could not be broken down by a chemical reaction. Work on understanding elements continued into the ninetheenth century with new attempts to classify elements beyond earlier classification as metals and nonmetals. Mendeleyev arranged the known elements by atomic mass. He left spaces in his table for unknown elements that he predicted must exist based on the structure of atomic mass progression. This was a brilliant bit of deduction that proved to be quite accurate given the limitations of science in 1869. In the twentieth century, chemists and physicists added to and moved around elements in the periodic table in response to new discoveries. Changes have also been made to include new elements that have been synthesized in laboratories. Elements 99 through 118 on the current table do not occur in nature. For example element 99, Einsteinium, was discovered in the debris of hydrogen bomb tests in 1952. These synthesized elements can be very difficult to research as they are incredibly unstable. Seaborgium, element 106, has a half-life of just under two minutes in its most stable form. That means that 41

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every two minutes, the amount of Seaborgium is halved. In less than 15 minutes, over 99 percent of a Seaborgium sample will have decayed to another element. Glenn Seaborg, for whom Seborgium is named, made a major change to the periodic table in the late 1940s. He won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1951 for his work identifying and synthesizing actinides as a new series in the periodic table.

Elements and Compounds While elements were first defined as substances that could not be broken down by a chemical reaction, today we further clarify that an element is a unique single atom. Each element is described by its atomic number, the number assigned for the number of protons in the nucleus of the atom. Hydrogen, with an atomic number of one, therefore has just a single proton. The current periodic table goes through element 118, ununoctium, which has 118 protons. Though elements are defined as the most basic structure—a form that cannot be broken down further by chemical reaction—that doesn’t mean you can always find elements in their raw form. Most of the naturally occurring elements are found in nature only in the form of a compound. Only 32 of the 118 elements can be found in nature as pure elements, and even then they are usually found in mixtures or compounds. Compounds are substances formed from two or more elements that can only be separated into their components by chemical reactions. The compound is formed by some combination of elements in an identifiable and fixed ratio. Compounds also have distinctive properties; the properties from the component elements are not added but are changed. Water is a good example of a compound that demonstrates both the ratio and the distinctive properties. A molecule of water is made up of two atoms of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen, a makeup that is designated as H2O. Hydrogen is highly combustible—concentrations of hydrogen can explode into flame from just sunlight—but does not support combustion. Oxygen is very supportive of combustion—that is why we talk about smothering a flame to deprive it of the oxygen in air—but is not combustible. Mixed as 42

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two distinct elements, these two elements are, quite literally, rocket fuel. In the H2O compound form, however, they form the water that we regularly use to put out fires. Compounds, it must be seen, are much more than just a simple combination of the elements. Elements are combined in more simple forms as well, but in nature and in the lab. These are called mixtures and are different from compounds. Usually, the elements in a mixture can be separated without a chemical reaction. A mixture of iron and water, for example, can be filtered or separated by placing a magnet in the water to remove the iron. Generally, mixtures also do not have uniquely different properties from the component elements but take properties from the elements. Mixtures and compounds can be made from elements or the combination of compounds.

How Compounds Are Formed A compound is formed when two or more elements are chemically joined. The resultant formula for the compound expresses the elements and the number of each in the compound. As we saw, water has the formula H2O for two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom per molecule. There are four main types of compounds: molecular compounds, salts, intermetallic compounds, and complexes. The nature of the bond that holds the elements within the compound determines the type. For example, molecular compounds are held together by covalent bonds where the compound molecule shares electron pairs between the elemental atoms. In salts, ionic bonds are formed when one atom essentially steals an electron from another elemental atom. The type of bond and other information about the layout of the elemental atoms within a compound molecule can be displayed in a graphical format using a standard structure called an electron dot diagram. These diagrams are also often referred to as the Lewis structure or Lewis diagrams in honor of the creator, Gilbert Lewis, who first developed the easy way of displaying compounds in 1916. Compounded uses Lewis dot diagrams on the cards to help players fill elements into compounds. 43

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Why This Game Works Compounded works because it keeps the periodic table before the students as a score sheet, it has them add elements to form simple compounds from six common elements, it shows the traditional formula and a pictorial representation on the compound cards, and it leads them through stages of scientific work in the game: discovery, study, research, and lab stage. While these stages do not reflect the traditional stages of scientific study, they do help students understand that a systematic process of looking at what you have, thinking about what you might do, researching the best options, and then working in the lab is followed. A little of the real world is introduced because scientists can trade items, wearing safety goggles and having a journal give you a bonus, and lab fires and volatile explosions can happen to remind students that experiments are not without danger. The game can be played in ways to encourage thinking about twentytwo compounds made up of the six elements and included on the sixty-three compound cards. Students should play the game having conversations about the way the compounds are named and those that have elements in common. An interesting example from a discussion about 44

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cards might be to look at the Methane and Methanol cards. Methanol, CH3OH on the card or CH4O in some other sources, is similar to Methane, CH4. Just looking at the cards and finding the molecular formula in a resource could generate a conversation about how elements join. Or looking at the card titled Hydrogen Oxide, H2O, that many people call water could generate a conversation about naming compounds and tradition. Shouldn’t H2O be named dihydrogen monoxide to clearly spell out its elements? With additional research, students can find that it is simply called hydrogen oxide as hydrogen is a diatomic molecule, meaning that a hydrogen molecule found naturally on earth has two atoms of hydrogen. Oddly enough, oxygen is also a diatomic element. As educators, we can help students generate conversations about the compounds included in the game, about the organization of the periodic table that serves as the score sheet, and about where the six elements are located on the table and why. The students can have fun—this game is fun and relatively easy to learn—and think about chemistry as well. With many additional elements, there are many possibilities for expansions for the game.

Lesson Plan 3A Essential Question What is a compound?

Vocabulary The following vocabulary words are important concepts: • Periodic table • Elements • Compounds • Molecular structure • Hydrogen • Carbon • Oxygen • Nitrogen 45

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Calcium Sulfur Graduated cylinder Pipet Bunsen burner

Suggested Reading Resources  he Rosen Comprehensive Dictionary of Chemistry T Edited by John Owen, Edward Clark, and William Hemsley Published by Rosen Publishing Group, Inc., 2008 ISBN: 9781404207004 Elements and the Periodic Table Written by Suzanne Slade Published by Rosen Publishing Group, Inc., 2007 ISBN: 9781404221659 Exploring Chemical Reactions Written by Nigel Saunders Published by Rosen Publishing Group, Inc., 2008 ISBN: 9781404237513 Mendeleyev and the Periodic Table Written by Katherine White Published by Rosen Publishing Group, Inc., 2005 ISBN: 9781404203105 Mixtures and Compounds Written by Marylou Morano Kjelle Published by Rosen Publishing Group, Inc., 2007 ISBN: 9781404221673 Core Concepts: Periodic Table online database Rosen Digital 46

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Mini Reading Lesson While students read the available text material or the suggested reading resources and view available or suggested videos, have them focus on the following question: What is a compound? Introduce the vocabulary words above. They can be introduced even if they are not in the specific reading you have chosen.

Guided Practice Have students preview any headings and subheadings in the reading they have been asked to do. Have students read the selections and/or watch suggested videos. Read and Discuss Have students reread each section of the text and discuss the following: • What is the history of the periodic table? • What is the difference between an element and a compound? • What is the difference between a mixture and a compound? • How are the elements on the periodic table organized? • What are some common compounds with hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and carbon?

Model Introduce the students to the game by having them explore the components of the game, explaining that the different colored crystals represent six different common elements and that the compound cards represent compounds made from those elements. Have students recall the differences between elements and compounds and compounds and mixtures. Explore the periodic table score board and ask students to recall how items are arranged on the table and at least two points about the history of the periodic table. After students have reviewed these basic concepts introduce the four phases of the 47

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game: discovery, in which players draw a number of elements from the elements bag and work any trades that might be advantageous to themselves and other players; study, in which players place claim tokens on compounds they wish to make and move any tokens they have already placed on the compound cards; research, in which the players place elements onto the compound cards; and lab, where the players score their points on the periodic table scoreboard. Have students complete the worksheet An Introduction to Compounded that is included in the Appendix and available online at www.teachingthroughgames.com.

Independent Practice Remind students of the vocabulary introduced for their reading and ask them to attempt to include that vocabulary in appropriate ways in the writing activities they do. Writing Activities Narrative: You are a renowned chemist and have just discovered a new element for the periodic table, but some other scientists do not believe your work is correct. Write a letter to your best friend about this incident. Inform or Explain: Do research on one of the six elements included in the game and develop a PowerPoint presentation on the characteristics of the element, its place in the periodic table, some common compounds, and its volatility in lab settings. Express an Opinion: This is a game set in a chemistry lab with you having to manage your own workbench and compete to secure compounds before others in the game. Tell how you feel this game is different from a typical lab in a science classroom.

Sharing/Reflection Have individuals or groups share and discuss their work with the class 48

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Assessment Collect completed formative assessment (worksheet activity for model section) and writing activities and review. The worksheet should depict correct implementation of compounds within the Lewis dot diagrams. For the narrative piece, evidence of a new element would include a distinct imaginary atomic number and correct placement within the periodic table structure. In the opinion piece, students will hopefully identify a spirit of collegiality that exists within science as researchers share information to advance the field as a whole.

Extension Activities Further Research: Research an additional element from the periodic table that is not in the game. Write a report on what you learn about that element. Important Details: Have students identify ten important details to know about the periodic table and elements and have them justify their choices of those details using the Important Details sheet in the appendix and available online at www.teachingthroughgames.com for printing. Answers will vary.

Lesson Plan 3B Essential Question How are compounds different from mixtures of elements?

Vocabulary The following vocabulary words are important concepts: • Periodic table • Elements • Compounds 49

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Molecular structure Hydrogen Carbon Oxygen Nitrogen Calcium Sulfur Graduated cylinder Pipet Bunsen burner

Suggested Reading Resources No sources are needed for playing the game except the game directions to clarify phases and actions that can be taken.

Mini Reading Lesson While students play the game, have them focus on the following question: What strategic choices can I make when forming compounds in the game Compounded? Review the vocabulary words above.

Guided Practice Have students preview any headings and subheadings in the manual and then read the manual. Read and Discuss Have students reread each section of the text and discuss the following: • • • • •

How is the game set up for play with five players? How are wild elements token used? When is the game over and how is the winner determined? What actions happen during the Discover phase? What actions happen during the Study phase? 50

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What actions happen during the Research phase? What actions happen during the Lab phase? What happens when a lab fire card is revealed? What can I do with the various lab tools? What happens when a compound card with a chemical reaction is scored?

Model Have students play the game. Encourage them to explore the rules of play and think of strategies that might help them win the game. As they play, have them write down any strategies they think are working or not working for them. This might mirror an experiment log a scientist would keep to track different tests.

Independent Practice Remind students of the vocabulary introduced for their reading and ask them to attempt to include that vocabulary in appropriate ways in the writing activities they do. Writing Activities Narrative: You have just won the game Compounded. Write a narrative of your experience that you would have with a friend who is not in your class. It is ok to brag! Share a couple of reasons you won. Inform or Explain: Explain one point about chemistry that was reinforced by playing this game. Express an Opinion: Write a review of this game and express an opinion on its efficacy as an instructional resource. Does playing this game help you learn about elements and compounds? Explain your answer.

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Sharing/Reflection Have individuals or groups share and discuss their work with the class.

Assessment Collect completed formative assessment (writing about strategies for model section) and writing activities and review. The experiment log should identify a hypothesis, planned tests, and results. For the narrative piece, the reasons for victory should be backed by scientific and mathematical evidence such as hoarding some of the more rare elements or working toward easy compounds.

Extension Activities Further Research: Research an element you could use for one of the crystals that is not in the game and draw up three compound cards that would use that element. Important Details: Complete the Important Details worksheet in the Appendix and available online at www.teachingthroughgames.com: Think about what to do in each phase of the game Compounded. List strategies that can help you be more successful during each phase of the game.

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n this chapter, we will be using Bolide, a car racing game (Ghenos, 2005), to explore the implications of vectors. Alfredo Genovese, an Italian game designer and nuclear engineer, designed the game. Bolide presents itself as a car racing game, but at its heart it is really all about vectors. The game uses a pawn and a car. The pawn is used to point out possible next moves for the car, both its direction and speed, two components of vectors. The racetrack adds the interest of having to choose a magnitude and direction that keep the car on the track although the pawn itself does not have to remain on the track.

The Science A Definition of Vectors A vector is a way to show the magnitude and direction of a physical quantity. Unlike a scalar quantity, a vector quantity must have more than one component. Examples of scalar quantities in cars would include the amount of fuel (12.3 gallons), the speed (60 mph), or even the direction of travel (west). Using a vector, however, we can define the actual movement of the car as 60 mph west. The vector includes both magnitude (60 mph) and direction (west) to define a specific definition of the movement. While scalar quantities can be represented by a single number and be manipulated with simple arithmetic, vectors are represented by values along an axis. Matrices and pictures and geometry are used to manipulate vector quantities. Two common types of vector quantities include velocity and displacement. Displacement of an object is determined from its starting and ending positions. If you drive from home to the mall and back home again, your displacement is zero because your end point is the same as your starting point. While you are driving to the mall, you are driving in some direction that changes 53

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as the road turns. Your speed also changes as you accelerate and break. At any time you can compute a velocity vector that is determined by your speed and direction. When we compare scalar quantities, we just have to look at a single value that describes the magnitude. With vectors, though, both the magnitude and the direction must be considered. Two vectors are equal only if they have both the same magnitude and direction. Otherwise, we have to talk about whether one or both aspects are unequal. For example, think about American football players leaving the line of scrimmage when the play starts. For some time, the wide receiver and the defender have similar vectors—they are both running in the same direction at about the same speed. To break free in order to be able to catch a pass, the wide receiver will need to evade the defender. The wide receiver could accomplish this by changing either aspect of his vector. A sudden change of direction might leave the two players traveling the same speed but in very different directions to create rapid separation. Or, a sudden burst of speed or rapid stop could leave the two players traveling in the same direction but still create space for a pass due to the change in speed creating separation. How much separation is created? To figure that out, we need to do some vector math.

Adding and Subtracting Vectors Vectors can be added and subtracted just like scalars can, but it is a lot more complicated. The rules for vector sums require the use of geometry. To add two vectors, say two velocities, you draw the first vector with its magnitude and direction relative to some starting point on your graph. Then you draw the second vector, starting the beginning point at the end point of the first vector. You then connect the beginning point of the first vector and the ending point of the second vector to represent the sum of the two vectors. For example, if we wanted to add vectors a and b, we can first consider them independently by plotting them on a graph. 54

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Then, we would need to redraw b using the end of a as the starting point.

By then computing the value of c, created by using the start point from a and the end point of b as drawn from the end of a, we can find the sum of a and b. 55

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Subtracting vectors is really just adding the negative of the second vector to the first vector. To add, you would draw the first vector and then draw the second vector starting from the end point of the first vector. For subtraction, you have to reverse the second vector by plotting the negative x and y values of the vector. Then, you can once

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again create a third vector from the start point of the first vector to the end of the second vector to find the value of the difference of the two vectors. We could use vector subtraction to find the separation of the two football players in our above example. To do this, we look at the vectors of two players and then subtract them by adding the value of the first vector to the value of the second vector reversed, or multiplied by -1. The difference describes both the magnitude and direction of the separation as it will grow over time if the players continue as they are moving.

The Physics of Car Racing The iconic drifting of street racers in The Fast and the Furious, where the cars slide sideways around a corner, is a great example of vector motion. Even though the driver has turned the car, the momentum continues to carry the car in its original direction. Welcome to the real world of three dimensions. While the vector of velocity is still at work, one must also consider the force of friction as a force opposite your turning force. If your speed is too fast, your car slides in the direction it was moving, a direction away from the center of the turn. In the board game, your car will not slide! You will find yourself off the track and out of the game. If you are going at your fastest possible speed and want to make a turn successfully, you will need to compute a path around the curve that represents a fairly large circle, one actually larger than the track. Then your car appears to almost be going in a straight line through the curve. Hugging the inside will not work. Even hugging the outside of the track will not be possible at the highest possible speed. Computing the best path at the maximum speed means considering vectors.

Why This Game Works Bolide works for teaching vectors while holding the interest of the students in racing. Players can see in the moves that there are two components at work: speed and direction. Each turn, players can increase 57

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their speed so they are going too fast to make a curve or decrease their speed so they lag behind other players. Choices in direction can have them going into curves in a way to give them a shortest possible distance to travel at their given speed or send them off the track. At the simplest level of play, students can consider just their speed and direction. Later on, if the teacher wishes, the idea of slipstreaming and the relevance of physics to this concept can be introduced. Slipsteaming in car racing is when a car drives very close to the car in front of it. By moving in close behind the other car, the driver benefits from a reduction of drag over his car’s body, which may let the driver reach a higher speed and move around the car in front or save gas and go longer before a pitstop. In the more complex playing of the game, the driver earns one bonus space in his main direction on his next turn. The game can be used as a springboard for discussion of the aerodynamics of air flowing around the race car, the dynamics of tires on the road, and even a review of Newton’s third law. If students just play the game, they may not think about the physics at work. Of course, race car drivers do not have time to do calculations while they are racing. They must intuitively use the principals at work to alter their speed and direction in appropriate ways. However, students playing the game can be asked to predict the effect of their choices during the game and draw diagrams showing the addition of their new choice on their current position.

Lesson Plan 4A Essential Question How can vectors be applied to real life activities?

Vocabulary The following vocabulary words are important concepts: • Vectors • Displacement 58

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Velocity Acceleration Distance Frame of reference Speed

Suggested Reading Resources Online Sources: https://www.khanacademy.org/science/physics/two-dimensionalmotion/centripetal-acceleration-tutoria/v/race-cars-with-constantspeed-around-curve https://www.khanacademy.org/science/physics/two-dimensionalmotion/centripetal-acceleration-tutoria/v/jrhildebrand-turning Other Sources: The Laws of Motion: Understanding Uniform and Accelerated Motion, chapter 1 Written by Betty Burnett Published by the Rosen Publishing Group, Inc ISBN: 9781404203358 The Britannica Guide to Heat, Force, and Motion, pages 52-56 Edited by Erik Gregersen Published by Britannica Educational Publishing, 2011. ISBN: 9781615303090 The Britannica Guide to Algebra and Trigonometry, pages 197-200 Edited by William L. Hosch Published by Britannica Educational Publishing, 2011. ISBN: 9781615301133

Mini Reading Lesson While students read the available text material or the suggested 59

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reading resources and view available or suggested videos, have them focus on the following question: How can the concepts of vectors be applied to racing? Introduce the vocabulary words on the previous page. They can be introduced even if they are not in the specific reading you have chosen.

Guided Practice Have students preview any headings and subheadings in the reading they have been asked to do. Have students read the selections and/or watch suggested videos. Read and Discuss Have students reread each section of the text and discuss the following: • • • •

What is the definition of a vector? How is the addition and subtraction of vectors done? Why are vectors important to car racing? Why can a race car be accelerating when the speedometer stays constant?

Model Introduce the game Bolide to the students on a simple level. Build the board for the French Grand Prix. Note that there are two sets of tracks and each is double sided. For this first lesson, students need to know that each player has a car and a pawn that are placed on the racetrack for the first move. The track has intersecting black lines, and the cars move on the intersections of those lines. For this simple version, the starting position is determined by rolling the die to determine starting order, with the highest number going first. If two players roll the same number, the first one to roll the number goes first. For the starting move, the cars are placed on the white rectangles at the start line. For the first move, drivers place their car on one of the five intersections surrounding the car. After the car has moved, the pawn is 60

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placed on the intersection that is the point that reproduces the movement of the car, but from the place the car has just arrived. In all the next moves the allowed moves for the car are the intersection occupied by the pawn or any intersection that is within a square around the pawn that is two intersections away as long as the intersection is on the track. The pawn then repeats the move from the ending point of the car. The pawn does not have to remain on the track. The actual movement of the car is the vector described by the two components of the move. That vector must always lie on the track. The largest component of the move is considered the speed, and the shorter move is considered the direction. Students need to calculate their possible moves and then check which moves are allowed by using the included straight edge to help visualize the vector. The driver may maintain the current speed increase or decrease it by the choice of moves. To maintain speed, the driver chooses an intersection at the same level as the pawn; to increase speed, ahead of the pawn; to decrease speed, behind the pawn. Top speed allowed in this simplified play is 7. In this mode, one lap is completed. If a car’s only moves are off the track, the car crashes and exits the game. The winner is the first one across the finish line, or an earlier end point can be set by designating one of the dotted lines as the finish line for this first play. While they are playing the game, students should use graph paper to record their moves as vectors, writing their “speed” by the longest component of each vector.

Independent Practice Remind students of the vocabulary introduced for their reading and ask them to attempt to include that vocabulary in appropriate ways in the writing activities they do. Writing Activities Narrative: You have just crashed in your race. You are not hurt because of today’s safety features. What will be the conversation about your actions with you crew? Be sure the conversation in not just invectives and griping, but is one that considers actions dur61

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ing the race. Inform or Explain: Examine the vectors drawn on graph paper while the game was in play and document how your speed varied during the game. Explain why you might have taken those actions. Express an Opinion: While it is possible in the board game to think about vectors and their effect on your outcome, is it possible for a race car driver to do so during a race? Develop an answer that is more than a yes/no answer.

Sharing/Reflection Have individuals or groups share and discuss their work with the class.

Assessment Collect completed formative assessment (graph paper completed for model section) and writing activities and review. The graph paper should correctly display the vectors. In the narrative piece, students should discuss the science of vectors and how errors in calculating momentum led to their crash. For the opinion piece students should explore the question beyond a simple answer.

Extension Activities Further Research: In a small group, research one of the two Grand Prix races included in the game: the French or British (or the Italian and Brazilian tracks sold as an expansion). Summarize your findings, especially considering the race and how it is run. Looking at the board game layout of the track, and thinking about vectors, try to plan out a strategy for the race. Important Details: Have students identify ten important details to know about vectors and their use in real life situations and have 62

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them justify their choices of those details using the Important Details sheet in the appendix and available online at www.teachingthroughgames.com for printing. Answers will vary.

Lesson Plan 4B Essential Question What concepts from physics might apply to racing?

Vocabulary The following vocabulary words are important concepts: • • • • • • • • • •

Vectors Displacement Velocity Acceleration Distance Frame of reference Speed Slipstreaming Friction Fast braking

Suggested Reading Resources Online Sources: A series of documents by Brian Beckman from his The Physics of Racing with the contents located at http://phors.locost7.info/contents.htm. Centripetal acceleration section of materials by Khan Academy, with contents found at https://www.khanacademy.org/science/physics/ two-dimensional-motion.

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Brief overview of Newton’s laws of motion and drafting or slipstreaming at https://thescienceclassroom.wikispaces.com/Physics+of+Racing Other Sources: The Laws of Motion: Understanding Uniform and Accelerated Motion Written by Betty Burnett Published by the Rosen Publishing Group, Inc., 2005. ISBN: 9781404203358 Learning about Force and Motion with Graphic Organizers, pages 5-20 Written by Julie Fiedler Published by the Rosen Publishing Group, Inc., 2007. ISBN: 9781404234109

Mini Reading Lesson While students are reading the available text material or the suggested reading resources, they should seek to answer the following question: What are some elements of physics that apply to racing? Introduce the vocabulary words on the previous page. They can be introduced even if they are not in the specific reading you have chosen.

Guided Practice Have students preview any headings and subheadings in the reading they have been asked to do. Have students read the selections and/or watch suggested videos. Read and Discuss Have students reread each section of the text and discuss the following: • • • • •

What are some forces at work that cause motion? What is the effect of friction and gravity on motion? How is friction relevant to car racing? How does circular motion work? What forces are at work in slipstreaming? 64

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Model After students have played the initial game, introduce the concept of slipstreaming and that using this tactic the driver moves ahead of both car and pawn one extra intersection but does not increase the speed of the car. The elements booster, fast braking, weather elements, tire choice, and types of starts can be introduced using the directions in the game manual. Students should be asked to tie each of these elements to the concept of forces at work in motion. Allow students to play the game with these elements, asking them to record a journal entry about their race strategy when they cross each dotted line on the track.

Independent Practice Remind students of the vocabulary introduced for their reading and ask them to attempt to include that vocabulary in appropriate ways in the writing activities they do. Writing Activities Narrative: Rolling the die in the game adds possible positive and negative impacts on your race. Using the charts in the game manual, write the conversation a driver might have after the race about how “luck” and physics working together made him lose the race. Inform or Explain: Using what you have learned about physics in racing, explain why drivers might spin their wheels before the race begins. Include possible diagrams of forces to support your information.

Sharing/Reflection Have individuals or groups share and discuss their work with the class.

Assessment Collect completed formative assessment (activity for model section) and writing activities and review. Review the journal entries from 65

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game play to see if students are thinking about the advanced physics scenarios added in the game. In the narrative piece, students might focus on the frustration of chance versus pure strategy. Others might find comfort in chance as a way to make up for less efficient strategy.

Extension Activities Further Research: Research bicycle racing and how it and car racing are similar and how physics has an impact here as well. How are vector decisions and other physics different or similar in bicycle racing? Other Applications: Describe how vectors apply to other sports besides racing. For example, use vectors to determine how far to lead a receiver when throwing a pass in football or making a pass in soccer. Draw vector graphs showing the vectors involved and any needed addition or subtraction of vectors.

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Notes Jane McGonigal, Reality Is Broken: Why Games Make Us Better and How They Can Change the World (New York, NY: Penguin, 2011), p. 21. Bernard Suits, The Grasshopper: Games, Life and Utopia (Ontario, Canada: Broadview Press, 2005), p. 55. Marina Leight, “Global Ideas from Pluto’s Challenger.” Center for Digital Education, May 21, 2009. Retrieved August, 2014 (http:// www.centerdigitaled.com/stem/Global-Ideas-from-PlutosChallenger.html?page=2).

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APPENDIX 1

Curriculum Alignments Common Core Learning Standards The following concepts from the Common Core State Standards are addressed in this unit:

Reading Informational Texts Related to Grade 9-12 Standards • CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.RI.9-10.1 Cite strong and thorough textual evidence to support analysis of what the text says explicitly as well as inferences drawn from the text. • CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.RI.9-10.5 Analyze in detail how an author’s ideas or claims are developed and refined by particular sentences, paragraphs, or larger portions of a text (e.g., a section or chapter). • CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.RI.11-12.1 Cite strong and thorough textual evidence to support analysis of what the text says explicitly as well as inferences drawn from the text, including determining where the text leaves matters uncertain. • CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.RI.11-12.7 Integrate and evaluate multiple sources of information presented in different media or formats (e.g., visually, quantitatively) as well as in words in order to address a question or solve a problem.

Writing Standards Related to Grade 9-12 Standards • C  CSS.ELA-LITERACY.W.9-10.1 and CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.W.11-12.1

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• Write arguments to support claims in an analysis of substantive topics or texts, using valid reasoning and relevant and sufficient evidence. • CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.W.9-10.2 and CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.W.11-12.2 Write informative/explanatory texts to examine and convey complex ideas, concepts, and information clearly and accurately through the effective selection, organization, and analysis of content. • CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.W.9-10.3 and CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.W.11-12.3 Write narratives to develop real or imagined experiences or events using effective technique, well-chosen details, and wellstructured event sequences. • CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.W.9-10.6 Use technology, including the Internet, to produce, publish, and update individual or shared writing products, taking advantage of technology’s capacity to link to other information and to display information flexibly and dynamically. • CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.W.9-10.7 and • CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.W.11-12.7 Conduct short as well as more sustained research projects to answer a question (including a self-generated question) or solve a problem; narrow or broaden the inquiry when appropriate; synthesize multiple sources on the subject, demonstrating understanding of the subject under investigation. • CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.W.9-10.8 Gather relevant information from multiple authoritative print and digital sources, using advanced searches effectively; assess the usefulness of each source in answering the research question; integrate information into the text selectively to maintain the flow of ideas, avoiding plagiarism and following a standard format for citation. • CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.W.11-12.8 Gather relevant information from multiple authoritative print and digital sources, using advanced searches effectively; assess 69

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the strengths and limitations of each source in terms of the task, purpose, and audience; integrate information into the text selectively to maintain the flow of ideas, avoiding plagiarism and overreliance on any one source and following a standard format for citation. • CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.W.9-10.9 and CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.W.11-12.9 Draw evidence from literary or informational texts to support analysis, reflection, and research.

Science and Math Standards Related to Grade 9-12 Standards From NGSS Standards for Science in High School, found at http:// standards.nsta.org/AccessStandardsByTopic.aspx. • HS-LS4-1 Communicate scientific information that common ancestry and biological evolution are supported by multiple lines of empirical evidence. • HS-LS4-2 Construct an explanation based on evidence that the process of evolution primarily results from four factors: (1) the potential for a species to increase in number, (2) the heritable genetic variation of individuals in a species due to mutation and sexual reproduction, (3) competition for limited resources, and (4) the proliferation of those organisms that are better able to survive and reproduce in the environment. • HS-LS4-5 Evaluate the evidence supporting claims that changes in environmental conditions may result in: (1) increases in the number of individuals of some species, (2) the emergence of new species over time, and (3) the extinction of other species.

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• HS-PS1-1 Use the periodic table as a model to predict the relative properties of elements based on the patterns of electrons in the outermost energy level of atoms. • HS-PS1-2 Construct and revise an explanation for the outcome of a simple chemical reaction based on the outermost electron states of atoms, trends in the periodic table, and knowledge of the patterns of chemical properties. • HS-PS2-1 Analyze data to support the claim that Newton’s second law of motion describes the mathematical relationship among the net force on a macroscopic object, its mass, and its acceleration. • s that provide specific functions within multicellular organisms. HS-LS1-2 Develop and use a model to illustrate the hierarchical organization of interacting system From nctm Standards for Math 9-12, found at http://www.nctm .org/standards/content.aspx?id=26838. All students should: • Understand vectors and matrices as systems that have some of the properties of the real-number system • Develop fluency in operations with real numbers, vectors, and matrices, using mental computation or paper-and-pencil calculations for simple cases and technology for more-complicated cases

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APPENDIX 2 Data Gathering Sheets To access supplementary materials, go to http://www.teachingthroughgames.com. Then enter the code word goscience in order to be directed to the following worksheets: Important Details Worksheet Cellular Structure Worksheet An Introduction to Compounded

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Copyright © 2015 By rosen publishing group, Inc. reproducible

Copyright © 2015 By rosen publishing group, Inc. reproducible

Copyright © 2015 By rosen publishing group, Inc. reproducible

About the Authors Christopher Harris, Editorial Director [email protected] Chris is the director of a School Library System in western New York that has provided a curriculum aligned board game library to member school districts since 2007. His current position as a certified school administrator, along with his background as a teacher, technology coordinator, and school librarian have provided Chris with many different perspectives on gaming and learning. Being able to speak with fellow administrators including principals and curriculum directors about the value of board games as a part of teaching and learning has been key to the success of the game library he founded as part of the Genesee Valley Educational Partnership School Library System in 2007. Chris was a member of the National Expert Panel for the American Library Association Gaming and Libraries grant in 20072008 and has continued to present nationally on gaming in schools and libraries as well as other school, technology and library topics. He writes a monthly column in School Library Journal called “The Next Big Thing” and co-authored Libraries Got Game: Aligned Learning through Modern Board Games (ALA Editions, 2010) with Brian Mayer. Dr. Patricia Harris, Curriculum & Instruction [email protected] After working more than 10 years in public schools both rural and urban and spending 8 years at an engineering school teaching social sciences, communication skills, and technology, Dr. Patricia Harris spent the last years of her career as head of an elementary education program, technology coordinator for the education department, and educational consultant for a physicians assistant graduate program. Her research and practical focus in education has been working with teachers at all grade levels, including working with an elementary teacher to co-teach a clinical class for several years, to build pedagogical strength. Dr. Harris’s experience with social studies and science instructional methodology helps inform the curriculum alignment and classroom use scenarios presented here. 76

NOTES

NOTES