Teaching Music Theory: new voices and approaches 0190879947, 9780190879945

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Teaching Music Theory

Teaching Music Theory New Voices and Approaches J E N N I F E R SN O D G R A S S

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3 Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University Press in the UK and certain other countries. Published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press 198 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016, United States of America. © Oxford University Press 2020 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted by law, by license, or under terms agreed with the appropriate reproduction rights organization. Inquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the address above. You must not circulate this work in any other form and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Snodgrass, Jennifer, author. Title: Teaching music theory : new voices and approaches / Jennifer Snodgrass. Description: New York : Oxford University Press, 2020. | Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifiers: LCCN 2019056812 (print) | LCCN 2019056813 (ebook) | ISBN 9780190879945 (hardback) | ISBN 9780190879952 (paperback) | ISBN 9780190879976 (epub) Subjects: LCSH: Music theory—Instruction and study. Classification: LCC MT6. S6748 T43 2929 (print) | LCC MT6. S6748 (ebook) | DDC 781. 071—dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019056812 LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019056813 1 3 5 7 9 8 6 4 2 Paperback printed by LSC Communications, United States of America Hardback printed by Bridgeport National Bindery, Inc., United States of America

Preface Introduction In the past 20 years, the study of music theory pedagogy has become more relevant in our daily lives as music theorists in the classroom. Faculty and pedagogues are working to find new and innovative ways to teach concepts and are eager to present and disseminate information to both their students and colleagues using some of the new ideals presented in music theory pedagogy research. Based on the topics presented at the most recent Pedagogy into Practice conferences and articles found in publications such as the Journal of Music Theory Pedagogy and Engaging Students: Essays in Music Pedagogy, the time for dialogue regarding new philosophies, teaching approaches, and curricula is now. Teaching Music Theory: New Voices and Approaches seeks to continue that dialogue with a comprehensive text highlighting general approaches in teaching both music theory and aural skills, including topics in curriculum, assessment, classroom environment, and other points of relevance such as undergraduate research and professional development for the graduate student.

Effective Teaching Project I was a fairly new professor when I first read Ken Bain’s book What the Best College Teachers Do. The book transformed my approach to the classroom, and it was this text, more than any other, that inspired me to think deeply about my pedagogical goals as a music theorist. And while Bain’s book helped me to develop some of my general teaching approaches in the classroom, I was eager to learn more about how others were teaching within my own discipline. After 20 years of teaching at the university level, I noticed I had more questions than answers. I decided to follow in Bain’s footsteps in order to better understand what effective teachers of music theory and aural skills are accomplishing in their classrooms to inspire their students in a meaningful way. That decision led to the project that serves as the first premise for this text, an overview of classroom approaches and pedagogical philosophies of some

x Preface highly effective teachers in our field. During the initial stages of my research, I sent out letters to 200 instructors of music theory, representing a wide variety of physical locations, school types, and faculty ranks. I chose teachers who were dedicated to the field of theory pedagogy and who had contributed scholarship in journals such as the Journal of Music Theory Pedagogy or Engaging Students:  Essays in Music Pedagogy. I  also reached out to instructors who presented successful pedagogy sessions at the Society for Music Theory, the College Music Society, or the Pedagogy into Practice conferences. I sought out teachers who had won prestigious teaching awards at their university or were quarter-​finalists for the GRAMMY Music Educator Award. Finally, and maybe most important, I reached out to instructors who I knew were making a difference in their classrooms based on conversations with alumni. It is important to note that many effective theory instructors and, in fact, award-​winning professors, were not contacted to participate in this initial study, and no one instructor was left out intentionally. Several instructors who are pioneers in the field of theory pedagogy are not represented in this portion of the project, and I have purposely cited their work both in the text and in the bibliography. Of those 200 instructors who received a letter, 135 responded to a survey that sought to highlight individuals’ thoughts on content, student success, and general teaching practices. A copy of the survey and the initial letter can be found in the appendix of this text. Based on these responses, I chose approximately 90 instructors to highlight as effective teachers. I spent 2 years traveling to 17 states in order to watch over 60 of these accomplished instructors in their element, and in many cases I was able to interact with the students as well. Unlike Ken Bain, who observed some of his “best teachers” for a semester or more, I was only able to attend one or two class periods, so the commentary presented in this text represents a snapshot of the classroom environment and approach. In some cases, I contacted specific instructors because I wanted to see them teach a certain topic, such as aural skills in a popular music course or counterpoint in a conservatory environment. But, overall, I was more interested in seeing general teaching approaches, and the topic taught by each teacher was merely the unit planned for the day I could visit. For a few instructors involved in this portion of the project, I was unable to see them teach in real time, but I was able to interview them in person in order to expand on their responses to the survey. In many of these conversations, the topic of curriculum came to the forefront; based on input from these effective instructors, I decided to also include syllabi, course and degree outlines, and overall curriculum at several institutions within the text. It is my hope that

Preface  xi these materials will prove to be helpful for those just beginning a career in music theory or those at institutions currently involved in conversations and dialogue regarding curriculum change. As my observations began, I chose to focus only on topics taught in the traditional undergraduate core, so this text is not meant to speak to the pedagogical approaches and practices of all topics taught in undergraduate and graduate classrooms, nor does the absence of these topics indicate a lack of importance in content.

Project Participants The result of the initial search, including those who responded and were chosen, led me to a relatively well-​balanced list representing teachers in a variety of settings. It was crucial to me that participants in this project represent teachers at all levels (Advanced Placement, 2-​year community colleges, 4-​year state colleges and universities, private universities, and conservatories of music). From those just embarking on a career in our profession, to the most seasoned instructor, to the high school teachers who prepare students for the university classroom, I believe that the opportunity to connect with the effective practices of our field can be a launching point for affirmation of teaching philosophy and methodology. The following list includes the teachers represented in this text, whether through an on-​site observation, in conversation, or in survey responses: High School Theory Instructors Alex Alberti Longleaf School of the Arts (North Carolina) Heather Copley Apex High School (North Carolina) David Anthony Dehner Monte Vista Christian School (California) Sarah Harrison Cherry Creek High School (Colorado) Steve Holley Kent Denver High School (Colorado) Don Emmons Littleton High School (Colorado) Kenneth Bedwell St. James High School (South Carolina) Matt Carraher Central Dauphin High School (Pennsylvania) Deana Graham Ripley High School (Tennessee) Peter Holsberg Berkely Carroll School (New York) Aaron Kohen Calabasas High School (California)

xii Preface Nick Little Melissa Livings Erik Lynch Cory Neville Greg Priest Phillip Riggs A. J. Roberts Dina Rosas Kyle Rupley Peter Sampson Akira Sato Robert Stahly Neil Swapp Josh Torres Rebecca Wade-​Chung Tyler Wigglesworth

Campbell County High School (Kentucky) J.J. Pearce High School (Texas) Verona High School (New Jersey) Quaker Valley High School (Pennsylvania) Aiken High School (South Carolina) North Carolina School for Science and Math (North Carolina) Dorsey High/​Lassalette K-​8 (California) Atlanta International School (Georgia) Cherokee Trail High School (Colorado) Whiteland Community High School (Indiana) Plano West High School (Texas) Longmont High School (Colorado) New Mexico School for the Arts (New Mexico) Center Grove High School (Indiana) Atlanta International School (Georgia) West Covina High School (California)

Community College/​2-​Year Institutions Nathan Baker Casper College (Wyoming) Patricia Burt Harford Community College (Maryland) Liberal Arts/​Private Colleges/​Private Universities Claire Boge Miami University of Ohio (Ohio) Juan Chattah University of Miami (Florida) Craig Cummings Ithaca College (New York) Richard England Freed-​Hardeman University (Tennessee) Christina Fuhrmann Baldwin-​Wallace University (Ohio) Jeffrey Gillespie Butler University (Indiana) Richard Hoffman Belmont University (Tennessee) Tim Johnson Ithaca College (New York) Jeff Lovell Lebanon Valley College (Pennsylvania) David McKay Belmont University (Tennessee) Elizabeth Medina-​Gray Ithaca College (New York)

Preface  xiii Jana Millar Cora Palfy Crystal Peebles Deborah Rifkin Barbara Wallace Jennifer Weaver John White

Baylor University (Texas) Elon University (North Carolina) Ithaca College (New York) Ithaca College (New York) Dallas Baptist University (Texas) Dallas Baptist University (Texas) Ithaca College (New York)

4-​Year State Institutions (Teaching Intensive) Travis Alford East Carolina University (North Carolina) Sara Bakker Utah State University (Utah) Poundie Burstein CUNY–​Hunter College (New York) Amy Carr-​Richardson East Carolina University (North Carolina) Tim Chenette Utah State University (Utah) Stacey Davis University of Texas, San Antonio (Texas) Cynthia Gonzales Texas State University, San Marcos (Texas) William Harbinson Appalachian State University (North Carolina) Melissa Hoag Oakland University (Michigan) Thomas Huener East Carolina University (North Carolina) Edward Jacobs East Carolina University (North Carolina) Frank Martignetti University of Bridgeport (Connecticut) Greg McCandless Appalachian State University (North Carolina) Rachel Mitchell University of Texas, Rio Grande Valley (Texas) Michael Oravitz Northern Colorado University (Colorado) Carissa Reddick Northern Colorado University (Colorado) Mark Richardson East Carolina University (North Carolina) Jena Root Youngstown State University (Ohio)

xiv Preface Mark Taggart Gene Trantham Lori Wacker

East Carolina University (North Carolina) Bowling Green State University (Ohio) East Carolina University (North Carolina)

4-​Year Institutions (Research Intensive) Janet Bourne University of California, Santa Barbara (California) Patricia Burt University of Delaware (Delaware) Michael Callahan Michigan State University (Michigan) Philip Duker University of Delaware (Delaware) Rebecca Jemian University of Louisville (Kentucky) J. Daniel Jenkins University of South Carolina, Columbia (South Carolina) Stan Kleppinger University of Nebraska, Lincoln (Nebraska) Benjamin Levy University of California, Santa Barbara (California) Sarah Marlowe New York University (New York) David Marvel University of Oklahoma (Oklahoma) Meghan Naxer Oregon State University (Oregon) David Paul University of California, Santa Barbara (California) Susan Piagentini Northwestern University (Illinois) Nancy Rogers Florida State University (Florida) Jennifer Shafer University of Delaware (Delaware) Gordon Sly Michigan State University (Michigan) Daniel Stevens University of Delaware (Delaware) Cara Stroud Michigan State University (Michigan) Leigh VanHandel Michigan State University (Michigan) Conservatories Charlene Baughan Romano Steven Laitz William Marvin Jan Miyake

Shenandoah Conservatory (Virginia) The Juilliard School (New York) Eastman School of Music (New York) Oberlin College and Conservatory (Ohio)

Preface  xv Seth Monahan Rachel Short Other David Brummel Chris Kapica Alex Newton

Eastman School of Music (New York), currently at Yale University Shenandoah Conservatory (Virginia) California College of Music (California) California College of Music (California) Picardy Learning (Texas)

Beyond the Study: Personal Reflection The initial portion of the project began with my reaching out to various effective teachers and reading through the responses to the survey. As a result, I began to reflect on my own 20 years of teaching on the university level. The secondary premise of the text is to highlight some of my pedagogical approaches and thoughts, including mistakes I have made and personal accounts on what worked effectively in my classroom and what proved to be incredibly ineffective for me and my students. The majority of my reflections and thoughts are geared toward important topics and subject matters taught in the undergraduate core that were not observed in the initial project. Throughout the text I  have included specific projects and methods that I have used for teaching topics in both aural skills and music theory; I hope these will be useful to colleagues on all levels. Much like Michael Rogers’s important text Teaching Approaches in Music Theory, many of the sections in ­chapters 4 through 6 are organized by topic and include both my personal approach and teaching observations of the project participants.

Bridging the Music Theory Gap Blog It is my hope that the conversation will continue far beyond what is found within the pages of this book. The participants of the study, as well as other leaders in the field of pedagogy, will continue contributing to an online blog that accompanies this text, found at https://​ bridgingthemusictheorygap.wordpress.com/​ . The title of the blog, Bridging the Gap, refers to the connections that I  hope can be made by instructors of all levels through contributions to this blog. The

xvi Preface entries cover a gamut of topics, including assessment, content-​specific assignments, and general pedagogical approaches to classroom environment and student success. Multiple methods of teaching post-​tonal theory courses are also highlighted on the blog. Both university and college faculty as well as seasoned AP Music Theory teachers are regular contributors to this resource.

YouTube Channel A YouTube channel, musictheoryped, (https://www.youtube.com/channel/ UCaTwT0J1lRd_ZCXv2Xue6nQ/featured?view_as=subscriber) has been created to highlight some of the most effective teachers. Readers can follow this channel for updates as contributors continue to provide new content. Several footnotes are found throughout the text that lead readers to real-​time demonstrations by the teachers highlighted in this book.

Shared Resources and Materials Additional materials that accompany specific topics in this book can be found on the Oxford University Press Website. These materials include a list of technology resources, sample syllabi and course design materials, as well as a sample cover letters, curriculum vitae, and teaching philosophies used in applications for teaching positions.

Acknowledgments They say it takes a village to raise a child, and in the case of writing this text, I believe it takes a village to complete a meaningful book. I have been fortunate to receive an abundance of assistance in the writing of this text, from the instructors who invited me to their classrooms, to the many teachers and mentors along my journey who encouraged me to put my ideas to paper, to the multitude of students who have always informed me in the process as I continue to refine myself as an instructor. I would like to give specific thanks to the reviewers of the original prospectus of the text.

Preface  xvii I am grateful to my editor, Norm Hirschy, at Oxford University Press for believing in this project from the first day of our initial conversation and for his guidance in the planning and preparation. My appreciation goes to the University Research Council at Appalachian State University for its financial support of this project for travel to the many universities and high schools highlighted in this text. I also would like to extend gratitude to the Dean of the Hayes School of Music, James Douthit, for his support of a semester-​long leave, as well as additional financial support for travel. My virtual research group sponsored by the Committee on the Status for Women through the Society for Music Theory provided both support and feedback during the writing of the earliest chapters. Many thanks goes to Jan Miyake, Miriam Piilonen, and Angela Ripley, as well as Sara Bakker, the coordinator for the program. I owe a great deal of gratitude to the many educators who have played an important role in my professional career and those who have reviewed drafts of this text and offered insight and suggestions, including many of the instructors highlighted in the book. My thanks also go to David Wilson, Tracy Smith, Matthew Shaftel, Barbara Murphy, Marie McCarthy Elizabeth Sayrs, Ward Francis, Trevor Nelson, Benjamin Dawson, Reeves Shulstad, Robert Komaniecki, Lisa Runner, Andrew Hannon, Katherine Strand, Garrett Schumann, Daniel Tompkins, Alyssa Barna, Carla Colleti, Zachary Lloyd, David Thurmier, Daniel Perttu, and Andrea Scerbo. Special acknowledgment must be given to my colleague Greg McCandless, who has provided feedback and has been my sounding board throughout this entire process. His encouragement and belief in this project have been invaluable, as has his willingness to take over duties within the theory division during my absences. Several students have provided assistance on this project, and without their help, this project and text would not be complete. My appreciation goes to Jon Cheney, who assisted with several musical examples presented in the text and to Anna Sheppard who assisted with the index and final edits. Much gratitude is given to Molly Reid for her assistance in final edits and her compilation of all references into footnotes and bibliographic citations. Abbigail Fleckenstein assisted in gathering data from all survey results and compiled materials for graphs as presented in ­chapters  2 and 3.  My thanks to Jon, Molly, Anna, and Abbi for being such an essential part of this process and for their love of teaching and commitment to research in music theory. Tim Hamilton deserves significant acknowledgment as my GRAM (Graduate Research and Mentoring) Award recipient who spent 2 years with

xviii Preface me on the road as we traveled to the 17 states mentioned earlier. I am beyond grateful to Tim for his assistance in writing grants, developing travel itineraries, and writing up teaching observations, and for his work with every aspect of this study and project. I am most grateful for his calmness, his attention to detail, his unfailing love of education and students, and his friendship. I am indebted to my mentors and colleagues along the way who encouraged me to continue researching music theory pedagogy even when it wasn’t a viable research area. I am grateful for my graduate school colleagues Benjamin Levy, Kristian Twombly, and Stephen Lilly, who supported me in my initial pursuits in this field, and for my mentors, who believed in excellence and shared with me their love of music and of students while modeling outstanding teaching. My heartfelt thanks go to the late Robert Turner, Meg Dornbrock, Anthony Vaglio, Laszlo Payerle, Thomas DeLio, Sally Thomas, William Harbinson, William Pelto, and Steven Laitz. All of these mentors have shaped me into the scholar and teacher I am today. I would like to thank my family for their patience and support as I traveled for the research portion of this text and for the time I spent writing the final chapters. My parents, Richard and Linda Sterling, instilled within me a passion for music from a very young age, and for that I will be eternally grateful. My husband, Greg, and daughter, Katie, have supported me during my travels and have always been my greatest champions through my scholarly pursuits. I appreciate the joy they bring into my life. Finally, my full gratitude goes to the teachers and instructors who are presented in this text. My goal in writing this book was to tell the stories of some of the greatest instructors in our field and to highlight why their approaches work so well. I am thankful for the time they gave me personally, but even more grateful for the impact they are having on their students and the field of music theory. Ralph Waldo Emerson once said, “A great teacher is not the man who supplies the most facts, but the one in whose presence we become different people.” I  know without a doubt that the teachers highlighted in this text are helping students to become different people, and I know I am a different person because of their teaching and wisdom.

1 The Golden Circle “Why,” “How,” and “What”

Focusing on the “How” and the “Why” In the 2009 TED Talk “How Great Leaders Inspire Action,” Simon Sinek discusses why some companies and innovators fail and others achieve great success. Sinek begins with Apple Inc., reflecting on how Apple continues to dominate the field year after year even though other technology companies have the same resources and highly educated work staff. He then discusses the Wright brothers, who were the first aviators to complete a sustained flight despite having less funding and knowledge than their contemporaries. It seems that successful leaders, innovators, and companies all think, act, and communicate in a similar way. Sinek illustrates this with the Golden Circle, showing that everyone knows “what” they do; some know “how” they do it, but very few know “why” they do it (Figure 1.1).1 According to Sinek, the “why” should be the belief and cause of your mission, not the result of your mission. Most people act from the outside of the circle and move in. However, the most effective approach for any great innovator, educator, or scholar is to move from the inside out. Take Sinek’s Apple illustration in terms of the questions presented by the Golden Circle: • Why do we sell electronics? We believe in thinking differently. • How do we sell electronics? By making beautifully designed products. • What do we do? We sell computers. Sinek ends his talk by stating that “people don’t buy what you do, they buy why you do it.”2 Our students may not purchase our approach to teaching music theory and aural skills as they would an Apple computer, 1 Sinek, 2020, “Learn Your Why.” 2 Sinek 2009. Teaching Music Theory. Jennifer Snodgrass, Oxford University Press (2020). © Oxford University Press. DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780190879945.003.0001

2  Teaching Music Theory

WHY HOW WHAT

Figure 1.1  The Golden Circle

but they will be better prepared and gain ownership of the material if we are clear in why we are teaching a given topic. Before a syllabus is written, before a textbook is chosen, or before we even step into the classroom, we need to know our “why.” Why are we in the classroom? Why are we teaching a particular concept? Why did we choose a Mozart example? Why are we using technology? Why are we integrating popular music? Why are aural skills important? Why do the students need to know this material to be successful musicians, entrepreneurs, music educators, etc.? These may be difficult questions to answer, even for the most seasoned theory instructor. However, in order for us to really illustrate the importance of music theory and aural skills in the classroom, we need to know our “why.”

Knowing Your “Why” Let’s return to Sinek’s Golden Circle and how it relates to music theory pedagogy. I propose that we enter the classroom with some version of the following: • Why do we teach music theory and aural skills? We believe that music theory and aural skills teach students the knowledge to become creative thinkers and inquisitive musicians. • How do we teach music theory and aural skills? We help students develop a toolbox of skills through various assignments, analyses, creative processes, musical experiences, and assessments. It is up to students to know what tools to use from the toolbox based on what is needed in

The Golden Circle  3 any chosen field, but we will continually provide real-​life applications for how students may use the material presented. • What do we teach in music theory and aural skills? Intervals, chords, key signatures, formal structures, melodic dictation, and so forth. In her 2012 article extrapolating Sinek’s thesis to the classroom, Nafez Dakkak explains that starting with the “why” has benefits for both the instructor and the student. It is a way for the educator to “begin finding their own purpose and passion in learning” while also “allowing students to dig deeper and more meaningfully into the goal behind their journey after knowledge.”3 After all, creating knowledgeable musicians, creative artists, strong citizens, and independent thinkers should be at the forefront of our agendas.

Trends in the Undergraduate Core There is an outdated perception of how music theory is taught. Mention music theory and you might elicit a mental picture of a disgruntled professor at the blackboard yelling out part-​writing rules. Mention aural skills to some musicians and they recall a professor sitting behind a piano at 8:00 a.m. playing incredibly long melodic dictations that never seemed to end. This may have been the way of teaching music theory several decades ago, but it seems that with new research in general pedagogy and a changing student population, we are now seeing a more creative approach to teaching music theory. In 2015, I  conducted a survey of more than three hundred music theory professors and found that at least 75 percent were integrating some form of creative composition beyond part-​writing exercises. Approximately 255 responses were gathered from a question regarding the importance of traditional topics in the theory core curriculum. Topics such as sight singing, harmonic function, and fundamentals were evaluated as “very important,” while concepts like extended chords and part-​writing were deemed “less important.” It is hard to imagine a survey 40 years ago in which lead sheet realization and part-​writing would be viewed as equivalently important, but this 2015 survey indicates that exact finding and proves that our teaching approaches and what we find value in are changing.4 3 Dakkak 2012. 4 More information about this survey can be found in c­ hapter 2.

4  Teaching Music Theory Even the musical examples used in the classroom have evolved. According to the survey, more than half of the respondents were integrating popular music into the classroom. While most theory classes still include a great deal of focus on the music of the common practice period, emerging research in music theory pedagogy highlights the use of popular music.5 The field is changing, the students are changing, and with that, our goals as educators are changing.

Why Curriculum Reform in the Collegiate Classroom? One of the ways we have sought to answer the “why” in music theory pedagogy is through curriculum reform. Curriculum reform is not a new topic in higher education, and various movements such as the Contemporary Music Project (1962–​1973), the Comprehensive Musicianship Project (1965–​1971), the National Standard for the Arts–​Music (1994), and the National Core Music Standards (2014) have set the stage for vast reformation in college and high school programs. Publications such as the Journal of Music Theory Pedagogy, College Music Society Symposium, and Engaging Students: Essays in Music Pedagogy highlight this emphasis on reform, even giving specific examples of how to implement changes in traditional classrooms.6 University faculty spend a great deal of time re-​evaluating textbooks, designing assessment plans, implementing flipped classrooms, integrating technology, and restructuring topics to be taught in search of the “what” and “how,” but perhaps we aren’t taking the proper first step. We focus on what to change and even how to change the manner in which we are teaching, but why should we think about curriculum reform in the first place? In the inaugural issue of Engaging Students:  Essays in Music Pedagogy, Poundie Burstein describes why music theory instructors should rethink their teaching approaches in order to meet the need for a student-​centered, holistic approach to the subject: Unlike in eighteenth-​century Europe, today’s music theory teachers cannot assume that their students all define and relate to music in the same way. 5 Several recent examples include de Clercq 2018; Chenette 2017; Park 2016; and Rosenberg 2014. 6 For example, see Wason 2018; Deguchi 2018; Palfy and Gilson 2018; Murphy and McConville 2017; Gawboy 2013; Stroud 2018; and Jenkins 2017.

The Golden Circle  5 Even in classes devoted to popular music, professors cannot take it for granted that their students share similar tastes or goals. . . . Knowing how to negotiate between the extremes of over-​abstraction and over-​specificity forms a central challenge for the modern teacher of music theory.7

Established in 1986, the Oklahoma Music Theory Roundtable provides a forum for all collegiate music theory professors and theory and composition students in the state of Oklahoma. A survey was sent to all instructors in 2012–​2013 to better understand the practices, curriculum needs, and challenges faced by those teaching music theory and aural skills. In terms of challenges, one respondent stated: We are in a place where we must deal with a shift in pre-​college musical experiences. We enroll each year more and more students without strong classical training, and I know that we are not alone. Sad to say, but if we don’t adapt somehow, students won’t be able to gain a minimal comprehension of materials we consider so important to Western music understanding.8

While both the articles mention the entrance skills and current interests of students as a reason curriculum reform is needed, the Report of the Task Force on the Undergraduate Music Major (TFUMM) from the College Music Society (CMS) gives multiple other reasons as to why the curriculum needs an entire overhaul.9 In the past 40 years, no other curriculum document has created as much passion, anger, excitement, and apprehension as the final report presented by the Task Force of the CMS. The purpose of the task force was to articulate “what it means to be an educated musician in the twenty-​first century and, in turn, what recommendations may follow for progressive change in the undergraduate music-​major curriculum.”10 The task force started with the question of what an educated musician in the twenty-​first century looked like, and before any discussion of curriculum began, it stated why the curriculum needed to change. But what an educated musician is in a large music industry program may be completely different than an educated musician in a conservatory environment. Both environments are valuable, and both

7 Burstein 2013.

8 Cathey 2015, 25.

9 Campbell et al. 2014.

10 Ibid., 1.

6  Teaching Music Theory deserve a place in the professional musical world. It is up to us as music theory educators to know and understand our student population; after all, there is no one-​size-​fits-​all curriculum. Along with our musicology colleagues, we may be the only instructor in the department who teaches all majors, all instruments, and all backgrounds.11 So, why the task force document? In the book Redefining Music Studies in an Age of Change, the authors (including several of the original authors of the task force report) give credit to past curricular reform efforts, but they give the simple answer that “despite these past efforts, change has been confined largely to surface adjustments—​what might be best described as ‘curricular tinkering’ . . . attempts at change have left the conventional curricular and cultural core largely intact, and left newer ideas on the periphery.”12 The authors continue in their justification by highlighting the great divide between music study and real-​world practice. Juan Chattah, one of the contributors to the original TFUMM report, provides the following commentary in the College Music Symposium Forum: The task force fashioned its recommendations on three central pillars necessary for enhancing curricular strategies within undergraduate music majors: creativity, diversity, and integration. Collectively, these pillars address the insistence on viewing musicianship through a holistic lens: the TFUMM took the position that re-​integrating creativity through improvisation and composition, alongside the dominant model of preparing performers in the interpretation of existing works, provides a stronger basis for educating musicians; the TFUMM recommended that students engage with musics of varied cultures, musics from a wide range of generations, and musics emerging within diverse social contexts; and the TFUMM asserted that the undergraduate music curriculum should integrate its contents at deep levels across sub-​disciplinary areas.13

Many music theorists completely rejected the ideas presented in the TFUMM due to assumptions made regarding current teaching practices and outdated research interests of the modern music theorist.14 However, in



11 Snodgrass 2016 (“Integration, Diversity, and Creativity”). 12 Sarath et al. 2016, 57. 13 Chattah 2016.

14 More commentary on the task force report can be found in several articles cited in bibliography.

The Golden Circle  7 terms of curriculum reform, two main ideas can be taken away from this document: 1. The three pillars of diversity, creativity, and integration are important and should be a goal of the holistic approach in our classrooms. 2. The task force rightly started its discussion with why reform was needed before any suggestions of change were discussed. In embracing some of the triumphs of past movements as well as learning from the challenges presented in others, we can begin to develop our own teaching philosophies and curricula that best suit the needs of our students. Several award-​winning college teachers noted the importance of meeting students’ needs and developing connections with students as reasons to re-​ examine teaching styles and curriculum. Gene Trantham, associate professor of music theory at Bowling Green State University, stated, “Our understanding of how people learn, perceive and listen has influenced our teaching. We continue to adapt to include new research and to relate/​connect better to our students, who often come to us less prepared each year.”15 Nathan Baker, music theory coordinator at Casper College, has changed his classroom practices and curriculum in order to “provide students with the skills and knowledge they need to be successful in any genre or area that features in their future careers.”16 Claire Boge, professor and coordinator of music theory at Miami University of Ohio, is a true master of meeting students where they are and bases her classroom decisions on her students’ needs, most often right in the moment. She believes that music theory is the study of how music makes meaning through its structure. It is through her definition that Boge finds her “why,” as this definition informs all of her curricular decisions and teaching style. Boge is constantly aware of her students, and there is little doubt of her “why” in teaching. As a theory professor for 30-​plus years, Boge has re-​evaluated and re-​examined the curriculum and her teaching style more times than most. She knows her audience and bases all of her decisions on what will inspire and motivate the student the most to understand what she calls “theory magic.”17



15 Responses provided by Trantham via questionnaire on Survey Monkey on 10/​3/​2016. 16 Responses provided by Baker via questionnaire on Survey Monkey on 9/​22/​2016. 17 Claire Boge, lecture material, 09/​26/​2016.

8  Teaching Music Theory

Knowing the “Why” on the High School Level In many cases, students are entering our college classrooms with fewer skills than before. Because of this, it is imperative that before we begin to answer our own questions of “why” and “how,” we must better understand where our students are coming from. It is up to us, as college educators, to recognize what is being taught in the high school classroom. High school faculties are active in redesigning curriculum materials on an annual basis and even providing studies that might be helpful to university faculty. The Advanced Placement (AP) Music Theory program regularly assesses pre-​ college students’ understanding of music theory and aural skills. During the 2017–​ 2018 academic year, 19,542 students took the AP Music Theory Exam, which included sections on aural skills, sight singing, and analysis. While there is danger in an approach of “teaching to the test,” many AP teachers are heavily involved in research regarding curriculum reform and how to make music theory relevant in all musical experiences, even outside of the AP classroom. Nick Little, band director at Campbell County High School in Kentucky and Grammy Music Educator Award semifinalist, met a challenge that many high school teachers face. He “began to worry more about the next performance than developing my students and helping them grow into mature musicians.”18 Little, who is also an AP Music Theory teacher, began to use more music theory in all ensemble classes. He recognizes that many high school students are taught primarily to be talented performers and limited musicians; however, he believes that understanding music theory is paramount to becoming a skilled performer. In an observation of Little, I was able to see this same philosophy in his AP Music Theory classroom. Instead of teaching to the test and giving students information, Little challenged his class to learn and to hear. To Nick Little, a successful student is one who has fostered a passion for music and is an independent musician.19 Alex Alberti, an AP Music Theory teacher at Longleaf School of the Arts, is also constantly adapting and changing his curriculum to better meet the needs of his students. Several years ago, Alberti and I co-​conducted a research project in order to better understand the social aspects of the classroom, stating that teachers should ask the following questions before entering the classroom: (1) What is the culture of this generation?, (2) how

18 Little 2013, 37.

19 Nick Little, lecture material, 09/​26/​2016.

The Golden Circle  9 are the students different?, and (3) what is happening to the personalities of our musicians? In the study, we found that students were collaborative in nature and wanted to be in charge of their learning experiences.20 Based on some of these findings, Alberti has grasped his “why” in terms of curriculum and teaching approach. His classroom is collaborative, and, in many ways, students are in charge of how and what they are learning. In a recent observation, I was most excited about the amount of questioning by both the instructor and the students. There was no lecture, no raising of hands, and no lapses in learning. Alberti began the class with rhythmic dictation, which he introduced by writing several takadimi patterns on the board. He asked students to perform the patterns while the metronome played and had students conducting along while they performed. Before they began the actual rhythmic dictation, Alberti asked the following questions: • Why are we doing this? (Students’ answers varied.) • So I understand that you know what? (Students’ answers varied.) Before ever giving the correct answer, Alberti had asked the students important questions relating to the application of the content. He took the time to let the students discover their own “why,” a truly empowering moment for the high school student. To Alberti, a successful student is one who is able to take responsibility for their learning in healthy and honest ways. That could present itself as a student who shows great literacy in music, capability on their instrument, error detection in their performance skills, or excellent sight-​reading skills, but also a student who knows when they need help and can reach out to ask the right questions.21

Alberti feels strongly about this definition, and he designs his curriculum based on helping students get to that point. The successful student is his “why” in terms of choosing material, creating assessment opportunities, and designing and maintaining an open and communicative classroom environment. AP Music Theory teachers lead challenging courses with demanding schedules, and as music theory instructors on the college level, we can be

20 Snodgrass and Alberti 2013.

21 Alex Alberti, in conversation with the author 09/​20/​2016.

10  Teaching Music Theory certain that there is much to be learned from each of them. In many cases, they are a student’s first introduction to music theory and aural skills. They are constantly evaluating themselves as educators and tailoring a curriculum that works best for students. They know their “why,” both in terms of why they teach and why they include certain topics, and in most cases, they are eager to make changes to make the material more integrated, musical, and creative for the student. Chapter 4 will highlight more of the teaching approaches of the high school AP Music Theory teacher and the conversations that need to happen between all levels of theory instruction.

Where Do We Begin? Many students are introduced to the study of musicianship and theory with note names and clefs. There is no context, and students often get frustrated quickly. They are told to memorize key signatures with little to any discussion on how these key signatures are relevant and why they even exist. In the music theory pedagogy text Teaching Approaches in Music Theory: An Overview of Pedagogical Philosophies, Michael Rogers mentions this issue in relation to entering music majors, stating that “they often know a little bit about many different things but nothing about connections, reasons why things work in a particular way, precise and discriminating terminology, or the long-​range significance of the information for future study.”22 Rogers focuses on the teaching of music analysis with the questions of “how” and “why,” stating, “This is the point, and the method, and the ultimate satisfaction of analysis: to come to understand, from the inside out, why and how a piece of music works, to recreate the process by which it grew to life in the composer’s mind, and to learn a little more about ourselves.”23 I propose that we take this one step further and discuss the “how” and “why” in the earliest levels of music theory and aural skills. On the day you mark your first treble clef on the board, have a 5-​minute discussion on where the treble clef came from and why we continue to use it today. When teaching key signatures, ask your students why the accidentals might be notated in patterns on the staff. And as an instructor, continually ask yourself why you are focusing on intervals or why you are asking a student to create exercises

22 Rogers 2004, 34. 23 Ibid., 75.

The Golden Circle  11 in second species. If you can’t come up with a strong answer, you might need to reconsider if this is something that needs to be in your curriculum. The response of “this is the way I was taught” or “I had to learn it so you have to learn it” doesn’t cut it anymore in today’s educational framework. Twenty-​first-​century students do not want to be taught in a manner just to receive information. They are hungry for answers and relevancy and, with few exceptions, are craving a classroom experience that challenges them to think and to explore new ideas.

Understanding the Twenty-​First-​Century Student I have vivid memories of my freshman music theory classroom. My professor was a dynamic and innovative teacher who wanted us to explore music analysis in a creative way through composition and integrated musicological study. For every theoretical concept presented, we were expected to compose and perform an original work. We were continually engaged in the process of understanding music theory through composition and spent a great deal of our theory class at the keyboard realizing figured bass in real time or experiencing how a suspension resolved. However, I didn’t appreciate this approach at the time, for I was one of “those” students who wanted to receive a 100 on every assignment. If my grade ever fell below a 90, I was in sheer panic and did everything I could to make a perfect score. My composition projects met the criteria, but I never questioned why we were expected to compose, nor did I really think about how this approach informed me as a music theory student. It took me some time to realize that my work in the theory classroom had a direct influence on my practice in ensembles, lessons, and other academic classes. I still encounter many students who are obsessed with a grade and perfection. As musicians, we are taught from an early age to practice until a scale or passage is perfect. High school students are judged continually through solo and ensemble competitions and often meet weekly one-​on-​one with an expert who expects growth each and every lesson. The quest for perfection is one that is well known to the music student. But is this quest for perfection the main goal in the music theory and aural skills classroom? There are no competitions to win, no major scholarships for the best aural skills student, and, beyond in-​class assessments, no opportunities for individual glory in musicianship studies.

12  Teaching Music Theory I am starting to see a new type of student in the classroom, one that greatly challenges me as a music instructor. They ask questions, and many times these questions are not just about content or clarifying a concept. They want to see the relevance in what I am teaching and how that can be used in their music studies. I do not have to vocalize my “why” because they are already asking the questions for me. Several years ago, I was going through a difficult harmonic dictation example in an ear training class when a music therapy student raised her hand and asked, “Why do I need to know this? I’m going to be a music therapist. I will never have to write out the soprano and bass line after it is played on the piano.” I was in shock. First of all, I never questioned a professor when I was an undergrad; second, I had no answer. I knew nothing about the day-​to-​day schedule and skills of my music therapy students. And she was right. The way I was approaching the dictation example probably had little relevance for her. Fast forward one year, and I am teaching part-​writing rules in my music industry theory course. A recording major raised his hand and asked, “Why do I need to learn this? I’m never going to use this in the studio.” Again, shock followed by confusion followed by the truth in his statement. I knew that I needed to take the opportunity to better understand my students and their needs in terms of their music education. For every concept I teach, it is imperative that I know why I am teaching it before I understand how I am going to teach it, and to know who my music students are. Knowing what to teach is such a small part of what we do as educators; however, it seems that the “what” is often the focus of courses on music theory pedagogy. I know several pedagogy courses that focus only on how to choose a textbook, how to design a syllabus, or what to use as a solfege system.

Our Goal in Teaching Music Theory and Aural Skills: The “Why” So, what is the goal of teaching music theory and aural skills? In performance, the goal may be hitting a high C in the aria or playing a horn excerpt without going flat. The objectives in studying music theory are much broader and therefore harder to pinpoint. As music theorists, we like to say that the study of music theory and aural skills is important because mastery of these two skills leads us to become more informed musicians. But is that the only reason? And is that a reason that will resonate with the new music education

The Golden Circle  13 student who sits in your 8:00 a.m. theory classroom? In talking with some of the most effective theory teachers in the country, I found their reasoning for studying theory and aural skills to be more specific. More than 100 teachers responded to the question of “Why do students need to study music theory and aural skills?,” and the responses were all clearly focused on the two advantages of increased communication and mind development. Gene Trantham related the mastery of these two skills to language, stating, “Just like learning a language, they need to be able to hear things written on the page (reading) and be able to write the things that they hear (listening and dictation). If they cannot do both, how can they communicate effectively as musicians and educators?”24 David Dehner of Monte Vista Christian School echoed this thought, illuminating that the study of musicianship provides “cognitive development of the function of the brain and proficient understanding of musical language and style.”25 The importance of aural skills and theoretical knowledge in creating engaged thinkers was suggested by Dr. Sarah Marlowe of New York University, who succinctly explained that “music theory teaches students how to be critical and inquisitive thinkers and aural skills teaches them how to be critical and engaged listeners.”26 J. Daniel Jenkins of the University of South Carolina takes this a step further in stating, “They need more skills and knowledge, not less, so they can adapt to a variety of musical situations.”27 Tim Chenette of Utah State University states that “music theory and aural skills are what turns music performers into true musicians who understand what they are doing, and of course helps them to acquire totally new ways of hearing and responding to music.” Chenette recognizes the changes in our field and therefore in our “why,” continuing, “In addition, as ‘traditional’ classical performance options decline in performance for our graduates, I believe music theory becomes even more important. A virtuoso violin soloist might be able to make an argument that they don’t need to think so long as they can do (even though I disagree), but a jazz artist, songwriter, music therapist, producer, etc. all virtually require music theory for different reasons—​ and I think there’s a hunger for this knowledge among students entering our schools from these perspectives;28

24 Response provided by Trantham via questionnaire on Survey Monkey on 10/​03/​2016. 25 Response provided by Dehner via questionnaire on Survey Monkey on 9/​28/​2016.

26 Response provided by Marlowe via questionnaire on Survey Monkey on 9/​28/​2016 27 Response by Jenkins provided via questionnaire on Survey Monkey on 9/​21/​2016.

28 Response by Chenette provided via questionnaire on Survey Monkey on 6/​20/​2018.

14  Teaching Music Theory The careers of musicians are changing, and most 18-​year-​olds sitting in the music theory classroom may not have an exact idea of what their role in music may be. And that’s OK. While this may challenge some of us, it is truly exciting that we are on the front line, instructing students who will continue, and perhaps make changes in, the practice of music. But before we can impact those students, we need to know our “why.” Perhaps Nick Little says it best:  “Understanding the ‘why’ is an important aspect to anyone’s development.”29



29 Response by Little provided via questionnaire on Survey Monkey on 9/​27/​2016.

2 Why and How Curriculum and Content At the 2017 meeting of the National Association of Schools of Music (NASM), I was fortunate to lead a regional keynote for administrators from some of the most prestigious schools in the country.1 At the beginning of the presentation, I asked the attendees to “list five topics from the theory/​aural skills core that every student should encounter in their undergraduate education.” There was a great deal of excitement as I asked the audience to break into small groups and instructed them to, after discussion, post their responses to an immediate polling site. The poll was quickly filled with responses, resulting in the word cloud depicted in Figure 2.1. Immediately following this exercise, I asked the attendees to watch the Simon Sinek video mentioned in ­chapter 1. It quickly became clear that how I phrased my first task, “List five topics from the theory/​aural skills core that every student should encounter in their undergraduate education” was perhaps not the best way to begin a discussion on curriculum.2 I then asked each group to pick one of the topics from the word cloud and elaborate with the question of “why.” This created a very thoughtful conversation in the small groups, and their responses were once again posted to the polling site. A  sampling of the responses, shown in the following list in order from small to large scale, included thoughts on overall musicianship and the importance of skills within the context of musical literature: • Scales provide a contextual hierarchy of pitch, tone, color, and mood. • Lead sheets allow students to flexibly create music in many situations. • Intervals form a foundation for everything else, help you work together with other musicians, and help you understand music.

1 Snodgrass 2017. 2 The term “curriculum” refers to all of the academic content (including courses, course outlines, pacing and schedules of individual courses, etc.) that is taught within a specific program. Teaching Music Theory. Jennifer Snodgrass, Oxford University Press (2020). © Oxford University Press. DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780190879945.003.0001

16  Teaching Music Theory

Figure 2.1  Five topics every student should encounter in the undergraduate theory/​aural skills core (NASM response)

• Learning fundamentals is like learning to speak the language of music. To have a common language among musicians is important because enabling a universal language and practice opens all other doors. • Establish a common basis for understanding and implementing musical ideas, which will make students better musicians. • Understand the “play of exceptions” in music, e.g., when expectations are thwarted, what does it mean? • Bring students into contact with what is most special, challenging, impactful, and life-​changing about pieces of music. • Developing the ear helps students understand style. • Music is not purely an emotional endeavor; it also has intellectual underpinnings. • Music produced by an individual in an ensemble relates to all other parts. Theory and aural skills help build that understanding. • Music is evolving, and theory creates an awareness of where we are and where we might go. When asked the question of “why,” many of the administrators quickly changed their thinking to focus more on the context, a common language, and relationships rather than the minute details for fundamental skills. I presented the same “top five topics” challenge to attendees at a music theory forum at the University of California, Santa Barbara (UCSB), where the audience was made up of academic faculty and graduate students in

Why and How  17 musicology and music theory. Based on the word cloud, it is easy to see the different perceptions from the audience at NASM and the attendees at the forum at UCSB (Figure 2.2). In this response, intervals aren’t even mentioned, but counterpoint, form, and reading top the list. Once again, I asked the audience to revisit their responses and “choose one of the five responses from your first discussion and discuss why students need to learn that particular topic.” While the initial question led to contrasting responses from those of the NASM administrators, the question of “why” led to more common ground. • Reading chord charts allows students to go beyond the notes, integrates diverse traditions, increases marketability, provides flexibility and comfort, and prepares students for a contemporary and relevant musical world. • Increase student ability to communicate with others in the social context of music making and listening. • Learn what music can be. • Become a globally informed musical citizen. One will notice that there were fewer responses on the second question in the discussion at UCSB. As I walked around the room that day, I noticed that the faculty and students were highly engaged in discussion in order to determine why something should be taught or studied. The conversations in the small groups were rich with perception and personal experience, and I  believe that most groups were compelled to give the

Figure 2.2  Five topics every student should encounter in the undergraduate theory/​aural skills core (UCSB response)

18  Teaching Music Theory questions additional thought well after the presentation; thus responses were not all recorded. So often, we start a discussion on curriculum with the question of what to teach and maybe how to teach certain concepts. A question like “What do we want our students to know at the end of the semester?” might provide a useful starting point, but such a question has to be immediately followed with “why” we want our students to master those specific topics.

The “Why”: Beginning the Discussion Perhaps one of the best ways to start a discussion on curriculum is by defining the subject itself before beginning to question the curriculum. More than 100 of the most effective collegiate and high school theory faculty responded to the question, “How do you define music theory and aural skills?” The results highlight aural skills as a way to train the brain and the ear in order to audiate music at sight (sight-​read), a more nuts-​and-​bolts response than might be expected (Figure 2.3). However, the other trends that emerged included listening skills, embodiment of the sound, and the use of aural skills as a basis of performance. Analyzing musical works and seeing how the musical elements function together were some of the primary definitions given for music theory, closely followed by the study of musical practice. Once the definition of the topics is established, one can begin to ask why it is important for students to master these topics. Again, more than 100 responses were collected from the same highly effective teachers, and the responses indicate that performance mastery, musical proficiency, and means of self-​expression through music are important reasons for studying music theory and aural skills (Figure 2.4). Specific responses from both university and high school teachers, when asked why students should study music theory and aural skills, include the following: In order to access a piece of music quickly, in order to understand it better, enhance their ability to perform it quickly and accurately, and aid in memorization. I tell my students that if you love someone, you will know a great deal about them (birthday, eye color, their favorite food, etc.—​intimate details). The artist loves her art the same way, and she jumps at the chance

Why and How  19 50

40

30

20

10

0

Aural Skills as a basis of performance

Aural Skills as a tool for listening and embodying music

Aural Skills as a way to train both the brain and ear

Aural Skills

Music Theory as a tool for analyzing music and its function

Music Theory is a study of musical practice in general

Music Theory

Figure 2.3  Trends in definitions of aural skills and music theory to learn how it works and how to understand it better.—​Anonymous response3 Aural skills is, after applied music, the most important course in a college music major or minor’s education. This is where they get the practical skills to make music better, stronger, and faster, as well as connect theoretical concepts to musicking in lessons, ensembles, and gigs. Music theory is important because musicians need the tools to comprehend and interpret what they are performing. When theory is taught well (and it is often not taught well) it gives them (students) a set of analytical tools to comprehend music.—​Frank Martignetti, professor and chair of performing arts, University of Bridgeport4 Music theory is a broad field that involves not only learning music fundamentals and the skills involved in the construction of tonal and atonal music, but it also involves speculative thought regarding the relationship of 3 Response by Anonymous provided via questionnaire on Survey Monkey on 1/​9/​2018. 4 Response by Martignetti provided via questionnaire on Survey Monkey on 9/​30/​2016.

20  Teaching Music Theory 80

60

40

20

0

Musical Proficiency

Performance Mastery

Means of self expression through music

Number of respondents

Figure 2.4  Trends in why it is important for students to study theory and aural skills music to philosophical, literary, aesthetic, mathematical, historical, social, and other human concepts to help one to understand and appreciate music more fully. Aural skills are those techniques (such as sight singing and dictation) that can help the listener best recognize and identify relationships and functions within the music.—​Mark Richardson, professor at East Carolina University5 Not only must these subjects be studied, but they must be linked. Without an understanding of musical meaning, a musical performance won’t be coherent (unless the performer is simply imitating someone else, which obviously doesn’t express anything original and thus lacks artistic power). Without real practical musicianship, music theory has no particular value, at least for musicians. Acontextual music theory and aural skills (e.g., just identifying intervals) is essentially parlor tricks. This isn’t a great analogy, but a music theorist who lacks aural skills is kind of like a writer with no flair for language: no one praises a writer for his/​her impeccable grammar.—​ Nancy Rogers, professor at Florida State University6 5 Response by Richardson provided via questionnaire on Survey Monkey on 1/​22/​2019. 6 Response by Rogers provided via questionnaire on Survey Monkey on 9/​24/​2016.

Why and How  21 I challenge all of us at all levels of teaching to ask ourselves these two questions. First be able to define your discipline, and then be able to state why students need to study topics within your discipline.

The “How”: Integration, Diversity, and Creativity As mentioned in c­ hapter 1, several studies have highlighted how theory and aural skills are being taught. In 2015, I conducted a survey of more than 300 music theory professors.7 The purpose of the survey was to determine to what extent theory faculty are integrating, diversifying, and implementing creative activities in the classroom, all pedagogical approaches encouraged in the CMS TFUMM.8 The scope of the survey was intentionally broad and included the following questions in relation to current pedagogical practices: • In what ways do you exhibit creativity in the classroom? • How comfortable are you at improvising? (improvisation understood to include all repertoires) • How often do you ask students to demonstrate improvisation skills? • How often is movement incorporated in the following (Ensembles, Applied Music, Classroom)? • How often do you ask your students to compose? (only include composition beyond part writing exercises) • In what ways have you found the material covered in your theory/​aural skills classes integrated into ensembles, applied lessons, and other music classes? • Beyond quizzes, tests, and papers, what other kinds of activities have helped your students understand and demonstrate knowledge in the following areas (Aural Skills, Music Theory)? • What have been some of your greatest challenges in terms of assessing students? • In your direct instruction of students, how much exposure do they receive in the following styles/​genres of music (Popular Music, Musical Theater, World Music, Video Game Music, Jazz, Film Music, Early Music, Classical Era, Romantic Era, 20th century [pre-​1945], 20th–​21st century [post-​1945]) 7 Full results of this study can be found on the text’s corresponding blog. https://​bridgingthe musictheorygap.wordpress.com/​. 8 Campbell et al. 2014.

22  Teaching Music Theory • How often do you involve your students in the selection of repertoire studied within the classroom? • Describe your current practices in terms of theory and aural skills. (Theory and aural skills taught separately, together, or integrated) • How would you gauge the importance of the following topics traditionally taught within the theory/​aural skills curriculum? (A variety of topics were given including fundamentals, core theory, and more specific topics in jazz harmony and form.) (A variety of topics were given including fundamentals, core theory,and more specific topics in jazz harmony and form.) • Do you feel as though you have enough time in the curriculum to cover everything that is expected or needed? Use the comment box to elaborate on material that you wish could be added and/​or removed from your current curriculum. • Use the space below to provide additional information regarding your current pedagogical approaches in the classroom. Feel free to include specific examples of how you are using integration, diversity, and creativity in your classroom. One of the first questions I asked was about creativity, and through the responses to this question, I found that at least 75% of theory instructors were integrating some form of creative composition in the classroom beyond part-​writing exercises (see Figure 2.5). Two hundred thirty-​five respondents gave specific examples of teaching with improvisation, composition, student-​ led discussions, and performance-​based activities such as: Providing own written materials (no textbook), combining written and aural skills as much as possible, presenting new material as smoothly (spiral learning) and in as many different ways as possible (to accommodate varied learning styles), stressing harmonic and melodic patterns as basis for improvisation.—​Ellon Carpenter, Arizona State University9 I have assignments where students answer questions on recordings (mostly rock of all kinds), have students use Garageband for composition projects and to score a silent film for sophomore theory.—​Matthew Schildt, Adams State University10

9 Response by Carpenter provided via questionnaire on Survey Monkey on 9/​11/​2015.

10 Response by Schildt provided via questionnaire on Survey Monkey on 10/​1/​2015.

Why and How  23 100

75

50

25

0 Analysis Comparison opportunities in and outside of class Use of improvisation Singing or other performance is integrated into lesson Student led class discussions Technology is incorporated Popular genres/songs used in analysis

Figure 2.5  Trends regarding creativity Creativity is most often exhibited in the classroom in the form of problem solving. How would you continue this melodic excerpt, how would you harmonize this tune, what techniques would you use to compose a piece that would sound like it was in a particular style of genre, for example. I often use the example of being a film composer who is asked to provide music that fulfills various criteria. I also ask my students to think creatively about music by incorporating knowledge from outside the field of music, from cognitive psychology, philosophy, dance, mathematics, electrical engineering.—​Ciro Scotto, Ohio University11

Another question regarded integration, where I  asked respondents, “In what ways have you found the material covered in your theory/​aural skills classes integrated into ensembles, applied lessons, and other music classes?” Analyzing students’ solo and ensemble repertoire and discussing performance and analysis issues were the most popular integration methods,

11 Response by Scotto provided via questionnaire on Survey Monkey on 8/​15/​2015.

24  Teaching Music Theory 500 400 300 200 100 0

Pop. Music World Video Music Theat Music Game Music No Exposure

Jazz

(no label)

Film Early Class- Roman- Class. Music Music ical tic Music Music Music (Pre 1945) (no label)

(no label)

Class. Music (Post 1945)

(no label)

Extensive Exposure

Figure 2.6  Music examples used in the theory/​aural skills core

followed closely by sight singing in rehearsal sections, though many respondents indicated little to no integration between theory/​aural skills and other music classes. In terms of diversity, the survey unsurprisingly indicated that the majority of musical examples are from the Western canon from the classical and romantic periods. However, more than half of the respondents indicated that they incorporate popular music in the classroom (Figure 2.6). The same survey provided interesting data about topics traditionally taught within the theory/​aural skills curriculum.12 Instructors were asked to rate various topics according to their importance within the curriculum. As shown in Table 2.1, every topic in aural skills was rated extremely high in terms of importance, with 75% to 84% of respondents stating that aural skills on all levels is “very important.” But let’s look at written theory. These are all traditional topics taught in music theory courses, but there are two outliers in terms of what theorists deemed to be extremely important: part-​writing (just under 53% judged as very important) and chromatic chords (more than 67% judged as very important) (Table 2.2).13 12 Between 253 and 256 respondents completed this section of the survey. Some topics were left unanswered, thus the difference of 3 respondents. 13 More discussion on current trends in part-​writing can be found in c­ hapter 5.

Why and How  25 Table 2.1  Topics within aural skills curriculum Topics

Not important

Somewhat Important

Very I do not Important teach this topic, but it is within our curriculum

I do not teach this topic, nor is it taught within our curriculum

Beginning Fundamental Skills—​Aural (Rhythmic Dictation, Intervals, Triad and Chord ID) Advanced Fundamental Skills—​Aural (Harmonic Dictation, Error Detection, Melodic Dictation) Sight Singing Beginning Fundamental Skills (Rhythm, Key Signatures, Intervals, and Triads) Advanced Fundamental Skills (Seventh Chords, Inversions of Chords, Figured Bass)

1.18%

10.20%

77.65%

10.98%

0%

1.96%

9.41%

77.65%

9.80%

1.18%

1.58% .78%

11.07% 5.06%

75.89% 84.44%

10.28% 9.34%

1.19% .039%

2.73%

9.38%

82.42%

4.69%

.078%

If we go to the next level and include even more specialized topics, the percentages drop even further in terms of importance (Table 2.3). A 2017 study from the University of Tennessee by Barbara Murphy and Brendan McConville show similar results.14 Murphy and McConville asked, “What topics are introduced in your theory and aural skills classes?” In terms of aural skills classes, it seems that almost all of the respondents included dictation and sight singing, while the numbers dropped to almost half for skills

14 Murphy and McConville 2017.

26  Teaching Music Theory Table 2.2  Topics within the standard theory curriculum Topics

Not Somewhat Very I do not Important Important Important teach this topic, but it is within our curriculum

I do not teach this topic, nor is it taught within our curriculum

Part-​Writing Harmonic Function Secondary Function (V/​x) Other Chromatic Chords (N6, etc.)

5.47% 1.18% 1.97%

35.55% 7.45% 12.60%

52.73% 86.65% 81.10%

6.25% 3.92% 3.15%

0% 0.78% 1.18%

3.15%

22.44%

67.72%

6.30%

0.39%

Table 2.3  Specialized topics within the theory curriculum Topics

Not Somewhat Very I do not Important Important Important teach this topic, but it is within our curriculum

I do not teach this topic, nor is it taught within our curriculum

Arranging/​ Orchestration Realization of Lead Sheets Tritone Substitution Extended Chords Jazz Harmony/​Theory 20th–​21st Century Techniques

13.10%

38.10%

26.59%

18.25%

3.97%

16.86%

32.94%

31.37%

12.94%

5.88%

14.62% 8.27% 14.23% 4.74%

43.48% 44.49% 36.76% 23.32%

26.88% 38.98% 22.53% 57.31%

9.88% 7.48% 17.79% 11.86%

5.14% 0.79% 8.70% 2.77%

such as error detection, conducting, keyboard exercises, and transcription (Figure 2.7). With regard to theory topics included in the classroom, there is a small drop in pop music analysis and writing. But when put into perspective, out of the 259 survey respondents, 118 incorporated pop music analysis in the classroom and 122 required some sort of analysis paper. However, only 68 out of the 259 respondents integrated improvisation. (Figure 2.8 and Table 2.4)

Why and How  27 Aural Skills Topics 250

# of Responses: 239

200 150 100 50

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# of Responses: 239

Figure 2.7  Aural skills topics

Written Theory Topics

300

200

100

Se

ve An nt aly h s Pa Ch is rt or W ds rit in M Tr g od ia ul ds at In ions t Se erva co ls nd ar Ke y S Sc y ig ale n s An C atu aly hro res sis ma of tic Sm An aly M all 12 sis ode to of s n la Co e & rge un Se r Co ter P ial m oi po nt Se siti t Th on An eo Po W aly ry p rit sis M in o us g S f ic k Im An ills pr aly ov si i s Ja sati zz on S N ch theo eo en r -R k y iem eri an an In ni te an rte N xtu Oth as al e Tr hvil ity/ r an le na sfo Sy r rm stem at io na l

0

# of responders: 259

Figure 2.8  Written theory topics in chart form

What can be learned from the data presented? For one, there are new trends in teaching music theory. While 20 years ago textbooks and programs were geared toward part-​writing and studying exclusively the Western canon, there seems to be movement toward more diversity in literature as well as topics. But, more importantly, this information emphasizes that there is no “one-​size-​fits-​all” curriculum.

Table 2.4  Written theory topics in percentages Indicate what topics are covered in your required core written theory courses.

Analysis Seventh Chords Part-​Writing Triad Modulations Intervals Secondary/​Applied Functions Scales Key Signatures Chromatic Harmony Analysis of Small Forms Modes Analysis of Large Forms 12 Tone and Serial Analysis Counterpoint Composition Set Theory Analysis of Inventions/​Fugues Writing Skills (i.e., analytical papers) Pop Music Analysis Improvisation Jazz Theory Schenkerian Analysis Neo-​Riemannian Theory Other (Various 20th–​21st Century Techniques, History of Theory, Orchestration) Topics in Intertextuality and/​or Narrativity Nashville Numbering System Transformational Theory Source: Murphy and McConville 2017, 196.

2017 (n = 259) 253 251 248 246 244 243 243 239 239 238 225 216 205 188 182 180 170 134 122 118 68 57 35 27 24 16 10 10

% of total 97.68% 96.91% 95.75% 94.98% 94.21% 93.82% 93.82% 92.28% 92.28% 91.89% 86.87% 83.40% 79.15% 72.59% 70.27% 69.5% 65.64% 51.74% 47.10% 45.56% 26.25% 22.01% 13.51% 10.42% 9.27% 6.18% 3.86% 3.86%

Why and How  29

Knowing Your “Why” The final assignment in my pedagogy class requires my students to “design a year-​long music theory and/​or aural skills curriculum for your ideal program (this could be for either an AP high school class, the freshmen level, or the sophomore level college class).” I tell them about the overview of this assignment on day one, and many of them are noticeably excited to finally be able to create a curriculum that was so different from their own. But as the semester progresses, they realize how hard some of these questions may be in terms of content covered and why specific content should be implemented within the classroom. How does one fit in all the “important” topics in such a short time span while also helping students become immersed in the material, rather than just passively engaged in learning facts here and there? The answer may be found in the first assignment given in that same pedagogy class. I ask my students to write a two-​page paper answering the following question: “What is music theory and why do we study it?” Over the years I have seen a multitude of answers to these questions and have compiled them into a few main ideas: Why do we study music theory?

• To communicate with other musicians • To understanding the language of music • To better inform performance of the music • From a composer’s standpoint, being inspired by other time periods and composers and ideologies to create new music • Understanding theory will help you to enjoy music more . . . you know the special effects behind the music Students often give even more detail in the form of anonymous responses: Why should we understand patterns, order, or meaning in music? The reasons pertain to two different areas. As musicians, how we understand music directly affects how we perform it. In a TED talk, Benjamin Zander demonstrates the levels of understanding of music of several different stages of piano students. As the students progress, they understand the music as longer and longer chunks and phrases instead of note-​by-​note. As that understanding grows, so does the student’s ability to play smoothly and their

30  Teaching Music Theory ability to dynamically shape a phrase. Through music theory, deeper understanding of intention (of the composer) gives us insight into how to play their music, but also who they are. That second area pertains to all people. Music theory is a study of the abstract, and teaches how to think about ideas and things that do not always follow the same set of governing laws.15

What is music theory? • It’s any thinking about music . . . even playing is theorizing about music. • Music theory is observations about music. It can start simple, even stylistic. It is a continuum of general observations to hyper specific ones. • A means of quantifying the endless nature of music regardless of geography • A visual way to reflect sound mediums • The study of underlying structure of music • Musical thought including studying composing, learning, practicing, and performing When students are asked to give a definition of music theory, there is a focus on the multifaceted nature of the discipline: Music Theory can be defined in many ways, but I think defining it as the methodology of interpretation of music shows its importance not just for Music Theorists but also for all musicians. I took this interdisciplinary approach, because of my interest in multiple fields of music. The connection between the disciplines of music is something that I have become a strong advocate for. There is a reassurance in this that no matter where you are in music (performers, conductors, scholars, therapists, business owners, instrument builders, composers) you are involved in the interpretation and the creation of music. After all, we are all musicians.—​Mandy Mericle (undergraduate music student) Music theory is similar to the engine of a car. A car’s engine has hundreds of parts working in succession to successfully move the car. The same can be said with music. For every song, there are smaller parts, i.e. notes, chords, rhythms, meters, etc. which not only form what we perceive as music but also progress the music forward. To teach and understand music theory is to learn about the importance of these smaller, but very significant parts of

15 Anonymous student response from Pedagogy course, Fall 2018.

Why and How  31 music, and how they help impact the understanding of the music overall.—​ Abbigail Fleckenstein (undergraduate music student)

Based on these student responses, it is clear that definitions and even the purpose of studying music theory and aural skills may not be unified, but common threads do exist. Perhaps before we begin to even think about content and the nuts and bolts of curriculum, we need to clearly articulate why our students need to know music theory and aural skills and have them be able to articulate the questions and provide us the answers as well.

Why Change the Curriculum? Recently, I asked some of the most effective teachers if the curriculum needed to change. The responses varied and are summarized in Figure 2.9. Thirty-​seven percent of the 97 respondents indicated that change was needed in the theory curriculum; however, about 27% admit that they have seen minimal change.16 Respondents were passionate and offered comments on how the curriculum should be altered. The changes seen and changes desired include the integration of popular music and familiar repertoire beyond the classical canon, more incorporation of aural skills within the theory classroom, and incorporating technology for assessment and study (Figure 2.10). One of the most common responses from AP high school teachers was the need for integration of performance ensemble repertoire with theory practice. Most of the high school teachers reported negative changes in the curriculum because ensembles are being dropped or shortened and felt that they were teaching to meet the requirements of the AP exam. Negative changes seen in the university classrooms focused on the expectation of the students to learn less and imitate more in the aural skills classroom, as well as issues with students who enter the freshmen year with fewer piano skills and less preparation in terms of theory fundamentals compared to previous entering freshmen classes. Most respondents noted the importance of self-​evaluation on the part of the educator and how educators should continue to evolve in terms of the student population and general research in pedagogy. The respondents who felt that little change was needed tended to find fault with their students and their lack of preparedness. (These instructors were not included in the remainder of the study regarding excellent pedagogy).

16 Results from survey found at https://​www.surveymonkey.com/​r/​musictheory.

Notable change seen 20.7% Change needed 37.0% No change seen 5.9% No change needed 4.4% Negative change seen 4.4%

Minimal change seen 27.4%

Figure 2.9  Trends in change in the curriculum

30

20

10

0

Newer musical genres integrated (i.e. pop, jazz, etc)

Repertoire and cross curricular topics integrated

Technology integrated into study

Number of responders

Figure 2.10  Three main trends of change in theory study

Why and How  33 All of the groups commented on how current students arrive at the university with less preparation in comparison to previous student populations, but it was the contrasting responses on how to deal with this situation that separated the effective instructors from those who may be less effective in their approaches to the classroom.

Designing the Curriculum The ordering of the material and the pace vary from school to school. Some of the most effective teachers in the country are very aware of their student population as they design the curriculum, and they create programs accordingly. The following pages outline the curricula at several different schools and include responses from faculty on why their curriculum promotes student success.17

Michigan State University Location: East Lansing, MI Overall Student Population: approx. 50,000 Music Major Population: approx. 300 undergrads and 250 graduate students Degrees Offered:

• BA (Music) • BM (Composition, Jazz Studies, Music Education, Performance) • MA (Musicology) • MM (Collaborative Piano, Composition, Music Education, Music Theory, Piano Pedagogy, Conducting, Jazz Studies, Performance) • DMA (Collaborative Piano, Conducting, Composition, Performance) • PhD (Music Education) Textbook(s) Used: Laitz, The Complete Musician, 4th ed.18 Curriculum Outline with Comments from Faculty:

• MUS 180: Fundamentals of Music MUS 180 is the introductory course in the undergraduate music theory sequence, designed to equip students with fundamental

17 Additional curriculum outlines can be found online at the text’s webpage. 18 Laitz 2015.

34  Teaching Music Theory skills that prepare them to engage more deeply with music in subsequent courses. While some material will be review for some students, the overall approach to music theory, with its emphasis on descriptive and interpretive analysis, idiomatic progressions, harmonic hierarchy, and species counterpoint, will be new to most students. Students will develop fluency with musical fundamentals including pitch, tonality, notation, scales, modes, rhythm, meter, intervals, and chords. They will be able to spell and identify intervals, triads, and seventh chords; write and identify major and minor key signatures; identify meters; and correctly notate rhythms within a given meter. They also will be able to write species counterpoint and control dissonance using passing tones and neighboring tones. Finally, they will be able to write and analyze music hierarchically, following the voice-​leading norms of common-​practice tonal music. • MUS 182: Ear Training and Sight Singing I MUS 182 is the first semester in a four-​semester sequence of courses that aim to develop audiation, which is the ability to hear, remember, understand, and sing musical patterns and structures. It is expected that students enrolled in MUS 182 are also currently (or previously) enrolled in MUS 180 (written theory); this class will run in parallel with the written theory class, drawing on skills and content developed there. Students will be able to recognize and notate musical structures both small (e.g., pitches, intervals, chords, rhythms) and large (e.g., melodies and harmonic progressions). Students also will be able to sight-​sing using tonal and rhythmic syllables. • MUS 181: Musicianship I In MUS 181, students will learn to identify and write common musical structures (the “what” of music), as well as explore how and why musical passages and compositions work. Students will deal almost exclusively with diatonic tonal music, going beneath the surface of the music to study its melodic, harmonic, contrapuntal, and rhythmic underpinnings. Students will be able to write and identify cadences, embellishing tones, species counterpoint, 63 chords to expand I and V, inversions of V7, vii  ̊7, predominant harmonies and the phrase model, embellishing

Why and How  35 tones and suspensions, 6​4 chords, invertible counterpoint, compound melody, motive, non-​dominant 7th chords, phrases and sub-​phrases, the mediant and submediant triads, back-​relating dominants, and applied chords. • MUS 183: Ear Training and Sight Singing II In MUS 183, the second semester of ear training and sight singing, students will continue to develop skills in melodic, harmonic, and rhythmic dictation; triad and seventh-​chord identification; singing at sight from notation using syllables; and singing melodic, harmonic, and rhythmic patterns without notation. Students will be able to identify by ear and write increasingly long and disjunct diatonic melodies, harmonic progressions involving all diatonic triads (studied in MUS 181), and increasingly long and complex rhythmic passages in various duple and triple meters. Furthermore, they will be able to sing tunes at sight in treble, alto, tenor, and bass clefs, and to improvise tonic, subdominant, and dominant patterns in major and minor keys using pitch syllables, as well as rhythmic patterns using Gordon syllables. • MUS 280: Musicianship II MUS 280 continues the process begun in MUS 180 and MUS 181, providing a foundation in the structure of common-​practice tonal music of the 18th and 19th centuries. Expanding upon the diatonic harmony addressed in the two previous courses, students will deal extensively this semester with chromaticism, including secondary dominants, tonicization, diatonic and chromatic modulation, modal mixture, and other expressive devices. They also will examine musical form increasingly closely, studying small structures such as periods, sentences, and binary forms. Upon completion of the course, students will be able to identify cadence types, phrase types, binary forms, sequences, and expressive chromaticism aurally and from a score; to model these structures through short written composition and keyboard assignments; to distinguish among harmonic prolongations, progressions, and modulations; to articulate and diagram essential compositional strategies for small musical forms; and to engage in scholarly discourse by applying standard terminology for all of the above.

36  Teaching Music Theory • MUS 282: Advanced Ear Training and Sight Singing I MUS 282 is the third of four courses in the ear training and sight singing sequence. Building upon their work in MUS 182 and MUS 183, students will develop greater fluency with tonal and rhythmic syllables, using them for sight singing, dictation, and basic tonal and rhythmic improvisation. By the end of the course, students will be able to sight-​sing diatonic and moderately chromatic melodies using melodic syllables (moveable do); chant at sight any usual duple-​or triple-​meter rhythm using rhythmic syllables; transcribe a primarily diatonic, two-​phrase melody in duple or triple meter; transcribe the outer voices of a primarily diatonic, two-​phrase harmonic progression and identify the harmonies; arpeggiate primarily diatonic chord progressions using syllables; and sing functional progressions (by Jershild) in major keys through six sharps. • MUS 281: Musicianship III MUS 281, the last course in the four-​semester study of common-​ practice tonal music, builds upon students’ previous study of small-​scale form to encompass larger forms, both sectional ones (e.g., ternary and rondo) and continuous ones (e.g., sonata, sonata-​ rondo, concerto-​allegro, and slow-​movement). Students will learn to identify the components of these large-​scale forms both aurally and from a score, including ones that deviate from the prototypical norms; they will express their formal observations both graphically and through precise analytical terminology. Students also will learn to hear, write, and identify tonal ambiguity and symmetry, exploring the advanced chromatic techniques that came into usage during the nineteenth century, such as plagal relations, enharmonic modulations, altered dominant-​ seventh chords, common-​ tone chords, chromatic sequences, equal divisions of the octave, and the omnibus progression. • MUS 283: Advanced Ear Training and Sight Singing II MUS 283 is the fourth and final semester in the ear training and sight singing sequence of courses. Continuing the work that they have done in MUS 282, students will hone their skills in melodic, harmonic, and rhythmic dictation; in singing melodies and

Why and How  37 rhythms at sight; and in improvising tonal patterns in major and minor and rhythms in asymmetric meters and with nested tuplets. The melodies for singing and dictation will be increasingly chromatic, disjunct, and complex. Students are expected to sing accurately, in tune, and with correct tonal and rhythmic syllables. Harmonic progressions will include all of the chromatic chords covered in MUS 280 and 281. • MUS 381: Twentieth-​Century Music In MUS 381, students will learn compositional processes and materials that gained prominence during the end of the nineteenth century and throughout the twentieth century, as well as the analytical techniques that were devised to explain them. Students will be able to identify these techniques and processes in a variety of representative compositions, to reproduce these techniques and processes in their own compositions, to explain and demonstrate them to others, to situate the techniques and compositions within the historical period(s) in which they were influential, and to recognize aurally some of the most important compositions of the twentieth century.

California College of Music Location: Pasadena, CA Overall Student Population: 24 Music Major Population: 24 Degrees Offered:

• Associate of Science in Music Performance (emphasis in either Voice, Guitar, Bass, Drums, or Keyboards) • Artist Development Certificate (emphasis in either Singer-​ Songwriter or Writer-​Producer) • Certificate in Music Performance • Apprentice in Music Performance • Preparatory Quarter (8-​week pre-​college program)

38  Teaching Music Theory Textbook(s) Used:

• Brummel, Harmonia: A Workbook of Popular Music Theory.19 • Kapica, Chordcraft: A Workbook of Popular Music Harmony.20 • Holliday, R. Extended Harmony Vol. I & II.21 Comments from Faculty on Curriculum Decisions: Please note that these core courses are supplemented by work in related areas including sight reading, rhythm training, piano proficiency, instrumental technique, private lessons, performing ensembles, music technology, studio recording, music history, and music business. Each level shown below represents one quarter’s worth of work, defined as ten weeks of instruction, plus an 11th week of final exams and performances. Curriculum Outline:

• M120A: Popular Music Theory I This course introduces the building blocks of popular music and how to identify, organize, notate, and perform them. After covering concepts like key signatures, rhythm and meter, and the movable Do solfège system, students then learn the distances between the twelve equally-​tempered pitches within an octave (called intervals) and use them to construct major and minor scales, triads, and 7th and 6th chords. Popular Music Theory I also covers the relationships between keys, the Circle of Fifths, and the diatonic harmonies of major and minor keys expressed with Roman numerals and/​or Nashville numbers. • M120B: Popular Music Theory II Building upon material from Popular Music Theory I, this second level focuses on the fundamental properties of diatonic harmony, including chord function (the roles chords play in a progression) and secondary dominance. Students will learn how to build and order triads and 7th chords to create functional progressions with smooth



19 Brummel 2018. 20 Kapica 2017.

21 Holliday 2018.

Why and How  39 voice leading. In addition to music in major and minor keys, Popular Music Theory II introduces the seven diatonic modes. • M120C: Extended Harmony I Continuing from Popular Music Theory I and II, Extended Harmony I is a deeper exploration of chord progressions, covering extended chords (those with 9ths, 11ths, and/​or 13ths), II-​V-​I progressions, chord voicings, chromaticism, harmonic sequences, chord substitution, and modulation. Students will also learn various harmonic idioms associated with blues, jazz, and other popular music styles as well as standard song forms. • M120D: Extended Harmony II Extended Harmony II focuses on modulation and key relationships, mode mixture, mediant relationships, synthetic modes and scales, polychords, and polytonality. Towards the end of the course, students will learn about the overtone series, music that forgoes tonal conventions (atonality), and music in alternate tuning systems (just intonation, microtonality). • M121A: Ear Training I Designed to run concurrently with Popular Music Theory I, the first level of Ear Training teaches students how to internalize the movable Do solfège system. Students strengthen aural skills by singing major and natural minor scales (and the intervals comprising them) and triads as well as by transcribing diatonic melodies and simple bass lines. • M121B: Ear Training II Building upon the skills learned in Ear Training I  and running alongside Popular Music Theory II, the second level of Ear Training emphasizes hearing and singing inverted triads, common 7th and 6th chords, suspended chords, and the harmonic and melodic minor scales. Students will also transcribe diatonic chord progressions and melodies from popular music recordings. • M121C: Advanced Ear Training I After Ear Training II, students begin to aurally identify examples of modal inflection by transcribing modal melodies and progressions featuring chords borrowed from the parallel key and the Dorian, Phrygian, Lydian, and Mixolydian modes. Students also learn to sing and hear commonly used inverted 7th chords and begin exploring the sound of altered dominants.

40  Teaching Music Theory • M121D: Advanced Ear Training II The final level of CCM’s Ear Training track focuses on hearing and singing common extended chords and synthetic modes. Students also transcribe melodies featuring chromatic passing and neighboring tones as well as chord progressions with secondary dominants, mode mixture, inverted triads and 7th chords, and certain extended chords. At the end of the course, students perform a popular music excerpt using movable Do solfège.

The Juilliard School Location: New York, NY Overall Student Population: 800 Degrees Offered:





• BM (Performance, including composition and collaborative piano) • MM • DMA • Graduate Diploma • Artist Diploma Textbook(s) Used: • Theory (5 semesters) ◦ Laitz, The Complete Musician, 4th ed.22 • Ear Training ◦ Dandelot, Manuel pratique, nouvelle edition.23 ◦ Rogers and Ottman, Music for Sight Singing, 9th ed.24 ◦ Edlund, Modus Vetus, 1st ed.25 ◦ Starer, Rhythmic Training, 1st ed.26 ◦ Solomon, Advanced Rhythm Studies, 1st ed.27

22 Laitz 2015.

23 Dandelot 1999.

24 Rogers and Ottman 2014. 25 Edlund 1963. 26 Starer 1985.

27 Solomon 2009.

Why and How  41 Comments from Faculty on Curriculum Decisions: All aspects of the curriculum are discussed in small subcommittees and the curriculum as a whole has to then be approved by all theory professors (c. 12 of us). Curriculum Outline: • Ear Training I Full Year Practice of harmonic and melodic intervals to the octave. Rhythm performance and dictation in simple and compound meters, with divisions of two through eight to the beat. Reading of treble and bass clefs using fixed do solfège. One-​part melodic dictation and qualities of triads. • Theory I: Diatonic Harmony One semester This course provides an introduction to the theory and analysis of tonal music. After a review of musical fundamentals (in which students will be expected to demonstrate facility and speed in naming and spelling basic tonal materials), the course will introduce species counterpoint, diatonic harmony, and the composition and analysis of idiomatic musical phrases typical of the Baroque or Classical style. • Theory II: Principles of Form One semester This course examines principles of formal structure from the smallest phrase units to complete movements in binary and da capo form, completes the diatonic vocabulary, and introduces harmonic chromaticism. These principles are illuminated through the analysis of examples drawn from music literature of the 18th and 19th centuries, as well as through model-​composition assignments. • Ear Training II Full Year Reading in treble, bass, soprano, alto, and tenor clefs. Playing and singing simultaneously using two or three of the five clefs. Singing triads and dominant sevenths in all inversions up and down. Identification of isolated triads and dominant sevenths in four parts and identification of triads in root position and inversions in traditional harmonic progressions. Two-​part melodic dictation in various

42  Teaching Music Theory clefs with implied harmony. Further rhythmic study, including basic polyrhythms. • Theory III: Chromatic Harmony and Analysis One semester This course introduces large-​ scale forms (sonata form, rondo, and ternary) as well as new forms of chromatic harmony; those that control the unfolding of local and large-​scale events. An emphasis is placed on the expressive meaning of chromatic harmonies and also on the use of chromatic features in complete, large-​scale movements. Analytical and model-​ composition projects draw from the Classical repertoire (especially sonata forms) and representative, early 19th-​century genres (such as Lieder and character pieces). • Theory IV: At Tonality’s Edge One semester The course examines later 19th-​and early 20th-​century trends that contributed to the breakdown of traditional tonality around 1900, and the ensuing rise of new tonalities. Two ongoing themes in this course are 1) developing a working definition of “tonality” and the tension between harmonic and contrapuntal aspects of music and 2) the shift from tonal asymmetry to symmetry. • Theory V: 20th Century and Beyond One semester This course offers a broad introduction to the analysis of post-​ tonal music. Topics of study include extended tonality and the rise of new tonalities; scales and collections; and principles of set theory and classic serialism. The course is offered in a series of sections from which students choose one. Each section focuses on a specific theme or repertoire. Topics offered in previous years include • American Mavericks and Their European Influences • Classicism in 20th-​and 21st-​Century Music • Musical Revolutions in the Early 20th Century:  Debussy, Stravinsky, Schoenberg, Berg, and Webern • National Identity in 20th-​Century Music • 20th-​Century Orchestral Music • The World of Color in 20th-​and 21st-​Century Music

Why and How  43

“You Must Cut Eight Hours”: A Personal Study As seen in all of the curricula presented here and those online, the majority of the curricula require at least four semesters of music theory and aural skills study, and in many cases the final semester is focused more on the late 19th and early 20th century. A variety of textbooks are used, and course descriptions cover the gamut from very detailed to deliberately open. It is obvious from this small sampling that schools are focused on their particular population and design a curriculum that best meets the needs of their students. Appalachian State University has always prided itself on student-​centered learning, and for 40  years the curriculum served us well. However, with a mandate from the general assembly that all majors move to 120 credit hours and a desire to revisit some of our core pedagogical approaches, the faculty at Appalachian State opted for some major revisions beginning in the fall of 2019.

Appalachian State University Location: Boone, NC Overall Student Population: 19,000 Music Major Population: 480 undergraduates, 50 graduate students Degrees Offered: • BM (Music Education, Performance, Music Therapy) • BS (Music Industries Studies) • MM (Performance, Music Therapy) Textbook(s) Used: • All majors except Music Industries Studies ◦ Burstein and Straus, Concise Introduction to Tonal Harmony, 1st ed.28 ◦ Castro and Merritt, Comprehensive Aural Skills, 1st ed.29 • Music Industries Studies ◦ Snodgrass, Contemporary Musicianship, 1st ed.30 ◦ McCandless and McIntrye, Craft of Contemporary Commercial Music, 1st ed.31

28 Burstein and Straus 2016. 29 Castro and Merritt 2015.

30 Snodgrass 2016. (Contemporary Musicianship). 31 McCandless and McIntyre 2017.

44  Teaching Music Theory Comments from Faculty on Curriculum Decisions: We have monthly theory meetings where all of the theory faculty, both full-​and part-​time, meet together to go over placement exam trends, talk about curriculum proposals, and discuss class schedules and other ways in which we can be the most effective for our students. We also have “theory meetings” a few times a year where the theory faculty find a restaurant to have a 2-​hour conversation on what is exciting and frustrating in our lives as active music theorists. I had recently taken over as coordinator, and I had my notebook ready at one of these meetings. “What is working?” I asked. Silence. OK, “What is not working?” My faculty looked at each other and slowly began to tell me how unhappy they were with how we assessed students in aural skills, how they felt there was no academic freedom in the classroom because of the teaching outlines that were handed out, and, most important, how they felt like the students were not succeeding in our current curriculum. It was on that day that I knew we needed to truly assess our curriculum.

Step 1: Where are we now? Greg McCandless and I  both teach in the traditional core as well as the music industry track, and we both began to notice that the students within the industry theory core are in some ways more musical than those in the more traditional track. Why is that? Well, there are several factors at play here. First, many of the music industry students are active musicians in popular bands around town. They are constantly arranging music and using their ears, more so in some ways than our students in the ensembles. Second, the ear-​training portion of the industry theory class is completely integrated, and students are encouraged to bring instruments to class on a daily basis. The content is delivered in such a way as to foster creativity and direct application to their work as songwriters and recording engineers. In revamping the curriculum, there was some thought about using some of the teaching methods in the industry course within the traditional track. In our “theory meeting,” some faculty admitted to me that they were bored in their teaching and needed something new to bring into the classroom. Something needed to be done both for our student population and for our faculty.

Why and How  45

Step 2: Where have we been? One of the best ways to begin a discussion about curriculum is to ask students who have been through your courses to give feedback on how the knowledge has helped or not helped them in their musical endeavors. In the fall of 2017, I  sent the following survey to alumni from the Hayes School of Music at Appalachian. The questions were brief but included the following: 1. Which undergraduate degree(s) did you earn at the Hayes School of Music? 2. What year did you graduate from Appalachian State? 3. How would you best describe your current employment? 4. Of the following topics currently taught in the music theory sequence, please rate each on the scale provided. (not relevant, relevant, extremely relevant) • Identification and spelling of pitches • Identification and spelling of scales • Identification and spelling of intervals • Identification and spelling of triads and seventh chords • Identification and spelling of chords in inversion • Lead Sheet/​Jazz Symbols • Principles of Voice Leading (Part writing) • Diatonic Harmony (Composition and Analysis) • Harmonic Progression • Identification and notation of non-​ chord tones (Passing tones, appoggiaturas, etc.) • Species Counterpoint (Composition and Analysis) • Sequences (Composition and Analysis) • Transposition of Instruments and Arranging for Instruments • Chromatic Harmony (Composition and Analysis) • Modulations (Composition and Analysis) • Motivic Variation and Development • Imitative Polyphony and Invertible Counterpoint • Fugue (Composition and Analysis) • Phrase and Periodic Structure (Composition and Analysis) • Analysis of Large-​Scale Forms (Binary, Ternary, Sonata Form, etc.) • Analysis of Post-​tonal music (Debussy–​current)

46  Teaching Music Theory • Impressionistic Techniques (Composition and Analysis) • Set Theory (Composition and Analysis) • Serialism (Composition and Analysis) 5. Of the following topics currently taught in the aural skills sequence, please rate each on the scale provided. (not relevant, relevant, extremely relevant) • Scale Degree ID • Interval ID • Triad and Seventh Chord ID • Melodic Dictation • Harmonic Dictation • Soprano Bass Dictation with Chords • Rhythmic Dictation • Sight Singing of Scale Degrees • Sight Singing of Melodies • Sight Singing of Harmonic Progressions • Error Detection 6. Based on your own life experience, what topics would you like to see added to the theory curriculum or offered as an outside elective? 7. Based on your own life experience, what topics could you see eliminating or minimizing within the theory curriculum? 8. Other comments you would like to bring forward to the theory faculty in the Hayes School of Music.

Step 3: Involve all faculty in the discussion A follow-​up step from the alumni survey was to talk with our faculty. The following spring I sent a similar survey to key faculty members in our various disciplines.32 The only difference in terms of the questions was the wording, with prompts such as “Of the following topics currently taught in the music theory sequence, please rate each on the scale provided based on relevancy for graduates in your field” and “What topics could you see eliminating or minimizing within the theory/​aural skills

32 The results of this survey were tabulated with Google Forms; https://​docs.google.com/​forms/​d/​ 1IIMskkG7yV1Si-​CG022Zpiyv6q7llRt2A6WsnjAbhP4/​edit#responses.

Why and How  47 curriculum?” This process may have been the first time that many of our faculty were made aware of every single topic being taught in the theory and aural skills core.

Step 4: Propose change Based on the results from the surveys of both alumni and faculty, we began to see emerging trends. Out of the 179 alumni responses received, it became clear what was relevant and what was not in terms of theory and aural skills. A large percentage of alumni found all aspects of aural skills to be relevant to their chosen profession, while music theory had a few topics that were deemed less relevant.33 Music Theory Extremely Relevant: Identifying and Spelling of Pitches (82.5%) Intervals (80.1%) Scales (76.7%) Not Relevant: Serialism (43.8%) Set Theory (36.9%) Imitative Polyphony & Invertible Counterpoint (34.1%) Aural Skills Extremely Relevant: Interval Identification (83.6%) Rhythmic Dictation (80.3%) Error Detection (79%) Sight Singing Melodies (78.1%) Not Relevant: Soprano Bass Dictation with Chords (18.1%) Sight Singing of Harmonic Progression (12.4%) Harmonic Dictation (7.3%)

33 The results of this survey were tabulated with Google Forms; https://​docs.google.com/​forms/​d/​ e/​1FAIpQLSfwT2H2SEwJi0uLDXkhku6hqgo_​il3NtMHa1gqZjToGzuI0xA/​viewform?usp=sf_​link.

48  Teaching Music Theory Based on these responses, the theory faculty at Appalachian State (Hiu-​Wah Au, Andrew Hannon, Greg McCandless, and myself) decided to completely overhaul both the aural skills and the theory curriculum. The new theory curriculum centers around a three-​semester core and gives students an opportunity to choose from a variety of theory electives. Music education and music therapy majors are asked to choose one elective, while performance majors, including theory/​composition majors, are asked to choose several more for their program of study.

Curriculum Outline • Theory 1 Review of Fundamentals (including lead sheets), introduction to counterpoint, introduction to Voice Leading, introduction to Roman numerals, cadences and basic phrase structure, basics of harmonic progression, second inversion chords and embellishing tones, functional diatonic harmony and analysis, transposition. • Theory 2 Secondary Function, Modal Mixture, Altered Predominants (Aug6 and N6), Modulation I, Modulation II. • Theory 3 (Form and Analysis) Period and Phrase Structure, Binary Form, Ternary Forms, Forms in Popular Music, Variation Form/​Rondo Form, Sonata Form, and Sonata Rondo Form. Electives Offered:

• Performance and Analysis • Music Theory Pedagogy • Analytical Techniques (3-​hour course) • Analysis of 20th and 21st Century Music • Counterpoint • Orchestration • Electronic Music • Analysis of Popular Music • Analysis of Choral Literature

Why and How  49

• Analysis of Band and Orchestral Literature • Introduction to Music Composition I • Introduction to Music Composition II • Songwriting • Jazz/​Pop  Theory • Special Topics in Music Theory: Film Music, Musical Theater, Music and Media and Music Technology The aural skills curriculum also changed in order to help students have a more musical experience in the classroom through many of the methods discussed in this text. The faculty began to discuss the need for more contextual listening and more low-​stakes assessments. More information about assessment and contextual listening assignments within aural skills can be found in c­ hapter 8.

Theory and Aural Skills Core for the Music Industry Studies Major • Contemporary Musicianship I All ear training is completely integrated into this curriculum. Students are asked to compose within each unit, and emphasis is placed on improvisation. Topics include pitch and rhythmic notation, major and minor keys, intervals, triads, seventh chords, and lead sheet symbols, Roman numerals, harmonic progression, voice leading, and phrases and cadences, non-​chord tones (all), secondary dominants and collaborative songwriting. • Contemporary Musicianship II Topics include review of secondary function and secondary leading tone chords, altered predominants, mode mixture, modulation in popular and classical genres, extended harmonies, harmonic function in jazz, Nashville Numbering System, and collaborative songwriting.

3 The Classroom Environment According to the Merriam-​Webster Dictionary, the word “­environment” refers to the “circumstances, objects, or conditions by which one is surrounded.”1 When taking this definition into account, it is important to realize that the classroom environment is much more than just the way desks are arranged or how many dry-​erase boards are available or even if technology is implemented. The environment includes the conditions and circumstances that we bring, both as students and as educators. However, the initial classroom domain and thus the tone of the environment need to be set by the instructor. The classroom must be a space that welcomes curiosity and questioning, a safe place for students to learn and experiment, and an authentic surrounding where both teacher and student are working together. According to Ken Bain, all of the best teachers try to create what he calls “a natural, critical learning environment”: “natural” because students encounter the skills, habits, attitudes, and information they are trying to learn embedded in questions and tasks they find fascinating, authentic tasks that arouse curiosity and become intrinsically interesting; “critical” because students learn to think critically, to reason from evidence, to examine the quality of their reasoning using a variety of intellectual standards, to make improvements while thinking, and to ask probing and insightful questions about the thinking of other people.2

Why is it crucial that we, as music theorists and educators, create this natural, critical learning environment, and how can we establish this type of space in our own classrooms? The answers to these questions aren’t simple and involve many different teaching approaches, learning objectives, practices and traditions of the institution, and personalities of students

1 Merriam-​Webster, s.v. “environment,” https://​www.merriam-​webster.com/​dictionary/​environment (accessed January 31, 2019). 2 Bain 2004, 99. Teaching Music Theory. Jennifer Snodgrass, Oxford University Press (2020). © Oxford University Press. DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780190879945.003.0001

The Classroom Environment  51 and instructors. But there are several core elements that instructors can implement to create this engaging and inquisitive environment, including a culture of respect and rapport, teaching styles that focus on questioning, discussion, collaboration, and engagement, and integrating new approaches in technology.

Respect and Rapport In an article published in the Guardian, an instructor identified only as an anonymous academic polled more than 1,000 students to better understand what was working well at an unnamed British university. The student responses “highlighted the lack of kindness, integrity and understanding when academic staff were interacting with them. . . . Most revealingly, the students asked academics ‘to treat and talk to me as though I’m a person’.  ”3 Students want to be treated with respect, and they want to feel that their presence in your classroom matters. I believe this element of respect might be the most important foundation of a positive learning environment. The fundamental skills in showing respect are quite simple: learn students names, ask students how they are, listen when students speak to you, and leave your own ego at the door. This last part is the toughest for academics. After all, when we graduate from the university, whether to move into the K-​12 classroom or as a newly minted PhD, we are labeled an expert in the field. The title of “expert” might be one of the more problematic terms we use in academia because if one is an expert, is there more learning to do? And if we enter the classroom with this idea that we are the expert of all, will our students respond to us and automatically respect us? Respect is earned; it is not bestowed by a title or dependent on how many diplomas may cover our walls. Respecting students and hearing their voices requires that we be willing to give up some control in our classroom. And giving up control is never easy, especially because in the traditional paradigm of classroom instruction, the teacher is completely in charge. As Maryellen Weimer explains in Learner-​Centered Teaching, “We [the faculty] feel the need to be in control and assert our position and authority over students, but we fail to understand that the need results from our own vulnerabilities and desire to manage an ambiguous and unpredictable situation

3 Anonymous academic 2018.

52  Teaching Music Theory successfully.”4,5 The author then goes on to describe the ways in which power can be shared in the learner-​centered classroom, specifically in decision-​ making in course content, course procedures, and evaluation. There are many ways to experiment with this approach in the music theory and aural skills classroom, including making decisions on literature to be studied, options for final projects, and overall assessment.6 There is no doubt that students need our attention, and if we listen, we will understand how much they play a part in developing the positive classroom environment. Paul Baker put it this way: “Every student is unique and brings contributions that no one else can make.”7 Ken Bain describes those teachers who respect their students and relinquish power as follows:  “They [the faculty] saw themselves as students of life, fellow travelers in search of some small glimpse of ‘the truth.’ They talked frequently about a journey they took with their students in search of a better understanding, or told us stories about insights that students had developed that influenced their own comprehension.”8 Many of the music theory teachers observed are masters at creating an environment of respect, and they see themselves as facilitators and guides for students to reach their potential. The idea of “guide on the side” versus the “sage on the stage” is practiced, and the environment is truly a shared experience. Sometimes this environment was established in just a few words, such as “Thank you so much for being here” (Craig Cummings, Ithaca College), “We are all learning this together” (Charlene Baughan Romano, Shenandoah Conservatory), or “You’re going to teach me today, let’s learn” (Meghan Naxer, Oregon State University). Mark Taggart of East Carolina University exhibited rapport with his students by intentionally recognizing students’ activities outside of class. Many students in his freshman-​level class would be missing an upcoming class to attend a conference, and instead of focusing on the work they would miss, Taggart was excited about their upcoming travels, saying, “Before you go, safe travels to NATS and my jazz friends, knock it out of the park. I want to hear all about it when you get back.”9 4 Weimer 2013, 27. 5 The concept of imposter syndrome is also relevant here. For more information on the imposter syndrome in general terms, see Dalla-Camina 2018. For insights on imposter syndrome in academia, see Herrmann 2016 and Revuluri 2018. 6 Several of these topics are discussed in length in c­ hapter 8. 7 Baker 1977, 4. 8 Bain 2004, 143. 9 Mark Taggart, lecture material, 2/​13/​2019.

The Classroom Environment  53 Students in these classes know they are valued, their presence means something, and the professor is present and ready to be part of the process. The most effective teachers have no agenda to make disciples or carbon copies of themselves. They eagerly share their successes and failures, and they invite everyone in the classroom into the conversation, where growth, understanding, and building the whole person are the main goals. As John White of Ithaca College stated, “I teach people, not topics.”10 Susan Piagentini of Northwestern University instills the idea of a classroom of respect from the first class meeting. When asked how she shares control in her classroom, Piagentini replied: First, I don’t like the word “control”—​that immediately brings to mind a power struggle, or a need to keep others at a distance. I believe there is no need for control if we set expectations for the class as a learning community and clearly demonstrate them in the first day of class. Maybe a better word is to consider how we share “ownership” of the classroom. I show respect to my students by coming prepared each day, being flexible, being authentic, and creating clear expectations. In introducing a concept, I first invite the class to model the strategy and follow the steps that I promote even though they may already have their own way. For example, we first introduce triads in two steps, as constructing a third, and a boundary fifth. We spend time workshopping that construction skill, talking through it, guiding the steps in examples at the board. This is followed by “pod” work in groups of three. When the class comes back together, I ask them to share steps and missteps. What mistakes did they make? What slowed them down? Finally, I ask for other ways they may have developed—​in other words, when a step in the process failed them personally, was not a good fit, what did they replace it with? The emphasis on valuing the differences of approaches, of shared pursuit of a system that works for them as independent thinkers provides them with the confidence to personalize their learning path, while at the same time, sharing strategies equips them with a variety of tools to approach any given task. As seasoned professionals, we are successful because we have acquired a toolkit of a myriad of ways to



10 Responses provided by White via questionnaire on Survey Monkey on 10/​4/​2018.

54  Teaching Music Theory explain a given concept, and we draw on that each time a student poses a question in the classroom. By encouraging students to share strategies and missteps, revising and retooling their approach to fit their own learning style, we are in turn preparing them for the field, as educators, performers, and interpreters of music who can navigate changing expectations and experiences.11

Jena Root of Youngstown State University begins her semester by informing all of her students that they are now in the “Judgement Free Zone,” an environment where students are safe to make mistakes and to learn in different ways.12 In Root’s words: Early in the semester, I let my students know that I am likely to call on them whether or not their hand is up. I assure them that if they make a mistake or give a wrong answer—​that’s wonderful! Because then I have a chance to help them learn. (After all, if everyone gave the correct answer all the time, I would be out of a job, right?) I try to make my classroom a place where students are not afraid to tell me what they need, and I am not afraid to adapt to their needs—​within reason; if they asked for the first 2 measures of a 4-​measure melody, that would be a non-​starter, of course. But if they request an adaptation that helps them better understand the concept and doesn’t diminish the overall learning experience, I seriously consider it, and often agree to it. An interesting example of this happened just yesterday. In Aural Skills 2, we were drilling for an upcoming quiz on sixteenth-​note rhythms. The example I played went something like this. (See Figure 3.1) (Students only had to transcribe rhythm, not pitches.) I played the example a few times, then called on several students to come to the board and each notate one beat of rhythm. It was obvious that more than a few of them were having trouble. One student asked, “do you think you could play it faster?” and a majority of the class agreed that this would be a good idea. So we started from scratch, I increased the tempo, and the students did much better.13



11 Response provided in personal communication with the author via email, 2/​5/​2019. 12 More examples regarding Root’s assessment style can be found in c ­ hapter 8.

13 Response provided in personal communication with the author via email, 1/​27/​2019.

The Classroom Environment  55

Figure 3.1  Aural skills 2 example

It is perhaps in the challenging moments that we need to show respect to our students the most. Many of the instructors interviewed for this book highlighted stories of compassion as their proudest moments as a teacher. An anonymous response from a high school teacher indicated that he or she works to create an environment of teaching the whole person, stating, “A successful student realizes that their inherent value lies within who they are as a person—​not what they can do or demonstrate. This mindset frees them from the anxiety that gets in the way of success.”14 Melissa Livings, AP Music Theory teacher from Richardson, Texas, stated, “There are always challenging moments each year as students seek out to understand their newfound adulthood. Communication and mutual respect is always key.”15 Another response from Jennifer Weaver of Dallas Baptist University highlighted her approach in focusing on the student as an individual and the power of exhibiting kindness as a form of respect: I had a small group of dissenters in a Music Theory I course a couple years ago. They pushed back against every idea and every assignment in the class. I rarely have trouble getting along with students, so this really challenged me, but I decided to read every name on my roster before class each morning and be grateful that they were my student. In class, I showered them with kindness and tried to remain patient. Many of the dissenters eventually came around or even thanked me for teaching them.16

The idea of student respect may require an extra effort to let your students know of your expectations, as told by Gene Trantham of Bowling Green State University: A student was being a constant disruption and was very disrespectful to me as an instructor (very awkward for other students). Since I knew that this

14 Responses provided by anonymous teacher via questionnaire on Survey Monkey on 4/​17/​2018. 15 Responses provided by Livings via questionnaire on Survey Monkey on 9/​25/​2017. 16 Responses provided by Weaver via questionnaire on Survey Monkey on 1/​7/​2019.

56  Teaching Music Theory student would likely be a student leader in the next year or two, I asked him privately how he would like to be treated as a leader. I also mentioned that by his actions he was showing these other students how he would like to be treated as a leader. In essence, was he modeling the type of respect that he would like to receive from his peers when he is their leader? This caused him to have a different “view” of the situation. A few years later when he was a student leader, we had fun recalling this situation. He was very grateful for our conversation and the change that he chose to make.17

The idea of creating rapport with students is a key element in developing a respectful environment. It is important to listen and to value students’ input in the classroom on the content, but it is also essential for a student to feel like a valued member of the conversation, both inside and outside the classroom. An anonymous source stated, My first approach is to treat the student with absolute respect. I  realize that this sounds obvious (and will especially appear obvious to the kinds of educators who will choose to read this book), but it is clear in speaking with some of these students that they have not always been treated respectfully by educators. It seems as though such students sometimes expect to be perceived as an irritation. I try to put myself in their shoes as much as I can, so that I can imagine what it would be like to go through a college degree in their situation. Also, if the student becomes frustrated or upset, I simply listen and empathize with them. I find that this helps the student calm down, and makes them feel heard and valued.18

Discussion-​Based Classrooms: The Art of Questioning In his book A More Beautiful Question, Warren Berger discusses his mission to understand how designers, inventors, and engineers come up with solutions to problems. In searching for common denominators among what he calls “brilliant change makers,” Berger found that all were “exceptionally good at asking questions.”19 Berger continues to state that questions may

17 Responses provided by Trantham via questionnaire on Survey Monkey on 10/​3/​2016.

18 Responses provided by anonymous teacher via questionnaire on Survey Monkey on 5/​29/​2018. 19 Berger 2014, 1.

The Classroom Environment  57 challenge authority and “disrupt established structures, processes, and systems, forcing people to have to at least think about doing something differently.”20 A recent study highlighted in Berger’s book found that a 4-​year-​old asks an average of 300 questions a day, with the average 4-​year-​old girl asking around 390 questions daily.21 This is the age at which humans peak in terms of questioning, and according to Berger that 4-​year-​old will “never again ask questions as instinctively, as imaginatively, or as freely as she does at that shining moment.”22 For us as educators, we need to seek ways to retap into that inquisitive mind of a 4-​year-​old. Bain gives further insight into this idea by offering advice on how to create such an environment: 1. Ask intriguing questions. 2. Provide guidance in helping students understand the significance of the questions. 3. Engage students in some higher-​order intellectual activity, something beyond listening and remembering information. 4. Help students answer the questions. 5. Leave students with a question. What can we ask now?23 Some of the most effective teachers observed were masters at questioning and modeled questioning in such a manner that the students became inquisitive masters at crafting questions on their own. This dynamic created an almost lab-​type environment, a place where students worked with the material but also experimented, made mistakes, tried again, and put material into numerous contexts. Stacey Davis of the University of Texas at San Antonio integrates questions into her class on a daily basis and explains that her “focus is always on helping students know why they are learning a specific concept or skill. Why should they care to learn that fundamental skill, analytical approach, or piece? How do concepts from music theory class apply to other aspects of their musical experience, including listening, performing, conducting, and teaching? How could a deeper understanding of musical structure and style inform their expressive choices?”24

20 Ibid.

21 Telegraph staff and agencies 2013. 22 Berger 2014, 4.

23 Bain 2004, 102–​103.

24 Responses provided by Davis via questionnaire on Survey Monkey on 1/​10/​2018.

58  Teaching Music Theory Questioning analytical approaches is a hallmark of Michael Callahan’s teaching style at Michigan State University, and he continually asks his students to question the process with statements like “What are the cues to tell you what is happening?,” “What does this show us?,” and “Why does this [response] work and why does it not?”25 Questions in Callahan’s classroom can never be answered with a yes or no, and students are not afraid to be incorrect in the classroom because they know that Callahan will simply lead them to the answer through another series of questions. In his Theory III course, I never saw him give a direct answer to a question; instead, he encouraged students to ask the questions themselves in order to work toward a suitable answer. Both Travis Alford and Edward Jacobs (East Carolina University) integrate questioning into their classroom approaches. In his discussion of the harmonization of a melody, Alford led the students to a variety of solutions by asking, “Where does the music stop moving?,” “What makes this a moment of rest?,” and “What are the possibilities?” When a student suggested a V7 chord to conclude the opening phrase, Alford began another series of questions in order for the student to come to the conclusion that “the V7 implies motion” rather than Alford giving his own reasoning.26 Jacobs never shies away from the difficult questions presented by his honor theory courses; in fact, he embraces them. Questions such as “What if?” and “How could I?” are common in Jacobs’s classroom, and he takes the time to write out the questions and respond to each on an individual basis. In Jacobs’s review of secondary function, one student asked, “But what about a F7 in the key of E major?” Jacobs immediately went to the board and guided the student through a list of questions before coming up with conclusions.27 There was a long moment of silence in Gordon Sly’s classroom at Michigan State University as he asked the students a question about the opening tonality of Debussy’s En sourdine from Fêtes Galantes. When there was no student response, Sly did not immediately answer his own question. Instead, Sly moved closer to the students, leaned in, and abandoned the first question and began to ask a series of questions that stimulated discussion after listening to the opening several times.



25 Michael Callahan, lecture material, 9/​13/​2017. 26 Travis Alford, lecture material, 2/​13/​2019.

27 Edward Jacobs, lecture material, 2/​13/​2019.

The Classroom Environment  59

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

When looking at the poem, what words come to mind? What are the subjects of the poem? What qualities are evoked? Can you put into words the experience you have with the music? What do you think about modes? How do we want to understand Debussy’s tonality? It emerges from a tonal tradition, but what happened? 7. How do we get a pentatonic collection from the major mode? 8. Is the opening tonal?28 From the very first question about the poem, students became more engaged in the conversation because Sly began with material they could easily answer. His guided questions led the students to be able to answer the initial prompt of “Is the opening tonal?” The students continued in the analytical discussion with more questions as Sly had provided a fitting model. It is important to Sly that every student be a part of the discussion, even if that discussion is not focused on finding the correct answer. As he said to one student at the end of class, “I don’t know the answer. I think the way we imagine and the way we discuss is much more interesting than finding the right answers.” And Sly truly believes that growth is at the forefront of the educational experience, stating that “a successful student is one who has learned how to learn” what he calls “the thoughtful, practiced, and reflective exploration of music.”29

Group/​Collaborative Work There is so much to be learned from collaboration, including some real-​life moments that help us realize that not everyone will pull their weight. On the positive side, the skill of collaboration is an investment in your students’ future. Learning how to work effectively with others toward a common goal is a skill that almost every student will encounter regardless of degree track, job placement, or life events. Marilla Svinicki and Wilbert McKeachie note that collaborative learning encourages mutual peer support; provides

28 Gordon Sly, lecture material, 9/​13/​2017.

29 Response provided by Sly via questionnaire on Survey Monkey on 9/​24/​2017.

60  Teaching Music Theory opportunities for students to explain, summarize, and argue key issues; and produces better cognitive outcomes.30 The Center for Innovation in Research and Teaching at Grand Canyon provides an exhaustive list of the advantages and disadvantages of group work in the classroom:31 Advantages: • (Students) are able to take ownership of the subject matter. • Students develop communication and teamwork skills. • Content is reinforced as students work together and “teach” each other. This improves understanding through additional discussion and explanation. • Content may be broken down into parts. This allows students to tackle larger and more complex problems and assignments than they would be able to do individually. • Students can work together to pool their expertise, knowledge and skills. • Students hold one another responsible and accountable. • Teaches students to plan more effectively and manage their time. • Instructors benefit by seeing students approach problems in novel and unique ways. This can improve the instructor’s perspective and make their future teaching more effective. • Instructors are able to have the content reinforced by giving the students ways to apply what they have learned in a collaborative setting. Disadvantages: • Assignments must be designed carefully to ensure that all members of the group will be active participants. • Assignments must directly meet the learning objectives of the course and relate directly to the content that has been taught. For some material, there are a limited number of viable projects. • Instructors need to monitor each group, provide feedback and assist when necessary. This may prove to be more time-​consuming than traditional teaching formats. • The project must be designed in a way to promote assessment that is valid, fair and accurately reflects the knowledge and performance of all

30 Svinicki and McKeachie 2011.

31 Center for Innovation in Research and Teaching (n.d.)

The Classroom Environment  61 group members. Grading complexities can make group assignments difficult for instructors. • Students may sometimes struggle with making decisions in a group setting. • Students have varying attitudes regarding collaborative work in the classroom. Cara Stroud of Michigan State University uses technology, such as Google docs and Google spreadsheets, to help with collaboration in her classroom. She uses these documents in ways that might be expected (e.g., as a means of recording work in small groups that can then be easily shared with the rest of the class), but also as a means of collaborating with students on how they will be assessed (e.g., students work in small groups to add sections to a rubric that will be used to assess a model composition project). In her teaching, Stroud continually asks students to work together in small groups. In a lecture on various types of meters, she asked the students to get together into groups and “add an example of simple meter, compound meter and mixed meter.” At great ease in the classroom, Stroud moves from group to group, asking each to explain their process but to also re-​examine different solutions. Stroud then has students perform the different meters in groups and respond to questions about notation. She describes her teaching style as “questioning, collaborative, and exploring,”32 and through her oversight in the informal group work exhibited in the classroom, Stroud encourages her students to question, collaborate, and explore. “Feel free to talk to your neighbor for encouragement” was the phrase repeated over and over by Belmont University professor Rick Hoffman as he asked his students to work through the matrix on Webern’s “Variations for Piano”, op. 27. His teaching style is one of constant questioning, and in this lecture, Hoffman encouraged students to “keep trying in your own time to get through these.”33 But it was after Hoffman’s introduction to serialism that students began to really understand the principles by working through the piece together. Comments such as “There it is” and “No wait, I see a pattern” were repeated over and over as Hoffman walked around from group to group, providing some guidance but leaving the students open to self-​discovery as they worked together. Through collaboration, the

32 Responses provided by Stroud via questionnaire on Survey Monkey on 9/​21/​2017. 33 Rick Hoffman, lecture material, 10/​30/​2018.

62  Teaching Music Theory students were able to map out the row usage in order to get to the overall form of the piece. Students in Jennifer Shafer’s class at the University of Delaware also collaborate in terms of small, informal group discussions. Shafer shares that “group work allows students the time and space to collaborate and think through issues at their own pace (although in a supervised environment, wherein I can redirect if seriously ‘wrong’ paths are being pursued). I am consistently amazed at how students will collectively come up with the ‘correct’ answer, given enough time; my biggest challenge with this is still making sure I can keep my mouth shut long enough to let them do it on their own.”34 In her lecture on sonata form, Shafer asked students to work in groups to figure out the timings of the formal, sectional divides as they listened to Eine Kleine Nachtmusik. She walked among the groups to offer some insight, but mostly provided a sense of validation. When it was time to report findings, Shafer asked students to respond collectively as well as individually to explain their rationales. This created an environment in which everyone was learning from each group and each student. Over the past few years, I’ve integrated more collaborative work into my classroom, both formally and informally. Informally, I have students working with dictation together at the board, working together on a part-​ writing or passage for analysis, and have students singing in parts in aural skills classes. I have also found that collaborative projects work well in my classroom as long as the grading expectations are clearly defined and I provide insight into why this project is important to be completed collaboratively. The buy-​in to the notion of a collaborative or group project is essential, and if students feel that they are invested toward a final outcome together, the advantages of such work can be realized. One of the more successful collaborative moments in my classroom comes in the form of an analysis project focused on literature from specific ensembles in which I ask the groups, as members of a specific ensemble, to work through pieces during the duration of the semester. The following represents the exact assignment I would hand out at the start of the semester based on my student population. This assignment also requires consultation with the ensemble directors, who are eager to hear of integration within the theory core.

34 Responses provided by Shafer via questionnaire on Survey Monkey on 4/​3/​2017.

The Classroom Environment  63

Repertoire Teams

Team Blazing Bassoons Haydn, “St. Antoni” Divertimento in B-​flat • Movement 1 • Movement 3 Team Symphonic Band Galante, A Childhood Remembered King, Barnum and Bailey’s Favorite Team Symphony Orchestra Beethoven, Piano Concerto no. 3 in C minor • Movement 3 Team University/​Chamber Singers Mozart, Requiem Mass in D minor • Introitus • Lacrimosa (from Sequential) Team Wind Ensemble • Schuman, Chester Overture Checkpoint 1—​Harmonic Analysis (Due February 26) Complete a harmonic analysis of the following sections. Table 3.1 indicates the measure numbers you will be responsible for analyzing. Table 3.1  Harmonic Analysis Assignment Team

Piece

Measures

Blazing Bassoons Symphonic Band Symphony Orchestra University Singers Wind Ensemble

Haydn Divertimento Galante, A Childhood Remembered Beethoven Piano Concerto, Mvt. 3 Mozart, Requiem Mass in D minor Schuman, Chester Overture

Movement 1 (All) Mm. 1–​34 Mm. 1–​55 Lacrimosa (All) Mm. 212–​236

Since you will be dealing with large scores, make sure to use your ears to guide your harmonic analysis. Listen to the assigned section several times to locate chord changes and cadences. Do not worry about analyzing all of the non-​chord tones (NCTs) at this point—​we are looking for the overall harmonic progression! However, analysis of NCTs may prove useful and even necessary for figuring out a chord in some scenarios. NOTE: Checkpoint 1 is the ONLY checkpoint where each team focuses on one small section from the movement. For Checkpoints 2, 3, and 4, refer to the Repertoire heading above for complete assignments.

64  Teaching Music Theory Checkpoint 2—​Main Sections and Key Areas (Due March 19) With this checkpoint, focus on a short description of the overall form (i.e., Full Sectional Composite Ternary, Sonata Form, etc.) and a small chart of the MAIN sections (A, B, A’, C, etc.) and their key areas. An example of a form outline is given in Table 3.2. Table 3.2  Form Outlines Section

Key: Cadence

Measure/​Rehearsal Numbers

A B A’

d: PAC F: PAC D: PAC

1–​50 51–​96 97–​end

Form: Full Sectional Ternary

Checkpoint 3—​In-​Depth Analysis (Due April 9)



1. Pick TWO main themes and make a phrase chart for each theme. Then, describe the structure of each theme (period, phrase group, independent phrases, etc.) in a few sentences. 2. Find and label two sequences in the score (RED) 3. Mark two different phrases of irregular length in the score (BLUE) NOTE: These must be different from themes chosen in number 1 above.





4) Find two motives that you think are the most important to the overall piece/​movement—​then, provide two examples of how each motive is developed later on. (GREEN) 5) Mark any highly chromatic passages in the score. (ORANGE) Checkpoint 4—​Written Analysis (April 30) Write a six-​to eight-​page analytical paper that includes basic historical context for the piece, your detailed analysis of the form and harmony, and specific examples of how this project affected your performance of the piece both as a member of the ensemble as a whole and as a performer on your instrument.

The Classroom Environment  65

Effective Technology In the last decade of the 20th century, it seemed that the majority of music theory teachers were fascinated with the idea of computer-​assisted instruction. Schools and departments of music around the country invested in expensive computer labs with multiple workstations for students to work through aural skills and interval drills or to learn the basic skills in digital audio and notation. I  too was one of those educators and even began to program music theory software during my graduate degree, learning the Supercard language as one of my “foreign language requirements.” But over the past decade, more and more students have the technology they need for drill and practice on their smartphones, and information on how to create a basic recording can be learned through a quick YouTube link. However, the use of technology is imperative to our students’ success, and regardless of major, they must know how to create using notation software, record using digital audio, and teach effectively using mobile technology. Platforms and programs such as SmartMusic, Variations Timeline, Aurelia, Picardy, Harmonia, and MacGamut are integrated in music curricula around the country while the use of Podcasts, YouTube videos, and online blogs are becoming effective ways to share and assess information. The approach of the flipped classroom has been researched extensively and is implemented by some of the master teachers in our field.35 But beyond just sharing information, technology has become a staple in some of the most effective classrooms. Technology is used not as a gimmick or as a parlor trick, but as a tool to make the learning environment effective. I always want to get into the minds of my students, and I find that technology allows me the opportunity to gain a snapshot into their perspectives quite quickly. I  often use polling software, such as Padlet,36 to gather information from either small groups or individual students to foster group discussion in the classroom.37 In Padlet students are able to submit information via their smartphones based on a link or a QR code. Figure 3.2 was a Padlet presented to my class based on a homework analysis assignment of Haydn’s Divertimento, Hob. XVI:1.38 I also asked students to share a few facts 35 For example, see Berrett 2012, Abeysekera and Dawson 2015, Herreid and Schiller 2013, Shaffer and Hughes 2013, de Clercq 2013, and Miyake 2014. 36 For more information on how to use Padlet in the music theory classroom, see Snodgrass 2017. 37 More information about using polling effectively in class can be found in Lang 2017. 38 Excerpt from Burstein and Straus 2016, 111.

66  Teaching Music Theory

Figure 3.2  Padlet exercise on Haydn

about Haydn which they found in a quick web search during class time using smartphones. This 5-​minute activity led us into the analysis discussion, but not before we had the chance to talk through the context, some of which was quite humorous! Figure 3.3 shows another Padlet activity in which I  asked students to discuss the various parameters of Queen’s “We Are the Champions.” My students had worked through the analysis for homework, but breaking up their analysis into various parameters helped to guide the discussion. I also employ the “like” feature on Padlet because I then have guidance in to where my students would like to begin the discussion.

Figure 3.3  Parametric analysis on Padlet of “We Are the Champions”

68  Teaching Music Theory Many of the effective teachers I observed are no longer tied down to document cameras or podiums because their use of technology is mobile. At Shenandoah Conservatory, Rachel Short teaches her Introduction to Music Theory class in a large choral room. While this might be a challenge to some teachers, Short was able to embrace a dialogue with her students through the use of an iPad and Apple TV. Using Goodnotes, Short marked directly on the iPad as she guided the students through the phrase analysis of an excerpt from Donizetti’s Lucia di Lammermore followed by Lennon and McCartney’s “Got to Get You into My Life.” Because Short was not tied to a projector or a power source, she was able to walk among the students and markup analysis and cue up audio almost immediately. Short believes that technology “provides the potential for greater change in the field—​leveraging technology to help students work both in and out of the classroom.”39 Sarah Marlowe of New York University also uses technology to overcome some of the issues found in large classrooms. She shared a description of her own successes: “Two challenges I currently face are large class size and inadequate chalkboard/​whiteboard space. I really like doing group work in my counterpoint classes, but it is difficult to discuss group solutions in class when there are far more students than board space. I now have students work in groups at their desks, scan their solutions with my iPad, project them on a screen, and annotate them with an iPad app called Goodnotes. Being able to display and immediately respond to student work has improved our class discussions considerably.”40

Preparing for the First Day Architect professor Ted Mosby from the TV show How I Met Your Mother might have had the worst first-​day class story I have ever seen or heard. In the first episode from season 5, Ted can’t remember how to spell the word “professor” as he writes his name on the board while struggling with what kind of professor he would like to be, “authoritative or cool guy.” Mosby opts for both approaches and, as he puts it, “decides in the moment, which I did about 20 times.” “You can call me Ted, Professor Mosby, T-​Dawg . . . do not call me T-​Dawg,” Mosby shouts at the class as the students stare at him with

39 Responses provided by Short via questionnaire on Survey Monkey on 9/​25/​2017.

40 Responses provided by Marlowe via questionnaire on Survey Monkey on 9/​28/​2016.

The Classroom Environment  69 blank faces.41 For 7 minutes Ted Mosby lectures to the students, refusing to take any questions, until another professor walks in to let Mosby know that he is in the wrong classroom and has been teaching a room full of economics students. My first day of teaching was not that traumatic, but it was challenging. I was fresh out of my undergraduate degree and had secured a full teaching assistantship at the University of Tennessee, where I was assigned two aural skills classes. Finally, I was going to be the inspiration that led everyone in the class to fall in love with aural skills. With chalk in my hand, all piano excerpts practiced to the point of memorization, and a slight case of nerves, I was alarmed to see eight young men staring at me like they could not care less on my very first day of teaching. This was not how I envisioned the first day, and within the first 10 minutes all eight students described their hatred for aural skills and how they had failed the previous semester. I simply read through the syllabus and let the class go early so I could go back to the TA office and rethink my approaches.42 The first day of class sets the tone for the entire semester. According to Sarah Rose Cavanaugh, “On the first few days of class, students will be forming their impressions of you, and this impression may be more important than much of what you do later.”43 In the article “How to Teach a Good First Day of Class,” James Lang provides four principles that help a teacher decide what activities will work the best for different students:44 1. Curiosity—​“This is your best opportunity to spark students’ curiosity and invite them into a fascinating intellectual journey.” Do not start by going over the syllabus but spark curiosity with content-​driven questions. 2. Community—​Create the rapport mentioned earlier in this chapter, speak to the students, and give them the opportunity to communicate with one another. 3. Learning—​Have students engage in a learning experience on the first day. For music theory and aural skills classes, this can be a discussion

41 How I Met Your Mother 2009. 42 Fortunately, I was able to reach these students, and they all ended passing the course, but it took respect and time on both of our parts! 43 Cavanaugh 2016, 62. 44 Lang 2019.

70  Teaching Music Theory on a piece as they listen or performing basic melodies without any notation. 4. Expectations—​Outline the basic parameters of the course and ask students what expectations they have for the course as well. For any music class, I believe the first day should be about music, whether it be performing or listening. As students enter my classroom each semester, I have a performance cued up because I want my students to not only hear the performance but also visualize the artist. The composition could be a popular song performed or composed by the most recent Kennedy Center honoree or a piece written by a composer for which the year is of significance. As the music plays, I ask the students to write their answers to the following questions: 1. What is compelling about this artist, composer, or particular piece? 2. Would you like to perform this piece? Why or why not? 3. Name one composition or song that inspires you musically and/​or personally. As we listen and students begin to write their responses, my students immediately know that I value their opinions and that I am genuinely interested in the music they are passionate about. My students feel free to share this information because there is no right or wrong answer. I assure them that I will listen to every response for question 3, and at some point in the semester the song or composition will be discussed in class. I also begin to build rapport on the first day through the use of a single coin. I gather loose change from around my house and pass out a single coin to the students as they come in the first day. After the initial discussion about the music, I ask students to read the year on the coin and to think of something important that happened during that year. The stories of “that’s when I started piano” or “that’s the year I made honors choir” become a common theme for all in the room. As I tell my story from whatever year is pressed on my own coin, we begin to learn about each other and the experiences that led us to that very moment, the first day of our class. I learn students’ names quickly and test myself in front of the students during every class meeting until I have all names memorized, a positive approach that is one of the most frequently mentioned on my teaching evaluations. The sense of learning

The Classroom Environment  71 and community is set, and it isn’t until the last 10 minutes of class that I go through the class syllabus.

Designing a Syllabus It is often stated that the syllabus is the contract between the instructor and the student, and just like any contract, the organization, content, and overall structure are of great importance.45 Students will look to the syllabus for important dates and policies, but they also will look to it for a greater understanding of the overview of the course and how the teacher will foster learning through assessments and special projects. The syllabus is typically the first document viewed by all students, so it deserves time and attention as you are planning any course and setting the classroom environment. Each syllabus should contain the following information:46 • Course title • Instructor information and contact (email and office hours) • Academic honor code statement/​integrity code (typically university-​ wide policy) • Disability resource statement (typically university-​wide policy) • Course description (from catalog or bulletin) • Required materials and nonrequired materials • Grading scale and evaluation criteria • Course outline of topics (by unit, week, or day) • Class policies (late work, attendance, cell phone policy) Syllabi differ from instructor to instructor and from school to school. Some faculty members choose to have a detailed syllabus that highlights topics to be taught each day in class; others choose to list only topics for each unit with just the important dates for projects and other assessments. The following figures contain sample syllabi from a variety of classes and institutions.47 The syllabi presented here were all chosen for their clarity and



45 Comer 2016.

46 More detail regarding each section of a syllabus is discussed in Conway and Hodgman 2009. 47 Additional syllabi are provided online.

72  Teaching Music Theory detailed purposes and schedules, but especially for their variety in terms of content and approaches. While the contents of the syllabi may differ greatly, the overall organization highlights the student-​centered learning approaches fostered by each instructor. A commitment to excellent scholarship and pedagogy is seen throughout these syllabi as is each instructor’s commitment to students’ creativity, inquiry, and discovery.

Figure 3.4  Two-​year college music theory

The Classroom Environment  73

Figure 3.4 Continued

74  Teaching Music Theory

Figure 3.4 Continued

The Classroom Environment  75

Figure 3.4 Continued

76  Teaching Music Theory

Figure 3.4 Continued

The Classroom Environment  77

Figure 3.5  Conservatory music theory

78  Teaching Music Theory

Figure 3.5 Continued

The Classroom Environment  79

Figure 3.6  State university aural skills

80  Teaching Music Theory

Figure 3.6 Continued

The Classroom Environment  81

Figure 3.6 Continued

82  Teaching Music Theory

Figure 3.6 Continued

The Classroom Environment  83

Figure 3.7  Liberal arts college aural skills

84  Teaching Music Theory

Figure 3.7 Continued

The Classroom Environment  85

Figure 3.7 Continued

86  Teaching Music Theory

Figure 3.7 Continued

The Classroom Environment  87

Figure 3.7 Continued

88  Teaching Music Theory

Figure 3.7 Continued

The Classroom Environment  89

Figure 3.7 Continued

90  Teaching Music Theory

Figure 3.7 Continued

4 Teaching Theory on the High School Level Ninety days or less. That is the average length of time that separates any college freshman from a graduating high school student. Because the time is so short between high school graduation and the first day of undergraduate classes, one would think there would be a great deal of communication between college faculty and high school educators. However, while ensemble directors and applied faculty visit schools for recruitment purposes, it is rare to see any academic faculty talking with the local high school teacher about how theory and aural skills are integrated. High school teachers are some of the heroes in our field, but in many cases, you will never meet them or read anything they have written. And for important reasons. They are so busy in the classroom preparing students for life lessons, rehearsing for meaningful performances, and instilling a remarkable work ethic that most do not have a chance to share their work in the usual spaces such as conferences or journals. These high school teachers are in the trenches, inspiring the great musicians of the next generation.

Student Enrollment So how many students within a music ensemble actually enroll in college music programs? In many cases an exact number is impossible to pinpoint, and most teachers will tell you that the majority of their students do not choose to be music majors in college, although many continue to play in ensembles either in college or in the community. However, some information is available that might help to draw a limited but fair conclusion. For instance, in 2017–​2018, approximately 3.6 million students graduated from high school programs in the United States. We can compare that number with the average percentage of students involved in high school music programs (37%), for a result of 1.11 million students. The National Association of Schools of Music indicates that there were approximately 80,601 enrolled music majors as of fall 2017, with majors listed in Table 4.1 and summarized in Figure 4.1. Teaching Music Theory. Jennifer Snodgrass, Oxford University Press (2020). © Oxford University Press. DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780190879945.003.0001

Musical Theater

922

Bachelor degree in music: Concentration

Number of students

3,309

Music Therapy

3,563

Music Industry

28,592

Music Education

23,266

Performance

Table 4.1  Number of Students Enrolled in Music Degree Programs

46

History/​ Literature

2,041

Theory/​ Composition

16,565

Liberal Arts Degree Programs

Total No. of Bachelor Degree-​ Seeking Students 80,601

Teaching Theory on the High School Level  93 Major Concentrations Liberal Arts Degree Programs 21.2% Music Education 36.5% Music Therapy 4.2% Music Theory or Composition 2.6%

Music Performance 29.7%

Musical Theater 1.2% Music Industry 4.6% Music History/Literature 0.1%

Figure 4.1  Percentage of students enrolled in music degree programs

Looking at these statistics, it seems that the percentage of high school students in music classes who enter college music programs hovers around 7%.1 In talking directly with high school teachers, it becomes even more obvious how few students within the high school music classroom decide to major in music in college. The following list represents insight from high school teachers around the country when I asked the question “Out of your graduating seniors, how many decide to go on and major in music?”2 • Even at an arts school, very few. Most of them see it as a dead end, and a useless career. I’ve only had a handful in the years I’ve taught decide to major. • Out of my 6 seniors, two are going to major in Music Education and one is planning to minor in music. • I have a massive senior class of 50 but only 4 are going into music (and 3 of those are minors). But as long as they keep playing somewhere, I’m happy. • Maybe 1 every other year out of 50/​year.

1 This percentage does not indicate attrition rates at departments and schools of music. 2 Comments taken from Facebook post on 4/​4/​2018.

94  Teaching Music Theory • Out of my 19 seniors, only one has aspirations of studying music. Out of a class of probably 25 or 30 graduating next year 2 are serious about majoring in music. • I’ve got about 12 seniors, and only 1 is considering doing music. He took AP theory last year. But money is the big setback for him. He doesn’t see it as a big money maker (which he’s right comparatively). • Most of my flute students do NOT major in music. I am proud to say that most of them continue playing in college and beyond, and a few have come back to my studio as adults! Music for life, in whatever capacity they wish! • AP Music Theory is a sophomore class, so they have two more years of musicology through IB Music. Out of 10 graduating seniors, 6 will major or minor in music. • I averaged one senior per year from my choir to become a music major in college. In AP Theory, about 4 or 5 out of 13 planned to study music as a major in college. • Zero this year. This is year 18 for me, and I’ve probably had ten orchestra students go on to major in music. I have taught in some pretty high-​ socioeconomic areas for most of my career. For most of my kids, a major in music wouldn’t be “enough” for them or their parents. Music is fine as a “hobby” for my students, but I think in their eyes (and more so in their parents’ eyes) it’s meant to be a hobby, not a profession. I try not to let it bother me—​but it does, especially when I see one that I KNOW wants to do it but won’t. The 2016 report of the Digest of Educational Statistics shows that among 8th graders, 17% play in the band, 5% play in orchestra, and 16% sing in the choir, for a total of 38% of all 8th graders, but that number decreases as students are encouraged to take more academic classes and fewer exploratory courses in the arts.3 According to the Child Trends Data Bank Report on Student Involvement in Music from 2015, 48.2% of 8th-​grade students were involved in some sort of school music program. This number decreased to a 36.7% participation rate by the 12th grade.4 This 36.7% does indicate that a healthy number of students are involved in music classes, and these teachers must teach not only to those students interested in serious music study in a 3 Snyder et al. 2018. 4 Child Trends 2018.

Teaching Theory on the High School Level  95 postsecondary school, but also to students who are not planning to be music majors (the 7% or so mentioned previously). This takes an incredible amount of creativity, adaptability, and initiative on every teacher’s part. When asked why he loves teaching high school, Phillip Riggs, winner of the 2016 GRAMMY Music Educator of the Year Award put it this way: “How much time do you have? My students, the student that struggles and finally gets it. It is good to work with those that excel and with those that achieve something that is meaningful.”5 Riggs teaches at the North Carolina School of Science and Math (NCSSM), a residential high school with approximately 680 students. The NCSSM blends together the best of a university setting through scheduling, connections, and funding with the University of North Carolina system and the best of a high school setting with the lack of administrative responsibilities. In my visit to NCSSM, I was greeted by Raj, a bass-​playing senior who talked with us about his love of music, saying, “I’m thinking of studying conducting in college, along with neuroscience.” The students at NCSSM take a rigorous academic load in the sciences and humanities, but they crave music in their lives. To remedy scheduling conflicts with other courses, Riggs began offering the AP Music Theory class as a hybrid, meeting with the students twice a week while the remainder of the content is presented online. While Riggs admits that many of his videos are links to teachers on YouTube, some of the videos are created using technology such as Camtasia. “In our environment,” Riggs stated, “it is all about efficiency, so using the materials already available online has proven to be effective for our students.” This hybrid approach has proved to be extremely successful. When the AP class met daily in person, the class would run with 4 to 6 students. When the hybrid model was introduced, the enrollment went up to 20. This hybrid model allows Riggs to “expose students to a lot of material in order for them to develop deeper.”6 What makes Riggs such an incredible educator is his ability to make any aspect of musical study relevant, and the students are committed to joining Riggs on the journey. In a recent observation of the NCSSM jazz band, the instrumentalists played charts written by the students. And when changes needed to be made, it was the student composer who helped to talk through the alterations, not Riggs. He was on the side of the band, just keeping the beat on a cymbal. 5 Phillip Riggs, in conversation with the author, 4/​23/​2018. 6 Ibid.

96  Teaching Music Theory

The Advanced Placement Exam While many high school teachers integrate music theory and aural skills (often called music literacy) into ensemble rehearsals, 2,857 schools offer an Advanced Placement course specifically in music theory.7 Approximately 19,542 students took the AP Music Theory exam in 2018 at a cost of $94 per sitting, with possible fee reductions.8 It is interesting to note that many students who take the AP classes choose not to take the exam, and some music theory classes may not have the AP accreditation. Many universities do not accept the AP Music Theory test as a substitution for core theory classes, offering elective credit instead. A study conducted in 2016 found that 86% of universities and colleges restrict AP credit, regardless of the area.9 Table 4.2 indicates the current policies at ­select schools and departments of music around the country as of fall 2018.10 In 2019, The College Board announced its commitment to clarifying the focus of the course (and the AP test).11 The new description of the exam reads as follows: The AP Music Theory course corresponds to one-​to-​two semesters of typical, introductory college music theory coursework that covers topics such as musicianship, theory, and musical materials and procedures. Musicianship skills, including dictation and listening skills, sight singing, and harmony, are an important part of the course. Through the course, students develop the ability to recognize, understand, and describe basic materials and processes of tonal music that are heard or presented in a score. Development of aural (listening) skills is a primary objective. Performance is also part of the curriculum through the practice of sight singing. Students learn basic concepts and terminology by listening to and performing a wide variety of music. Notational skills, speed, and fluency with basic materials are emphasized.12



7 College Board 2018.

8 Jemian 2017 (“Chief Reader Report on Student Responses”).

9

Weinstein 2016.

10 More information about placement and AP credit can be found in c ­ hapter 8. 11 College Board 2019 (AP Music Theory: Updates).

12 College Board 2019 (AP Music Theory: Course Overview).

Teaching Theory on the High School Level  97 Table 4.2  Various Schools and Policies on AP Credit Institution

How Credits from AP Music Theory Exam Are Used

Appalachian State University Indiana University

No credit given. Subscore of 3, 4, or 5 gives credit for Fundamentals of Music. Subscore of 3 or more on written section gives credit for Fundamentals of Music. Score of 3 or more on both written and aural section gives credit for Music Theory I and Sight Singing I. Subscore of 3, 4, or 5 gives credit for Elements of Music. Subscore of 5 gives elective credit. Subscore of 3 or 4 gives credit for Music Theory I and Music Theory I/​Aural Lab. A score of 5 gives credit for Music Theory I and Music Theory I/​Aural Lab, as well as Music Theory II and Music Theory II/​ Aural Lab. Score of 4 or 5 gives credit for Theory I. Nonaural subscore of 5 may receive credit for Music Theory I. Aural subscore of 5 may receive credit for Aural Skills I. A subscore of 4 for written theory on the AP exam would be the equivalent of Music Theory I. A subscore of 4 for aural skills on the AP exam would be the equivalent of Aural Skills I. A subscore of 5 for written theory on the AP exam would be the equivalent of Music Theory II. A subscore of 5 for aural skills on the AP exam would be the equivalent of Aural Skills II. Subscore of 5 gives 1 elective music credit.

Florida State University

University of Texas Northwestern University University of New Mexico

Butler University James Madison University Pepperdine University

St. Olaf College

The AP exam is divided into two main sections, multiple choice and free response. The following is an outline as given on the AP website.13 Section I: Multiple Choice (75 questions) which counts for 45% of Exam Score • Questions based on aural stimulus test your listening skill and knowledge about theory largely in the context of examples from actual



13 College Board 2019 (AP Music Theory Course Overview).

98  Teaching Music Theory musical scores. Some questions will cover identification of isolated pitch and rhythmic patterns, while others may test your skill in aural analysis of more complex musical excerpts. • Questions based on analysis of printed music scores emphasize knowledge of score analysis, including small-​scale and large-​scale harmonic procedures; melodic organization and developmental procedures; rhythmic/​ metric organization; texture; and formal devices and/​ or procedures. You may also see questions about musical terminology, notational skills, and basic compositional skills. Section II: Free-​Response (7 written questions and 2 sight-​singing exercises) which counts for 55% of Exam Score • Written Portion: (45%) • 2 melodic dictation questions • 2 harmonic dictation questions • 1 question about part writing from figured bass • 1 question about part writing from Roman numerals • 1 question about harmonization of a melody • Sight-​Singing Portion: (10%) You’ll be asked to sing and record two brief, primarily diatonic melodies (of about 4–​8 bars). The 2018 Chief Reader Report from the AP College Board provides an abundance of information that is helpful both for teachers and for students who are sitting for the AP exam.14 Of the 19,018 students who took the exam in 2018, the scores represent a wide gamut of knowledge in terms of the assessment, with the following breakdown: Exam Score

N

5 4 3 2 1

4,415 3,543 4,609 4,169 2,282

14 https://​s ecure-​media.collegeboard.org/​digitalServices/​p df/​research/​2018/​Student-​S core-​ Distributions-​2018.pdf (accessed February 2019).

Teaching Theory on the High School Level  99 When AP readers were asked to give advice to AP Music Theory teachers to help them improve student performance, the readers gave very specific feedback in terms of each question, from dictation, to sight singing, to harmonization and part-​writing. The following are just a sample of the comments given by the readers directed toward the AP teacher. Melodic Dictation • Practice aural skills daily. • Teach students to listen to and remember the melody before notating on the page. • Expose students to a wide variety of melodies in major and minor, various meters, and differing tempi. • Do more sight singing. Focus on developing scale degree awareness, so that students are not measuring leaps as intervals devoid of a tonal context. • Do not ignore rhythm: Teach students a vocabulary of typical rhythmic patterns in both simple and compound meters. • Stress proper notation, including correct use of stems, beams, accidentals, dots, etc. Constantly reinforce this until clear notation is a habit. Students may lose points because of illegible notation.





Harmonic Dictation • Teach students to identify cadence types and to work backwards from the ends of phrases. • Encourage students to check that their bass and soprano lines match their Roman numeral analysis. • Emphasize the distinctive sounds of triads versus seventh chords. • Practice hearing and notating inverted chords. Part-​Writing • Coach students on how to avoid over-​complicating the required tasks. • Practice writing clear, unambiguous music notation by hand. • Encourage students to think about voice leading before working on vertical realization. • Teach students to use stepwise motion and to keep the common tone whenever possible. (Think like a singer.) • Review the meanings of the figures, giving special attention to identification of chordal roots.

100  Teaching Music Theory • Encourage students to use smooth voice leading, and especially to avoid large leaps. • Encourage students to use contrary motion in the outer voices. • Encourage students to write the outer voices first and to fill in the inner voices as a pair, after the outer voices have been carefully checked. • Be careful not to confuse the leading tone (scale degree seven) with the chordal seventh. • Drill inversions and their figures, carefully distinguishing triads from seventh chords. • Students should be aware that they will not receive any points for a chord if the inversion is incorrect or if a seventh is added or omitted (i.e., does not match the analysis provided).





Harmonization • Discourage overuse of six-​four chords, except for the cadential six-​four if appropriate at a cadence. • Remind students that passing and pedal six-​four chords must occur on weak beats. • Encourage the use of root position chords at cadences. • Remind students that unaccented passing tones are the only appropriate embellishments for this exercise, and that the given melody will not include accented non-​harmonic tones. Sight Singing • Sight sing regularly in class. • Practice reading and performing in different clefs. • Encourage students not to hum, but to sing with an initial consonant sound; humming obscures accurate pitch. • Encourage students to sing strongly so they can be heard. • Encourage students to sing the tonic triad to establish the key/​tonic. • Encourage students to select a starting pitch that is comfortable for their individual range. • Encourage students to ghost-​finger along, as if playing their instruments, while singing. • Encourage students to sing using contour—​not just rhythm on the tonic pitch—​if they struggle greatly with pitch. • Encourage students to keep going even if they make a mistake.

Teaching Theory on the High School Level  101 A group of AP Music Theory teachers were asked what advice they would give to any student taking the AP Music Theory exam. The responses were candid and full of wisdom and often humor.15 • Show what you know, not what you don’t know. If all you can get on the dictation is rhythm, get the rhythm because there is credit for that. Then if you have more times left to listen add a pitch or two where you can. Learn the patterns such as mi re do or re ti do or do ti do for how melodies often end so you don’t even have to think about them. Use your pencil on the sight singing, it’s there for a reason. You can literally write in every solfège if you want.—​Megan O’Connor, director of bands at Platte Valley School District RE7, Fort Collins, Colorado • Sing solfège as much as possible! In the shower, car, for the dog. . . . Also, fill every free response question. There are points to be made through the whole response, but you have to fill it in! Even if it’s an educated guess!—​ Mandi Colson, orchestra director at Burns High School, Cherryville, North Carolina • During the year my kids roll their eyes when I make them sing. After the exam, they say they wished we sang more. Sing anything—​folk songs, rounds, even short vocal warmups. Then they have an aural vocabulary. It will help with intervals, scales, modes, patterns, differentiation, errors, dictation and composition.—​ Kathy Gabriele, chorus director and AP Music Theory teacher at Severna Park High School, Severna Park, Maryland • Trust your gut. An 18-​year-​old senior has in all likelihood heard Western tonal music for 18 years and 9 months. More often than not when my students start doing practice questions, some quickly select a response only to erase what was a correct instinct, overthink and go for something incorrect. Second, go slow enough to think. The phrasing of multiple-​choice questions in particular is deliberately designed to misdirect, make students second-​guess, lead them down a less efficient path, etc. For every multiple-​choice question, I think 1–​2 choices can immediately be eliminated if they slow down and think. Finally, kids who are going to make the test the end-​all be-​all of their experience shouldn’t

15 Comments taken from the I Teach AP Theory Facebook page; original post by the author on 4/​ 13/​2018.

102  Teaching Music Theory take the class in the first place. Music study is a lifelong pursuit and the test is nothing but a one day benchmark measurement of that lifelong pursuit. I tell my students from day one I couldn’t care less how they do on the test . . . but I care that they learn and enjoy themselves. The test ought to be a victory lap at the end of an already successful year rather than the primary measurement of success.—​Cory Neville, Quaker Valley High School, Leetsdale, Pennsylvania Several award-​winning teachers commented on the focus on preparation for the AP exam as a way to prepare students for study of music on the university level: • I teach them the content in our AP as well as counsel them on what classes they should be doing, how they should be practicing, and the literature they need for auditions.—​Kristin Graham, Irondequoit High School, Rochester, New York • Course components that require all students to sing and to play keyboard also ensure that they’ve had some musicianship experience that will help them be successful. In the second-​year course [AP] students also experience reading and responding to two college-​level textbooks—​ Judd Danby, Jefferson High School, Lafayette, Indiana • Since I teach AP Music Theory, everything I do is for college prep. I’m getting them ready for the exam and what to expect in a college level theory class. We work HARD in that class.—​Sarah Harrison, Cherry Creek High School, Greenwood Village, Colorado

High School versus University Timeline While many AP Music Theory teachers are preparing students for that one important test in May, their focus as educators is much broader. Their days are filled with back-​to-​back classes, and weekends are filled with musical rehearsals, competitions, and preparation for various festivals. While the typical music theory professor may spend their weekend working through an analysis for an upcoming article or presentation, a typical high school director is responsible for getting 200 students to the marching field and planning a car wash for the next morning. Although their days are very different, the focus for all the most effective teachers is the same: the students and the

Teaching Theory on the High School Level  103 music. Let’s look at the average day of a high school teacher and a college professor (Tables 4.3 and 4.4). The high school schedules tell several important stories, the first being that most of the classes are taught back to back with an hour of preparation Table 4.3  Typical Schedule for High School Music Teacher 1. College Prep Charter High School

2. Inner-​City High School

8:00–​8:20: Hall  duty 8:30–​9:20: Wind Ensemble 9:25–​10:15: Concert  Band 10:20–​11:10: AP Music Theory 11:15–​11:50: Lunch 11:55–​12:45: AP Psychology 12:50–​1:40: Contemporary A Cappella 1:45–​2:35: Strings/​Jazz Ensemble 2:35–​3:30: Planning 3:35–​3:45: Hall  duty Contact Minutes per Day in Front of Classroom: 300

8:00–​9:08: Music Appreciation 9:13–​10:26: Planning 10:31–​11:28: Music Appreciation 11:33–​12:31: Music  Tech 12:31–​1:01: Lunch 1:06 –​2:04: AP Music Theory 2:09–​3:07: Advanced  Band Contact Minutes per Day in Front of Classroom: 310

3. Suburban County High School Band Program 7:25–​8:15: Arts and Humanities 8:20–​9:10: Symphonic Band I 9:15–​10:05: AP Music Theory 10:10–​11:00: 4th Bell: Symphonic Band II 11:00: Lunch 11:25–​12:15: Plan 12:25–​1:15: Arts and Humanities 1:20–​2:15: Wind Ensemble After-​school responsibilities: Monday: Rehearsal, 3:00–6:00 Tuesday: Rehearsal 3:00–6:00 Wednesday: Teacher meetings 2:30–​4:00 Thursday: Rehearsal 3:00–6:00 Friday: Football game 5:00–10:00 Contact Minutes per Day in Front of Classroom: 300

4. Suburban High School Choir Program 7:06–​8:36: Men’s  chorus 8:42–​10:15: Beginning intermediate 10:15–​10:55: Lunch or lunch duty every Thursday 10:55–​12:30: Women’s  choir 12:30–​2:06: Planning 2:30–​5:30: Musical rehearsal in spring 2:30–​7:00: Week before show 2:30–​10:00: Week of show 3 booster meetings a year Monthly district music meeting: 3:30–​5:30 All-​state weekend 4 to 8 after-​school rehearsals for honor choirs 4 concerts after school Contact Minutes per Day in Front of Classroom: 278

104  Teaching Music Theory Table 4.4  Typical Schedule for College Music Professor College Professor at Teaching-​Intensive School

College Professor at Research-​ Intensive University

8:00–​9:15: Contemporary Musicianship 9:15–​10:00: Office  hour 10:00–​11:00: Aural Skills 2 11:00–​12:00: Research meeting 12:00–​1:00: Lunch 1:00–​2:00: Office  our 2:00–​3:15: Theory Pedagogy 3:15–​5: Research and meetings Contact Minutes per Day in Front of Classroom: 200

8–​9: Freshman  theory 9–​10: Office  Hours 10–​11: Graduate-​level Analysis 11–​12: Graduate Theory Review 12–​5: Research, meetings, and prep Contact Minutes per Day in Front of Classroom: 180

and planning each day. In the case of both directors at the suburban schools, the school day ends much later than 3:00  p.m. due to rehearsals. One of the surprising stories is the classes taught in the schedules at schools 1 and 2. Although each of the teachers at these two schools earned a BM in music education with a focus in instrumental music, they are teaching courses such as AP Psychology, Music Technology, Music Appreciation, and Contemporary A Cappella. And in the case of the charter school teacher, he is teaching only one class that he was trained for as an undergraduate. While a college professor’s day may include on average about 3 to 4 hours of classroom teaching, the high school teacher is in front of the classroom for 5 to 6 hours a day. The hour-​long planning periods are used not only for creating lesson plans but also for calling parents, covering for other teachers, and attending meetings with administration. It seems crucial that we look to our high school teachers as a source of teaching inspiration and approaches. How do they do it?

Preparing Students for Music Study More than 70 award-​winning high school teachers responded to the question “In what ways do you prepare your students for study of music on the university level?” The results indicate that high school teachers are preparing students with a focus on literature, listening, and performance, but also with a focus on learning basic skills that can be used beyond the music classroom. While several teachers did mention preparing their students for the AP Music

Teaching Theory on the High School Level  105 Theory exam, responses that even mentioned the AP test were limited. A summary of the responses can be divided into the following categories:

Teach skills beyond music making • I  prepare students by developing their independence as learners, teaching them how to process information in a variety of ways, and helping them recognize learning as a problem-​solving skill. • I teach them how to take notes (i.e. I give them blank notes with prompts to fill in so they know what is important, what to write down, and what to study.) • I prepare students by not providing artificial barriers (as much as possible), and making it as much fun to learn as possible. • I try to give my students a well-​rounded musical experience with understanding of why things work the way they do. • I  like to let students know about some of the common practices and procedures that music teachers accomplish in each rehearsal. For example, before challenges arise in our music, I  will let students know that a part of the job of a music teacher is to anticipate those challenges. I will then ask students to anticipate where challenges lie in our music. They will then develop ways to overcome those challenges. All our directors focus on creating well-​rounded, independent musicians, not just performers.

Focus teaching on performance • Student leadership is the basis of every event and students create and organize the production  .  .  .  and we do productions more so than “concerts.” • I also encourage all of our students to audition for honor group opportunities beyond our classroom that expose them to the types of performance opportunities they could have at the University level. • I talk (and lead by example) about everyday practice. I take students to concerts and rehearsals. • I want them to get the big picture early . . . practice, practice and more practice (on their instruments and by listening to great musicians).

106  Teaching Music Theory • We also participate in All-​District band auditions for the students to have solo help. • The more I  can expose my students to higher levels of performance the better. My advanced students, that often continue to play after high school, frequently seek performance opportunities outside of our school ensembles. These include District, Region, and State festival ensembles, as well as various honors ensembles.

Focus teaching on literacy and listening • Focus on sight reading, rhythm reading, and music history. I really work at students having as strong of an ability to read and understand music before they graduate from our high school program. I  am familiar with the research that correlates a student’s ability to read music with a strong percentage of continuing to play beyond the college level. • The total musician: theory, analysis, sight reading, musicality. • Relating theory and history to performance (private instruction) as much as possible. When they are learning a sonata, they need to understand the background, form, harmonic instability (without technical terms) so that they learn all of these things together and realize that it can influence the way that they perform it (and how they make interpretative choices). • I always include music theory in my band classes. This is vital to having a successful group. And over the years I have learned that you cannot take it for granted that they have retained everything they learned since beginning band. • I base my warm-​ups on a theory 1 class from college. We incorporate solfège, intervals, a little improv, and music history in all classes. • I try to teach students how to really hear music and understand what it is they are listening to. • I integrate a lot of listening, and try to make sure critical listening and thinking is integrated into every lesson plan. When we do a Roman Numeral analysis, for instance, we always talk about how the music makes us feel, how the performers would be working, how it might change their playing, and the meaning of the work.

Teaching Theory on the High School Level  107

Teach by bringing in guest artists • When we have guest clinicians from the University level, I always reserve time for them to speak to our students about the opportunities in music for them at the collegiate level. • I invite university students to come in and talk about their music school experience. On a few occasions I have invited students to sit in with my professional groups so they can rub elbows with musicians that have been through it. • We also encourage them [the students] to participate in university honor bands and bring in college/​university conductors and guest artists to let them get to know these people and hopefully make them more comfortable to participate in music at the next level. • Bring in Atlanta Symphony Orchestra members to work with my students. • I invite collegiate instructors in the classroom to rehearse my students as well. • I pair students with a university student who I see promise in so they can properly prepare an audition and receive a different perspective. The preceding responses are examples of teaching techniques that all educators could immediately incorporate into their curriculum, regardless of the level of students taught. The following examples of teaching styles and pedagogical choices are based on observations from some of the most talented high school music teachers in the country. These brief glimpses into their classrooms can provide encouragement and motivation for all educators regarding ways we can best reach our students, encourage deeper understanding, and foster a true sense of mastery in music theory and aural skills.

Teaching to the Masses One telling remark from a respondent was the statement “I do not see preparation for the university level as an important part of my teaching. I have the responsibility to teach to the masses, not the exceptional. I have created a program in which every student in our school learns to play an instrument. All have experience actively making music.” For the university professor who may only teach classes full of music majors, this could be a daunting task, but

108  Teaching Music Theory one of the greatest attributes of the high school music teacher is his or her ability to teach to the masses. Robert Stahly, orchestra director and AP Music Theory teacher, certainly knows how to bring music to the masses. A  graduate of Colorado State University with degrees in both education and tuba performance, Stahly started teaching music theory while a tutor in his undergraduate program. It was in this tutoring environment that Stahly “started to get a grasp of what people might struggle with and why.”16 When he first arrived at Longmont High School in Longmont, Colorado, the orchestra program consisted of one level of orchestra and a struggling AP program. In just 10 years, he has been able to add another level of orchestra and now teaches two levels of music technology and one class in theater technology. With more than 500 students participating in music classes in a school with just over 1,200 students, it is clear that something is working well in this department. In terms of music theory, Stahly states, “I feel like an understanding of theory changes so much about one’s playing, so I try to integrate it into the orchestra (and music tech) classes where I can. In doing this I have gained a better grasp of what parts of theory can start to engage students.”17 Stahly’s teaching style can be best described as supportive, knowledgeable, and thorough, and students seem extremely focused and responsive to the constant reinforcement. He teaches the majority of the class seated in front of his students and creates an open conversation on all the material presented. The atmosphere of mutual respect is evident and in some ways feels like an example of collaborative learning; Stahly seems to be learning “with” his students, and based on student response, this atmosphere works well. In a recent observation of his AP class, Stahly focused his teaching on aural skills. The opening warm-​up consisted of singing of scales, including the Lydian and Dorian scales. When the students struggled to find the fi in the Lydian scale, he stopped the class and asked students to outline the major tonic triad, leading them to find the fi in relationship to sol. All warm-​ups were accompanied by Kodály hand signs,18 and Stahly quickly moved into the “Matrix of Sight Singing,” where students would sing solfège syllables on various lines of the matrix (Figure 4.2). Following the warm-​up, Stahly moved directly into a melodic dictation in which he asked questions constantly between the three plays, “Were you



16 Robert Stahly, in conversation with the author, 3/​22/​2017. 17 Ibid.

18 More information about Kodaly hand signs can be found in chapter 7.

Teaching Theory on the High School Level  109 Matrix 1 3

4

Fa

Fa

Do

Re Do

Re

La

La

1

2

Mi

Mi

Do Sol

Fa

Mi

Mi

Do

Do

Re Do

La

La

Sol

Fa

Mi

Mi

Do

Do

Re Do

La

La

Sol Mi

Mi

Do

Do

Ti Sol Fa Re Ti Sol Fa Re Ti

Fa

Sol Fa

Re

Re

5 Mi Do La Mi Do La Mi Do La Mi Do

6 Fa Re Ti Sol Fa Re Ti Sol Fa Re Ti Sol Fa Re

7

8

Mi

Mi

Do

Do

Re Do

La

La

Sol

9 Fa

Fa

Mi

Mi

Do

Do

Re Do

La

La

Sol

Fa

Mi

Mi

Do

Do

Re Do

La

La

Sol Mi

Mi

Do

Do

Fa Re

10 Mi Do

11 Fa Re Ti

12 Mi

13 Fa

14 Mi

Re Do Do Do

La La Sol Sol Fa Fa Mi Mi Re Re Do Do Do Ti La La Sol Sol Fa Fa Mi Mi Re Re Do Do Do Ti La La Sol Sol Fa Fa Mi Mi Re Re Do Do

Sol Mi Do Sol Mi Do Sol Mi Do

15 Fa Re Ti Sol Fa Re Ti Sol Fa Re Ti Sol Fa Re

16 Mi Do Sol Mi Do Sol Mi Do Sol Mi Do

Figure 4.2  Solfège matrix Designed by Terry Eder and taken from the AP Music Theory Workshop Notebook (2014).

able to grab notes?” “Did you hear that this almost sounded like a deceptive cadence?” “How high did it go?” “What do you hear first?” “Where is the scalar passage?” This questioning led him to say something quite profound, “If you have the framework, you can fill this in.”19 Stahly walked around the room between plays, which he meticulously timed on his cell phone, and offered positive reinforcement and feedback. The segue into harmonic dictation began with students analyzing the chords used in Sting’s song “Fields of Gold,” which the choir was currently rehearsing, with Stahly encouraging them to “listen to qualities, tendency tones, soprano line and then bass.” “Don’t be stressed about the soprano line,” Stahly said to provide positive reinforcement. “We can do that in reverse as the line leads to the cadence.” The students enthusiastically began to shout out solfège while using hand signs and quickly identified the vi-​IV-​I in the opening phrase, but the second phrase led to more discussion. Stahly encouraged the students

19 Stahly, lecture material, 3/​22/​2017.

110  Teaching Music Theory to sing a linear solfège starting with mi for the vi chord. The students sang back Mi-Fa-Mi-Mi-Re-Do. Through this simple yet effective exercise, the students were able to identify the changes in the chords, knowing that the phrase concludes with a deceptive cadence and that the iii chord was not being used. Mi

Fa

Mi

Mi

Re

Do

Vi

IV

I

vi

V

vi

This particular approach not only taught the students to listen to chords within the context of phrases and cadences but also encouraged students to listen to the inner lines of the harmonic arrangement and not just to the soprano line. Most of the voice leading in popular music can be found in these inner lines, and Stahly was well aware of this and highlighted this technique for his students. Stahly admits that he draws on a variety of sources and “curates” them the best he can to fit the students’ needs. When asked what innovative methodologies are implemented in the classroom, Stahly said, “I really try to vary the curriculum based on students’ interests and strengths year to year. I strive to hold students to a high level of growth while remaining fair, firm, and compassionate. I try to make ties to many other parts of music to give students a broader and more open picture of music.” Through the constant connection to performance and to listening, Robert Stahly is able to engage his students in the study of music theory and aural skills.

Time Management To say that the high school educator’s day is full is truly an understatement. Sarah Harrison teaches all of the choirs and the AP Music Theory course at Cherry Creek High School in suburban Denver, a school with a student population of more than 3,500, with 1,000 enrolled in music programs. Every day is a full day for Harrison, but she is task oriented, goal focused, and incredibly efficient in her time and delivery. She has high expectations, and the students meet her in this challenge as the “fun is in achieving excellence individually and with each other.” She describes music theory as the “building blocks of music and how it is put together” and aural skills as an “ability to identify those building blocks and why they are being used.”

Teaching Theory on the High School Level  111 Everything in Harrison’s classroom is a building block toward the final goal of creating “independent musicians.”20 On a recent observation of her AP class, I was impressed by the attention of the students at 7:23 a.m. Even more miraculous was the fact that most of the students in the room were about to leave on a choir tour to Iceland that very afternoon, and they still were on task. Not one to miss an opportunity for learning, Harrison began setting up notation and topics on the board well before students arrived. Harrison began class with exercises in melodic and harmonic dictation from the AP Music Theory audio prompts, examples from previous test years found on the AP website. The students were well versed in hand signs and solfège and used these hand signs to check their work on dictation. No student in the class of 26 was humming, and the skill of audiation was evident and working extremely well for these students through all of the dictation. Perhaps one of the primary reasons for this excellence in audiation is that students have an individual singing exam every week. It was in Harrison’s discussion on vocabulary where her truly innovative approaches could clearly be seen. As she proceeded to go through the vocabulary list, she had an audio example from actual musical literature to accompany every definition. Vocabulary included “hemiola” (audio from Vivaldi’s Gloria), “melismatic” (audio from Handel’s Messiah), “Alberti bass” (in-​class performance of “Twinkle, Twinkle, Little Star”), and “arco” (audio from Arvo Pärt). Using the app Quizlet, Harrison assigned a vocabulary quiz and explained to her students that they can keep taking the vocabulary exam until they achieve an A because “the goal is for you to learn all of this, not for me to fail you and ruin your GPA.” Her vocabulary packet is all self-​authored, and to hear students actually get excited about agogic accent and melodic augmentation? That takes an engaging instructor, one who teaches with great humor and is incredibly organized and purposeful in the approaches.

A Focus on Aural Skills: “Hearing Eyes and Seeing Ears” I knew when I walked into Akira Sato’s AP Music Theory class at Plano West High School in Plano, Texas, that my eyes (and ears) were going to be challenged in a different way. In a school of approximately 2,700 students in

20 Sarah Harrison, in conversation with the author, 3/​22/​2017.

112  Teaching Music Theory grades 11 and 12, 540 students are involved in performing ensembles (220 orchestra, 180 band, and 140 choir). Amazingly, six AP Music Theory classes are offered each day, with more than 130 students enrolled. “Hearing eyes and seeing ears” was printed on the board, and as soon as class began, every student was out of his or her desk warming up on scales, including Dorian and Mixolydian modes. Sato continued the warm-​up by projecting a scale on the board; he pointed to various scale degrees while the students sang the proper solfège syllable, highlighting specific triads such as the diminished in first inversion. Following the warm-​up, Sato wasted no time in loading up Michael Jackson’s “Thriller”, and the students began to figure out the opening motive in the bass, singing back Do-​Te-​Do-​Me-​Fa-​Do. The students were out of their seats for the first 10 minutes of class, singing through the warm-​ ups along with a few sight-​singing examples that Sato required to be sung in both the major and the parallel minor. When the exercises switched to melodic dictation, Sato took the approach of having students listen before any pitches were notated on the staff. As he played the melody for dictation, all of the students stood and conducted while Sato played the melody, following this pattern: 1st play: Listen and conduct 2nd and 3rd play: Listen, conduct, and sing back on Da 4th play: Listen and conduct 5th and 6th play: Listen and conduct, and then sing back on Da 7th play: Listen and conduct 8th play: Listen, conduct, and sing back on Da 9th play: Listen and sing it back in your head 10th play: Listen, conduct, and sing back on Da It wasn’t until the 11th play that students were asked to sit down and write out the eight-​measure melody. By this point, Sato felt that they had internalized the melody, as tonal memory is one of the priorities in his teaching method. At two months into the school year, the melody was played a total of 13 times, and Sato admits that he doesn’t begin to take away the number of hearings until February, about three months before the AP exam in May. This technique works well for the students in Sato’s class, and it was obvious that they were focusing on learning how to listen rather than just learning how to complete a dictation. As for a definition of music theory, Sato states, “Theory in a scientific sense is something that needs to be tested and proven. I think

Teaching Theory on the High School Level  113 music theory doesn’t need to be proven but is a study of music, period. I treat it as a language and make the analogy of how silly it is to just learn how to ‘pronounce’ a language (play one correct note after another) without learning the meanings of the words you’re pronouncing.” Sato realizes that most of his students won’t go on to be music majors. He informed me that out of the 117 AP test takers, 15, at the most, go on to be music majors, but that doesn’t hinder him from wanting to create a fun and meaningful musical experience in his AP classes. “When I taught college,” Sato stated, “the students were required to be there and sometimes it was difficult. These students want to be here. It is more about making it fun and I am not having to yell ‘You have to learn this!’ ”

Immediate and Low-​Stakes Assessment “The AP Music Theory test doesn’t hold on for your feelings,” joked Greg Priest, band director and AP Music Theory teacher at Aiken High School in South Carolina when a student asked him to slow down. Priest’s class is diverse in terms of race and socioeconomic status, and the class of 13 students trusts both Priest’s knowledge of the subject and his approaches in teaching. The class began with warm-​ups on movable do solfège to “warm up the ears,” followed by multiple short dictations. Priest encouraged his students to get the rhythm first and then to concentrate on the pitches. In this particular AP Music Theory class, assessment is immediate because each student has a dry-​erase lap board with staff lines to notate responses and share. As students completed the melodic line, they held up their boards for feedback. “Check to be sure you are outlining the triad,” “Sing the scale in your head between plays,” and “Watch stem direction” are just a few of the statements Priest shouted out as he walked around the room, quickly assessing the assignments notated on the individual boards. As the students extended their boards in the air, Priest played back the incorrect answers written on some of the boards. This immediate error detection within the context of a melodic dictation worked extremely well, and students looked around the room at the boards and sang the correct and incorrect responses in order to find a class solution to the dictation. What was so compelling and exciting about this approach was that students were never afraid to be incorrect. The assessment presented was low stakes, and the students all realized this, but they were still focused on working through the dictation. Priest was an expert at circulating

114  Teaching Music Theory among the students, moving frequently between dictations and sitting in various chairs around the classroom. Even when the lesson switched to written theory, Priest continued to completely engage the students with multiple ways of working through an example. When a student was struggling with the notation of a diminished seventh, Priest talked to the class about using the bottom note of the interval as a point of tonic for a major scale, or counting up nine half steps, or going up an octave and counting down three half steps. Rather than giving a lecture on correct notation, Priest had preselected several measures with incorrect notation and presented those on the board while stating, “I’m going to write some measures on the board, and you are going to tell me if anything is wrong with this measure.” This particular exercise brought on the most conversation, with all of the students shouting out examples of errors, to which Priest calmly replied, “Before this turns into a brawl, why don’t you think through this quietly in your head.” The students did just that, and the discussion on errors was both musical and correct; again, the students were free to respond and get feedback. One thing to notice in this particular classroom was the lack of resources. Although students did have dry-​erase boards, the various copies of Kostka, Payne, and Almen’s Tonal Harmony ranged from the fifth to the ninth edition, and the covers were worn. When I asked Priest about this, he responded, “We do what we can, but sometimes it gets tough in terms of page numbers.” I’ll admit that I went back to my home campus and found old copies of Tonal Harmony, left behind by our own graduating students. I packed the books up in a box and sent them to Aiken, South Carolina, where I know that the students in Greg Priest’s class are putting them to good use.

Real-​World Experience and Life Skills When I  asked Steve Holley, former producer of the Commercial Music Program at Kent Denver High School and current music education consultant, to describe his proudest moment as a teacher, he quickly told me, “Watching my kids perform on a stage—​could be for an audience of 100, could be 5000—​and enjoying themselves, the music, and the atmosphere.” For Holley, everything in music study is related to the experience, but it goes far beyond just music theory and getting ready for a performance. He integrates a number of areas within his direction of ensembles, including music theory, but Holley also introduces topics on arranging, traditional and

Teaching Theory on the High School Level  115 social media marketing, PA setup and teardown, stage presence, entrepreneurship, and conflict management. According to Holley, “We hope to instill life skills no matter the career path our kids choose.”21 This teaching philosophy has made Holley one of the premiere educators in the country, specifically in terms of his dedication to commercial and popular music education. A quarter-​finalist for the GRAMMY Music Educator Award, Holley believes that a successful student is “one who simply appreciates all styles of music.” He seeks to instill a love of music in all his students, stating that “we do need music lovers, season ticket buyers, and philanthropists who will help to create a state of viable music consumerism and support those of us who are compelled to go into music.”22 During his 19 years at Kent Denver High School, Holley taught courses in AP Music Theory and music business classes, while leading student performing ensembles in R & B, salsa, big band, and jazz. His approaches in his AP Music Theory class were never the same, and although he did have to teach in order to prepare students for the test, he also took every opportunity to include diversity in the musical styles studied based on the students who were in his class. But it is in his performing ensembles that Holley truly begins to integrate music literacy. Students within his ensembles were not just getting ready for a competition or a traditional concert; they were preparing to “gig” in establishments throughout downtown Denver. Holley always gave his students ownership of the process and asked them to choose the tunes for each ensemble. He also tried to find a balance in the instruction, especially in terms of aural skills and written theory. As he explained, “The aural helps in the moment on the stage, but the written helps in the rehearsal and provides a better understanding of the structure of the sound.” After each performance, for which Holley would always be in the audience and not on stage, students would have to give feedback and were instructed to “show strengths, but highlight the weaknesses.” “There are always mistakes in a performance,” Holley said, “but the audience doesn’t know. We use music as a vehicle to build confidence, leadership, responsibility, and attention to detail.”23 In his article for the National Association for Music Education (NAfME) titled “Blending Traditional and Contemporary Teaching Methods,” Holley encourages all educators to develop a “cohesive, forward thinking



21 Steve Holley, in discussion with the author, 3/23/2017.

22 Responses provided by Holley via questionnaire on Survey Monkey 4/02/2017. 23 Steve Holley, in discussion with the author, 3/23/2017.

116  Teaching Music Theory curriculum.”24 While Holley by no means seeks to do away with the traditional ensembles or theory classes, he does encourage faculty to integrate some facets of commercial and popular music into the curriculum. Based on his own experience in the classroom, Holley gives the following advice to educators: • Reimagine your role as that of a coach or producer: Leave the podium to hear the music from the student’s viewpoint. • Rehearse in a circle/​block formation. • Practice efficiency in rehearsals. • Have students help to create a set list or music to be studied in class. • Create a mentorship program with upperclassmen guiding the underclassmen. • Think of hearing protection for you and the ensemble (a dB meter is mounted on the wall and if the volume goes above 100dB, a red light flashes). • Have students memorize music: They will be able to get into the music and get their heads out of the stand. Holley is dedicated to helping both educators and students to realize their potential through traditional and commercial musical experiences. As Holley explains in his 2017 article, “A large component of my teaching philosophy is to support my students to better understand and develop the skills needed to lead a happy, fulfilled, and successful life, as the creative, personal, and business skills necessary to succeed in music are crucial no matter the occupation. Our students need a wide-​ranging skill set to compete in today’s academic and career landscape; skills that will translate to ANY occupation. In my experience, music is the perfect vehicle to impart these, and other, much needed life skills. It’s not a matter of ‘reaching kids where they are’; it’s simply a matter of reaching kids.”

Team Teaching and Creative Approaches Atlanta International School (AIS) is an International Baccalaureate school with approximately 1,200 students in the Buckhead neighborhood near downtown Atlanta. There are no AP classes at AIS, and the music classes are team-​taught by Rebecca Wade-Chung, director of string ensembles; Dina

24 Holley 2017.

Teaching Theory on the High School Level  117 Rosas, director of bands; and Greg Hucks, director of choir and the diploma program. All ensembles are held after school, so the classes held during the regular school day are geared toward more general music, into which Wade and Rosas continually integrate music theory and aural skills. The curriculum at AIS focuses on all of the musical elements typically found in a music theory class while also introducing the ukulele. The songwriting project at AIS encourages students to demonstrate knowledge of solfège, rhythm, and basic voice leading, all while creating original music with an accompanying instrument. The final capstone project is a performance in a small ensemble. On a Friday afternoon in December, 35 students enrolled in the music class immediately got into their preassigned groups when the bell rang. It was very clear that the students knew the assignment of the day, which was to revise their group composition, an eight-​ measure original composition with melody and harmonization. Students were instructed that they would be creating self-​assessments and guided revisions for a final performance in two days. Within the first 2 minutes of class, ukuleles were removed from boxes and Wade-Chung led the class in a warm-​up of solfège while all students played basic chords on the instruments. There were no desks in this classroom, and all the students sat in chairs or on the floor as they sang solfège and strummed the small, portable instruments. The students eagerly received feedback from their first draft. Wade-Chung and Rosas had circled part-​writing errors on the drafts and added comments such as “Great strumming pattern, but are you able to sing through this?” and “You want the syncopation  .  .  .  can we experiment with it?” Other questions and comments on the songwriting draft sheet included “feedback and struggles from version #1, how we used our feedback and struggles to create version #2, and how do we prepare to have a successful performance?” While most of the student groups seemed to have the opening and ending of their composition, the groups were focused on filling out the middle section. Both instructors encouraged students to focus on the middle of the composition. “Our tendency is to go back to the beginning whenever we make mistakes,” Wade-Chung explained. “Dive into the middle. If your beginning is strong, stay away from it. If your strum pattern is good, stay away from it.” To formulate this middle section, one student continued to strum a pattern on the ukulele, while another student improvised on solfège to find a corresponding melody. Wade-Chung encouraged one group of students to work with the melody first to “find the part of the melody that is added to the chord,” while Rosas encouraged one student to think carefully about voice and how to appropriately resolve a cadence, saying, “It’s not a bad thing, just

118  Teaching Music Theory talk about what you should do instead. The voice leading just happens. Look at the notes on the ukulele and the solfège.” Error detection was occurring in real time, and both Rosas and Wade-Chung walked around the room singing melodies in solfège and giving feedback using the ukulele and their own singing voices. “They give us the tools and tell us to run with it,” one student told me; another student summarized the composition experience in this way: “This is a more creative way to learn. We could just read stuff on the board . . . this is hands-​on learning.” That creativity carries over to the instructors as well. Technology is integrated into the classroom as are traditional instruments. Both WadeChung and Rosas use Noteflight, GarageBand, TeachRock, and Soundtrap within their instruction, and they have recently partnered with musedlab (via New York University) to aid in creating teaching materials. And both work together to design creative and pedagogically sound experiences for their students. As Wade-Chung stated, “A successful student is not always the most ‘musical.’ Students who work hard, put forth the effort, and take risks while developing skills are normally the most successful in our courses.”

Setting a High Bar from Day One Located in the suburbs of Newark, New Jersey, Verona High School has an enrollment of 650 students, with more than 125 students involved in musical ensembles. The students at Verona are exposed to a tremendous amount of music within the ensemble classroom, and band director/​theory instructor Erik Lynch seeks to make his classes a “vessel for growth rather than a means to an end.” Lynch recently led the students through a year-​long project studying Tchaikovsky’s Sixth Symphony. At the end of the study, Lynch hosted a party where the students listened to the entire symphony. Lynch described the experience as one of the proudest moments of his teaching career: “Students were crying and I could not help to think that part of that was their deep, deep connection to the work (contextually, historically, aurally, theoretically).”25 And it is this deep connection and deep thinking that allows students in Lynch’s music theory class to be immersed in material in a meaningful way.

25 Responses provided by Lynch via questionnaire on Survey Monkey 10/27/2016.

Teaching Theory on the High School Level  119 In a recent observation of Lynch’s AP Music Theory class, I was able to witness his commitment to fostering deeper thinking. Students had been given an excerpt from Estelle Jorgensen’s text In Search of Music Education to read for homework. In the first 10 minutes of class, the students responded to questions from Lynch about the reading, with comments such as “This offers a new way of learning how to learn” and “Without real application with music that we are playing we might not know how to apply some of the theory principles we are learning.” The discussion with the students was easily transferred to exercises on aural skills. First, students were able to speak back rhythms, using “1 e and a while Lynch played examples in mixed meter on the djembe. The rhythms were extremely difficult, and I found myself wondering, how could Lynch have these AP Music Theory students counting (and hearing) such complex rhythms after one listen? His answer and approaches are all laid out in a post in this book’s accompanying blog,26 but to summarize, his approach is based on variations of 16th note rhythms followed by basic triplet rhythms. After that point, as Lynch puts it, “all bets are off.” Three elements occurred within this rhythmic activity that perhaps added to the outstanding results: (1) Lynch was sitting down playing the djembe within a circle with the students, and everyone was involved in the activity; (2) the students were engaged (Lynch and his students had been talking about the art of learning not 5 minutes before this activity began, and they were invested in the process); and (3) the students had been given a system that continually evolved in terms of difficulty. Lynch also integrated the counting of individual parts in the ensembles as daily activity, so many of the students were practicing this skill twice a day. There simply was no time for any student to rest on his or her laurels because the standards were set high. Lynch teaches progressions through a system he calls CCS, which stands for circle of fifths, cadences, and substitutions. Circle of Fifths: Movement of the roots by fourths and fifths Cadences: Authentic: V-​I, Half: ii-​V,  IV-​V Plagal: IV-​I (ii6-​I) Deceptive: V-​vi  (VI) 26 More information regarding Lynch’s approaches in the classroom can be found on the text’s corresponding blog. https://bridgingthemusictheorygap.wordpress.com/

120  Teaching Music Theory Substitutions: “I usually sing them F-​A-​C F-​A-​D to get this idea into their ears. I use viio(7) and V(7); ii(7) and IV(7) most times; clearly there are others but I find a pragmatic/​functional vi can be substituted for I, ii can be substituted for IV.”27 Based on this model of progression, Lynch asks students to compose their own original progressions for part-​writing exercises. In my observation, I was able to watch students quickly realize the progression by keeping the common tones for most chords while following guidelines for voice leading such as contrary motion and correct resolution of skips. A compelling pedagogical technique used by Lynch throughout this voice-​leading activity was asking every student to sing WHILE the part-​writing exercise unfolded. Many teachers sing through the example after each voice is realized; however, the students in Lynch’s AP class sang every pitch on either solfège or letter names as the correct pitches were notated on the board at the front of the room. The pacing was fast, and students again were immersed in the creative and musical activity. Instead of calling himself a band director, Lynch calls himself a music teacher. In his own words, “The difference may seem pedantic or petty on the surface level, but for me it has deep money, as too often the culture of secondary instrumental culture is product and competitively based. Sadly this equates to our students looking at music (and hence education at times) through a narrow lens. I am seeking to develop, and continually evolve, a conceptual paradigm to the class and beyond.”28 And that sense of evolution is seen in his students. As one student stated, “We study lots of music, from “Take 5” to Dvorak’s Symphony no. 9 to Mahler’s Symphony no. 1. We study full scores and listen to pieces in their entirety. We are looking at the DNA of music and how to put it all together.”

Ensemble Integration In his article “Theory Conspiracy: Helping Students Find Meaning Inside the Music,” band director Nick Little talks about his personal teaching revelation where he “began to worry more about the next performance than developing my students and helping them grow into mature musicians.” It was within 27 Worksheets that accompany Lynch’s approach to functional harmony and part-​writing can be found on the website for this book. 28 Responses provided by Lynch via questionnaire on Survey Monkey 10/27/2016.

Teaching Theory on the High School Level  121 this revelation that Little knew it was time to re-​evaluate his pedagogical approach. From that moment on, Little began to integrate theoretical principles into all of his ensemble rehearsals, starting with scales and moving through the circle of fifths.29 Little directs three instrumental ensembles and teaches the AP Music Theory course at Campbell County High School. When asked to describe a challenging moment in the classroom, Little responded by describing every first day in his AP Music Theory courses: We do not have an introductory theory class so students come in from every possible background. From all state band and choir students all the way to a garage band guitar player. It’s a daunting task to know that I have to take these students, from every possible starting point imaginable, and they must be able to sight-​sing in major and minor with secondary dominants. It’s a scary task! But, as with any difficult task, you make a plan and take it one step at a time.

First and foremost, Little knows his students and teaches in a manner that takes into account each student’s individual strengths and weaknesses. Within his ensemble classes, Little focuses on reading skills, fundamental pedagogy on each instrument, ensemble performance skills, and music theory. This same teaching philosophy of integration of multiple topics is also evident in his approach to teaching AP Music Theory. In a recent observation, I was able to see the multiple ways in which Little engaged his students in assessment, dictation, and basic analysis. Little’s class began with a quick vocabulary quiz using the Schoology app. Students who did not pass the quiz from the previous class were allowed the first 5 minutes of class to retake the quiz on their personal phones. Following this quick assessment, Little moved on to exercises in harmonic dictation, playing the following progressions and instructing students to write down the bass and soprano lines along with Roman numerals. Example 1:

I

V6

IV6

V

I

Example 2:

I

ii

vi6

V6

I

While the movement of V to IV might not be typical, Little seeks to include all musical information that student may find in literature. As he plays the progression, Little asks students to show the direction of the bass line

29 His description of this process of integration can be found in Little 2013.

122  Teaching Music Theory by pointing up or down. This subtle movement as students are listening keeps them engaged in the process and provides immediate assessment. He continually gives students guidelines throughout the exercise. “Listen first and write down the quality, make an educated guess on what the Roman numerals might be and then write the bass line,” Little instructed after the first hearing. His skill of integration is very clear as he continually relates the chords used in dictation to a chart on functional harmony notated on the board. When a student responds that there is a iii chord within the progression, Little is quick to mention the rarity of the mediant chord, but this leads into a discussion of why something is a bit different and why the progressions do not follow traditional functional progression. “You don’t need to be perfect at this,” Little tells his students. “You are exactly where you need to be right now.” A finalist for the GRAMMY Music Educator Award, Little is able to adapt his lesson to where his students are at any given moment. In my observation, I watched him change keys, add accidentals, add in non-​chord tones, and remove a chord from examples from the Clendinning/​Marvin text to adapt to the concept of suspensions he was seeking to teach during an analysis portion of the class. Students use scale degrees in all of their singing at Campbell County, and it is through these scale degrees that students begin to experience the analysis. Little feels that “many high school students are taught to be very talented performers but very limited musicians.” Through his approaches in integration, the musicianship in his class is anything but limited.

Conclusion There are more than 130,000 music teachers involved in the NAfME, and in many cases it is these teachers who first introduce students to music making and the fundamentals of music. These inspirational teachers pave the way for future musicians.30 In my observations of theory teaching, I was overwhelmed by the organization, the knowledge of content, and the overall passion that teachers are exhibiting in high school classrooms across the

30 In my own case, it was my general music teacher, Meg Dornblock, who encouraged me to try out for a professional opera company in the fourth grade. She taught me basic rhythms using hand chimes and was the first teacher to introduce the concept of sight singing, a skill that I still use every day.

Teaching Theory on the High School Level  123 country. And while they are teaching to the masses, they certainly are preparing students to be successful musicians and members of society. When I  asked these teachers to share their proudest moments in the classroom, their answers made clear that their focus was certainly on individual interaction, high expectations, and a love of music making and discovery: Seeing my students learn new material, internalize it, and then perform musically with their own identity and sound while working to support those next to them for an audience to enjoy. I get to experience these moments every week.—​Don Emmons, Littleton High School, Colorado31 One of my proudest moments is when during my first year of teaching Choir, a Freshman student left a very polite note on my stand. It said that the choir loved me, and what I was doing but politely suggested that we have more variety in rehearsals: not just practicing one piece for 60 minutes. I realized how much I would learn from my students at that moment.—​ Kenneth Bedwell, St. James High School, South Carolina32 One of our students in Marching Band’s father was recently . . . put on hospice with cancer, and what made him the most upset was the fact that he would not get to see his daughter perform her senior year. So we got the permissions, did the logistics, and surprised him by showing up at their house and giving them a special full performance of our field show. Coolest thing I’ve ever been a part of by far.—​Matt Carraher, Central Dauphin High School, Pennsylvania33 Every time a student “gets it” I have a proud moment. The other day a football player made a 100 playing his recorder test. His hands were so big it was hard to see the recorder. And his smile was huge when he finished. I have won numerous awards and trophies with my bands but seeing those smiles is the ultimate in proud!!—​Deana Graham, Ripley High School, Tennessee34 When my band raised $800 for a children’s hospital and played a concert with Danny Boy being a central part of it after writing about how we use music to deal with loss and adversity.—​Peter Holsberg, Berkeley Carroll School, New York35



31 Response by Emmons provided via questionnaire on Survey Monkey on 1/​24/​2017. 32 Response by Bedwell provided via questionnaire on Survey Monkey on 9/​30/​2016.

33 Response by Carraher provided via questionnaire on Survey Monkey on 9/​21/​2016. 34 Response by Graham provided via questionnaire on Survey Monkey on 9/​21/​2016.

35 Response by Holsberg provided via questionnaire on Survey Monkey on 9/​21/​2016.

124  Teaching Music Theory In the 2nd year of my new guitar program at Calabasas High School, I had a large number of beginners in my class at vastly different levels of ability. A few months into the year, I was testing the students on a short trio piece with one player per part, a challenging task for people new to studying music. In one group, two of the three students were seniors and they both had significant developmental delays, while the third was a freshman and rather unfocused. They played the song for me but it was unrecognizable and sloppy, no sense of rhythm, the parts didn’t fit together, wrong notes. I decided to take the tough guy route with them and said I didn’t think they had properly prepared. I pointed out what I thought they needed to do to fix it and sent them away to prepare for a second performance for me. Fifteen minutes later it was their turn again. They entered the room, set up their music, footstools and guitars, then proceeded to play the piece perfectly! It was truly astonishing. When I announced they had received an A, that I was really impressed and knew they could do it, they began a jubilant celebration including high fives, dancing and phrases like “we did it” and “we’re awesome!” I was so proud of their perseverance and positive attitudes. It reminded me that all students can be reached.—​Aaron Kohen, Calabasas High School, California36

According to Kohen, “all students can be reached,” and Kenneth Bedwell reminds us to learn from our students. This is important advice for the university music faculty member and a reminder that we are all music educators, regardless of the level. As educators, we have work to do.



36 Response by Kohen provided via questionnaire on Survey Monkey on 6/​15/​2017.

5 Pedagogy of Fundamentals and Diatonic Harmony Most music educators and theorists strongly believe in the constant integration of theory into the aural skills classroom; however, it seems that in terms of pedagogy, the art of teaching written theory deserves significant individual discussion. For most students, the process of learning written theory begins with the notation of rhythm or the naming of notes on the staff. For some, this was taught at the age of 6 while they sat at the piano with a private teacher; for others their first experience with notation might have been in an ensemble classroom, while many first began to read music in the 8:00 a.m. music theory classroom at the university. Understanding the fundamentals of written notation provides musicians with the necessary vocabulary to discuss music in a concise and clear way. Richard England, professor of music at Freed-​Hardeman University, states that music theory “allows students to understand the how of music, and how it is constructed in various points in history and culture. For performers, [understanding music theory] makes for a more meaningful performance through understanding what went into the composition.”1 Deborah Rifkin of Ithaca College takes this one step further by defining music theory as “the study of how music is designed, crafted, and received.” “Study in theory,” Rikfin continues, “expands what an individual perceives in music, and also how to interpret what one perceives.”2 Written theory can be broken up into several different topics of study, including but not limited to fundamentals, functional diatonic harmony, counterpoint, chromatic harmony and modulations, motivic development (both rhythmic and melodic), phrase and periodic structure, small and large scale forms, and atonal music.

1 Responses provided by England via questionnaire on Survey Monkey on 9/​21/​2016. 2 Deborah Rifkin, in conversation with the author, 9/​17/​2018. Teaching Music Theory. Jennifer Snodgrass, Oxford University Press (2020). © Oxford University Press. DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780190879945.003.0001

126  Teaching Music Theory

Fundamentals When I  think of teaching fundamentals, I  think of two specific classes I have taught in my career. August 1999 I was a new doctoral student at the University of Maryland and thrilled to be starting the PhD program. My assistantship included teaching responsibilities, and I was given a music theory for nonmajors class. I was handed the Duckworth fundamentals text a few days prior to the first day of class and was told I had complete academic freedom in the classroom. This was thrilling, and I walked into the class ready to inspire with my knowledge. This was my first time teaching nonmajors, and I knew I could convert the students to be passionate about music theory. When I walked into the room, one half of the class was from the University of Maryland football team. The other half was made up of students extremely interested in all things music and students who basically hated all types of music not in their CD collection. My opening lecture on the power of music was abandoned, and I had to go to plan B and I had no idea what that plan was. August 2005 When I first arrived at Appalachian State, the associate dean told me that there had been a mistake in the scheduling and my class had 69 students, all of which had failed to pass the theory entrance exam. These students were already “labeled” before the semester began, and I knew within just a few minutes of teaching I had to work to build their confidence and skill level immediately. The class was taught in a choral room without desks and with limited board space. The students in this fundamentals class loved music to their core, all types, and were anxious to learn. I could not even begin to bring in enough music for this class to satisfy their appetite for learning. Each of these teaching experiences has provided me with many different perspectives in teaching fundamentals. For both classes, my goals became to:

1. Make the information engaging through constant interaction with the students. 2. Give students an opportunity to be creative as soon as possible in their music making. 3. Make music and listen to music every day in the classroom.

Pedagogy of Fundamentals and Diatonic Harmony  127

4. Use the textbook as a workbook resource and teach through my own methods. 5. Encourage students to bring in their own musical taste and genre preferences and help them to apply them to information I  am teaching.

In many ways, a fundamentals course might be one of the more challenging teaching assignments because for many of us, these topics are second nature. We don’t generally sit around and think about why that note on the staff is called E; it just is. It can also be very difficult to create a meaningful musical experience in a lecture on note naming or scale degrees. But the more challenging aspect in teaching fundamentals has to do with understanding the audience in the course when each student enters the theory curriculum with a different background and skills. Do students need a 4-​to 6-​week crash course, or would they benefit most from an entire semester of fundamentals drill and practice? Many students will enter the classroom with extensive training from an AP Music Theory course or from personal tutoring, while other students may be able to read basic notation through ensemble playing. This creates a very large chasm between the “haves” and the “have-​nots.” But a review of fundamentals may be crucial for all music students. As Michael Rogers states, students “often know a little bit about many different things but nothing about connections, reasons why things work in a particular way, precise and discriminating terminology, or the long-​range significance of the information for further study.”3 It takes some creative planning and flexibility to best meet all of these needs, and it takes an excellent educator to succeed in this environment. Even if a placement exam is given at an institution, it is very important to evaluate students as soon as possible with some sort of no-​stakes assessment in the first few meetings of class, such as the one shown in Figure 5.1. Such an evaluation will enlighten any instructor as to how much time should be spent on fundamentals. According to Rogers, the optimum time seems to be about 4 to 6 weeks,4 and based on conversations with colleagues, there is validity in this statement. However, some students are entering the theory core with fewer skills (see survey results presented in ­chapter  2). The amount of time spent introducing fundamentals depends on student 3 Rogers 2004, 34. 4 Ibid.,  4–​5.

128  Teaching Music Theory

Figure 5.1  Sample pretest

enrollment, and in some cases, an instructor may not know this until the first day of class. It is crucial that any instructor leave flexibility in his or her syllabus to allow for meaningful and productive review of fundamentals. How to begin planning for a fundamentals unit? During an observation of a pedagogy class at Butler University, Jeff Gillespie asked his students to put numerous topics into correct order as they would be presented for a typical fundamentals class (Picture 5.1). The topics included simple meter, compound meter, minor scales, intervals, key signatures, triads, major scales, tempo terms, and more advanced topics such as figured bass

Pedagogy of Fundamentals and Diatonic Harmony  129

Picture 5.1  Students organizing fundamental topics

and common-​chord modulation. While the students were in basic agreement on what should be taught in a fundamentals course, there was little agreement on the order in which topics should be presented. Gillespie was quick to point out that the ordering might depend on the knowledge that students bring with them, so one might have to adjust the ordering of topics.

Rhythm and Meter Rhythm may be the best and the most musical way to begin any fundamentals class. The concept of a pulse is one that can easily be discussed, and students can immediately begin interacting with live music, including examples from all genres and styles. One of the important things about starting with rhythm is that it allows students to start participating right away, and they don’t have to be limited to just clapping. (Ask a music education colleague to borrow a few Orff instruments to make this into a musical moment.) As an instructor,

130  Teaching Music Theory one is not tied to the piano and can easily transport instruments or hand drums to form a circle in a lobby of the building or outside. Other creative activities can immediately be included, such as the following: • Separate students into groups of four. Ask students to individually compose two measures of a unique rhythm using the time signature and note values determined by the group. After notating two measures of rhythm, have students pass their two measures to a group member to the right. Each student will be performing the measures composed by their fellow group members, but all in succession. The final product will be eight measures performed seamlessly. • Have students compose short musical examples on a notation program and purposely insert incorrect bar lines and beaming. Have students try to perform the rhythms while presenting the incorrect example to the class. • Encourage students to create a musical rap on counting syllables complete with backbeats. It is easy to find samplings of backbeats in programs like GarageBand or even on YouTube. This exercise incorporates both improvisation and performance. • Have students practice conducting patterns with both popular and classical excerpts while determining the meter and the subdivision. It is never too soon to teach students counting syllables. The counting method of numbers helps students to understand (and experience) the importance of the downbeat, while the takadimi method helps students understand the importance of patterns found in specific meters.5 Compound meter is one of the more difficult concepts to get across to students, so it is imperative that students take the time to experience the difference between compound and simple meter. While most instructors on both the K-​12 and university levels have students clap the beat while the subdivision is performed in groups of two or three, we should go much further and experience this meter in terms of real music. So many students have come into the classroom claiming the time signature of 6/​8 indicates that there are six beats in a measure and the eighth note is the beat, thus a simple meter. A quick introduction to conducting in 6/​8 along 5 Information regarding counting methods can be found in c­ hapter 7.

Pedagogy of Fundamentals and Diatonic Harmony  131 with Offenbach’s “Belle Nuit” from Les Contes d’Hoffman or “Carnival of Venice” by Jean-​Baptiste Arban will help students to understand the difference between conducting in 6 and conducting in 2. Popular songs are also effective to introduce this concept, and I have often had my students up out of their desks, swaying to the music to demonstrate the difference between the beat and the subdivision. (Examples for compound meter include Seal, “Kissed by a Rose”; Christina Perri, “A Thousand Years”; Animals, “House of the Rising Sun”; Kelly Clarkson, “Breakaway”; and Ed Sheeran, “Perfect.”) This is also an opportunity to listen to music that students request and talk about the meter. Recently, I had a student bring in a Radiohead example, which provided some difficulties but turned into a teachable moment.

Key Signatures and Scales Should students be able to notate scales without key signatures, or should key signatures be taught first so students can correctly notate scales? The answer to this comes down to how key signatures are created. In the pedagogy class at Butler University, students presented two different arguments in terms of key signatures and scales. These students concluded that key signatures would not exist without a tonal framework, and therefore scales need to be mastered before one can understand why key signatures are even relevant. In most textbooks the scale is presented as a series of whole and half steps. There’s good reason for this, as most students are able to create major scales by looking at a keyboard, an invaluable tool in the teaching of fundamentals. It only takes a few lessons (or less) for a student to see that the series of accidentals are following a pattern. For instance, an instructor could start in this manner: • Notate a C major, F major, B♭ major, and E♭ major scale using the WWHWWWH method. • Ask students to spell out the accidentals they see in each scale. List their responses on the board. • Ask students to determine if there is a pattern (they will see that for each scale, one flat is added, and that flat is always down five letters [or a fifth]). • Repeat the process with C major, G major, D major, and A major.

132  Teaching Music Theory This basic introduction immediately leads the students (and the instructor) to a discussion of the circle of fifths, a staple for so many of the topics found in later fundamental studies. Nick Little of Campbell County High School describes the importance of the circle of fifths in the following way: It’s easy to make theory a counting exercise or a math problem, especially regarding intervals, scales, etc. I like to use the circle of fifths for all of these topics. It places intervals in tonal setting, it reinforces key signatures, major and minor relationships, it even introduces the parts of phrase. I have created exercises for interval construction and identification that reference back to major scales and make everything an alteration from the major scale. This allows students to use the circle of fifths for interval construction. This speeds up the process of interval construction while also making students fluent in major/​minor tonalities.6

When moving to the discussion of relative and parallel minor relationships, the circle of fifths can continue to be used as students are able to relate the minor scales to the major scale in terms of the lowered pitches (parallel) and the sharing of key signatures (relative). In Leigh VanHandel’s class at Michigan State University, the importance of visualization of both the circle of fifths and the composition of scales is emphasized. In an assignment on minor scales, VanHandel asked the students to provide a meme that gave a visual interpretation of the three types of minor scales, instructing them to pay careful attention to the placement of the whole and half steps. The assignment read as follows: A while ago, someone created a dorky meme using Oreo cookies to represent the different modes—​the double stuffed Oreos represent whole steps, and the normal Oreos represent half steps: Your homework assignment is to come up with some meme-​worthy way of representing the NATURAL, HARMONIC, and MELODIC versions of the minor scale. (These three versions of the scale are discussed in the textbook on pp. 20–​22.) You can be as creative as you like—​your assignment can be a picture, or a video, or a building, or an interpretive dance,

6 Nick Little, in conversation with the author, 9/​26/​2016.

Pedagogy of Fundamentals and Diatonic Harmony  133 or whatever you want to create in order to represent the three forms of the minor scale.

The results were both theoretically correct and highly entertaining. The first example was created entirely of Cheez-​Its (whole steps) and Cheerios (half steps) (Picture 5.2). The second example showed a humorous cartoon on the adventure of melodic motion man as he climbs the stairs of scale degrees (Picture 5.3). After the discussion of the memes, which created a great deal of laughter for the class, VanHandel asked students to draw the major keys within the circle of fifths. She and several TAs walked around the room of 43 students to check their work while she asked the students to talk to the class about their different strategies in drawing the circle of fifths. Students shared their process with the class, stating, • Student 1: I just memorize it. • Student 2: I start on C and just go up a fifth each time. • Student 3: I use the key signature numbers and just fill in the key name (1 = G, 2 = D, and so on). • Student 4: I use the order of sharps and go up a half step. • Student 5 For flats, I just put the F to the left of the C and then follow the order of flats. VanHandel took all of these ideas into account and showed the students how to fill in the entire circle of fifths using the processes described. One student quickly raised his hand and asked, “How do you know when to stop?” VanHandel went on to explain that we stop when we get back to where we started in terms of tonic letter names. C major has no sharps or flats, and C♭ and C♯ major both have seven accidentals. Of course, the recognition and notation of key signatures should be a topic that becomes second nature to most musicians. VanHandel expressed this sentiment to her students, saying, “The best way to understand key signatures is to be fluent in this quickly. The strategies I’m providing are not the best way, but what I’m doing is giving you things for your toolbelt so you can work your way around and understand what is happening.”7 There are many ways to achieve this mastery. A quick assessment of the class can be completed through a Kahoot! game or a timed key signature 7 Leigh VanHandel, lecture material, 9/​13/​2017.

134  Teaching Music Theory

Pictures 5.2 and 5.3  Student memes of various types of minor scales

recognition quiz, and I find that snapping games work really well in class. Even less tech-​savvy methods, such as flash cards, work to help students with recognition of key signatures.8 Students should also be introduced to the idea 8 More information on specific assessments can be found in c­ hapter 8.

Pedagogy of Fundamentals and Diatonic Harmony  135 of the number of accidentals adding up to 7, meaning that the accidentals used in keys with the same tonic letter will always add up to 7 (D major 2 + D♭ major 5 = 7; E major 4 + E♭ major 3 = 7).

Intervals Ask most music students to define “interval,” and they will quickly say the “distance between two pitches.” But ask them to explain why a particular interval is called major or minor, and they might have a little more trouble providing a response. In the early years of teaching, I  always taught intervals, both aurally and written, in isolation. I would constantly tell my fundamentals students to count half steps and to just trust me that the thirds were called major while the fifths were perfect. Now I begin my introduction to intervals with the major scale and relate every interval to the tonic, and we sing every single interval as I am introducing them for the first time. I ask my students to think about intervals in terms of solfège and their placement within the scale. A major second can be Do-​ Re, Re-​Mi, Fa-​S ol, Sol-​L a, La-​Ti. Here is a chain of intervals I might give my class: Up major third

Down a M2 Up a minor7 Down a minor sixth

The students would respond with (Do-Mi, Mi-Re, Re-Do, Do-Mi). This works remarkably well in aural skills, but it also has an important place in written theory, especially in fundamentals, when the integration is even more important for connections to be made. This approach also quickly enlightens students as to why certain intervals are called major and others minor, diminished, and augmented, based purely on the sound and where certain intervals lie in the scale. I tend to use the key signature method when teaching intervals and have students relate the top pitch of the interval in the context of the major scale given the lower pitch as tonic. I always use the following charts when teaching intervals and have students use their hands to show actual distance and how the distance is altered through the inclusion of the accidental.9

9 I also have most recently implemented the white key method and have seen this used in many classrooms with great success. To achieve mastery at this method, students will need to memorize

136  Teaching Music Theory Interval size 1, 4, 5, 8 ½ step below Diminished

→Top pitch fits into key Perfect

½ step above Augmented

Interval size 2, 3, 6, 7 ½ step below

½ step below

Top pitch fits into key

½ step above

Diminished

Minor

Major

Augmented

It is imperative that any discussion of intervals be immediately followed with some sort of aural component. I often use Adele’s “Skyfall” to show how intervals are altered in succession (P5, m6, followed by a P8), but any contextual listening that includes analysis of interval types while studying a musical score will create a more meaningful experience than identifying 100 written intervals for homework. As Jeff Gillespie told his theory pedagogy class in the discussion on intervals, “You have to sell this and show them why they should care before you even begin.”10 Just like reading notation and notating key signatures and scales, the identification of intervals is a skill that needs to be mastered. It is important that the teaching of intervals be combined in some way with both aural training and the musical experience so that students understand their importance. First, have students identify intervals within the context of a real musical score. Throughout the years of observations of teaching and evaluation of texts, I have noticed a lack of real music in the opening chapters, specifically in the teaching of scales and intervals. Any Mozart sonata or a piece from a musical theater anthology will provide countless examples of intervals, both chromatic and diatonic, harmonic and melodic, compound and simple. The

all the intervals on the white keys of the piano or all intervals found in the key of C major. Based on memorization, students can figure out how intervals are altered in terms of expansion or diminution. All of the seconds are major with the exception of E-​F and B-​C, which are minor; all of the thirds are minor with the exception of C-​E, F-​A, and G-​B, which are major; all of the fourths and fifths are perfect with the exception of F-​B, which is augmented, and B-​F, which is diminished; all of the sixths are major with the exception of E-​C, A-​F, and B-​G, which are minor; all of the sevenths are minor with the exception of F-​E and C-​B, which are major.

10 Jeff Gillespie, lecture material, 9/​11/​2017.

Pedagogy of Fundamentals and Diatonic Harmony  137 sooner we have students immersing themselves in scores, the better. I believe that the study of intervals is a great place to start this process of listening, singing, playing along, and analyzing the basic fundamentals within context. Second, students can participate in creating a musical line based on certain assigned intervals or ones that the students choose. For example: • Have students stand in a semicircle with a performer or group of performers in the front of the circle. • Give each student a piece of paper or a dry-​erase board with staff lines. Write a starting note on the board at the front of the room. Say you write B♭. • Give each student a different interval name and number (this could be verbal or on a piece of paper). You give the first student P4, the second student a M3, the third student M6 and so on. • The first student in the circle would write E♭ (performer would play E♭ while second student is writing). • The second student in the circle would write G (performer would play G while third student is writing). • The third student in the circle would write E (performer would play E while fourth student is writing), etc. • Continue this process until all pitches have been played and have the performer(s) play the entire melody in succession.

Triads/​Seventh Chords In a music theory pedagogy class at Bowling Green State University, Gene Trantham asked a group of graduate students to build a minor triad on B-​ flat. The students completed this task in about 2 seconds. He asked them to explain how they notated the triad so quickly. Most of the answers were something like, “I just know how it looks” or “I know how it works on my instrument.” Trantham took it to the next level and told the students to notate the triad again, but this time to go about it in a completely different way. When he asked the students to describe their process, the results were strikingly different from the first response. • I used trumpet fingering. • I used the minor scale and used scale degrees.

138  Teaching Music Theory • I thought in 3rds and then 5ths. • I  thought about the ii chord being minor and based it in the key of A♭ major. • I visualized the piano keys. • I used set theory and thought about a 037. • I thought of a minor 3rd plus a major 3rd. The list compiled from Trantham’s class indicates many of the ways in which triads are introduced and how students have practiced them. The following are three of the most popular methods used in teaching triads and seventh chords.

Key Signature Method If all of the notes fit in the key of the bottom note, the triad is major. Otherwise: If the third is lowered, the triad is minor. If the third and fifth are lowered, the triad is diminished. If the fifth is raised, the triad is augmented.

The understanding of a seventh chord just takes it one step further. Major triad + M7 = major seventh Major triad + m7 = dominant seventh (major-​minor seventh) Minor triad + m7 = minor seventh Diminished triad + m7 = fully diminished seventh Diminished triad + M7 = half-​diminished seventh

Counting Thirds Another popular method is to count in thirds. (This also can be accomplished through counting half steps, although often students have memorized major and minor thirds up from each pitch.) M3 + m3 = major triad M3 + M3 = augmented triad

Pedagogy of Fundamentals and Diatonic Harmony  139 m3 + M3 = minor triad m3 + m3 = diminished triad M 3+ m3 + M3 = major seventh M 3+ m3 + m3 = dominant seventh m3 + M3 + m3 = minor seventh m3 + m3 + M3 = half diminished m3 + m 3+ m3 = fully diminished

Grouping of Triads This method introduces the triads, and eventually seventh chords in groupings, based on how they appear and “feel” on the keyboard. The groupings include: 1. C major, F major, and G major (all white keys). 2. D major, E major, and A major (one black key on the third). 3. E♭ major, A♭ major, and D♭ major (two black keys with a white key on the third). 4. F♯ major (all black keys). 5. B♭ major (one black key with white keys on the third and fifth). 6. B major (one white key with black keys on the third and fifth). The enharmonic triads and the changes to minor, augmented, and diminished can all be determined by memorizing these basic triads. The students in Barbara Wallace’s class at Dallas Baptist University all have individual keyboards that they bring with them to class, and Wallace continually relates sound to symbol (Picture 5.4). In her self-​authored text, Music Theory with Keyboard Application, Wallace encourages students to practice saying the musical alphabet in thirds, “going around the circle as fast as you can. C-​E-​G-​B-​D-​F-​A-​C-​E-​G, etc.”11 Her introduction to triads continues with the grouping method as mentioned earlier as she relates everything on the written page to placement on the keyboard. I was able to observe the students at Dallas Baptist University complete a drill on spelling triads in both major and minor keys. With the metronome beating a fairly

11 Wallace 2017, 26.

140  Teaching Music Theory

Picture 5.4  Student tables and keyboards at Dallas Baptist University

quick pace, Wallace had students recite the pitches of major triads as they moved around the circle of fifths, switching to the enharmonic at F♯ major to G♭ major. The students then moved to the inner circle of the circle of fifths, reciting the minor triads with a slower metronome, starting with A, C, E and enharmonically spelling A♯ minor as B♭ minor before moving on to F minor. While they did say the letter names out loud during this activity, students were also expected to play the pitches on their keyboards at the same time. This relationship of simultaneous sound to the recited pitches helped the students to make the connection between pitch names and pitch sounds. Spatial relationships are an important part of students’ understanding of triads and seventh chords. Alex Alberti of Longleaf School of the Arts includes a kinesthetic activity for his students when practicing triad and seventh chord spelling. The entire process is discussed in the September 2016 blog entry titled “Using a Kinesthetic Activity to Review Chord Qualities and Inversions.”12 In Alberti’s class, students were asked to

12 Alberti 2016.

Pedagogy of Fundamentals and Diatonic Harmony  141 spell out chords using slips of paper for each pitch class, with separate pieces of paper for accidentals. I took this same idea to my own college classroom and added construction paper in various colors, one color for the pitch class and one color for each accidental. I walked around the room calling out chords such as “C major in first inversion” or “B minor 7 in first inversion.” Beyond their correct spelling of seventh chords and triads, I  was excited to see how students really understood how inversions worked as they methodically moved one piece of paper to the “bass” of their chord. While in the past I would have students write the root position and then rewrite the same chord in inversion, there seems to be a kinesthetic skill in play here as students moved the pitches, rather than rewriting. Through this exercise I was also able to quickly assess the students and realized that they were visualizing both inversions and the space between any given third of the chord. This activity, similar to what occurred in Barbara Wallace’s classroom, helped my students develop both speed and accuracy through visualization before notating any pitches on the staff. But while recognizing triads and seventh chords out of context is an important skill, it is imperative that students have the opportunity to experience these triads within a musical context, through both written analysis and performance. In my teaching, I  find that popular music lead sheets are an excellent way to move into this discussion following an introduction to triads and seventh chords. Without understanding a Roman numeral or even function, students can take a basic lead sheet and realize it with their understanding of triads and seventh chords. For instance, I use the popular song “Million Reasons” by Lady Gaga, released in 2016, as an opening exercise. The entire song consists of four chords, and the harmonic rhythm of the progression I-​vi-​IV-​V is steady at one chord per measure. C Amin

F

G

After writing the lead sheets on the board, I have an opportunity to integrate both improvisation and aural skills practice. While the recording is playing, I do the following: 1. I have students pick one pitch to play (or sing) out of each triad. For instance, in the second triad they can choose to play an A, C, or E.

142  Teaching Music Theory 2. I  write out all of the solfège (or scale degree numbers) under each chord. First, the students arpeggiate each chord on their instrument or arpeggiate each chord with their voice or kazoo. Then, the students sing one member of each chord as I play the recording. (The instructor can play along on the piano as well.) The bass line will stay the same throughout the song, but students can improvise with the upper two solfège syllables. Should the mi in the C major chord move to do, or should it stay on mi? C

Amin

F

G

Sol Mi Do

Mi Do La

Do La Fa

Re Ti Sol

I use this activity throughout all levels of my teaching as I introduce new progressions and extended triads. Demonstrating to students how triads are put together into progressions earlier rather than later helps them to relate triads into a more musical context, leading straight into the topics of harmonic function. While notation is extremely important when teaching and evaluating fundamentals, it is also important to not have the introductory topics of fundamentals limited to isolated examples without any musical integration.

Roman Numerals, Functional Diatonic Harmony, and Voice Leading Roman numerals can never be the end game, whether in the context of analysis or part-​writing, but they are an important part of the story. After all, Roman numerals indicate two main concepts: the quality of a chord and the placement of the root of the chord within any given scale. Some instructors tend to introduce each chord and Roman numeral individually; however, I have found it most effective to teach all Roman numerals collectively while I continue to refer to the placement of roots within the major and minor scales. Notating a scale on the board and building triads on each scale degree seems to be the most effective way to approach the introduction, and singing through the triads helps students to hear the qualities. I  think the most common error that can occur when introducing Roman numerals might be

Pedagogy of Fundamentals and Diatonic Harmony  143

Figure 5.2  Single Roman numeral analysis in various keys

in not discussing their purpose in analysis. The topic of analysis can begin quite early, and through lead sheet symbols, Roman numerals can quickly be assigned to music literature without even having to teach students to stack thirds or to ignore non-​chord tones. Eventually, lead sheets can be replaced with notation, and students should be able to stack harmonies and relate the root to the placement within the key. It is one of my goals that students quickly make the connection that certain chords will have different Roman numerals assigned to them based on the key and therefore a different function. There are two ways to accomplish this in terms of assessment.

Traditional Method Instructions: Give the Roman numeral for the notated chord (Figure 5.2) in the keys given. G: E  minor: A  major:

Result: Students would stack the pitches into thirds, determine the root, and label the Roman numeral based on the root of D in the context of the key. The answers would be V6, VII6, and IV6.

Interactive Method Instructions: 1. Write the following chords and keys (Figure 5.3) on the boards in the classroom before class begins. Each individual chord in the line notated below should have its own space on the classroom “board,” for a total of six “stations.” Cover each chord with construction paper.

144  Teaching Music Theory

Figure 5.3  Roman numeral analysis in various keys

B: E minor: A minor:

B: C: B♭:

F minor: D minor: E minor:

F: G: B♭:

F: F♯:

G minor:

G: G minor: F♯ minor:

2. Arrange the students in small groups, having each group of students stand in front of one of the stations. Each station should have at least two students. Inform the students that they will be seeing a notated chord and a series of keys and will need to determine the Roman numeral in the keys listed. If the chord will not work diatonically in the given key, they should put an X. 3. Set a timer for 20 seconds and start the timer once students remove the paper from the chord. 4. Begin playing music. I  tend to use popular music or a fast-​paced symphonic work for this exercise. When the timer is done, stop the music. 5. Students have 20 seconds at each station to write down the Roman numerals for each of the chords. If all of the keys include a Roman numeral, they can check the work of their classmates and correct as needed. 6. When the 20 seconds are over, students move to the next station. The game continues until all of the answers are correct. Answers: B: I⁶₄

F minor: iii⁶₄

F: ii⁴₂

E minor: V⁶₄ C: IVM7 D minor: v⁶₄

G: X

A minor: X

B: X B♭: X.

E minor: iv⁶₄

B♭: vi⁴₂

F: vii°6 F♯: X

G: V G minor: V

G minor: vi°6 F♯ minor: X

I love using this game in my classroom. Not only does it create a fun atmosphere where students are working together, but students are able to really

Pedagogy of Fundamentals and Diatonic Harmony  145 show that they can quickly assess whether a chord is diatonic in a key. Also, each column of keys should have Roman numerals that match in terms of inversion symbol and quality. My students love the chance to correct each other’s work, and because the music playing, there is often a type of dance party at each station when they deem their work correct. I use this exercise in later semesters with chromatic harmonies as well. For instance, the X currently on the B major chord would be changed to a V/​V in second inversion. Recently, I experimented with how I introduced Roman numerals to my classes, and for the first time ever in my teaching, I taught every chord using solfège in conjunction with the Roman numerals. For example. a ii chord in a major key would also be known as Re-Fa-La, and a V chord in a minor key would be Sol-Ti-Re. This is not a new concept at all, and I know many instructors use this model, but I was very deliberate in this approach, and when we moved into inversions, instead of stacking in thirds and writing little notes on the sides of the paper as my students had done in previous years, students concentrated on the solfège of the bass note, and before even looking at the other pitches they had an idea of what the chord might be. For instance, if they saw a ti in the bass, my solfège-​trained students would automatically assume the chord was either a vii°7 or a V6 or V⁶₅. They would look at the other pitches for a sol and make their determination instead of stacking into thirds, determining the root, and determining placement in key by singing up the scale. I found that their analysis was quicker and more accurate, and in many ways it highlighted the connections between aural skills and written music theory. But, most importantly, this approach led into a much smoother transition as I began to talk about harmonic function and movement between lines. My students had already realized that Ti wanted to move up and that the Fa wanted to move down; they just weren’t sure of the vocabulary.

Harmonic Function and Early Harmonic Analysis In the first edition of Peter Spencer’s text The Practice of Harmony, readers find the following introductory statement in terms of harmonic function: The main function of the primary triads is to establish the key of a piece of music. The composer realizes this goal by judiciously using the tonic, dominant, and subdominant triads at the beginning of the composition and by exploiting one of the four cadence types at the end of phrases. Music in

146  Teaching Music Theory which these two conditions are not realized is typically nebulous from a tonal standpoint.13

While this definition is clear in how to begin and conclude a harmonic progression, the chords used in the middle of a progression might be up to some question based on this definition. In the sixth edition of The Practice of Harmony, by Peter Spencer and Barbara Bennett, it isn’t until after 39 pages of part-​writing examples that the authors revisit the issue and discuss chord relationships and harmonic progression in the following manner: Strongest movement:  Roots separated by ascending fourths or descending fifths Weaker: Roots a second apart Weakest movement: Chords a third apart14

However, the most recent textbooks tend to be more intentional in their introductions of harmonic function. Real musical examples are used at the first mention of Roman numerals, and Roman numerals are thought of as an “effective way to analyze patterns and progressions of chords.”15 In the third edition of The Musician’s Guide to Theory and Analysis, the authors begin the discussion of function through analysis of phrases and cadences: “Conclusive phrases include at least three tonal areas which form the harmonic structure of the basic phrase: an opening tonic area (T), a dominant area (D), and tonic closure (T) at the cadence. The T-​D-​T basic phrase governs both large and small scale harmonic function in much tonal music. Inconclusive phrases begin with the tonic area and cadence in the dominant area rather than completing the full pattern.”16 This definition is followed by multiple musical examples from the literature. Burstein and Straus follow a similar model in the text Concise Introduction to Tonal Harmony, where the authors supply a chart showing the movements that can be created in harmonic progression between the T-​S-​D-​T (tonic-​subdominant-​dominant-​tonic).17 Again, real musical examples are given immediately after the discussion, before any part



13 Spencer 1983, 110.

14 Spencer and Bennett 2012, 140–​141. 15 Clendinning and Marvin 2016, 133. 16 Ibid., 230.

17 Burstein and Straus 2016, 75.

Pedagogy of Fundamentals and Diatonic Harmony  147 writing begins. I too follow the T-​S-​D-​T model in my teaching and combine this with the basics of root movement as discussed in the 6th edition of the Practice of Harmony. Down a 4th, up a 5th Down a 3rd Up a 2nd

While the song “Hallelujah” by Leonard Cohen doesn’t follow this T-S-D-T model exactly in terms of the chords used in the song, the lyrics do. My students memorize this excerpt of the verse as a way to better understand root motion in harmonic progression. It goes like this, the fourth, the fifth, The minor fall, the major lift.18

According to Michael Rogers, the three functions identified by Roman numerals help one to understand the “inner fluctuation of tension and stability . . . the core of harmonic analysis” and that the relationships, “not the chords themselves, are responsible for our sensations of tonal centers and the establishing of the key.” He states that roman numerals do “provide an excellent and comprehensive means of codifying the raw materials of tonal music.”19 Based on this quote from Rogers and others from the prominent texts, it is evident that the goal of teaching Roman numerals, and thus voice leading, is to understand this preparation and arrival in terms of tonal relationships. When I  was working on my undergraduate degree, three of the four semesters of my theory sequence were focused on mastery of part-​writing. I think back to all the exercises I completed in the workbook that accompanied Elementary Harmony by Robert Ottman and how proud I  was of my work—​so proud, in fact, that I kept my roommate up late into the night copying over my part-​writing masterpieces on fresh manuscript paper. The example in Figure 5.4 is an actual part-​writing homework assignment from the theory course I  took back in 1994. It is easy to see that my professor



18 Leonard Cohen, “Hallelujah” (Columbia Records, 1984). 19 Rogers 2004, 46.

148  Teaching Music Theory

Figure 5.4  Part-​writing  sample

was generous with his grading because my part-​writing needed lots of work! While I was off to a strong start in the key of c minor, I really didn’t understand how the chords were functioning within the new key; actually, I ignored the new key. My pitches were correct because I understood figured bass, but I have to ask myself whether I really played through this example to check my work. I would hope that through sound I would have been able to see the errors in my Roman numerals. And would that first chord in the second system sound anything like a tonic at the cadence point? Even if it did sound like tonic, would a tonic chord ever be approached by a vi? In terms of functional harmony, my answers here do not make sense. The first inversion tonic seventh in the second system should have been my clue of the correct modulation or at least a chromatic chord; however, I had not grasped the idea of dominant function yet. I was asked to memorize the chart from the fourth edition of Robert Ottman’s Elementary Harmony (Table 5.1). As an undergraduate music student, I found that this chart only helped me to determine what chords went where, and it became a matter of memorization rather than conceptual understanding.

Pedagogy of Fundamentals and Diatonic Harmony  149 Table 5.1  Functional Harmony Chart from Ottman Text Major Keys

Minor Keys

ii iii IV

ii-​V, ii-​vii iii-​ii6, iii-​IV, iii-​V, iii-​vi IV-​I, IV-​ii, IV-​V, IV-​vii°6

ii°6/​ii III iv/​IV

V vi

V-​I, V-​vi vi-​ii, vi-​IV, vi-​V, vi-​iii-​IV

V/​v VI

vii°6

vii°6-​I

vii°6/​VII

ii°6-​V/​ii-​V, ii-​vii°6 III-​ii°6, III-​iv, III-​VI iv-​i, iv-​ii6, iv-​V, iv-​ VII/​IV-​V, IV-​vii°6 V-​i, V-​VI/​v-​VI VI-​ii°6, VI-​iv, VI-​V, VI-​III-​iv vii°6-​i/​VII-​III

Source: Ottman 1989, 208.

I/​i 1. May progress to any other triad 2. May interrupt any progression, such as ii-​I-​V Being a dutiful student, I memorized this chart, but I am not sure if I had any true understanding of what was happening. While part-​writing was the primary focus of my undergraduate curriculum, my instructor always took us to the next level of analysis through composition and keyboard realization. I think that it was in my own analysis, keyboard work, and composition that I  began to make the true connections on function. We were encouraged to make some of these discoveries on our own, and in many ways, I was better served by this self-​discovery than were my peers who were simply told what to do. When I  began to truly understand the large-​ scale use of the tonic-​ predominant-​dominant harmonic model, I was hooked and began to see if I could find any common practice era composer who deviated from this. In most cases, I was hard-​pressed to find any who did not follow that model. My curious undergraduate mind asked, “How can something so simple and iron-​ clad create thousands and thousands of different pieces in terms of sound if the background of the harmony is so similar?” And now, even with my 20-​ plus years of experience as a music theorist and educator, I am continually amazed at how function plays a part in our listening and performance experience. While it is thrilling to have students see the role of T-​S-​D on paper,

150  Teaching Music Theory it is even more advantageous to have students experience this first through sound. The following examples, taken from both popular and classical genres, are strong selections to begin talking about harmonic rhythm and changes through the T-​S-​D model from both a written and an aural standpoint. Example 1 Rossini: Overture from Tancredi (mm. 134–​142) Chord progression: I-​ii-​V7-​I This example has a clear bass line and is a strong example to introduce prolongation, seeing that the tonic chord is expanded for the first two measures, with the harmonic rhythm moving at one chord per measure (Figure 5.5).

Figure 5.5  Rossini: Overture from Tancredi (mm. 134–​142)

Pedagogy of Fundamentals and Diatonic Harmony  151 Example 2 Cher: “Believe” Chord progression: I-​IV-​V-​I This example also has a very clear bass line, and the root movements are quite easy to follow after the tonic is established in the first two lines. F No matter how hard I try You keep pushing me aside B♭ And I can’t break through C There’s no talking to you    F It’s so sad . . .20 Example 3 Puccini: “Quando Men Vo” from La Bohème Chord progression: I-​(iii)-​IV-​ii-​V-​I The orchestration of this excerpt makes it a favorite in classes, and many students are familiar with the melody (Figure 5.6). The bass line includes inversions, but having the students sing the bass line will help them to understand the purpose of the inversions in this excerpt and what is happening in the second measure. Hint: A great discussion of the function of a iii! Example 4 Jason Mraz: “I’m Yours” Chord progression: I-​V-​vi-​IV-​I This example returns to only root position chords but includes the vi chord. The movement of up a fourth, up a second, down a third is present here, but the IV-​I creates a weaker plagal cadence.   C Well you done done me in; you bet I felt it   G I tried to be chill, but you’re so hot that I melted  Am



20 Cher, “Believe” (Warner Bros., 1998).

152  Teaching Music Theory

Figure 5.6  “Quando Men Vo” from La Bohème I fell right through the cracks    F     C Now I’m trying to get back.21

Michael Oravitz at the University of Northern Colorado explains harmonic function to his students in a similar way: One can look at basic preferable root movements—​the descending fifth, descending third, and ascending second—​and wed them with a syntactic T-​ PD-​D-​T model, and see a clear-​as-​day relationship between the two. As one progresses from one chord class to the next, one virtually always produces one of those root movements. In the one case where it does not, dominant-​ class viiº progressing to tonic-​class vi, which produces a descending second



21 Jason Mraz, “I’m Yours” (Atlantic, 2008).

Pedagogy of Fundamentals and Diatonic Harmony  153 root movement, we note how rarely, if ever, we find such a progression in the repertoire. Given a few notable exceptions, such as the convention of plagal motion from IV to I and the fact that the I chord may progress anywhere, a presentation of these two models side by side can quickly produce a very efficient and effective overview of the tenets of diatonic syntax to the student.22

David Paul, professor of musicology at the University of California, Santa Barbara, encourages his students to understand prolongations and functions through singing. In a recent observation, students in the Theory II class at UCSB were asked to sing Bach’s “O Haupt voll Blut und Wunden.” Working with the larger structures first, Paul encouraged his students to label all of the cadences and to find and label all of the I and V chords. He walked around the room, leading students through this process with individual conversations with instructions such as “Focus on the ends of phrases instead of just labeling Roman numerals. Think of the biggest moments. Remember the idea of prolongation. Cadences are the important part of the phrase structure, they are like musical punctuation.”23 It was after the students found the tonic and dominant chords that the discussion turned to harmonic progression, but only after the students understood harmonic movement through performance. In his self-​published book Chordcraft, Chris Kapica explains the strong harmonic relationship that exists between the tonic and the dominant through a historical lesson on tuning: Well before musicians developed equal temperament . . . they used systems like just intonation, which focused on acoustically simple ratios of vibration found in nature and the cosmos. The octave is a ratio of 2:1, meaning the higher of the two pitches vibrates twice in the time it takes the lower one to vibrate once. An acoustically perfect 5th is 3:2, meaning the higher pitch vibrates three times in the time it takes the lower one to vibrate twice. Early theorists then discovered that a cycle of these 3:2 5ths produced twelve unique tones. But because of some complex math, the octave, this 5th, and its inversion (the 4th, ratio of 4:3) were the only strongly consonant



22 Michael Oravitz, in conversation with the author, 3/​22/​2017. 23 David Paul, lecture material, 1/​25/​2018.

154  Teaching Music Theory intervals within an octave split using these ratios; therefore, for years many musicians used only those three tones.24

Kapica goes on to divide all of the chords into the following groups: Tonic group (T)  I (strong), vi, iii (weak) Predominant group (P)  IV (strong) ii, vi Dominant group (D)  V (strong) vii0, iii (weak) Tonic group chords—​establish a tonal center and serve as a destination point in a progression Predominant group chords—​ transition between tonic and dominant group chords and add variety to a progression Dominant group chords—​build tension in anticipation of the tonic In a recent observation at the California College of Music, I was able to see Kapica putting all of this into practice as he guided his students through an aural analysis of Bruno Mars’s hit “Grenade.” As the students listened to the song’s opening verse and the refrain, Kapica encouraged the entire class to pay careful attention to the keyboard part. The students began to talk about the alternation between the tonic and the dominant harmonies and the use of the minor v with the addition of the leading tone at the final cadence of the verse. They quickly questioned the function of the B♭ major chord (VI) on the phrase “what you don’t under . . .” which leads to the V on the phrase “. . . stand is.” Kapica went on to lead a lively discussion on the multiple functions of the VI chord, helping this particular group of students to understand the function of the VI as a PD because of its movement to the V in the cadence.

Part-​Writing and Voice Leading There has been much discussion in the past decade about the emphasis on part-​writing in the curriculum and its relevance for today’s students. I wanted to see for myself if my students still found the process applicable to their musical life. I recently polled alumni from the Hayes School of Music and received 179 responses from educators, performers, and music therapists regarding the importance of part-​writing. Fifty-​two percent of those who

24 Kapica 2017, 9.

Pedagogy of Fundamentals and Diatonic Harmony  155 responded did in fact find part-​writing extremely relevant, 37.1% found the practice relevant, and 10.9% indicated that part-​writing was not relevant in their current career. However, even with these data, I  wasn’t satisfied based on the conversations at past CMS Summits, in SMT Ped groups, and in blog and twitter posts. In the past years, many of my colleagues have said that they were planning to lessen the focus on part-​writing. And at the 2019 CMS Summit 2.0, a room of more than 20 music theorists from around the country all agreed that we are doing less and less. But what I realized is that while many of my colleagues were moving away from part-​writing in the traditional sense, they were not moving away from the teaching of voice leading. There is value in understanding how voices move from one chord to the next, regardless of one’s future profession. The voicing of a cadential six-​four is important to understand because of its dominant function, and students need to experience that motion in order to understand the significance of the doubled bass line and the movement of the 6ˆ-5ˆ and 4ˆ-3ˆ. The resolution of the chordal seventh down is fulfilling the exact idea of tension and release and can only be realized through singing or playing. Historically speaking, much of the teaching and assessment of proper part-​ writing has been focused on the realization of figured bass. While I believe there is some merit to be found in this practice, some of the most effective teaching I  have observed has focused more on voice leading rather than part-​writing. In my observations, many students are experiencing how the voices move, and while the “rules” of part-​writing are still in play, they may not be the entire objective of the unit as was the case several decades ago. In looking back at my own part-​writing from 1994, I realize how I was missing the big picture and the goal of the assignment. I was merely a labeler. The excellent teaching I have observed tells a completely different story about how students approach this process. It is through musical experience that students are understanding the process of part-​writing and how the voices interact to create true harmonic progression. J. Daniel Jenkins, professor of music theory at the University of South Carolina, completely overhauled his curriculum in 2015 and now teaches all voice leading and harmonic function at the keyboard. When the school refurbished the class piano classroom, Jenkins asked for permission to repurpose some of the older Clavinovas and to redesign the music technology center to create a new theory classroom space. He is transparent about his

156  Teaching Music Theory fortune in having every student have access to the keyboard during the class (Picture 5.5). During a recent observation, Jenkins was reviewing the T-​S-​D-​T model with the introduction of the ii and the vi chord. Jenkins began his lecture with a review of the solfège syllables for all the chords, and the students repeated the solfège back as he outlined the chords on the keyboard. After a quick review, the students began to sing the following solfège for two progressions in the major mode: I-​vi-​IV-​V-​I Do-Mi-Sol, Do-Mi-La, Do-Fa-La, Ti-Re-Sol, Do-Mi-Sol I-​vi-​ii-​V-​I Do-Mi-Sol, Do-Mi-La, Re-Fa-La, Ti-Re-Sol, Do-Mi-Sol

After students have successfully sung through these progressions, Jenkins described the doo-​wop progression (I-​vi-​IV-​V-​I), the doo-​wop minor (i-​ VI-​iv-​V-​i), and the doo-​wop variant (I-​vi-​ii-​V-​I). He encouraged all of the students to move to the keyboard to play through the progressions one at

Picture 5.5  Music theory classroom at the University of South Carolina

Pedagogy of Fundamentals and Diatonic Harmony  157 a time, either in arpeggiations or in block chord style. After a bit of time working through the right-​hand voice leadings of the progression, Jenkins asked the students to give him the bass notes (or roots) for the doo-​wop variant progression. Students responded with: Do-​La-​Re(up)-​Sol-​(down)

The students quickly became comfortable with singing and playing the progression, and Jenkins saw this as an opportunity to bring in some real music. Students began playing along with a recording of “Please Mr. Postman,” following along with the doo-​wop progression. Jenkins encouraged them to begin improvising on the progression, saying, “If you feel confident, play whatever you like with the recording.  .  .  . Whatever you feel comfortable playing, that’s what I want you to play.”25 Jenkins continued this same exercise with “Why Do Fools Fall in Love” and “Bust Your Windows” by Jazmine Sullivan. There was no doubt in this observation that the students were gaining a true understanding of both function and voice leading. As the students looked at the keyboard while they played through the progressions, they could easily see how the I chord moves to the vi (“just by moving the pinkie”) and how the vi chord moves to the IV (“just move the finger in the middle”). Jenkins instructed the students in the movement from the IV-​V by saying “This movement is the hardest in the right hand because everything has to move down, contrary to the bass.”26 Through this process Jenkins was able to instruct the students on how to move their hands to avoid part-​writing issues. Students then sang the solfège while they were playing the progression on the keyboard. What was so compelling about Jenkins’s teaching of this topic was his ability to make the art of voice leading an active musical experience, and every student in the class was working through the activity at a different pace. Jenkins continually walked around the classroom as students improvised on the progression, providing both immediate feedback and suggestions. When asked about what a successful student looks like in his classroom, Jenkins replied, “A successful student is a student who tries.”27 This voice-​leading approach by Jenkins enables and encourages every student to try and try again



25 J. Daniel Jenkins, lecture material, 10/​9/​2017. 26 Ibid.

27 Jenkins, in conversation with the author, 10/​9/​2017.

158  Teaching Music Theory to gain firsthand knowledge on voice leading and harmonic approaches. Jenkins is merely the encourager and facilitator who makes these moments happen. It’s 8:00 a.m. on an October morning at Texas State University in San Marcos and all of the students in Cynthia Gonzales’s class are eager and ready to go. Not one student is late, and all eyes are directed at the front of the room. She hands out a copy of a piece written in SATB voicing and tells the class to stand and sing the piece four times. “If you start on alto, move to tenor the second time, then to bass, etc.”28 Gonzales doesn’t dictate a solmization system to her students; she just tells them to conduct while they sing on solfège or letter names. After the students have sung through the piece, the questioning begins and students are anxious to give responses:

• What does the soprano line look like? • Where is the melodic apex? • What is happening in the tenor line? Is it stepwise? • Does the bass line move around a lot? Is that typical? • What is happening rhythmically? • Is this ornamented? • Does this sound like Mozart? Does it sound like Bach?

Gonzales then begins to talk about voice leading in terms of dancing, and the students jump up and perform the “dance” with her. “Keep the common tone, move by step, move by third, and finally leap and then move in the opposite direction.”29 Following this brief Q and A, Gonzales separates the class into small groups and gives each group two measures to check for the following:

• Vertical issues in terms of voice leading • Spacing • Triads spelled correctly • Doubling

28 Cynthia Gonzales, lecture material, 10/​26/​2017. 29 A video of this “progression” dance is available on the YouTube channel https://www.youtube. com/channel/UCaTwT0J1lRd_ZCXv2Xue6nQ/featured?view_as=subscriber.

Pedagogy of Fundamentals and Diatonic Harmony  159 Students report back with any part-​writing issues they may have found, and due to the pre-​question sessions, the students are able to think both vertically and horizontally. Most of the comments focus on the use of common tones and how each voice is moving. Students agree that there are many common tones and that, with few exceptions, the part-​writing is pristine. Gonzales takes this opportunity to inform the students that the chorale was written by Juan Del Encina sometime after 1468. “Part writing is old, very old,” Gonzales says. “This was 550 years ago and it doesn’t look like he is creating it for the first time. It’s the same part-​writing that we ask you to do. You are joining a tradition that is more than 600 years old of writing music. It is still operational and still working for us today. This is why I deleted the composer’s name from your score. All of the ‘rules’ come from the music. I think it is really cool to think I’m doing what some musicians have done for years and years. When we say there is a part-​writing error, it is because of what has been historically done in the music.”30 There are many other ways to make part writing more accessible and applicable:31 • Always show examples of poor part-​writing and have students sing them in class. • Talk about the importance of chords both vertically and horizontally. • Remind students that figured bass is a way to notate pitches above the bass. This is where figured bass comes from; it is not merely an abbreviation for second inversion chords. • Have students sing through progressions with smooth voice leading. • Consider introducing the principles of counterpoint prior to introducing voice leading. • Discuss the historical significance of part-​writing and its role in the creative composition of composers from the common practice period. Include real literature in this discussion. So why do we part-​write, and how do we make this skill musical and applicable to our students? My September 13 blog post on Bridging the Music Theory Gap32 and Diane Follet’s article “Tales from the Classroom: Why Do

30 Gonzales, lecture material, 10/​26/​2017.

31 For more thoughts on integrating part-​writing into the classroom, see Chenette 2018. 32 Snodgrass 2016 (“Why Do We Part Write?”).

160  Teaching Music Theory We Part Write?”33 can begin to answer some of these questions, but based on the observations presented here, I believe that the principles taught and experienced through voice leading help students to understand function and movement of lines. After all, music is about movement through time. There is no stagnant music, just constant motion, whether that be in counterpoint in or a single melodic line. I recently spoke with a class at Juilliard and asked the students to stand up in a circle. Most were not familiar with hand signs,34 but I quickly worked them through a few scales and divided the students into three groups. As I had each group move to various syllables with their hands and voices as I created a I-​vi-​IV-​V/​V-​V-​I progression, one student said “Wait, what, are you teaching voice leading here?” I smiled to myself and thought, that’s exactly what I’m doing. You just happen to be experiencing how it works through your voices and hands before we write one note down on paper.



33 Follet 2013.

34 A more detailed description of Kodály hand signs can be found in ­chapter 7.

6 Pedagogy of Chromatic Harmony and Form “Always start with sound.” That was a sentiment heard over and over from some of the most effective theory teachers I observed. There is no exception to this rule, regardless of the topic taught. However, this relationship to sound may be most vital in the study of chromatic harmony and form. After all, one of the many purposes of studying music theory is to make more informed performance decisions. As music becomes more complex in terms of structure and harmony, the performer has even more choices in terms of interpretation. These particular topics in our teaching of music theory put a name to those moments and continually answer the questions of why and how structures and patterns work together.

Secondary Function In most texts, secondary dominants are the first chromatic chord to be introduced. It certainly is not because secondary function is the simplest concept. In fact, I have found secondary dominants to be one of the more challenging topics for college music majors, due to the new idea of tonicization. But it is the chromatic harmony used with the most frequency, and students have heard it in almost all genres of music. I tend to start with the song “For the Longest Time” by Billy Joel when introducing secondary function. Even though the song premiered in 1984, I’m always amazed at how my students seem to know every word and snap their fingers along to the introduction. I pass out the lead sheets for the opening verse and have the students circle every diatonic chord found in the key of E-​flat major. This exercise leaves three chromatic chords: the F, which resolves to the B♭; the G7, which resolves to C minor; and the E♭7, which resolves to A♭. When students are asked to talk about the intervallic relationship between the chromatic chord and the chord immediately following, they are able to quickly see the function of the secondary chords and the relationship of the fifth. I merely have to talk Teaching Music Theory. Jennifer Snodgrass, Oxford University Press (2020). © Oxford University Press. DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780190879945.003.0001

162  Teaching Music Theory about tonicization and how Joel is temporarily using another key signature to create these chords. To conclude this exercise, I always have the students sing the roots of the main progression (another reason why lead sheets are so effective as an introductory tool) to indicate the relationships of each chord. E♭ B♭ A♭ B♭ If we said goodbye to me tonight . . . E♭

B♭

B♭

F

G7 C-​ What else could I do B♭7/​D  A  ♭

E♭ E♭7/​G  F-​ B♭

E♭

After we look through a few Billy Joel songs and find the abundance of secondary dominants used by the artist, we begin to create our own progressions and insert secondary chords. I ask the students to give me a basic diatonic progression such as:1 I

IV

ii

vii°6

V7

I

Following the creation of the progression, I ask the students to pick a key and give lead sheets for each chord followed by the solfège for each chord (using movable do). B♭:

B♭

E♭

Cmin

A°/​C

F7

IV

ii

vii°6

V7

Sol

Do

La

Ti

Fa

Sol

Mi

La

Fa

Fa

Re

Mi

Do

Fa

Re

Re

Ti

Do

I

B♭ I

Sol 1 I always encourage my students to insert the vii°6 at some point because I want them to understand why it is not a possible chord in terms of secondary function. It is more effective if they figure this out on their own rather than reading from a rule.

Chromatic Harmony and Form  163 I ask the students to pick one syllable and follow the smoothest line throughout the progression. For instance, a student who chooses Mi could easily move through the rest of the progression with Fa-​Fa-​Fa-​Fa-​Mi. We sing through this progression several times while I or another student plays along on the piano, giving each chord four beats. After the students have a good feel for the sound of the progression, I ask them to choose one chord to tonicize. For instance, if they choose the ii chord, the question to ask would be “What is the dominant of C minor?” The inclusion of the G-​major chord before the ii also requires a solfège change if using movable do. B♭:

B♭

E♭

G

Cmin

A°/​C

F7

IV

V/​ii

ii

vii°6

V7

Sol

Do

Mi

La

Ti

Fa

Sol

Mi

La

Di

Fa

Fa

Re

Mi

Do

Fa

La

Re

Re

Ti

Do

I

B♭ I

Sol Immediately, students are able to see the movement from the Do-​Di-​Re, which hopefully will lead to a discussion on the altered third in secondary dominant chords. After adding another secondary chord, the original six-​ chord progression is now expanded to eight, and students should be able to begin to make the association that the addition of chromatic chords also serves as a means to elongate the phrase. B♭:

B♭

E♭

G

Cmin

A°/​C

C7

F7

IV

V/​ii

ii

vii°6

V7/​V

V7

Sol

Do

Mi

La

Ti

Do

Fa

Sol

Mi

La

Di

Fa

Fa

La

Re

Mi

Do

Fa

La

Re

Re

Fi

Ti

Do

Re

Sol

I

B♭ I

My final question to my students would center around the A°. As before, my leading question would be, what is the dominant of A°? With no immediate answers, students are quickly able to understand why there is no such thing as a V/​vii°. It is impossible to tonicize a diminished key.

164  Teaching Music Theory I work through this same process for secondary leading tone chords, and without even writing it on the board, my students have realized the charts shown in Tables 6.1 and 6.2 based all on the sung progressions. In Table 6.2, the chords most commonly used are marked with a *. Table 6.1  Secondary Dominants Based on Scale Degrees Do/​1 Re/​2 Mi/​3 or Me/​♭3 Fa/​4 La/​6 Ti/​7

V7/​IV (V7/​iv) V7/​V V7/​vi (V7/​VI) V7/​VII (only in a minor key) V7/​ii (only in a major key) V7/​iii (V7/​III)

C-​E-​G-​B♭ D-​F♯-​A-​C E-​G♯-​B-​D (E♭, G, B♭, D♭) F-​A-​C-​E♭ A-​C♯-​E-​G B-​D♯-​F♯-​A (B♭-​D-​F-​A♭)

Table 6.2  Secondary Leading Tones Based on Scale Degrees Di/​♯1* Re/​2 Ri/​♯2 Mi/​3* Fi/​♯4* Sol/​5 Si/​♯5* La/​6

vii°7/​ii (only in a major key) vii°7/​III (only in a minor key) vii°7/​iii (only in a major key) vii°7/​iv (vii°7/​IV) vii°7/​V vii°7/​VI (only in a minor key) vii°7/​vi (only in a major key) vii°7/​VII (only in a minor key)

C♯-​E-​G-​B♭ D-​F-​A♭-​C♭ D♯-​F♯-​A-​C E-​G-​B♭-​D♭ F♯-​A-​C-​E♭ G-​B♭-​D♭-​F♭ G♯-​B-​D-​F A-​C-​E♭-​G♭

I begin my introduction to chromatic chords with whatever Disney song is popular at the time. “How Far I’ll Go” from Moana and “Can You Imagine That?” from Mary Poppins Returns are full of harmonies that go beyond the diatonic scale. As I pass out lyric and chord sheets for this particular unit, my students perk up, realizing that we are about to have a true Disney singalong. I choose current music popular music as well, but also standards that my students grew up with: The Lion King, Beauty and the Beast, and Hercules. As we watch excerpts from each film, I ask my students to follow along with the lead sheet and circle the chords that caused some sort of reaction as they listened or chords that are not diatonic in the key. The first time through, most of the students just watch the clip, but the second time through they do mark the chords as instructed. Many of the harmonies used in these Disney and popular songs include

Chromatic Harmony and Form  165 secondary function, mode mixture, and modulation. After circling all of the chromatic chords, I have the students talk about the quality of each and how the chord may have affected the moment in the movie. Yes, this involves watching “Part of Your World” from The Little Mermaid multiple times to hear the sighs of contentment on “Something starting right now,” but that is time well spent in order to introduce the idea of chromatic chords. This is always a great discussion, and students are ready to know the why at the end of our singalong. The idea of tonicization is established through both the Disney and Billy Joel tunes, and students can decipher what is and what is not a secondary function chord. It isn’t until after we work through lead sheets and solfège that I begin to introduce notation. My students understand how secondary function works so when I asked them to spell a V7/​vi in the key of D major, they either find vi in the key of D (b minor) and build the dominant seventh chord or just build a dominant seventh chord on scale degree 3, knowing that the key signature is coming from b minor. The use of lead sheets and solfège as an introduction to secondary function helps students to realize a few basic principles early on: 1. Any chord can be preceded by its secondary dominant or leading tone chord with the exception of a diminished chord. 2. A secondary dominant is always a fifth away from the root of the chord it is tonicizing. 3. A secondary leading tone chord is always a half step away from the root of the chord it is tonicizing. 4. In a secondary dominant chord, the third will often contain the chromatic pitch. 5. In a secondary leading tone chord, the root will often contain the chromatic pitch.

Mode Mixture/​Borrowed Chords It’s the chords found within the phrases “Where I long to be” in “How Far I  Go” from Moana and “Dancing with another man” from Bruno Mars’s “When I Was Your Man” that bring out the most excitement in my students

166  Teaching Music Theory in our singalong classes. Using our instruments and voices, we perform both of these songs, and the moment of mode mixture in these particular sections bring about the most reaction (and discussion). Interestingly enough, they are both iv chords! At this point in our study of chromatic harmony, my students are able to differentiate between a diatonic chord and a chromatic chord, but mode mixture requires more than just knowing if a pitch is outside of a key. Just like in secondary function, students have to be able to explain where the chromatic pitch is coming from in modal mixture, and they need to be asked the question throughout the introduction to these concepts. I tend to use solfège in my introduction of this concept and write out the two scales on the boards (major and minor) with the attached Roman numerals. We create a diatonic progression using solfège, and students substitute any chord from the minor scale into the context of a progression in a major key, changing the solfège as needed. Through performance with solfège, similar to that used in secondary function, students quickly are able to grasp this idea of “borrowing” or mixing of modes. We return to our lead sheet symbols in our singalong packet and discuss how mode mixture is used in various examples. After this process, we then tackle notation of the chords in terms of voice leading and in isolation. The students have already sung through the chords, so voice leading is never a large issue at this point beyond a reminder to not double an altered pitch. One of my favorite tools in terms of teaching mode mixture has to be the tabs within the website Hooktheory.2 The site correlates Roman numerals and lead sheet symbols with the actual audio of the song. And while I certainly can give a disclaimer that some of the analysis is not exactly theoretically sound or in some cases even correct, the presentation of the chords in both lead sheets and Roman numerals provides great class discussion and an opportunity for students to talk about various analyses. Listening to familiar music that incorporates mode mixture helps students to understand the effect of this chromaticism and why it is used in certain contexts. The following list includes just some of the popular songs that feature mode mixture and are easily accessible from a quick search on Hooktheory. • “Circle of Life” from The Lion King • “Somewhere over the Rainbow” from The Wizard of Oz • “How Far I’ll Go” from Moana 2 https://​www.hooktheory.com/​theorytab/​.

Chromatic Harmony and Form  167

• “Bad Day” by Daniel Powter • “Wet Hands” from Minecraft • “When I Was Your Man” by Bruno Mars • “All I Wanna Do” by Sheryl Crow • “Reflection” from Mulan • “Maybe I’m Amazed” by Paul McCartney (descending bass line with mixture) • “Horn of Plenty,” theme from Hunger Games “Eager,” “aware,” and “methodical.” These three words describe the teaching style of Claire Boge. A 1999 recipient of the Miami University–​wide E.  Phillips Knox Award for Excellence and Innovation in Undergraduate Teaching, Boge is dedicated to methods in differentiating instruction and has a talent for immediately recognizing when students are confused about a subject. And nowhere was this talent and commitment to student learning more evident than in her introduction to mode mixture. Boge began by describing mode mixture as a type of “mood mixture” as she drew both the major and minor scales with corresponding Roman numerals. Each scale (and Roman numerals) was written with a different color, and students in the classroom eagerly took notes, alternating between colors in their own notebooks as they followed Boge’s lead. After the Roman numerals and scales were notated, Boge proceeded to have students discuss how the Roman numerals can be moved between the different keys to create a certain effect, continually reiterating, “The more chromaticism you have, the more affect you will feel.” She spoke in Roman numerals, scale degrees, and solfège almost simultaneously and wrote out every step in her notebook that was placed on the document camera for all students to see. Boge quickly moved to the piano and demonstrated several different progressions before she excitingly asked the class, “Ready to experience how this works in music?” The students, completely engaged with Boge’s introduction, replied with an enthusiastic “yes.” Boge used two pieces to demonstrate mode mixture, Robert Schumann’s  “Ich Grolle nicht” from Dichterliebe and Mozart’s “Voi che sapete” from Le Nozze di Figaro. The students engaged in a spirited dialogue as the pieces played, and Boge continued to use color coding as she worked through the analysis to indicate instances of mode mixture. While students were hooked  through her use of color coding, the aural component  was equally important. When any student asked a question regarding analysis, Boge would move to the piano to explain the concept, and after working

168  Teaching Music Theory through the question at the piano, she would physically move over to the student and describe the concept again using just her hands. Following the analysis of the vocal pieces, Boge invited students to sing harmonic progressions that demonstrated mode mixture. As they sang, Boge would ask the following questions: “How is this working within the progression?” and “Why does this create such a mood change?” The students responded, often answering questions before Boge was able to even finish asking it, a skill that Boge referred to as “theory-​brain hotness.” But it was perhaps Boge’s final discussion that set up students for future study in both form and harmony. Boge’s final picture of the day (Figure 6.1a), relating structure to ocean levels, shared the story for what was to come in the students’ understanding of music theory, giving every student a higher and deeper goal to work toward. She described analysis in terms of structural levels, sharing that “we keep diving back and forth” as we work through the music. The big fish represent the levels of phrase structure, while the little fish represent things like chords and other material that students can relate to quite quickly. According to Boge, perhaps a little drilling under the ocean best represents the large-​ scale tonal plan as it encourages students to go very deep, while the jellyfish floating on top represents students just floating on the surface, with the tentacles reaching down to the deeper levels. “Where is this going?” Boge asked. “We have to get beyond the function and the structure, for it is all about shaping the phrase and making the music. A good diver navigates all parts of the ocean, and we will too.”

Altered Predominants When you arrive at the units on altered predominants, you can sometimes hear students talking in the hall like they have been initiated into some special club the minute you teach augmented sixth chords. I’m guessing it is like a rite of passage for some: “You haven’t learned what a German augmented sixth is? You are still working on suspensions? Ha ha. Oh, just you wait.” While I am thrilled that my students have a sense of ownership by this point, I am confused as to why this is such a defining moment in their study of harmony. But defining it is, and the understanding of the function of these chords somehow helps students to feel that they have arrived at the gates of harmonic mastery.

Chromatic Harmony and Form  169

Figure 6.1a  Structural levels of analysis compared to ocean

Altered predominants consist of two main harmonies, the augmented sixth chord and the Neapolitan chord. And while most textbooks separate these chords into two chapters, the premise is the same: both chords are altered predominants that move to a dominant. Unlike all of the other chromatic harmonies studied, the augmented sixth is the only group of chords not built from thirds, but rather from intervals above the ♭6 in the bass. I’ve introduced augmented sixth chords in multiple ways, from voice leading to solfège to scale degrees, but I have found the most successful introduction to be based in the context of an altered IV6. Students are well aware of the subdominant function by this point in their study. As I tend to use solfège and singing in my class for the musical experience, I begin with a progression that my students will be able to sing and be able to describe function easily. (Figure 6.2a) Many times I have students outline the entire chord or move through individual lines while a few students play the

170  Teaching Music Theory

Figure 6.2a  Progression with IV6 chord

progression on the piano. I also have a student notate the individual chords as we sing.3 IV6 Fa Do La

I Sol Mi Do

cad⁶₄ Mi Do Sol

V Re Ti Sol

I Sol Mi Do

Step 1-​The ♭6 scale degree Lower the bass by a half step as shown in Figure 6.2b. Students will immediately notice this as mode mixture.

Figure 6.2b  Progression with iv6 chord

I Sol Mi Do

iv6 Fa Do Le

cad⁶₄ Mi Do Sol

V Re Ti Sol

I Sol Mi Do

Step 2-​The Italian augmented sixth chord4 Raise the Fa (4ˆ) by a half step (Figure 6.3). At this point students will not be able to explain where the B natural pitch comes from, which leads into a discussion on why this particular chord is all about voice leading to the dominant and not so much about stacked thirds. Because of voice leading

3 The same exercise can be used with scale degree numbers. 4 The scale degree for the Italian augmented sixth includes ♭6ˆ, 1ˆ, and ♯4ˆ. The progression can also easily omit the cadential six-​four and move to the dominant. Have students experiment with both and discuss which one sounds the most pleasing to their ears.

Chromatic Harmony and Form  171 and tendency tones, a pitch needs to be added in the third measure. The most important discussion in this step is to have students identify the augmented sixth interval and how it resolves.

Figure 6.3  Progression with Italian Augmented 6th chord

I Sol

Aug6 Fi

Mi Do

Do Le

cad⁶₄ Sol Mi Do Sol

V Sol Re Ti Sol

I Sol Mi Do

Step 3-​The French and the German augmented sixth5 After singing through and playing the progression with the Italian Augmented Sixth multiple times, we begin to talk about the need for even more dissonance and introduce the two added pitches that make up the French and the German chord. Figure 6.4 shows a common progression using the French augmented sixth chord.

Figure 6.4  Progression with French Augmented 6th chord

French I Sol Mi Do

Aug6 Fi Re Do Le

cad⁶₄ Sol Mi Do Sol

V Sol Re Ti Sol

I Sol Mi Do

5 The scale degrees for the French augmented sixth include ♭6ˆ, 1ˆ, 2ˆ, and ♯4ˆ, while the German augmented sixth includes ♭6ˆ, 1ˆ, ♭2ˆ, and ♯4ˆ.

172  Teaching Music Theory German I always save the German chord until last primarily because of the need to have students explore why the chord must go to a cadential six-​four instead of directly to the dominant (Figure 6.5). This is quickly picked up when I ask them to sing directly from the German Augmented Sixth to the V!

Figure 6.5  Progression with German Augmented Sixth Chord

I Sol Mi Do

Aug6 Fi Me Do Le

cad⁶₄ Sol Mi Do Sol

V Sol Re Ti Sol

I Sol Mi Do

Michael Rogers confirms this approach in that we should “emphasize similarities as much as or even more than differences; link appropriate topics together by common traits. . . . All of these chords work in the same way. They are all very slight variations of a single process.”6

Neapolitan Sixth Chords Greg McCandless of Appalachian State University exemplifies energy and engagement in his classroom, and his teaching style is more like a conversation rather than a lecture. He moves freely about the classroom and never waits for students to raise hands, instead calling on them individually based on their reaction to his presentation. It is almost like he can see what is happening in their heads at any given time, a mark of an excellent teacher. In his introduction to the Neapolitan chord, McCandless began with diatonic chords that the students were familiar with, such as the iv and the ii, before moving through the chromatic alterations that make up the N6 chord. Students sang through chorales, and all harmonies were related to solfège as students began to discover the makeup of the N6 chord through their musical experience. McCandless related 6 Rogers 2004, 58.

Chromatic Harmony and Form  173 the chord to Neapolitan ice cream, calling the “Fa” vanilla (the most stable pitch), the “Le” chocolate (the less stable, but not crazy pitch), and the “Rah” strawberry (the unexpected, the least stable, and the full-​of-​surprises pitch). After this introduction, McCandless highlighted examples of the N6 in context with excerpts from Dream Theater’s “Sacrificed Sons,” Beethoven’s Moonlight Sonata, and Schubert’s “Der Müller und der Bach” (“Wo ein treuse Herze”) and “Erlkönig.” But it was his discussion of the Erlkönig that engaged the students the most. How appropriate that this particular class that I  observed was on October 31, and the students were thrilled for the ghastly story of the Erlkönig that McCandless told before moving through the analysis of the final few measures of the lied. As students listened to the recording and followed along with the analyzed score,7 they were excited to see the tonicized Neapolitan in the final few measures that provided some hope for the kind through the movement to the N6, described by McCandless as “landing on the true death.”

Modulation Prior to the 2016 meeting of the College Music Society, Juan Chattah of the University of Miami challenged a group of music theorists and musicologists to “engage critically and creatively with traditional paradigms.” This challenge immediately had me think about how I introduced modulations, and I began to question how we approach this particular topic, especially in terms of introduction. I researched four well-​known theory texts and compared their definitions of modulation. • “a change in key that is lengthier and more substantial, and whose tonic is confirmed by a cadence” Burstein and Straus, Concise Introduction to Tonal Harmony, 1st ed.8 • “longer tonicizations, which can occupy entire sections of a piece” Laitz, The Complete Musician, 4th ed.9 • “shift in tonal center that takes place within an individual movement” Kostka et al., Tonal Harmony, 8th ed.10

7

https://​www.youtube.com/​watch?v=juNxRYBWB9g.

8 Burstein and Straus 2016, 257. 9 Laitz 2015, 467.

10 Kostka et al. 298.

174  Teaching Music Theory • “Tonicizations of greater structural significance are called modulations. To identify a modulation, look for such musical indications as a continuation of the passage in the new key, an authentic cadence in the new key, [or] the presence of a predominant harmony in the new key.” Clendinning and Marvin, The Musician’s Guide to Theory and Analysis, 3rd ed.11 • “a change in tonal center, called a modulation, requires two conditions:  consistent accidentals  .  .  .  [and a] strong cadence in the new key” Snodgrass, Contemporary Musicianship: Analysis and the Artist, 1st ed.12 Some authors mention the importance of a cadence, some mention length, and others focus on a change in tonal center or an outgrowth of tonicization. But what all have in common is that following the basic definition, the first example presented is a pivot chord modulation. I began to think about this and wondered, why do we, as theory teachers, always begin the study of modulation with the pivot chord? The pivot chord modulation is with no doubt the most commonly used type of modulation in classical music. But is it the easiest to spot and/​or to hear? Is it the clearest technique in terms of understanding a change in tonal center? Many times students mistake modulations for tonicizations and vice versa, and what constitutes a strong cadence to one may not to another. I wanted to see if students were able to hear modulations easier than actually seeing the modulation take place in the score. I decided to give a brief assessment to 63 of my students during the fall of 2016. The students represented all majors within the School of Music at Appalachian State University. 17 students—​Theory I  (music performance, music education, music therapy) 18 students—​Theory III13 (music performance, music education, music therapy) 28 students—​Contemporary Musicianship (music industry majors only) 11 Clendinning and Marvin 2016, 414. 12 Snodgrass 2016, 282 (Contemporary Musicianship). 13 Note that the Theory III class is the only group of students who had formally studied modulation at the time of this assessment.

Chromatic Harmony and Form  175 The first section of my assessment included notated modulation excerpts from several textbooks just mentioned (Figures 6.6, 6.7, and 6.8). I did not play the example for the students but merely asked each student to circle the measure where the modulation took place. The second section was all based on aural analysis, and students were asked to follow the timeline on the YouTube example.

Modulation-​Notation Identify the modulation(s) in the following excerpts by circling the point of modulation (Figures 6.6 through 6.8). There is no need to give a Roman numeral analysis.

Figure 6.6  Haydn, Piano Sonata in E Minor, no. 53 HOB XVI 34

From Laitz, The Complete Musician14

14 Laitz 2015, 469.

176  Teaching Music Theory

Figure 6.7  Mozart, Piano Sonata in D major, K. 284

From Clendinning and Marvin, The Musician’s Guide to Theory and Analysis15

Figure 6.8  Harmonic progression with modulation from Snodgrass, Contemporary Musicianship16

Modulation-​Listening Mark the timing at which you hear the modulation.



1. Schubert, “Gretchen am Spinnrade” 2. Mozart, Concerto in A Major, K. 488 3. Def Leppard, “Pour Some Sugar on Me” 4. Adele, “All I Ask” 5. Michael Jackson, “Man in the Mirror”

15 Clendinning and Marvin 2015, 449.

16 Adapted from Snodgrass 2016, 297 (Contemporary Musicianship).

Chromatic Harmony and Form  177 All of the students, including the students in Theory III, had a difficult time finding the modulation in the first example from The Complete Musician, with only 33% of students in Theory III circling the correct measure. Fewer than 10% of students in the other two classes were able to find the modulation in this excerpt. Many students wanted to pivot in measure 6, while other students wanted to start the new key in measure 10 after the cadence. Were the students who had not been introduced to modulation thrown off by the clef change, or were they simply looking at phrase structure? Students were much more confident in their analysis of the modulation point in the example from The Musician’s Guide, with all classes scoring above 80% even though a small group of students marked the modulation at the beginning of measure 5. Students had a difficult time with the example from Contemporary Musicianship, perhaps because no traditional notation was given or because of the use of the Neapolitan chord in the example before the modulation. Only 39% of the students in Theory III answered this question correctly, while students in Theory I and Contemporary Musicianship averaged around 11%. The listening portion of this assessment produced much higher results in all classes, even for those classes that at the point of this experiment had limited aural training. The results indicated the following for each example and each class: Schubert, “Gretchen am Spinnrade” • Theory I—​:10-20 seconds after modulation • Theory III—​exact timing • Contemporary Musicianship—​exact timing Mozart, Concerto in A Major, K. 488 • Theory I—​:10​-20 seconds after modulation • Theory III—​:10​-20 seconds before modulation • Contemporary Musicianship—​inconsistent Def Leppard, “Pour Some Sugar on Me” • Majority correct Adele, “All I Ask” • Exact timing

178  Teaching Music Theory Michael Jackson, “Man in the Mirror” • Exact timing In the Schubert example, there was a modulation from d minor to C major with a weaker cadence, but the voice line is strong and most students seemed to be listening to the melody line. The Mozart example is much trickier because the tonal area shifts to D major for a short time and is never solidified by a strong Perfect Authentic Cadence (PAC). In the Def Leppard example, some students heard the ♭VII as the modulation point, but most heard the modulation clearly. But it was the last two examples that actually produced the student’s physical reaction to the music. As soon as the modulation took place, the students exhibited some sort of movement in their shoulders or hands as they wrote down the timing. What can we learn about teaching modulation from this small experiment? We know the ear plays an imperative role in the music theory classroom, and listening should be at the forefront as we introduce new topics, integrating as many genres as possible. I’m proposing that we start the study of modulation with the ear, allowing students to aurally understand what is happening before function is brought into the discussion, before we talk about the different types of modulation. Perhaps we shouldn’t start with the pivot chord because it is the hardest to hear. Take a listen to “All by Myself ” by Celine Dion (pivot tone), “Love on Top” by Beyoncé (sequential), or “I Will Always Love You” by Whitney Houston (direct/​abrupt). These songs are incredibly clear in terms of where the modulation occurs and invite students into a discussion on how modulations can impact a musical composition before notation is introduced.

Counterpoint Whereas counterpoint was once a separate, upper-​level theory course for specific majors, more and more instructors are integrating it into the undergraduate core curriculum, specifically at the freshman and sophomore levels. There’s much to be learned about musical movement and linear structures from a study of counterpoint, even if the unit is presented as a historical study of how consonance and dissonance work together in musical phrases

Chromatic Harmony and Form  179 and composition.17 As Rogers mentions, “Such courses can include both style-​imitation projects and general principles, such as climactic contour in a single line, independence of voices, activation and fulfillment of melodic/​ harmonic goals, and intervallic control.”18 On a gray October morning in Rochester, New York, Seth Monahan of the Eastman School of Music was full of energy as he welcomed his students to TH 101, Model Composition and Tonal Analysis.19 After a short, comprehensive quiz on the basics of fourth-​species counterpoint, Monahan began the class with the question, “Why should we study counterpoint?” Without any hesitation, students responded with statements such as “Counterpoint shows how outer voice relationships are important and how they relate,” “It is how tension works in music,” and “We aren’t just writing melodies, we are learning how melodies and harmonies interact.” This opening discussion on the validity of the study of counterpoint led Monahan straight into a fourth-​species counterpoint example where students were asked to sing on scale degrees. Monahan was like a cheerleader on the stage as he encouraged students to experience the music on a deep level while he introduced the different types of non-​chord tones found in fourth species. “Lean into that dissonance,” he shouted to the room of well over 40 students. “Your jaw should be tired because there is so much crunch in this.” After the introduction and performance, Monahan moved the class into what he called a workshop moment, which he described to the students as “a way to work on all the principles we have just learned.” In the first portion of the workshop, students were given an eight-​measure example and asked to identify the non-​chord tones. This activity moved quickly, and students were able to identify each dissonance and sing through the counterpoint. But it was in the second section of the workshop that students were asked to be more creative in their approach. Students were given the example shown in Figure 6.9.20 Monahan encouraged the students to not compose fourth-​species counterpoint by starting in the first bar and working their way forward. “A more

17 Counterpoint can be introduced before any discussion of harmonic function. The observation and discussion are placed in this chapter because this topic is not a uniform part of the core, but they could certainly be included in the material in c­ hapter 5. 18 Rogers 2004, 65. 19 At the time of this observation, Seth Monahan was on the faculty at the Eastman School of Music. He has since been appointed to the faculty at Yale. 20 This example, along with Seth Monahan’s teaching commentary on various counterpoint topics, can be found at https://​www.youtube.com/​watch?v=PnLpDM-​druw.

180  Teaching Music Theory

Figure 6.9  Composition of fourth-​species counterpoint

effective way,” Monahan stated, “is to build a scaffolding of chord tones that you can flesh out with various non-​chord tones that connect them.” Using the chord tones provided in the boxes above the staff, students worked through the example in small groups before presenting their final solution through a performance to the entire class. There was a great deal of discussion and collaboration in this assignment, and Monahan, along with the graduate TAs in the room, continually encouraged the students to experiment with dissonances and leaps before the prescribed notation at the cadence. There were disagreements among the students as to what solution worked best, and Monahan moved to the side of the stage to let the students engage in a debate for a good 3 minutes before his own interjection. With his encouraging teaching style, students were made aware that most of the solutions were in fact “correct,” although some were more musically interesting. To conclude the class, Monahan presented Bruckner’s “Os Justi” as an example of suspensions, having the room full of students break into performance on just the soprano or tenor lines. “It’s like we are literally chasing each other,” one student shouted, clearly understanding the function of the chain of suspensions.

Phrase and Periodic Structure and the Blues Introducing formal musical structure with phrases is ideal in that musical phrases make up the smallest unit on which all classical musical forms are

Chromatic Harmony and Form  181 built. Rebecca Jemian of the University of Louisville is a true master teacher at describing the hierarchy of musical form, especially when it comes to phrase and period structure. She began a recent lecture with an aural analysis of Schubert’s Ländler no. 1, D. 145, in which she asked the students to diagram the phrase structure by ear using bubble charts. Students easily found the cadences and used the do-​ti test (explained further in chapter 7) to determine if the cadence was a half or incomplete authentic (IAC) at the conclusion of the first phrase. This example led Jemian directly into a discussion of periods, which she defined as “two consecutive phrases that belong together that end with a conclusive cadence.” She compared the IAC and the PAC to the game of rock, paper, and scissors in which the PAC crushes the IAC in terms of conclusiveness. The next example presented was Boccherini’s Flute Quintet D. 441/​III Grazioso, and students again were asked to diagram the periodic structure without a notated score. Students were not as quick to respond to this example, and Jemian began to talk about ways in which one can find clues to determine the structure such as texture, counting measures, and singing triads before the example begins to determine cadences. “Let’s dig a little deeper than just getting the facts right,” Jemian encouraged her students as she listened to their various interpretations. The topic of musical texture was at the forefront of the discussion at this point, and Jemian led the students through a conversation about rhythm (using takadimi to demonstrate) and had them sing solfège back on the individual lines to determine where the melodic line might be moving. Students were then encouraged to come to the board to draw their own phrase/​periodic charts, indicating both cadences and motivic makeup of each phrase. This visual representation highlights the hierarchy of phrases and periods. Through her genuine concern for students and her focus on sound, students in Jemian’s class were thinking beyond the correct answer and were able to begin justifying interpretations as they moved into binary form. “Focused,” “effective,” and “applicable” are three words that Sara Bakker of Utah State University uses to describe her teaching style. Bakker creates a workshop environment in her classroom so that students can “work, struggle with, and discover things on their own”, all while she is there “to encourage and guide them.” Her hope is that “this setting is a more reasonable representation of how educated musicians might use music theory knowledge in ‘real life.’ ”21 In her classroom, students are arranged in

21 Responses provided by Bakker via questionnaire on Survey Monkey on 7/​13/​2018.

182  Teaching Music Theory groups of four, and desks are moved together to create a sense of community and collaboration between the students as Bakker moves easily around the classroom fostering a sense of dialogue and equity. In a recent observation, Bakker began the class by asking the students to take 1 minute in their group to discuss one-​part forms, a topic from the previous class. After students gave the three types of one-​part forms (strophic, blues, and variations), Bakker immediately followed with a series of questions about the commonalities between each and how to create variety in strophic form (texture, improvisation, harmonization, ornamentation, etc.). These series of questions and responses led Bakker into her main topic of the day, the blues. Instead of lecturing through a piece to demonstrate the structure of the blues, Bakker wanted the students to determine the formal structures themselves. Using a pre-​uploaded audio file, each student group was asked to create a timeline of formal and structural changes based on Pink Floyd’s “Money.” Student conversations during the exercise included dialogue on verse/​chorus, harmonic changes, instrumental solos, lyrics, rhythm, cadences, and repetition among lines. Bakker gave the students plenty of time to engage in their own conversations, often interjecting only when asked as she moved from group to group listening to student interpretations. Two students volunteered to notate their group’s timeline on the board, and Bakker had all of the groups compare their interpretations to those on the board, noting that most students focused on the rhythm and not the lyrics. “The blues is a story-​ based form . . . it is really about the lyrics,” Bakker explained. “If you leave that off, there is pretty much nothing left. The whole idea of the 12-​bar blues is that it is a structure to create meaning for the lyrics and story.” Bakker went through each interpretation, examining what structures were being highlighted. From this exercise, students were introduced to the Variations Timeline program, a program in which audio is synced with a visual representation of formal structure in the form of a bubble chart. During this demonstration, Bakker was not tied to a podium or isolated in the front of the classroom; she demonstrated the entire Variations program with her laptop connected to a Bluetooth projector as she walked around the room engaging with every student. After a step-​by-​step guide on how to create a timeline in the system, including the importance of using colors to demonstrate similar musical elements such as verses or solos, Bakker asked the students to create a timeline on the Variations system using “Mean Old Bed Bug Blues.” Each student group listened to the blues standard over and over

Chromatic Harmony and Form  183 as they began to diagram the formal structure, highlighting the changes between sections and adding commentary. In her closing summary, Bakker encouraged her students to “get the lay of the land first,” focusing on the basic information of the structures before grouping elements together and adding commentary. It was through Bakker’s teaching and the visual elements in Variations that students were able to understand the overall structure of the blues without any notated score. Bakker’s prowess in current technologies, her pedagogical approach that focuses on both sound and sight, and her absolute openness in listening and responding to student interpretations of musical structures helped the students at Utah State to better understand how the blues and its varying elements work together in musical form.

Large-​Scale Forms There are multiple publications and textbooks that deal specifically with the teaching of large-​scale forms,22,23 particularly sonata form. Universally presented as an outgrowth of rounded binary form, the main principles of classical sonata form are based around the ideas of tonal conflict and resolution. And while terminology for the opening theme might be primary tonal area (PTA), primary theme zone (P), or theme I, the basic definitions for the sonata form structure are the same regardless of the text or approach. However, it is the approaches to teaching large-​scale forms that truly highlight different pedagogical methods that are effective. Patricia Burt24 of the University of Delaware is a student-​centered educator who seeks to propel students “forward by a natural curiosity rather than restrained by self-​consciousness.”25 Her classroom is full of questioning and insight, and she began her introduction to sonata form by having students listen to Haydn’s Sonata in E♭ Major. As the students listened to the performance and followed along with the score, Burt instructed them to mark the measures in which they experienced an emotional response or a place in the music that they felt drawn to. She then asked the class to “describe 22 For additional approaches to teaching musical form using popular music, see Clendinning 2017. 23 There has been an abundance of literature focused on the diagramming of form that greatly impacts how instructors are teaching musical form. See Hepokoski and Darcy 2006. 24 At the time of this observation, Patricia Burt was on the faculty at Harford Community College. 25 Responses provided by Burt via questionnaire on Survey Monkey on 1/​8/​2019.

184  Teaching Music Theory what internal experience you had when listening to a certain passage.” As the students shared both measure numbers and words to describe the listening expediences, Burt wrote the following on the board:

• Measures 85–​101 moving around, excited, spinning • Measures 129–​132 unstable, crazy rhythm • Measures 104–​107 laughing • Measures 109–​117 playful, movement to triplets • Measures 203–​220 peaceful, calm

Burt left the student responses and the measure numbers on the board as she moved on to define sonata form, which she described as “dramatic,” relating the drama to the conflict occurring between thematic areas and tonal areas. After carefully discussing the main sections of classical sonata form and with the students almost to the point of understanding, Burt shared the following analogy: Let’s say there are three characters in this story, Bella, Bobby, and Chaz. Bella and Bobby are in a relationship and Bobby is your typical boy next door, nice but predictable. His car is clean and he is kind of preppy. Let’s call Bobby the PTA. Bella’s head is turned by Chaz, the bad boy biker who is certainly less predictable and a little on the edge. (The secondary tonal area or STA). One way the STA (Chaz) contrasts with the PTA (Bobby) is that the STA is more unstable. (Maybe that’s why Bella likes him?) In musical terms, the STA of this piece is in the dominant key. Additionally, the STA uses chromatic harmony and contains an extremely long and winding (less organized) phrase. The composite rhythm has sped up to primarily 16th notes and the Alberti bass infuses the STA with a great deal of rhythmic energy. In order for Bella to even notice Chaz and be interested in him, there must be a destabilizing force in her relationship with Bobby. If everything were fine with Bobby, Chaz wouldn’t even take hold in her thoughts. The transition between the PTA and the STA not only prepares the new key of the STA, but also helps weaken our aural foothold from the PTA. The development consists of Bobby and Chaz fighting it out and of course, in the recap, Bobby has won Bella back, but has relaxed his A-​type personality and let some of his inner Chaz shine through (STA in tonic key).26

26 Patricia Burt, personal communication with author, 1/​29/​2019.

Chromatic Harmony and Form  185 This analogy was immediately relatable to the students, who began to grasp the similarities that might occur within a human conflict and a tonal relationship. Burt continued with the analogy, mentioning that all the sections on the board that evoked an emotional response were the ideas that were manipulated. “What could be happening in the story at this point? Burt repeatedly questioned. “These are very important moments, structural moments.” According to Burt: When we look back at where the students marked their strong emotional reaction, we pinpoint where in the form those moments occur. I try to wean them away from the romance story at the beginning of the class and focus on how the structure of the music itself is what’s creating their strong emotion at those points. This is partly how I try to sell to the students the idea of music theory as something similar to psychoanalysis—​it helps explain what’s happening structurally in a piece that elicits certain feelings in the listener. Once they understand the structure there’s no need for the narrative anymore.27

In the handout presented to the class, Burt asked a few final questions in regard to the movement: • Go back to your answer to question 1. (Original question: List one place in the music that you felt drawn to. Without doing any analysis, describe in general what internal experience you had when listening to that passage. What about the passage grabbed your attention?) • Which part of the form did that passage come from? How does that passage function within that section of the form? What is going on melodically, rhythmically, or harmonically that makes it so interesting? In other words, thoroughly explain, technically, what is going on in that passage and the passage’s significance in the overall structure of the piece. • Review your analysis and then listen to the piece again. Honestly explain if your listening experience has or has not changed after having analyzed the piece. Do not tell me what you think I want to hear. Why/​how has your listening experience changed or stayed the same? Do you enjoy hearing the piece more after having studied it?



27 Personal response to author via email, 1/​26/​19.

186  Teaching Music Theory After a thorough discussion of these very questions, one student began to complain that the process of analysis took all the magic out of the piece, to which another student quickly replied, “But you understand the thinking behind it. You get why Haydn is so creative and funny. You become part of the conversation that is sonata form.” And it is this conversational teaching style and Burt’s constant questioning that enabled students to become independent thinkers as they work through the musical structures.

Other Topics: Modes and Jazz Theory In my observation of students at Dallas Baptist University, Professor Barbara Wallace concluded class by playing the piece “Norwegian Wood” by the Beatles to discuss harmonic rhythm and function. When Wallace asked how many of the students were familiar with the Beatles, only 6 students out of the 20 raised their hands. The chord changes in this particular piece brought out a great deal of discussion among the students, specifically regarding modes.28 Wallace began the introduction by speaking the following sentence out loud: “I don’t particularly like modes a lot” (which is a mnemonic device for remembering the names Ionian, Dorian, Phrygian, Lydian, Mixolydian, Aeolian, and Locrian) and wrote the phrase “padMIL” on the board. When one looks at the letters, it is clear that “pad” signifies all modes most closely aligned to the minor scales. The letter p (Phrygian) has a stem down, indicating a lowered second; the letter d (Dorian) has the stem raised up, indicating the raised sixth. The capital letters all are closely aligned to the major scales, and likewise the final stroke of the M indicates the lowered seventh for Lydian, and the first stroke of the L indicates the raised fourth for Lydian. An introduction to modes and their relationship to the major and minor scales, which might take at least two class periods, took Wallace about 10 minutes. After providing a brief historical context on the Beatles, Wallace immediately began to encourage the students to think about the consistent accidental of D natural found in the opening section of the song clearly notated in the key of E major. Another way to introduce modes and their relationship is through the number system. Each mode is given a number that corresponds to a scale degree. 28 In some curricula, modes are completely absent, while other curricula leave the study of modes until the final semester during a 20th-​century class. Other programs teach the use of modes only in a jazz harmony or popular music class, while others include a unit on modes in fundamental courses. Interestingly, modes are taught early in many high school programs; for example, Plano High School has its AP students singing in Dorian and Mixolydian modes as soon as possible.

Chromatic Harmony and Form  187 1–​Ionian 2–​Dorian 3–​Phrygian 4–​Lydian 5–​Mixolydian 6–​Aeolian 7–​Locrian For instance, if students were asked to notate a D Lydian scale, they could say D is the fourth scale degree of what major key? The answer is A, so students would write the scale D-​D with the key signature of A (F♯, C♯, G♯), thus the raised fourth. If students were asked to look at a score to determine what mode is used, an instructor could guide them through the same process. For instance, in Simon and Garfunkel’s rendition of “Scarborough Fair,” the score includes both consistent F sharps and C sharps with a tonal center of E. The key signature that includes those two accidentals is D major, and E is the second scale degree in D major; thus the song is written in E Dorian. In her syllabus for Jazz Theory,29 Jennifer Weaver of Dallas Baptist University lists the following as objectives:

• Interpret chord symbols and lead sheet notation • Notate and identify chords with 7ths, 9ths, 11ths, and 13ths • Write and identify various jazz scales and modes • Write and identify jazz chord progressions related to the ii-​ V-​ I progression • Identify chord function and appropriately apply a variety of chord substitutions • Play particular chord voicings on the piano • Identify aurally important jazz musicians and stylistic periods • Arrange and compose short compositions using the chords, scales, and techniques common to jazz

Many of these objectives could be transferred into a classical theory classroom, and in many cases, the idea of integration of stylistic periods and chord voicing on an instrument should be implemented in the traditional 29 The scope of this text is based on the traditional undergraduate core. However, there are additional resources that focus on the teaching of both jazz and counterpoint beyond what is mentioned here (Berry 2002, Marlowe 2016, Love 2009, Julien 2012).

188  Teaching Music Theory core. However, Weaver’s teaching approaches clearly demonstrate her understanding of the tailored needs of her music business majors. Weaver began a recent class on bridges (B sections) by having students sing through the solfège for the bass line of the jazz standard “Perdido.” After the performance, she asked students to complete a Roman numeral analysis for the tune as she walked around, helping students individually. The tune included both tritone substitution and a secondary dominant chain, and the students were able to find these harmonic movements through the lead sheet symbols given in the chart. Like many skilled teachers, Weaver began her introduction with a topic the students were familiar with before moving on to new material. In this case, the chain of secondary dominants found in “Perdido” led directly into the analysis of the Sears Roebuck bridge, Montgomery Ward bridge and all of the variations related to the two. The class listened to a few samples of the bridges given on a handout and sang through the root movement, paying careful attention to where the chord movements resolved. Weaver’s examples given on the handout always indicated movement through arrows, and students were led through a step-​by-​step process, always accompanied with an aural and a visual component. Weaver quickly instructed students to begin to experiment with writing their own bridges; when students had trouble composing bridges, Weaver would guide them individually and sing root movements as they began to notate examples. Weaver knows that the study of jazz theory is based on creation and performance, and both are integrated within her classroom and material. Even in the composition assignment discussed at the end of class, students were well aware of her scaffolding approach to teaching as composition projects are given in terms of plan (choose instrumentation, performers, type of composition), draft (half of the composition submitted), and final (live performances in class). This scaffolding, breaking apart of the elements, and interactive demonstration are all hallmarks of Weaver’s teaching style and are very similar to how a jazz combo might approach a given performance, through breaking it down and bringing it back together.

Final Thoughts on Analysis As Neil Swapp of the New Mexico School of the Arts stated, “Theory is not that complicated. The only thing standing in the way of students learning is us standing in their ways . . . our own pace and our own insecurities. They

Chromatic Harmony and Form  189 can learn as fast and as in depth as we allow them to.”30 There are a multitude of upper-​level courses in music theory offered in departments around the country, ranging from special topics in analysis to entire undergraduate courses in Schenker and counterpoint. But at their core, all of these upper-​ level courses are focused on the idea of analysis. It is this questioning, this constant need to answer the questions of “why” and “how” that help the teachers highlighted in this chapter to reach their students so effectively. The patterns, the explanations, the alterations, and the connections in terms of harmony, melody, functional rhythm, and form are what guide both our eyes and our ears to draw conclusions about a particular piece. But it is the ownership given to the students from the instructors that allows students to become scholars of inquiry, to question everything that has been thought and told, and to look at the art of analysis as a musical experience that informs them as scholars, educators, and artists.



30 Response provided by Swapp via Skype interview on 10/​25/​2016.

7 Pedagogy of Aural Skills A musical experience. Every music theory and aural skills class should be based in creating, understanding, or thinking about a musical experience. There is no academic class where the students and faculty can participate in an active musical experience like the traditional aural skills course. In talking with colleagues around the country, I found that some admit to being trained in aural skills as primarily a dictation class. They may have been asked to prepare sight-​singing examples outside of class, but in-​class activity was based around dictation. But what is the end goal of any aural skills class? Is it to correctly dictate a melody in four hearings? Is it to notate the soprano and bass of an eight-​chord progression while labeling the Roman numerals? Or is it to correctly identify intervals out of context? While all of these activities may have some value in helping students reach the final goal of mastery in aural skills, the true purpose in teaching aural skills is to help our students listen more intently, to listen with a purpose, and to become more informed musicians through an aural understanding.1 As William Marvin of the Eastman School of Music stated, “We must change the focus from sight singing and dictation to literacy. You can’t read a Dickens novel when you’re sounding out words; you can’t understand Mozart if you can’t hear it off the page.” As stated in Gary Karpinski’s text, Aural Skills Acquisition, “Anywhere there is music to be heard, read, or made, aural skills should be at the ready.”2

Systems Used in Sight Singing Do you want to start a debate among theory teachers and high school choral educators? Just ask them to talk about the pros and cons of movable do, fixed do, and la-​based minor. Instructors are so passionate about their chosen method that sometimes they may overlook the main purposes of sight singing. The main goal in 1 A multitude of exercises and valuable commentary regarding the teaching of aural skills can be found in Karpinski 2000. 2 William Marvin, in conversation with the author, 9/​18/​2018. Teaching Music Theory. Jennifer Snodgrass, Oxford University Press (2020). © Oxford University Press. DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780190879945.003.0001

Pedagogy of Aural Skills  191 Table 7.1  Solmization Syllables Used Based on the Murphy and McConville Study Fixed Do Movable Do (Do-​Based Minor) Movable Do (La-​Based Minor) Numbers (1–​7) Numbers (0–​11) Letter Names No System Other

36 175 51 48 16 29 1 12

using a solmization system is helping “ears to see and eyes to hear,” a phrase heard repeatedly in the classrooms I observed. A variety of methods are used around the country, as shown in Table 7.1, taken from a study conducted with 239 university-​level theory instructors.3 Note that the number of responses does not equal the number of respondents polled for this question, indicating that many instructors use a variety of systems simultaneously within the classroom. In the article “A Comparison of Pedagogical Resources in Solmization Systems,” Timothy Smith outlines the important purposes and outcomes of a chosen solmization system: 1. Analytical orientation—​the syllables should convey meaning in terms of musical structure or function 2. Aural orientation—​the syllables should aid in recognition of music structures and their translation to symbols from sound 3. Consistency—​the syllables should be consistent for the function they are representing 4. Singability—​the syllables should be mono-​syllabic as not to hinder any rhythmic reading 5. Flexibility—​the syllables must be usable in repertoire beyond that using only diatonic pitch classes4

3 Murphy and McConville 2017, 209. 4 Smith 1991, 3–​4.

192  Teaching Music Theory So which system is superior? Numerous studies have been conducted to answer this question.5 Interestingly enough, no statistically significant findings can be concluded from any of the studies. The article “To Doh or Not to Doh:  The Comparative Effectiveness of Sight Singing Syllable Systems” describes four separate studies that were conducted to test the effectiveness of movable do, neutral syllables, fixed do, and movable numbers.6 None of the studies resulted in any conclusions that proved one method was superior to another, although the authors do present several questions about a subvocalized system used in the student group with the neutral system. To choose the system that might be best for a particular student population, the most important question to ask might be, “What are the benefits of each system, and why does this system work the best with my particular audience?” Professor William Marvin of the Eastman School of Music recently asked seven students in his graduate pedagogy class to raise their hands if they had a good experience in aural skills. All seven students raised their hands, and the discussion quickly went to the type of solmization system used in the respective undergraduate classrooms. As shown in Table 7.1, many classrooms integrate multiple systems; in the case of this pedagogy class, the numbers indicated the following: Fixed  do—​4 Note names—​1 Movable  do—​2 Scale degrees—​2 In the same pedagogy class, Marvin encouraged the students to think about the process of “teaching to a high level of literacy.” Function and context are important, but so is the achievement in literacy that comes from reading pitches. To produce this result, Marvin divided the different systems into two columns and asked his students to pick one system from each column. According to Marvin, teaching fixed do with scale degrees or note names with movable do helps to achieve the highest level of literacy in context.7

5 See Smith 1991, Ristow et al. 2014, Bentley 1959, Dean 1965, Larson 1993, Buchanan 1946. 6 Lorek and Pembrook 2000. 7 Similar ideas are propounded in Karpinski 2000, 90. See also Marvin 2008.

Pedagogy of Aural Skills  193 Column A

Column B

Note names Fixed do

Movable do/​do-​based minor Movable scale degrees

Table 7.2 contains many of the pros and cons of each system shared with me in conversations with effective aural skills instructors. The material in

Table 7.2  Pros and Cons of Various Solmization Systems System

Pros

Fixed Do/​Note Names

• Although some scholars state that absolute pitch memory can be taught using fixed do, there are no conclusive studies backing this up. • Students are not made aware of harmonic function with this system. • Lack of differentiation of chromatic notes in many variations of the system. • Note names in English are nonvocal. • Students must learn at least three new inflections based on the natural minor scale. • This system can become quite cumbersome in melodies that modulate multiple times. • Like movable do, this • Can begin to get unwieldy system helps students hear with high levels of the relationships in music chromaticism. and the meaning of a given • Not as vocal as solfège. pitch in musical concepts. • Numbers can easily get confused with intervals and chords. • Works best for • Focuses only on the modulations that occur diatonic set with the between relative keys. exception of si for the • Most folk music can easily raised leading tone. be sight-​read using this • Does not include the system. concept of mixture.

• Many students entering the conservatory system have been trained in fixed do. • Students who have perfect (or absolute) pitch are familiar with this system. • Helps students work in atonal melodies or pretonal without regard to function. • Aids in teaching note names and in teaching clefs and transpositions. Movable Do (Do-​Based • Provides a method for Minor) understanding function. • Solfège is very vocal and can be very flexible because of the chromaticism. Scale Degrees

Moveable Do (La-​ Based Minor)

Cons

194  Teaching Music Theory Table 7.2 is not an exhaustive list, but it is helpful in understanding why the following systems are more prevalent in schools based on their audience. La-​based minor is used primarily in K-​12 and in universities with a large music education population, and for good reason. So much of the literature written for K-​12 modulates between the relative major and minor. Almost all of the literature performed can be sung by sight using la-​based minor. Fixed do can be heard in almost every conservatory in the nation; again, the population and goals of the students may dictate the system used because of the students’ earlier training. However, it is important to understand why you have chosen a particular system beyond a reasoning of “This is what I am the most comfortable with” or “This is how I was taught.”

Counting Methods Many years ago, I asked a student to clap a rhythm that contained a quarter-​ note triplet. He rushed through the triplet and quickly went back into simple meter. When I asked him to count back the rhythm of the triplet, he immediately responded with, “I don’t know how, I just kind of feel it.” This “feeling it” is the reason that I quickly changed my pedagogical approach in the classroom to include various types of counting systems. As educators we should strive to teach our students methods to get to a final performance, but more importantly, we should train our students to be able to discuss rhythm in a meaningful manner beyond “I just feel it” or “I don’t even think about it, I just do it.” In the article “Rhythm Syllable Pedagogy:  A Historical Journey to Takadimi through the Kodály Method,” theorist Joshua Palkki emphasizes the importance of sound before symbol. Palkki states that “[rhythmic] skills are more effectively taught beginning with aural skills such as rote echoing. . . . As patterns are echoed and rehearsed, they become transferred to working memory and eventually to long-​term memory.”8 This performance of patterns using any rhythmic syllable system is one that appeared over and over in my observations of excellent teachers. In many cases, students were out of their seats and improvising on patterns, almost memorizing each case of subdivisions and how they would sound before any notation was placed 8 Palkki 2010, 102.

Pedagogy of Aural Skills  195 Table 7.3  Counting Methods for Simple and Compound Meters Simple Meter System

Beat

Beat Division

Beat Subdivision

1 e and a McHose/​Tibbs Takadimi Kodály Gordon

1-​2-​3-​4 1-​2-​3-​4 Ta-​Ta-​Ta-​Ta Ta-​Ta-​Ta-​Ta Du-​Du-​Du-​Du

1 and 2 and 1-​Te 2-​Te Ta-​Di Ta-​Di Ti-​Ti-​Ti-​Ti Du-​De Du-​De

1 e and a 1-​Ta-​Te-​Ta Ta-​Ka-​Di-​Mi Ti-​Ka-​Ti-​Ka Duta-​deta

Compound Meter System

Beat

Beat Division

Beat Subdivision

1 e and a McHose/​Tibbs Takadimi Kodály Gordon

1..4.. 1..2.. Ta..Ta.. Ti..Ti.. Du..Du..

1-​2-​3-​4-​5-​6 1-​la-​li, 2-​la-​li Ta-​ki-​da, ta-​ki-​da Ti-​ti-​ti-​ti-​ti-​ti Dudadi, Dudadi

1 and 2 and 3 and 1-​ta-​la-​ta-​li-​ta Ta-​va-​ki-​di-​da-​ma Ti-​ka-​ti-​ka-​ti-​ka Duta-​data-​dita

on the board or on a musical score. Table 7.3 highlights the most common rhythmic syllables currently used in classrooms in the nation based on my observations. All of the systems can easily work with the sound before symbol principle with the exception of one, the Kodály method. It is the only system that is assigned to note types and not metric function, which merits a great deal of discussion on the purpose of this system in any given classroom. With the exception of Kodály, I have used all of these systems at different times in my career and have seen the advantages that each can bring to the learning environment, in terms of both performance and literacy. For my first decade of teaching, the “1 e and a” system was the counting method that most entering freshmen knew, and in simple meter, the syllables seemed to work just fine.

196  Teaching Music Theory We were even able to count to six in compound duple without much difficulty, but after compound meters moved into triple and quadruple, the entire sense of compound meter was lost on the “seven and eight and nine and.” I quickly switched over to the McHose/​Tibbs method for compound meter and found that students better understood the concepts of beat, division, and subdivision using this method. Compound triple and quadruple meter were no longer just extensions of simple meter, but in terms of dictation, students were having trouble figuring out what “ta” they were sounding in any given measure. It was when I began to integrate the takadimi system that I began to see true results in music literacy. Even the subdivisions had their own syllable, and the “singability” of this particular method allowed me to introduce the patterns without any notation whatsoever. The only downfall of this system is that it does not include a number for each beat in the measure; however, this is easily remedied with conducting patterns by the students. I was skeptical about the system until I saw a group of sixth graders improvising on rhythmic patterns better than the students in my university-level sophomore aural skills class. As shown in Table 7.3, each division and subdivision for both simple and compound meter has a unique syllable in the takadimi method. The only syllable that is used continually is the ta for the downbeat and the di for the third beat of the subdivision in simple meter and the fourth beat of the subdivision in compound meter. Takadimi lends itself to improvisation and movement, and students quickly pick up the patterns through call and response and demonstrations of division. There comes a time when a student cannot say “Ta-​di-​da” or “Ta-​di-​mi” without saying it in rhythm. The relationship of borrowed division is also quickly understood, and that same student who was just “feeling the triplet” now knows exactly how the triplet works in the context of the given meter.

Sound before Sight The University of Delaware feels so strongly about the sound before sight concept that there is little notation in its aural skills classes until the second semester. Theory I  also does not begin until the spring semester. Daniel Stevens, coordinator of the theory program, puts it this way: “We want to

Pedagogy of Aural Skills  197 foster the top-​down listening approach, and we want our students listening to real music from the very beginning.”9 The faculty at the University of Delaware use movable do and Gordon’s rhythmic syllables, spending the entire first semester mastering these systems before introducing notation or dictation. Susan Piagentini, coordinator of music theory at Northwestern University, has also designed the university’s curriculum to encompass the pedagogical approach of sound before sight. This was one of the foundational principles of the original musicianship curriculum and her mentor, Professor Emeritus John Buccheri. Piagentini’s aural skills process seeks to develop a “renewed focus on internalization through an emphasis on audiation, graphic tracking and imagery that requires students to rethink how they arrive at the answer.”10 The opening unit in freshman aural skills is void of any notation and invites students to read or transcribe only solfège syllables. This reading of solfège strings (Do-​Mi-​Fa-​La-​Sol-​Ti-​Do) helps students to create what Piagentini calls “a meaningful tie to the sound of each scale degree,” while a vertical solfège menu allows students to better understand tendency tones and to add in chromatic solfège as it is introduced. The solfège syllables are also laid out in graphical blocks in order to show the spatial relationships. By removing traditional notation from the first units of aural skills, Piagentini reports that students are now making “meaningful connections to function first through sound.” Rhythm is also introduced in a similar manner, through listening first and then intoning the corresponding rhythmic syllables in response. In this way, students demonstrate their understanding of the organization of the sound. Nothing is written down in terms of traditional notation in these early exercises, and students check their answers by reciting the syllables back in time. Notation is gradually introduced through various techniques of rhythm and solfège tracking.



9 Daniel Stevens, in conversation with the author, 4/​13/​2017.

10 Piagentini, 2020, 450–458.

198  Teaching Music Theory

Warm-​Ups and Sight Singing I recall a time from when I was first teaching aural skills at my current institution and I  graded a sight-​singing test that resulted in a lower-​than-​ average grade. The student came to me in my office and said, “You are new here. I guess you don’t realize that the sight-​singing exams are fluff grades.” This comment stuck with me, and I am more intentional with how I integrate sight singing into my classroom. Sight singing and developing the ear through prepared singing only solidifies skills in dictation. I often say to my students that if you can sing it and truly have fluency in solfège, dictation will come easily. And the skills of singing need to be practiced daily in both the theory class and the aural skills class. Every aural class  I  teach begins with students out of their seats and standing in a circle. It has only been in the past few years that I have begun to use the Kodály hand signs, and it has been a game changer in my classroom. Figure 7.1 shows the Kodály hand signs used for the diatonic pitches of the major scale.11 I have the student nearest to the piano pick a tonic pitch, and for the next 15 minutes I  work through the following exercises, all while using hand signs:12 • Sing an ascending and descending major or minor scale. ◦ Whatever mode chosen will determine the syllables to be used in the remainder of the exercises. • Choose random pitches and sing along with the students. ◦ I either point to syllables that are written on the board or I just use hand signs while I also stand within the circle. ◦ For example, a pattern might be: Sol-Fa-Re-Ti-Mi-Re-Do-Ti-Fa-MiLa-Ti-Do. • Choose random pitches as above, but in this step, I do not sing along with the students. ◦ Students sing back the pitches as I move through the pattern using hand signs only or by pointing to syllables on the board. 11 https://​commons.wikimedia.org/​wiki/​File:Fonomimi.gif. 12 A video of this process is available on the YouTube Channel. https://www.youtube.com/channel/ UCaTwT0J1lRd_ZCXv2Xue6nQ/featured?view_as=subscriber.

Pedagogy of Aural Skills  199

Figure 7.1  Kodály hand signs

• Sing random pitches on a neutral syllable. ◦ I give the tonic pitch and sing an ascending and descending scale. ◦ I then sing a pattern like Sol-Fa-Re-Ti, but use only the vowel “oo.” ◦ Students sing the pattern back using the same vowel sound (helping with tonal memory). ◦ Students sing the pattern back using the correct solfège/​scale degree and hand signs. ◦ Throughout the semester, add more and more pitches to this particular exercise. • Improvise a melody only using hand signs and with response singing. ◦ This activity introduces audiation or “think singing.” I typically start with just the first five scale degrees and no more than five pitches.

200  Teaching Music Theory



◦ After I  give five hand signs, the students sing back the correct solfège. ◦ This activity is easily moved around the circle as students make up their own five pitch patterns. • Improvise a melody using hand signs and make only certain pitches audible. ◦ A melody might be Sol-Fa-Mi-Fa-Re-Ti-Do, and we would sign each pitch but sing only every other pitch. Hand signs that are well in front of me are to be sung out loud, while hand signs that are close to my body are to be “thought” and not sung. • Creation of chord progressions ◦ Separate the class into three or four groups (while still standing in a circle). ◦ Have all students start on do and move each group to a different pitch, creating a chord progression that changes one pitch at a time. • Sing through a four-​part arrangement from Sight Singing Factory or from any sight-​singing book. ◦ I often have students sing through an entire line and then go back and have them sing every downbeat or every third beat to continue to encourage audiation.

There are many reasons that this approach works. For one, students are engaged from the minute they walk in the door. Once class starts, everyone is up out of their desks. I have no issues with cell phones or students not participating. Second, as we are standing in a circle, this warm-​up creates an ensemble-​type feeling, something that all of my music majors are quite familiar with, even my freshmen coming in from high school programs. Finally, no one is called out individually and everyone feels safe to make mistakes. It’s always amazing to me how my students warm up to the idea of improvisation when they just have to give hand signs at first. I keep these warm-​ups lighthearted, but I am able to have my eye (and ear) on every student as they are standing in the circle. By the midpoint of the semester, I ask students to lead the warm-​up, and they begin to realize that improvisation is not intimidating when you know a few basic principles, and that being a “conductor” allows an individual the opportunity to make some amazing decisions for an ensemble. Theory and aural skills can go hand in hand,

Pedagogy of Aural Skills  201 and it is up to us as educators to help make those moments of mental connections happen.

Clear Connections in the Aural Skills Classroom At Oakland University, theorist Melissa Hoag began her aural skills class with a fast-​paced but very guided warm-​up. After students sang through scales, she asked them to sing through the following pattern: Do-​Re-​Mi-​ Re-​Do, Re-​Mi-​Fa-​Mi-​Re, Mi-​Fa-​Sol-​Fa-​Mi, etc. She then provided harmonic support on the piano while talking through tendency tones with the following exercise: Do Mi Sol Mi Do, Fa Mi, La Sol Ti Do Re Do Sol Do

Even before this warm-​up and as the students arrived in her class, I observed Hoag playing a Louis Armstrong recording of “What a Wonderful World.” After the warm-​up focused on tendency tones and scales, Hoag encouraged her students by saying “aural skills is all about teaching your ears to see and your eyes to hear.”13 She challenged her students to solfège the melodic line of “What a Wonderful World” as she played the harmonic progression under the melody. “Sol-La-Do-Do-Sol-La-La-La-Sol,” the students sang, paying careful attention to all of the tendency tones in the melody, just emphasized by Hoag in the warm-​up. Because of her intentional teaching style, the connections between singing and listening were clearly made, and the students in Hoag’s class truly understood why singing and mastery of the solmization system were important. “I need your ears and your minds today,” said Thomas Huener of East Carolina University as he began his freshman honors aural skills course. Students exhibited both as Huener challenged individuals to come to the front of the room to conduct the class through a four-​part setting of “O Sacred Feast” by Healy Willan. Huener provided the baton for the student conductor and



13 Melissa Hoag, lecture material, 9/​12/​2017.

202  Teaching Music Theory instructed each student to challenge him-​or herself to sing one of the lines while giving entrances to the moving lines, which Huener called “invitations.” “The game is to switch parts that you are singing,” Huener stated, and the student conductors all experimented with switching lines as the piece moved in real time. This activity certainly took sight singing to a new level and helped students not only to master the solfège but also to participate in a skill that many of them will experience well after they leave the college classroom.14

Rhythmic Reading Like sight singing, rhythmic reading can be an incredibly musical experience for students, and perhaps the more students use rhythmic syllables in performance and improvisation, the more refined and established their sense of musicality and literacy. As mentioned previously, I tend to use the sight before sound approach in my classroom and start an introduction to rhythm with very basic patterns within the takadimi system (ta, ta-​di, ta-​ka-​di-​mi, ta-​ka-​di, and ta-​di-​mi). I typically spend the first few weeks introducing my students to the sounds of each pattern and usually I employ a backup loop track as we move through the different rhythms. (These are easily found on YouTube or created using any type of sequencing program like GarageBand or Drumgenius.) Conducting (or patching) is always a part of the activity, and students are so familiar with the patterns that by the time I move toward a notated score, the rhythms have become a second language. In a recent observation, John White, one of the creators of the takadimi system, began his dynamic class with an introduction to takadimi in simple and compound meter. He began the discussion of division in simple meter by asking his class about possible patterns to divide the quarter note. The students quickly answered with the patterns shown in Figure 7.2.

Figure 7.2  Subdivisions of beat in takadimi

14 Thomas Huener, lecture material, 2/​13/​2019.

Pedagogy of Aural Skills  203 Based on these patterns, White then instructed the students to finger drum each pattern with ta on the thumb, ka on the second finger, di on the middle finger, and mi on the fourth finger. After several rounds of improvisation of these patterns using the finger drum, White moved into an activity where students performed several examples of rhythmic lines in small groups. The fluency with which the students moved through each line highlighted their understanding of the beat and subdivision. White concluded this section on rhythmic reading by stating, “The challenge with rhythm is how it looks, not how it feels.”15 By having the students “feel” the rhythm in their hands, somehow the look was no longer a problem. When I asked White to describe the challenge of having students read rhythmic notation efficiently, he stated: The overcoming of the challenge took many years to manifest, but now I’m able to get singers to read rhythms quicker than I ever did in the first years of my teaching career. I’m not the first to have done this sort of thing; in Music Ed it’s called “sound before symbol.”16

Nathan Baker of Casper College has his sophomore-​level aural skills students reading extremely complicated rhythms in 5 and 7; however, he never deviates from his use of the takadimi system, holding fast to the importance of consistency. When introducing meters in 5, Baker relates the meter to simple meter and tells his students to take takadimi and add ti. For meters in 7, Baker instructs his students to take tavakididama (the subdivision in compound meter) and add a ti. “They aren’t as scary as we think they are!” Baker said to his students in a recent observation. “The tas will always keep you on track. Don’t grab every detail, just grab the structural points.”17 Using material from ­chapter 10 of The Rhythm Book by Richard Hoffman, Baker’s class successfully navigated through some of the most complicated rhythms using the takadimi system with an enormous amount of accuracy. When a student would stumble, Baker would ask another student to keep the main pulse. If another student began to struggle, Baker would refer the student to the following chart written on the board: Ta Tadi

15 John White, lecture material, 9/​17/​2018.

16 John White, in conversation with the author, 9/​17/​2018. 17 Nathan Baker, lecture material, 3/​23/​2017.

204  Teaching Music Theory Takida (triplet) Takadimi Takadimiti Tavakididama Tavakididamati

By understanding how the syllables lined up for each beat and for each meter, the students were always able to find their own structural point and get back on track. Baker also guided students through beats that divide into five and seven parts rather than asymmetrical meters of five and seven beats using the words “apple” and “pineapple,” which Baker believes work wonderfully for groupings of two and three eighth notes, respectively. To conclude this lesson on rhythmic reading, Baker had individual students leave the classroom and knock on the door with any rhythm they chose while the students inside the classroom responded with takadimi. “You have all the tools in your toolbox to figure out anything,” Baker said encouragingly. “That’s the beauty of this system. There is no such thing as an impossible rhythm.”18 And in the case of the aural skills course at Casper College, there is a great deal of truth in that statement.

Audiation It is perhaps the audiation skill of “thinking pitches” rather than singing pitches that trains the ear the most. There is a real-life skill in being able to know what something sounds like at sight, whether in score study or in dictation of a melody. A quick way to begin the study of audiation is to begin with a line of solfège syllables or pitches on the board as mentioned earlier in the chapter​. An instructor can easily have students follow along with hand signs or mouth the syllables while the instructor points to individual syllables or pitches. If using a board with notation, students could also be instructed to only sing the pitches when two fingers are placed on a pitch while one finger indicates “thinking the pitch.” With hand signs an instructor can also create a system that clearly indicates what is to be sung and what is to be “thought.” Another great way to practice this skill is with actual music. Students can sing each downbeat while “thinking” through the other

18 Ibid.

Pedagogy of Aural Skills  205

Figure 7.3  Melodies used for audiation exercise

pitches. For an even greater challenge, students could be asked to sing every other pitch. Hand signs work well with this activity so an instructor can see the students “thinking” through the pitches, while also instructing students to simply mouth the syllables or scale degrees. As an instructor, it is important not to allow any time for the students to find the pitch based on the tonic, meaning the rhythm should be continuous, even in audiation. For instance, take the melody in Figure 7.3. Both lines have moving parts, and with very few exceptions, both lines move by step. By singing only the first beat of each measure, the treble line will firmly establish the tonic and dominant while the bass line will focus more on the tonic and leading tone. Asking students to just sing the four main beats of each measure helps them to realize the underlying movement of the arpeggio up to the dominant in the treble line and the function of the passing tones in both lines. In her classroom, Melissa Hoag encouraged her students to audiate before every example, saying, “Everyone audiate this. Imagine what it will sound like before you even clap or sing a note.” She went on to encourage students to think even deeper about their music reading, asking, “What should you think about before you start? How would you even begin to audiate? Solfège, yes, but what else?” Students were encouraged to look at every sight-​singing example in a musical way, complete with dynamics, phrase structure, and goal points. This removed any instance in which her students would approach a sight-​singing example as a note-​to-​note exercise. As Hoag’s class worked through melodic examples from the Ottman/​Rogers text, she was consistent in her teaching. She continually asked questions before any singing began and continually encouraged her students to audiate before beginning to sight-​sing any melody. In her class of freshmen music majors, Hoag also related the purposes of sight singing with a deliberate response: “I want to hear an accurate reflection of pitches and rhythms. I want to hear that you are thinking in your brain and sight singing is the only way I can assess

206  Teaching Music Theory that. Playing the melody on your instrument doesn’t tell me that your brain is thinking through the pitches.”19

Use of Real Literature in Rhythmic Reading and Sight Singing It is extremely appropriate that Belmont University in Nashville, Tennessee, would have a commercial aural skills class for all students majoring in commercial music, considering it has one of the largest commercial music programs in the nation. Instructor David McKay’s commercial Aural Skills IV class is entertain relevant to these majors. Their understanding of harmony, melody, and rhythm is always applied to real-​ life situations and real music. In a recent observation, I was thrilled to see that the only textbook used was The Standards Real Book, a compilation of lead sheets and melodies covering folk, jazz, and musical theater. To start, McKay played the chords to “Lullaby of Broadway” while the students worked through the takadimi for rhythm, followed by singing on both solfège and numbers. The melody modulated at the bridge, and McKay and the students worked together to discuss how numbers worked better through the modulation rather than the solfège because of the mode mixture. “Going out of the mode is where the magic is,” said McKay, and the students talked about the difference between mode mixture and modulation all while singing through the section multiple times in order to make the differentiation. The participation in this class was contagious, and the students demonstrated an excellent understanding of rhythmic patterns used in popular music. One of the rhythms, found in the second song played, “Johnny One Note” (shown in Figure 7.4), was a bit problematic

Figure 7.4  Rhythms taken from “Johnny One Note”



19 Melissa Hoag, lecture material, 9/​12/​2017.

Pedagogy of Aural Skills  207 because the rhythm could be easily cheated. McKay let nothing slide, and students would pat their chest as they chanted the takadimi for each rhythm to hear the slight difference. While McKay played through the musical line, the students counted in takadimi until they felt secure in the correct timing. There was never a moment where a melody or rhythm was in isolation from the music, and through all of the sight reading, there was a continual emphasis on musicality as McKay encouraged students to “lean into it, make it even more musical.”20

Dictation What exactly is the end goal of dictation, whether it be pitch patterns, melodic lines, or harmonic dictation? Are we seeking to see how fast students can notate what they hear with limited hearings? Are we trying to see how much music students can notate with unlimited hearings? I think the answer to all of these questions is yes. At times a student will find herself or himself on a podium and immediately have to sing back the line played by the trombones. There are no multiple hearings in this scenario, and a musician should gain the skills to sing back lines or correct errors quickly. There’s also something to be said for the art of transcription in which another performer is writing down the melody line of a 2-​minute clarinet solo that he or she would like to perform on the guitar. In this scenario, there are lots of pitches and perhaps having a multitude of hearings is extremely appropriate. It is important to give students opportunities to work in all of these scenarios, and rhythmic reading and sight singing are the tools, and in some ways the languages, that allow us to complete dictations and transcriptions and become musically literate.

Fundamentals in Dictation There are many fundamental skills that need to be mastered in terms of dictation and hearing, including scale degrees, intervals, and quality of triads and seventh chords. Almost every entrance exam, whether on the undergraduate or graduate level, seems to have a section on identifying intervals. For years, I had the same type of question on all of my lower-​level

20 David McKay, lecture material, 10/​30/​2018.

208  Teaching Music Theory dictation exams, and even if my students had mastery of the tougher concepts at the end of the exam, they still were struggling to exhibit mastery on isolated intervals at the top of the page. My students would spend hours, literally hours, going through hundreds of exercises on musictheory.net to practice interval recognition. They would have specific songs attached to each interval, but after listening to computer sounds in the wee hours of the morning, I know that “Maria” from West Side Story could easily sound like a M6, P4, m6—​and nothing like a tritone. I moved away from isolation of intervals as an end goal and started to focus on scale degrees and encouraged my students to understand intervals within the context of a key. This approach was a game changer in my classroom. Instead of saying, “Oh, that sounds like Star Wars,” the students began to say, “That sounds like the opening of a major arpeggio” or “That sounds like do-​sol.” I was able to observe Crystal Peebles of Ithaca College and her ability to continually relate intervals to solfège. She began her class with the following exercise on the board (Picture 7.1).21 After singing through the scale, the students, without any hesitation, sung through all of the intervals presented in the following pattern: Mi-​Fa, Fa-​Mi, Fa-​Mi, minor second (interval name sung descending) Ti-​Do, Do-​ti, Do-​Ti, minor second Do-​Re, Re-​Do, Re-​Do, major second Etc. . . .

After this exercise, Peebles began to assess students’ understanding of intervals. Students were asked to give the solfège of the first and second notes and determine the interval. This approach goes well beyond the isolation of intervals as it teaches function within the key, scale degrees, and placement of intervals within a scale all at the same time. The same approach can be used to help students identify triads and seventh chords, beginning with singing scale degrees within the context of a key. Gone are the days of informing students that the half-​diminished seventh chord “sounds like Super Mario Brothers.” How much more musical to teach students that the half-​diminished seventh chord incorporates the pitches Ti-Re-Fa-La or to encourage students to listen to the seventh (La) and guide them toward the understanding that the chord is half diminished because the seventh lacks the tendency tone of the fully diminished.

21 Crystal Peebles, lecture material, 9/17/2018.

Pedagogy of Aural Skills  209

Picture 7.1  Interval exercise using solfège

Melodic Dictation One of the first dictation assignments I  give to my freshmen aural skills classes is to write down the solfège for a well-​known melody, such as “My Country ’Tis of Thee” or “Twinkle, Twinkle, Little Star.” Both of these melodies start on Do, and after singing through the well-​known text, we move to a neutral syllable and draw out the contour of the melody before even trying to figure out the solfège together. I also try to pick a scalar piece from popular literature such as “From Now On” from The Greatest Showman or “Piano Man” by Billy Joel. Nathan Baker even requires his students to solfège their ring tone if a phone goes off in class. There is great importance in having students figure out the solfège and rhythms away from paper. Crystal Peebles also begins her melodic dictation exercises with a familiar song. In my observation she had her freshman-​level aural skills students work through the solfège of “Auld Lang Syne.” As she played the first two phrases on the piano, students conducted the meter in order to figure out the

210  Teaching Music Theory meter type and where changes were taking place. After the initial playing, Peebles had her students move through the following process while she asked guided questions. 1. Students were asked to sing back the first two phrases on “doo.” 2. Peebles played the phrases again and then stopped on certain pitches and had students sing the pitch back to her on solfège. 3. Peebles asked, “Listen for harmonies. How many do you hear?” 4. While Peebles played the melody and accompaniment, students sang along with solfège while indicating chord changes with their hands. 5. While Peebles played the melody and accompaniment, one side of the classroom sang the melody while the other side sang only Do and Ti to help figure out chord changes. 6. The entire class sang the entire example on solfège.22 Much like Piagentini’s approach previously mentioned, I too want students to be able to write out syllables for both rhythm and pitches without notating anything on the staff. Too often students are focused on getting the correct pitches on the paper without even thinking about the context of the pitches or the overall sound. It is important to encourage students to come up with a process for this type of dictation. The following is an example of a process that may work for a tonal four-​measure excerpt with a limit of five hearings in which notation on the staff is the final step. 1. Hearing 1.  Listen to the melody without writing anything down. Commit the melodic excerpt to memory. Have students try to sing back the melody line played on a neutral syllable. 2. Hearing 2. Listen to the melody and sketch out the basic contour. Write the pitches and rhythm of the final cadence in measure 4. Commit the melodic excerpt to memory. 3. Hearing 3. Sketch out the basic rhythm for each measure. 4. Hearing 4.  Write out the solfège for the pitches. Pay close attention to jumps to see how they may be outlining a diatonic chord. Work on getting the first two measures completed. 5. Hearing 5.  Fill out the missing pitches in measure 3 and notate on the staff.

22 Ibid.

Pedagogy of Aural Skills  211

Harmonic Dictation Many years ago I heard an instructor express his frustration that students were not performing well on the harmonic dictation portion on tests. “I don’t understand what the problem is,” he said. “Harmonic dictation is nothing but two melodic dictations and then using your theory knowledge to figure out the chords!” Was there any truth to this statement? At that point in our curriculum, our harmonic dictation exercises only asked the students to write out the soprano and bass lines and to give a Roman numeral analysis. I began to carefully watch how my students worked through a harmonic dictation; sure enough, most of them were trying to figure out the chords from the bass note. This is not a problem, but it is only part of the story. For most of these students, if there was a “Fa” in the bass it had to be a IV, and very few even saw the first inversion ii as an option. To test this theory I asked students to put five blank lines on their paper and to fill in the Roman numerals. I think I played something like I, vi, ii6, V⁴₂, I6. One can imagine the responses I received where students wrote I, vi,?, IV, or iii (yes, I had several students who just wrote a?). From that day forward, I began to teach true function within harmonic dictation and worked through pop song after pop song having students determine chord changes, quality, and function. No other system has been as useful in helping my students understand function in harmonic dictation like the Do-​Ti system. In the Do-​Ti system,23 students are asked to “track” the pitches “Do” and “Ti” through a progression. For instance, in the following progression, students would track just the syllables “Do” and “Ti” during the first listening. For each chord I would ask students to try to sing “Do.” If “Do” does not fit into the chord, the second syllable to try to sing would be “Ti”. Do/​Ti Test:

Do

Do

Ti

Do

Do

Ti

Do

I

IV

V

vi

IV6

V6

I

The only exception to this test is the ii chord, so I always tell my students that if the “Do” or “Ti” is not found in the chord, simply try to sing “Re.” If “Re” fits, try to fit a ii chord in the progression. The following chart is a permanent 23 I  was first introduced to this system by Daniel Stevens of the University of Delaware. More details about the system and how to use it in a classroom can be found in Stevens 2016.

212  Teaching Music Theory fixture in my aural skills classroom, with the numbers at the top representing the order in which to try singing the syllables. 2.

1.

3.

Ti

Do

Re

V

I

ii

vii°

IV

(iii)

vi

The first songs I use with the Do-​Ti system are any of the multitude of pop songs that use I-​V-​vi-​IV. The list is long and easily searchable, but “Don’t Stop Believing” is a favorite, and students quickly are able to hear the chord changes as we work on dictating bass lines in solfège to determine inversions. I  encourage students to work step by step through this process in determining just the Roman numerals. The following is another progression that I use in class. I have the students sing through the Do-​Ti test first, then fill in the bass line, and then fill in the Roman numerals. Do-​Ti Test: Do

Do

Do

Re

Do

Ti

Do

Roman numerals: Bass line:

i

VI

iv

ii°6

cad⁶₄

V7

i

Do

Le

Fa

Fa

Sol

Sol

Do

What is so valuable about this process is that before we move on to notating the soprano and bass lines, students are able to hear function. In functional harmonic progression, three “Dos” in a row within the Do-​Ti test indicate chord changes that can only be this descending third pattern. A “Do” to “Ti” with two “Sols” in the bass has to be a cadential six-​four pattern. When I add in the notation of the soprano and bass line, I notice that most of my students get the chords first, add in the bass line, and fill in the soprano line. The true purpose of harmonic dictation, not a melodic dictation with some theory knowledge, is now realized. Elizabeth Medina-​Gray of Ithaca College states that one of her favorite aspects of teaching is “encouraging students to engage with music in deep,

Pedagogy of Aural Skills  213 creative, and critical ways.”24 Medina-​Gray’s classroom is one of conversation and exploration; in her words, “I try to encourage a supportive and safe environment for all students.”25 This environment was evident when I had the opportunity to observe her 8:00 a.m. theory class, where she continually encouraged students by saying, “Use your ear. . . . We are going to workshop this together.”26 One way that Medina-​Gray succeeds in integrating aural skills with written theory is in her fluency in speaking in solfège while introducing new chords. In her lecture on secondary dominants, she continually had the students work through chords in both pitch names and solfège, all while singing or playing every chord that was discussed. Following an introduction to secondary dominants in terms of spelling pitches and notation, Medina-​Gray introduced an activity that helped students to better understand how chromatic pitches worked in the context of bass lines; however, the entire activity was void of notation and concentrated only on the aural component. Medina-​Gray chose the song “Somebody to Love” by Queen to illustrate secondary dominants in terms of an aural context. She asked the students to focus on three elements during each listening: 1. The bass line 2. The Roman numerals 3. The melody for the third line Students worked together on the assignment, and after a few listens, Medina-​Gray asked them to dictate the bass line in scale degrees and to make some decisions about probable Roman numerals in the first two lines. The instances of scale degree 2 provided Medina-​Gray with the opportunity to talk about the difference in sound between the ii and V/​V; she had students sing the progression while she played on the piano, continually relating the chords to solfège and bringing out the difference between the fa and the fi on the secondary chords and the differentiation of a stable versus pulling harmony. After the discussion on all of the chromatic pitches and after the handout was completed, Medina-​Gray played the song again, and students sang along to any part they wished, leaving room



24 Elizabeth Medina-​Gray, in conversation with the author, 9/​17/​2018. 25 Ibid.

26 Elizabeth Medina-Gray, lecture material, 9/17/2018.

214  Teaching Music Theory

Figure 7.5  Aural exercise with “Somebody to Love”

for interpretation. But the most important part of the exercise beyond the performance and relation of sound to symbol was in how Medina-​Gray concluded the class with the question, “What do these chromatic chords add to the song?” She encouraged her students to question the purposes of analysis and chromaticism. Figure 7.5 shows the assignment along with the answers given by Medina-​Gray. Like many of the teachers I observed, Nathan Baker began class by singing. However, it is his approach in harmonic singing and dictation that seems invaluable for this group of students. All chords were taught using solfège, and Baker used terms such as “Sol53” and “La63.” He reminded his students that the 53 chords are the stability and the 63 chords are the motion. To warm up ears in anticipation of the given harmonic dictation, Baker had students

Pedagogy of Aural Skills  215 sing through chord progressions using I, IV, and V only (with all inversions). After he played through the seven chords of the harmonic dictation, the students quickly sang back the bass line on a neutral syllable; after another play, they were able to sing the bass line back on solfège. The resulting bass line of the progression was as follows: Do

Mi

Fa

Sol

La

Ti

Do

Because the students were informed that they are listening only for the I, IV, and V chord, they quickly are able to transcribe the chords as: Do53,

Mi63,

Fa53,

Sol53,

La63,

Ti63,

Do53

Baker then played the progression again, and the students arpeggiated everything in solfège. In many harmonic dictation exercises in aural skills texts, the rhythm of the harmonic dictation is notated in straight quarter notes. The dictations used and written by Baker were composed with a variety of rhythms. After going through the bass line, the class began to talk about the phrasing and the overall function of the chords. This aural skills lecture went well beyond just notating lines. After this exercise, Baker complemented the idea of listening to function and structural bass with a variety of real musical exercises. The students were completely engaged as he began a discussion of the changing harmonies in Beethoven’s Piano Concerto no. 5 and “Zephyr Song” by the Red Hot Chili Peppers.

Error Detection Often missing from most aural skills texts, but perhaps one of the most valuable skills that should be taught and evaluated in an aural skills class, is error detection. While it is important for our students to be able to write out a four-​ measure phrase or to notate chord changes, it is even more important for the professional life of our students that they be able to hear and quickly evaluate whether a sound is correct. While I can easily play through a melody and change a few pitches or rhythms here and there, that type of teaching or assessment does not exactly create the same real-​life scenario that many of our musicians might face. Recently, I had an aural skills class filled with instrumentalists, four

216  Teaching Music Theory of whom were trumpet players. They regularly brought their instruments to class, and we would play through progressions and melodies so that students could hear other timbres besides my voice and the piano. For an error detection exercise, I  divided the class into several groups of varying  instruments and had the student groups write a seven-​chord progression with proper voice leading and instrumentation, including transpositions as needed. I  intentionally placed all trumpet players together in one group. After checking through their voice leading, I asked each group to make a copy of the initial progression and to change three pitches. Each group performed its “error-​filled” progression, and the class was to name the voice line that had the error and fix the error as one would do from the podium. This was an amazing experiment. For the group that had two voices, guitar, and marimba, it was quite easy for the students to follow the line of each voice and to find the error. But in the case of the four trumpets, the timbre similarities and the closed position writing of the score made for a difficult and challenging exercise. In my course evaluations that semester, student after student said not only that this was the exercise where they were challenged the most, but also the exercise that they found the most valuable. Aural skills is so much more than just writing down dictations and singing through melodies. We need to continue to find ways to make our aural skills classrooms a lab environment that will carry our students into successful careers in the field if they so choose.

Contextual Listening It was after reading Rebecca Jemian’s 2017 article “Ho Hey, Having Some Say in Contextual Listening” that I began to re-​evaluate some of my own classroom goals.27 This article gave me insight into Jemian’s teaching style, as she offered students the opportunity to use their own repertoire within contextual listening. I regularly have students bring in their own repertoire to the theory classroom, but I had yet to make that happen in aural skills. With Jemian’s article at the forefront of my mind, I decided to change up my lesson plans for a week so I could devote time to contextual listening. I started with two musical examples, “Ho Hey” by the Lumineers

27 Jemian 2017 (“Ho Hey, Having Some Say in Contextual Listening”).

Pedagogy of Aural Skills  217 and Mozart’s Symphony no. 25. After listening to the piece in class, I asked my students to respond to the following three questions taken directly from Jemian’s article: 1. What intrigues or excites you about the piece? 2. What musical features do you find engaging? 3. What more do you want to learn about the piece?28 I added my own questions to each selection and included topics that might not be seen on a traditional aural skills assessment.

“Ho Hey”

1. Why is the piece in quadruple and not duple time? 2. What chord is used throughout the verse? 3. Give two main motives used in this song using either rhythms or solfège. 4. Look up the lyrics of the song. Give a basic summary of the text and how this is highlighted through the song’s melody or rhythm.

Symphony no. 25

1. Is there a modulation in this movement? If so, where? 2. What role do dynamics play in this piece? 3. Write out the solfège for the opening four measures. 4. Look up when this particular composition was composed. How does this music reflect what was happening in Mozart’s life at the time?

The change in my aural skills class was immediate, and we began to have interesting discussions on sound quality, rhythms, and melodic content beyond just writing pitches on a staff. My students spoke in solfège and takadimi, but they also brought out their own explanations for why a particular song or composition worked. I took this process to the next level and had students choose their music and create their own questions based on their chosen song or piece. While some of the questions presented



28 Ibid.

218  Teaching Music Theory were general (“What is the meter of this song?” or “Write out the solfège of the bass line in the chorus”), other questions required a great deal of aural understanding beyond just pitches and rhythms. Some of the deeper questions included “How does the musical style interact with and/​or change the meaning of the lyrics?” and “What are some common progressions used in the song, and how do these choices affect the mood?” I have since continued to give contextual listening assignments in all of my aural skills courses, and students have embraced this next level of discussion, assessment, and overall growth. There is no time limit on any of these assignments because I want the students to have an opportunity to listen to the music multiple times and try to make the connections I so desire them to discover on their own. The following represent several recent contextual listening assignments given in my freshmen-level courses. The lower-​level assignments are more focused on details of mastery of solfège, while the upper-​level assignments lead students through more thought-​ provoking questions.

Aural Skills I: Contextual Listening Unit 2 Answer the following questions based on the piece “Jessie’s Girl” by Rick Springfield. 1. This song was number 1 on most of the pop charts back in 1981. Give some reasons why you think this song was so successful. Be sure to talk about musical elements in your reasoning. 2. The introduction is made up of a recurring bass line. What is the solfège for this bass line? Do Do _​_​ _​_​ _​_​ _​_​ Fa Fa _​_​ _​_​  _​_​  _​_​ 3. The opening verse includes the following lyrics. Write out the solfège above the text. There is no need to repeat each syllable, just write in the syllable when changes occur. Some syllables have been given to you. Do Jessie is a friend, yeah, I know he’s been a good friend of mine. Do Sol But lately something’s changed that ain’t hard to define

Pedagogy of Aural Skills  219 Sol Jessie’s got himself a girl and I wanna make her mine.29 _​_​_​_​_​_​_​_​_​

Aural Skills II: Contextual Listening Unit 1 Answer the following questions based on “Adagio” from Sonata for Flute and Continuo in F by Anna Amalia von Prueßen. 1. What intrigues you or excites you about this piece? 2. What musical elements do you find engaging? If none, state why you do not find the piece engaging. 3. What more do you want to learn about this piece? 4. What instruments do you hear in this performance? The remainder of the questions are focused on 0:48 (first 16 measures). 5. In the flute, what is the solfège for the highest pitch? Where does it occur in the given timings above? 6. How many phrases do you hear in this excerpt and how many measures are in each phrase? 7. What ornaments are used in this excerpt? Give timings for at least two examples of this. 8. What role does syncopation play in the melody line? Does the syncopation of the harmony and the melody match up? 9. Write out the main flute line and bass line with correct rhythms and notation (first 8 bars only). _​_​_​_​_​_​

Aural Skills II: Contextual Listening Unit 4 Answer the following questions based on “Sicilienne” by Maria Theresia von Paradis (1759–​1824)



29 Rick Springfield, “Jessie’s Girl” (RCA, 1981).

220  Teaching Music Theory 1. Find three different performances of this particular composition and list the performers. Which of the three is your favorite and why? 2. What musical elements do you find engaging? If none, state why you do not find the piece engaging. 3. Who were Paradis’s contemporaries? How does her music sound like others? How is it different? The remainder of the questions are focused on the first 10 measures of the composition. 4. One chromatic pitch is used throughout the opening 10 measures. What is that pitch in terms of solfège, and what chord(s) could include that pitch due to mode mixture? 5. There are two phrases in the first 10 measures. What are the two cadences for each phrase, and how does Paradis extend the second phrase? 6. There is a modulation by measure 10. If the opening key is E♭, what is the new tonal center by the end of measure 10? 7. Write out the main melody line and bass line for the opening four bars. It was through these contextual listening assignments that I began to realize that my students better understood that aural skills was more than answering the question of “what”; by the time they were at the sophomore level, they joined me in the next step and described the “why” once the “what” had been answered.

Improvisation in the Aural Skills Classroom The students at Elon University represent a broad spectrum of abilities and interests, and Cora Palfy seeks to relate to her students on an individual basis. The music department at Elon has an enrollment of just over 100 music majors, most of whom are majoring in recording arts and music production. And while aural skills is a required class for all majors, it is evident that Palfy understands their preferences for a variety of musical styles. She uses skill-​scalable and flexible materials to accommodate the variety of experience levels in the classroom. The aural skills classroom environment at Elon University is ideal in many ways. The room is large enough to accommodate numerous desks around a board at one side of the room, while the other side of the room is equipped

Pedagogy of Aural Skills  221 with 16 Yamaha Clavinovas. Palfy uses the space well and after observing a session of active warm-​ups, she began class with an improvisation exercise focusing on harmonic progression through T-​S-​D-​T. She guided the class through a review of the terminology of tonic, predominant, and dominant before creating a basic framework of particular harmonies on the board (see Picture 7.2). The entire exercise followed this process after the quick review: 1. Palfy guided the students through the arpeggiation of the chords written on the board, always keeping the syllable “Fa” in the bass of the subdominant chord. After Palfy worked through a variety of progressions, she had a student come up to the board and point out the progression while the other students sang along using solfège. 2. Palfy questioned her students on how they can alter the bass voices, noting that this may also change the Roman numeral. One student wanted to alter the ii7 to be in third inversion, which created a spontaneous discussion of how chordal sevenths should be resolved. 3. Palfy encouraged students to come up to the board to make a phrase. The students at the board were asked to improv on the chord choices presented on the board. “Let’s get messy. There is no incorrect way,” Palfy said, “unless you are in the wrong key!”

Picture 7.2  Improvisation exercise using T-​S-​D-​T

222  Teaching Music Theory 4. While the class sang the bass line (four beats each on Do-​Fa-​Sol-​Do), the students at the board are asked to improvise any matching chord over the bass line. “Improvising is very helpful with tuning,” Palfy said as she encouraged her students.30 Students were a bit intimidated by this exercise, but once Palfy guided them through the process of singing pitches within the chord and modeled how to add passing and neighbor tones, they became much more confident in their abilities. Palfy encouraged her students through this process, stating, “The goal here is to get you to be more and more bold in your improvisation. You are in a landscape you are familiar with. Just be bold.”31 Palfy defines aural skills as the “learning of the language of musical notation; it both helps musicians be literate players, and also should connect neatly to theoretical concepts in order to create an aural foundation that strengthens theory.” This relationship between written theory and aural skills was clear in her classroom, and students are asked to continually relate the two on the spot. Palfy uses the phrase “evidence this for me,” and the students respond with exactly that—​evidence that they know how all of this material fits together. Jeff Lovell of Lebanon Valley College also integrates improvisation into his aural skills classroom through singing. A simple bass line using only “Sol” and “Do” provides the framework for Lovell’s students to experiment with melody lines (Figure 7.6). Lovell integrates improvisation in his aural skills class weekly and uses both movable do solfège syllables and letter names.32 His improvisation exercises are structured so that students perform along with various bass tracks while improvising a melody above the bass. Lovell begins the study of improvisation by teaching a few basic pitch patterns that accompany different bass lines and by helping students to improvise new melodies based on those pitch patterns. Students in Lovell’s class progress in these improvisation activities by adding arpeggiations in triads, leaps to tendency tones, and melodic lines in various meters.33

30 Cora Palfy, lecture material, 4/​23/​2018. 31 Ibid. 32 Jeff Lovell, lecture material, 10/22/2017. 33 More information on how Lovell assesses these improvisation assignments can be found in his aural skills syllabus presented in c­ hapter 3.

Pedagogy of Aural Skills  223

Figure 7.6  Bass line for improvisation

Improvisation is an outgrowth of a well-​crafted soprano and bass line in Jena Root’s aural skills classroom at Youngstown State University.34 She began the class by having all of the students choose one of the following lines: Soprano line: Sol Bass line: Do

Sol Ti

La La

Do Sol

La Fa

La Fa

Sol Sol

Root talked with her students about methods to make the melody “fancier” by adding in passing tones and neighbor tones, which resulted in the following alterations of the lines: Soprano line: Sol Bass line: Do

Si Ti

La La

Ta Sol

La Fa

La Fi

Sol Sol

After the students sang through the two lines, Root began to add in middle voices: Alto line:

Mi

Mi

Mi

Mi

Fa

Mi

Re

Tenor line:

Do

Re

Do

Do

Do

Do

Ti

The students sang through these four lines several times, with Root always explaining the process. “You see how we are building this? Out of lines?” Root asked as she moved into a Roman numeral analysis created by the solfège lines. With all of the solfège syllables from the progression presented on a matrix displayed on a large screen, Root began to guide the students through several possibilities of creating new melody lines beyond those originally given. “You might go Sol, Si, La, Mi, Fa, Do, Re, Re,” Root demonstrated



34 Root, forthcoming.

224  Teaching Music Theory

Figure 7.7  Improvisation matrix

before encouraging the students to “pick any note and follow your own path.” Root played along while the students sang through the progression, the students creating their own melody lines based on the solfège given. The class repeated the exercise a few times, but with each instance Root asked the students to “pick a different line.”35 “Let’s throw out the voice leading a little bit,” Root said as she changed the slide on her presentation to remove the original bass and soprano lines in order to show all of the solfège syllables used within the progression in various octaves (Figure 7.7). Root encouraged the students to experiment with creating their own lines, instructing them to stay on a single pitch for four beats as she played along with different accompanying patterns (the harmonic rhythm was moving at one chord per whole note). Root then took the improvisation activity to the



35 Jena Root, lecture material, 1/ 27/ 2019.

Pedagogy of Aural Skills  225 next level by asking students to sing in half notes, while maintaining the harmony for the whole note. The results of this activity encouraged the students to think about not only the specific pitches in the chord but also how to move between the pitches of the chord. Root’s energetic teaching style and her encouragement to try multiples avenues had the students in this aural class thinking both vertically and horizontally, all while being a musical as possible.36

“Friendly Tug of War” Charlene Baughan Romano brings her intentional investment into every student’s success in her aural skills classroom at Shenandoah University (SU). Romano recently returned to academia after a 6-​year sabbatical during which she ran a very successful private flute studio (she continues to run this studio while teaching adjunct at SU). When asked to return to the classroom, Romano eagerly agreed because she firmly believes that her aim is to “give all students a good background in music history and theory.” She begins every lesson, whether in her private studio or in her aural skills class, with sight reading, using the opportunity to ask students about the composer of the sight-​reading example and discuss his or her life, composition style, historical era, and anything else of importance. In these sight-​reading examples, both Romano and her students talk a great deal about phrase shapes, non-​ chord tones, and the like. As an educator, Romano wants her students “to know why they are doing what they are doing.”37 Her background as a professional flutist in the region adds another dimension to her teaching, and much of her teaching style can be traced back to real-​life situations in which she has utilized the skills she is teaching to the undergraduates. Before any singing begins in Romano’s class, students are instructed to “sit tall with space between the vertebrae.” The performance background is on full display in her teaching, and the students, a good mix of mostly performance and education majors, respond quickly. At Shenandoah Conservatory, formalized assessment occurs only on weeks 5, 10, and 15; thus, instructors must be deliberate in their informal

36 A video of Root teaching this improvisation activity is available on the YouTube channel https:// www.youtube.com/channel/UCaTwT0J1lRd_ZCXv2Xue6nQ/featured?view_as=subscriber. 37 Charlene Baughan Romano, in conversation with the author, 4/​18/​2018.

226  Teaching Music Theory assessment within the classroom. In a recent observation of Romano, I was able to witness this informal assessment through both sight singing and dictation. Romano’s class began with the sight singing of melodies from ­chapter  15 of the Ottman and Rogers text. The curriculum at SU is fast-​ paced, and I was surprised to find that the freshman-​level ear training class was already at ­chapter 15;38 however, they seemed up to the challenge, and Romano played along on the piano as they sang through the melodies. As more and more melodies were added in the opening 20 minutes of the class, Romano began to play less and less with the students; and listened more and more, calling on any of the 15 students individually when she heard errors in their singing, even as they were singing as a group. When an excerpt from the Haydn Farewell Symphony (Rogers and Ottman Exercise 15.7) was given as a sight-​singing exercise, the class immediately begin to talk about the Esterhazys’ support of Haydn, which then led into a discussion of the importance of Haydn’s Symphony no. 24 (Surprise). This discussion never felt like a detour from the material but more like an addendum to make the performance even more meaningful. Beyond just having the students sight-​sing the correct pitches, Romano continually encouraged them to pay attention to the dynamics and the musical articulations as she related this importance to her own experience as a performer. “As an adjudicator for numerous competitions, I have listened to hundreds of flute players perform the same excerpt. Out of 100 players, perhaps 1 will pay attention to the score markings during the sight-​reading portion. Guess who wins?”39 It was during a dictation exercise that Romano was also able to evaluate the class quickly in order to give immediate feedback. After notating six pitches on the board, she informed the class that the pitch given was the lowest pitch of the interval, and the students’ task was to identify the top pitch, in terms of both note name and solfège syllable. Notated lowest pitch Treble Clef D G E

Played upper pitch E♭ B♯ B♭

38 Many of the students in the freshman-​level course are sophomores due to the remedial course that many incoming students must take. 39 Romano, lecture material, 4/​18/​2018.

Pedagogy of Aural Skills  227 Bass Clef B F♭ E

G♯ E♭ F♯

Romano encouraged the students to audiate through the distances in conjunction with song recognition and reminded them to carefully look at the accidentals given in the lowest pitches and how these could be reinterpreted enharmonically. In reviewing the answers, Romano had a student come to the board and write out all of the responses given by the students. After all the possibilities were written on the board, Romano discussed what the interval was, asked students if they heard the right or wrong answers, and, most important, provided explanations if a student had given a wrong answer. “How many had that correct?” Romano would ask, and the students eagerly shared whether or not they had the correct response. In this exercise, Romano had a very clear idea of who was grasping the material and who was not, but as an effective teacher, she took the time to explain why a particular answer was wrong and gave feedback on how to listen for intervals through audiation up the scale or by relating intervals to contextual clues in solfège. Romano teaches the majority of her class sitting down, as if in a conversation with the students. She looks them in the eye and acknowledges their insecurities, their strengths, and the areas that need improvement. The element of trust in this classroom makes for a productive aural skills environment. No one seems to be afraid to make mistakes. Romano describes the student-​teacher relationship as being like a rope. “If I pull too hard the rope will break,” she says. “It is a friendly tug of war.”40



40 Charlene Baughan Romano, in conversation with the author, 4/​18/​2018.

8  Assessment Performance versus learning. It is a powerful concept to think about as we are training musicians who, in many cases, have been striving for the perfect performance most of their young adult lives. But which of the two is the most important when it comes to assessment in the theory and aural skills curriculum? Should we be most concerned about the process or the final answer, the learning or the performance? Psychologist Carol Dweck concluded that there are two types of students: those who are focused on performance goals and those who are concerned with learning goals. Dweck 2007. As explained in the text Make It Stick, students with performance goals are working to validate their ability, while students with learning goals are working to acquire new knowledge or skills. The authors continue: People with performance goals unconsciously limit their potential. If your focus is on validating or showing off your ability, you pick challenges you are confident you can meet. . . . But if your goal is to increase your ability, you pick ever-​increasing challenges, and you interpret setbacks as useful information that helps you to sharpen your focus, get more creative, and work harder.1

There is no doubt that undergraduate music programs are filled with performance goal students. After all, they have been judged on individual performances since auditioning for music programs. It is our job to help these students make the transition so that they may focus more on learning goals. This responsibility should be shared among the administration, applied teachers, ensemble directors, and classroom faculty. This transition should be transparent within our teaching methodologies and our learning objectives, but it must be clearest in our means of evaluation. We must answer the question of why we are assessing our students before any test, exam, or paper is handed out as an assignment.

1 Brown et al. 2014, 180. Teaching Music Theory. Jennifer Snodgrass, Oxford University Press (2020). © Oxford University Press. DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780190879945.003.0001

Assessment  229 Over the past few years, I have reached out to social media with the following questions: 1. Are students more interested in the grade, the experience, or in the information taught? 2. Does this focus tend to change as a student progresses through college? I received 98 responses from current music students, high school teachers, and university faculty representing a variety of disciplines.2 Responses highlight a preference for information taught and experience if tied to a class that was in some way applicable to a career. Other responses emphasize students’ focus on grades and how this perception can be based on a given student population. For me it depends on the content of the class. If it’s material that I find interesting and see as related to my career, I’m definitely most interested in the material and the grade is a side issue. If it’s a class that I don’t see as being pertinent to my future, my main focus is the grade.—​Student response It depends on the class. In the classes I took purely to fulfill a requirement (Psych 101), it was all about the grade. Every other class was about gaining as much knowledge and expertise as possible . . . and a good experience here and there didn’t hurt!—​Student response I think you have hit on one of our core problems. If you are of the opinion that the purpose of a class is to help you gain knowledge and skills that will serve you in your future life and career, then learning the information taught has to be a priority. For many who just work for a grade, they unfortunately discover later that they are ill-​equipped for future success. The grade and diploma mean very little without knowledge, skills and the ability to use them.—​Scott Tobias, West Virginia University I’ve included the following blurb in my undergraduate syllabi under the grading section: “The grade you earn will reflect the depth of your thinking, the clarity of your writing, the thoroughness with which you address the assignment, and demonstration of high-​quality work. I have found that the best results come from keeping your focus on the quality of the work rather than on the summary letter grade.” And, despite that, students are still focused on the numeral 2 Responses to original Facebook post on 4/​26/​2013 and 12/​8/​2017. Note that there was no quality control based on this informal poll, and some of the responses may or may not have included thoughts from highly effective teachers.

230  Teaching Music Theory grade on individual assignments and what they must do to pass the class. This is quite frustrating, as I hope students will focus on the actual learning that’s occurring.—​Jason Thompson, Kansas City Public Schools, Kansas As a student, I find myself working toward the grade because of scholarships and other similar things. I want to only focus on actually learning and being involved but it ends up being more important to memorize and get the grade. I do know that later, the grades don’t matter as long as you know the material, but the need for good grades to keep scholarships ends up outweighing the learning.—​Student response It totally changes. I’ve found that many (not all) students in the demographic that I teach aren’t motivated by grades. It really is the experience that excites them.—​Matt Wilson, high school orchestra director I’ve found that in the current middle school and high school (students) that I’m around, lots seem to only be interested in the grade. They only want A’s, expect to get just that with minimal work, and want every AP class under the sun to boost GPA. Many times, they’ll drop band/​arts to get another AP class just to try and get the GPA boost. However, I do think it varies by student and school.—​Justin McCrary, middle school band director I’ve taught at a lot of different places and I’ve noticed that student interests tend to correlate with the particular exclusiveness of the program. At the more academically exclusive school, my students were mostly concerned about grades. At the more musically exclusive program, most of my students were interested in experience and information. In my current position, which is neither academically or musically exclusive, experience and info are most important.—​Rachel Mitchell, professor of music theory at University of Texas, Rio Grande Valley Being in Texas for 16 years, I can say that what works for me is to help them recognize and embrace their fears, help them in self-​exploration, and wake them up to the long-​term results of standardized testing. If not, they will absolutely focus on the grade and almost always nothing BUT the grade. This year I chose to not use a syllabus in any of my classes, but allowed them to help me co-​create the content for the semester. I haven’t given ANY grades over the semester! They have been so empowered and unencumbered that they have SOARED!!! They are all grading themselves and writing an argument for why they deserve the grade they think they do. This is the first semester I have seen such amazing things in every single one of my classes!! My elementary methods students already look like student teachers! They have pushed themselves because they have had no limits placed on

Assessment  231 them.—​Donna Emmanuel, professor of music education at University of Texas, Austin Students come into our classrooms with a variety of perspectives, and I can see how the balance of these perspectives differs from school to school. For my part, my liberal arts viewpoint is in force every single day. I have found that from whatever perspective the student comes with, they are mostly grateful to be led to something transformative and real. I support that they must watch their grades for scholarship retention or personal pride, or the hope of grad school, however, I openly teach them that mentally owning a compendium of knowledge and dedication to musical skill development must be accompanied by insight, critical thinking skill[s], and a transferable understanding of how thinking works is urgent for their development as musicians and as people. One day about 7 years ago, I realized: Why should I keep that idea a secret from collegiates? I realized long ago that students could be left to discover this idea on their own, but I can help them by demystifying the process and working this idea into every rehearsal and every course I teach. For their part, they seem grateful; eager to think on a higher level, not only because I expect it, but because it is exciting to feel yourself grow and to understand more than you could have ever imagined. The majority come to crave what I dream for them, and if they do not get there, at least they get a start down this path of valuing a deeper education with a more mature vision of what is possible.—​Lisa Frendenberg, director of choral activities at Aurora University I think they are hardwired to be about the grade. We can do things in our course design, though, to help shift that to the learning.—​Jan Miyake, associate professor of music theory at Oberlin College and Conservatory

It was this final comment by Miyake that encouraged me to study how the most effective teachers assess their students. It seems that the majority of effecive teachers are approaching evaluation with what authors Huba and Freed call a “Learner-​Centered Paradigm.” A  list of these paradigms and their comparison with the Teacher-​Centered Paradigm are found in Table 8.1.

Summative Assessment: Change in Paradigms The paradigms presented in Table 8.1 represent a shift in the classroom environment and the resulting changes to that response. However, there are

232  Teaching Music Theory Table 8.1  Change in Paradigms in Terms of Assessment Teacher-​Centered Paradigm

Learner-​Centered Paradigm

Knowledge is transmitted from professor to student.

Students construct knowledge through gathering and synthesizing information and integrating it with the general skills of inquiry, communication, critical thinking, problem solving, and so on. Students passively receive information. Students are actively involved. Emphasis is on acquisition of Emphasis is on using and communicating knowledge outside the context in knowledge effectively to address enduring which it will be used. and emerging issues and problems in real-​life contexts. Professor’s role is to be the primary Professor’s role is to coach and facilitate. information giver and primary Professor and students evaluate learning evaluator. together. Emphasis is on right answers. Emphasis is on generating better questions and learning from errors. Desired learning is assessed indirectly Desired learning is assessed directly through through the use of objectively scored papers, projects, performances, portfolios, tests. and the like Culture is competitive and Culture is cooperative, collaborative, and individualistic. supportive. Source: Huba and Freed 2000, 5.

still two main types of assessment found in music theory and aural skills classrooms, both formative and summative. The latter is most commonly used and includes traditional types of student evaluation, including quizzes and tests where students are asked to supply an answer to a question or prompt. Notating key signatures, providing a Roman numeral analysis to a given score, a final analysis paper on the chromaticism found in a given lied, and filling in phrase charts are all examples of summative assessment, and traditionally, most of these assignments are all objective in nature. The teacher immediately knows if the student is mastering the material, and feedback from the instructor is typically quick, and in some ways essential, for the student to understand where deficiencies may lie before moving on to the next topic.

Placement Exams In many cases, the very first summative assessment taken by our students is the entrance or placement exam. Before placing a student into the traditional

Assessment  233 theory or aural skills track, many schools require such exams; however, there is no one standard in what topics are presented on these exams or, more important, how the results of the exams are used. In most cases, all of these exams are designed and assessed by individual faculty members and may be used in terms of placement or even admission. Some tests are given in the form of an online evaluation with immediate responses, while others are more traditional pencil-​and-​paper exams to be graded by faculty members. This first evaluation sets the tone for what is valued by an institution and what is expected; therefore, when planning placement/​entrance exams, it is important to know how and why you are using such an evaluation.3

Summative Assessment: The Quick Grades Summative assessment certainly has its place within the theory and aural skills curriculum, and there is much to be said for evaluating students quickly on less subjective material. In creating assessment, perhaps the most important first step is to determine the purpose of the evaluation, followed by what format will be used to evaluate how students met the objectives presented in the assessment. Summative assessment asks students to recall information and includes questions that use words such as “when,” “which,” “what is,” “define,” “identify,” and “list.” Other types of summative assessment include more detail to demonstrate knowledge and mastery using words such as “determine,” “describe,” and “compare.” Beyond the traditional quiz, it is important to implement several low-​ stakes assessments to evaluate students’ understanding of given topics. These weekly evaluations help with student anxiety over testing situations and also help to quickly evaluate student progress. The main purpose of assessments of this type is to help identify gaps in student understanding to better inform each instructor’s teaching. • The Snapping Game. While students may dread this activity in the beginning of the semester, they tend to lead the game by semester’s end with great glee. Begin by asking students to snap a steady beat in 4/​4 while asking questions in rhythm, giving students four beats to respond in unison. “The major key with two sharps . . . snap, snap, snap, snap... D major”; A fully diminished seventh chord built on F♯ . . . snap, snap, snap, 3 More information regarding placement exam trends can be found on the text’s corresponding blog at https://bridgingthemusictheorygap.wordpress.com/.

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Figure 8.1  Sample screen from Kahoot! game

snap..F♯, A, C, E♭..” This activity can be used daily or weekly, and students become fluent in spellings but also in reciting the material quickly and in tempo. It is important that the instructor walk around the room while snapping and calling out material, so he or she becomes well aware of which students might need more practice. • Kahoot!. The majority of students now have smartphones, which can be used to quickly assess students’ knowledge on the topic taught in the previous class. Kahoot! is a free, online application that allows instructors to input questions ahead of class (text, graphic, and/​or audio) and to choose the timing for each question.4 Students simply log in to Kahoot! using a code projected on the screen, and each question is accompanied by four different colors and shapes that represent four different answer choices. Figure 8.1 shows a sample screen from a Kahoot! game on species counterpoint. This particular activity not only gives an instructor a quick snapshot into how students are mastering the material, but students are also incredibly engaged in this activity. Both speed and accuracy matter in Kahoot!, and students are able to see the top players after every question. A bar graph is

4 More information can be found at https://​ kahoot.com/​ . A  multitude of quizzes can be downloaded and shared by searching for user theoryprof.

Assessment  235 given after every question prompt so the instructor can quickly visualize the answers chosen, leading to moments of teaching within the assessment. • Timed Quizzes. In the beginning levels of music theory, timed quizzes can be given for all fundamentals, perhaps with a sheet of 20 key signatures or 15 triads. It is helpful to allow students to have at least two tries on this type of quiz, and an instructor can record the highest grade between the two. This is a low-​stakes assessment in any class, but it informs the students that for these topics, speed and accuracy are main objectives. • Card Quizzes. For upper-​level courses, 3-​minute index card quizzes can be given at the start of class in order to evaluate student understanding. Questions could include information from a homework assignment (“Give the eight Roman numerals used in measures 1–​4”), material from a previous lecture (“Describe the use of chromaticism in Chopin’s Prelude in E minor”), or require a general response for his or her own teaching purposes (“What topics taught in the past week do you feel that you need more practice on?”). These index cards require little grading time but are extremely helpful in planning and as a way to evaluate students. • Using Technologies for Drill. There are a multitude of platforms that assess students in an online environment, providing feedback to both students and instructors on progress and deficiencies. Many textbooks now include online materials that can easily be synced to any course management systems, and stand-​alone programs are customizable to match learning objectives presented in the classroom. We have come a long way from the computer-​assisted instruction (CAI) of the late 1990s that featured MIDI sounds that made the bass line impossible to hear even for the most trained ear. Many CAI and other assessment programs now feature excellent audio, customizable questions, and extensive feedback for the student.

Summative Assessment: Beyond the Quick Answer While so much of what we teach in the earliest levels of music theory and aural skills can be assessed with short answers, this type of evaluation is only part of the equation for determining if a student has a true understanding of the overall concepts in music theory. For many years, most of my exams

236  Teaching Music Theory were what I  call “quick grades,” meaning I  could grade them quickly and return papers to students quickly. In my sophomore-​level theory courses, I began to notice that when time was running out on a given exam, students were inserting Roman numerals on the analysis portion with little thought to what was happening in the music. I began to ask my students to explain their analytical findings and found that while they could give me a chord-​by-​ chord analysis, putting all the information together was more challenging. And isn’t the end goal of Roman numeral analysis to discover patterns and function and to “theorize” about interpretations? The end goal and purpose of my evaluation did not match the design of my assessment, and I began to think about ways I could create different formats that helped students to learn during the assessment process.

Tests/​Take-​Home  Tests In his article “Why I’m Saying Goodbye to In-​Class Tests,” David Perry came to the realization that cramming was useless when it came to long-​term retention in his history courses. Perry wanted to evaluate if students could quickly sort and assess information and craft arguments based on evidence, but he found that this skill was poorly tested in the classroom. Perry opted for take-​home exams instead and explains he “can ask more meaningful questions and push (students) to do deeper analysis on a take-​home test than the in-​class format allows.”5 Like Perry, so much of what we teach in music theory requires careful thought and the bringing together of a great deal of information in order to make a hypothesis or conclusion. There is only so much time in a given class period, and I have found encouraging students to spend an extensive amount of time with a score to be a tremendous learning experience within a given assignment. These take-​home tests are much more involved than any test I could give in a 50-​minute class. When students turn in the take-​home tests to me, they often want me to know that they put a great deal of effort and thought into their responses. This idea is supported by the claim “Learning is deeper and more durable when it’s effortful. Learning that’s easy is like writing in sand, here today and gone tomorrow.”6 5 Perry 2016. 6 Brown et al. 2014, 3.

Assessment  237 I typically give a large take-​home test in the second semester of my Contemporary Musicianship course, a theory course for music industry majors. In using traditional in-​class tests, I would be limited to the 75-​minute class period, and having students look at more than one complete score might be out of the question. However, with the take-​home exam, I am able to have students immerse themselves in the music by comparing the musical elements of “Rosanna” (Toto), “Hotel California” (the Eagles), “Honesty” (Billy Joel), and “God Only Knows” (the Beach Boys). On this particular test, there are questions about modulation, chromaticism, function, and musical form, and students must listen to the pieces over and over in order to make some judgments regarding their analysis. But it is perhaps one of the downfalls of students working together on take-​home exams that I turn around to work in a positive manner. I encourage my students to work together on take-​home exams, knowing that they probably will anyway. To hear my students argue over whether “Hotel California” is in B minor or D major is a win for me and a win for them.

Final Exams/​Thuries Ken Bain recalls creating the final exam during his first semester of teaching, one that included “clever little puzzles that intrigued us and promised to confound the students.” The results, though, showed little about the intellectual knowledge of the students and “encouraged strategic learning rather than deep thinking.” The exam emphasized reproduction of what had been discussed in class rather than showing students’ ability to put the information into other contexts.7 The outstanding teachers in the Bain study “used assessment to help students learn, not just to rate and rank their efforts.”8 When it comes to final exams, does one high-​stakes assessment really give an accurate picture of whether students are mastering the material presented in class, especially when they are tired, stressed, and just ready to leave campus? I have found final exams typically do little to help or hurt a student grade, and I do realize there are times when students, especially in music, will have a type of high-​stakes assessment in their field, so perhaps final exams prepare them for that. But in terms of music theory and aural skills, would it be 7 Bain 2004, 150. 8 Ibid., 151.

238  Teaching Music Theory more appropriate to use the final exam period to discuss the culmination of a semester-​long project, to have a colloquium to share and comment on student compositions, or perhaps a period of discussion of what musical growth was gained in the period of the semester? In terms of giving a final exam, the most important question might be: What evaluation is necessary to demonstrate fulfillment of the learning goals? For the lower levels of theory, I have found a written theory exam to be most appropriate, while for the upper levels I have instituted the theory-​jury, or thury. The thury, given at the end of the sophomore-​level theory class in place of the written final, requires students to sign up for a 30-​minute, one-​on-​one analysis discussion with a faculty member. Each student is given a Beethoven piano sonata to prepare for discussion and told that the second piece will be a lied from the 19th century. In the beginning of the 30-​minute conversation, I have a true dialogue with students about harmonic function, modulations, musical form, and motivic development in the Beethoven sonata. I have a set list of questions that I use for each student and check them off as the student answers. But it is what happens beyond this set of questions that highlights their mastery of the topic. Students begin to talk through musical form and to express their understanding of changes beyond anything I would be able to assess on a written exam. After the Beethoven analysis, we listen to the lied together, and I watch as the student marks up the score, circling measures of interest that lead the discussion. The evaluation on this section of the thury is not included on the rubric; my goal here is to have the students ask important questions, even if they may not know the answer. As mentioned in Make It Stick, “Unsuccessful attempts to solve a problem encourage deep processing of the answer when it is later supplied, creating fertile ground for its encoding, in a way that simply reading the answer cannot. It’s better to solve a problem than to memorize a solution. It’s better to attempt a solution and supply the incorrect answer than not to make the attempt.”9 The thury has been one of the best ways for me to assess students in a meaningful way that encourages a learning process within the evaluation. The thury requires students to think quickly, to demonstrate knowledge on several topics at the same time, and to be able to justify any analysis or answer on the spot. To me, being able to aurally express your opinion and thoughts is a lifelong skill. This experience empowers students to make connections and to ask difficult questions, even if the answer is not apparent. 9 Brown et al. 2014, 88.

Assessment  239

Applied Instrument Analysis Projects “Learning is stronger when it matters, when the abstract is made concrete and personal.”10 In many ways, nothing is quite as personal to music majors as their applied instrument. Many of the most effective teachers observed for this project incorporate literature from students’ applied lessons and ensembles into classroom discussion; however, incorporating music that means something to the individual student also produces great results in terms of evaluation. A poll of more than 29,000 recent college graduates indicated that working on a project for an extended period is one of the most valuable experiences during an undergraduate career.11 Semester-​long analysis projects based around applied literature truly meet these criteria as a meaningful form of assessment. Jeffrey Gillespie of Butler University has recently implemented a personal repertoire component in his Theory I courses. Students are asked to submit two pieces studied in the applied studio to be used for the repertoire study and the final exam. The repertoire study includes analysis on various elements of the piece, including more specialized questions given by the instructor. Gillespie also designed the project using Universal Design for Learning (UDL),12 allowing each student the opportunity to showcase his or her knowledge in a variety of formats, including (a) an in-​class performance with brief oral report, (2) a traditional written analysis paper, or (3) an online discussion forum in which all classmates participate in a collaborative dialogue about the student’s analysis and a professional performance. Gillespie modeled all of the formats for his students throughout the semester and concluded that “these first-​year students were as skilled at discussing theoretical aspects of music as the sophomores who were a year ahead of them.”13 Claire Boge at Miami University has recently adopted the presentation model as the final capstone for the last theory course in the sequence. In this project, students are asked to choose a piece or pieces from literature they are preparing for performance on their required senior recital. The project includes three interim projects (individual analysis, published analyses, and narrative writing), which, according to Boge, provide “seed material and 10 Ibid., 11. 11 Gallup, Inc. 2016. 12 There are three primary principles of UDL, including providing multiple means of engagement, multiple means of action and expression, and multiple means of representation. More information on UDL can be found in “UDL and Assessment” n.d. 13 Gillespie 2018, 336.

240  Teaching Music Theory insights into the capstone project.” The final criteria for the capstone project read as follows: For the final (assessed) project, students will prepare a 10-​minute presentation (5 pages of script, with additional charts and illustrations) teaching their peers and other similarly-​educated musicians what they have learned about the structure of their piece(s), and how this knowledge can be projected non-​verbally in their recital performance—​thus integrating their academic and applied experiences in a way that they can communicate/​ teach the musical work to others.14

When designing my own final analysis project for my freshman class, it was important for me to combine both the idea of process and the idea of studying a work independently. One of the main purposes of the assignment is to have my students work on an analysis project early in their career in order to understand the connections that can be made between music theory, music history, aural training, and performance as they work through the rest of the curriculum. The first phases of the project require students to demonstrate an understanding of basic fundamentals, while the later phases challenge students on elements of true musicianship. For each phase, students must provide a response in addition to marking up the score. Out of any assessments that I give, students respond that the checkpoint assignment is the most meaningful and the assignment for which they learned the most long after they left the classroom.15 Checkpoint project outline Based on the literature studied in your applied lessons, select a composition you are currently studying in the Spring semester. As the semester progresses, you will be asked to analyze the piece based on material covered in Theory II. The goal of this project is to connect the course material to the repertoire of your particular instrument. For each bullet point, you should mark in the score what is indicated (you will need colored pencils for this assignment!) then use the questions that follow to write a brief statement about that particular 14 Syllabus for MUS 401 sent to the author from Claire Boge, 1/​26/​2019. 15 This project was initially proposed by theory pedagogy student Amanda Whitlock. The project has since gone through several revisions, resulting in the format presented in the outline.

Assessment  241 characteristic of the music. You will upload the response statements to ASULearn and turn in your marked score in class. Before beginning this project, play through the piece. (If you can find a friend to play the accompaniment, that’s even better!) In the margin, make note of any section that did not make musical sense to you. Record this run through.













Checkpoint 1: Fundamentals Mark in your score (RED): • Key, key changes. • What is the meter (compound, simple, duple, triple, asymmetrical)? Circle and label any instances of syncopation and hemiola. • Enharmonically equivalent pitches:  find five pitches in your score with accidentals and circle them in red. Write the enharmonic equivalent next to the pitch. • If a vocal piece in language other than English, provide a word-​by-​ word translation. Respond: • What is the difficulty level of playing/​singing in this key on your instrument or voice? What characteristics of your instrument create this difficulty level? • When performing, are there any of these notes that you prefer to think of as an enharmonic equivalent for better technical ease (for example, you see a C♯ but rather see a D♭)? If so, why do you think you have a preference for one enharmonic spelling over another? Do others who share your applied area feel the same way? Why do you think that particular note is present rather than the enharmonic equivalence that may be easier to read? • Turn in MP3 file of your performance Checkpoint 2: Melody Mark in your score (GREEN): • Circle and label instances where you do not have the melody (or where the melody switches hands or is based in the accompaniment).

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• Mark where you feel like the phrases end. (No right or wrong answers here.) Respond: • Does your instrument or voice have the melody through the entire score? If your instrument is piano, does just one hand have the melody through the entire score? What effect do you think the composer is trying to make? (Is it call and response? Is it transitional to a new section of music? Something else?) Does this affect how you would play any particular section of this piece? How has your interpretation changed? • Justify where you marked the ends of phrases. What clues from the music did you use (solfege, dynamics, cadences, others)? Checkpoint 3: Harmonic Analysis Be sure you have listened to a recording of your piece before completing this section.









Mark in your score (BLUE) • Circle and identify one of each type of triad and each type of seventh chord (major, minor, half-​diminished, fully diminished, etc.). If there is a type that is not present in your score, then indicate that in your response. • Provide a harmonic analysis for your entire selection. Are there are any chromatic chords? (Circle in blue and analyze using Roman numerals.) Are there any chromatic chords you are unable to analyze using Roman numerals? (Label with a blue square.) • Provide a response based on the recording you chose. In your response, discuss the performer’s interpretation. Did you agree or disagree with some of the artistic decisions? For example, how are dissonances approached (in terms of performance)? How does the interpretation match your phrase markings from checkpoint 2? Does the artist take liberties with the score? Respond: • In your response, discuss chords that gave you trouble and the process you went through to come to a conclusion. Play these chords on

Assessment  243











a piano and discuss how they sound. (Do they sound like a dominant chord? Are they really dissonant?) • How is chromaticism used in this piece? If a vocal piece, does the text offer any insight into the chords chosen by the composer? Checkpoint 4:  When Harmony, Melody, and Rhythm Converge; Cadences Mark in your score (PURPLE): • Identify and label all non-​chord tones. • Identify and analyze the cadence points in your piece. Respond: • Look at those chords that gave you trouble. Was it because there were non-​chord tones? Should you perform the non-​chord tones in a certain manner because they are non-​chord tones? Has your interpretation of the melody changed? • Do the cadence points line up with where you thought the phrases ended in Checkpoint 2? For each cadence, state how you feel it should be played stylistically based on the type of cadence. (Think about the strength of different types of cadences.) Checkpoint 5: Finishing Touches Mark in your score (ORANGE): • Revisit your harmonic analysis. Are there any chords that you had trouble with that you can now better analyze? Provide the proper inversion for inverted chords. Circle and label instances of neighbor tones in the bass, passing tones in the bass, or arpeggiated bass.

Respond: • Now play your piece again and record your performance. Listen to the recording you made before this project and compare to your most recent performance. How has your interpretation changed? Revisit those sections in the margin that you didn’t musically understand. Do they make more sense now? What part of your analysis helped you make sense of those sections? • Turn in MP3 file of final performance

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Checkpoint 6: The Final Analysis • Look through all of your responses to the first five checkpoints. Based upon your discoveries, you should see a few compositional techniques that strike you as interesting. Is there a chord progression that is altered? What role does repetition play in your piece? How are the cadences aligned or not aligned with the text? How is word painting achieved when compared to both the melody and harmony? How is chromaticism used in this piece? • Based on your own analysis, write a 3–​4 page paper highlighting some of your analytical findings. Start the paper off with a paragraph stating the composer, the title, and when the piece was composed in order to establish a historical context. Be sure to emphasize key compositional elements that were occurring during that time period of the composer’s life. The bulk of your paper should be an actual analysis of your piece. Do NOT go measure by measure. Pick one of two ideas and mention those measures in your writing. Conclude the paper with an expanded response to checkpoint 5 in how the analysis has informed your performance.

Formative Assessment Formative assessment is used less often within the theory and aural skills core, but it should become one of our main goals as effective instructors. In the book Taking College Teaching Seriously, formative assessment is described as “shreds of evidence to convey the idea that they are small and suggestive rather than conclusive input on student learning. They offer feedback to an instructor, raise questions, suggest testable hypotheses, and open an early and easy door to course correction when needed.”16 Formative assessment can take on many roles, including questions presented by the instructor to students during class time, specific feedback on projects and papers (often used to revise and improve an assignment), self-​assessment and/​or peer assessment, and classroom assessment techniques.



16 Mellow et al. 2015, 49.

Assessment  245

Self-​Evaluation or Self-​Assessment One of the most important methods within formative assessment may be self-​evaluation. In her book, Learner-Centered Teaching: Five Key Changes to Practice, author Maryellen Weimer states, “The ability to accurately assess the quality of one’s own work, as well as that of others is a skill useful during college and in most professions subsequently.”17 In higher education, formative assessment and feedback are still largely controlled and seen as the responsibility of teachers; feedback is still generally conceptualized as a transmission process. If formative assessment is exclusively in the hands of the teachers, then it is difficult to see how students can become empowered and develop the self-​regulation skills needed to prepare them for learning outside the university and throughout life.18 Craig Cummings of Ithaca College continually puts assessment into the hands of his students. In his aural skills classes, students are asked to evaluate themselves after singing through a melody. Cummings asks, “What would you say about your performance? What really worked and what threw you off? Did you have trouble with steps or skips? What would you say to your students if they performed that melody in the exact way you did?”19 After the student evaluates herself, Cummings asks the other members of the class to evaluate the performance on a scale of 1 to 10 but qualifies the activity by saying they must be able to give a reason based on their number evaluation. This self-​evaluation was fruitful and meaningful because of the environment of safety and learning set up by Cummings, but his approach in having students evaluate themselves and each other led to discussion of how to use the methods beyond the classroom. No correct answer was ever given by Cummings, and he never scored the students throughout the sight-​singing activity. Because most of the students in the room were music education majors, Cummings made a conscious effort to relate the assessment to real-​world application in the K-​ 12 classroom. Lori Wacker of East Carolina University also has students and their peers assessing in real time. In her freshman-​level theory class, students present their work on the document camera, and classmates are encouraged to give feedback on issues of part-​writing and chord choices. Wacker, standing next to the student at the document camera, asks the student to explain his or her “why” in front of the class, stating, “I will always ask why

17 Weimer 2013, 175.

18 Nicol and Macfarlane-​Dick 2006, 200.

19 Craig Cummings, lecture material, 9/​17/​2018.

246  Teaching Music Theory you chose a particular chord, your reasoning. And I will always ask why we are doing this.” But the environment for this assessment activity is safe, and Wacker assures the students of their growth, saying, “There’s no judgment at this point, we are all just learning.”20 Formative assessment of this type helps students to become reflective practitioners, encouraging students to take risks while promoting independent thinking and evaluation. As stated in Make It Stick, “Trying to come up with an answer rather than having it presented to you, or trying to solve a problem before being shown the solution, leads to better learning and longer retention of the correct answer or solution, even when your attempted response is wrong, so long as corrective feedback is provided.”21

Classroom Assessment Techniques The Center for Teaching at Vanderbilt University defines classroom assessment techniques (CATs) as “generally simple, non-​graded, anonymous, in-​ class activities designed to give you and your students useful feedback on the teaching-​learning process as it is happening.”22 CATs can take on many forms. The minute paper asks students to provide a response to the following questions at the end of class: (1) What was the most important thing you learned during this class?” and (2) “What important question remains unanswered?” This assessment gives any instructor a quick overview of whether students are engaged in the material and what might need to be explained at the next class meeting time. Another popular CAT is called “Muddiest Point,” in which students are asked to write down the “muddiest” or “most confusing” point in the homework, lecture, discussion, etc. Janet Bourne of the University of California at Santa Barbara uses the principle of the “Muddiest Point” in her undergraduate core classes and has adapted and renamed the “Pro and Con Grid” CAT to the “Analytical Techniques Pro and Con Grid” to better fit the format of a theory or aural skills course. In this CAT, Bourne asked students to write pros and cons for set theory and 12-​tone analysis. In discussing the assessment, Bourne states, “Students listed many reasons for using—​and not using—​these methods while also situating them among



20 Lori Wacker, lecture material, 2/​14/​2019. 21 Brown et al. 2014, 101.

22 Vanderbilt University n.d. (“Classroom Assessment Techniques”).

Assessment  247 other analytical techniques we had learned. For instance, they noted that set theory creates arguments for a unifying and coherent piece, while twelve-​ tone comprehensively accounts for most every note.”23 Bourne feels that this particular CAT helped students to think critically and independently, all while helping them to understand why they would use a specific analytical technique. This type of formative assessment not only informed Bourne of her students’ understanding of the analytical techniques but also encouraged students to think on a more general level about the purpose of analysis.

Gaming in the Theory Classroom I first began to study theory pedagogy as an undergraduate, and in my very first independent study, my professor asked me to create a game to use in the music theory classroom. I decided to go with interval bingo and made every single card by hand and tested all of the 20 cards to be sure I would have a winner. “Under the B, a major third up from D,” I  would say out loud to no one as I searched among those cards for a F♯ under the B. When I took those paper cards into the classroom along with a large bag of M&Ms to use as tokens, I noticed a transformation. The students in the class I was working with were excited and became quite competitive as they had to think quickly about intervals as well as scan their card for the appropriate pitch. “Will enharmonics work?” I remember one student saying, along with “I’ve eaten all my M&Ms, can I have more?” I went on to create more bingo games that featured topics in triads, chromatic chords, and even some aural skills, and I still have those original cards and bring them into my classroom some 20 years later. But what is it about gaming as a form of assessment that works so well? Meghan Naxer of Oregon State University is an avid gamer and as an instructor turned instructional designer strives to “implement methodologies from a variety of sources, including mathematics pedagogy, critical pedagogy, psychology, education, and video game design” into assignments and activities as well as overall class design.24 According to Naxer, “Drawing inspiration from game design offers a wealth of options for designing more engaging classes that promote a change in student motivation.” While Naxer

23 Bourne’s use of CATs is highlighted in her article in Engaging Students (2014).

24 Responses provided by Naxer via questionnaire on Survey Monkey on 8/​25/​2017.

248  Teaching Music Theory sometimes “designs and hosts games in the classroom (like creating spelling games using different combinations of polyhedral dice), much of her experience with game design is implemented while designing a course. Many of these implementations come in the form of assessment and feedback design.”25 Naxer offers the following conclusions to the question “What are some of the things games get right about assessment and feedback?” • Feedback is often limited to two options: you got it or try again (essentially pass/​fail feedback).26 • Stakes for tasks are often lowered by allowing unlimited attempts to try again until positive feedback is achieved and the game moves to the next level. • Games rarely allow players to move on to new tasks before they have passed the current activity. • When players receive negative feedback that they need to try a task again, it is often accompanied by hints, rarely by answers.27 • Level outcomes are also very clear and observable by both the game and the player.28 Some ways Naxer has implemented these features into course designs include allowing or requiring revisions of work before students receive grades, “grading” an assignment by marking only sections of an assignment where something is incorrect and asking the student to detect the errors and correct them in a revised submission, providing students with hints instead of correct answers, and creating outcomes and rubrics for assessments that are self-​assessable by students, even if they are not self-​ assessing the assignment. According to Naxer, “While these practices aren’t games themselves, their inspiration is in how games create learning environments.”29 Alex Newton is a contributor to Picardy Learning, a music theory and aural skills web application. The platform’s exercises cover introductory lessons to concepts, fundamental drilling, and question-​guided dictations.

25 Meghan Naxer, in conversation with the author, 2/​6/​2019. 26 Nilson 2015. 27 Juul 2013. 28 For more on observable outcomes, see publications related to Bloom’s taxonomy. An overview can be found in Vanderbilt University n.d. (“Bloom’s Taxonomy”). 29 Naxer 2020, 146–158.

Assessment  249 While Picardy is often used as a supplement for undergraduate curricula, it was designed so that anyone could master the fundamentals of music. Like other education-​based applications, Picardy uses a handful of gamified elements to motivate users and encourage self-​assessment. One example of gamification in Picardy is the concept of the heart monitor. For each incorrect answer, the user loses a heart. Once all of the hearts are gone, the user has to restart the exercise. The heart monitor is a form of loss aversion and can motivate more than just completing an exercise. Because users can retake the exercise, learners can go back through at any point and work toward receiving a perfect score. Picardy also uses a “stats page” that is equivalent to a scoreboard for self-​assessment. Using a scoreboard makes progress more concrete for learners by providing a visual snapshot of their overall accomplishments. The stats page allows users to review what content they have completed and what areas still need work.30 Stacey Davis of the University of Texas at San Antonio takes the idea of gaming to another level by asking her students to create group presentations that relate their analysis of a fugue from Bach’s Well-​Tempered Clavier with a specific sport or game. According to Davis, “The rules of the chosen sport have to somehow connect with the characteristics and procedures of the fugue. Creating that type of analogy requires an in-​depth study of the fugue and often produces a more thorough understanding than that required for an exam. Students can choose to present their analytical analogy live in class or create a video, with group members either being announcers of the game or participants in the game.”31 Davis shares two results from this gaming assignment. One group related their fugue analysis to a NASCAR race, with each voice represented by one car in the race. Students presented this analogy in a creative video format, with the piece playing in the background and the cars manipulated to perform the analysis side-​by-​side with an annotated musical score. For instance, the car was flipped upside down when the subject was inverted, the speed of the car was changed to represent augmentation or diminution, and only the front or back half of the car was shown to represent fragmentation. Another group chose an aerobics class as their analogy. They assigned each group member to a voice of the fugue and a

30 Commentary provided by Alex Newton, 2/​12/​2019.

31 Responses provided by Stacey Davis in email correspondence with the author, 1/​30/​2019.

250  Teaching Music Theory specific aerobics move to different motives, then performed that choreography live in class as the piece played from a recording. The combination of aural, visual, and kinesthetic information helped both the group members and the rest of the class better understand and appreciate that fugue.

Teaching as Assessment The Roman philosopher Seneca once said, “While we teach, we learn.” In the article “The Protégé Effect: Why Teaching Someone Else Is the Best Way to Learn,” Annie Murphy Paul discusses the power of students teaching their peers and younger students, saying, “As they prepare to teach, they organize their knowledge, improving their own understanding and recall. And as they explain the information to (others), they identify knots and gaps in their own thinking.”32 This same concept can be played out in the theory and aural skills classroom, and having our students teach each other might be one of the more creative and most effective ways to assess our students’ knowledge. This approach can be as simple as having students describe what the instructor just said in their own words or asking students to talk through their analysis to the entire class. Speaking and teaching through a concept or analysis gives an instructor greater insight if the student understands what is happening beyond giving just the answers. Meghan Naxer also assesses students by flipping the classroom so that the students are teaching the material to their peers. In an recent observation of her Theory III course, Naxer wrote 10 terms on the board such as “motive,” “sequence,” and “invertible counterpoint” and asked each of the eight students in the room to pick a term. Each student was given 4 minutes to prepare the topic for a 2-​minute teaching demonstration. While the students were working on their teaching approaches, Naxer quickly moved from student to student, telling each individual to “not read the material, but to develop your own language to describe the topic.”33 Naxer encouraged her students to ask difficult questions of each other and challenged them to come up with a musical example to explain the definition. During all of the teaching presentations, Naxer sat among her students and asked questions



32 Paul 2011.

33 Meghan Naxer, lecture material, 9/​12/​2017.

Assessment  251 of the student, now turned teacher, sometimes giving leading questions to make the definition even clearer. All of the examples of formative assessment as described here emphasize the paradigm shift as shown in Table 8.1 and the quote by Jan Miyake: “We can do things in our course design, though, to help shift that to the learning.” There is a focus on learning rather than on grades, a focus on the experience rather than the final, correct answer, and a focus on “the shreds of evidence” that help us as instructors to better tailor our teaching methods and approaches.

Standards-​Based Grading In Brooklyn’s Middle School 442, there has been a shift away from grades to a focus on mastering a set of grade level skills. There are no failing grades, and the only goal for the students to accomplish by the end of the year is to demonstrate mastery of all of the objectives that have been laid out. This approach means that the student who has mastered a specific skill doesn’t need to spend time going over and over it again but instead can work on the objectives that are still not quite mastered.34 This approach is called standards-​based grading, a method in which students are graded based on demonstration of mastery of a series of topics. As Kris Shafer explains, “Even grade-​grubbers are forced to be skill-​grubbers, which is a significant improvement in the instructor-​student social contract, and starts students on the road to self-​ assessment in light of those content objectives.”35 At Casper College, Nathan Baker clearly outlines the criteria for final grades as follows:36 A: Complete mastery of all course objectives as well as an outstanding grade on the final poster. B: Complete mastery of at least fifteen course objectives and satisfactory mastery of the rest as well as at least a satisfactory grade on the final poster. C: Satisfactory mastery of all course objectives as well as at least a satisfactory grade on the final poster.



34 Spencer 2017. 35 Shaffer 2014.

36 For more details on the objectives in Baker’s class, see sample syllabi in c ­ hapter 7.

252  Teaching Music Theory D: Satisfactory mastery of at least fifteen course objectives and rudimentary mastery of the rest (note that any course objectives not satisfied will be carried over and must be satisfied to score at least a D in MUSC 2030) as well as a presentation of a final poster. F: Failure to satisfactorily master at least fifteen course objectives, and/​or failure to present a final poster.37

Students’ mastery of the course objectives is demonstrated via quizzes presented on Casper College’s course management system, and a perfect score on the quiz is required to achieve satisfactory mastery on any of the 19 course objectives; complete mastery is demonstrated by being able to use the objective in an analytical, improvisational, or compositional context. Standards assessment represents 20% of the grade in J. Daniel Jenkins’s course at the University of South Carolina. The 20 standards listed for the Theory I class at USC are graded on a pass-​fail basis and include pitch notation, scale identification, key signatures, scale construction, intervals, triads, and triads and dominant seventh chords in inversion. Each student is required to attempt at least 2 standards when offered and must attempt each standard until it is passed. As Jenkins states in his syllabus, “Success in music is predicated on an understanding of this foundational material. Therefore, failure to pass all standards by the end of the semester will result in a grade of 0 for the entire standards assessment portion of the class. Additionally, you will not be allowed to submit a final project . . . (resulting) in failure of the course.”38 In terms of Aural Skills courses, the faculty at Appalachian State have begun to implement a standards-​based grading policy through the use of aural proficiencies. For example, the Aural Skills II syllabus outlines the skills that must be mastered by the end of the semester: During the course of the semester, the student must successfully sing the following: 1. All intervals (80% accuracy) 2. All scale degrees in major or minor keys (80% accuracy) 3. All diatonic triads (major and minor key) in root position or inversion (80% accuracy)

37 Taken from MUSC 1040:01 Written Theory II; syllabus provided to the author by Nathan Baker. 38 Taken from MUSC 115 Music Theory I; syllabus provided to the author by J. Daniel Jenkins.

Assessment  253 4. Melodies (major and minor key) with intervals from the tonic and dominant (80% accuracy) Students have an opportunity during each individual sight-​singing exam to demonstrate proficiency on the outlined objectives. If they do not demonstrate 80% accuracy, they can return for an individual sight-​singing exam at the end of the semester that serves only as a proficiency exam. However, if these proficiencies are not demonstrated successfully, the student will receive the earned grade or the grade of D+, whichever is lower and will have to repeat the course. The idea of proficiencies and standards-​based grading has given students concrete goals to work toward, and most students are up to the challenge. The transparency of this system is one of its hallmarks, and students know exactly where they need to spend extra time in terms of the course objectives. In a commentary on standards-​based learning, Patricia L. Scriffiny states, “In the adult world, everything is a performance assessment. If adults on the job make poor decisions or cannot determine the quality of their own work, the results are generally undesirable. Quality matters, and the ability to measure the quality of one’s own work is a learned skill. So how can we teach this essential skill? One way to teach quality is to demand it. We must create an environment where standards can and must be met and where students are not permitted to submit substandard work without being asked to revise.”39

Creating a Scale/​Progress-​Centric Grading There are plenty of stories told within the theory and aural skills core about students who bomb the first few assignments yet become some of the strongest students in the sophomore year. What can be done to help those students to be even more successful? The idea of a sliding grade scale to highlight growth and mastery is another student-​focused manner of assessment , what Jena Root of Youngstown State University calls Progress-Centric Grading.40 In her first-​year aural skills course, Jena Root has built her grading rubric to account for the fact that not everyone acquires skills at the same rate, and that an individual’s improvement may come in fits and starts. In the dictation

39 Scriffiny 2008, 73.

40 The term “progress-​centric” is attributed to Jena Root.

254  Teaching Music Theory portion of the class, she assigns four quizzes, a midterm exam, then four more quizzes and a final exam. Quizzes are worth 10 points, and exams are worth 40. Each exam comprises four parts, and each part corresponds to a quiz from earlier in the semester. For example, parts 1, 2, 3, and 4 of the midterm cover the same concepts (respectively) as quizzes 1, 2, 3, and 4 (although the actual content may be more advanced). If a student scores higher on any part of the midterm, that grade will replace the corresponding quiz. To explain this concept further, Root offers the following illustration: For example, let’s assume Jane’s quiz scores are 7, 8.5, 4, and 9, and her midterm scores are 10, 9, 7, and 6. Her new quiz scores are 10, 9, 7, and 9. (The grade of 6 on the midterm will not replace the higher quiz grade of 9 but will stand in the average.) The same system is in place for Quizzes 5 through 8 vis-​ à-​vis the final exam. This arrangement, along with a number of low-​stakes homework assignments, allows the student to “fail safely” while practicing her skills incrementally. It is not unusual for me to see students who do not pass any of the first four quizzes, yet go on to achieve an A in the class.41

Much like standards-​based grading, this approach gives students multiple times to demonstrate understanding all while working toward a transparent goal, in this case the midterm or final.

Conclusion There is no doubt that many students are extremely grade conscious; this phenomenon might be even more common among music majors because of how competitive programs can be from day one. After all, we may be one of the only majors on the campus in which students are evaluated for placement in ensembles before classes even begin! Maryellen Weimer supports this claim by saying, “There is no question that students are entirely too grade oriented. Many see their inherent worth as human beings reflected in a grade and are seemingly incapable of separating the performance from the person. We must work to help them gain a healthier perspective on grades.”42

41 Jenna Root, email correspondence with the author, 1/​27/​2019. 42 Weimer 2013, 171.

Assessment  255 Some of the most effective teachers are working to help students understand the focus on learning rather than the final outcome in terms of grades. Jena Root has eliminated in-​class sight-​singing assessments in favor of weekly video assignments, stating, “Not only does this allow the student an unlimited number of practice takes, it also lets her define the time and place in which she completes the assessment. In other words, she has the power to create her own safe environment.”43 Andrew Hannon of Appalachian State University works to alleviate some anxiety through more in-​class evaluation, more transparency in terms of objectives and test formats, and new teaching methods to help students overcome the fear of singing in aural skills classes.44 Perhaps the best way to overcome some of the anxiety over assessment is to find a better balance between grades and learning for both the teacher and the student. It is neither appropriate nor productive to give evaluation to exhibit power, to advance a hidden agenda, or to establish a course’s reputation as a weed-​out course. Evaluation and assessment should be used to determine students’ learning and growth, and all assignments must be designed for that purpose by using a multitude of assessment styles. As Michael Rogers states, “To promote mental agility and complete proficiency, it is desirable for questions to be asked in as many ways as possible.”45 But first, we must be able to answer the question of why we are assigning and/​or grading students’ work in the first place. The design of any assignment and evaluation “influences what students learn, how well they learn it, and what skills are developed in the process.”46



43 Jenna Root, email correspondence with the author, 1/​27/​2019. 44 See Hannon 2015. 45 Rogers 2004, 41.

46 Weimer 2013, 168.

9 Empower the Undergraduate To some in academia, working with and mentoring the undergraduate population is the primary reason they pursued an advanced degree in music. Their passion lies in teaching core classes to all musicians. To others teaching music in higher ed, the undergraduate merely occupies desk space in order to cover FTE enrollments to pay for graduate assistantships and research funding.1 These faculty members tend to go through the motions while teaching the undergraduate core classes, leaving an abundance of time for their research endeavors. Other faculty tend to fall somewhere in between these two groups; they enjoy teaching their undergraduate courses but may not be sure how to relate to or understand the potential of the undergraduate music major. They simply don’t have the time to invest in thinking through their pedagogical approaches. They feel the pressure to disseminate research and may find themselves less than prepared when standing in front of a classroom. I must admit, I  have found myself in at least two of these scenarios at different times in my career. When I was finishing up my doctoral studies, I announced that I was excited to teach 8:00 a.m. freshman theory and would be perfectly happy teaching in a small undergraduate music program. Several of the faculty members and graduate colleagues did not understand and kept asking, “Why wouldn’t you like to mentor dissertations? Your end goal was working with doctoral students, right?” During my early career, I was very focused on my research agenda and found myself teaching on autopilot so I could finish a grant budget or complete the last slides for my analysis presentation. The pressure to produce meaningful research was real, and I justified my absence in front of the classroom through my own agenda. It was a horrible feeling, and since then I have realized that the best approach is a blend of the two. After all, my research informs my teaching, and my teaching always informs my research. But it really wasn’t until I began to better understand undergraduate students and 1 FTE is the acronym for full-​time equivalency. For faculty, the term refers to the equivalent of a full-​time position; for students, FTE refers to full-​time enrolled students. Teaching Music Theory. Jennifer Snodgrass, Oxford University Press (2020). © Oxford University Press. DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780190879945.003.0001

Empower the Undergraduate  257 their roles in the university environment that I was able to quickly become more effective in the classroom, and thus in my own research agenda.

The Undergraduate Music Major As of 2015, there were approximately 1,800 institutions that offered a degree in music, with an enrollment of approximately 332,300 students.2 Even more astoundingly, according to the 2018 edition of the College Music Society Directory of Higher Education, there are 5,848 members who teach within the theory curriculum.3 It is impossible to know how many of these are PhD music theorists, but I think it would be safe to say that most of these positions are being taught by nonspecialists, such as the bassoon teacher who teaches the theory course and the piano professor that takes over the aural skills curriculum.4 Our faculty are being pulled in multiple directions, as are our students. The freshman music major is excited and anxious to be in the music theory classroom on that first day. In most cases, that student was the star of his or her high school ensemble and is now on an equal playing field with the best. Maybe he or she took some theory in high school and knows all the fundamentals. Other freshmen have little knowledge and have only heard the horror stories of a weeding-​out process through aural skills. It is our responsibility to teach to both populations, without one becoming distracted because of boredom and the other distracted due to frustration. Freshmen are typically fun, eager, and extremely personable, and the first day of teaching this student population can be quite exhilarating.5 Most students arrive somewhere between 7:45 and 7:50 a.m. and sit nervously as they stare at their new folders and textbooks. Typically there is no conversation between the students, and I  walk into a quiet classroom ready to soak in the excitement. I know that in a matter of weeks they will be running into class at 8:02 a.m. and that I will have to quiet down the chatter before starting my lecture. They soon will be exhausted, and in some cases sick with a constant cold. That perfectly organized folder will be buried in a 2 Facts and Figures Concerning Music and Higher Education in the United States,” January 2015, http://​www.music.org/​pdf/​mihe/​facts.pdf. 3 Beth Mast, director of information services, College Music Society, “Re: Announcement,” email message to the author, 11/​2/​2016. 4 For more information on current faculty teaching theory, see Marvin 2018. 5 See blog post at https://​bridgingthemusictheorygap.wordpress.com/​page/​2/​.

258  Teaching Music Theory locker, and the textbook may or may not be a regular visitor to the class. But on the first day, I am overwhelmed with the possibilities and potential of the students. They all start fresh, and I use this opportunity to get a feel for what they want out of class. I hand out notecards and ask students to provide the following information:

• Name • Instrument • Major (music education, therapy, theory/​comp, performance, etc.) • Experience with music theory and aural skills • Favorite classical piece • Favorite popular piece or band • What they hope to learn in class • Career goals

This is an enlightening process for both me and the students. I read aloud some of their favorite bands and compositions. Immediately students are connected with someone across the room as they realize they share the same love for an indie band or a Ticheli piece. I also read aloud some of the career goals listed on the cards. I’ve seen everything on those cards from college professor to songwriter to famous rock star to elementary music teacher. I’ve also seen lawyer, doctor, preacher, and inventor on those cards. I spend a good 25 minutes on the first day of school looking through these cards and periodically bring them back out to play a favorite song as students walk in. Students know from day one that I am interested in them as students but also as future colleagues, musicians, and artists. This genuine interest goes a long way in what they will give back to you in the classroom. However, this freshness and excitement on both of our parts can fade away if we are not careful. The freshman music major is not like any other major on campus. For one thing, it is one of the only college majors where a student must make a commitment on the first day of classes. While most other students are finding their place and will not declare a major for years, the music major must make a decision before coming to campus. Many music majors have scholarships and are under a great deal of pressure to keep those scholarships. They are evaluated constantly in one-​on-​one lessons and sight-​ singing exams. Faculty are also evaluated constantly, whether in terms of student evaluations or peer-​reviewed publications and presentations.

Empower the Undergraduate  259 And then there are the time constraints. In many cases, the student is in class at least 20 hours a week due to one-​credit ensemble classes that meet 3 hours a week. The music major must practice for 4 hours a day and attend multiple performances at night. In classes, students become frustrated with fellow students who don’t do their homework. Faculty begin to get frustrated with students who don’t turn in work on time. Exhaustion sets in quickly and students begin to shut down. Faculty begin to question if certain students can handle being a music major and begin to have difficult conversations. Other faculty may quickly write off students who can’t seem to “handle it.” Many music faculty also have intense teaching loads and research/​creative activity responsibilities. Those in their early career are bombarded with service opportunities that require them to cancel office hours regularly. Here’s the secret that I think we have been afraid to say out loud as faculty members: We were also music majors. We get it. Our stresses, distractions, and pressures may have been different years ago, but we still found ourselves in practice rooms hiding from security when the building closed or humming our dictation exercises late into the night. And regardless of whether we want to admit it, we have made mistakes along our journey. In the book Crisis on Campus, Mark Taylor states, “While many professors are serious scholars and dedicated mentors, too often they are afraid of experimentation and change and fall back on the familiar past, making education a process of self-​replication, insisting that students do exactly what has always been done.”6 We don’t need to go back to where we were. As the years pass and we spend more and more time in the classroom, we need to be mindful of our role in creating the next generation of music scholars, performers, and educators. We should want these students to be independent thinkers and creative contributors to society. Our role is to help each student find his or her place within the musical world. This takes a deliberate effort on our part to be examples of active and engaging mentors, performers, and scholars. In many cases, by the sophomore year, the excitement has completely worn off and students are trying to find their identify as musicians. This is where the faculty must step in. We have set the stage; now it is time to let students begin exploring on their own. All they may need is a bit of motivation and guidance.

6 Taylor 2010, 22.

260  Teaching Music Theory

What Motivates Our Students When I was an undergraduate music major, I thought most of my professors, especially my music professors, were perfect. I  wanted the answer, and I wanted an A. I was fortunate to have five semesters of music history, and the amount of composition, writing, and research integrated in this class, in hindsight, was nothing short of incredible. I wrote down every word, but I’m not sure how much of the material I truly internalized. When studying for a test, I highlighted every page—​not the important points, not the main ideas, but every page. I never questioned anything my professors asked, but I was motivated completely by grades. It wasn’t up to me to worry about context or how this history course played into my ultimate goal of being an opera singer; I was simply taking in information and writing it back out to receive a high mark. Are students still motivated by grades? Or does something else keep them coming to our classes? Although the data show high-​achieving scores for students entering colleges, the responses from a recent survey taken at Northwestern University never mentioned grades as an important factor in students’ overall generational identity.7 I tend to believe that grades are less motivating than we would like to think. For instance, I can reflect on my own attendance policy that worked so well 10 years ago. Each semester, my students received one unexcused absence, after which their final grade would be lowered by 1 point for each additional absence. Students would drag themselves into my 8:00 a.m. class in order to be counted present, but they were not really “present.” I would deduct 14 points from the final grade for a student who I knew understood the material but had been up all night in the studio and missed my class. I would deduct 12 points from the final grade of a student who was up all night arranging music for his a cappella group and ended up sleeping through an alarm. I recently did away with the traditional attendance policy in one of my classes. My policy read, and continues to read, as follows: Attendance and class participation are expected. Before spring break, the attendance policy is as follows:  For each unexcused absence beyond one, the student will have their final average deducted by one percentage point. Absences may be excused due to documented illness, official university 7 “ ‘Generation Z’ Is Entrepreneurial, Wants to Chart Its Own Future” 2014.

Empower the Undergraduate  261 business, or family emergencies. In such cases, it is the student’s responsibility to inform the instructor of the reason for the absence by the next class meeting and to make up any missed work the day of the student’s return to class. Make-​up examinations will be given only to those students with excused absences. No late papers will be accepted unless accompanied with documentation of an excused absence. There is no attendance policy after spring break because I feel that by that time you will understand the necessity of your attendance. If this is abused, I will reinstate the policy listed above.

It worked. I felt that if I did my job effectively, the students would understand the necessity of attending class and hopefully realize how their attendance was truly applicable (and helpful) to their careers as musicians. I gave them ownership of the policy, and they met me halfway by attending on their own accord after midterms. They knew that I had given them a choice, and it turned out to be the best motivation ever for this particular group of students. Perhaps to be the most effective teachers we can be, we need to understand what motivates our students. Not surprisingly, there are multiple answers and approaches, and every student is different.

The Tale of Two Undergraduates Steven has always been a straight A student. He comes from a middle-​ class family who provided an incredible amount of support in terms of his desire to be a band director. When he announced that he wanted to be a music major, his parents were elated. After all, they had been to every one of their son’s piano and trumpet recitals for the past 10 years. When Steven enters college, he is awarded a large scholarship based on his grades and his audition. His parents are thrilled and tell him constantly how proud they are and agree to support him financially as he finishes his degree as long as he keeps his grades up. Steven excels in every class and is a leader in the School of Music. He plays in multiple ensembles and gets praise from everyone on a daily basis. He is a star, and he is exhausted. He stays up all night finishing an analysis paper for a graduate class he is taking as an undergraduate. The feedback is constructive, and Steven receives a C for the paper and thus a B for his final grade. He is crushed and doesn’t know how to cope with what he believes to be a true failure. He begins to miss class, and his grades plummet. His parents are beyond furious and express their disappointment.

262  Teaching Music Theory Another student, Lauren, was barely admitted to the university with her slightly better than average GPA. She spent her time in high school focusing on her instrument and was accepted into the program based on her strong audition. On the first day of school, she quickly realizes that being a music major is more than just playing her instrument. She begins to miss more and more class to play with the band she has formed with other music majors. They are gigging all around the state, and the 8:00 a.m. theory class just doesn’t seem relevant to her new career as a performing artist. She arrives late to class, and her professor continues to not accept late work. Lauren has huge fights with her parents, who think that she is wasting her time being a music major. She knows that when they see her grades at the end of the semester, they will probably take away her car and may even make her come back home. She coasts through the rest of the semester and plans to either quit and move to Los Angeles with her band or retake all of her academic courses. She needs some time to self-​evaluate her goals in the music field. While the names of the students have been changed in these two scenarios, I  have encountered both of these students. The Stevens of the world may be the students we love to have in our classes, but there is much to be learned from the Laurens. The two students are motivated in different ways: by grades and praise and by real-​world application to individual goals. We have to reach both students, and I believe it is up to us to include multiple approaches in our teaching. Perhaps our job in this century is more of a motivator to learn and explore than one of experts giving knowledge.

The Student Response I recently asked two different classes populated with 50-​plus freshman music majors the question of what motivates them as a student. The results included: • My peers. • An environment where interaction can take place on all levels.

Empower the Undergraduate  263 • An environment where in-​class contribution is welcomed. • Knowing that this will help me achieve my long-​term goals (job, career, stable life with spouse and kids). • Grades. • Knowing that the information is applicable after I graduate. • My financial responsibility. It is a waste of money if I don’t come to class. • Competitiveness within the class, within the program, and with other programs around the country. • I have to succeed because music is all I can see myself doing. • Wanting to not let fellow students/​professors down by not showing up. • Motivated by parents. • Seeing the improvement that I have made over the semester. • High level of interaction between fellow students (in class). • Professor explaining how student is going to use material in the “real world.” • Warm, caring, inviting atmosphere. • Knowing that class isn’t “going to be bad.” After our discussion on self-​motivation, I  turned the question around and asked the students how we as faculty could better motivate them in our classrooms. The conversation was eye-​opening because their responses mentioned simple changes that could be implemented immediately, such as: • Professors should act happy to be in the classroom. • Professors should ask questions to keep students engaged (What do you think about this? Why would you analyze this section in this manner?) • Professors should encourage participation (through questions and calling on students). • Professors should make the class relatable by using popular music. • Professors should know all students’ names. • Professors should always make everything relatable for students, specifically in terms of getting a job. University is a place of higher education, but it is also a place to learn the skills for a career. • Professors should give students some choice in assignments (music studied, minor deadlines, etc.). • Professors should be honest about the field and not candy coat the realities.

264  Teaching Music Theory • Professors should be realistic with students that jobs are hard to find and emphasize that students need to work hard to achieve success. • Professors should establish a personal connection with students. • Professors should give students opportunities outside of the class­room. • Professors should be open with advice and guidance and time. • Professors should offer more discussion-​based classes. They require more self-​motivation from individual students. If discussion is not encouraged, students will shut down within the environment.

The Faculty Response I asked some of the most effective music theory teachers in the country a similar question: How can we motivate the most recent generation of music majors? Nathan Baker of Casper College provided the following insight: It is important that we recognize and remember how much of an impact and influence we as professors can have on our students. To me, inspiring and helping them grow as independent people and helping them to discover and successfully pursue their own creative path is at least as important as the principles of music theory that we discuss.

Baker continued to share specifics regarding how he motivates his undergraduate majors at Casper College: Many of the current generation come to us having experienced a public school education that has not prepared them for critical, independent thinking and inquiry. Much of what I do in class is to push them into exploring different musical possibilities and realizing that there are often multiple answers that are equally valid; provide them with non-​catastrophic opportunities to fail, learn from and correct their mistakes, and thereby truly learn and improve; and model a life-​long sense of curiosity and desire to question, experiment, and learn. The current generation of music majors really do not relate well to abstract concepts divorced from actual music. My pedagogical approach gets them writing real music and thinking about how analysis reveals the meaning of the music and how that would then affect their performance,

Empower the Undergraduate  265 which seems to excite and engage them much more than the dry, abstract approach to harmony used back when I was an undergrad.8

Gene Trantham, professor of music theory at Bowling Green State University, motivates his students through his own musical excitement and a dedication toward lifelong learning. He motivates his students by asking them to do the following: • To apply their academic studies (especially theory and aural skills) to their everyday musical experiences. In written theory classes, I  constantly relate analysis and performance. Many students say that they perform, listen and look at music differently after they have completed a class with me. • To share their musical excitement with others (e.g., their students, audience members). This is a way that they can give back to others and hopefully inform/​engage the next generation about the depth and importance of music in daily life. • To never stop learning/​growing. My father would say, “The day I stop learning is the day I die.” He was a concert pianist and the dean of my undergraduate music school. I hope my students will want to explore/​ investigate/​inquire every day.9 Christina Fuhrmann, professor of music at Baldwin-​Wallace University, mentioned three specific ways in which she has motivated her students: I model professional behavior for them. I am always prepared, always on time, and always even keeled in my approach (or at least I try!). I think role models are extremely influential. If they see that I maintain high standards, it motivates them to do the same. They have no excuse from me not to do their best. I institute reasonable but firm, impassive rules, coupled with a willingness to help. This helps them take responsibility for their own successes and failures. For example, my attendance and late policies are strict. When they lose points because of these, I speak with them about it in an impassive, friendly way. I am willing to sit down and help them learn to organize. 8 Nathan Baker, in communication with the author, 11/​11/​2016. 9 Gene Trantham, in communication with the author, 11/​4/​2016.

266  Teaching Music Theory Similarly, grades are clear but non-​negotiable. However, I am always there to help them. I think this motivates them in that they learn to take personal responsibility for their actions. Over the years, I have realized that the most important thing I want my students to take away from my classes is the feeling “I like theory.” I don’t want their main feeling to be “I am bad at theory.” I have modified my approach so that assignments and goals are reachable for them. Standards are still high, but whatever is necessary to lead them to mastery is done. I always try to inject enthusiasm into the classroom and vary the classroom experience. I think that the greatest motivator for students to continue to use theory in their lives is for them to be able to think back to their college experience and say “I like theory.” Then they will keep that door open for future exploration rather than feeling glad to be rid of theory forever.10

Our graduate teaching assistants, in many cases only 4 or 5 years older than the students they are teaching, are also able to provide insight into how students are motivated in the classroom. David Marvel, a graduate teaching assistant in music theory at the University of Oklahoma, shared the following: I try to find tangible experiences in their lives in how what I’m teaching can relate. You really have to catch a spark because different things motivate different people. Sometimes the motivation is grades, and sometimes it is just the desire for knowledge. For some students they need to find it all on their own. I had one student tell me that she sight sang through her Bach cello suite and now had it memorized. This student went on to tell me that she now sings all of her music as a way to help with memorization. It is important to give students a bit of ownership in the learning process. This can be achieved in several different ways, but having students work with their own music from their lessons and ensembles in the academic core classes is a great place to start. From this, they become designers. I want them to have the experience that I had as an undergrad. But they have to get to that point themselves through self-​discovery.11



10 Christina Fuhrmann, in communication with the author, 11/​24/​2016. 11 David Marvel, in communication with the author, 11/​26/​2016.

Empower the Undergraduate  267

Teaching and Research Development on the Undergraduate Level: Beyond the Classroom In 2014, a Gallup survey of 30,000 graduates found that the most important factor in terms of well-​being after graduation is not where you went to college but how you went to college. The results also indicate that feeling supported and having deep learning experiences during college means everything when it comes to long-​term outcomes after college. Unfortunately, not many graduates were supported by a mentor, and the study states that “this is perhaps the biggest blown opportunity in the history of higher ed.”12 The study cited six crucial elements for well-​being and success following graduation: “Three of these elements relate to experiential and deep learning:  having an internship or job where students were able to apply what they were learning in the classroom, being actively involved in extracurricular activities and organizations, and working on projects that took a semester or more to complete. But the three most potent elements linked to long-​term success for college grads relate to emotional support: feeling that they had a professor who made them excited about learning, that the professors at their alma mater cared about them as a person, and that they had a mentor who encouraged them to pursue their goals and dreams. If graduates strongly agree with these three things, it doubles the odds that they are engaged in their work and thriving in their overall well-​being.”13 For years, my pedagogical battle cry has been “empower the undergraduate.” I believe that undergraduates are capable of remarkable things and can handle more than we think possible. The word “empower” means to “give official authority or power to.” Based on responses mentioned in this chapter, students are hungry to have ownership of and authority over their learning experiences. We just have to get out of the way.

Undergraduate Research Some instructors in the field are not sure if undergraduates are able or ready to think about music on a deep analytical level. While this might be true in some instances, perhaps we should start asking difficult questions

12 Busteed 2014. 13 Ibid.

268  Teaching Music Theory as early as the freshman year and encourage students to write intelligently about music. The papers and responses will not be perfect, and we should not expect them to be. But writing and thinking about music are learned skills, and the earlier we begin, the better. In my experience, once we start to help students form questions, the insight into such questions becomes much deeper. This is where undergraduate research comes in. Undergraduate research is becoming a trademark on campuses around the country, and definitions of undergraduate research now broaden the scope to include creative activity and performance as an outcome. Such definitions include the following: • An inquiry or investigation conducted by an undergraduate student that makes an original intellectual or creative contribution to the discipline.—​ Council for Undergraduate Research14 • Educational collaborations between students and faculty members.  .  .  . Research and creative projects involve inquiry, design, investigation and discovery, and take place in a variety of settings including science labs, field sites, and studios—​University of Colorado, Denver15 • Mentored, self-​directed work that enables individual students or small groups of students to explore an issue of interest to them, and communicate the results to others. The projects involve inquiry, design, investigation, research, scholarship, discovery, application, writing and/​or performance to a greater or lesser degree depending on the topic.—​UNC-​Chapel  Hill16

The National Conference on Undergraduate Research (NCUR) and many other campus and state-​level events encourage undergraduates to submit proposals based on individual research and creative activity. The 2015 NCUR program had 3,243 presentations accepted, representing 63 disciplines. Only 1.7% percent of the presentations were listed under the music category. The 2016 program included 3,769 presentations, with 59 presentations listed under music (1.5%), but I believe that number will continue to expand as more faculty begin to engage students in undergraduate research projects. I  have found that students who immerse themselves in a semester-​long research project cite that involvement as one of the most 14 https://​www.cur.org/​who/​organization/​mission/​. 15 http:// ​ w ww.ucdenver.edu/​ l ife/​ s ervices/​ E xperientialLearning/​ u ndergradresearch/​ Pages/​ WhatisUndergraduateResearch.aspx. 16 https://​our.sites.unc.edu/​.

Empower the Undergraduate  269 rewarding and applicable experiences of their college career. I have mentored projects in analysis, music theory pedagogy, general music education, composition, and even social issues in music. In many cases, I was not an “expert” in these fields; however, I was able to guide students through the research process and help them to refine their disseminations and results, many times introducing students to other scholars beyond my campus. The skills these undergraduates learn while researching and preparing for a presentation on the national level serve them extremely well long after they leave campus and their undergraduate career. So, how do you define undergraduate research in the performing arts? Again, I went to my sophomore class to see how they would answer this question. The following are some of the responses: • I guess I’d have to say that research, which is basically using methods of searching for knowledge . . . in collaboration with the fine arts is most likely understanding the methods behind the creativity of the human mind OR the impact that creativity has on the human race. It could also likely mean understanding the purpose/​impact that the fine arts has on an individual, or how each person reacts differently to a creative outlet such as a “fine art.” • In performing arts, research would be along the lines of piece history, studies of performance techniques, or analysis of pieces of music. • Discovering what a piece is meant to portray. Pieces have stories and purposes behind them, and it is the responsibility of the performer to understand that. • A way of discovering, through personal experience or observation, any new information or deeper knowledge on an already established idea relating to a specific art. • Music and its effect on society, musicology of other cultures, how much music knowledge the general populous has, how music affects kids at a young age, how music affects all other knowledge, if perfect pitch can be learned, why music stays after dementia or other mental issues set in. It is not difficult to get a student involved in this process. When a student asks, “I wonder why?” or “What if the composer did ... ?,” or “How did that happen?” in the classroom, ask him or her to stop by the office and a research project begins to emerge. It is important that each instructor help students find appropriate material to read before asking them to formulate a rough draft of a proposal and timeline. It is then up to the student to ask questions

270  Teaching Music Theory and meet with the instructor to discuss findings and discoveries or play an excerpt that brought about a new idea. I’ve mentored undergraduate research in which the original hypothesis was disproved or when the final outcome of the analysis was not at all what was anticipated. However, the most rewarding moments in undergraduate research are when the original discoveries bring about new, deeper questions that the student is anxious to uncover. All it takes is a faculty member to truly listen to the question and help the student develop that inquisitive thought into an independent research project. Other ways to get students involved in undergraduate research include the following: • Make undergraduate research a part of learning objectives/​goals in a class. • Focus on the creative process in the classroom. • Continue to move away from lecture-​based classroom experience to a more discussion-​based classroom. • Collaborative work with other departments such as computer science, math, science, women’s studies. • Interdisciplinary studies. • Integrate readings into curriculum by current authors. • Expose student to various ideas other than your own. • Stay active in field (conferences) and share that work with your students. • Engage students in publication and grant writing with you (undergraduate research assistant program).

Undergraduate Teaching Assistant Our music schools are filled with students excited about pedagogy and students eager to ask tough questions about approaches in the classroom. Music education majors are fortunate to have a full semester of student teaching before they enter the job market. But is that enough? And what about those students planning to attend graduate school who will be offered teaching assistantships? They may have been tutors or taught private lessons, but that isn’t the same as standing in front of a room of 25 students. Students who are interested in teaching on any level should have some introduction and practice before heading off to student teaching and graduate school. Their undergraduate institution may be the safest place to make mistakes and receive honest feedback from a mentor. Oftentimes graduate teaching

Empower the Undergraduate  271 assistants are never observed (I was observed only twice in 5 years of graduate study). Because of this, future collegiate music faculty may not be evaluated in teaching until the first on-​campus interview! Sharing the classroom with your undergraduate allows a supportive, learning environment. I have been fortunate to have mentored more than 30 undergraduate teaching assistants in the past decade. Being a mentor is a rewarding task, but it requires the faculty member to give up a bit of control in the classroom. I ask my undergraduate TAs to observe for the first few weeks of school to get an idea of what is working in the classroom (and what is not). I continually ask for their feedback, and I express my desire for them to be honest with me at all times. No one wants to hear that the entire back row was on Snapchat, but sometimes your TA can be your eyes. I assure my TAs that they are no longer listening to me for content, but observing me to better understand an approach. I tell them that I do not want them to teach just like me, but to find their own authentic teaching style. As the weeks go by, I then ask my TAs to go over homework or present a 5-​minute review. It isn’t until later in the semester that I start to catch them off guard and their “on the job” training begins. I will be teaching at the board, and in the middle of my lecture I will set my marker down and ask the student to take over. There is a look of panic as my TA picks up the marker, but the TAs know I am on the side of the room if they need me. I have had undergraduate TAs immediately thrive in the classroom, and I’ve had undergraduate TAs put their head against the board and say “help” in a whisper. I’ve even had a few TAs decide not to pursue teaching based primarily on their undergraduate teaching assistant experience. One undergraduate TA shared with me his experience in the classroom, saying, “Being a UTA allowed me to dip my toe in the water without falling on my face, it allowed me to make mistakes and figure out who I am as a teacher without the pressure of getting it right all the time.” Other responses from undergraduate TAs continually state the value of practicing various pedagogical approaches in a safe environment. • My experience as a Teaching Assistant has helped me gain trust in myself as a competent and professional educator and has helped me notice and take advantage of the teachable moments that naturally occur both in and outside the classroom. Through this experience, I have also gained insight into classroom management and how to create an environment that equally promotes comfort, creativity, and discipline.—​music education major, general • Being an undergraduate teaching assistant showed me just how much joy I can get from helping others to better appreciate/​understand music.

272  Teaching Music Theory Although at such an early stage in my development, undergraduate teaching exposure proved that pedagogy would be a valuable and rewarding pursuit into my future.—​theory/​composition  major • Being an undergraduate TA has helped me in ways that I’m not sure I have realized fully yet. So far, I  have better understood how to approach a classroom—​more as a lab for teaching and learning as a community rather than an outpouring of knowledge from one individual to another. This is important in classrooms to contribute to the ease that there is no standard time for how long learning takes and each student needs something just a bit different to really be involved in the discussion of conceptual and applied understanding.—​music education major, instrumental

Conclusion Students want to be challenged, and they want us as faculty to genuinely say “I know you can handle this.” Sometimes all it takes is a student asking good questions. Sometimes all it takes is a student saying “I would love to show my approach to my peers.” Our job is to then become a mentor to guide the student toward the answers and toward that experience. So many undergraduates have questions and goals they are afraid to ask out loud for fear of condemnation. We should always encourage questioning and invite them to the table for discussion. They want to be there. And we need to know that although they are different than we may have been during our undergraduate years, they have plenty of insight, passion, and desire to learn. Mark Taylor, author of Crisis on Campus, sums up our role as mentors for the undergraduate in the following way: “Higher education, in my view, has a responsibility to serve the greater social good, and in today’s world this can be accomplished most effectively by cultivating informed citizens who are aware of and open to different cultural perspectives and are willing to engage in reasonable debate about critical issues.”17 Douglass Seaton wrote to the College Music Society that we must embrace change because “change itself will continue to accelerate. We need to learn to thrive on change, to see opportunity when it is still only a glimmer, to make intelligent judgments, and to meet the surprises of our future with a sense of fun rather than fear.”18

17 Taylor 2010. 18 Seaton, n.d.

Empower the Undergraduate  273 Understanding our undergraduates, giving them opportunities to question and design their learning processes, and empowering them to go outside their comfort zones through research and self-​evaluation will welcome in the next generation of scholars, performers, and educators in the field. The future is much brighter than anyone can imagine.

10 Taking the First Steps into Academia In the article “Music Theory Pedagogy Curricula in North America: Training the Next Generation,” Elizabeth Marvin gives insight into what is being taught in music theory pedagogy classes around the country:  “The top five, identified by over 75% of faculty, were: (1) demonstration teaching by students (either for peers in the pedagogy course or in actual undergraduate theory classes), (2) review of textbooks, (3) discussion of articles in pedagogical journals, (4) lectures on pedagogical topics by the faculty, and (5) required observations of classes in the undergraduate theory curriculum.”1 And while all of this information is incredibly vital for the new music theory/​ aural skills teacher and, in fact, has been the basis for much of this text, there are many questions left unanswered for the new professoriate as they move into the job market and into academia. Preparation to become a professor begins in graduate school, and several key factors lay the groundwork for later success.

Graduate School: Setting Up Good Habits Be open to new ideas. Too often, graduate students move into a PhD program focused on one specific research area or career goal. Doing this causes some graduate students to fail to take advantage of opportunities to broaden their research, teaching, or overall understanding of any given number of topics. Many graduate programs have required electives, an opportunity to learn something that may or may not relate to your research or field. I am grateful for the ethnomusicology courses that I took during graduate school as they taught me not only about how to conduct legitimate fieldwork but also about ideas in diversity and inclusion of music. I entered graduate school thinking I would focus only on technology, morphed into an Ives scholar, researched world music and its use in the music theory classroom, and finally settled into a research area on theory pedagogy and musical form. This 1 Marvin 2018, 64. Teaching Music Theory. Jennifer Snodgrass, Oxford University Press (2020). © Oxford University Press. DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780190879945.003.0001

Taking the First Steps into Academia  275 immersion in new ideals helped me to become a well-​rounded scholar and thinker, skills that I still use today. Teach. In many graduate programs, your classroom can become your own laboratory where you can try out new ideas with great success (and failures) well before you are on the job market. Many positions require at least a year of teaching experience where the candidate is the instructor of record (the main instructor, not a graduate assistant). Use the time in graduate school to teach a wide variety of courses, but focus on the theory and aural skills core. Create a teaching video several times during your graduate career, using real students with some of your most concrete and imaginative lesson plans. These teaching videos will come in handy during the job search. The videos also allow you to self-​evaluate to determine how to improve. Invite other graduate students and mentors into your classroom for feedback as well. Do not wait for an official observation. The more feedback you receive, the better. Write and read often. It has been said that the only way to get better at something is to do it often. This is certainly true when it comes to reflective reading and writing, and all graduate students should be engaged in either or both daily. Researching topics and putting ideas into prose is a skill that music theorists must develop in order to be successful in the field. I found that writing groups are extremely helpful in this by holding one accountable to write each week.2 Graduate students must look for opportunities to get their work published early. Many of the papers written for classes can be turned into journal articles or presentations. A topic brought up at a weekly colloquium can become the starting point for a coauthored response. There are now a multitude of journals in the field of music theory, and many have fast turnaround times that immerse graduate students in the revising and editing process before publication. Present at conferences. The annual meeting of the Society for Music Theory is the holy grail for a graduate student in terms of presentation, but with an acceptance rate of just under 25%, it is not wise to limit oneself to just one conference proposal a year.3 As the field expands, there are a multitude of conferences in various subdisciplines, including pedagogy, film music, 2 Graduate students in musicology at the Eastman School of Music meet twice a week in writing groups. They use the Pomodoro method (write for 25 minutes with a 5-​minute break), followed by a recap at the end to discuss goals. Graduate student Trevor Nelson shares, “It’s not only great for writing, but also making the writing/​end stage of the degree less isolating once we’re out of coursework” (correspondence with the author, 2/​4/​2019). 3 As summarized in Gosman 2018.

276  Teaching Music Theory popular music, music of the 18th century, and many more.4 Regional conferences are also a great way to meet people in a more intimate environment. I have found the feedback to be extremely helpful from scholars at the regional meetings, especially in the early years of my career. As one graduate student on the job market shared, “There was a time in which graduate school was an incubator and you were only supposed to concentrate on your dissertation. Times are different now and you must produce.” Challenge yourself to submit several conference proposals during the course of your graduate studies, including proposals to the national conference for the Society for Music Theory, regional theory conferences, graduate student conferences, and other subdiscipline conferences. Find a dissertation adviser who believes in your scholarship. In a recent Twitter post, Jorge J Rodriguez stated, “Don’t look for the ‘most brilliant’ advisor. Look for the person who is kind, who mentors you, lifts you up. Pro-​ tip. Kind folks are usually the most brilliant.”5 The dissertation adviser is perhaps one of the most important relationships in your graduate school career; she or he will be the one to help you achieve your goals in the final stages of the PhD. It is imperative that you choose an adviser who believes in your topic and who will be committed to editing and revising your dissertation or thesis in a timely manner. In order to choose appropriately, take as many courses as you can with different faculty members within the department and talk about your research interests with each one on an individual basis. You will know when a faculty member is trying to talk you out of an idea you are passionate about or when a faculty member is not invested in student mentorship. Find a mentor outside of your university. I presented at several conferences during my graduate studies, and that was where I began to find other mentors who were not affiliated with my university. With these mentors, I found I could be honest about my concerns and failures, and I looked to these faculty members for support throughout my graduate studies as well as in my initial job search. I chose these mentors based on their research area, their knowledge of the field, and also their willingness to have a cup of coffee with a graduate student. While it was extremely nerve-​racking for me to approach these senior scholars, I began the conversation by saying, “I enjoyed your presentation and would love to talk about it more sometime during the conference. Would you have 15 minutes to share your insights with 4 All calls for proposals are listed on the SMT webpage. 5 Rodriguez 2019.

Taking the First Steps into Academia  277 me, including your research process?” I found that most faculty members are more than happy to give their advice and time and that, in some cases, a mentor relationship can bloom out of these initial conversations. As one graduate shared, “I also think a lot of grad students tend to see themselves as ‘lesser’ when it’s okay to treat people as colleagues and not idols on pedestals.” Continue to play. This may have been the best advice given to me by my dissertation adviser, Laszlo Payerle. “No one comes into music theory because they love music theory, they first loved the music,” he said, as he encouraged me to continue to sing in ensembles while I was taking coursework and beginning my dissertation. I found music making to be an outlet for me in between course preps and writing. I took a gamelan course, sang with a professional choir, and performed with a small chamber ensemble all while finishing up my dissertation. These musical opportunities helped in my self-​care but also gave me a community of support beyond individuals directly in my field. Find a significant musical endeavor outside of music theory. It will help you to become a better musician, team player, and scholar. Set goals. As an undergraduate student, most music majors are in class or the studio at least 8 hours per day, including ensembles and rehearsal time. Graduate school is a completely different story, and most graduate students find themselves with 9 hours of course work with a 10-​to 20-​hour assistantship. At the beginning of graduate school, it can seem like there is a bit of time on your hands, but by the end of the first year, all graduate students realize that graduate school is a study in time management and realizing goals within a short amount of time. Setting attainable goals for teaching and writing is essential during this period in a young scholar’s life and is a skill that will help one to be a successful faculty member. Since graduate school, I have set yearly, semester, weekly, and daily goals and have implemented a reward system for each that has helped me to achieve them. The rewards can be as small as going to fill up a water bottle after reading 10 pages or as significant as getting away for the weekend after completing an analysis paper. The important thing about this process is to write the goals down. I find that a yearlong calendar displayed on a wall helps me to keep track of all of my teaching, research, and service projects. It is also helpful to tell people in your support network so they can offer encouragement but also celebrate when the goal is accomplished. Network. In the book The Professor Is In, Karen Kelsky shares the reality of how some graduate students spend time at professional conferences: “a. Wandering forlornly through the hallways of the conference hotel, b. Lurking

278  Teaching Music Theory in corners pretending to read the conference program, and c. hiding in her hotel room.”6 Everyone you meet in graduate school is a potential professional relationship, whether as a coauthor or as a member of a search committee. Attend conferences, say yes when someone invites you to dinner with a large group, and shake hands with as many people as possible. Plan ahead and compile a list of any theorists you might want to talk to and be sure to attend their presentations. Send an email, and after introducing yourself, ask the senior colleague if he or she might be willing to meet for a quick discussion. In all of these activities, the key is to be present and to pay attention. Ask good questions, but mostly listen. Become a name that people recognize.

Getting a Job During my final year of graduate school, I applied for 46 different teaching positions. These positions were at liberal arts colleges, state schools, community colleges, and even a conservatory or two. But, in hindsight, I wasn’t even qualified for some of these jobs, and it was no surprise that I received multiple rejections. I didn’t understand the process from the standpoint of the search committee, nor did I understand how to set myself apart as a candidate. In March of that same year I completely revised my cover letter and curriculum vitae (CV) and began to be as authentic as I could in those materials. With just a few small changes, I managed to secure four on-​site interviews and received two job offers. I learned how to best highlight myself in several key documents and began to really understand the importance of the job posting.

The Job Posting As a search committee chair for several different faculty positions, I am incredibly surprised at how many candidates do not read the job posting. Well, maybe they do, but based on their materials, it doesn’t seem like it! The creation of a job posting is the first assignment for any search committee, and all members must carefully consider every word. For instance, if a posting says a certain skill or degree is required, the committee is not allowed to 6 Kelsky 2015, 123.

Taking the First Steps into Academia  279 even consider an application who doesn’t meet that qualification. If the posting mentions a skill or research area is preferred, candidates with these qualifications will get even more consideration. Search committees have a specific rubric they must follow when reviewing candidates, and this rubric contains every phrase from the job description. If the candidate lists or mentions these qualifications in the cover letter or CV, a check is given in the rubric. If the candidate does not highlight the qualification, a zero is put in the column, and in some cases there is no further review. For instance, a recent job description at Appalachian State University read as follows: An excellent record as a teacher/​scholar and evidence of successful, college-​ level teaching experience. A minimum of two years of teaching experience in the undergraduate theory/​aural skills core as the instructor of record. A doctorate in music theory or related field completed by October 1, 2019. A strong research agenda within music theory and music theory pedagogy and a demonstrated commitment to undergraduate education and current pedagogical practices. The committee is especially interested in candidates with research in any of the following areas: music theory pedagogy, public music theory, distance education, film music, and popular music.

The italicized words are requirements, and each phrase would be a different column in the rubric. The words in bold are preferred qualifications, and candidates with these credentials would be put toward the top of the list, but only after passing the required qualifications. It is imperative that candidates mention or call attention to their skills in relation to the words in italics. All of this can be accomplished through the cover letter and the CV.

The Cover Letter Although incredibly time-​consuming, it is important that any candidate write a specific cover letter for each school to which he or she is applying. It is also vital that he or she reference some of the details about the job description in the letter for reasons as mentioned earlier. There is no set guideline in terms of a length for a cover letter, but more than two pages will become cumbersome for the committee and might be a turnoff. A cover letter should include the following:

280  Teaching Music Theory • A statement of your intention (“It is with great excitement that I apply for the assistant professor position at X University”). • A quick overview of the candidate’s qualifications to match the job description (“I will receive the PhD in music theory in August 2019 and have been teaching on the college level for the past three years”). • A paragraph about the candidate’s teaching style, including any innovative practices implemented. (If the position is more teaching heavy, this section can be expanded to two paragraphs.) • A  paragraph about the candidate’s current research, including a brief mention of presentations and publications. (If research areas are brought up in the job description, this is where one should mention those specific areas. If the position is more research heavy, this section can be expanded to two paragraphs.) • A paragraph about future research (if mentioned in the job description). • A paragraph about the candidate’s contribution to the field, including any service positions held and any awards received. • A closing paragraph that highlights why the candidate is interested in this particular position and what he or she will bring to the institution. The letter should conclude with a thank you to the committee for their consideration. A cover letter is neither the place for the candidate to give a complete prospectus of a dissertation nor the place to tell the committee how many special topics courses one will be teaching once hired. A cover letter is the place to highlight why the candidate is ideal and what skills he or she will bring to the department. It is important to understand the institution’s mission while writing the cover letter in order to see whether one should stress the potential of one’s research or one’s teaching effectiveness. For most music theory positions, the focus will be on teaching undergraduates or mentoring graduate students, so it is imperative to highlight this in a cover letter. Kelsky disputes this in The Professor Is In, stating that teaching and mentoring “are indeed valuable things, and should be supported as general good practice. But make no mistake: They are not things that get a candidate short-​ listed.”7 In the field of music theory, this statement is far from the truth, most positions list teaching as one of the main requirements.

7 Ibid., 25.

Taking the First Steps into Academia  281 The following is a list of action verbs that can be used to highlight your skills in teaching, research, and service within the cover letter. Teaching

Research

Service/​Administrative

mentored advised guided facilitated engaged empowered

assessed determined evaluated discovered disseminated originated

delegated initiated motivated planned recruited supervised

The Curriculum Vitae The curriculum vitae is a summary of the candidate’s academic accomplishments. The goal of the CV is to present the candidate’s educational background and contributions to the field in a format that can be quickly read by search committee members. The CV should contain the following information: • Name (consider using a larger font for the name and make this section separate from the rest of the information). • Contact information (include all phone numbers, mailing address, and email address). • Education (including all degrees and the years degrees were received; if ABD, list expected date of graduation). • Teaching experience (include all courses taught and indicate which were as instructor of record). • Publications (list in standard bibliographic form, typically Chicago style, with the most recent publication first). • Presentations (include all presentations that were peer-​reviewed; for other presentations, such as an invited talk, a separate category may be added so material does not look padded). • Grants (list funding agency and the project title; it is not necessary to include the total amount funded). • Service to campus and community (list any university or schoolwide committees as well as any community outreach programs).

282  Teaching Music Theory • Honors (list any awards received, including dissertation fellowships and teaching awards). • Professional affiliations (list all societies for which you are a member; if serving in an official capacity within a society, be sure to list your official title). • References (if required in job description). The strongest examples of CVs and cover letters can be found by asking for samples from colleagues who were successful on the job market the previous year. Outlines of CVs and cover letters can be tailored for various types of institutions, so be sure to have at least two copies, one that highlights your teaching and one that highlights your research.8

The Teaching Philosophy According to The Academic Job Handbook, the teaching philosophy9 is “better thought of as a brief essay that will give a hiring committee an idea of what you actually do in the classroom.”10 One might start by describing an approach implemented in the classroom that really engaged the students or by outlining a particular lesson that helped students to better understand a given topic. A candidate should write about teaching approaches that he or she has already experienced rather than a future hypothesis of what might work in the classroom. A teaching philosophy can also contain student comments from evaluations and specific feedback on assignments. As you write your teaching philosophy for individual programs, be sure to make yourself aware of the mission of the university so that your aims for student learning are in line. As one scholar mentioned, “So many times grad programs teach you to teach the kinds of undergrads that are at the grad institution, not the kind of students you may encounter at other programs.”11 Perhaps it would be time well spent to visit classrooms at various institutions so that your teaching philosophy can be better tailored for certain programs. Be authentic in this document and highlight what makes



8 Sample CVs and Cover Letters can be found on the website for this book. 9 A sample teaching philosophy can be found on the website for this book.

10 Vick 2016.

11 Mason 2019.

Taking the First Steps into Academia  283 you an effective teacher—​in other words, highlight your own “why” as mentioned in c­ hapter 1.

The On-​Campus Interview The on-​campus interview begins the minute a search committee member meets the candidate at the airport or at the hotel. This final stage of the process is all about observing the candidate’s teaching and how well the candidate handles him-​or herself under certain circumstances while responding in real time.

Teaching More often than not, the teaching demonstration will occur before an actual class of undergraduate students and the topic will be determined by the search committee. It is important that you ask about the student makeup of the class and what students have previously learned well ahead of the scheduled teaching demonstration. It is also appropriate to ask for a class syllabus so you can have an overall understanding of the topics to be taught throughout the semester. While this particular demonstration may be a bit awkward as the students are not yours and a group of faculty members are observing and taking notes, it is the time to highlight your strengths. At some point in the teaching demonstration, you should show evidence of proficiency at the keyboard and should involve the students in some type of performance, whether singing the bass line to a selection to be analyzed or clapping back the rhythms used in a dictation. This short 50-​or 75-​minute time slot has to be used to highlight your best teaching approaches, so within the constraints given by the search committee, be sure to emphasize different musical styles, improvisation or music making, and multiple approaches of feedback in real time. The Interview Before arriving on campus, you must do your research. The more you learn about the department and the institution, the better prepared you will be during the interview process. Read through the mission statements of the institution and department, study faculty profiles and research areas, and understand the basic curriculum designs for all of the degree programs. Many of the questions that will be brought up in the interview will include some of

284  Teaching Music Theory the philosophies of the department or what initiatives have priority at any given time. Depending on the institution there could be several interviews, including time spent with university administration and deans. Be prepared to share your story and to back up your thoughts with real-​life examples from your own research and teaching. Committees are not looking for cookie-​ cutter answers from a textbook; they are looking for a faculty member who can clearly express him-​or herself in a meaningful way. The following are common interview questions:12

1. Why are you interested in the position at X University? 2. Describe yourself as a teacher and how will you distinguish yourself? 3. What textbook would you like to use in your courses and why? 4. How does student feedback shape your teaching? 5. If you could teach any special topics course, what would it be and why? 6. How do you motivate your students? 7. Could you tell us more about your current research and plans for dissemination? 8. Share some of your most meaningful and powerful teaching experiences. 9. In what ways would you like to collaborate with our faculty? 10. How would you describe your teaching style, and how could that best serve our students? 11. Describe some innovative teaching approaches you have integrated, specifically in aural skills and written theory. 12. What are your thoughts on the current theory/​aural skills core curriculum typically taught at most universities? What works well, and what may need further examination? 13. Describe a challenging situation you had with a student. Without disclosing any personal information, how did you handle the situation? 14. Who and what are the greatest influences on your work? 15. How do you balance teaching, research, and service? 16. What impact do you see yourself having on the field of music theory in five years? Ten years? 17. Why did you become a music theorist? 18. What do you want your students to know and be able to do by the end of a music theory core sequence?

12 For more interview questions, see Conway and Hodgman 2009 and Vick et al. 2016.

Taking the First Steps into Academia  285 19. What are some innovative ways you assess students in music theory? In aural skills? 20. Do you have any questions for the committee? The correct answer to this last question is yes, and be prepared to ask questions related to curriculum, resources for faculty, and other topics related to evaluation for promotion and tenure or general expectations of faculty members.

Preparing for Academia Mark Twain once said, “Keep away from people who try to belittle your ambitions. Small people always do that, but the really great make you feel that you, too, can become great.”13 One of the most important lessons I have learned both in graduate school and in my first years in academia was to develop a supportive network. My adviser once told me to surround myself with supporters of my work and those who will be honest when I need it. I have taken this to heart and continue to be a member of writing groups and other mentor groups on campus and within the theory community. These groups have provided me validation, feedback, insight, and friendship that have helped me navigate this field for some 20 years. I am now in the position that I can return the favor to junior scholars. Beyond that supportive environment, I have learned that it is OK to ask questions, no matter the rank or accolades achieved. As we leave graduate school, we are well prepared to face the world of academia when it comes to content and, in some ways, teaching that content, but less prepared for some of the day-​to-​day responsibilities expected of a faculty member, both inside and outside the classroom. As new members of academia, junior scholars no longer have an assigned adviser to guide their research, and they have to become their own guide. New faculty members also might quickly realize that they will be teaching the same topics over and over and thus need to think of new ways to invent themselves as teachers and ask very difficult pedagogical questions. Toward the end of my own pedagogy course, I ask my students to submit a question on an index card about any topic they want to discuss concerning teaching or university life. The following list represents questions from both

13 Quote first attributed to Twain in MacLaren 1938, 66.

286  Teaching Music Theory undergraduate and graduate students, many of whom are now teaching on either the high school or university level, as well as questions sent to me by junior faculty members.

Student Issues—​Content 1. A student has shown they can hear if their intonation is correct, but has so much trouble singing in tune. What can you do to help? 2. How do you respond to the student that says they hate aural skills? 3. How do you inspire students to invest in their future through your class?

Student Issues—​Well-​Being and Class Management 4. What if a student starts crying during every single sight singing exam? 5. How do you address student depression or potential suicide? 6. How do you help students whose lives outside of class are causing focus issues in class? 7. What’s the most ridiculous thing you’ve ever had happen in class and how did you handle it? 8. What do you do if a physical fight breaks out in class? 9. What do you do if a student regularly falls asleep in your class? 10. How do you handle the student that constantly answers every question before the rest of the class without discouraging her/​him? 11. What do you do when a student feels inferior in class due to minority issues? 12. What do you do if a student constantly questions your credentials in an effort to take trust in you away from other students? 13. How do you motivate students who don’t believe your class is worthwhile?

Student Issues—​Evaluation 14. How do you handle a student who tries and obviously puts in the work but cannot grasp the material?

Taking the First Steps into Academia  287 15. If you say a take home test is due in class and a student puts it in your box instead, what do you do? 16. What do you do when a student always has some sort of emergency and because of this is never prepared? 17. What do you do when a student is only interested in the grade? 18. What if a student refuses to use your methods, constantly saying, “My old teacher said . . . ?” 19. What is the best approach with working with students who are constantly late, but are well-​prepared? 20. What do you do with a student who always does very well on tests, but doesn’t turn in daily homework? 21. What percentage of the final grade should be given to attendance? 22. How would you go about addressing a student who misses too much class, but clearly understands the material? 23. How do you explain that some things require effort, patience and dedication without discouraging your students? 24. How do you deal with a student that says they already know everything, but really doesn’t?

University Issues 25. What is a typical course load and how does that compare with class preps? 26. How do you say no when asked to sit on committees? 27. How do I begin to create a budget for my division? 28. What are the different expectations between a R1 and a Teaching Intensive Institution? 29. Do schools reprimand professors/​ teachers for passing too many students? If so, how do you handle it when many students deserve the high grade? 30. What do you do if a fellow teacher says and does things regularly that make you feel uncomfortable? 31. What if a student claims they have been sexually assaulted by another faculty member? 32. How do you handle a colleague who is constantly disagreeable? 33. What do you do when other faculty undermine your teaching and/​or research?

288  Teaching Music Theory 34. What do you do if you feel like you are not being allowed to teach the way you know is the most pedagogically sound?

Other 35. Are there careers outside of academia that might be interested in my training and skills? 36. How do you balance being a teacher and a life mentor? Where do you draw the line? 37. In terms of reference letters, who does a search committee want to see letters from? Many of the answers to these questions can be found by sharing stories of experience, whether about what worked or what produced even more challenges. Other questions are best answered by representatives on campuses and other sources. But these questions must be asked and answered. These questions are just the starting point for discussion and provide an honest glimpse into what newly minted PhDs are facing as they head into the classroom and into the field.14

14 Responses to many of these questions are featured on the text’s corresponding blog. https:// bridgingthemusictheorygap.wordpress.com/.

11 What the Effective Music Theory Instructors Do Ken Bain concludes his book What the Best College Teachers Do with the following question:  “Can we learn from the insights of highly effective teachers?”1. I propose that we add the following questions in regard to effective aural skills and theory teaching: Why should we learn from the insights of highly effective music theory instructors? How can we learn from the insights of highly effective music theory instructors? What can we learn from the insights of highly effective music theory instructors?

None of the instructors highlighted in this text taught in the exact same manner, nor did any of the teachers share the same teaching philosophies or background. However, based on the observations and interviews of the most effective instructors, 10 key elements rise to the top that were shared by all.

1.  They love music Experiencing musical sound creates powerful moments for the most effective teachers, and I observed countless instructors closing their eyes while music played in the classroom in order that they could savor every pitch, motive, or rhythm. The students who were watching the instructor knew without a doubt that he or she was compelled by the sounds, the form, and the overall structure. All of the most effective instructors love music to their core. 1 Bain 2004, 173. Teaching Music Theory. Jennifer Snodgrass, Oxford University Press (2020). © Oxford University Press. DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780190879945.003.0001

290  Teaching Music Theory

2.  They know their material The most successful instructors are also exceptional music theorists, and all are beyond proficient in the areas of analysis and aural skills. They are knowledgeable about terminology, literature, and various teaching methods and only ask students to complete tasks that they also can complete.

3.  They are extremely talented at asking questions As Eleanor Duckworth says so eloquently in the article “5 Great Teachers on What Makes a Great Teacher,” the best way to teach is by “getting people to think about what they think, and asking them questions about it.”2 The instructors presented in this study are masterful at asking appropriate questions to help the student arrive at a conclusion. This approach goes well beyond arriving at a correct answer; great instructors share the philosophy that students develop independent thought by challenging themselves to think in new ways.

4.  They care about their students as people and believe that they can be successful. The most successful teachers show compassion for their students and follow the motto of humans first, students second. The classroom environment is of vital importance, and each effective teacher purposely sets about to create a safe, engaging, and caring space for questioning and growth. The majority of instructors presented in the text also were asked, “What does a successful student look like?” While a few teachers mentioned grades, successful placement in graduate school or orchestras, or even attendance in class, most focused on the success of learning. William Harbinson stated that the successful student is “engaged, dedicated to learning, and willing to ask questions.”3 Steve Holley answered with “one who develops the ability to become a lifelong learner and independent learner. The successful

2 Kamenetz 2014. 3 Response provided by Harbinson via questionnaire on Survey Monkey on 9/​19/​2016.

What the Effective Music Instructors Do  291 student would understand that skill development takes time, hard work, and effort and would embrace those opportunities to improve, try new things, question methods and approaches, and seek challenges.”4 In the words of Steven Laitz: The successful student is one who values him or herself as a member of the world of musical artistry. This student possesses the critical ingredient of curiosity, an attribute that extends past listening to and being moved by all music, not just that which they play. The successful student must possess a deep and abiding trust that what they are being taught in theory, ear training, keyboard, and history courses will pay off, that what they learn will be wed with the music they hear and play and each will reinforce the other. When that G♭ in Schubert’s opening of the last piano sonata in B♭ ominously appears out of nowhere and falls to F, students must be drawn to this anomaly, this event marked for consciousness, and ask why. Music is drama, a narrative, a life, but one that may not be fully understood, one that presents a locked door that stunts a student’s comprehension and thus ability to develop their personal narrative. The study of music theory and the teaching of the discipline is the key that unlocks this door and allows the student access to artistry.5

5.  They have multiple ways of assessing their students As mentioned in c­hapter  8, the most effective teachers seek to create assessments that truly tell the story of a student’s mastery and understanding of the material. None of the effective teachers teach to a test or write assessments to “trick” students; they use various methods both inside and outside of the classroom to evaluate their students, often altering assessment methods from year to year based on student populations.

4 Response provided by Holley via questionnaire on Survey Monkey on 4/​02/​2017. 5 Steven Laitz, personal communication with the author, 2/​20/​2019.

292  Teaching Music Theory

6.  They are constantly evaluating themselves as teachers and reinventing their approaches Most of the outstanding teachers evaluate themselves at least twice a semester, including a midsemester student evaluation in which they take comments into account as they prepare the remainder of the semester’s goals. These instructors also seek feedback from colleagues in terms of teaching approaches and continually restructure their teaching based on this feedback or in their own development through research.

7.  They stay active in the field and continue to grow Effective teachers do no rest on their laurels. While some may not have large research portfolios per se, all of the successful teachers were well versed in current pedagogical trends and reached out to others for discussion on an annual basis through conferences, social media, or other outlets. Beyond the classroom, they continue to explore the field through their personal research, which many times appears within their classroom lectures. Their research greatly informs their teaching.

8.  They view every challenging event as a teaching moment The most successful teachers embrace challenges and view them as a way to grow. This philosophy is often imparted on their students. They do not blame students for anything that goes wrong in the classroom. Instead, they accept ownership if an example was played wrong or if a concept was unclear, and they teach through those moments. They also are happy to share instances of their teaching or professional career that didn’t go as planned and mentor students in how they might have done something different.

9.  They listen to learn Effective teachers listen. They listen to their students, their colleagues, and their administrators. Many of them think carefully before they speak, eager

What the Effective Music Instructors Do  293 to collect information before giving their own insight. When a student asks a question in class, they never cut them off but carefully gather all details before responding. So many of the successful instructors cite listening as a way in which to grow as a scholar and an educator.

10.  They understand their “why” Perhaps most important, the most successful and effective teachers know their “why.” They know why their students should understand both written music theory and aural skills. They know why they are in the classroom and realize the importance of their role as an instructor. And they know the true end goal of their teaching approaches rests in their ability to instill trust in their students to be capable of asking their own questions, even if there isn’t always a clear answer.

Epilogue Why I Am a Music Theorist I grew up in a home filled with music. My parents were amateur songwriters; my father played the guitar, and my mother, the piano and autoharp. I don’t remember a time when I didn’t sing, and harmony was something I just felt; I was never really taught how it worked. My life changed at the age of seven when I checked out my first Beverly Sills album at the local library. I listened to that album over and over and fell in love with opera and all things classical music. My parents found a voice teacher who would take me at the age of 7, and I spent the next 11 years with Robert Turner learning languages, librettos, and technique. I auditioned for the Virginia Opera in the fourth grade and became one of the children who performed during the entire season, playing a street urchin in Un Ballo in Maschera, a gingerbread man in Hansel and Gretel, a choirboy in Cavalleria Rusticana, and a tourist in Carmen, among many other roles. Those 4  years spent with the opera company, touring around the Mid-​Atlantic on a bus with Renée Fleming before she made her Met debut, were life-​altering for me and left me with the dream of becoming a professional opera singer. After winning several singing competitions during my high school years, I enrolled as a voice performance major at Meredith College in Raleigh, North Carolina. I knew I loved to sing and wanted to perform, but I also craved the liberal arts education of a smaller college. I had an abundance of performance and academic opportunities during my undergraduate career, and by my junior year, I  was able to travel up to New  York and secure lessons with a well-​known voice teacher. It was during one of these lessons that I heard the words that every singer fears: “Go have your cords scoped.” Within 2 weeks, I was diagnosed with pre-​nodules, I had failed on my recital hearing, and I had to drop out of my opera lead due to mandatory voice rest. I found myself in a place of not knowing my purpose as a musician. I had wanted to be a performer for the past 14 years, and within this short amount of time, my dream and my “why” were over.

296 Epilogue Within those same 2 weeks, my theory professor, Dr.  Anthony Vaglio, encouraged me to replace some of the hours of voice classes and lessons with independent studies in analysis and theory pedagogy. I  had always been good at theory, and he felt that I might enjoy some upper-​level training now that I had time on my hands. I began to tutor several nights a week and became enthralled with the learning process: how students worked through a problem, how I could say things in multiple ways in order for students to understand the concept, how a student would have that light bulb moment based on making connections to sound and symbol. I was hooked. One evening I was tutoring a freshman voice major, and I was so excited about going through some basic analysis with her that I would erase the board with my hands because I didn’t want to take the time to find the eraser. When I got in the elevator that night to go back to my dorm, I studied the marks on my hands. I knew at that moment that my future was in music theory, and although I still sing, I have never regretted my decision to move to this field. My “why” is in making an impact with my students; my “why” is in training musicians and not just singers, guitarists, pianists, etc.; my “why” is in knowing how much there is to still learn about how students think; and my “why” is that I truly love to teach. I still erase the board with my hands and quickly look down in the middle of my lectures to remind myself of where I came from and how important my role as a theory professor is in the lives of my students. I encourage all those teaching music theory and aural skills to find your own why and to tell your own story. Students will appreciate knowing how you have arrived in the field, and you will be a better teacher knowing why you are in the classroom in the first place.

 Appendix Participation Letter Two hundred instructors of music theory were contacted about participating in the study that serves as one of the premises for this text. The body of the letter included the following: As outstanding teachers in the field of music theory and aural skills, you are being contacted to participate in an exciting new research project. It is my goal to highlight the approaches of teachers in order to evaluate trends in teaching philosophies and practices. The results of this study will be published in a new music theory pedagogy textbook, due for publication with Oxford University Press. My research will highlight impactful approaches to teaching music theory with substantial real-​life examples from instructors across the country, based upon on-​site observations and survey results. Along with answering some of the important questions of “how” and “why” we study music theory, this research seeks to emphasize topics that are missing within current pedagogical texts, such as standardized assessment and mentoring. The most important feature of this text will be its inclusion of thoughts from outstanding educators, both from the university and high school level. This textbook will include philosophies, rationales, lesson plans, and assessment ideas that can immediately be transferred into any undergraduate or high school music classroom. The initial portion of this project involves your anonymous response to a short survey at https://​www.surveymonkey.com/​r/​musictheory. At the conclusion of the survey, you will have an opportunity to leave your contact information for a possible on-​site observation of your classroom instruction. During the on-​site observations, I will be focusing only on the positive aspects of your classroom environment, your means of assessment, and your interaction with your students. Please feel free to contact me directly with any questions. I truly look forward to hearing from you.

Questions from the Survey A total of 135 instructors responded to the survey mentioned in the initial letter. The survey included the following questions:

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Please check all degrees awarded (B.M., M.M., Ph.D., other). List years of teaching experience (sliding scale 0–​35+). Please list levels and courses taught. In three words, how would you describe your teaching style? Describe one of your proudest moments as a teacher.

298 Appendix 6. Describe a challenging moment in your classroom and how you overcame the challenge. 7. What unique, innovative teaching methodologies do you implement in your classroom? 8. If applicable, in what ways do you prepare your students for the study of music on the university level? 9. What does a successful student look like? 10. How do you define music theory? How do you define aural skills? 11. Why do students need to study these two topics? 12. In your opinion, has the teaching of music theory and aural skills changed over the past 10 years? If so, how? If not, should there be changes? 13. Would you be willing to be contacted for an observation? If so, please provide your name and contact information below.

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Index Advanced Placement Music Theory (AP),  96–​102 acceptance by universities, 97 advice to test takers, 101–​102 content,  97–​100 exam and course description, 96 number of students taking test, 26, 96 sections of exam, 97–​100 Alberti, Alex, 8–​9, 140 Alford, Travis, 58 altered predominant, 168–​174 augmented sixth chord, 169–​172 neapolitan sixth chord, 172–​173, 177 analysis collaborative, 61–​64, 66, 257 parametric, 67 psychoanalysis, 185 purposes of, 10, 34, 143, 236 questioning through, 10, 59, 168, 189, 203 writing about (written assignments), 26–​27, 62, 239–​244 applied chords. See altered predominant assessment criteria, 73 formative, 232, 244–​247, 251 immediate, 113–​114, 122, 233–​235 improvisation, 85 low-​stakes, 113, 235, 254 placement exam, 127, 232–​233 pre-​test, 127–​128 purpose of, 228, 233 self-​assessment, 117, 244–​245, 249 sight singing, 84–​88, 198, 205, 226, 245, 253, 255 Smart Music, 65, 80–​81 standards based grading, 72–​74, 251–​254 summative, 231–​233, 235 take home exams, 236–​237, 287 technology, 235

attendance policies, 260–​261, 265 audiation, 34, 111, 197, 199–​200, 204–​205,  227 augmented sixth chord. See altered predominant aural skills creative activities, 108–​110, 112, 117–​120, 197–​203, 209, 213–​214, 216–​220 definition, 13, 18–​20, 190, 221–​222,  298 integration into theory classroom, 31, 135, 141–​142, 156–​158, 162–​164, 166, 170–​172 purpose of, 2, 13, 19   Bain, Ken, 50, 52, 57, 237, 289 Baker, Nathan, 7, 72–​75, 203–​204, 209, 214–​215, 251, 264 Baker, Paul, 52 Bakker, Sara, 181–​183 bass line, 142, 150–​151, 167, 205, 212–​213, 222–​223 Boge, Claire, 7, 167–​168, 239 borrowed chords. See mode mixture Bourne, Janet, 246–​247 Burstein, Poundie, 4, 43, 146, 173 Burt, Patricia, 183–​186   cadence, 119, 145–​146, 153, 173–​174, 181–​182,  244 Callahan, Michael, 58 Chattah, Juan, 6, 173 Chenette, Timothy, 13 circle of fifths, 119, 121, 132–​133, 140 classroom assessment techniques (CAT), 244, 246 class schedules High school, 9, 103–​104 University level, 104

308 Index classroom environment environment of respect, 51–​53, 55–​56,  108 power, sharing of, 51–​53, 55 rapport, creation of, 51–​53, 56, 69–​70 Clendinning, Jane, 122, 174, 176 collaboration advantages, 59–​60, 68, 232, 268 examples of, 9, 53, 61–​62, 108, 130, 156, 239 projects in, 62–​64, 117–​118, 181–​182,  249 College Music Society, 4–​5, 173, 257, 272 composition, 6, 11, 22, 27, 77–​78, 117, 149, 187–​188 conferences, 268, 270, 275–​277, 292 contextual listening, 49, 216–​220 counterpoint, 17, 41, 45, 47–​48, 125, 159, 178–​180,  234 counting syllables Gordon counting syllables, 35, 195, 197 Kodály counting syllables, 195 McHose/​Tibbs syllables, 195–​196 Takadimi syllables, 9, 130, 181, 194–​ 196, 202–​207, 217 cover letter, 278–​282 Cummings, Craig, 52, 245 curriculum current trends, 7, 22–​28 design, 33–​42,  48–​49 discussion, beginning a, 15–​16, 18,  44–​46 ordering and pacing, 33–​42, 48–​49, 128–​129 reform, 5–​8, 7, 31, 44–​45 curriculum vitae, 279–​282   Davis, Stacey, 57, 249 Dehner, David, 13 diversity incorporation of, 7, 21 , 27, 115 musical literature or styles 24, 37, 96, 220 Do-​Ti test, 181, 211–​212 drill and repetition, 65, 100, 139, 235, 248   ear training. See aural skills England, Richard, 125

enrollment high school ensembles, 91, 118 university music programs, 91, 257 error detection, 9, 25–​27, 113, 118, 215–​216 evaluation. See assessment   feedback, 60, 109, 113–​115, 117–​118, 157, 226–​227, 232, 235, 245–​246, 248, 275–​276,  284 figured bass, 98, 128, 148, 155, 159 first day of class, 29, 53, 68–​71, 126, 128, 257–​258 freshmen, teaching of, 31, 205, 209, 257–​258 Fuhrmann, Christina, 265 fundamentals order of topics, 33, 48, 128–​129, 135 pre-​test,  128 purpose of, 3, 16, 19, 125, 127, 142 speed in, 41, 235   gaming, 247–​249 Gillespie, Jeffrey, 128–​129, 136, 239 golden circle, 1–​2 Gonzales, Cynthia, 158–​159 grading rubrics, 74, 86–​87, 238, 248, 253 GRAMMY music educator award, 8, 95, 115, 122   Harbinson, William, 290 harmonic dictation AP music theory exam, 98–​99 approaches in teaching, 109, 111, 121, 211–​215 purposes of, 12, 47, 207 use of do-​ti test, 181, 211–​212 Harrison, Sarah, 102, 110, 111 Hoag, Melissa, 201, 205 Hoffman, Richard, 61, 203 Holley, Steve, 114–​116, 290 Hooktheory, 166 Huener, Thomas, 201–​202 hybrid classes, 95   improvisation evaluation of, 85 exercises, keyboard, 156–​157

Index  309 exercises, singing, 130, 141, 196, 200, 202–​203, 221–​225 integration of, 21–​23, 26–​28, 220, 382 integration. See aural skills: integration into theory classroom; diversity: musical literature or styles; improvisation: integration of intervals in aural skills, 39, 41, 99, 101, 106, 135–​137,  227 in written theory, 38, 132, 135–​137 purposes of learning, 15, 17, 20, 25, 27–​ 28, 47, 190 iPad, use in teaching, 68   Jacobs, Edwards, 58 jazz theory, topics in, 26–​28, 39, 186–​188 Jemian, Rebecca, 181, 216–​217 Jenkins, Daniel J., 13, 155–​158, 252 job posting, 278–​279   Kahoot!, 133, 234 Kapica, Chris, 38, 153–​154 Karpinski, Gary, 190 key signatures, 10, 25, 27–​28, 34, 38, 128, 131–​136,  235 keyboard integration in classroom, 27, 35, 139–​ 140, 142, 155–​157, 283 lab, 155–​156 Kleppinger, Stanley, 79–​82 Kodály hand signs, 108–​109, 111, 160, 198–​200, 204–​205   Laitz, Steve, 33, 40, 173, 175, 291 lead sheets aural skills, use in, 162, 165, 206 curriculum introducing, 15, 26, 48 Hooktheory, 166 written theory, use in, 48, 141, 143, 151, 161–​162, 164–​165 Little, Nick, 8, 14, 120, 132 Livings, Melissa, 55 Lovell, Jeffrey, 222 Lynch, Erik, 118–​120   Marlowe, Sarah, 13, 68 Marvel, David, 266

Marvin, Elizabeth, 122, 174, 176, 274 Marvin, William, 190, 192 McCandless, Greg, 43–​44, 48, 172–​173 McKay, David, 206–​207 Medina-​Gray, Elizabeth, 212–​214 melodic dictation AP music theory exam, 98–​99 approaches in teaching, 108–​109, 111, 113, 209, 210 purposes of, 25 memes, 133–​134 mentorship, 116, 256, 259, 267–​272, 275–​277,  285 Mitchel, Rachel, 230 Miyake, Jan, 231, 251 modes placement within curriculum, 27–​28, 34,  39–​40 recognition, 59, 132, 186–​187 singing of, 112 mode mixture (borrowed chords) notating, 167–​168 placement within curriculum, 35, 39, 49 recognizing in musical context, 165–​167, 206, 220 modulation aural skills, in, 176–​178, 193, 206, 217 definition, 173–​174 placement within curriculum, 25–​26, 28, 29, 48–​49 Monahan, Seth, 179–​180 motivating students, 7, 230, 247, 249, 260–​266,  286 music theory definition, 13, 18–​19, 29–​30, 112, 298 purpose of study, 12–​13, 19–​20, 29, 293   National Association of Schools of Music (NASM),  15–​17 National Conference on Undergraduate Research (NCUR), 268 Naxer, Meghan, 52, 247–​248, 250 neapolitan Sixth chords. See altered predominant Neville, Cory, 102 Newton, Alex, 248

310 Index Oklahoma Music Theory Roundtable, 5 Oravitz, Michael, 152–​153   Padlet,  65–​67 Palfy, Cora, 220–​222 part-​writing. See also voice leading AP music theory exam, 98–​99 approaches in teaching, 120, 157, 159, 245 purposes of, 155, 159–​160 trends, changes in, 22, 24, 26–​28, 146–​ 149, 154–​155 Paul, David, 153 Peebles, Crystal, 208–​210 period(s) approaches in teaching, 64, 181 placement within curriculum, 35, 48 phrase(s) approaches in teaching, 68, 109–​110, 132, 146, 153, 205, 210, 219, 225, 232, 242–​243 placement within curriculum, 34–​35, 41, 48–​49, 125, 168, 180–​181 purposes of teaching, 29–​30 Piagentini, Susan, 53, 197, 210 piano. See keyboard Picardy, 65, 248–​249 Popular music approaches in teaching, 110, 130–​131, 141, 144, 150–​151, 164, 166, 206 data on use in music theory classrooms, 4,  23–​24 integration, 2, 5, 31, 38–​40, 48–​49, 70, 115–​116, 150–​151,  258 Priest, Greg, 113–​114 progression, harmonic composing and singing, 147, 168, 176, 200, 215 dictation of, 121, 211–​212, 215 placement within curriculum, 36–​37, 39, 41, 48–​49 teaching of, 141, 146–​147, 149–​150, 221, 224 T-​S-​D-​T, 146–​147, 149–​150, 152, 156, 221   repertoire diversity of, 23–​24, 31–​32 student choice in, 22–​23, 216, 239, 240

Report of the Task Force on the Undergraduate Music Major (TFUMM), 5, 6, 21 rhythm AP music theory exam, 98–​101 counting syllables, 119, 191, 194–​197 dictation, 9, 54, 113, 210, 218–​219 introduction, 129–​130, 197 placement within curriculum, 34–​38, 41–​42,  49 reading, 202–​204, 206–​207 Richardson, Mark, 20 Rifkin, Deborah, 125 Riggs, Phillip, 95 Rogers, Michael, 10, 127, 147, 172, 255 Rogers, Nancy, 20 roman numerals. See also progression, harmonic AP music theory exam, 98 approaches in teaching, 121–​122, 143–​ 146, 211–​213, 235–​236 placement within curriculum, 38, 48–​49 purposes of teaching, 142, 147–​148 Romano, Charlene, 52, 225 Root, Jena, 54, 223–​224, 253, 255 Rosas, Dina, 116–​118   Sato, Akira, 111–​113 scales approaches in teaching, 108, 112, 127, 133–​134 introduction, 121–​122, 131 placement within curriculum, 27–​28, 34, 36, 38–​39, 42, 128, 131 singing, 145, 160, 166, 197, 201, 227 secondary function approaches in teaching, 58, 166, 188, 213 based on scale degrees, 164 introduction, 161–​165 placement within curriculum, 26–​28, 35, 38, 40, 48–​49, 61 recognizing in musical context, 164–​165 Shafer, Jennifer, 62, 251 Short, Rachel, 68 sight singing. See also solmization symbols AP music theory exam, 96–​101

Index  311 approaches in teaching, 202, 204, 225–​ 226, 245, 253, 255 auditation, 34, 111, 197, 199–​200, 204–​205,  227 introduction and warm-​ups, 108, 112, 200 matrix, 109, 224 placement within curriculum, 3, 23, 25, 27, 34–​37, 40 purposes of, 20, 192, 198, 207, 216 within musical context, 202, 206 Sinek, Simon, 1–​3, 16 Sly, Gordon, 58–​59 Smart Music, 65, 80–​81 solmization symbols fixed do, 41, 190–​194 la-​based minor, 190–​191, 194 moveable do, 36, 193 note names, 120, 158, 191–​193, 213, 222 scale degrees, 191–​193, 197, 199 sonata form approaches in teaching, 62, 64, 183–​184, 186, 238 placement within curriculum, 42, 45, 48 songwriting. See composition Stahly, Robert, 108–​110 standards based grading. See assessment Stevens, Daniel, 196 Stroud, Cara, 61 student success after graduation, 264–​265, 274 definition, 8–​9, 55, 59, 115, 118, 157, 291 survey (regarding theory curriculum and teaching) McConville and Murphy (2017), 25, 28, 191 Society for Music Theory (2015), 3, 5, 21, 26 Swapp, Neil, 188 syllabus examples of, 72–​90, 187, 230, 252 information contained in, 71

Taggart, Mark, 52 teaching philosophy, 116, 121, 282, 292 Team teaching. See collaboration technology in assessment, 133, 234–​235, 248–​249 in classroom, 4, 23, 31–​32, 38, 51, 65–​ 66, 95, 118 in creative projects, 61, 65–​68 YouTube, 65 Ted Talk, 1, 29 tests, See assessment TFUMM. See Report of the Task Force thuries, 237–​238 tonicization, 161, 165, 173–​174 Trantham, Gene, 7, 13, 55, 137–​138, 265 triads AP music theory exam, 99–​100 approaches in teaching, 140–​142, 158, 181, 222 assessment of, 235, 247, 252 introduction, 112, 137–​139 placement within curriculum, 25, 27, 34–​35, 38–​41, 49, 128 within musical context, 202, 206   undergraduate music major, 5–​6, 256–​260 undergraduate research, 268–​270 undergraduate teaching, 167, 270–​272   VanHandel, Leigh, 132–​133 Variations Timeline, 65, 182 voice-​leading. See also part writing focus on, 110, 117, 120, 147, 155, 157–​ 160, 169–​170, 224 placement within curriculum, 34, 38–​39,  48–​49   Wacker, Lori, 245–​246 Wallace, Barbara, 139–​141, 186 Weaver, Jennifer, 55, 187–​188 White, John, 53, 202–​203 Word Clouds, 15–​17 NASM, 16 University of California Santa Barbara, 17