Teaching Literacy in Fifth Grade [1 ed.] 9781462530946, 9781593853419

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ebook THE GUILFORD PRESS

TEACHING LITERACY IN FIFTH GRADE

TOOLS FOR TEACHING LITERACY Donna Ogle and Camille Blachowicz, Series Editors This highly practical series includes two kinds of books: (1) grade-specific titles for first-time teachers or those teaching a particular grade for the first time; (2) books on key literacy topics that cut across all grades, such as integrated instruction, English language learning, and comprehension. Written by outstanding educators who know what works based on extensive classroom experience, each research-based, 7″ × 10″ volume is packed with hands-on activities, reproducibles, and best practices for promoting student achievement. These books are suitable for undergraduate- or graduate-level courses; preservice teachers will find them informative and accessible.

TEACHING LITERACY IN SIXTH GRADE Karen Wood and Maryann Mraz

TEACHING LITERACY IN KINDERGARTEN Lea M. McGee and Lesley Mandel Morrow

INTEGRATING INSTRUCTION: LITERACY AND SCIENCE Judy McKee and Donna Ogle

TEACHING LITERACY IN SECOND GRADE Jeanne R. Paratore and Rachel L. McCormack

TEACHING LITERACY IN FIRST GRADE Diane Lapp, James Flood, Kelly Moore, and Maria Nichols

PARTNERING FOR FLUENCY Mary Kay Moskal and Camille Blachowicz

TEACHING LITERACY THROUGH THE ARTS Nan L. McDonald and Douglas Fisher

TEACHING LITERACY IN FIFTH GRADE Susan I. McMahon and Jacqueline Wells

TEACHING LITERACY in Fifth Grade Susan I. McMahon Jacqueline Wells Series Editors’ Note by Donna Ogle and Camille Blachowicz

THE GUILFORD PRESS New York London

© 2007 The Guilford Press A Division of Guilford Publications, Inc. 72 Spring Street, New York, NY 10012 www.guilford.com All rights reserved Except as indicated, no part of this book may be reproduced, translated, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming, recording, or otherwise, without written permission from the Publisher. Printed in the United States of America This book is printed on acid-free paper. Last digit is print number:

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LIMITED PHOTOCOPY LICENSE These materials are intended for use only by qualified professionals. The Publisher grants to individual purchasers of this book nonassignable permission to reproduce all materials for which photocopying permission is specifically granted in a footnote. This license is limited to you, the individual purchaser, for use with your own clients or students. It does not extend to additional professionals in your institution, school district, or other setting, nor does purchase by an institution constitute a site license. This license does not grant the right to reproduce these materials for resale, redistribution, or any other purposes (including but not limited to books, pamphlets, articles, video- or audiotapes, and handouts or slides for lectures or workshops). Permission to reproduce these materials for these and any other purposes must be obtained in writing from the Permissions Department of Guilford Publications. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data McMahon, Susan I. Teaching literacy in fifth grade / Susan I. McMahon, Jacqueline Wells. p. cm. — (Tools for teaching literacy) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN-13: 978-1-59385-340-2 (pbk.: alk. paper) ISBN-10: 1-59385-340-8 (pbk.: alk. paper) ISBN-13: 978-1-59385-341-9 (hardcover: alk. paper) ISBN-10: 1-59385-341-6 (hardcover: alk. paper) 1. Language arts (Elementary). 2. Elementary school teaching. 3. Fifth grade (Education). I. Wells, Jacqueline. II. Title. III. Series. LB1576.M399 2007 372.6—dc22 2006016362

To my sister, Kim, and my nieces, Samantha, Rebecka, and Michaeilee, who keep me grounded and provide me support and happiness —S. I. M. To my parents, who instilled in me not only the love of reading, but also the importance of reading —J. W.

ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Susan I. McMahon, PhD, is a professor of reading and language in the Curriculum and Instruction Program at National-Louis University, where she teaches primarily master’s- and doctoral-level students. She began her professional career as an English teacher and taught at both the middle and high school levels in rural, urban, and suburban settings for 16 years. After completing her PhD in literacy development with an emphasis in reading, Susan accepted a position at the University of Wisconsin–Madison, where she taught for 7 years. Her research interests focus on classroom-based assessment of students’ comprehension. She has spent several years working with districts to develop assessment tools that inform instruction. Her publications include The Book Club Connection: Literacy Learning and Classroom Talk and several book chapters and journal publications, including “Fifth Graders Helping Peers Discuss Texts in Student-Led Groups,” which won the Harold E. Mitzel Award for Meritorious Contribution to Educational Practice through Research. Susan continues to work with elementary school teachers to improve their literacy instruction and assessment. Jacqueline Wells, MS, earned her BA in elementary education from the University of Iowa and her MS in reading curriculum and instruction from the University of Wisconsin–Madison. In 1998, the International Reading Association (IRA) awarded her a Teacher as Researcher Grant. She was also a presenter at annual conventions of the IRA on topics such as student discourse, Book Club, and integrated curriculum. Jacqueline has 16 years of teaching experience at the elementary level and is currently a fifth-grade teacher in the small, suburban community of Waunakee, Wisconsin. In her current school district, she serves as building coordinator in communication arts, member of the contract negotiations team, and mentor to new teachers. In 2005, her peers elected her Teacher of the Year. vii

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s teacher educators and staff developers, we have become aware of the need for a series of books for thoughtful practitioners who want a practical, research-based introduction to teaching literacy at specific grade levels. Preservice and beginning teachers want to know how to be as effective as possible; they also know there are great differences in what students need across grade levels. We have met teacher after teacher who, when starting to teach or teaching a new grade, asked for a guide targeted at their specific grade level. Until now we have not had a resource to share with them. We also collaborate with staff developers and study group directors who want effective inservice materials that they can use with teachers at many different levels yet that still provide specific insights for individual grade levels. Thus the Tools for Teaching Literacy series was created. This series is distinguished by two innovative characteristics designed to make it useful to individual teachers, staff developers, and study groups alike. Each Tools for Teaching Literacy volume:

Ø Is written by outstanding educators who are noted for their knowledge of

research, theory, and best practices; who spend time in real classrooms working with teachers; and who are experienced staff developers who work alongside teachers applying these insights in classrooms. We think the series authors are unparalleled in these qualifications.

Ø Is organized according to a structure shared by all the grade-level books, which include chapters on:

§ the nature of the learner at the particular grade level § appropriate goals for literacy ix

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§ setting up the physical environment for literacy § getting to know students with appropriate assessments and planning for differentiation

§ a week in the grade-level classroom—what this looks like in practice with important instructional strategies and routines

§ resources for learning With this common organization across the grade-level books, a staff developer can use several different volumes in the series for teacher study groups, new teacher seminars, and other induction activities, choosing particular discussion and learning topics, such as classroom organization, that cross grade-level concerns. Teachers can also easily access information on topics of most importance to them and make comparisons across the grade levels. In this volume, Susan I. McMahon and Jacqueline Wells place a special emphasis on comprehension, using standards as a guide for planning instruction across the year in the communication arts block. Knowing that the “typical fifth grader is anything but . . . ,” they present numerous classroom-focused assessments to help plan and differentiate instruction. A unique feature of their approach is the integration of fiction and informational texts with the rich discussion so necessary to engage and enrich the comprehension of these developing upper elementary students. This book will be an important, informative, and useful tool for all those beginning to teach fifth grade. DONNA OGLE CAMILLE BLACHOWICZ

PREFACE

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his book is the product of a unique collaboration of different experiences and perspectives. In the summer of 1993, Susan and Jacqueline met for the first time in a master’s-level reading program at the University of Wisconsin–Madison. Jacqueline had just moved from Florida and accepted a fifth-grade teaching assignment at the school where she still teaches. Susan was a relatively new faculty member in the reading area. Over the next few years, Jacqueline attended other courses taught by Susan, often sharing how she had taken ideas presented in these courses and implemented them in her own classes. She also brought her questions, triumphs, and occasional disappointments to class, where her peers provided support and insight. These descriptions of her practice intrigued Susan so that she asked to visit Jacqueline’s class. Over time, Jacqueline’s classroom became one place Susan looked for evidence of effective practices. When Jacqueline completed her master’s degree, she and Susan maintained close contact, conducting research and writing together. So began a long-term collaboration that continues with this book. Since we both share a strong affinity for fifth-grade students, writing a book on teaching at that grade level has been a pleasure. Teaching fifth grade is a rewarding opportunity for the individual who wants to work with children who are beginning to exhibit some independence and responsibility but who are still young enough to need continual teacher support. In addition, the curriculum in fifth grade is varied, providing the teacher occasions to challenge students’ thinking and, perhaps, his or her own. Finally, because the students are maturing, there tend to be more events outside school where the teacher can develop multidimensional relationships with the class. Sporting events, concerts, and other community activities are more likely to provide the teacher with insights into students’ personalities, preferences, and interests. Therefore, it can be an exciting grade level to teach. xi

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In the following chapters, Jacqueline reveals many of the rewards she has gained from teaching fifth grade. To pave the way for a similar experience for the reader, we try to reveal how adopting a reflective approach can enable a teacher to incorporate many best practices into his or her plans. Even though the early years of teaching can appear overwhelming at first, we believe it is essential that the new teacher begin incorporating best practices immediately. Therefore, we have tried to explain clearly how Jacqueline sets up her classroom and provides a rich literacylearning environment for all her students. Since Susan teaches at the university level, she has highlighted those aspects of Jacqueline’s teaching that exemplify best practices. Having said this, we realize that no two classrooms are exactly the same and that students vary somewhat from region to region. Therefore, this book is not intended as a script to follow closely. Instead, we hope the reader will consider the practices we describe within the limits and needs of his or her context and students. Despite any differences, a solid instructional foundation grounded in research will prove effective. While the first years of teaching are filled with mistakes the teacher takes to heart, they are also rich with success. In this book, we try to provide enough general information with specific examples so that the beginning teacher can identify one area of focus and try new ideas. Finally, we would like to make a comment about collaboration. One serious limitation of teaching is that it can be isolating. That is, most teachers spend the majority of their days within the confines of their classrooms, talking only to their students. While this can be exhilarating, it can also be lonely. The new teacher can take any mistake as evidence of being a failure. Susan remembers many times during her first years of teaching crying at the end of a school day because her lesson had proved ineffective or her management skills were lacking. She also remembers times when she left school soaring from the positive impact her teaching seemed to have on students. A new teacher often believes he or she is the only one who has ever felt such extreme emotions when ending each work day. Therefore, we stress the importance of having a colleague who can support the beginner when days prove to be a struggle and celebrate with him or her when success is evident. Initially, this might be an emotional bond that provides the much-needed assistance we all require as beginners. As time progresses, this relationship can bloom into a professional one that enables both parties to grow. While we both had many years of teaching experience when we met, we think we serve as an example of how such a relationship can grow and support learning. When we first met, our relationship was as student and professor. Now we are colleagues who continue to learn from one another. We can think of few greater objectives for new teachers than to find such a relationship to guide them through their careers.

CONTENTS

CHAPTER 1.

The “Typical” Fifth Grader Is Anything But

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CHAPTER 2.

Setting Goals: Standards, Needs, and Quality

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CHAPTER 3.

Establishing a Classroom Environment for Literacy Learning

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CHAPTER 4.

Assessing to Plan Instruction

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CHAPTER 5.

A Week in Jacqueline’s Literacy Classroom

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CHAPTER 6.

Integrating Curriculum Using Multiple Genres to Enhance Literacy

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CHAPTER 7.

Finding Resources for Planning and Instruction

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APPENDIX.

Book Club Journal Information Sheets

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References

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Index

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CHAPTER 1

THE “TYPICAL” FIFTH GRADER IS ANYTHING BUT Teaching fifth grade is wonderful! I first started teaching early elementary— first and third grades mostly. The higher the grade level I taught, the more I noticed the students’ growing independence and appreciation of humor. Now that I’m in upper elementary, I’m aware that my fifth graders are definitely still children in that they still like their teacher and readily express a need for her help. At the same time, they are beginning to develop some independence and their intellect. It’s invigorating to watch students take the lead in their own education, and I find their discussions engaging. I really think I’ve found my niche!

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s Jacqueline shows in the above statement, teaching fifth grade can be rewarding. Children at this age are becoming more independent than their younger elementary peers but are still young enough to show their appreciation of the teacher’s efforts. The fifth-grade teacher should understand that these students exhibit a wide range of characteristics. Some may be several years beyond their grade level intellectually and emotionally, while others are several years below. Therefore, teachers will find themselves planning for at, above, and below grade level. In this first chapter, we use a series of vignettes to reveal the characteristics of fifth-grade learners. The vignettes are developed from Jacqueline’s experiences teaching fifth grade and illustrate the characteristics common to fifth graders. This chapter will highlight the typical characteristics of the fifth-grade learner and ways the teacher can accommodate students’ needs, including a daily schedule, Daily Oral Language (DOL) activity, and the general literacy needs of these learners. 1

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BEGINNING THE DAY: KNOWLEDGE OF THE LEARNERS CAN ENSURE A SMOOTH START Because the “typical” fifth grader actually represents a range of strengths, characteristics, and capabilities, the successful teacher acknowledges differences and works toward developing independence. The beginning of the day can influence how quickly students prepare to learn. One way to set the tone before the first bell ever rings is to be visible to students and welcome them to the classroom. “It’s a Monday morning in late January. I am in the hallway greeting students as I do most days. Sylvio1 walks by with a quick look out of the corner of his eye, intent on getting to his locker quickly and getting seated for the day to begin. From around the corner, I hear John’s voice, telling a story about a hockey game to a friend. When he spots me, he calls out a cheery hello and nods his head. He’s still wearing his baseball cap so I remind him to remove it inside the building. With a knowing smile and quick flick of his wrist he takes off his cap. “The girls are congregating in front of their lockers, talking about their weekend. Bridget is the center of attention as she passes out birthday invitations to all of the girls in class. There is a lot of excitement and chatter as they talk about the party and whether or not they think they can come. Since a few of the girls are sidetracked by the commotion this morning, I remind them to hang up their coats and put their backpacks away. In the meantime, Amanda approaches me with a check for her weekly lunch money. I point to the office envelope outside the classroom door as a reminder of where this money should go.” This description of a normal day for Jacqueline before instruction ever begins reveals some key characteristics of the typical fifth grader. At this age, their friends tend to be of the same sex. The boys are interested in sports, video games, and similar activities. Their peer groups and talk revolve around recent games or the newest software. In contrast, the girls plan social events together but maintain smaller circles of friends. Both groups still tend to respect the teacher, as shown above when John quickly removes his hat and the girls begin hanging up their coats with Jacqueline’s directions. As both groups move into the classroom, other characteristics emerge. Some students assume responsibilities for helping to get the day started. Others attend to morning “housekeeping.” “Once the students and I are all inside the classroom, Carlos asks if he can collect the ‘take-home’ folders and the ‘roadmap reading’ folders. This has developed into a weekly routine for Carlos and me because he likes to see if he can be the first to help the teacher out by asking for that job each Mon1All

names other than those of the authors are pseudonyms.

The “Typical” Fifth Grader

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day. Paul hardly lets me get in the door before handing me a note from his mother about an upcoming dentist’s appointment. The note explains that Paul will be 2 hours late for school the day of the appointment. His mother proceeds by asking that I be sure Paul understands what work he will be missing so he can complete it ahead of time. I then ask the class if there are any other notes I should know about. Amy asks if she can go to her locker because she thinks there’s a note from her mom. There is. After some time, she comes back with a crumpled scrap of paper with her mom’s message that Amy will not be riding the bus home that day.” The differences between Paul and Amy are routine in fifth grade. Paul, like Carlos, has already assumed responsibilities that characterize an independent child. He immediately brings the note to the teacher, and Jacqueline knows he will complete his schoolwork before the day of the dentist’s appointment. In contrast, Amy is still more dependent on adults, so she needed a prompt from the teacher to remind her about a note from her mother. This range in transition from child to young adult is common among fifth graders, so it is important that their teacher understands this is not indicative of individual responsibility as much as it is of their process of growing. Some children at this age have become accountable for their own possessions, tasks, learning, and needs. Others within the same classroom have not yet developed independence. Like with the notes from home, fifth graders reveal this range through multiple actions. For example, some children are extremely responsible with their lunch money. They neatly store it in their wallet and know to the penny how much money they have. Conversely, other children carry their money wadded up in sock, shoe, or pants pocket and aren’t sure how much they really have. There are myriad scenarios such as these that explain the differences of children in this age group. Therefore, the fifth-grade teacher must be prepared for this range of responsibility within the class. In addition to this variation related to responsibility, another aspect of the fifth-grade learner is revealed in the vignette above—the need for established routines. Morning is a busy time of day for both students and teachers. Providing a consistent pattern helps everyone accomplish multiple tasks efficiently, providing smooth transitions and enabling students to know what to expect even before they walk into the building. Therefore, long before the children arrive, the teacher lists the daily events on the board so that, as they enter, students have a reference to begin working without consulting the teacher. On the day described above, Jacqueline had written four items on the board:

Ø The schedule for the day with all of the assignments Ø Notes about information the students need to remember forget

Ø Lunch choice Ø DOL sentences

but sometimes

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Obviously some of these change daily, such as the lunch choices and the reminders, which serve immediate needs related to the curriculum or the day’s schedule. For example, one day in January, the following reminder list greeted students in the morning:

Ø Continue to do acts of kindness and justice in honor of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.

Ø Student council meeting today at 12:00 in our room Ø Library is Wednesday—bring books Other items remain more constant to establish a familiar pattern so that students can begin to assume responsibility for staying on task. The daily schedule helps to meet this goal because students are not dependent on the teacher to remind them of regular components of the schedule or the order of the day’s unique events. Instead, they can consult the schedule. If they complete one task early, they can proceed to an upcoming activity. Further, for those students who fall behind, the list serves as a reminder of what they have yet to complete even after the class focus has shifted to another component of the day. Another aspect of the list that fosters independence is the lunch choice list. Without direction from the teacher, most students read the list and indicate their choices, so that the only remaining task is for someone to count and report how many lunches are needed. For those few students who forget, the teacher need only remind them to indicate a choice. Finally, the list directs students to begin working on the DOL assignment at their desks. This supports students’ efforts to begin academic work. Since it is part of the daily pattern, students need little or no direction to start. This creates a focused literacy activity that students settle into as part of a regular routine. Thus, they move into actual schoolwork with little direction. The components of the list consume only the first 15 minutes of the day. On the surface, they may seem to be idiosyncratic of a particular teacher; however, such practices support fifth-grade students’ needs for growing independence. Those students equipped to assume responsibility can do so easily. This provides the teacher time to concentrate on those not yet ready to work independently. Some of these students are easily directed with a reference to the list while a few may need individual help. Fifth-grade teachers must understand that not only will others expect more independence from these learners, but that these students will welcome the responsibility. Therefore, one goal, not necessarily identified in the curriculum, is for the fifth-grade teacher to support any efforts toward independence exhibited among students and create occasions for them to become confident. This includes facilitating of decision making through clear expectations and posted schedules.

The “Typical” Fifth Grader

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DAILY ORAL LANGUAGE In addition to this tendency toward independence, the fifth-grade learner is also growing in terms of literacy learning. Later in this chapter, we elaborate literacy instruction more fully; however, one literacy activity included daily in Jacqueline’s classroom is DOL. A brief exploration below helps illustrate how a routine assignment can serve multiple purposes. In this case, DOL helps settle the class into the morning routine, prepares them to learn, and reviews their knowledge of language conventions in context. DOL in Jacqueline’s Class DOL was developed to help teach children appropriate sentence structure, word choice, and grammar usage using their own writing within a whole-class setting. The procedure is common in elementary classrooms although the specifics vary from teacher to teacher. For instance, some teachers choose to use published sentences provided in a number of workbooks. Others use examples from the students’ own writing. Each of these approaches creates some dilemmas for the teacher. For example, even though published sentences may appear more objective than ones written by the students, they may be written at a level higher or lower than what students might write on their own, so instruction might not accommodate their needs. On the other hand, using students’ own work can lead to some students feeling insecure about their writing. Jacqueline has taken an approach that combines these two. That is, she constructs three sentences that represent errors she sees her students making in their own writing as a basis of the activity. Because these errors span the full range of abilities in her class, there are more mistakes than she might find in any one student’s written work. This ensures that all students can be successful. Students copy the sentences from the board into their notebooks, make corrections, and tally the number of errors they find. Students share their sums with the class to indicate the variations in the number of errors each found. The following describes this activity as it plays out frequently in Jacqueline’s classroom. “John says he found 13 errors. Bridget raises her hand and announces that she found 14. Then John blurts out that he found two more and that I should change his number to 15. Carlos darts anxious eyes across the room between the board and John. I can see his paper has six of the more obvious errors marked. He looks back at his paper to look for more. Amy says she can only find 10 of the errors. I tell those students with a lot of errors to recheck to make sure all of their answers are truly errors; those with fewer errors I tell to keep looking and to whisper the sentences aloud. Randomly, I call students to the board to make any correction they can find. Carlos’s name comes up early, and he puts in the missing period at the end of the last

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sentence. When Bridget corrects a spelling error changing frist to first, John calls out that he had written that word correctly when he copied it. Carlos missed that correction, and I see him fixing it. Amy’s turn is later, and she doesn’t recognize any of the remaining errors. I ask her to read the sentences aloud. She’s still not sure so I tell her there are two punctuation errors—one capitalization error and one spelling error. She looks at me and says she doesn’t know if this is right, but she’ll try putting a comma in the sentence. I suggest she ask the class what they think. At the count of three they give her the thumbs-up sign. With a little sigh and a flip of her head she writes in the comma.” This description of DOL in Jacqueline’s classroom reveals further information about what the fifth-grade student is like. Some students, like John and Bridget, are confident, capable language arts students. Their knowledge of grammar and punctuation help them breeze through this activity, ascertaining their knowledge of proper language. Others, like Carlos and Amy, are less capable and, therefore, less confident. Carlos looks around the room for support. Amy calls out her number of corrected errors without trying to find more. Such differences are common at this level. While still learning appropriate English usage, some students can correct their own writing during the editing process or can depend on a peer who can help them make corrections. Others are still working on identifying errors in their writing. A DOL helps make this need to edit one’s own work the forefront of each day’s early tasks. While this activity focuses students in general on an academic focus, it also allows Jacqueline to monitor and assess each one’s growth as she supports their efforts. Students who are still struggling are supported in several ways. First, they are encouraged to find all the errors they can independently. Then, as peers call out the number of errors they have found, all students can reassess their independent decisions. Further, if the common numbers are much higher than what one student has found, he or she can look more. Support continues as students go to the board to correct errors. In Carlos’s situation, he is able to go up early, correctly identifying an error and experiencing success in front of his peers. Amy is not as lucky, but support is still there for her. The teacher lists the number and types of errors that still have not been identified (two punctuation errors—one capitalization error and one spelling error). This narrows the possibilities for Amy so that she has a greater likelihood of success. Once Amy is committed to making a correction, Jacqueline continues her support by letting Amy poll the class to see whether they agree with her correction. Once her peers indicate they agree, she confidently adds the comma. In Jacqueline’s classroom, DOL furthers her goal for helping students achieve independence—this time in terms of editing their own writing. Like any instructional method, DOL can support learning or hamper it. In a supportive environ-

The “Typical” Fifth Grader

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ment, learners can build on their existing knowledge of language conventions to construct clear written texts. DOL can provide a context to remind learners of rules they may have forgotten. At the same time, DOL approached in alternative ways can have a negative impact on students’ learning and confidence. For example, if the sentences selected for the activity are not at an appropriate level and/or do not contain the same types of errors the students commonly make, then they will not gain from the activity because they cannot apply what they learn to their own writing. Being asked to find and count errors can lead to a competition among learners that leads those struggling to give up since they are less likely to win. This is not the case in Jacqueline’s classroom. In the case above, students are encouraged to find all the errors they can. Despite some competition to find the “right” answer, the teacher does not capitalize on this because the goal is not to be the one with the correct number; it is to understand how to edit one’s own work. Therefore, even though the teacher is very aware that Carlos and Amy struggled in finding all the errors, she is the only one who knows this. Carlos is able to identify one of the errors he found when asked to go to the board. When Amy’s errors were already identified, the teacher supports her until she can find an error to correct on the board. Such support enhances the learning of all the children in this fifth-grade classroom and helps them move toward becoming independent editors of their own writing. A more competitive context or one in which the less capable students feel spotlighted when they don’t know an answer can undermine the teacher’s efforts for students to internalize the process and become more effective editors of their own writing. We have argued that the tone of class is established before the first bell rings in the morning. As the vignettes reveal, Jacqueline greets her students as they congregate in the hall, reminding them of the rules and of what they need for class. As they enter the room, the day’s events are outlined on the board. Those students already assuming responsibility for their own learning can begin. Those who need reminders are directed to the board for more thorough information. Finally, DOL gets students thinking early and gets them settled into the day’s events. The successful fifth-grade teacher incorporates her understanding of her students into her plans and begins the day with activities that reveal her knowledge of the learners. Knowing that some students are already becoming responsible, the teacher provides the information they need to proceed without help. Understanding that some are still dependent on an adult for guidance, she uses a technique that enables her to easily direct their attention. Thus, the day is more likely to begin without conflict, frustration, or uncertainty. Once the day has begun, the teacher continues to use her knowledge of these learners to proceed with instruction. We now shift our focus to those aspects of fifth graders that the teacher needs to consider when planning literacy instruction.

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USING KNOWLEDGE OF FIFTH GRADERS TO PLAN LITERACY LEARNING In later chapters, we outline the literacy curriculum and some suggestions for instruction. Before doing that, we need to clarify the needs of most fifth graders so that the reader can understand the decisions we articulate in subsequent chapters. Therefore, in this section, we will describe the “typical” needs of fifth-grade students in terms of reading and writing, particularly in terms of comprehension, vocabulary development, writing, and genre study. Reading Just as with the teacher’s general routines, literacy instruction should be grounded in the knowledge of the characteristics of learners at this level. That is, some fifth graders can be responsible for monitoring their reading independently, while others cannot. Some appear able to comprehend a variety of texts and make connections to existing knowledge without explicit instructional support. At the same time, some clearly struggle with reading not only in terms of comprehension, but with word identification and fluency. Further, metacognition about their reading process is not a given, since not all fifth graders can articulate what they do when reading. Because of this range within the classroom, the fifth-grade teacher has to incorporate strategy instruction for all learners. Traditional practices assume that children “learn to read” in the primary grades but “read to learn” in fourth grade and above. When Susan has observed some language arts or content area classes at the fifth-grade level, she frequently notes that teachers assign reading without instruction. In such classrooms, the teacher believes that the students have already learned to read; his or her goal is just that they continue to practice what they know. Such practices are grounded in dated beliefs about comprehension. We now realize that all readers can be challenged by some texts even if they read others with ease. For example, some readers prefer fiction and breeze through novels without being challenged, but the same readers can struggle when reading a science textbook. In contrast, some children prefer nonfiction texts but struggle when trying to finish a short story. Further, we know that some texts are written to be accessible to readers, while others seem to ignore this concept. Given our current knowledge about reading comprehension, fifth-grade teachers have to consider much more about reading than just assigning texts. Indeed, most fifth graders have (1) learned to decode unfamiliar words, (2) developed a sizable vocabulary, and (3) chosen to read to some extent outside of school. Even those students reading below grade level can frequently read independently. Despite this evidence of increasing reading competence, fifth graders still can benefit from reading instruction focused on helping them become better, more strategic readers. That is, the fifth-grade teacher should incorporate instruction on

The “Typical” Fifth Grader

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which strategies can (1) activate prior knowledge before reading, (2) help monitor comprehension while reading, and (3) facilitate remembering text after reading. Further, this instruction should delineate which strategies can be helpful when reading nonfiction and which are better for fiction. Also, instruction at this level should help students understand the different text structures evident in both fiction and nonfiction texts. In addition to the focus on strategy use and text structure knowledge, instruction should also note that all readers benefit from having a repertoire of strategies to draw from when challenged by a text. Since learners at this level are still developing their independence and metacognitive awareness, posters reminding students of such strategies should be designed for easy access. Instruction on strategy use can be either a topic for whole-class or for peer-led discussions. Such practices make strategy use explicit for all learners. In later chapters, we describe lessons in which some of this strategy instruction occurs. Vocabulary Most fifth graders have developed a considerable daily vocabulary that enables them to communicate clearly with others. In most cases, they have developed word attack skills that support their comprehension when reading independently. At the same time, they encounter new vocabulary daily, particularly in the content areas. In addition to new terms they encounter when reading, they can benefit from more sophisticated knowledge of word structure, such as the influence prefixes and suffixes have on word meaning. Therefore, even though they can clearly communicate with the teacher, other adults, and peers, their limited knowledge of word meanings may hamper their comprehension of texts and limit their ability to refine their thinking and writing. A major text feature that hampers comprehension at the fifth-grade level is the increasing number of new content area vocabulary words introduced in each chapter. Each content area requires learning sometimes extensive new lists of vocabulary words. Considering the typical fifth-grade curriculum, students are expected to acquire new vocabulary in science, social studies, and math on a daily basis. They may have readings in health, art, music, or physical education, each of which will introduce additional terms. The fifth grader may be overwhelmed with the task of learning new terms, so reading instruction must include strategies and activities to help these learners expand their vocabulary of both general terms and content-specific words. A second general area of vocabulary development that can challenge some students at this level is learning multisyllabic words and words with more than one meaning. For example, some students use one part of a multisyllabic word that looks familiar to define the entire word incorrectly. This is why instruction on prefixes, roots, and suffixes is so important to fifth graders. In learning new meanings for existing vocabulary, students need strategies to remember multiple meanings, such as attending to context clues when applying existing word knowledge to new texts.

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Writing Teaching writing at this level creates other general issues for consideration. First, teachers need to help learners focus on the substance of their writing. That is, the effective fifth-grade teacher finds multiple ways of helping students brainstorm topics to write about and procedures for expanding ideas thoroughly. Some fifth graders may have had prior experiences in school that caused them to believe “writing” means using correct English. Therefore, they focus totally on form and ignore substance. In part, this is because they have not learned to see themselves as authors, so they are often hesitant to begin writing. Once they have written, they may avoid sharing their work with peers. Thus, because of an earlier emphasis on correctness, many fifth-grade teachers find themselves working just to get some learners to put their ideas on paper. In later chapters we describe some techniques to facilitate this process. Getting fifth graders to commit words to paper is not the only challenge facing the teacher. Another common challenge is encouraging them to write in new genres. Personal narrative and persuasive and expository texts may dominate some earlier instructional models because of their presence on state tests. Encouraging fifth graders to try writing alternative types of texts can present a hurdle that the teacher needs to address through instruction, including lessons that note variations in voice and audience as well as text structure. One such model is to encourage students to respond personally to texts they are reading. This personal connection can foster an appreciation of both reading and writing. Thus, teachers at this level should include explicit instruction on the multiple ways one can respond to texts through writing and opportunities for learners to engage in such writing. In addition to the type of writing teachers should expect of fifth graders, they should also consider the need to provide instruction on the writing process. Fifth graders also benefit from instruction on elaborating ideas, seeking alternative perspectives on writing through peer conferences, and revising their work. The ability to use appropriate writing conventions varies considerably among fifth-grade learners, and they often seem limited in their ability to acquire the necessary distance to evaluate their work, so they struggle Fifth graders can enhance their writing by hav- when revising their own writing. The ing opportunities to work with peers. Such expe- fifth-grade literacy curriculum should riences enable them to support one another include explicit instruction on how to by providing alternative perspectives, additional read and revise writing. supporting ideas, and editing for clarity.

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Oral Language Use As students progress through school, they often have less and less time to talk except in speeches or oral reports. Clearly these assignments provide important experiences for learners. They do need instruction and time to practice formal speaking so that they learn the appropriate genres and become comfortable speaking in front of their peers. At the same time, they can benefit from another type of talk—more extemporaneous speech. Because of class sizes, teachers often need to control talk so that the pace of discussions matches the needs of the total group. Such formats limit the amount of time students have to expand their ideas, to articulate them clearly, and, in many cases, even to formulate what to say. In most classrooms, teachers ask a question, and students are expected to answer in the oral equivalent of the written final draft. That is, they are expected to be clear, concise, and correct. Some fifth graders can meet such a challenge; many others cannot. They struggle with this because they may not think as quickly as their more articulate peers, or they need time to formulate their thinking so that it is clear to others. Because the teacher is conscious of the needs of the entire class, he or she may interrupt a student who is orally developing an argument because the rest of the class is restless. Such occasions do little to help all students develop their oral language skills for informal situations. One way to increase opportunities for talk is to include small-group, studentled discussions about the texts they are reading or writing. There are multiple models of these, and we refer to a few in future chapters. The main point here is that all fifth graders can benefit from time to engage in oral discussions with peers about their reading and writing. This benefit is not simply social, but academic.

FINAL THOUGHTS In this chapter, we have described the “typical” fifth-grade student so that readers of this book have a sense of what to expect when teaching this grade level. In addition to some suggestions for how to begin the day in ways that meet students’ needs, we also generally described their literacy needs. We expand these ideas in subsequent chapters with more specific examples. We hope that our description will encourage the reader who has not yet worked with this age group. Teaching preadolescents can be pure joy because they are beginning to exhibit their independence in ways that give the teacher glimpses of the adults they will become. At the same time, adolescence usually has not yet emerged, so they still believe it is okay to like the teacher. In many ways, teaching at the fifth-grade level provides an ideal situation.

CHAPTER 2

SETTING GOALS Standards, Needs, and Quality As a fifth-grade teacher who teaches all of the content areas, sometimes I feel overloaded with goals and standards. There is so much to think about when planning lessons—every subject area has its own prescribed set of goals and objectives, my district has goals for improving each of the curricular areas, and then there are the state and national standards. On top of all that, there are two critical points that I never want to lose sight of: (1) my personal philosophy on how kids learn and (2) the various needs of my students. Keeping the standards in mind when I plan reminds me of the bigger picture and helps me avoid getting swept up in the minutiae. It is very hard to get fifth graders to understand the big picture that these goals and standards are trying to address because most of them just want to know what they have to do to finish an assignment.

I

n this quote, Jacqueline reveals the challenges she faces as she works to align her instruction with content standards—namely, to intertwine her understanding of the needs of her students with the larger goals identified by standards documents. Above, she identifies the formidable task of trying to help her students embrace the larger goals explicit within standards documents. This leads to the question, “What are appropriate goals for literacy in fifth grade?” Behind this question is the recognition that teachers must address standards to facilitate students’ learning as well as understand and meet their needs. This is not unique to teaching fifth grade because standards must be considered when thinking about instruction at all levels. At the same time, teachers at each grade must consider: (1) what the standards are, (2) how they match or overlap with the district’s curriculum, and last but definitely not least, (3) how they relate to the needs of the students. Therefore we begin this chapter by discussing the role of literacy content standards when identifying instructional goals, then turn attention to meeting individual students’ needs.

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RESOURCES FOR TEACHERS TO INCORPORATE CONTENT STANDARDS When trying to identify appropriate goals for fifth graders, teachers need to incorporate instruction that will help all students meet literacy content standards. Beginning teachers need to understand that there are several resources that identify standards and that there are standards documents for all content areas. For example, there are national, state, and local literacy standards documents. In some instances, districts have advised teachers to follow one particular set of standards; in others, teachers determine which set will guide their instruction. In terms of literacy, the International Reading Association (IRA) and the National Council of the Teachers of English (NCTE) have developed several standards for the language arts that are appropriate at the national level. These can be found at their websites (www.reading.org and www.ncte.org). These standards can help all beginning teachers consider their overarching goals across grade levels. Most states have developed their own standards as well. In many cases, these documents expand on those provided by national groups to illustrate how to further classify the more general national professional organization’s objectives. In Jacqueline’s case, she uses Wisconsin’s Model Academic Standards (State of Wisconsin Department of Public Instruction website: dpi.wi.gov/standards/elaintro.html). This document breaks the English Language Arts standards into broad categories: (1) reading/literature, (2) writing, (3) oral language, (4) language, (5) media and technology, and (6) research and inquiry (see Table 2.1). While helpful in general planning, standards are frequently worded similarly across grade levels, so teachers struggle with making them meaningful for their instructional planning. To address this, many districts have divided the more general state documents into specific standards for each grade level. In many cases, school districts have written curricula based on these state standards, identifying specific skills, strategies, and expectations for each grade level. Other districts require teachers to engage in “backward mapping,” which asks them to begin planning by identifying specific standards, then map out their curricular plans that relate to these. After this, teachers plan specific activities that meet both curricular goals and content standards. Because districts vary in how they integrate the standards in their planning, beginning teachers should request copies of the standards and curriculum their districts require as they begin to plan. It is also helpful to ask other teachers to explain the norms for using standards when planning. In Jacqueline’s case, her district has specific standards for her to address, and these are aligned with the curriculum. She works in a grade-level team to coordinate planning at the fifth-grade level. While the goal of helping all learners meet specific content standards is desirable, it has also resulted in confusion. Clearly, the need to consider specific standards complicates teachers’ planning. At the same time, we believe this process can

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TABLE 2.1. Standards Related to Jacqueline’s Instruction Reading/literature standards • • • •

Use effective reading strategies to achieve their purposes in reading. Read, interpret, and critically analyze literature. Read and discuss literary and nonliterary texts in order to understand the human experience. Read to acquire information.

Writing standards • Create or produce writing to communicate with different audiences for a variety of purposes. • Plan, revise, edit, and publish clear and effective writing. • Understand the function of various forms, structures, and punctuation marks of standard American English and use them appropriately in communication. Oral language standards • Orally communicate information, opinions, and ideas effectively to different audiences for a variety of purposes. • Listen to and comprehend oral communications. • Participate effectively in discussion. Language standards • Develop their vocabulary of words, phrases, and idioms as a means of improving communication. • Recognize and interpret various uses and adaptations of language in social, cultural, regional, and professional situations and learn to be flexible and responsive in their use of English. Media and technology standards • Use computers to acquire, organize, analyze, and communicate information. • Make informed judgments about media and products. • Create products appropriate to audience and purpose. • Demonstrate a working knowledge of media production and distribution. • Analyze and edit media work as appropriate to audience and purpose. Research and inquiry standards • Conduct research and inquiry on self-selected or assigned topics, issues, or problems and use an appropriate form to communicate their findings. Note. Adapted from the State of Wisconsin Department of Public Instruction website. Reproduced with permission from the Wisconsin Department of Public Instruction, 125 South Webster Street, Madison, WI 53702; 800441-4563.

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help educators identify their goals, focus their instruction, and support individual learners’ literacy development. This can be a daunting task for the beginning teacher; therefore, we now focus on how Jacqueline uses her districts’ guidelines to develop goals for her students. Through this example, we hope to guide teachers through their own process of incorporating standards-based instruction into their planning. The Role of Standards When Planning Since fifth grade often comes 2 years after most state reading tests and a minimum of 2 years before the next one, teachers may be drawn in different directions when planning instruction. Some may wonder, “Should I prepare them for the eighthgrade test?” Others may turn to the third-grade reading test to plan instruction based on students’ identified needs. In this chapter, we take the stance that fifthgrade teachers should consider prior evaluations to identify students’ individual needs and consult appropriate content standards documents. Since standards and students’ literacy development are often linked, beginning teachers should consult the standards their district adopts to identify instructional goals. At the same time, they should consider students’ individual needs, which are more complex than what their scores may indicate on standardized tests. In sum, teachers need to consider multiple sources of information regarding students’ literacy development when planning. There are many ways to do this. Even prior to the first day of school, teachers can consult students’ files to find earlier assessments from teachers, state test scores, and other sources of data on students’ performance. Some teachers, including Jacqueline, resist consulting students’ files, arguing that the records may unduly influence them and that they prefer to learn about their students as they teach them. Clearly, these teachers recognize that the files do not provide complete information about a student’s literacy development. At the same time, they do provide a series of snapshots that can prove valuable to the teacher as the school year begins. To ignore them may result in the teacher losing time in identifying a student’s needs and strengths since the permanent records can reflect the expertise of previous teachers and of information provided by standardized tests. Permanent records offer a kind of assessment photo album that reports on some significant events. Like photos in an album, permanent records supply only a glimpse into the total child. This glimpse is not enough to plan quality instruction, but it is important. Just like each year’s school photo, the student’s files communicate information about his or her progress. Therefore, the teacher should consult them as he or she plans not only instruction, but also initial assessments. In addition to consulting existing documents, the fifth-grade teacher should use the initial weeks of school gathering his or her own data about each child. We do not mean that the first weeks of school should be devoted to pretests. Instead,

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teachers can use a variety of checklists and observational tools while having students read, write, and discuss their ideas related to texts. Such devices can provide valid documentation of each student’s literacy strengths and needs at the beginning of the year. Further, as Reeves (2004) points out, an effective teacher uses his or her classroom documentation to serve as a reminder of the need to address each learner’s needs. These tools need not be complex; instead, they need to help the teacher identify instructional goals. Many activities can provide the context for teacher documentation of students’ literacy capabilities. The teacher can provide time for students to (1) read aloud, (2) engage in free writes, (3) read independently both books of choice and classlevel books, and (4) engage in discussions about reading. While students engage in these activities, the teacher completes his or her informal literacy assessments. There are many resources that have long been available for teachers to examine for examples of such tools to adapt for their own teaching. For example, Valencia, Hiebert, and Afflerbach (1994) provide some simple models of one-page assessments to document a student’s ability to retell or respond to a text and describe ways of guiding a student through a written response to communicate comprehension. Another great resource is Johnston’s (1997) chapter on observing and documenting students’ literacy during regular class activities. A third resource that Jacqueline has used for years is Jett-Simpson and Leslie’s (1994) text, which has multiple examples of assessments to use while teaching. Even though these texts have been around for a while, they provide a great resource for teachers who realize that “objective” standardized tests do not provide enough information to guide instruction. (See Chapter 4 for a complete discussion of assessments Jacqueline uses.) Using information from the files and his or her initial observations and checklists, the teacher can determine students’ needs and plan instruction accordingly. Such initial data gathering can furnish the teacher with information to help identify students’ capabilities, needs, and interests. These should then further guide the instruction that focuses on students as individual literacy learners and that addresses their needs to meet literacy standards.

JACQUELINE’S INSTRUCTIONAL GOALS: MERGING STANDARDS WITH STUDENTS’ NEEDS Based on her perception of her students’ needs, the standards established by the state of Wisconsin, and the curriculum established by her school district, Jacqueline sets some broad-range goals for her fifth graders (see Table 2.2). In addition, as she mentioned above, her beliefs about students’ needs also influence her decisions within these other categories.

Setting Goals

TABLE 2.2. Jacqueline’s Goals • • • • • • • • •

Developing a lifelong love of reading Providing strategy instruction Teaching reading and writing in content areas Connecting reading and writing Extending writing activities Incorporating oral language Engaging in research Developing vocabulary Teaching to incorporate standards

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Developing a Lifelong Love of Reading

First and foremost, Jacqueline wants to instill a lifelong love of reading in her students. Like Guthrie (Guthrie & Wigfield, 1997), she believes that both cognitive and motivational issues need to be considered to support her students’ efforts to become engaged readers. Most teachers hope for this, but she plans for it. That is, she makes conscious curricular decisions that are likely to promote an enjoyment of reading. For example, she wants her students to experience and appreciate a range of texts because she understands that students need additional instructional support to comprehend the wide variety of genres (Kamberelis & Bovino, 1999; Langer, 1986). Therefore, she provides opportunities for students to access as many different texts as possible. Depending on the interests of her students and her instructional plan, her students read poetry, historical fiction, realistic fiction, biographies, drama, fantasies, mysteries, and nonfiction. By incorporating multiple genres, Jacqueline is able to address individual students’ interests. While there is not a large body of research on the relationship between interest and student motivation (Mathewson, 1994), there is evidence that children are more likely to remember information if it relates to their interests (Shirey, 1992). Further, current models of comprehension development recognize the importance of the reader’s interests, feelings, and attitudes with regard to comprehension (Mathewson, 1994). The successful fifth-grade teacher will consider these as he plans instruction for his students. Knowing his students’ interests, feelings, and attitudes about a variety Students are more likely to become life- of topics enables him to incorporate one of long readers if the teacher encourages IRA’s standards, asking that “Students read a them to read a wide range of texts and wide range of literature from many periods in provides them time to read within the many genres to build an understanding of the school day.

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many dimensions . . . of human experience,” as well as one of the state standards, to “distinguish fiction from nonfiction, realistic fiction from fantasy, biography from autobiography, and poetry from prose.” By including standards from both organizations, Jacqueline is assured that she has incorporated a valuable component into her program. (See Blachowicz & Ogle, 2001, for suggestions of how to assess students’ interests.) In addition, Jacqueline requires students to read a minimum of 80 minutes each week beyond the assigned reading for class because she understands that there appears to be a relationship between time spent reading and becoming a better reader (see Cunningham & Stanovich, 1997). Because their teacher stresses the importance of reading beyond the minimum, her students understand the importance of reading, which enables them to select texts they want to read. Jacqueline knows that there is an established relationship between students’ motivation to read and write and the amount of choice they have (Deci & Ryan, 1985; Turner, 1995). Finally, this places responsibility, discussed in the first chapter, on the students to monitor their outside reading. This one expectation helps Jacqueline’s students meet the standards that promote more extended reading of alternative texts. Providing Strategy Instruction The overarching goal for reading instruction at this level is to help students become active, self-regulated, independent readers (Duke & Pearson, 2002; Pressley, 2000). That is, they need to actively construct meaning, monitor their own comprehension, and not only recognize when comprehension is lacking, but act to improve their understanding (van den Broek & Kremer, 2000). Such active reading requires the learner to be self-motivated and self-directed (Bryant, Ugel, Thompson, & Hamff, 1999; Pressley, 2000). Because of the importance of instruction on strategy use, state and national standards documents identify strategy instruction as key to the intermediate reading program (see, e.g., Standards for the English Language Arts at www.reading.org). Teachers need to provide learners with a repertoire of strategies that they can draw from when reading challenging texts in content areas, in literature, and in independent reading. Thus, another of Jacqueline’s goals is to provide instruction on several strategies that will help her students be successful readers. One such strategy that can help facilitate reading comprehension among fifth graders is the “directed reading–thinking activity,” or DR-TA (Stauffer, 1969). This particular strategy helps students develop an awareness of how good readers monitor their comprehension. That is, good readers predict upcoming events in a text as they read. As long as the text confirms their predictions, they continue reading. When text events do not match predictions, skilled readers either modify what they anticipate will happen or stop to reread sections they may not have comprehended. Most good readers engage in this process, though

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some may not realize it. By providing explicit instruction on how to make, confirm, and/or modify predictions, the teacher can help all learners become metacognitive about their own comprehension development. The DR-TA is a great strategy to make this process explicit to learners. We have selected this one strategy to expand upon because it is one the teacher can learn to adapt for any text students read and modify it to use with the entire class, small groups, or individuals. Once the teacher verifies that a student is monitoring his or her comprehension, she can narrow her explicit instruction on this area of comprehension to those who need more support. DR-TA: One Sample Strategy for Narrative Texts Developing a DR-TA will become easy if the teacher keeps in mind that (1) the questions should require the reader to predict upcoming events and (2) the answers should be confirmed by the text. That is, the questions should not require an inference—a gap in the text that is left up to the reader’s interpretation—because even though all readers must make inferences about texts, predictions are clearer for the teacher to use as models for monitoring comprehension. The second important concept for the teacher to keep in mind is that any strategy should have three distinctly different approaches included in instruction: (1) teacher modeling with student participation, (2) time for students to practice the strategy application, and (3) independent application by students (Duke & Pearson, 2002). We have provided a model below based on the familiar Disney version of Cinderella (Perrault & Koopmans, 2002). Jacqueline has found that if she models a strategy with a familiar text, her students are better able to attend to the strategy because they already know the story. Cinderella makes a great example for the fifth-grade teacher because most, if not all, fifth graders will recognize this tale.1 Given the familiarity of this story to most fifth graders, the teacher need only develop good prediction questions to model the strategy. In general, Jacqueline has learned that is it better to provide only a few good questions than to interrupt the students’ reading of the story too many times. Therefore, four to six prediction questions should be sufficient. She begins with a question about the cover of the book. Most fifth-grade trade books and novels have pictures that enable readers to make predictions about the text. 1As

the reader knows, in the Disney version of this popular, crosscultural tale, the main character, Cinderella, lives with an evil stepmother and two stepsisters. She does all of the housework and wears rags while her stepsisters have fun and wear only the best clothing. When an invitation to a ball arrives, the stepmother and sisters plan to attend, but Cinderella must spend all her time helping them get ready. When her animal friends make her a dress, her stepsisters destroy it. After everyone else leaves for the ball, a crying Cinderella encounters her fairy godmother, who uses magic to arrange transportation and clothing so she can attend the ball. Forgetting her godmother’s advice, Cinderella stays too long at the ball and must run to avoid embarrassment, leaving behind one glass slipper. It is this lost slipper that enables the prince, who fell in love with Cinderella at the ball, to find and marry her.

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When modeling a DR-TA, Jacqueline uses the French version of Cinderella (Perrault & Koopmans, 2002). This appears to be the version that Disney used when creating the movie; however, the original French version includes events Disney omitted, so a typical fifth grader will not be able to make accurate predictions all the time. The cover of this book obviously includes the title, which students should note, and the picture of a blond girl in a beautiful dress. In addition, there is a pumpkin-like carriage awaiting the girl. Using this and asking students to predict the story helps Jacqueline model how good readers think about books, drawing on their prior reading experiences even before they begin reading. As students predict, she asks them to support their predictions based on what is on the cover and their own prior knowledge. Once the class has made and supported their predictions, the teacher can either read the text aloud, ask students to read it aloud (a great opportunity to observe their fluency at the same time), or have students read it silently. What is important is to have students stop reading at a predetermined place to predict upcoming events. A simple prediction question such as “What do you think will happen next?” will enable students to draw on their existing knowledge of this tale as well as text events to predict what will happen next. All questions should ask students for text-based support for their predictions because the teacher wants students to learn that, even though we use our existing knowledge to help monitor our comprehension of any text, it is the information individual authors provide that helps us determine how new stories differ from familiar ones (see Table 2.3 for sample questions). With this particular version of Cinderella, the teacher can have students read up to the point where the TABLE 2.3. Model DR-TA stepmother and -sisters leave for the for Cinderella ball since by this time the main characters have been established and 1. Look at the cover of this book. Based on what you events are close to but not exactly like see and read, what do you predict this book will be the Disney version. Most students will about? Be sure to explain which parts of the cover predict the emergence of the fairy you are using to support your prediction. godmother and Cinderella’s trip to the 2. Read to page . Cinderella’s stepmother and ball. Being able to successfully predict sisters have now left for the ball. What do you predict the next events help readers underwill happen next? Be sure to include specific events stand the strategy. The next prediction from the text and your existing knowledge to support (in this case, the third one), though, your prediction. might be one that reveals to the reader 3. Read to page . What do you predict will that authors deliberately try to surhappen now? Be sure to include specific events from prise us to keep us interested. This is the text and your existing knowledge to support your one reason the French version of prediction. Cinderella is perfect for modeling this

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strategy. In the Disney version, Cinderella goes to one ball; in the French, she goes to two. When students predict she will go to the ball, meet the prince, and lose her slipper, they will soon discover that their dependence on prior knowledge caused them to make a prediction the text does not support. Thus, the teacher can model how good readers revise their predictions based on text events. The third prediction should come after Cinderella leaves the first ball before midnight and gets home safely. For this version of the Cinderella tale, the teacher may decide to stop with three questions: one with the cover, one when the stepmother and stepsisters leave for the ball, and one when Cinderella leaves the first ball. This is because these three questions have enabled the teacher to model all three aspects of what good readers do. First of all, we predict what a text will be about based on the title, the picture on the cover, and sometimes the text written on the back cover. Next, we read through a story, making predictions that are confirmed by the text events, revealing that we are comprehending. Finally, we also make predictions that do not match the text, so we need to modify our expectations. All three of these components of the reading process enable us to monitor our comprehension. Therefore, three predictions are sufficient for the teacher to model this process. Once the teacher has modeled what good readers do using a DR-TA, she can develop additional experiences for students to apply this strategy when reading texts. For example, she can ask all students to read the same story, stop, and write or discuss their answers to her prediction questions before they begin reading again. She can also use her guided reading texts and have students complete a DRTA based on their reading abilities. After they have had sufficient time to practice reading, stopping to predict, and confirming/modifying their predictions, the teacher can evaluate which students have internalized this strategy and are using it to monitor their comprehension and which need additional instruction and/or practice. We provided this specific model of one strategy for instruction because it is one that helps the teacher make a hidden thought process visible for all students. If good readers predict upcoming text events to monitor their comprehension, then the teacher should help all learners internalize this process. While this is a solid instructional activity that helps model this strategy, there are many other good strategies that teachers can model for their students. Many are listed in good collegelevel texts that the beginning fifth-grade teacher can consult. There are also some great teacher resources for ideas about how to teach these strategies listed in Chapter 7. We would recommend Blachowicz and Ogle (2001) as a good example of a text that includes many strategies to support comprehension. Jacqueline provides instruction on many of these, depending on students’ individual needs. The beginning fifth-grade teacher should identify a few strategies for instructional focus after identifying his or her students’ needs. Teaching a few good strategies well is better than just touching on several over the year because students need time to practice the strategy until it becomes automatic (van den Broek & Kremer, 2000).

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Using Graphic Organizers to Promote Comprehension While the inclusion of a DR-TA can help make the reader’s thought processes visible, the use of graphic organizers helps him or her understand the thinking of the author. That is, writers structure their texts to communicate in a particular way. By using graphic organizers to illustrate this, the fifth-grade teacher can enhance students’ comprehension. Jacqueline includes only such models as pertain to the texts she is using, and she adjusts existing ones to better meet the needs of her students. We turn our attention to one example of this.

Plot Graph All narrative texts follow similar structures. That is, they begin with introducing the setting and main character(s). Soon, the main character faces a problem that complicates his or her life. The rest of the story centers on this problem and its resolution. Mature readers have internalized this structure and use it as a way of differentiating events and remembering what is important to the plot. It is important to make this implicit process visible for learners. Because she knows that previous teachers have introduced plot graphics in the earlier grades, Jacqueline uses a more detailed form that asks students to explain or describe key events (see Form 2.1).2 She uses this as an activity after reading because she understands that it is only after the problem is resolved that the reader understands which events really were significant. By asking students to complete this organizer, she is helping them attend to story parts—ones that will enhance their comprehension of the story and enable them to remember important aspects of the text. The beginning teacher should keep in mind that these graphic representations should be flexible and match the text structure as well as the reader’s understanding. For example, if we look closely at the example we included, the reader will immediately see its potential limitations for some stories. That is, the reader might infer that there are only three key events, but in some texts there are four or five. Further, this might be open to the interpretation of the reader. Therefore, teachers should provide these as guides for learners and clarify that they can make adjustments as necessary, such as adding “Key Event 4” or crossing out “Key Event 3.” In addition, the teacher should also create additional graphic organizers that better match the texts students are reading. For example, Susan has modified a commonly used one to work specifically with mysteries (see Form 2.2), a genre Jacqueline includes within her curriculum and which we discuss in Chapter 5. This form is helpful when teaching the structure of mysteries because it helps make visible that each clue the author provides eliminates some suspects, leading the reader to be able to predict the perpetrator of the crime. 2All

forms are at the end of the chapter.

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Important to keep in mind is that graphic organizers are valuable tools to help learners focus on how the author has structured the text, thus enabling them to better comprehend and remember what they are reading. While there exists an abundance of them in curriculum materials, teachers and students should develop their own models to meet individual needs. Teaching Strategic Reading and Writing in Content Areas The amount of content area materials students are required to read increases each year of schooling, beginning at fourth grade and continuing through the remainder of school. Therefore, another important standard fifth-grade teachers must address includes the need to help students read for meaning and write to communicate information. In part, this requires learners to integrate multiple thought processes (Moore, Moore, Cunningham, & Cunningham, 1998). Key to supporting this goal is the inclusion of instruction that helps students comprehend content area textbooks, periodicals, reference materials, pamphlets, and newspapers. Further, teachers now must include instruction that helps students not only access resources on the Internet, but also become critical consumers of this resource. Being literate no longer means just being able to comprehend words printed on paper; it must also include electronic resources and visual media (Kinzer & Leander, 2003). As evidence of this need, many states, including Jacqueline’s home state of Wisconsin, adopt some technology standards as part of their reading/language arts programs. Since there are no editorial criteria for what gets posted electronically, learners must understand the need to verify the information they find through their computer with other, more reliable sources, thereby becoming more critical readers who analyze information. While this is an essential goal, there is little research to inform the teacher about the best ways of helping students become critical consumers of electronic texts (Kinzer & Leander, 2003). In addition, with enhanced word processing programs, it has become easier for students to cut and paste existing texts into their own reports, plagiarizing others’ work and creating a new concern for teachers to address (Austin & Brown, 1999). Students need to learn how to see technology as an additional tool to support their writing and not as an easy way to complete an assignment. Given all these emerging social and literacy needs, the inclusion of Internet projects into the fifth-grade curriculum, while essential, has created new challenges for the teacher. The fifth-grade teacher also has another responsibility—teaching content-area reading. For many students, fifth grade is the first time they are expected to read large sections of multiple texts across content areas independently as homework each night. As they progress through middle and high school, this form of assignment increases. Therefore, to support their efforts in comprehending these texts, instruction should focus on strategy use, as mentioned above. One such approach is to concentrate on the varied text structures contained within textbooks, informational texts, and the Internet since, as Armbruster (1984) noted long ago, it is

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essential for the reader to find all texts friendly, approachable, and considerate. Instruction emphasizing the multiple formats informational texts can adopt can help students navigate and comprehend the increasing variety of materials they must read. Given the need to read a variety of text structures included in the fifth-grade curriculum, Jacqueline plans instruction that supports students’ abilities to construct meaning from a variety of texts. For example, she provides instruction on text frames (see Buehl, 2001), which are key to fifth graders being able to understand their textbooks. As with other standards, individual students’ needs vary. To help address this variation, Jacqueline encourages students to read textbooks in a mixture of contexts, such as whole-class, small-group, partners, and independently. This allows her to monitor students’ fluency and provide them some alternatives to reading independently.

Instructional Approaches to Support Readers To meet both the standards and students’ needs, Jacqueline adopts instructional strategies that can apply across reading contexts. Above, we provided specific examples of reading strategies that model what good readers do (e.g., DR-TA and teaching text frames). Now we shift to some descriptions of instructional approaches that can apply to a variety of reading contexts. One important instructional approach is to build on students’ background knowledge. For example, Jacqueline introduces lessons by building on previous instruction, thereby establishing a link between the students’ existing knowledge and new information, making it meaningful, and enabling them to connect new information to old, an important thinking process (Moore et al., 1998). Because of her vast experience at this level, Jacqueline knows that some fifth-grade students have nearly immediate recall of previous lessons, while others are not as clear on the concepts and need prompts. One style she uses to help them with this difference is to have individuals briefly share with a partner what they remember about the previous lesson. That discussion triggers more recall for some students. When supported in this way, learners feel safe contributing in both small- and large-group situations. In addition to the variations in reading textbooks, Jacqueline also provides occasions when reading in whole-class settings for popcorn reading and paragraph-by-paragraph reading. When students make use of popcorn reading, they are all reading the same passage. One student is selected to begin reading. After he or she has read at least one sentence but no more than two paragraphs, the students call out “popcorn” and a classmate’s name, such as “popcorn Stan.” It is now Stan’s turn to read, starting right where the previous student stopped. This can obviously create motivation since students are responsible for identifying the next reader. It can also ensure that students are following along just in case they are called on to read next. This instructional strategy helps build students’ reading fluency.

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On a day when independent reading is the option, Jacqueline provides a safety net for struggling readers by offering to read with anyone who comes to the back table. Oral comprehension is much higher for some students than comprehension of silent reading, particularly if the teacher has prepared them to listen carefully for specific information. Jacqueline has learned that some readers only need to hear the text read out loud for them to understand it. While this does not ensure that these students are becoming better at reading the textbook independently, it does help them keep up with their peers in this subject. In addition, other students can benefit from Jacqueline’s undivided attention to support them when reading their texts aloud to her. Thus, by reading aloud with students, Jacqueline can model fluent reading and strategy use while also monitoring students’ independent reading. Jacqueline mixes up the reading techniques, not using any one too much to keep students interested. By varying her instructional strategies so that the class doesn’t get bored, Jacqueline helps motivate her students to remain engaged in reading their textbooks. At the same time, she cycles through the strategies so that they all become familiar and students begin to internalize them. Writing in the Content Areas (Fiction and Nonfiction) In addition to providing instruction on reading informational texts and options during instructional activities, the fifth-grade teacher must also provide lessons focusing on writing (Berkenkotter, Huckin, & Ackerman, 1988; Calkins, 1994; Sipe, 1998). Jacqueline emphasizes paragraph writing in her class to build the foundation for writing longer texts. This focus does not mean students never write extended texts; it means that she has learned that fifth graders in her district can benefit from an emphasis on the building blocks of longer texts. That is, she emphasizes each section of an essay—introduction, body, and conclusion— separately during instruction. For example, when teaching fifth graders how to support their topic sentence, Jacqueline has developed a sheet that scaffolds their understanding (see Form 2.3). By providing samples of the supporting sentences without the topic sentence, she shows students that all sentences in the paragraph must relate to the topic sentence. Further, she encourages them to add detail that expands on the first supporting sentence. Finally, she makes visible the need for writers to revise their writing by asking them to reorganize the sentences on the sheet. After some practice with this, students can apply what they have learned when writing an essay. Jacqueline has found that she can easily adapt the format of the skateboard example to apply to multiple writing assignments, such as developing a summary paragraph after reading a homework assignment. To help her establish where to begin her instruction, she obtains a baseline sample of her students’ paragraphing skills during the first week of school, then uses this as a guideline when she develops her initial instructional plans. While there are similar tendencies in her students’ abilities to write, Jacqueline has

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learned that taking time at the beginning of the year to determine what they can do independently helps her tailor her instruction to her current students’ needs. To help her establish the relationships between reading and writing, Jacqueline uses printed texts in her room to support her writing instruction. Although standards documents do not mention the need to make explicit links between reading and writing, these connections are part of Jacqueline’s instructional goals because there is clear evidence that reading and writing are related processes. For example, specific instruction on paragraph writing with a main idea, supporting details, and a closing sentence is often easier to demonstrate with examples from her content area textbooks and library references. These texts are filled with examples of paragraphs using this structure and are readily available. In one lesson, Jacqueline’s students find samples in their social studies and science books that follow a conventional paragraph structure. Often, after students find various paragraph structures, they consider these models and use them in their own writing. By connecting reading and writing, the process becomes clearer for students.

Connecting Reading and Writing of Fictional Texts In addition to the example above, Jacqueline notes that all students can benefit from being encouraged to write about what they are reading. To this end, she incorporates frequent assignments that ask students to respond to their readings in journals. These written responses help her meet other standards. That is, one standard asks that students be able to read, interpret, and critically analyze literature, so some of Jacqueline’s required prompts are designed to meet this standard. For example, she might ask students to respond to the prompt “Why do you think the main character acted this way in Chapter 4?” Such a question enables students to reveal their interpretive and critical comprehension capabilities. Even the struggling reader can express an opinion and support it with evidence from the text. Another standard includes the goal that students be able to use texts to understand human experiences. Again, some required prompts focus on this objective. For example, Jacqueline sometimes asks students to compare events in a text to current events or to happenings in their own lives. Asking students to make connections helps them begin to understand that reading and writing require all of us to engage in and reveal personal reactions, connections, and thoughts motivated by the text. Asking students to connect new information to existing knowledge is key for comprehension. At the same time, we want to caution the beginning teacher to keep one thing in mind: be sure to stress that the student needs to state explicitly how the connection is related to the text. For example, using the Cinderella tale discussed earlier, we can show a relevant connection as well as an irrelevant one. Let’s say a student reading this fairy tale related a time when she felt that she had to help with household chores and her sisters did not. She might elaborate her feelings and connect them to how Cinderella might have been feeling early in the story. This is a connection that helps the student comprehend the story because

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she can identify with the main character. In contrast, another girl might write about her beliefs that glass slippers would hurt and connect this to a time when she had shoes that were too small. This connection does not contribute to the girl’s comprehension because Cinderella does not complain about the slippers. By stressing to students that they need to explicitly bridge their personal connection to events in the text, the teacher can reinforce how this is a valid strategy for comprehending and remembering a text. One way Jacqueline makes explicit this understanding is by asking students to identify both the connection and the section of the book that prompted it (see Form 2.4). Writing Journals Jacqueline has learned that asking students to maintain daily journals or logs informs her instruction and supports their literacy development. One example of how she sometimes structures her journals to support her comprehension assessment is included later in the book (see Chapter 4), and samples of many of the log prompts are included in the Appendix. These prompts were designed to focus students’ attention on particular ways of enhancing their understanding of texts. While providing specific prompts is an important component of her literacy program, Jacqueline also includes journal entries that vary in terms of focus, depending on her students’ strengths and needs and on her instructional emphasis. For example, sometimes students can choose their own topic to write about; Jacqueline recognizes the importance of allowing students some choices in their literacy learning because this promotes engagement and motivation (Guthrie & Wigfield, 1997). One way of providing choice is to let students select from among all the potential log prompts. Another is to allow more free writing by ignoring the structure of the prompt sheets and asking students to respond to several textual components or to write a personal response. Finally, she might ask them to develop their own questions related to the text. By doing so, she includes a wide variety of options for students for their journal entries. At the same time, she does not limit her instruction on the relationship between reading and writing to just log entries. For example, as part of a letterwriting unit, students pose questions related to their reading in letters sent to the authors. This provides an authentic purpose for writing a letter. Many teachers have adopted this approach and been surprised at the responses from some authors. Jacqueline has added another dimension to this activity by asking students to construct some questions and then predict the author’s answers based on what they know about him or her from their reading. This is a more creative form of the same assignment and provides a related activity while students wait to hear from the author. The letter-writing activity is a solid one that connects reading and writing that begins in the student’s journal. There are many others Jacqueline has included in her curriculum. For example, another of her creative writing assignments that connects

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to reading asks students to construct questions for the characters. This is followed by having a peer write a response from the character, based on his or her interpretation of how the character would answer. Yet another activity is to write about an event from the character’s viewpoint. For example, the hypothetical response above from the girl who wrote about how the glass slippers would hurt could become the basis of her own story written from Cinderella’s perspective critiquing the values portrayed in the original. In such a story, this student’s Cinderella might complain about how uncomfortable the shoes were or how boring the prince was since he never even asked her for her name. Such choices of response and clarity of purpose encourage all students to write as they read and reflect on texts. At first glance, Jacqueline’s inclusion of both required and optional responses might appear to demand too much of students; however, there are clear instructional goals integrated into this one set of assignments. Remember, students have required prompts that Jacqueline asks of all of them, regardless of what texts they are reading. These prompts are closely aligned with the instructional focus or goal. In addition, we know that providing students some choice results in more engagement. Thus, students respond to common prompts, which get at the standards, and make choices about other topics for writing, which helps them meet individual goals or pursue topics of choice. Configured in this way, students’ log entries provide Jacqueline a wealth of information related to their literacy growth. Extending Writing Activities Jacqueline also provides opportunities for extended writing so that students can engage in a process of meaning construction where they not only self-edit, but also conference with peers and the teacher. These conferences focus on the individual child’s writing strengths and goals for growth and can have a positive influence on students’ texts (Dyson, 1999; Schultz, 1994). These written activities support Jacqueline’s efforts to meet many other standards. For example, these extended texts enable students to generate, focus, expand, and organize their ideas. By stressing the need for students to draft and revise their ideas, Jacqueline is highlighting the need to develop their thoughts fully for others. Finally, the publishing aspect of the writing process enables her to help learners develop their knowledge of English conventions. Goals for writing instruction should focus on both invention and convention. Good teachers should focus on the invention of writing first so that students have time to develop their ideas. Then focus should shift to the conventions of our language. One genre that is important for the fifth-grade classroom is the writing of persuasive texts. Not only does this prepare students for later writing across the content areas, this genre is also tested in many states. As with all text structures, teaching fifth graders how to write persuasively requires substantial teacher support. Therefore, we think it is important to include here. Jacqueline has learned that providing some scaffolding through the use of structured questions helps her students learn how to write their own persuasive

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texts. She usually begins by generating a list of topics she has heard students discussing (see Form 2.5). Then she asks them to consider what opinion they have about each. Because this list was generated from what Jacqueline heard students discuss, she knows that they have heard other’s perspectives and may have opinions of their own. Each one is closely connected to the students. That is, they ask about the community in which the students live (the school, the town) and events that are part of their lives (afternoon recess and “Fun Friday”). This is an important concept for teachers to keep in mind. A generic list of potential topics will never be as powerful in helping students develop their persuasive writing as one that builds on what students are already thinking about. That is, while a generic list might save the teacher time, by nature it will include multiple topics students have no opinion on, knowledge about, or interest in. To write effective persuasion, fifth graders need to develop a topic that is meaningful to them. Therefore, the new fifth-grade teacher should begin thinking about this the first day of school by listening to students and noting what they talk about. When she is ready to begin the unit on persuasive writing, she will have a list, perhaps a long one, of issues her fifth graders have been talking and thinking about for a while. Once she has introduced this genre, she can then ask students to help her by adding ideas to the list of topics they have opinions on. With fifth graders, there is no end to topics they are willing to debate; the thoughtful teacher can build on this when teaching persuasive writing. Once she has a clear set of potential topics, Jacqueline asks students to consider all of them. She has no intention having students generate full texts on each topic. Instead, she wants them to develop a mental process of questioning their own thinking about a topic. This thought process includes deciding what opinion they have and developing the reasons for it. By elaborating this mental process on paper, Jacqueline helps students develop mental frameworks to use later when writing persuasively. Certainly, as students become more familiar with the overall process, she will clarify to them that they may have two or four good reasons for their opinions and that there is nothing magical about having three. The next step in Jacqueline’s process can take two similar directions, depending on her students. One is to have students select one topic to develop further into a paragraph. She might adopt this process early in the year if her students are just developing their writing or with students who struggle getting their ideas on paper. The second approach is to have students take the ideas they generated for this practice and develop them into a full persuasive essay. In this instance, students need to develop an introduction to the paper stating the problem and their opinion. Students also need to develop each reason into a full paragraph with supporting details and include a conclusion to the essay, reminding readers of the purpose and position. This process can take several days and require peer or teacher conferencing to ensure clear writing. Such attention to the complete process of constructing a persuasive essay is essential from Jacqueline’s perspective because fifth graders need to develop their strategies for such writing not just for middle

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and high school, but for the rest of their lives. Through her structured approach to helping students develop a mental framework for thinking about their ideas, Jacqueline is supporting her students’ efforts to become more persuasive writers. Another consideration for the fifth-grade teacher is how to encourage learners to expand their thinking beyond the conventional. Therefore, the fifth-grade curriculum should include opportunities for learners to be creative and express their unique thinking. Students need help understanding how to make their thinking visible and understandable to others. Therefore, the teacher should model the process of taking thoughts and expressing them in writing. In addition, the teacher should provide models of multiple genres and occasions for students to experiment in expressing their ideas through these genres. One final comment related to writing instruction—we do not need to provide an argument supporting instruction on the conventions of language because most teachers accept this goal. What we do argue is that such instruction should be grounded in students’ needs and the content of their writing. Decontextual skill instruction has never proved effective (Braddock, Lloyd-Jones, & Schoer, 1963; Hillocks, 1986) despite continued classroom practices of teaching from grammar books. Taking valuable instructional time to complete grammar worksheets or copy sentences from grammar books to correct will not make students better writers because they do not connect these activities to their own writing. Since teachers worry about the diminishing time they have for instruction, wasting valuable time on worksheets just does not make sense. Therefore, any teaching of language conventions should be embedded within the revision of texts written by students. Imagine it’s the beginning of the year. The teacher has taken our earlier discussion on the first few weeks of school to heart and collects multiple examples of students’ work to identify needs. In reading the students’ papers, the teacher discovers myriad problems—poor spelling, incorrect verb forms, incomplete sentences, limited sentence structures, and so on. Poor writing can overwhelm both teacher and students, particularly since one can assume previous teachers taught some of this information, and can lead the novice to the closest grammar book because he/she knows that there is a lot the students need to learn and that such texts organize the information for him/her. Further, the text provides several assignments asking students to practice particular skills. Trusting that the developers of such books know more than he/she does, he/she might mistakenly just begin with the first chapter and assign work daily for students. While this might cause the teacher to feel better about instruction, the effect on students’ writing will be negligible. Therefore, we provide another, albeit more complex, approach. Imagine the same teacher with a matching stack of initial students’ writing. She identifies similar problems in the students’ writing but looks across the papers to find those issues that emerge for the most students. Let’s say this is the ability to develop complete, varied sentences. Instead of then going to a published grammar book, the teacher makes a typed copy of all the improper sentences and one of all

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the good ones, organizing them into types of sentences. (If the teacher is unclear about this herself, then the grammar books in the classroom can be helpful in explaining the variations.) This copy can then be turned into a transparency for an overhead projector. The teacher can use the good sentences as models of what she wants the students to write and the poor ones as examples of what not to do. Since the sentences come from the students’ own writing, they can begin to understand the problems. As the teacher continues instruction, she asks students to share samples of their sentences that are good and ones that they are struggling with. Also, during peer conferences, she can ask each student to focus on sentence construction to provide suggestions for improvement. She might further identify a subset of students in class who are “sentence wizards” and are available to help the others when writing. Such an approach grounds instruction in the students’ own work and helps them see the need for clearer writing. As they become better with sentence construction, the teacher can then examine both the initial writing samples and subsequent papers to determine the next instructional focus. Encouraging “Engaged” Reading and Writing One additional goal we want to address in this section is the need to help fifth graders become engaged in reading. Some teachers—both novice and experienced— argue for the need to have fun. We take issue with that concept since it promotes activities that children enjoy but do not learn from. In contrast, we argue for “engaged” learning, or learning that captures students’ interest and captivates their imaginations. As Guthrie and Wigfield (1997) have defined it, engagement is “the joint functioning of motivation with knowledge, strategies, and social interactions with literacy” (p. 5). From our perspective, this goal of engagement requires an inclusion of personal response. By reacting personally to texts the learner can become fascinated by reading. To remain objective requires that the reader stay detached, but then he or she is less likely to care if some aspects of the text remain unclear. In contrast, when readers are actively involved in reading, confusing text becomes a challenge. Therefore, one of Jacqueline’s literacy goals at the fifth-grade level is to encourage personal response. To this end, it is important to ask students to respond personally in writing to the texts they are reading. This focus will support their efforts to become active, engaged learners. Personal responses often ask readers to make connections that link text information or events to the reader’s own experiences, to other texts, and to the real world. Harvey and Goudvis (2000) identify these as “text-to-self,” “text-to-text,” and “text-to-world.” These phrases help the learner remember that his or her responses must include textual information as well as ideas or events from the other category. Explicit instruction on each one and how to develop them as a response to a text can ensure that all students are able to relate their reading to their own lives and previous experiences—a powerful way to encourage active reading.

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INCORPORATING ORAL LANGUAGE Both state and national standards note the importance of learners being able to express their thinking orally to various audiences with multiple purposes. To this end, Jacqueline includes regular occasions for students to talk, not only in large class settings, but also in small groups. She includes many occasions in which she expects students to express their thinking orally for both the entire class and in small groups. Later, we describe how this fits into her research unit. In the interest of space, we now focus on one other instructional component where oral language is developed in her classroom: Book Club. Discussions Focusing on Literature Following the Book Club model (McMahon & Raphael, 1997), Jacqueline has long included student-led discussions related to books to provide learners an authentic context in which to express their thinking orally. When they lead their own discussion groups, Jacqueline sees the most powerful evidence of comprehension. Further, these occasions enable her to determine the needs of individual students and to plan appropriate, explicit instruction to enhance their capabilities. Her observations inform her about students’ comprehension and abilities to communicate ideas to others. As an observer of their discussions, she notes the understandings students have constructed related to a text and/or topic. In addition, she witnesses the participation level of the group members. She notes who is leading the conversations and who is shying away from speaking. She sees who is monopolizing the discussion and who is offering questions, information, opinions, and ideas. She then takes what she has learned by observing the groups and incorporates it into future instruction. That is, she helps the students learn ways of becoming more productive participants in a discussion by stressing both the content and process of their small-group discussions. By scheduling student-led discussions related to the books they are reading, Jacqueline is making effective oral conversation an explicit expectation in her class. While all teachers ask students to respond orally, she includes a literacy program that provides guidelines for, instruction in, and the probability of effective oral language use. This communicates to students that speaking to a group of peers matters. By monitoring their discussions regularly, she can develop instructional goals that meet individual students’ needs. Thus, oral language use is an essential component of Jacqueline’s literacy program.

DEVELOPING VOCABULARY Another goal of the literacy program should be to include an emphasis on vocabulary (Blachowicz & Fisher, 2005). Every standards document emphasizes the need for teachers to help children increase their vocabulary so that they can compre-

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hend a variety of texts across content areas. One challenge all fifth graders face is the increasing number of new vocabulary words they encounter when reading (Blachowicz & Ogle, 2001). Not only do their texts include more multisyllabic words, but they are also domain-specific, requiring students to learn new words and additional meanings for existing vocabulary. Therefore, vocabulary instruction in fifth grade must include structural aspects of words, content-specific vocabulary, and the use of multiple resources to help identify unknown words. Considering the wide variety of new vocabulary students encounter in all their reading, Jacqueline chooses to engage in several prereading activities to expose students to challenging vocabulary before reading. She accomplishes this in many ways, so we will provide a few brief, specific examples. When planning for a math lesson, Jacqueline determined that the word divisibility could be a challenge for many of her students. Therefore, she identified this as a term for her prereading activity. She began by writing the word on the board, then asked the class whether anyone recognized it or could pronounce it correctly. When no one responded, she followed up by asking if there were any words they knew that looked like this one. This time a few students responded, mentioning division and divisible. Jacqueline then led a discussion of the meaning of those words and related it to the meaning of the identified term, divisibility. To address the standard that requires students to understand the structural components of words, the class also counted syllables and listened to the rhythm of the word. By identifying this term prior to reading, helping students connect it to words they knew, and analyzing its structure, Jacqueline helped students learn key new vocabulary that was essential to understanding part of their math textbook and reinforced the need to communicate clearly through oral discussion. While this is one effective method, Jacqueline uses others as well. As an alternative way of introducing students to new vocabulary, Jacqueline considers the important role visualization plays in comprehension. That is, being able to visualize concepts enables the reader to stimulate creativity and develop abstract thinking skills. Further, when readers visualize, they begin to personalize what they are reading because their mental representations are individual constructions, and this can facilitate their efforts to remain engaged in the reading process (Harvey & Goudvis, 2000). Therefore, Jacqueline includes activities that require students to represent their thinking through a visualization activity. For example, she has them draw pictures that communicate the meanings of new terms. An example of this relates to a science lesson she recently taught. Since her students were struggling with the concept of following a scientific process Jacqueline decided to help them remember both the vocabulary and the steps through a visualization activity. First, she asked them to draw a capital Q with long red curly hair. She then directed the class to say the phrase “Q has pretty red curls.” The first letter of each word matches the first letter in each of the steps in the scientific process: question, hypothesis, procedure, results, and conclusion. This picture, along with the phrase, helped students remember a concept repeated in their science textbook. While it did not help students learn the meanings of the

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words, they now had a schema that helped them attend to the explanations of each term in the book. Therefore, this visualization activity provided a framework for students to remember the components of a process and the individual, related vocabulary words. Jacqueline frequently asks students to represent new vocabulary through drawing or visualizing its meaning. Our final example relates to the challenging vocabulary students encounter when reading novels. To support their learning of new words in this context, Jacqueline asks them to write unfamiliar or interesting new words on a separate vocabulary sheet in their response journal. In this entry, students list the interesting/unfamiliar term, the page number in the book on which they found it, and their own definition. Next, they discuss this vocabulary in their small groups. Because students select their own vocabulary to study, make educated guesses about the meaning, and confirm their thinking with their peers, they become more engaged in learning new words. All the above activities are just a few of the ways Jacqueline facilitates and reinforces the learning of new vocabulary. None of these takes much time, but they make an important difference to a child who is struggling with vocabulary and understanding the meaning of passages. This vocabulary instruction is embedded within the reading and comprehension of the texts students are reading daily. Because of this contextual application of vocabulary learning, students are more likely to remember the new terms and recognize the importance of identifying key terms when reading any text. As such, these activities help Jacqueline’s students meet the standards focused on vocabulary development.

BRINGING IT ALL TOGETHER We have just provided a description of how Jacqueline identifies goals and plans instruction based on the standards and students’ needs. In this final section, we provide a description that brings the standards, goals, and students’ needs together by using an example of one of her inquiry units. We selected this particular case since many content standards cite learning research as a goal. To the novice, this objective might seem alternately either simple or daunting, but it is through such larger instructional units that the literacy teacher can integrate multiple standards, goals, and foci. We hope this model serves that purpose. Engaging in Research One standard commonly cited in language arts goals, as well as in social studies and science, is including opportunities for students to engage in research. One way for the beginning teacher to dovetail multiple standards is to consider a research activity that merges language arts goals with another content area. Jacqueline does this frequently. The example we have included is one that integrates language arts with social studies, namely a project investigating the lives of explorers.

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One important concept that we need to repeat is that we know students are more engaged and more likely to learn if they are able to identify their own topics for research and if they are provided authentic audiences for their final research project (Guthrie & Wigfield, 1997). To this end, Jacqueline provides broad parameters and goals for the project while giving students the freedom to make key decisions about their research. One requirement, regardless of topic, is that students must use multiple sources of information. This project goal integrates both a language arts standard of helping students become familiar with multiple genres and a social studies goal of getting students to consult primary documents that record historic events or thinking. To support this, Jacqueline makes available to her students textbooks, reference books, computer software, and preselected websites. For example, during a unit on explorers, her students read basic information in their textbooks. Since their text only goes into specific details about a few of the better known explorers, such as Magellan, Columbus, and Balboa, Jacqueline knows that students need to read additional sources to construct a complete profile of any explorer. After getting the brief description of exploration provided in their textbook, the students spend a class period in the library and computer lab poring over information on 30 or more explorers. The goal of using multiple resources is met through her planning and use of class time. At the same time, students can choose which specific references they read, thus helping to ensure student engagement. To support more engaged learning further, Jacqueline also provides choices of which explorer to research. This is a great example of choice within parameters. That is, students never get completely free choice in Jacqueline’s classroom, as complete choice can be more debilitating than helpful. For example, students might select an explorer on whom there is little information available. Therefore, she provides them a list of options from which they select the focus of their research. As one part of completing this list, Jacqueline checks her school library, her classroom resources, and the local library to construct a list of books, software, and websites about each explorer. If she does not have sufficient resources about an explorer, then that explorer’s name does not make the final list. Once she has completed this process, Jacqueline is confident that there are enough resources to help the students as they research their chosen explorer. The next step in the inquiry project is for students to complete a preliminary search for information on some explorers of choice. This enables students to make an informed decision about the one explorer they ultimately will write about. As they preview some of the texts, they take notes to help them make a final decision on their research topic. Because students make the choice of who they want to research, they are more excited about the project overall. In this aspect of the project, Jacqueline is integrating reading and writing, encouraging critical thinking, and providing an opportunity for students to make an informed choice. Even though Jacqueline provides a lot of support in helping students identify an explorer and appropriate reading resources, some students in fifth grade still struggle with making decisions about their own work. When this happens, Jacque-

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line uses her knowledge of the students to help those who are having difficulty. For example, not all websites and resources are written at a level that is easily accessible to all fifth graders. Therefore, when Jacqueline initially identifies potential resources for all students, she also notes some that are at an easier reading level or text structure for the struggling readers in her class. In some cases, a struggling student has a passion for a particular explorer and the only available resources are difficult. When this happens, she supports the student’s choice and helps the child find ways of reading these texts and remembering the information. To continue her instructional goal of having students read a variety of texts, Jacqueline requires all of them to include similar information regardless of explorer and texts available. They use these guidelines to help them take notes on various aspects of the explorer’s life, such as dates of exploration, country affiliation, important discoveries, and problems of the voyage(s). These notes serve as the basis of their completed written project. As with the other components of this assignment, Jacqueline values student choice when deciding on the final project. Therefore, another important requirement for students is to decide the format of the final written document. Listing choices of format also aligns with the standards related to becoming knowledgeable about various texts. Students select a written structure to demonstrate their knowledge of that genre. As with all other aspects of the research, Jacqueline provides support by offering options such as a travel brochure, biography report, or tour guide advertisement, but the choice belongs to the students. The specific knowledge students construct as they research may differ depending on the explorer, but all of the students read informational texts, take notes, and write a final document sharing what they have learned. Students have used their reading and writing skills to prepare the report, and they demonstrate their oral language skills when they share that information, the final component of this project (another language arts standard). In the case of the explorers unit, students share what they have learned through research, which assists them during their oral presentation. To support students’ efforts to move away from simply reading their reports, Jacqueline introduces them to presenting from note cards. This can be a difficult skill at first and requires time for students to practice. In addition, Jacqueline expects students in the audience to provide feedback about the strength of the presentation and ask questions at the end (this helps them meet the standard to engage in critical thinking related to texts). To support this aspect of the assignment, Jacqueline also provides instruction on how to ask good questions and how to listen well enough to evaluate the report, ensuring that students become more active listeners (another language arts goal). A final way of making this experience authentic is to invite parents or grandparents to hear the students’ presentations. While Jacqueline has not tried this, another teacher Susan has worked with has. Inviting parents into the classroom can be risky and stressful, but with well-articulated goals for the oral presentation and with a clear policy that parents cannot be invited until the final project is

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ready, it can be rewarding for all concerned. For the students, it provides an additional, important audience for their work. For the parents, it is a time to take pride in their children’s accomplishments. For the teacher, it is an opportunity to share the instructional program with parents. Therefore, even though the logistics of such an event can be challenging, it can prove extremely valuable. Parents’ schedules vary, so the teacher may need to allow students to share their presentations at a variety of times throughout the day, to schedule more than one day of presentations, and/or to provide a reasonable place for parents to observe the presentation and clear guidelines for the rest of the students during the presentations. Despite the extra work, the effort has proved valuable. Not only do students work harder because of this authentic audience, but parents are appreciative of the opportunity to see and hear the final outcome of their son’s or daughter’s hard work. We also described Jacqueline’s ongoing value of encouraging students to engage in oral discussions to further their abilities to express themselves in front of others. Obviously, this final presentation of their research reports enables her to meet this goal through another means. Unlike Book Club, which is an informal sharing of ideas, the research project requires students to develop a well-organized, thoughtful report—thus meeting another language arts standard.

FINAL THOUGHTS Only someone living under a rock would not know the current emphasis on standards-based instruction. The current reality of instruction at all levels is the need to incorporate instruction that meets individual learners’ needs while also meeting professional standards. These standards are important, but equally important is the goal of beginning instruction with students’ needs in mind and helping them become more independent readers and writers. Each student needs support in becoming more literate. This support requires the teacher to know what the child can do alone without instruction and which goals he or she needs support to achieve. This helps the teacher determine what to provide through instruction. Standards provide an external measure to keep goals clear and prevent the teacher from losing sight of the learner’s needs to become a literate adult. Therefore, standards are important. At the same time, meeting the standard does not mean beginning instruction at the same place with all learners. As we have tried to show with examples from Jacqueline’s classroom, the teacher can provide parameters that all students must strive for, support for those who need it, and choice to provide motivation. Sometimes, instruction focuses on an entire class, but at other times, it is very individual. In such a classroom, standards play the appropriate role. They are an important consideration, but the individual learner remains crucial.

38 Key Event 2

Key Event 3

Turning Point

Conclusion

From Teaching Literacy in Fifth Grade by Susan I. McMahon and Jacqueline Wells. Copyright 2007 by The Guilford Press. Permission to photocopy this form is granted to purchasers of this book for personal use only (see copyright page for details).

Key Event 1

After reading the entire novel, choose the best events to identify for this plot graph.

FORM 2.1. Plot Graph

FORM 2.2. Mystery Plot Grid

From Teaching Literacy in Fifth Grade by Susan I. McMahon and Jacqueline Wells. Copyright 2007 by The Guilford Press. Permission to photocopy this form is granted to purchasers of this book for personal use only (see copyright page for details).

39

FORM 2.3. Paragraph Writing—Details Need a Topic Sentence

Name

Directions: Read the following sentences. Create a sentence to complete the missing detail. Decide what all the supporting ideas are about and write a powerful topic sentence.

TOPIC: SKATEBOARDING Topic Sentence

Support 1: In order to ride a skateboard, you need to be able to balance and shift your weight on a wooden board with wheels. Detail: Support 2: You can expect to stumble and fall a few times. Detail: Getting a few scrapes and bruises is part of learning how to ride your board. Support 3: Before you ever step on your skateboard, be sure you are wearing your safety equipment. Detail: Every skateboarder should wear a helmet, kneepads, and elbow pads. Closing Sentence: With a lot of practice, patience, and perseverance, you will become an expert skateboarder. Now that you have developed your topic sentence and added detail, decide on the best order for the information. Now, rewrite the reorganized paragraph below.

From Teaching Literacy in Fifth Grade by Susan I. McMahon and Jacqueline Wells. Copyright 2007 by The Guilford Press. Permission to photocopy this form is granted to purchasers of this book for personal use only (see copyright page for details).

40

FORM 2.4. Making Connections

I read pages

to

.

I made a personal connection to something in the book.

In the book it said

I link that to my life because

From Teaching Literacy in Fifth Grade by Susan I. McMahon and Jacqueline Wells. Copyright 2007 by The Guilford Press. Permission to photocopy this form is granted to purchasers of this book for personal use only (see copyright page for details).

41

FORM 2.5. Persuasive Writing—Practice Prompts for Opinions and Three Reasons

Name

Directions: Read each prompt. Decide what your opinion is on each issue. Then write one sentence that clearly expresses your opinion and three good reasons in a logical order. Prompt 1: Should our hometown build a public swimming pool in your neighborhood? Opinion: Reason 1: Reason 2: Reason 3: Prompt 2: Would you rather spend spring break taking a vacation or skip it and get out of school a week earlier? Opinion: Reason 1: Reason 2: Reason 3: Prompt 3: Should we keep the afternoon recess in fifth grade? Opinion: Reason 1: Reason 2: Reason 3: Prompt 4: Should students in our school district start wearing uniforms? Opinion: Reason 1: Reason 2: Reason 3: (continued)

From Teaching Literacy in Fifth Grade by Susan I. McMahon and Jacqueline Wells. Copyright 2007 by The Guilford Press. Permission to photocopy this form is granted to purchasers of this book for personal use only (see copyright page for details).

42

FORM 2.5. (page 2 of 2)

Prompt 5: What is the best restaurant in the area? Opinion: Reason 1: Reason 2: Reason 3: Prompt 6: Should we have “Fun Friday” each week in our class? Opinion: Reason 1: Reason 2: Reason 3: Prompt 7: Where should your family go on vacation this year? Opinion: Reason 1: Reason 2: Reason 3:

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CHAPTER 3

ESTABLISHING A CLASSROOM ENVIRONMENT FOR LITERACY LEARNING

T

he first day of school each year is filled with mixed emotions. Students arrive excited to see their friends and begin a new year but also hesitant to enter the classroom that signifies new expectations and goals. While teachers take time to ease them into higher expectations, the layout of the room can do much to make the transition an easy one and to ensure more stable classroom management for the year since it helps shape students’ behaviors (Tompkins & Tway, 2003). Setting up a classroom is both a professional and a personal effort. Certainly, the classroom should be arranged to foster learning. That is, there should be appropriate materials and spaces for students that are both accessible and welcoming. Of course, the variety of materials and areas for multiple settings depend, at least in part, on the resources of the district. While many teachers supplement the school budget with their own purchases, this takes time. Most of the time, the beginning teacher will be dependent on what the district can provide. When deciding the room arrangement, the teacher needs to consider his or her beliefs about how students learn best. Scanning any school will illustrate to newcomers that teachers’ beliefs vary. Some rooms have straight rows with an obvious teacher’s desk in the front; others have desks arranged in pods for student interaction and the teacher’s desk somewhere in the back. There may be writing on a chalkboard, on chart paper, or on transparencies positioned on a projector. These 44

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differences reflect teachers’ beliefs about how best to teach and foster learning. Therefore, in this chapter we describe Jacqueline’s classroom through the lens of her beliefs about learning. Jacqueline is fortunate to teach in a district that provides sufficient supplies and commits to small class sizes. You will want to consider your own beliefs and the realities of the district in which you are beginning to teach fifth grade.

PHYSICAL SETUP To the beginner, arranging the classroom may seem insignificant because he is focusing on materials and his own performance, but how he chooses to arrange the desks, what centers he creates, and how he assigns desks to students has a significant impact on learning. In this section, we describe some aspects of the physical arrangement in Jacqueline’s classroom that reflect her teaching philosophy. We begin by describing how the arrangement of the desks supports students’ learning. Next, we talk about how the physical setup supports her value of including student choice. We then briefly discuss the classroom library and computers. This section concludes with an argument for flexibility in setting up the classroom and being open to making changes. Arranging the Desks Current beliefs about literacy learning argue that children need opportunities to interact with one another. For example, Cazden (2001) explains that most of the interactions children participate in during school are “language of performance” (Barnes, 1992), or the equivalent of a oral final draft. That is, the teacher asks students specific questions with predetermined answers. Students’ answers must be brief, concise, and correct. This is reasonable sometimes, since time is limited and the teacher must monitor students’ learning, but Barnes (1992) argues students also benefit from opportunities to engage in “exploratory talk.” This speech is more halting, as students work to articulate their developing thoughts. Learners gain from these types of interactions because they have time to explore their thinking with a real audience—their peers. Therefore, teachers who value students’ interactions as essential to their learning will arrange the room in a way that supports interactions. For example, desks positioned in straight rows, facing the front of the room where the teacher frequently stands, will not support student interactions, not only because the physical arrangement makes it difficult, but also because this layout communicates that the only person in the room worthy of attention is the teacher. Years of experience have taught Jacqueline that her students often support one another’s learning through dialogue. Therefore, she values situating their desks in pods, with children facing one another, so that they can talk. If students are seated in easy proximity to one another, they can seek help and

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Developing a supportive learning community includes providing time for students to build social relationships through shared learning. Students who discuss their ideas while reading and writing develop a respect for one another’s thinking.

offer clarifications to peers. As Goodman and Wilde (1992) found, social interactions within the classroom can significantly promote literacy learning. One common concern for beginning teachers is classroom management. We cannot minimize this aspect of instruction. If students are not engaged, then learning does not occur. Often this apprehension leads beginners to arrange the room so that students cannot easily talk with one another. While this reaction is understandable, silence does not mean students are learning. Further, the physical layout of the desks will not alone ensure classroom management. Only the teacher can instill a respect for learning, and this can be accomplished whether the desks are in pods, circles, or straight rows. The teacher should consider his/her own beliefs about learning. If these match the physical arrangement of the desks and this arrangement supports learning, then instruction that promotes student engagement will follow. Research has shown that when provided an opportunity to talk to peers and clear expectations for the content of that talk, students will focus on their reading and writing (Kasten, 1992). Because the role of talk is key to learning, we believe even the beginning teacher should arrange his or her classroom in ways that allow students to interact—if not always, at least during some of their literacy activities during the day. Incorporating Choice in Room Arrangement Another important philosophical stance related to literacy learning that can influence the arrangement of the room is the significance of students’ choice in their reading, writing, and oral discussions. This choice will be discussed again later

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when we talk about materials, but it also pertains to where students complete their assignments. That is, some students perform well at their desks. For them, there is sufficient room to have their materials available and to read and/or write. Further, the desk chair is comfortable for them. In contrast, other students need a larger area to spread out their papers and books or a more comfortable seat to relax in. In addition, if the teacher believes in students’ working together on projects, then there must be a place where they can sit together to read and write. Because Jacqueline believes that the room should have several areas students can choose to work in, she has large tables arranged in one corner where students can elect to work individually or in small groups. There is a couch near this area for students who prefer a cozier seat. For independent reading or studying, Jacqueline has several pillows arranged against the wall. The variety of literacy work areas allows students choice not simply of where to sit, but also how and with whom. While Jacqueline has used her experience to make her decisions, research has provided a list of general suggestions based on observations of effective classroom centers (Staab, 1991). In general, such centers:

Ø Evolve from children’s ideas and interests. Ø Provide opportunities for purposeful, meaningful

follow-up to whole-

group discussions.

Ø Allow for student choice. Ø Provide teachers opportunities

to monitor students’ progress and work

with students who need help.

Ø Support individual learning. Ø Integrate literacy with content areas. Ø Provide opportunities for interaction among students. Ø Enable students to develop responsibility for their own learning. Ø Facilitate teachers’ efforts to assess students’ work. Ø Provide students opportunities to socialize. The novice teacher may erroneously conclude that the arrangement of her classroom is only a technical consideration. That is, she may enter her new room and focus all her attention on the aesthetic aspects, such as bulletin boards and cleanliness. These are important considerations, but at the same time, how she arranges the room subtly communicates to students on the very first day her values and expectations. Therefore, it is essential that the beginner reflect long before being assigned a classroom on what she wants her students to conclude on the first day and arrange the room accordingly. It goes without saying that, once the room is arranged, the teacher needs to plan purposeful activities in all sections on a regular basis.

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Classroom Library Another component evident in the arrangement of Jacqueline’s classroom is the inclusion of a classroom library. While students frequent the school library, having multiple copies of books in their classroom provides them access to additional texts to read for enjoyment. Jacqueline has noticed that the proximity of a classroom library leads more often to students selecting books to read during free time. Further, they tend to complete these books once they begin. She has worked hard to develop a well-rounded set of texts that appeals to most of her students. In her classroom, most books are fiction, but there are nonfiction texts and magazines as well. Her library has a range of reading levels from early elementary to middle school. Students who struggle with reading can feel comfortable choosing a book with a lower reading level, and highly skilled readers can easily find materials, too. Jacqueline continues to stock her classroom library by picking up books at bookstores and ordering extra books via student orders. It is never finished because students’ interests change and new books are always being published. Clearly, the beginning teacher will not have a wealth of materials to support his or her classroom library unless some kind colleague shares part of his or her collection, but purchasing materials is only one way of developing a collection. One additional way is to ask the building librarian to pull texts related to the curricular focus, such as the genre, author, or students’ interests being studied. Another source of books is the local library. The teacher can check out books and provide them for students to use within the classroom. Finally, a request to parents might result in books their children no longer read. While it will take time to develop a full range of choices, the creative beginning teacher will find ways of bringing additional texts into the classroom for students’ elective reading. Computers and Technology In Chapter 2, we discussed the standards that guide a teacher’s curriculum and instruction. One standard we did not address specifically was the one related to media and technology. We choose to address this standard here because we perceive both media and technology as tools for learning and not as separate goals for understanding. Students need opportunities to use computers to gather information and construct their own texts. Since children learn about technology by using it (Genishi, McCarrier, & Nussbaum, 1988), teachers need to provide occasions for students to access computers. Therefore, a literacy classroom should have computers available for student use. At the same time, research has shown that the teacher’s philosophy related to computer use has an influence on how effectively students use technology (Cochran-Smith, Kahn, & Paris, 1990; Reinking, Labbo, & McKenna, 1997). Therefore, the beginning teacher needs to reflect thoroughly on the purpose of the computers in the room and plan for meaningful uses of them.

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In Jacqueline’s school, there is one computer lab dedicated to computer skills instruction. A computer teacher works with her students twice a week. In addition, there are two more computer labs for classroom projects and Jacqueline’s classroom has three computers for students’ use. They are valuable both for word processing and research. Since students have Internet access, they can complete projects that require alternative resources. Jacqueline’s students have access to many computers for multiple purposes. Because of this, she can confidently include technology goals in her instruction. As with classroom libraries, the novice teacher may have to incorporate the use of computers gradually into her instruction plans. Many districts are still working toward placing multiple computers in each classroom; some are just beginning to apply technology standards in their curricula. In such settings, the new teacher may have to provide some leadership in integrating technology into the literacy program. For those who do have access to multiple computers and the Internet, we have other suggestions. First, any teacher new to a district should request copies of the district’s guidelines for Internet use. While the Web can be an excellent source of information, it is also not monitored. Therefore, students can inadvertently enter a site that contains inappropriate information; some websites are not safe for children. In response, many districts have initiated policies to protect students. This might include the installation of filters that limit sites students have access to or the assignment of a person to oversee Internet access. To protect all participants involved, the beginning teacher should seek out existing policies and practices and carefully adhere to them. .

Building a Community of Learners We mentioned earlier that the room arrangement communicates to students the teacher’s literacy goals. It also conveys the type of learning community he or she is trying to establish. By definition, a classroom community is, “a group of students who feel a sense of belonging, show care for their classmates, and are responsible for their own learning” (Tompkins & Tway, 2003, p. 502). Both students and teacher build the community, and the initial step in building it is the arrangement of the room as students enter on their first day. Peterson (1992) has listed eight components of communities that support learning: Regular meetings and/or ceremonies. Rituals that express value of and commitment to the classroom environment. Rites that mark accomplishments, initiate newcomers, welcome visitors, and culminate activities and the year.

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Celebrations of special days, student achievements, and birthdays. Talk that builds social relationships by sharing important events, learning, and experiences. Play through creative projects and collaboration. Routines and jobs that students share to keep the physical space orderly. Residency through membership in the community. We recognize that community is an indefinite concept that the beginning teacher may question. At the same time, it is an obvious aspect of all successful classrooms. Because of the elusive quality of this component, we believe the list above can help the novice begin to establish his or her own learning community. Flexibility One final comment about the arrangement of any classroom is that it changes. A static setting indicates a lack of creativity and life. Therefore, Jacqueline plans for change. This change usually occurs when some aspect of the current arrangement is not working. For example, she encourages students to make positive choices that support learning, but because they are still children, they don’t always make the right choice. When this occurs, Jacqueline may rearrange the classroom or separate those students who cannot focus when sitting with peers. As noted in Chapter 2, individual students’ needs must be considered; this is not just true for planning curriculum, but also for arranging the room. Some students need to work separately or with only one peer. In addition, during tests, students may need to separate their desks to be able to work independently. When such needs arise, Jacqueline adjusts the room to accommodate individuals’ needs. Jacqueline also reassigns desks each month because she wants students to have opportunities to work with all of their peers. Students learn that, even if they are presently sitting near and working with someone who does not support their learning, it will be for only one month; after this, they will be part of a new group. This method communicates to all students that they are a community that has to learn together, even if only for a short time. Desk arrangement matches Jacqueline’s philosophy but also adjusts to meet the needs of individual students. Earlier, we mentioned concerns regarding classroom management. We return to it here because the component of flexibility provides the novice ways to explore what works best for him or her and the students. Making students accountable for working well with all their classmates and clearly articulating consequences for failure to do so enables the teacher to make any adjustments needed. If the entire class becomes difficult, then desks lined up in straight rows might make sense for a while. Once the teacher has rearranged the rows, she should continue to make her expectations for group work clear so that, once she returns to a more social grouping, students have learned these expectations. Further, some students may need to

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work alone, separated from their peers, most of the time. Our position is that the teacher must (1) understand her own beliefs about students’ learning, (2) communicate clearly her expectations for students’ participation, (3) arrange the room in ways that best support these expectations, and (4) be prepared for temporary changes when needed. Having one arrangement of desks that remains consistent throughout the year probably will not foster learning for all students. In conclusion, we restate that one of the first tasks for the beginning teacher is to arrange his classroom. Often, he does this without knowing the students or being familiar with all available materials. This is not an easy task that can be achieved the week before school. The physical layout of the classroom is also telling. It reveals the teacher’s beliefs about learning and the students’ ability to meet his expectations. As such, it deserves a thoughtful stance. The physical limitations of the room are less important than the teacher’s mental limitations about what is possible. To achieve the best arrangement, we believe the teacher should consider ways that the floor plan promotes learning, allows for some choices during the school day, and includes a library and computers for students’ daily use. Most important, we believe the arrangement should be flexible to meet both the teacher’s and the students’ needs. The beginning teacher can start planning for his classroom long before he signs a contract. Elementary classrooms are more similar than different, so he can begin making mental (or physical) maps of how to set up a classroom. Once he has contracted his first position, he can then match his plans to the reality of the room.

INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS As with the physical arrangement of the classroom, the organization of instructional materials also reveals much about the teacher’s beliefs. What materials students can find easily, how they are organized, and how they are maintained communicate their role in learning to students. Therefore, it is important that the teacher introduce all relevant materials early in the year and make them accessible to students. In the following sections, we describe the materials we think the fifth-grade teacher should include in his or her classroom and some suggestions for introducing them to students. Materials and Information Available for Students As with the physical arrangement of the room, the teacher’s decisions about materials also relate to his or her beliefs about learning. Jacqueline believes that selfreliance is an essential goal. Therefore, she arranges the materials in her classroom in ways that enable students to find what they need when they need it. As long as the teacher controls all the materials in the classroom, it will be harder for students to gain the independence they need to become lifelong learners. Therefore, Jacque-

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line provides easy access to essential information by displaying it on the bulletin boards in the room. While they may be perceived as unnecessary, given that the teacher is usually in the room, these posted informational sheets are important because they enable students to work independently. Further, Jacqueline can easily direct students to the relevant information while she is busy with other groups. Students learn independence and how to help one another. Another important decision when arranging materials in the classroom involves the placement of student work. In some classrooms, work is filed away in folders or kept in students’ desks. In contrast, Jacqueline believes that students should read and write for real purposes for authentic audiences and that they can learn from one another. Therefore, essential to her classroom are places where she can post student work. Of course, she does not post just any assignment. Instead, she plans for what examples of students’ reading and writing will be posted. When planning activities in her instructional units, Jacqueline incorporates components that reveal what students have learned. She posts these while working on each unit and changes them when they move to another unit. In addition to teacher-selected examples of student work, Jacqueline also has a bulletin board that displays work selected by students. Each child chooses one assignment or project to display. They have the choice to leave it up or change it when more assignments and projects are completed. One important caveat for the beginning teacher concerning the posting of student work is related to the issue of grades. Posting negative comments and grades can do more damage to students’ literacy development than focusing only on the positive. This does not mean the teacher ignores areas the learner must address but that critical comments focusing on areas to improve should be kept to a minimum. Posted student work should note the strengths the particular sample shows. This is a challenge for all teachers but one worth taking on. Students enjoy seeing their work and that of their peers posted. In visits to many classrooms, Susan has witnessed students spending significant amounts of time reading one another’s work. If negative statements influence their thinking, it undermines the positive impact of seeing one another’s work. Therefore, the beginning teacher should work on developing feedback that focuses on what the student did well with one or two suggestions for improvement. Much like Jacqueline’s “sandwich” feedback mentioned in Chapter 5, teacher comments on students’ posted work should emphasize the positive while including suggestions for improvement. Then the posted work can serve as a learning tool for all without embarrassing individuals. Further, the teacher can withhold final grades until after the students’ work has been taken down. This avoids any public negative impact. Teacher’s Materials for Planning and Instruction While the arrangement of students’ materials might seem most important for the beginning teacher, providing easy access to teaching materials is also key. In this section, we discuss a few of these that Jacqueline makes sure are handy for her.

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State and District Standards These documents are tucked in the front cover of Jacqueline’s planning book so that they can always be at her fingertips as she plans her lessons. Experience has taught her that if she doesn’t keep them close at hand, she cannot refer to them as much as she should. Not only does keeping them in her planning book enable her to address the standards when preparing her lessons, but it also allows her to document which standards she has taught in each unit. While this arrangement works for her, Jacqueline is lucky to have a list of standards that easily fits into the front of her grade book. Unfortunately, not all teachers are so lucky. Many have three-ring binders of standards they are expected to meet. If this is the case, we suggest the teacher take some time to type up just those standards he or she is currently working on. This list can easily be tucked into a textbook or a planner.

Curriculum Materials: Writing All teachers must keep track of the texts districts provide that support instruction. These vary from basal reading series to novel sets, from textbooks that teach writing to teacher-generated texts. While there are often materials to teach reading, some teachers have limited access to instructional guides for writing. Some districts have just a writing curriculum guide, while others have developed their own programs or adopted one systematic approach to teaching writing. Knowing what is available to use and keeping it organized and accessible is an important goal for teachers. We begin with descriptions of the materials Jacqueline consults for her writing program. For writing, Jacqueline has many resources at her disposal. We describe them here because the reader will see the importance not only of knowing which materials are available, but also of knowing the strengths, purposes, and limitations of each one. In this case, the teacher has a wealth of materials to enhance the writing program. At the same time, she needs to know their purposes and goals so that she can use them optimally. One program Jacqueline’s district has mandated to use is Developing Writing and Thinking Skills across the Curriculum (Collins, 1992). The school board emphasizes writing across the curriculum and identified this program as one to help language arts and content area teachers improve the quality of their students’ writing. This program focuses on the writing process by having students draft their ideas, revise their own writing, and publish final drafts (Calkins, 1994; Flower & Hayes, 1980; Graves, 1994). In addition, it stresses using past writing samples when learning new writing skills and keeping student writing in cumulative folders. In addition to Collins (1992), Jacqueline also has access to the “Six Traits” approach (Mabry, 2001). Like Collins’s program, Six Traits focuses on the writing process, breaking it down into six specific components of all texts: (1) ideas and

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TEACHING LITERACY IN FIFTH GRADE

content, (2) organization, (3) voice, (4) word choice, (5) sentence fluency, and (6) conventions. A third writing program Jacqueline incorporates is Step up to Writing (Auman, 2006). Unlike the programs above, this one focuses more narrowly on understanding paragraph structure. To this end, these materials suggest color-coding sentences according to their purpose. (Topic and closing sentences are written in green, supporting details are written in yellow, and explanations of the supporting details are in red.) This color coding scaffolds the students’ process of learning paragraph structure. Initially, the codes illustrate the difference between main ideas and supporting details. As students become proficient with developing clear paragraphs, they no longer need to color code their sentences. Finally, Jacqueline and her students also have access to Writer’s Express (Kemper, Nathan, Elsholz, & Sebranek, 2000). This program serves as a reference on writing, including information on (1) the writing process, (2) forms of writing, (3) tools of learning, (4) proofreaders’ guides for mechanics and grammar, and (5) a student almanac on every school subject. Clearly, teachers in this district cannot complain that there are not sufficient resources for teaching writing. As an experienced teacher, Jacqueline can integrate each of the above programs into a meaningful curriculum for her students. Not only does she know about writing as a school subject, but she also knows what goals she has for her fifth graders and what to expect from them. The novice teacher is still learning the content, the district’s goals, and the needs of the learners. Too many options for teaching writing can be overwhelming. Our suggestion is that the teacher begin instruction from one of these programs—that is, first focus on the writing process in general or on the specifics of writing, such as the Six Traits or paragraph writing. In Jacqueline’s district, it would make sense to begin with the mandated program, provided in Collins (1992). Once the beginning teacher has a clear sense of this program, he or she can incorporate others. Many beginning teachers will not have so many options to choose from. We included this list as a guide. If the district does not have a program that supports writing instruction, a beginning teacher may select one of those described in which to ground writing instruction. Before making a commitment, the teacher may want to assign a writing project for the students; this might be the best way of learning students’ instructional needs. Keeping anecdotal records from students’ writing over a brief time can reveal what students know and their instructional needs. Identifying common threads or errors in an assignment can be the driving force not only for selecting supporting materials, but also for making daily instructional decisions.

Curriculum Materials: Reading The fifth-grade teacher is very likely to have materials available for reading instruction. Many districts adopt a reading series that outlines the particular strategies teachers should incorporate into instruction on selected stories. In these cases, the beginning teacher should reflect on which activities meet the needs of his or her

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students to select those that make the most sense. Since each series includes different texts and strategies, we cannot expand well on them here. The novice fifthgrade teacher may want to purchase his or her own copies of some series to determine which approaches should be refined and incorporated in instruction. Jacqueline’s reading program is literature-based. That is, students read novels and nonfiction trade books in Book Club groups (McMahon & Raphael, 1997). Her building has a novel room that houses multiple copies for small-group reading. Since this room houses the books, Jacqueline need not find space in her classroom for them. The primary organizational factor of this arrangement is that she and her peers must agree on which titles will be included at each grade level and develop a plan so that they are not trying to teach the same novels at the same time. Teachers in districts with more copies of books may not need to coordinate their schedules for specific titles, but Jacqueline does. Because Jacqueline has novel sets to use for her reading curriculum, she is able to incorporate Book Club as a way to integrate reading, writing, and oral language use. Teachers who believe that students are active participants in their own learning will benefit from using such an integrated approach. This program was developed to support students’ comprehension as they conduct their own discussion groups, question each other and the author, respond to the reading through writing and speaking, and learn essential listening skills. Assessment and instruction are intertwined as the teacher determines upcoming lessons based on student discussions and written responses. Students’ Instructional Materials In addition to materials the teacher needs for instruction, students also have texts they use for learning. In this section, we describe those supplies students in Jacqueline’s class use regularly so that the reader can develop a sense of the potential variety of resources students need.

Texts for Reading As mentioned earlier, school districts vary in their selection of texts teachers should use for reading instruction. In some cases, these are reading series with a full set of skills and strategies to be taught with particular texts. For the novice, such programs can be helpful because they supply a number of strategies to apply before, during, and after reading. Further, these are often matched to the strengths of the story read. Therefore, teachers with limited experience with teaching in general or at a specific grade level can benefit from consulting these series when planning for instruction even if their district does not require or provide them. Jacqueline, as an experienced teacher, is fortunate that her district has a literature-based program. She has access to a number of high-quality books for her reading program. Because she has a master’s degree in reading and several years experience teaching at the fifth-grade level, she has developed a deep understanding of the reading needs of her students. She believes that students are more likely

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to enjoy reading if they can engage with authentic books written to convey narrative events or information. Therefore, her reading program is grounded in trade books that build on the interests and needs of her students. Also, because she incorporates Book Club into her program, she allows students some choice in the books they read and the book club groups they participate in. We say “some choice” here because good instruction provides choice within parameters. That is, students cannot select any book to read; rather, Jacqueline provides a short list of options from which to choose. The selected books build on students’ interests and/ or literacy needs. Complete choice may result in students never stretching their abilities or expanding their interests. In addition to her novel studies, Jacqueline also teaches reading strategies that support her students’ reading of textbooks. Much like basal reading series, textbooks often identify content-specific vocabulary to support instruction and include a number of questions that help monitor comprehension. At the same time, they do not provide suggestions for particular reading strategies that support meaning construction. For example, textbooks are structured very differently from novels. If students try to read both genres in the same way, comprehension can fail. Therefore, Jacqueline provides explicit instruction on how textbooks are structured and strategies on how to understand and remember the main ideas presented. This might include the use of graphic organizers or small-group discussions, depending on the content and students’ strengths. As an experienced teacher, she knows that her students need guidance and practice in reading the multiple components of textbooks. For example, pictures and graphs often include information not addressed in the main section of the text. Fifth graders may not realize this and either avoid reading these components or read only the visual and not the written sections. Because students vary in their knowledge of how textbooks are organized, Jacqueline uses these texts for reading instruction beyond what she provides with the trade books.

Texts for Writing A solid literacy program will provide explicit textual support for writing. That is, just as the teacher needs materials to guide instruction, learners need resources as well. Many districts provide more traditional grammar books, which may or may not be helpful because they are organized by grammatical structure, not student need. In Jacqueline’s classroom, students have access to the resource section of Writer’s Express (Kemper et al., 2000). They frequently refer to this when writing since it not only includes directions on the writing process, but also different types of writing and information about language conventions. Student-Generated Materials As teachers organize for instruction, they not only consider published materials provided by the district, but also resources that can support student learning and

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provide records of growth. In this section, we describe the student-generated materials Jacqueline uses in her classroom. Journals have become an established component of literacy instruction because they provide both teachers and learners documentation of students’ thinking and learning over the course of a semester or year. As such, they are an excellent resource for the teacher when planning instruction and for the student when communicating ideas. Because of their value and flexibility, they can be included in multiple ways. For example, teachers use them as a (1) record of students’ responses when reading, (2) documentation of ideas to write about, (3) list of personal vocabulary to learn, or (4) journal of thoughts and feelings related to reading, writing, and/or learning in general. Some teachers ask students to respond to particular prompts, while others let students choose topics to write about. Of course, teachers can also incorporate both options, allowing students variety and choice to empower them by providing them a voice in their own learning. In addition to using journals for both reading and writing aspects of her program, Jacqueline also asks her students to maintain notebooks for DOL. As mentioned above, many published grammar programs are ineffective because they are not organized by students’ needs. By keeping a notebook that allows students to document their writing needs and illustrate growth, both Jacqueline and her students are able to focus on specific language arts skills. Over time, Jacqueline has modified the original DOL program provided in her district to focus on the skills her students need more help developing. To identify these, she examines and notes errors she finds in students’ writing. In addition, she selects stylistic skills to improve the maturity of their writing. Using this information, she borrows examples from students’ work to use in her DOL activities. Students log these in their notebooks, creating their own resource for future writing. A third type of journal or notebook is one to be used for recording important information when reading in each of the content areas. This journal can provide an organized format for students to take notes, creating a study guide at the end of each unit. With teacher guidance, students learn ways of identifying key ideas, recording them, and synthesizing information to prepare for tests. One important component of planning for instruction is to consider what materials will support instruction and learning. In Jacqueline’s classroom, she plans for this by identifying specific resources available in the district and ones she expects students to maintain throughout the year. By anticipating her instructional needs and those of her students, she can help them develop resources that support and document their learning throughout the year. General Resources within the Room On final comment we have regarding instructional materials is that the wellequipped classroom has other resources for teacher and student use. These include dictionaries or other spelling tools, thesauruses, and encyclopedias for student use

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when reading and writing. Teacher-generated tools, such as editing checklists and rubrics, should be available for students to consult prior to submitting work. Computers for word processing and research were mentioned above, but the teacher anticipating students’ needs will also ensure that they have access to high-quality software that supports many aspects of reading and writing. While these may not all be present in the beginning teacher’s classroom, they should be included on a list of future purchases. Introducing Students to the Materials Having sufficient materials is not enough—the teacher also has to be assured that students know where to find those resources they need. Often, teachers begin each year with a tour of the classroom, showing students how to find relevant information. While important, the tour guide approach is not always engaging for students. That is, watching the teacher walk around the room identifying various materials is not particularly effective with fifth graders. To provide a more motivational activity, Jacqueline recently tried something new. Taking a ball, she threw it to one student, asking him to find the pencil sharpener. Once he had found it, he threw the ball to another student. Jacqueline asked her to find the construction paper. This process continued with students passing the ball to one another and finding relevant sections of the classroom. Jacqueline found students to be more active and interested in finding the classroom materials. They also remembered better where those materials were after this activity. What this method demonstrates is that not only should the teacher thoughtfully arrange materials in the classroom, but, perhaps more important, students need to know how to find them. Of course, we need to include one caveat—the teacher needs to stress that students carefully toss the ball. Also, to prevent injuries, she may select a soft, squishy ball so that no one is hurt. We have been focusing so far on the materials teachers and students need for literacy learning in the fifth-grade classroom. We now shift focus to planning in terms of how to schedule events across the year, a week, and a day.

SCHEDULE Scheduling activities can be a challenge for the fifth-grade teacher. On one hand, students need a predictable plan to depend on; on the other, they can get bored if learning becomes too predictable. Therefore, the successful teacher interrupts instruction for a teachable moment or abandons a failing lesson. We mention this here because what follows is a general direction that guides Jacqueline’s decisions each year. She adjusts it as necessary, depending on the needs of the students. In this section of the chapter, we describe her yearly, weekly and daily schedule.

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Map for the Year A wise teacher realizes that he or she cannot fully plan any unit without knowing his or her students. At the same time, wisdom also dictates a larger plan to influence decision making. This plan is essential for two reasons. First, it provides the teacher and students the big picture for the year. By doing this, they all understand the rationale for each lesson. Learning builds on previous knowledge. By sharing the year’s plan, the teacher can show students the reasons for each component. The second reason for a yearly plan is that it helps the teacher maintain focus to complete the assigned curriculum. In years when a particular class is slower or needs additional help, teachers can find themselves mired down in one curricular component and ignoring others, which can lead to a class falling further behind. By keeping the year’s goals in focus, the teacher is better able to support all learners but also remain flexible. One key to successful teaching is understanding that timing is one of the greatest challenges. What may take one group a single class session takes another two or three. A class might need a full period one day for peer conferences but complete them in 20 minutes the next time. To ensure that the important aspects of the curriculum are addressed and that students’ needs are considered, a teacher must develop a plan for the year. This plan is general and flexible—not so much a detailed map with every stop and activity elaborated, but more an outline of what will be covered. The teacher includes the specific plans once he or she knows the students. Another reason for a yearly plan is that it enables the teacher to line up resources well in advance of needing them. For example, if the goal is to include an integrated unit using both historical fiction and nonfiction texts related to World War II in the spring, the teacher will have the entire year to find texts, films, websites, and activities that might be helpful. Then, when finally planning the unit, he or she has multiple resources to consult. Further, as we mentioned earlier, teachers often must share resources with one another. By creating a yearly plan, the teacher can reserve the texts, films, computer lab time, and so on well in advance, ensuring that when he or she needs them, they are available. A yearly plan also enables the teacher to build on what he or she has already developed. While students vary from year to year, the fifth-grade curriculum and standards remain constant. Therefore, the teacher can learn to take existing units he or she had developed and modify them for each new group. As a successful, experienced teacher, Jacqueline develops a plan for the year using materials and texts she has used with prior classes (see Table 3.1). The novice teacher cannot incorporate this as easily but can look to Jacqueline’s guide as a model for the first years of teaching. As he/she becomes more familiar with the students in his/her district, he/she can make modifications, expanding some aspects and eliminating others. Closer inspection of Jacqueline’s plan shows the reader that she has included many components of a solid fifth-grade curriculum.

TABLE 3.1. General Outline for a Year in Communication Arts September: Poetry (flex into October if needed) The poetry unit is described more fully in Chapter 5. Since it is developed to establish many of the classroom norms, build a classroom community, and help Jacqueline develop an awareness of students’ strengths and needs, this unit may extend into October so that students have more opportunities to develop fluency or their understanding of the genre. Further, some classes take longer to develop a sense of community. Given the dependence on short texts, the poetry unit enables students more occasions to work together. Therefore, even though the intent is to complete the unit during September, it sometimes extends into October. October:

Mystery Books such as Sammy Keyes (flex into November if needed) Like the poetry unit, this unit is also described more fully in Chapter 5. It also is a unit that helps further Jacqueline’s efforts to build a community and to continue working on standards. In this case, it is the first of many novel study units, so she must lay the general groundwork for the rest of the year. Therefore, with some classes, students gain a solid understanding of mysteries within the month of October, while in others she has to carry the unit into November.

November: Power Writing/Overhead Story Retelling Instructional focus shifts slightly during this unit from the lens of reading in the first two months to that of writing this month. December: SUCCESS Reading January:

Jean Fritz Biographies This unit focuses on biographies as a genre. Much like the novel unit described during October, this one examines biography as one type of literature. Students select biographies to read and use as models for the one they write about themselves.

January/ February:

Revolutionary War Novels: Possible three choices: The Fighting Ground, War Comes to Willie Freeman, Traitor. This unit directly relates to a social studies unit Jacqueline teaches just before Christmas. In the unit, she not only focuses on the genre of historical fiction, but expects students to draw on their knowledge of history to evaluate the novels they read. In addition to this focus on historical fiction, she also devotes more time to providing instruction on persuasive writing to help prepare her students for the state test in the spring.

March:

Poppy or Bridge to Terabithia Jacqueline chooses to focus on realistic fiction in March. These two novels are ones her students enjoy reading and discussing. By this time of the year, their book club discussions are moving smoothly and they have mastered their journal writing. This enables her to address more specific student needs.

April/May: Drama As with earlier ones, this unit is described more fully in Chapter 5. In that chapter we also explain why this is such a valuable unit. May/June: Civil War Novels/Welcome Posters 60

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Jacqueline’s yearly plan reflects her goals as they relate to the standards discussed in Chapter 2. Examination of the plan reveals multiple genres, including poetry, mystery, biography, drama, historical fiction, and realistic fiction. Further, the plan demonstrates the integration of reading and writing since she notes that she will attend to power writing in November and persuasive writing in January and February. Jacqueline acknowledges the differences across classes by noting that some units may continue into the following month. She also provides time for extended writing activities as evidenced by her notes for the April/May focus on drama. Finally, her notes for January and February show her inclusion of choice for students in the novels they will read. Therefore, before the school year begins, Jacqueline lays out her tentative plan for the year. This enables her to collect materials, address the standards, meet her instructional goals, and meet students’ needs. This level of planning helps determine instruction at the macro-level—that is, the big picture. While this is essential, it is not sufficient. The teacher also needs to conduct weekly planning. Preparing for a Week The yearly plan provides a general overview of what the teacher hopes to accomplish. As he learns more about the students, he adjusts this plan to meet individual needs. At the same time, he must also keep the larger goals and curriculum in mind. Therefore, it is essential to devise a plan for the week. This plan may begin to look similar each week since students need some routines to predict their daily learning and to contribute to a sense of community; however, there will be some activities that warrant one day’s attention and others that are included every day. We will describe a full week’s lessons in Jacqueline’s classroom in Chapter 5, so here we provide a general outline.

TABLE 3.2. Jacqueline’s Schedule of Activities Daily Activities • Daily Oral Language (DOL) • Communication arts block Ø Review of previous day’s reading Ø Book club discussions Ø Journal writing Ø Whole-class discussion Ø Teacher read-aloud Weekly Activities • Buddy reading • Visit the library

Daily Components of the Weekly Plan In Jacqueline’s classroom, she keeps in mind the general needs of an entire unit, but she plans specifically for a week at a time. The following is a typical daily plan for a novel unit (see Table 3.2). On a daily basis, she includes plans for DOL each morning. As mentioned before, this activity provides needed instruction on grammar, writing conventions, and spelling while organizing the beginning of the day. Later in the day, she begins her communication arts block of instructional time with Book Club

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(McMahon & Raphael, 1997), starting with the student-led discussion groups. While they are being tape-recorded, students discuss topics from the book as well as what they wrote in their journals. They maintain these same small groups for the duration of the trade book. Following their discussions, the class returns to their desks for whole-class sharing and instruction. Some groups are reading the same novel and learn from what other groups were discussing. Other groups are reading a different novel on the same topic and can make connections to that book by listening to the topics that were discussed. Jacqueline also uses this time with the whole class for mini-lessons on a variety of instructional topics in both reading and writing. Finally, she provides time in class for students to start their new reading and journal assignments. Activities Included Once a Week While some instructional components are included daily, like DOL, others occur just once a week. For example, Jacqueline’s fifth-grade class meets weekly with another classroom for “buddy reading.” This is an important inclusion for many reasons. By reading to or with younger children, the fifth graders get to practice needed skills. For example, the struggling reader has an authentic purpose for refining his fluency. Because he wants to perform well when reading to a younger child, he is more likely to practice by rereading the selected text. The gifted reader might devote attention to asking good questions of the younger child to promote good comprehension. Therefore, buddy reading is a successful aspect of fifth-grade literacy development. Understanding the importance of buddy reading, Jacqueline has planned for it each year. For several years, she partnered her students with first graders. This was beneficial because when her students read with the first graders, they felt more like teachers, expressing their nurturing side. Further, since most students selected easy picture books to read with or to the first graders, they were focusing primarily on fluency development. They occasionally had difficulty with the vocabulary since some words in picture books can be rather challenging, even for fifth graders; however, most of the time, the books were easy texts that were not helping most of Jacqueline’s students become better readers. Therefore, when an opportunity came up for Jacqueline’s students to read with third graders, she readily agreed because she saw it as an opportunity for her students to enhance their independent level. Of course, this created a new issue for her to deal with—it is critical to know the reading abilities of both your students and their buddies very well to create a good match. Fifth graders could be extremely embarrassed if their third-grade reading partners were more skilled at reading than they were. Spelling Instruction Many teachers struggle with designing their spelling programs, not only because achieving conventional spelling can be a lifelong goal, but because effective in-

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struction is complex. We know that developing an understanding of the patterns and features of English vocabulary is important (Templeton, 1979). Therefore, curricular programs that emphasize commonly misspelled words or memorizing individual words are less effective than ones that focus attention on patterns. In addition, we know that spelling instruction in the intermediate grades should focus on relationships across terms and word parts (Aronoff, 1994). Such an emphasis requires teachers to consider spelling not as a skill to master, but as a process of identifying repeated arrangements of letters (Manolakes, 1975). It seems that effective spelling instruction needs to support learners in their efforts to find logical patterns (Hughes & Searle, 1997) through activities that require word categorization (Fountas & Pinnell, 1998; Zutell, 1998). Therefore, Templeton and Morris (2000) concluded that current instruction can be effective if it blends some traditional spelling practices with more advanced knowledge that argues for any literacy activities to be integrated into the reading and writing of authentic texts and provided in a developmentally appropriate way. Thus, research has provided valuable information regarding a more effective way of providing instruction in spelling. At the same time, the novice teacher may resort to those instructional activities she experienced as a learner or purchase an existing spelling program. While this can help her achieve the traditional practices, it will not support her efforts to integrate this into students’ authentic reading and writing. The new teacher should also understand that many experienced, effective teachers struggle with this curriculum area. An examination of Jacqueline’s program reveals this to some extent. Jacqueline’s district has purchased Wright Source, a program she uses for spelling instruction. This program reveals the developers’ understanding of current research findings since it emphasizes studying words with similar patterns and “word families.” The traditional aspect of the program is that the words studied may or may not be part of the student’s vocabulary. Of course, any published program would suffer from the same problem. Nonetheless, this is the program mandated in Jacqueline’s district. Therefore, she has incorporated it into her instructional plans. Before we describe this, we want to remind you that she also works individually with all her students as they engage in daily writing. When she meets with them, she attends to spelling errors and provides guidance to each student about how to improve. In this way, she is able to connect spelling in more authentic ways to students’ daily writing. She does this so easily that she has to be reminded that this is indeed spelling instruction. We mention her methods here so that the reader understands Jacqueline has incorporated other ways of providing students individual support as they work toward conventional spelling. The published program provides her a more systematic approach to cover this aspect of the curriculum. Jacqueline’s weekly plans for the formal program assume many traditional characteristics. That is, the class begins with the new lesson on Monday and takes a test on Friday. During the week, she schedules alternative activities with the words so that students become familiar with the spelling and meanings. In addition, she

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provides them time to work independently; as they finish, they can read or work on writing assignments. The program does appear to help students improve their spelling; however, many of them still make more errors than she would prefer.

FINAL THOUGHTS Setting up the classroom, the materials, and the plans for fifth grade is much more complex than the beginning teacher may understand. Room arrangement is important to promote learning, communicate the teacher’s expectations for student learning, and establish a community. Instructional materials vary in terms of quality and focus, so the teacher needs to anticipate how each will fit into the instructional plans. Finally, teachers must have an overall design. This is not simply what the textbook outlines for the next lesson or the decisions the teacher makes before the morning bell. Instead, daily plans are part of a weekly sketch for student learning. Both of these should fit within the yearly map. As a beginner, all this can appear overwhelming. We hope the example we presented in this chapter will provide some basis for decision making. Our final suggestion is that the classroom organization should be flexible and open to change based on students’ needs. Since the novice teacher is becoming skilled with organizational structures at the same time that he/she is learning the curriculum, making good decisions takes time.

CHAPTER 4

ASSESSING TO PLAN INSTRUCTION I’ve never been the kind of teacher who runs to the student files as soon as I receive my class list. It’s enough for me to start the year by just knowing their names and relevant general information, such as whether they need instructional modifications. Instead of consulting their cumulative folders, I assess my students’ literacy strengths and limitations by observing them, listening to them read, and eavesdropping on their conversations. For this, I use a variety of assessment tools to measure students’ growth and help me plan instruction.

F

rom Jacqueline’s comment above, it is clear to see she values her own observations and classroom-based information to monitor students’ progress and make instructional decisions. Using such assessments to guide instruction requires teachers to focus and reflect on current student performance. These are usually more than “one-and-done” types of tests. Jacqueline knows that standardized tests cannot provide all the relevant information she needs to plan her instruction. It is essential that we clarify here our philosophical stance on assessment. Current political reforms focus all attention on students’ performance on standardized tests. Because of the high stakes of these examinations, districts feel pressure to administer more such tests to prepare students for the more influential ones. This has resulted in many teachers focusing a significant portion of their instructional time on test preparation. Such a focus requires teachers to create more fill-in-the-blank and “objective” measures. From our perspective, this is not just challenging and unfortunate, but damaging to students. This focus on discrete skills and factual information is, in many cases, causing students to limit their learning to what the tests demand. Since no one is asking them to engage in higher-order thinking, they assume it is more important to spotlighting details they learn than the concepts. Clearly, we do our students a disservice if we only emphasize the trivia of their literacy learning. 65

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As practical educators, we understand the current need to address mandates that call for standardized test data. Further, we also know that such tests provide valuable information about our group of students as they stand in relationship to a national or state norm. Such information is valuable. At the same time, we caution the new teacher about relying completely on such measures of students’ literacy development. Instead of limiting the types of information gathered to objective tests, we propose that there are many, better tools to inform the teacher about his or her students. Therefore, this chapter will present options for assessing students in ways that help teachers plan and differentiate instruction.

BEGINNING-OF-THE-YEAR ASSESSMENTS Starting a new year is an exciting time for both teachers and students. Teachers want to learn about the children they are teaching and get the year off to a positive start. Fifth-grade students often want to show their teachers how much they know. One way for teachers to maximize the amount of information they gather in a minimal amount of time is to use several informal assessments. Not only will this information help establish instructional guidelines, but it also serves as a baseline to reveal growth across the year. The opportunity to gain baseline information on students at the beginning of the year should not be missed because good assessment informs us not only about what our students need, but about how we need to shape the learning environment (Entwistle, 2000). To learn general information, plan time for informal inventories of students’ reading, writing, speaking, and listening skills. Jacqueline created one addressing each of these areas that she uses to make such instructional decisions as which reading strategies to include; which speaking, listening and writing skills to teach; which books to select; and which grouping structures she will use. The assessments she uses constitute authentic tools. That is, Jacqueline includes assessment activities that “reflect the actual learning and instructional activities of the classroom” (Valencia et al., 1994, p. 11). An examination of Table 4.1 reveals that these are indeed activities she can include as part of her instructional plans as well as means to assess students’ needs and growth across the school year. Recently, when she administered a survey, she learned that students reported that they had learned to skip an unknown word and read on until they could make a “knowledgeable guess.” When she followed up on this, she learned that they were indeed skipping unknown words, but many were not following up by determining a contextual meaning. Had she trusted just one assessment document, she would have concluded that students had adopted this strategy successfully. It was only through additional assessments that she learned that they were able to declare the strategy but had not yet internalized it. Therefore, teaching students to return to the unknown word and use context clues to figure it out became one of her instructional goals.

TABLE 4.1. Culminating Project Ideas 1. Create a title and sketch for each chapter. 2. Write a sequel to the story. How would the character(s) respond in a different setting or situation? 3. Make a diorama of your favorite scene from the novel and write a paragraph that explains it. 4. Design a story elements poster that shows the characters, setting, problem, goal, turning point, and solution. Write a few sentences describing each section. 5. Write a letter to the author describing your reactions to the novel. Include what you liked, what you learned, what you might change, and questions. 6. Develop a conversation between yourself and the main character(s). 7. Create a quiz about the novel with answers. Include different types of questions on your quiz. 8. Persuade the class to read this book by doing a book talk. Remember to give enough details to catch their interest without giving away too much or the ending. 9. Rewrite a scene in the book from a different point of view. 10. If you could meet one of the characters, who would it be? Create five questions you would ask him or her. Also include the answers he or she might give. 11. Write a poem, song, or rap to summarize the events of the book. 12. Give a newscast about the events in the book as though you were a reporter. 13. Make a board game about your novel. Include directions on how to play the game and questions/answers about the book. 14. Design a T-shirt with themes from the book. 15. Make a video of your favorite scene from the book. Invite friends and family to play the characters. 16. Choose your favorite and least favorite characters in the novel. Give reasons these characters would or would not be your friends. 17. Create a paper filmstrip about your book that includes the key events in the right order. 18. Identify a key point in the novel and describe how the story could have been completely different. 19. Create a line graph with key events in the story, including the climax and conclusion. Write three to five sentences describing each of these events. 20. Create a Venn diagram comparing this novel to another book you have read or compare your life to the main character. 21. If you have a creative idea for a project, see your teacher for preapproval. From Teaching Literacy in Fifth Grade by Susan I. McMahon and Jacqueline Wells. Copyright 2007 by The Guilford Press. Permission to photocopy this table is granted to purchasers of this book for personal use only (see copyright page for details).

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In addition to not trusting one tool to provide the entire profile of any student, Jacqueline also includes assessments that provide indicators of more than one aspect of literacy. For example, a second finding from the survey was related to writing. Some students believed the hardest part about writing was getting ideas to write about, others identified trying to use cursive, and others mentioned spelling and punctuation as the most challenging. This information helped Jacqueline to identify students for flexible groups during writing assignments so that she could address these specific areas. Other issues that emerged had to do with the selection of books for independent reading, skills for speaking in front of a group, and listening skills required for book clubs. Thus, the information from the survey provided Jacqueline a reference for instruction for the rest of the year. Using Baseline Data to Inform Instruction Teachers who collect a writing sample at the beginning of the year after a general survey of the students get more specific examples of the writing skills individual students have already mastered. Teachers respond to and remember patterns they see emerging in their classes (Johnston, 1997). The teacher who uses only one assessment tool is limiting his or her potential to notice more complex patterns. This limitation will negatively affect instruction because the teacher may conclude students need significant help understanding a concept when they actually have mastered it. The opposite is also true—the teacher can erroneously conclude students have mastered a strategy. Therefore, it is important to develop multiple assessments to identify students’ strengths and needs, including a writing sample to collect baseline information. This baseline can be as simple as asking students to write a paragraph about a topic the teacher provides or one the students choose. Allowing student choice may extend the length of the writing passage, giving teachers more to assess. For example, students will have more to write about when they describe their favorite sport, their best birthday ever, a fun family vacation, or their memories from fourth grade. When students are encouraged to write about a personal event, they have more prior knowledge to draw on and may be more motivated. An important idea to keep in mind is that the goal is not to assign a grade at this point, but to identify students’ strengths and needs. We fully realize that some readers may react negatively to this concept. Some may argue, “It isn’t fair to ask students to write a paper and complete the writing process without giving them credit.” In contrast, others will contend, “It isn’t fair to assess how well students write before I have been able to teach them.” We want to address each of these objections separately. To those of you who believe all assignments/activities need to be evaluated, we propose that you consider that there are multiple purposes for any classroom work. If the purpose is to evaluate students’ learning, then the work should be graded,

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but if the purpose is to gather information to inform instruction, then we pose that it is unfair to expect students to be comfortable providing you accurate information. The stress of the potential grade may result in some students not completing the assessment or trying to cheat. To provide an accurate representation of what students can do independently, the teacher should assure students that these initial assessments will not be graded. If the teacher notices that students resist doing work that isn’t graded, he or she can develop a checklist that grants credit for completion. To the readers who question the wisdom in assessing students prior to any instruction, we maintain that your fifth graders have already had 4 years of instruction. You are not their first teacher, so you need to determine what they have already learned. If not, you risk either teaching them what they already know or beginning your instruction at a level beyond their abilities. To know what to teach, you need to know what they have already learned. We argue that asking students to complete a paragraph by following the writing process provides the teacher a wealth of information to inform his or her instruction. This includes the student’s ability to: (1) communicate ideas clearly, (2) edit written work, (3) revise written work, (4) conference with a peer, and (5) maintain focus throughout the process. If the purpose is not to grade this assessment, the reader may wonder how it can be informative. Therefore, we now shift to a description of how to use these assessments in ways that are helpful to the teacher. Examining Students’ Initial Writing After students have had sufficient time to draft and revise their initial written responses, the teacher needs to analyze them in terms of what each student appears to have mastered and which weaknesses should be addressed through instruction. One way to do this is to apply the writing rubric that the teacher will use for future assignments. This way has a clear advantage since it provides both the teacher and the students baseline information about instructional needs. This rubric can be one the teacher develops or one he or she adopts from another source. In Jacqueline’s case, she uses a rubric developed in her district. In Jacqueline’s building, a teacher committee created the rubric used for assessing all fifth graders’ writing. Further, all the fifth-grade teachers agreed to use a similar preliminary writing sample at the beginning and end of the school year to help plan instruction and assess growth across sections of the same goal. To develop a building-wide sense of students’ strengths and needs, all the teachers ask for an initial paragraph on a topic of choice that they score using their rubric. The results are used only as a diagnostic tool that is shared with students and their parents early in the year, as well as across the year as a measurement of growth. Most important in this process is that all the teachers use the fall paragraph sample to make instructional decisions about their writing curriculum. For example, the stu-

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dents’ paragraphs reveal which students (1) start a paragraph with a topic sentence, (2) support their ideas with details, (3) use transitional words and phrases, (4) write in complete sentences, (5) organize their ideas, and (6) use writing and spelling conventions. Teachers armed with this knowledge find the assessment invaluable in guiding their decisions about: (1) grouping based on students’ needs, (2) methods, and (3) instructional foci. In some cases, all students can benefit from instruction on a particular writing skill, while in others, teachers will build small groups with similar needs for mini-lessons. Without incoming data on students’ capabilities and needs, student-centered instruction would not be possible. Thus, Jacqueline devotes time early in the school year to assess students’ writing strengths and identify instructional goals, either for the entire class, small groups, or individuals. Gathering Evidence of Students’ Reading Another way of gathering information to tailor instruction based on students’ needs is taking anecdotal notes or completing checklists or rubrics while listening to them read (Johnston, 1997). Jacqueline uses a rubric her district developed that enables her to gather information about fluency, prosody, and public speaking, all while students are reading. Further, the rubric she uses is designed with the student as the audience. As such, it is an instructional tool students can learn from. As with the writing assessment, she uses this for grouping and instructional decisions to include a combination of mini-lessons and whole-class instruction. As mentioned in previous chapters, the issue of choice is key when selecting assessments to gather data on students early in the year. Just some of the matters to consider include:

Ø Whether the passage is familiar or unfamiliar to the students. Ø Whether the students have time to practice the passage or read it “cold.” Ø Whether the teacher or the student selects the passage. Ø Whether all students read the same passage or different passages are provided to present a better indication of individual needs.

There are no definitive answers to these questions because each one provides a different context for student reading. For example, if a student has an opportunity to practice a text, her fluency rate should be better than if she has not read it before. Further, a student-selected text might reflect a personal interest revealing extensive prior knowledge. If the teacher selects the same passage for all of the students, he or she is better able to compare students across different reading levels, vocabulary, author styles, etc. Trying to find one correct solution to these conditions is impossible. Instead, the fifth-grade teacher needs to reflect on how his or her decisions will affect the results of the assessments.

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ONGOING ASSESSMENTS THROUGHOUT THE YEAR An initial assessment gathering baseline data on students’ incoming abilities is important. At the same time, effective teachers continue to monitor students’ growth and needs by assessing classroom-based assignments (Au, 1994). By establishing a commitment to ongoing assessment, the fifth-grade teacher will engage in a process that provides him or her intensive information about each child over time (Goodman, 1992). For example, listening to students read throughout the course of the school year provides valuable information regarding their literacy growth. To streamline planning, teachers can use many of the same tools incorporated initially as measures throughout the year. The goal is to find simple approaches that inform instruction and provide indications of students’ growth. Since we have already discussed assessing oral reading above, we shift to alternative ways of enlightening the teacher about students’ literacy. Before discussing the many ways teachers can engage in ongoing assessment of students’ work, we need to clarify our perspective on the focus on classroombased assessment. Many teachers find themselves inundated with student work, thinking their responsibility is to find and correct every error. For this reason, many resort to worksheets that are easily corrected and recorded in the grade book. We are not discussing these types of classroom activities because these are rarely used to inform instruction. Instead, they become a final measure of success. If the student recorded all answers correctly, he or she earns an A; if not, he or she gets a D. Once assignments are recorded and returned, teacher and students both forget them. In contrast, classroom-based assessments are designed solely for the purpose of identifying students’ needs to plan instruction. To this end, Jacqueline selects a few skills or strategies as a focus of assessment and instruction if necessary. This focus on a small number of skills or strategies results in the ability immediately to direct attention to them. Therefore, together, teacher and students see a clear, simple goal. As students achieve each goal, they progress to another. Those who need additional time and effort get the small-group attention they require. Therefore, ongoing classroom-based assessment is designed to inform teacher and students about the latter’s literacy needs. As such, teacher record keeping should focus on instructional needs. After there is clear indication that students have grown in the area(s) of focus, then the teacher can test their knowledge. Noting Students’ Oral Responses Listening to students discuss the texts they are reading is a valuable way of gaining information across the year. Clearly, trying to assess all the small-group discussions occurring in the classroom at one time is a challenge. Teachers need to develop a plan to address this, either by creating a schedule for when they will listen to each group (e.g., group 1 on Monday, group 2 on Tuesday, etc.) or by selecting one or

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two days a week for assessment but taping each group. While assessing one or two groups as the actual discussions take place, the teacher plans on listening to the tapes of other groups at a later time. For each group, the teacher notes what students are doing well, so that he or she can redirect instructional focus to more needed aspects of the curriculum, and what they could improve on, using notes to plan future lessons (McMahon & Raphael, 1997). While attending to discussions, teachers can document student growth and needs by keeping anecdotal notes about individuals and groups, keeping in mind which skills are improving and which skills need more instruction. Students’ discussions demonstrate (1) their comprehension, (2) connections to their lives, other texts, and the world around them, (3) their use of reading strategies, (4) their speaking skills, and (5) their listening skills. Instruction based on the content of the discussions and student performance is immediately applicable and meaningful for the students because it is within the context of their daily routines in reading. This is the point where instruction and assessment become so intertwined that assessment leads to instruction, which leads to further assessment, and so on. Jacqueline has noted that her students often reveal similar strengths and needs each year. These patterns in her classes might provide an indication of what the beginning teacher might want to look for.

Developing Good Conversational Skills In a student-led discussion, the first skills that might stand out are speaking skills. Initially, Jacqueline monitors who is speaking and what the group discusses, including: (1) students’ levels of understanding, (2) areas of confusion, (3) knowledge of the author’s role, (4) individuals’ use of language skills and reading strategies, and (5) connections they make when reading. As mentioned previously, Jacqueline consults learning standards when planning. She readily noted that these areas that emerge in early book clubs are important skills noted in the state standards. In order for students to become actively involved in discussions, they also need to hone their listening abilities. When observing her students, Jacqueline looks for both verbal and nonverbal signs of listening. Because most fifth graders know that eye contact is a sign of listening and showing respect, the teacher needs to look beyond this behavioral sign to more substantive ones. For example, good listeners construct their responses by reacting to previous comments made in the group. They do this by adding more information or details to previous comments. In addition, Jacqueline notices whether students are listening carefully so that they are aware of which members of the group are not participating. Successful students use an effective strategy, such as questioning, to get more involvement from their peers. Jacqueline keeps records of any evidence of students listening to one another in ways that enhance or hamper their book clubs. These help her plan instruction for small groups or, when necessary, for the entire class.

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Teacher-developed sheets that scaffold students’ writing help communicate expectations. In addition, by working together, students provide real audiences for one another’s texts.

As students become more familiar with conducting their own book clubs and as they read more texts together, their discussions change. This often varies from group to group. That is, some students need additional instructional support on how to engage in discussions. This includes areas such as how to get the floor, how to build on another student’s ideas, how to get others involved in the discussion, or how to cope with a peer who dominates the group. Clearly, turn taking in a student-led discussion creates new challenges for fifth graders (McMahon, 1997). Additionally, students need to grow in how they respond to texts. That is, they need to engage in conversations that reveal more interpretive or critical perspectives. As the teacher maintains records of small-group discussions, he or she notes the variations in students’ needs and plans lessons accordingly. Additionally, Jacqueline assesses the social development of her students through observing group interaction. Her groups usually establish leaders and followers, especially if they are allowed to remain together for a significant amount of time. We believe book club groupings should remain the same at least while reading the same text and perhaps as long as one quarter. Such long-term commitment to a group leads to students feeling a greater sense of responsibility to their peers. Therefore, they read longer, finish more assignments, write longer answers, and participate more actively. Further, they are more likely to make intertextual connections as the group develops a history of working together. Changing group composition too frequently prevents group cohesion, and the desire to be accountable is not as strong.

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One error that many teachers fall into while assessing small-group discussions is the urge to become a participant. That feeling is strong either when the conversation is going really well or when students struggle to discuss their text. It is important for the teacher to remember that his or her influence and authority will affect the direction of the group’s conversation or their conclusion of an issue. For this reason, we would strongly recommend teachers remain silent observers of studentled discussions. There is time for the teacher’s input during whole-class discussions or in responses to students’ reading journals. We now shift attention to assessing these. Assessing Students’ Ongoing Journals We believe that the most valuable resource to assess writing is student journals because they can include a wide range of evidence of students’ literacy growth: (1) responses to novels, (2) personal communication logs, (3) lists of writing ideas, or (4) free writing in response to other curricular issues, to name a few. No matter the reason for the journal, there is a wealth of information waiting to be discovered inside. Important to note is that the teacher needs to maintain records of his or her analysis of journal content. With such records, journals can show the teacher which students need additional instruction in terms of responsiveness to the prompt, development of thought, and communication of ideas. Further, they reveal the students’ style and tone. In addition, they may indicate students’ needs in terms of language use, such as (1) writing complete thoughts, (2) organizing their ideas, and (3) considering the audience. Finally, depending on the philosophical stance of the teacher or the type of journal, assessment can also focus on conventions such as spelling and mechanics. Noting students’ writing in journals reveal the full array of their communicational skills. Analyzing Journal Responses to Assess Comprehension Fifth-grade teachers should be attending most to instruction that focuses on helping learners become more strategic readers. Even in writing this, we realize this can be a daunting task. Comprehension is a complex process that occurs within the reader’s mind, hidden from the teacher’s view. Therefore, students’ journal entries can serve as a powerful resource. While they are limited by the students’ ability and willingness to express their thinking articulately, they still provide windows— sometimes clear, sometimes opaque—into the meanings students are constructing. Because of this, we want to provide some examples of how the beginning teacher can use daily or weekly log entries as a form of ongoing assessment of students’ comprehension.

Planning Ahead for Literacy Growth and Assessment The effective teacher knows prior to assigning any student work what she is looking for. Waiting until she sees what students have written is unfair to both the stu-

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dents and the teacher. Students should know in advance why they are engaging in any classroom activity and what the teacher will be looking for as evidence of their understanding. Teachers will spend an inordinate amount of time trying to determine how to evaluate students’ work if they haven’t already envisioned what serves as evidence of learning. Therefore, the first stop toward ongoing, classroom-based assessment is thinking about the learning goals. This is just as true for journals in response to reading as it is for any aspect of literacy instruction. One way to maintain the focus on the reading journals is to continually make connections between the log entry and how good readers comprehend and remember texts. In Jacqueline’s classroom, she provides students clear expectations for each journal entry (see the Appendix). Such specification makes it clear to students what the teacher expects. Equally important, it enables the teacher to examine each student’s journal to determine not simply whether the student followed directions, but, more important, how each student is comprehending the text, how well he or she can articulate this, and which areas need further instruction. The sample logs we provided best pertain to narrative fiction but can be modified for other genres. In addition, these represent several approaches readers might adopt. As such, they might be daunting to both the beginning teacher and the fifth grader in the fall. Therefore, we suggest two things. First, that the teacher consider how she can modify them to better match the texts she is teaching. Second, that she select a few of these early in the year and add others as students become comfortable with this process.

Comprehension as a Process Comprehension is not an “either/or” goal. That is, close examination of students’ written work reveals to the teacher that some students need to make personal connections to a text to construct meaning. Others have learned to retell the story, listing key events. Still others want to express an opinion related to text content or events. The beginning teacher may want to control this and require all students to respond in the same way. There are clear advantages to a uniform focus of response if one considers instructional goals. For example, if the teacher wants students to engage in critical comprehension, he may provide instruction on how to articulate and support an opinion. As part of his ongoing instructional assessment, he may require all students to complete a log entry asking for and supporting an opinion related to the text they are reading. In this case, a classwide requirement makes sense because it helps the teacher evaluate instruction, but providing choice is also important. As mentioned several times, we have argued for the need to provide students choices in literacy activities to ensure engagement because engagement results in ownership and independence. Engagement is important when thinking about the writing the teacher requires of students as well as when considering the texts they read. Therefore, when assigning journals associated with reading, the teacher

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should regularly provide students some choices. This will inform her practice, not only about what she has already taught, but also about what she may want to focus on in the future. Because journals can play a key role in the literacy development of fifth graders thinking about texts, we argue here that they are important sources of information for teacher assessment. Examination of two students’ log entries can help reveal to the reader the information evident in such assignments.

Evidence of Knowledge of Character Development One example we selected for inclusion here is a student’s description of her favorite character. We realize that the reader may not know the particular story referenced. At the same time, we ask that, as you read this, you think about what it shows you of this student’s comprehension of this text. In this story my favorite character is Amy. I think I like her because she is brave and willing like me. I also think she’s my favorite because I feel sorry for her because almost everyone’s against her, until they find out the truth. I really got into the story right away. I think Amy’s aunt, Aunt Clare, shouldn’t have been so hard on her. For example, when she snuck behind her aunt’s back to find out something her aunt and her father wouldn’t talk about. Another example is when she got up the nerves to tell her aunt what had been happening. Her aunt yelled and told her it wasn’t true. Another night they figured out the puzzle and the truth about the night of the murders! I hope my book reaction kind of wants you to read this book, The Dollhouse Murders.

Despite the fact that the reader may not know this text, we want to point out what evidence we see of this learner’s comprehension. First of all, we see evidence of critical thinking because she expressed her opinion and provided three examples of support. That is, the student noted that she feels sorry for the main character and supports this with examples (“almost everyone’s against her,” her Aunt Clare is “hard on her,” and her aunt yells at her). Therefore, this student has revealed her understanding that when writing about characters, it is important to state an opinion and support it with evidence from the text. While important, this is not all this one entry reveals about this student’s comprehension. The second facet of comprehension evident in this journal is the student’s ability to remember literal information from the text. When supporting her opinion, she expands on her examples by restating important text events and hints at the solution to the problem by saying “until they find out the truth.” This single phrase gives away much of the plot. Therefore, this student has shown her ability to remember and restate literal information in the text. The third component of comprehension we see in this entry is the student’s knowledge of story parts. In this brief articulation of her opinion, she includes attributes of the main character, the problem she confronts, and the solution—they will believe Amy when the truth about the night of the murders comes out.

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As this one sample shows, a brief single paragraph can prove to be an informative assessment of this student’s comprehension. Our second example shows a student with very different strengths and challenges while still providing important insights into her comprehension.

Evidence of Knowledge about Writing Teachers’ expectations for students’ journals vary. That is, they have differing philosophies about whether to require particular lengths for entries. Others do not agree on whether conventions of spelling, sentence structure, and grammar should be expected. Perhaps it is key to keep in mind two writing principles: (1) consideration of the audience and (2) attention to the purpose. If the teacher wants a sample of a student’s work to be shared with others, then perhaps conventional language use should be stressed. At the same time, if the teacher’s instructional focus is having students document their developing thoughts, allowing them the freedom of writing down ideas without the constraints of correctness might be a wiser approach to take. Given this professional debate, our next example highlights some of the dilemmas while also showing how students’ logs can inform the teacher about instructional goals. In the following entry, this student was responding to a prompt that asked her to review a book she had just finished. While reading it, we ask that you think about the sample above and identify what information this reveals about the student’s comprehension of the book. Recently I read the book The Witches by Roald Dahl. This was the fourth time that I read The Witches and I think that it is a terrific book. I am going to give my opinion on the author’s style. The author seemed like he was the boy in the story and this had really happened to him. In the beginning of the book it said that witches were real. I don’t think, that they are, but that was the author’s opinion. I think that the way that the author wrote the book was neat because he wrote it like he was the boy in the story. When the boy was behind the screen and the witch smelled him it sounded real the way that it was written. I think that Roald Dahl is a good author and The Witches is a very, very good book and if I were you I read The Witches.

Examination of this journal entry reveals little about this student’s comprehension of the book. That is, even though she stated that it was a “terrific book,” she provides no specific information to help her teacher understand why she holds this opinion. In contrast to the earlier student sample, this one does not provide specific examples from the book to support the student’s opinion. Even though there are some vague references to text events, such as “In the beginning of the book it said that witches were real,” these do not support her opinion that the book is terrific. Therefore, as a sample of this student’s comprehension of the book, this entry is not helpful, but it still provides information for the teacher.

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Examination of this entry from the perspective of the writing teacher provides more insights. This student has constructed a three-paragraph essay with clear topic sentences. Further, there are no spelling or grammatical errors. Therefore, this student has revealed a solid understanding of the form of a written text, so the teacher is able to identify clear strengths in this entry as well as areas for instruction. Looking at another student sample provides evidence of the opposite phenomenon. As with the entry above, the following one was submitted in the same classroom as an evaluation of a book this student had read. In contrast to the one above this one shows the depth of the student’s comprehension as well as his need for further instruction on conventions of writing. In the following sample, we see a clear opinion stated with lots of examples. At the same time, this student’s struggles with spelling and mechanics make reading it a challenge. OUT OF THE DARKNESS In the book our of the darkness I would not of gone to the school for blind in Paris. I wound not of gone to it because of the tough rules. Some of, them were must wake on time, and no sleeping in class. You might think that thouse are easy to follo like me but what I am trying to get to is the conscences. If you broke just one of the many rules you would in solentary confiment. Thats were you in a cell with no boss, your sounded by walls just a bed and a toilet. [In the book Out of the Darkness, I would not have gone to the school for the blind in Paris. I would not have gone to it because of the tough rules. Some of them were, “Must wake up on time” and “No sleeping in class.” You might think that those are easy to follow, like me, but what I am trying to get to is the consequences. If you broke just one of the many rules, you would be placed in solitary confinement. That’s where you are in a cell with no boss. You’re surrounded by walls with just a bed and a toilet.]

As the above examples show, teachers can use students’ daily or weekly writing as a means of assessing their growth and identifying areas for further instruction. While these are not sufficient to provide information about all instructional foci, they can provide immediate feedback as teachers plan their daily lessons if the teacher sees his or her goal as looking for evidence of students’ understandings and needs and not just assigning grades.

ASSESSING CULMINATING PROJECTS In addition to the ongoing assessment that Jacqueline incorporates in all units across the year, she also provides students opportunities to complete larger projects to conclude instructional units. She believes that not all novel units need to end with a test because students are often better able to show their comprehension

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through a project that requires more critical thinking and interpretation. To this end, Jacqueline has a long list of options for student projects that vary from year to year (see Table 4.1). More important than the list is that these projects reflect her students’ interests and needs as well as the curriculum. In addition, Jacqueline lists options for projects that incorporate many of the standards for language arts. This is not an inert list that remains stagnant, but a When the teacher provides choices in culminat- viable one that changes each year. ing projects she increases students’ motivation While there is a range of approaches to and supports their efforts to make connections, these projects, each one enables Jacensuring deeper understanding of the curricuqueline to assess the students’ literacy lum. growth by participating in the unit. For example, creating board games, complete with instructions and game pieces, enables students to demonstrate their skills in sequencing, organization, and cause/effect. One final consideration is an issue we have discussed before—students need opportunities to choose elements of their project. Jacqueline knows that choice from the list is important because students will be more motivated, applying more effort, if they are pursuing a topic they select. For example, one recent student not only wrote a song about the novel he was reading, but brought it to life by recording it on a CD. Using a familiar tune, he wrote his own words to fit with the story. For the final project, he sought the assistance of his family, asking his father to play the drums and his mother the piano. In addition to singing his lyrics, he played the tambourine. Because he was interested and motivated by this project that he selected, the end product was much more meaningful and important to him. Further, it showed Jacqueline his comprehension of the text, enabling her to more fully assess his literacy strengths and needs based on this one experience. When students create projects, the next logical step is for them to present their handiwork for an audience (see Chapter 2). Such occasions provide students the opportunity to practice speaking in front of a group and enable the teacher to evaluate the students’ understanding of the content as well as their oral language skills.

STUDENTS’ SELF-ASSESSMENTS In addition to the tools Jacqueline uses to assess students’ literacy growth, she also asks them to evaluate their own capabilities. She has found that students can be

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their own harshest critics or can overestimate their skills. Johnston (1997) notes several reasons for teachers to include self-assessment within their overall assessment plan. First, if one goal for literacy is to develop independent readers and writers, we need to enable them to self-assess their needs. Only then can they develop their own goals. Second, self-assessment is more immediate. Students can determine their needs as soon as an activity presents a challenge. Third, when learners discover their own limitations, they are more motivated to work to improve them. Finally, when teachers ask learners to be reflective about their own literacy needs, learners are better able to become metacognitive about their own processes and more articulate about their strengths and needs. For all these reasons, teachers should incorporate self-assessment as an important component of their literacy program. While the inclusion of self-assessment has many benefits, the teacher needs to provide students support. That is, not all learners are independent yet, so they do not even try to identify their own needs nor are they necessarily motivated to improve. Further, even if they are aware and motivated, they may not be able yet to articulate the problems and their needs. Because of this, using self-assessments with fifth graders can bring mixed results. The beginning teacher should be certain to include such tools but should also prepare him- or herself to provide students with lots of guidance, support, and instruction that moves them toward this type of independence. With that said, self-assessments can be beneficial in helping students recognize their strengths and weaknesses. When students edit their work, they are assessing it. They analyze what worked well and what needed to be changed or corrected. Fifth graders do much better with self-assessing when they have a guide or checklist to help them. For example, students in Jacqueline’s class use editing and revising checklists after they draft an assignment. These checklists help her students know what they did well and where they could improve with writing. They also make clear the teacher’s expectations for their writing. As another means of providing students support, Jacqueline encourages continuing conversations revolving around the topic of what “good” readers do while they read. She discusses prereading, during-reading, and postreading strategies and provides them bookmarks with these strategies on them (see Figure 4.1). Each individual assesses these attributes. By merely introducing fifth graders to some of these ideas, Jacqueline is helping them begin to improve their reading. As they continue to read, use, and discuss the reading strategies, they become better readers. By using these strategies, students are continually assessing their comprehension. Since our goal is to support independent reading and writing, we want students to monitor their literacy. To achieve this end, students need opportunities to practice self-assessment.

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Before reading, I: • Look at title and pictures • Think about what I already know During reading, I: • Predict what I think will happen next • Picture a movie in my head • Question whether the story make sense • Read on to find context clues • Reread a passage or read it out loud • Ask someone who knows the answer or look it up • Revise predictions when the text provides new information

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FINAL THOUGHTS Key to effective instruction is ongoing assessment of students’ literacy strengths and limitations. This requires the teacher to incorporate a number of approaches that inform instruction. In this chapter, we have described just a few of the techniques a fifth-grade teacher can use to get a glimpse of her students’ incoming strengths and needs, her ongoing assessments, and her use of students’ selfassessment. While this does not exhaust the list of what she uses or the possible options, it does show how important assessment is to providing instruction that meets students’ needs.

After reading, I: • Assess my initial predictions • Retell what the text was about FIGURE 4.1. Strategies bookmark.

CHAPTER 5

A WEEK IN JACQUELINE’S LITERACY CLASSROOM I teach so differently now than I did my first year in fifth grade. As a beginning teacher in this district, I only had three days to get ready for the kids. I was coming from a school that used a basal reading series to one that used trade books. There was a closet chock-full of novels to use with my students, but I hadn’t read most of them. I racked my brain thinking back to my reading methods class in college and remembered The Lion, the Witch, and the Wardrobe (Lewis, 2000) as an excellent book. I didn’t talk to anyone about it; I just started the year with that book. Oh my . . . we all had a challenge those first few weeks, but we made it through. Even though that was one of the novels available for fifth graders, it didn’t take me long to figure out that maybe it wasn’t the best choice for the beginning of the year. You know, that book is really challenging for a lot of fifth graders . . . my goodness, they were still more like fourth graders than fifth graders! I didn’t pick it with any reason other than that I was familiar with the book. Today, I think through so much more before selecting a book, like what time of the year it is, what the interests of my students are, what books are available, what we are doing in the other content areas, and how I should use it: whole-class or book clubs. As a matter of fact, I don’t start with a novel at all anymore. For the past few years, I’ve been starting the year with poetry, and that’s been so successful for my kids. Yes, things are different. A week in my classroom now looks drastically different from what it did just a few years ago.

I

n the paragraph above, Jacqueline shares her experience as she began teaching fifth grade. Like so many of us, she began with little advance planning for the students—not because she did not know the importance of instruction grounded in students’ needs, but because she wasn’t hired until a few days before the year began. In an ideal world, teachers would have sufficient time to understand the students, curriculum, and available resources prior to planning for instruction. We do not live in an ideal world; therefore, many of us begin by mak82

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ing a number of mistakes. Just like Jacqueline, we select inappropriate books. In addition, we do not always align our instructional needs with particular texts. Therefore, this chapter attempts to help teachers minimize mistakes, in a practical way, by discussing 1 week of literacy instruction in practice. Trying to accomplish this in a reasonable way led the two of us directly to a dilemma—exactly which week do we select? It did not take long to decide that 1 week was not sufficient. Instead, we selected 3 weeks from dissimilar units taught at different times of the year: poetry, novels, and drama. We believe these are significantly different from each other in content, instruction, and assessment, thus warranting separate discussions. We illustrate how each of following should be considered: (1) general needs of fifth graders, (2) standards appropriate for this level, (3) setting up the classroom for instruction, and (4) intertwining assessment with instruction. We begin with a general explanation of the units and then provide a detailed description of each one.

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE THREE UNITS Many decisions confront teachers, particularly when beginning in a new district or grade level: when to teach a unit, which resources are available, how the unit fits into the overall literacy curriculum, and which students’ needs will be met. Since each of these is grounded in the particulars of a school, we discuss how they are relevant for Jacqueline. One key factor for her is the availability of resources. Since Jacqueline has to share the literacy materials in her building and library, she has to coordinate her units with those of the other fifth-grade teachers. This means that teachers include similar units at very different times, which has strengths and limitations for any genre. Table 5.1 is a chart with strengths and challenges for the times of the year when Jacqueline teaches poetry, novels, and drama. As the reader can see, there are no absolute reasons for deciding to teach a literacy unit at any particular time. Instead, the teacher has to consider all the options and make the best choice for his or her students and in coordination with other teachers if they share materials. Jacqueline teaches poetry in the fall, novel study in the winter, and drama in the spring. We now focus on each of these.

TEACHING POETRY Including a unit on poetry in the fifth-grade curriculum reinforces many literacy strategies and skills reflected in the standards. To show this relationship, Table 5.2 lists some of the relevant state standards along with Jacqueline’s unit objectives. The table shows the influence of the standards as well as the additional foci she includes.

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TABLE 5.1. Strengths and Challenges of Literacy Units Literacy units Time of year Strengths and challenges Poetry unit

Fall

+ It’s easier for students to want to read something short. + Well-selected poetry is engaging (e.g., Silverstein and Prelutsky). + Instruction can focus on particular skills and strategies across the poems, which can be taught and reinforced with writing. + If the teacher wants students to memorize information to support study skills, poems are good choices because they are short and can be memorized more successfully. + Because poetry breaks conventional rules, the struggling reader/writer might feel freer to participate. – Poems present a challenge with form, rhythm, and rhyme. – Students who struggle with mechanics may be challenged by poetry. – Some students enter fifth grade with preconceived negative ideas about poetry, but this holds for other genres as well. – Getting a good sense of fluency, vocabulary, and comprehension for each student can be a challenge. May have to delay this until the next unit.

Novel unit

Winter

+ Novels enable the teacher to get a good sense of fluency, vocabulary, and comprehension—this might support novels as a good way to begin the school year. + Students have established some routines in terms of class work and homework by winter so that they are better able to budget their time for extended reading and writing activities. + By midyear, the class is more cohesive, and students are more willing to share ideas in discussion groups—the teacher has had time to build a sense of community. + Using classroom-based assessments, the teacher knows students’ needs and strengths better so that instruction, text selection, prompt selections, etc. can better address students’ literacy needs. + The teacher has had time to develop a sense of which students can become good leaders of discussion groups. – The particular time of year for using novel units may not provide many unique challenges for the teacher. Whenever he or she decides to incorporate a novel study, however, there are some issues to consider. When using one novel for the entire class, he or she has to accommodate the wide range of reading and writing abilities in the classroom. If using multiple titles with student choice, the teacher has to be prepared to provide instruction with each novel • Mysteries • Realistic fiction • Biographies • Historical fiction • Fantasy • Nonfiction (continued)

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TABLE 5.1. (continued) Literacy units Time of year Strengths and challenges Drama unit

Spring

+ By the end of the year, the teacher has a strong sense of students’ capabilities so that he or she can make choices about selection and time devoted to better match their needs. + By spring, students appreciate the change to work on drama units, and because they are often engaged in outdoor activities in the spring, reading shorter sections repeatedly fits their needs better. + At the end of the year, drama performances enable students to show off what they have learned over the course of the year. Some students may still be reluctant to perform, but if they are ever going to be comfortable, it is likely to be in the spring. + The open space for performances, such as the gym, is available more often in the spring because physical education classes have moved outside. – Extracurricular activities become more frequent, cutting into students’ time availability. This might create conflicts.

TABLE 5.2. Jacqueline’s Goals for the Poetry Unit State of Wisconsin standards

Jacqueline’s unit objectives

• • • •

• Read, interpret, and analyze poetry to develop an appreciation of it as a genre. • Analyze author’s language use by recognizing common poetic devices. • Extend poetry through reader response and writing own poems following similar formats. • Utilize common poetic devices in student writing. • Integrate language, reading, and writing skills. • Cultivate memorization skills and oral language expression through poetry recitation.

Read, interpret, and critically analyze literature. Analyze author’s use of language in literary text. Evaluate and extend literary text. Plan, revise, edit, and publish clear and effective writing.

In addition to these goals, Jacqueline has also identified the particular (1) poetic devices and forms, (2) oral reading goals, and (3) language and writing skills emphasized during the unit. Poetic devices

Ø Stanzas Ø Alliteration Ø Meter Ø Figurative language

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Ø Onomatopoeia Ø Imagery/mood Poetic forms

Ø Rhyme Ø Free verse Ø Haiku Ø Acrostic Ø Diamante Ø Cinquain Ø Quatrain Ø Sonnet Ø Concrete/shape Ø Limerick Reading, language, and writing strategies and skills

Ø Reading with fluency Ø Identifying author’s purpose Ø Identifying author’s use of poetic devices Ø Identifying and using nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs Ø Writing with a purpose Ø Using a rhyming dictionary, dictionary, and thesaurus All together, the standards, Jacqueline’s own goals, the format of the genre (poetic devices and forms) and specific curricular skills and strategies, the unit provides a thorough study in poetry and literacy development. Planning the Unit and Implementing Instruction Perhaps one of the biggest challenges for the beginning teacher is planning the dayto-day lessons within the unit. While you might prefer a complete set of lesson plans, we know that this would not be effective. Good teachers consider their students in terms of their existing strengths and literacy needs as well as how their interests relate to the content. Further, all lessons connect to a set of texts. The poetry Jacqueline has in her district may not be available to you. Therefore, instead of a detailed set of plans, we include the chart in Table 5.3 based on Jacqueline’s notes for the first week of the unit. These notes provide an overview of her instruction so that you can consider using them as an initial framework to develop more fully as you consider your own students, curriculum, goals, standards, and materials.

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TABLE 5.3. Poetry Unit, Week 1 Day 1 Introduction to poetry • Introduce poetry unit with demonstration. • Discuss expectations. • Check out poetry books from the library. • Select a poem for first poetry performance. • Complete poetry party form and get teacher’s okay (make a copy of each student’s poem). Day 2 Rhyme and couplets • • • • • • • • • •

Whole class starts memorizing “Bleezer’s Ice Cream” by Jack Prelutsky (overhead). Give performance tips and practice with four to six students. Share the poem selected for Friday and brainstorm ideas for props. Poetry notebook page 1—brainstorm a list of topics students could write about. Define rhyme and couplets and write examples in poetry notebook. Give more rhyme/couplet examples. Do “Rhyme Time” together (overhead). Students find rhyme/couplet examples in their poetry book. Make rhyme wheel. Students write rhyming/couplet poem in notebook.

Day 3 Patriotic or 9/11 poem and free verse • Practice memorizing more of “Bleezer’s Ice Cream.” • Practice performance tips with four to six more students. • Students share rhyme poems in small groups and select one person to read his or her poems to the whole class. • Discuss September 11, 2001. • Define patriotic and free verse in poetry notebook. • Mini-lesson: Capitalize first word of every line. • Share patriotic poems. • Brainstorm a list of patriotic words or words from 9/11 in notebook. • Write a patriotic poem, remembrance of 9/11, or ode to heroes in notebook. Day 4 Stanzas • Practice memorizing more of “Bleezer’s Ice Cream.” • Practice performance tips with four to six more students. • Students share patriotic poems in small groups and select one person to read his or her poems to the whole class. • Define stanzas and write example in poetry notebook. • Give stanza examples. • Students find stanza examples in their poetry book. • Students write a poem with stanzas in notebook. Challenge: Write a poem with stanzas that rhymes.

(continued)

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TABLE 5.3. (continued) Day 5 Alliteration • Practice memorizing more of “Bleezer’s Ice Cream.” • Practice performance tips with four to six more students. • Students share poems with stanzas in small groups and select one person to read his or her poems to the whole class. • Define alliteration and write example in poetry notebook. • Give more alliteration examples. • Students find alliteration examples in their poetry book. • Students write a poem with alliteration in notebook. It may be rhyme or free verse. Day 6 Poetry party • Student performances of poems. • Following each performance, class gives three or four compliments and performer may ask for a suggestion for improvement if desired.

On the very first day of the unit, Jacqueline takes her class to the library. Since finding enough class sets of any poetry collection is impossible, she makes use of those housed in her building media center. Imagine Jacqueline and her students in an area of the library with several different collections of poetry arranged on tables. The students are seated at these tables within easy reach of several texts. Jacqueline moves around them, reading “How to Eat a Poem” by Eve Merriam (1964). She selected this as an introduction because this poem includes metaphors and imagery linking poetry to fruit. As she reads, she notes students becoming increasingly engaged. Afterward, she leads a discussion in which she emphasizes the art of poetry rests within its need to be read aloud, that poems use the sound of language to communicate. She ends the lesson fielding students’ questions, but, before leaving the library, students browse the collections on the tables for poems they like. At first glance, this opening to the unit seems simple, but consider all that Jacqueline did to get students immediately engaged. First of all, she included her colleague, the librarian, in her planning. Not only did Jacqueline let the librarian know that she begins the year studying poetry so that when necessary the librarian can expand the collection, but she also asked the librarian to identify poems appropriate for fifth graders. By collaborating with her peer, Jacqueline has set the stage to initiate the unit. The next step for Jacqueline was to select an appropriate poem as an introduction for the students. Merriam’s poem is perfect because it not only uses the literary devices often associated with effective poetry, but it focuses on poetry as a genre. Thus, Jacqueline provides students with a good model with substance that expresses the benefits of reading poetry. Third, Jacqueline did not simply assign the poem for students to read silently, but modeled reading the poem aloud, supporting her point that poems should be heard and enabling her to set an expectation—the class will

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read poetry aloud, not silently. Jacqueline’s fourth choice was to follow her readaloud with a discussion of the poem, providing students with a hint of how they will participate in fifth-grade language. That is, they are expected to discuss the ideas presented. Finally, Jacqueline ended her lesson by having students browse the library’s collection and select poetry they wanted to read. This concluding activity also provided students a preview of their year. Throughout the unit, students self-select their reading materials, which creates greater interest and higher motivation (Paris & Oka, 1986; Rodin, Rennert, & Solomon, 1980; Turner, 1995). At the same time, as with the introduction, Jacqueline selects the texts for instruction on poetry as a genre. Thus, a lesson that seemed simple on the surface provided students a thorough preview into their language arts class for the year. After the initial setup day, Jacqueline and her class fall into a routine. They start each class session by reciting a poem together. For example, for the first session Jacqueline often selects “Bleezer’s Ice Cream” by Jack Prelutsky (1984) because it immediately draws students to its creativity and use of rhythm, rhyme, and alliteration. In addition, Jacqueline uses this poem to model those skills necessary for a fluent reading. Since each Friday class time is devoted to students’ performances of reading a poem to the class, they need support as they prepare. Jacqueline’s modeling with poems at the beginning of the week provides this foundation. As the week progresses, students engage in repeated readings of their selected poems, which greatly enhances fluency. Jacqueline helps her students improve their delivery techniques with a lesson from www.poetryteachers.com. Students discuss and define stance, posture, gestures, movement, and eye contact, then practice. Following the performance tips, the students share their own written poems in small groups. Listeners pay attention and provide feedback. Much like the format of Book Club assessments of student-led discussions (McMahon, 1997), students focus on both content and form. That is, Jacqueline has students concentrate on what a peer did well when writing and reciting the poem before shifting attention to what the peer should think about for improvement. Student poets listen to all the feedback, but much like in writer’s workshop (Atwell, 1998), they choose whether to make any suggested changes. As the unit progresses, Jacqueline provides instruction on poetic devices. As she introduces each one, she defines it and illustrates it through selected poems. Students record the information in their notebooks. After instruction, they search for examples of the new poetic device in their poetry book, sharing them in small groups. Because Jacqueline monitors these discussions, she quickly determines whether students understand the new concept. Further, she expects them to try all devices discussed in their own poems so that they will become more accomplished poets. Once she is confident they understand the current poetic device, she asks them to write their own poem, including an example. Like most good teachers, Jacqueline adjusts her expectations for individuals based on their needs. This is also the case during the poetry unit. Because Jacqueline works with remedial reading, speech and language, and English as a second

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language students, she checks with each of their special teachers before the beginning of the unit. She also reviews students’ Individualized Education Plans (IEPs) to accommodate their needs. While students are writing, Jacqueline conferences with individuals. In these meetings, she and the students examine their poems, identifying areas of struggle and strength. Recently, during the first conference, she discovered that several students were not using the common poetic device of capitalizing the first letter of each line. Since she witnessed this in several students’ poems, she developed a mini-lesson explaining the device for the next day. This is a great example of what we described in Chapter 2. That is, instead of asking all students to complete published worksheets on this particular skill, she saw a grammatical problem emerge in some students’ writing. When this surfaced as a need, she grouped the students in terms of who needed instructional support with the skill and taught a minilesson. Since this was a need each student could see in his or her own writing, the instruction was clearly relevant. Further, Jacqueline could monitor their use of the skill as they worked on their poems. When reviewing students’ poems, Jacqueline discovered that one student was having difficulty identifying the end of a line. Since she found this in only one student’s writing, she chose to work one-on-one with him. To do this, she selected a poetry book and asked the student to examine the poem closely, looking particularly at the end of each line. She then asked the student to look for patterns that show how the poet decided to end the lines within a stanza. By searching for models in a published example, this student recognized that the lines rhymed, concluding that this was how poets determined when to end one line and begin the next. Once this student demonstrated this understanding, Jacqueline asked him to examine his own poetry. As he read it aloud, he stopped to say that his rhyming words were in the middle of the lines, not the end. With Jacqueline’s help, he restructured the first few lines of his poem so that he ended each one with a rhyming word. The student returned to his desk and successfully completed his revisions, modeling his poem after the one he had analyzed. These examples of Jacqueline’s use of conferences show how she connects her knowledge of students’ needs to her instruction. In the first instance, she conducted a mini-lesson for several students; in the second, she worked individually with one boy. Neither of these required major adjustments in her plans, but both enabled her immediately to meet students’ needs. These students’ needs emerged through the conversations generated during conferences. If she never met with them, the issues might never have presented themselves in such a clear way. That is, by talking with the students, Jacqueline was able to pinpoint the exact area of confusion. With this knowledge, she could then tailor her instruction to meet their needs. Thus, these conferences are a key link between instruction and assessment; however, they are not the only one. Another example of an assessment Jacqueline uses to inform her instruction is the Friday poetry performance, called “poetry party.” Each week, some students

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perform their self-selected poem for the class. They find or create props, use vocal expression, and demonstrate their mastery of the delivery techniques. Students know which skills they have to demonstrate prior to their performance. Jacqueline provides feedback using a “constructive criticism sandwich” approach. This approach requires her to write three things in order: (1) a compliment or successful use of a skill, (2) a suggestion for improvement, and (3) another compliment or successful use of a skill. This formula enables her to communicate a positive attitude, encouraging students, and, at the same time, it provides a place for constructive criticism, conveying to students a specific area to improve (Johnston, 1997). While clearly important, Jacqueline’s “sandwich” is not the only feedback students receive because other students in the class also respond immediately after the performance by giving three compliments and one suggestion for improvement. The students’ comments also emphasize the positive. Further, including peer comments is a technique that gives Jacqueline the time she needs to complete her own written comments. Thus, including both teacher and student comments directly after the poetry reading provides immediate feedback to the student and keeps the performances moving in a timely fashion. Some students get the “performing bug” after they get up in front of their classmates, so Jacqueline arranges with other teachers in her building for her students to come to their classrooms. Pairs of volunteer performers take a poster labeled “poetry break” and knock on the doors of preselected rooms. They walk in, announce “poetry break,” and perform their poem for the class. Jacqueline always uses the library, guidance office, and principal’s office as regular stand-by locations in case other classrooms are too busy. One final component of the poetry unit is publication of student-generated poems (Atwell, 1998). To this end, students type and illustrate their own poetry book from cover to cover. Sometimes, it is better to create one classroom book that includes all the poetry, organized by student name or poetic device. Either way, this published work becomes a part of the final assessment for the unit. With all of the hard work that students put into writing their poetry, a culminating project is worthwhile. This is a basic description of the poetry unit, which can obviously be adjusted to meet the needs of teacher and students. As our description shows, poetry is a great way to begin the school year since it not only integrates reading, writing, and oral language, but also provides the teacher an opportunity to work closely with students to identify their needs and interests. Further, since the texts are short, students can work on fluency and build confidence in their literacy development. Finally, it incorporates many components of a high-quality literacy program: choice (Paris & Oka, 1986; Rodin et al., 1980; Turner, 1995), time to practice and improve (McMahon, 1997), clear expectations (Johnston, 1997), peer groups (Atwell, 1998, McMahon, 1997), and conferencing (Atwell, 1998; Calkins, 1994). For all these reasons, Jacqueline likes beginning her school year with this unit.

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NOVEL UNITS In many districts, novels units form the basis of fifth-grade reading curricula. In some cases, the texts are part of a publisher’s series; in others, teachers have selected titles that help meet literacy standards. While there may be a variety of goals for such units, there are several clear advantages for students since novels can (1) represent a variety of genres, (2) present opportunities for student choice, (3) provide authentic, engaging reading experiences, and (4) support differentiated instruction. Of course, regardless of whether there are individual books selected by a teacher or a publisher’s series, such units require the teacher to develop an instructional plan. Although this can present a major challenge for the beginner, introducing students to a wide variety of genres is beneficial, and the effort can result in more engaged readers. Jacqueline’s unit may provide guidance so that the novice teacher can develop his or her own unit. At the beginning of this chapter, Jacqueline expressed how challenged her students were by The Lion, the Witch, and the Wardrobe the first time she taught fifth grade. Her struggle resulted from her lack of experience in fifth grade, so she made several mistakes. First of all, she selected the book solely because it was included in the fifth-grade curriculum, not because she envisioned a clear link between the book and her instructional goals. Second, she planned the unit without consulting the literacy standards. Finally, she began without knowing her students’ needs. As a result, her unit was not as successful as she had hoped. At the same time, using this text provided her students the advantages of novel study and a basis on which to reflect on her own planning process. Because she realized the value in using this text, she vowed to keep it within her curriculum, but to teach it later in the year. Currently, she includes this book after the poetry unit. This placement ensures that her students are more likely to recognize literary techniques such as alliteration, onomatopoeia, figurative language, and imagery. Further, including it later provides her the opportunity to get to know her students’ needs and to develop the novel study using the standards that her students need to achieve. As we mentioned above, deciding which week of the year to describe in this chapter was a challenge. There are more advantages to describing a unit later in the school year; therefore, we now focus on a different novel unit exploring the genre of mysteries. Planning and Implementing the Mystery Unit For readers of all ages, mysteries hold challenges and interest. Readers, especially fifth graders, like to (1) test themselves by trying to solving the crime, (2) be swept along in the ever-changing plot, or (3) be scared by text events. For all these reasons, mysteries are a good genre choice for this age level. As with all her units, Jacqueline aligns the genre with the standards.

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Jacqueline’s Objectives for the Mystery Unit As Table 5.4 shows, Jacqueline continues to use the standards as a guide for instruction. In some cases, she builds on prior lessons, such as using her students’ previous science lessons as a way of interpreting written texts; in others, she introduces new strategies. It is important to note that the standards are a guide to good instruction, not isolated skills to teach.

TABLE 5.4. Jacqueline’s Goals for the Mystery Unit State of Wisconsin Standards

Jacqueline’s unit objectives

• Use effective reading strategies to achieve the students’ purposes in reading.

• Introduce and practice using (1) picture clues, (2) prior knowledge, (3) prediction, (4) visualization, (5) questioning, (6) rereading, and (7) retelling.

• Read, interpret, and critically analyze literature.

• Connect observation skills from science to observation skills needed for deducing and analyzing. • Identify and create cause-and-effect relationships.

• Read and discuss literary and nonliterary texts in order to understand the human experience.

• Comprehend the beginning, middle, and end of the story. • Help students make connections to the text from the world around them, from other texts, and from their personal experiences. • Determine story elements such as main/subordinate characters, setting, problem, and resolution.

• Understand the function of various forms, structures, and punctuation marks of standard American English and use them appropriately in communications.

• Write short answers with correct sentence structure, including capitalization and punctuation.

• Orally communicate information, opinions, and ideas effectively to different audiences for a variety of purposes. • Listen to and comprehend oral communications. • Participate effectively in discussion.

• Participate in small-group discussions using listening and speaking skills effectively.

• Develop their vocabulary of words, phrases, and idioms as a means to improving communication.

• Identify key vocabulary related to the mystery genre: clues, suspect, code, detective/sleuth, alibi, deduction, analyze, evidence, red herring. • Use inference to (1) determine meaning of vocabulary in context and (2) make generalizations regarding the story or plot.

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Tentative Plans Jacqueline’s mystery unit proceeds for roughly 2–3 weeks, depending on students’ interests and needs. Even though her plans vary each year, experience has enabled her to develop an outline that guides instruction. We have included it in Table 5.5 to provide the reader a sense of how the unit is designed. As the reader will note, once the unit begins, there are regular patterns each day. That is, Jacqueline begins with a warm-up that reviews existing knowledge, then introduces a new concept for instruction. Students then break up into their book clubs to discuss their reading for that day. By design, book clubs are student-led, so the topics for discussion are ones they choose (McMahon & Raphael, 1997). Jacqueline tapes these both for her assessment of their discussions and for later instructional use focusing on areas to improve (McMahon, 1997). She also observes some of the book clubs each day, taking observational notes (Raphael, Pardo, Highfield, & McMahon, 1997). These notes help her identify her instructional focus for conducting discussion groups. She also ends each session with reminders about students’ upcoming assignments for the next day. Time permitting, students begin reading their books for the next day. Jacqueline assigns them chapters to read at home because she knows that in her district students are capable of completing their homework on their own and will bring their books back each day. Some teachers have found they need to provide classroom time for reading because their students need more support and are not yet responsible enough to take care of books. The beginning of a new novel unit is always an exciting time for fifth graders. They want to know their choice of books, so they will ask a stream of questions. Because mysteries are often realistic fiction, Jacqueline helps her students make connections to their world by brainstorming real-life mysteries. Some students mention “unknowns” close to home, such as missing local people, the winner of an upcoming sports tournament, or their teacher next year. Others mention more worldly mysteries, such as the Bermuda Triangle, giant drawings on the land made by early cultures, or museum thefts. Using whatever students share, Jacqueline provides instruction explaining what constitutes a mystery, tying this to the upcoming unit. For example, prior to beginning the unit, she displays two main types of mysteries and their structure within a novel on her reading bulletin board. These exhibits make the text structure more explicit so that students can better analyze the mysteries they are reading and those they will eventually write. Once she has provided sufficient instruction on the genre, Jacqueline introduces key vocabulary. Even though students read a variety of novels, each genre has vocabulary that helps define it, so she uses terms appropriate for all mysteries in this whole-class setting. By learning the terminology, students gain more control over and better access to the genre. If there are new vocabulary terms within each of the novels, Jacqueline has students study these within their book clubs. In some instances, she pulls terms from one novel that could be relevant to all and includes them on the class list.

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TABLE 5.5. Weekly Outline for the Mystery Unit Day 1

• Activate prior knowledge by discussing: • Real-life mysteries. • Parts of a mystery. • Types of mysteries. • Practice observation skills. • Analyze picture data. • Analyze facts on overhead. • “Briefcase introduction” of a whole-class mystery read. • Students choose book to read. • Teacher’s homework: Assign students to small groups for student-led discussions.

Day 2

Opening activities • Practice analysis/deduction skills with activity on overhead. • Practice analysis/deduction skills with Stories with Holes. • Distribute books and journals. • Review reading strategies, especially the prereading and during-reading strategies. • Review the schedule for the reading and journal assignments for the whole unit. • Preview the journal assignment for the first day of reading. Instruction • Discuss mystery vocabulary on bulletin board. Reading • Break into two groups and begin reading assigned pages.

Day 3

Opening activities • Practice analysis/deduction skills with activity on overhead. • Practice analysis/deduction skills with Stories with Holes. • Review reading strategies, especially the after-reading strategies. Instruction • Qualities of a good small-group discussion. Book club discussions • Discussion assignment. • Tape-record each group. • Take observational notes on one or two groups. Whole-class discussion • Highlights from book clubs. Reading • Begin reading assigned pages for next day. (continued)

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TABLE 5.5. (continued) Day 4

Opening activities • Warm-up: Practice analysis/deduction skills with activity on overhead. • Practice analysis/deduction skills with Stories with Holes. • Review reading strategies, especially the after-reading strategies. • Review qualities of a good small-group discussion. Share teacher notes from previous day. Book club discussions • Discussion assignment. • Tape-record each group. • Take observational notes on one or two groups. Whole-class discussion • Highlights from book clubs. Reading • Begin reading assigned pages for next day.

Day 5

Opening activities • • • •

Warm-up: Practice analysis/deduction skills with activity on overhead. Practice analysis/deduction skills with Stories with Holes. Review reading strategies, especially the after-reading strategies. Review qualities of a good small-group discussion. Share teacher notes from previous day.

Instruction • Fish bowl discussion activity. Book club discussions • Discussion assignment. • Tape-record each group. • Take observational notes on one or two groups. Whole-class discussion • Groups share how they improved their discussions. Reading • Begin reading assigned pages for next day.

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Jacqueline also connects students’ learning from science to the unit on mysteries. In a previous unit, she teaches that scientists use their observation skills in the scientific process; therefore, in this unit, she encourages students to connect this knowledge to mysteries. For a whole-class activity stressing this connection, Jacqueline shows her class the following letters on the overhead and reveals them one row at a time. Students are only allowed to look at each row for a few seconds before the next line is revealed. When they have seen all of the lines, she shuts off the overhead and students are to write as many letters in the correct order as they can remember. S

S

A

W

S

P

U

U

I

E

R

M

T

N

A

I

M

U

T

S

N

E

M

E

O

G

R

N

R

N

This activity makes concrete one characteristic of mysteries—sometimes the obvious is right in front of the reader, but he misses it because he is attending to other details. By revealing the letters in a horizontal method, most students focus on the left-to-right orientation of reading and miss the obvious vertical order of real words. This simple yet effective activity shows the students that they must be thoughtful readers if they want to solve their mystery. Jacqueline follows up this observation activity with one using visualization, focusing on picture clues on an overhead. Having completed these activities, the class is ready for the mystery unit to begin. Because she has been teaching for a while, Jacqueline has developed some instructional devices that have become effective for her and her students. While this is an individual teacher’s choice, we describe the one she uses when introducing the mystery unit because it shows how to be creative and increase motivation while still maintaining the instructional focus. In the case of this unit, Jacqueline enters the classroom the first day wearing two baseball caps with the brims facing in opposite directions and a trenchcoat. She carries a briefcase, notepad, and magnifying glass. She keeps these in the palm of her hand from the first instructional moment. Once she has completed the prereading activities, she opens the briefcase. Slowly, she pulls out clues about the book choices, placing them either to the left or the right of the briefcase. Further, she has copies of the books they can select from visible on the desk. Once all the items are grouped, the class tries to decide what each clue reveals about each book. Sometimes the discussion is enough, and students make decisions based on those clues alone. At other times, the class is stymied, so Jacqueline gives brief book talks to help students make a choice. By using

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clues and asking students to use their observational skills, she has incorporated a creative way of introducing students to the books she has selected for the unit. This method also enables her to observe firsthand the observational and analytical thinking of the students, which helps her plan further instruction. After the introduction, the class falls into the routine described above. Routines help fifth graders know what to expect and come to class better prepared. Jacqueline subscribes to the theories presented through Book Club (McMahon & Raphael, 1997). Reading lessons include reading/writing, mini-lessons, student-led discussions, and whole-class sharing. The order of these components is not static and may be arranged within the class period as needed. Each day the class warms up with deductive analysis exercises. These activities are short and motivating. She also reviews key reading strategies and models them. Students read and write in their journal every day. Sometimes Jacqueline selects the questions or prompts; other times, the students choose what they write about. Jacqueline includes a list of generic prompts at the beginning of the journals to help them with ideas. One component of Jacqueline’s instruction that is not obvious in the outline of the plan is how she provides individual support to students. One clear challenge for the novice (and many experienced teachers) is how to continually assess students throughout the day. There are many ways to do this, but Jacqueline has discovered that she can make positive use of the time when students are reading independently. Her goal is to meet one-on-one with each child in her class once a week; however, she meets with students more often at the beginning of the year and of a unit to assess their strengths and needs. As the year and unit progress, she may

By encouraging students to work in their journals while reading, Jacqueline tracks their developing comprehension. Further, when she encourages them to select their best entries, students learn to find evidence of their own progress.

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allow students more individual time to read and write. She notes, “Once they know what to do, they do it.” During these individual meetings, she examines a number of literacy capabilities. For example, she often confers with students about their journals, discussing the quality (maintaining a focus on the positive) and setting goals for improvement (providing clear expectations). She also uses this time to listen to her students read. Even though by fifth grade children are transitioning from reading aloud to silent reading, Jacqueline asks them to read to her so that she can determine whether they apply fix-up strategies. Also, because her students lead their own discussions, she provides explicit instruction individually to students who may need additional support as noted in her observations taken during book clubs or when listening to their tapes.

Evaluating the Unit At the end of this unit, Jacqueline chooses alternative forms of evaluation by culminating with a writing opportunity. She shows students pictures from Chris Van Allsburg’s (1984), The Mysteries of Harris Burdock. After viewing all the pictures, students select one as a basis for their own mystery. Using these visual images and the few sentences included in the book, students use their knowledge of the genre to develop their own stories. By asking students to construct their own examples of this genre, Jacqueline can more easily assess their understanding. Further, this is a valid way to integrate her reading and writing programs. By following the writing process (Calkins, 1994), students learn to apply this instructional approach to an authentic experience. Once completed, their mysteries can form the basis of an ongoing classroom library that future students can read and appreciate. General Structure of Novel Units In this description of Jacqueline’s mystery unit, we focused on one genre; however, this structure can work for any literature study. When students read, write, and talk about their reading and writing, then they have all the elements to enhance their learning. Clearly, students need opportunities to read and write daily (Anderson, Heibert, Scott & Wilkinson, 1985). By focusing on one genre or author to study, the teacher enhances comprehension because students can focus on the characteristics of the selected novels. Their writing is related to what they are reading, and their oral discussions support their comprehension. Perhaps one of the biggest challenges for the beginning teacher is to let students lead their own discussions. These teachers may want to keep in mind that whoever does most of the talking does most of the thinking. Therefore, it holds true that when students have opportunities to talk about topics important to them, they start doing more thinking. In contrast, if the teacher does most of the talking, he or she assumes responsibility for most of the thinking. We believe that students should engage in more exploratory talk (Barnes, 1992), talk that helps them formulate their thinking.

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Exploratory talk is more likely to occur in student-led discussions than in wholeclass settings. Additional novel units in Jacqueline’s class throughout the year enable her to continue helping students become better readers and writers. While each of these differs in terms of genre and particular instructional foci, they are similar in terms of the unit design. That is, all units integrate reading, writing, and oral language (through the use of book club). As the year winds down, Jacqueline introduces another genre, drama, as a focus of study. We now shift our attention to this unit.

DRAMA UNIT Some teachers do not consider using drama to teach reading despite the many advantages. For example, students improve their fluency by rereading lines; they practice memorization skills by learning lines for performance; they learn to use nonverbal cues, such as expression and body language, to communicate meaning; and they learn the power of spoken language to bring an author’s ideas to life. Further, drama supports students’ creativity in making props and scenery while integrating art and music. All these reasons support the inclusion of drama in the fifthgrade curriculum. As with other areas of the language arts, standards documents also verify the inclusion of this genre. Table 5.6 shows the relationship between the standards and Jacqueline’s goals. The drama unit Jacqueline includes in the spring is a enormous undertaking and may not be appropriate for all new teachers, but there are objectives from this project that can be incorporated in other literary units or perhaps applied to a Readers’ Theatre situation rather than a full-blown drama production. Because of the important unique learning that stems from this unit, we include it here for your

TABLE 5.6. Jacqueline’s Goals for the Drama Unit State of Wisconsin standards

Jacqueline’s unit objectives

• Read and discuss literary and nonliterary texts in order • Read and discuss a variety of plays. to understand the human experience. • Create or produce writing to communicate with different audiences for a variety of purposes. • Plan, revise, edit, and publish clear and effective writing.

• Integrate reading with art through props and scenery. • Create a program flyer with brief student autobiographies related to drama experience.

• Orally communicate information, opinions, and ideas effectively to different audiences for a variety of purposes.

• Use the voice and body language to express meaning and emotion in an effort to bring a character to life. • Establish a presence in front of an audience.

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consideration. Table 5.7 is a snapshot into the first week of this unit in Jacqueline’s classroom. With any drama performance, most of the time is spent practicing lines, staging the performance, and creating costumes, scenery, and props. Jacqueline’s students also create the program flyer for the night of the performance. They design the cover and write individual autobiographies related to their experiences with drama, such as performances in class plays in third or fourth grade or ones for their families. Everyone in Jacqueline’s class includes their poetry performances from earlier in the year. In addition to the program serving as a souvenir of the activity for the students and their families, it also provides an authentic writing opportunity with a new genre since it goes through all the stages of the writing process. As with all the other units, student conferences still play a role in the drama unit. Jacqueline meets with students to discuss how well they are memorizing lines with appropriate expression. She reminds them about identifying cues within the play and encourages practice, even in front of a mirror at home. She also talks with them individually about costumes and props. Because the fifth graders perform a musical every year, Jacqueline is fortunate to have access to the costumes and props from the music department, but some students find costumes at home or in thrift shops with help from parents. Evaluating the drama unit requires the teacher to consider his or her goals and the standards addressed. Since oral communication is important, Jacqueline expects all students to memorize their lines by a specified date prior to the performance. In addition, she uses a checklist to evaluate the performance. This includes such components as getting to their marks at the right time, using their voices effectively, using actions and props appropriately, and behaving appropriately behind the scenes. Once the class knows the teacher’s expectations, each student has goals to work toward. Finally, the paragraph each student writes for the program flyer is evaluated with the same rubric as all other written assignments. A drama unit contains all the critical elements of reading, writing, and oral language. Students read and reread their scripts to prepare for their performances. Rereading aids comprehension of the material. The written program provides another opportunity to connect writing with reading with an authentic audience and purpose. Drama offers students an alternative way to express themselves not only through language, but also nonverbally. A play also requires them to listen carefully to the other actors. In June, Jacqueline administers a survey to her class evaluating the school year. The class play is consistently rated as one of the highlights: “My students remember the class play even years later. Some stop by to just to check in every once in a while and one of their first questions is whether or not I’m planning on doing a play that year. They may not remember all of the books we read in fifth grade, but they certainly remember being on stage in front of all their friends and family. It’s an experience that I wouldn’t want them to be without.”

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TABLE 5.7. Drama Unit, Week 1 Day 1

Opening activities • Activate prior knowledge with an informal class survey about drama. • Who has been to see a play or musical performed by professional actors? • Who has participated in a class play before? • What is your comfort level with performing on stage? Read-aloud • Read class play with volunteers taking the roles. Class discussion • Discuss the play and record the setting and major plot points. Overview of upcoming events • Tryouts for class play in 3 days.

Day 2

Instructional activities • Voice expression: Distribute cards with sayings on them. Students read the cards in two different ways to express the same message with two emotions. • Using the script: Find passages that could be read more than one way. Discuss how the playwright might have intended for the passage to be read. Discuss what the author is trying to express.

Day 3

Instructional activities • Body expression: Using cards with actions, play charades. No words allowed. Discuss what was effective in communicating meaning without words. • Using the script: Find passages and act out using only body actions. • Give time for students to discuss plans for tryouts. • Provide time to practice for tryouts.

Day 4

Instructional activities • Play tryouts: Students complete tryout form explaining their choice of roles, the size of role they are most interested in, and their level of nervousness in front of an audience. When students are not trying out they may practice lines, reread script, read a book, and draw ideas for scenery. • Teacher’s homework: Assign students to roles based on tryouts and requests.

Day 5

Instructional activities • Reread play with actors assigned to each role. • Brainstorm ideas for props and scenery.

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FINAL THOUGHTS Perhaps one of the most daunting tasks facing the beginning teacher is planning for an entire year. Without prior experience to draw on, the novice teacher must juggle texts, the curriculum, standards, and her own knowledge base about each one. Further, she is always getting to know her students, their needs, and their strengths. There is no single way to plan for every possibility, even for the experienced teacher. At the same time, there are guiding principles that we have tried to illustrate in this chapter: (1) aligning standards with unit goals, (2) finding a unifying element, such as genre, to connect the plans, (3) integrating reading, writing, and oral language, (4) engaging in ongoing assessment, (5) including the element of choice, and (6) building on students’ needs. Beginning with these in mind will strengthen any unit the teacher develops; experience will enhance it.

CHAPTER 6

INTEGRATING CURRICULUM USING MULTIPLE GENRES TO ENHANCE LITERACY

Martin Luther and Malcolm X were Civil Rights leaders in the 1960s. They shared the same personality traits and different personality traits to bring whites and blacks together. Malcolm X tried to separate whites and blacks. Martin Luther King Jr. did not. Even though these two men had different views, Malcolm X shared some of the same personality traits because he tried to bring all blacks together at this important time in history. Some of the personality traits that the two Civil Rights leaders shared were: perseverance, efforts, caring, responsibility, friendship, and organization. Martin Luther King Jr. and Malcolm X both showed perseverance because they never gave up on the Civil Rights Movement. Martin Luther King never gave up because he always gave speeches about bringing blacks and whites together. Martin Luther King also organized marches for blacks and he also did the bus boycott. Malcolm X never gave up on the Civil Rights Movement because he gave a lot of speeches and tried hard to bring the blacks to the Nation of Islam. The Nation of Islam wanted the blacks to separate from the whites. Martin Luther King and Malcolm X were caring for the blacks because they were always beaten and had to do hard work and they couldn’t do what they wanted. They also put a lot of effort to help the blacks to be free. They tried really hard to help the blacks. Both men were assassinated, Malcolm X in 1963 and Martin Luther King Jr. in 1968. Martin Luther King Jr. and Malcolm X did not share cooperation and patience. Martin Luther King only had patience because he did not want the Civil Rights Movement to rush to violence. Martin Luther King also had cooperation because he worked with other people. He tried to bring the whites and blacks together. Malcolm X did not have patience because he did not think whites and blacks could live together. He did not have cooperation because he wanted the blacks to separate and form their own country on their own land.

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T

he preceding paper was written by Martine, a fifth grader whose first language is not English, after she had participated in a unit that integrated both fiction and nonfiction texts focused on the Civil Rights Movement of the 1950s and 1960s. Even though the reader can see areas of Martine’s paper that could be stronger, it clearly reveals that she has developed an understanding of the similarities and differences between two leaders of the movement. We share this paper not because it is an outstanding example of fifth-grade writing, but because it demonstrates the strength of planning a unit that integrates content— any content—whether it be school subjects, like language arts and social studies, or areas within the language arts. Such units are challenging to plan, particularly for the beginning teacher; however, we hope to provide a framework for beginning to think about them. We decided to use the one on the Civil Rights Movement because (1) the available texts are rich and engaging, (2) the unit can be planned as either a themed study in language arts or an integrated language arts and social studies unit, and (3) the effectiveness of the unit is visible in students’ work. Therefore, we begin this chapter with considerations for planning. We then follow with some specific examples from the unit and end with more student samples.1

SUGGESTIONS FOR PLANNING LARGE UNITS There are many good books that articulate plans for extended units of study. That is, whether they focus on “integrated instruction” (e.g., Clark, 1996; Drake, 1998; Freeland & Hammons, 1998), “interdisciplinary units” (e.g., Tchudi & Lafer, 1996), or “thematic instruction” (e.g., Campbell & Harris, 2000), the concepts are similar since the focal point is merging two or more content areas when planning. Further, contemporary thinking illuminates the advantages of instructional units that incorporate nonfiction in elementary classrooms. When reading any of the above-mentioned texts, teachers should evaluate the ideas in light of their knowledge of their students, curriculum, and goals. For the beginning teacher, this can be daunting because they require the development of long-range plans and organization. The novice teacher may not think she is prepared to design extended units that will be successful. Therefore, we have developed some guiding principles that can facilitate efforts to provide a unit of study that extends beyond one text. Such units can last one week or six, depending on the teacher and students. However, teachers across a number of classrooms have learned that units integrating content 1It is important to note that Jacqueline teaches many integrated units each year. They are part of the curriculum in her district, and the unit described here does not easily fit within her context. Susan has worked extensively with many fifth-grade teachers as they integrate their curriculum. This unit is one that many teachers have adapted to their students and contexts. We decided to include it here because it has been refined across a number of contexts. While it is written as a more general description of its implementation, Jacqueline has provided input in terms of its viability for the fifth-grade teacher.

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over an extended time promote enhanced student participation, learning, and interest, so they are worth the effort.

GUIDING PRINCIPLES Since planning integrated units requires multiple texts, modes of response, and means of representing learning, we believe there are some principles that can provide guidance for both the beginning teacher and one who is experienced but has never tried to integrate within the language arts or across school subjects. We recognize that these principles may also apply to other instructional units. In fact, that is their power. Our guiding principles include the following: (1) dovetail standards when possible, (2) select high-quality, engaging texts that represent a variety of genres, (3) identify “big ideas” (Levstik & Barton, 2005) that unify instruction and learning, (4) organize instructional focus on both content and processes, and (5) connect concepts across texts and activities. In the following sections we list these principles, then briefly explain them and provide specific examples from the Civil Rights Movement unit developed with the intermediate grades in mind. Dovetailing Standards As every teacher understands, instruction should be grounded in meeting students’ needs as they relate to content standards; however, the long list of standards, benchmarks, and descriptors can be intimidating when planning for individual content areas, let alone when trying to integrate a unit. Since content standards are just that—content goals—they are not worded in ways that support teachers’ efforts to align them across school subjects. Close analysis of standards documents reveals that the reading/language arts teacher can often merge literacy standards with those in other disciplines. For example, social studies standards often require that learners consider multiple perspectives or consult primary sources. In reading/language arts, this easily transfers to reading multiple genres. Therefore, the teacher trying to integrate his or her language arts curriculum with social studies can meet the goals of two content areas by including texts that represent perspectives from more than one person or group on an event to meet this social studies standard. Such texts are often structured as biographies or memoirs, which are narrative texts. Fictional accounts of historic events are another genre. Identifying some primary documents from the same historical period adds another genre and meets the second social studies standard. An example from the Civil Rights Movement unit might help make this concept more concrete. Imagine that you want students in your fifth-grade classroom to explore the events and outcomes of the Civil Rights Movement in the United States during the 1950s and 1960s. For most students today, this is ancient history. Therefore, one

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goal for the unit is to build background knowledge not only about the events of the time period, but also an understanding of why some people were not afforded the same rights as others. The teacher can select from a number of true and fictional accounts to build this realization. One book, Oh, Freedom (King & Osbourne, 1997), can help develop an understanding of multiple perspectives. As a genre, it was the result of a number of interviews constructed and implemented by a number of middle-school-age children who identified and met with participants in the Civil Rights Movement. Produced as two- to three-page interviews, this text includes personal accounts of life prior to the movement as well as firsthand accounts of experiences participating in demonstrations of the 1950s and 1960s. As such, the text helps the teacher meet two goals: the social studies standard of understanding multiple perspectives and the language arts standard of reading point-of-view. In addition, by adding a fictional narrative, such as one family’s experiences during a trip from Michigan to Alabama in The Watsons Go to Birmingham (Curtis, 1997), the teacher can deepen both these concepts for students. Therefore, through the inclusion of just two texts, the teacher can unite social studies and language arts standards. This is an example of our first principle: Dovetail content standards and plan to meet them through one or two aspects of the unit. Considering this principle when planning the Civil Rights Movement unit, we considered several content standards in both reading/language arts and social studies before identifying four—two from each content area. For reading/language arts we identified: read a variety of print and nonprint texts and identify multiple points of view in both fiction and nonfiction. For social studies our goals included: read original documents and demonstrate an understanding of multiple perspectives on an event. Clearly, we selected standards that could easily merge in our planning. By making the reading of multiple texts and original documents the goal, we identified a wide range of readings for students (see Table 6.1 for a sample list) and selected specific strategies for reading multiple genres for instruction. Further, by combining point-of-view in the literacy standards with the social studies goal of understanding multiple perspectives on an event, we had yet another criterion for identifying both texts and activities to include in the unit. Selecting Texts With the proliferation of high-quality children’s literature and access to primary sources on the Internet, teachers are confronted with more options than ever. Perhaps the hardest aspect of selection for the beginning teacher is acquiring all the texts he or she may want. Since many available texts were not necessarily adopted with the notion of integration in mind, it takes some creative thinking to incorporate books supplied by the district into an integrated unit. Our advice is to begin slowly, using what is available and expanding the collection with the unit goals in mind. This process can take years, as it did with our Civil Rights Movement unit.

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TABLE 6.1. Texts for the Civil Rights Movement Unit Books to build background knowledge Altman, S., & Lechner, S. (1993). Followers of the north star. Chicago: Children’s Press. Bial, R. (1995). The underground railroad. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. Crew, S. (2003). Unchained memories: Readings from the slave narratives. New York: Bulfinch Press. Farris, C. K. (2003). My brother Martin: A sister remembers growing up with the Rev. Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. New York: Simon & Schuster. Lasky, K. (2003). A voice of her own: The story of Phillis Wheatley, slave poet. New York: Candlewick Press. Lester, J., & Brown, R. (1998). From slave ship to freedom road. New York: Dial Books. McKissack, P., & McKissack, F. (1994). Christmas in the big house, Christmas in the quarters. New York: Scholastic. McKissack, P., & McKissack, F. (2003). Days of jubilee: The end of slavery in the United States. New York: Scholastic. Rappaport, D. (2002). No more stories and songs. New York: Candlewick Press. Thomas, V. M. (2000). Freedom’s children. New York: Crown. Taylor, M. D. (1998). The friendship. New York: Puffin Books. Taylor, M. D. (1992). Mississippi bridge. New York: Bantam Books. Weatherford, C. B. (2002). Remember the bridge: Poems of the people. New York: Philomel Books. Books to build knowledge about the Civil Rights Movement Bridges, R. (1999). Through my eyes. New York: Scholastic Books. Colbert, J., & Harms, A. M. (1998). Dear Dr. King. New York: Hyperion Books. Coles, R. (1995). The story of Ruby Bridges. New York: Scholastic Books. Curtis, C. P. (1997). The Watsons go to Birmingham—1963. New York: Yearling Books. King, C., & Osborne, L. B. (1997). Oh, freedom. New York: Knopf. Myers, W. D. (1993). Malcolm X: By any means necessary. New York: Scholastic Books. Myers, W. D. (2000). Malcolm X: A fire burning brightly. New York: HarperCollins.

Using Available Texts One general guideline when expanding a collection of texts to enhance integrated instruction is to begin with what you have. That is, most teachers have access to either a content-area textbook, in our case the American history book, or the nonfiction texts available in the school or community library. These are easily available and provide an introduction to any unit. Some texts included within the reading series of the language arts program may also have selections that can complement the unit. Therefore, even the beginning teacher has some materials available. A second resource for new teachers is the Internet. While there are no guiding principles for what is included on many websites, there is still a wealth of information teachers can access for free. For example, the National Council for the Social Studies (www.socialstudies.org) and the National Endowment for the Humanities (www.neh.fed.us) are two high-quality sites with materials available for the teacher

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to expand his or her knowledge or for student access. Some of the websites listed in Chapter 7 are great resources to begin searching for materials, and many of them can lead the teacher to additional sites. As mentioned in earlier chapters, the school and community librarians are wonderful resources when planning units. They can locate texts that can enhance your unit and temporarily add to the classroom library. Further, they can support your efforts to differentiate instruction by pulling texts from many reading levels. This range of texts can support the weakest and most gifted readers in the class while still expecting them to meet the unit goals. Of course, bookstores (both physical and online) provide an almost neverending supply of titles for purchase. Sites such as Amazon.com include reviews of books by readers to help the teacher make good choices. (Chapter 7 also includes other resources to check for reviews of books.) While purchasing new trade books can be expensive, the availability of high-quality children’s literature for fifth graders can enable the teacher to address individual needs and interests, enhancing student motivation. Clearly, even the new teacher has more access to a variety of texts than he might initially know. Therefore, we suggest the books housed in his classroom should not limit his planning for an integrated unit. Having summarized what possible texts are available, we shift our focus to how we made choices from those we could find.

Criteria for Determining Texts When selecting texts, we looked for fiction and nonfiction, as well as visual texts. By including all three, we could provide students a sense of the varied perspectives included through both fictional and factual accounts and examine primary documents. Further, we knew that students needed to develop some background information that could enhance their understanding of events that led up to the Civil Rights Movement. While the long history of social injustice is too vast to present to fifth graders in one unit, we wanted to provide some insights into injustices that were common prior to the 1950s. For the historical viewpoint, we chose two of Mildred Taylor’s fictional accounts of life in the South during the Depression—The Friendship (Taylor, 1998) and Mississippi Bridge (Taylor, 1992). For a more contemporary viewpoint, we chose The Watsons Go to Birmingham—1963 (Curtis, 1997). Our list of nonfiction was considerably longer (see Table 6.1 for a complete list) because the standards not only ask for multiple genres, but for alternative perspectives. We already mentioned Oh, Freedom above. In addition, we included books on Martin Luther King, Jr. and Malcolm X. These enabled students to understand that leaders in the movement did not always agree on the best course of action. Further, we added books relating the experiences of Ruby Bridges, a firstgrade child who helped integrate Southern schools. These texts provided the core

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for all students. That is, we expected all students to read these as a basis for meeting all the goals (understanding multiple perspectives on an historic event [social studies]/various points of view [language arts] and reading/understanding multiple genres [language arts]). Having identified the core texts, we proceeded to locate convenient supplemental texts for student choice. In general, these were texts we found at the school and local libraries and ones we purchased over time. This list continues to grow and change as new titles emerge and students’ interests shift, but our choices are always guided by the four standards the unit is designed to meet. Thus, we have selected biographies, personal memoirs, speeches, news articles, and interviews. To meet the need for visual literacy, we select some videos and newspaper pictures from history. All of these serve as a basis for instruction on genre and multiple perspectives at the same time. Selecting texts for a long-term unit is a challenge because of both the limitations presented by materials available to the beginning teacher and by the sheer number of possible texts available at bookstores and on the Internet. By searching texts already present in the classroom, building, and public libraries, the teacher can begin to identify what he/she already has to help meet her goals. After this, he/ she can begin searching for additional titles/genres that complement his/her collection. Further, she can divide her needs in terms of those texts she wants all students to read and those that are supplemental. We don’t mean to convey that this is a simple task. It takes time; however, the rewards of engaging students in extended study that develops conceptual understandings are worth it. To explain this ultimate goal of higher-order thinking related to the unit, we now shift to the next principle: conceptualizing the unit of study. Identifying “Big Ideas” That Unite the Unit Even experienced teachers lament themed or integrated units because they can grow during implementation. That is, they might plan for a 3-week unit but find by the middle of the second week that they need more time because when students are engaged, they want to do more. As a result, they ask to create plays or dioramas that the teacher had not anticipated. Because they are good ideas, the teacher includes them. With each suggestion, the unit grows—sometimes out of control. Therefore, we suggest identifying the “big ideas” (Levstik & Barton, 2005) that are the focus of the unit. These ideas are ones that cross all the texts and activities. They can be articulated as questions or statements; they should be large enough to include major concepts, but not so large that they cannot be addressed well within the time frame of the unit. These ideas not only help teachers identify texts and plan activities, but also provide a framework for helping identify which student suggestions for expansion are viable and which should be saved for another time. For the Civil Rights Movement, we included three big ideas that we articulated as performance goals:

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Demonstrate an understanding of the goals of the Civil Rights Movement, not only nationally, but in our state. Demonstrate an understanding of the experiences of multiple groups of people involved in the movement. Demonstrate an understanding of the impact of the Civil Rights Movement on students’ lives today. These same goals could also be formulated as questions that guide students’ learning: What were the goals of the Civil Rights Movement nationally and in our state? What were some of the varied experiences of its participants? What is the impact of the Civil Rights Movement on our lives today? Another alternative to the wording of these big ideas might be: The Civil Rights Movement encompassed many goals both nationally and within our state. Many people of both sexes from various backgrounds, races, and classes participated in the movement. The Civil Rights Movement of the 1950s and 1960s made an impact on life today. Each successive wording reveals slightly different lenses to use when reading, writing about, and discussing the texts and participating in the activities in the unit. At the same time, each one enables the teacher and students to maintain their focus. That is, if students request an opportunity to present a short role-play activity that reenacts events presented in one of their texts, the teacher can ask them to consider how it will help clarify one of the big ideas listed above. If students can find a relationship and communicate it through the activity, then it might be worth taking the extra planning and implementation time to include. If not, the teacher can promise to include a similar activity in a future unit. The primary point is that these goals can help the teacher begin planning the unit by identifying what he or she wants to cover and be used as a basis for decision making throughout the unit. We now shift attention to the process for deciding which components of the curriculum to teach. Considering Instruction on Both Content and Processes Susan has spent many hours working with teachers who want to integrate their curriculum. At first, she noticed that many teachers thought they had fully inte-

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grated the content when planning, but, in the midst of teaching, they lost sight of the goals. Also, they often neglected important aspects of a content area. For example, some fifth-grade teachers thought that since they were expecting students to read to complete assignments that they were meeting reading goals. Nowhere in their plans, however, had they included instruction that helped students become better readers. That is, there was no evidence that they would provide any additional strategy instruction that could facilitate students’ efforts to read challenging texts. Therefore, they were missing some of the processes that should have been taught. Clearly, these teachers had planned well, but trying to incorporate two content areas became challenging, so they sometimes lost sight of some of the important goals. In part this was because they had not established “big ideas” to guide their decisions, but doing so is not the only important consideration. Teachers need to identify texts to teach and specific content and processes inherent in all content areas. To help prevent this omission during the planning process, we suggest teachers make brief lists of the specific content and the processes to highlight during the unit. These are different from the “big ideas” since they draw attention to the dayto-day instruction. For example, one of the concepts for the Civil Rights Movement unit was to understand how this historic development continues to affect our lives today. This conceptual goal can be considered in terms of content since there are specific, factual examples of this in daily life. That is, we no longer have segregated schools or water fountains, blacks can frequent the same stores, restaurants, and theaters as whites, and many people of color work alongside whites daily. This is specific content that the teacher should include. At the same time, all school subjects are designed to convey the processes followed by experts in the field. That is, historians write accounts of events by interviewing participants and reading their memoirs. They also consult maps, charts, and graphs of data to reach conclusions about causes that led up to events. In language arts, instructional goals focus on the processes good readers/writers engage in, such as rereading materials, taking notes to remember key ideas, and drafting and revising texts as needed. Good instruction helps further students’ abilities in these processes as well as in fostering their learning of content. Therefore, an effective integrated unit needs to address both the targeted content to learn and the processes to internalize. One suggestion for making these two facets of instruction clear is to make a two-column list—one for content and one for processes—that is part of the content-area standards and goals. This list will probably be extensive initially, and the teacher will need to limit it so that topics in both columns can be achieved for the duration of the unit.2 2One

important caveat is necessary here. Process and content are related. That is, we cannot teach processes other than within a content area. Therefore, the intent is not to separate them and teach processes in isolation. This is an activity to ensure thorough planning. Instruction should join process and content.

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When planning the Civil Rights Movement unit, our list was long but not exhaustive. We made decisions about what to include based on the standards we had identified. The purpose for presenting this list is not to argue that it is comprehensive, but that it was sufficient for planning, organizing, and evaluating the unit that fit within our time frame, as well as helping both teachers and students maintain focus.

Processes For our processes, we expected students to read multiple texts related to the topic. This goal required us to identify some specific strategies for reading. Of course, these depended on the students’ needs, but some included (1) using questioning prior to and during reading, (2) developing a K-W-L chart to identify existing, relevant knowledge and set goals, and (3) organizing information during and after reading. A social studies process we included was for students to learn to identify cause and effect in the events leading up to and occurring during the movement. Once we narrowed our list to this primary process, we noted that any teacher could use it to guide students through written and oral activities as they read both fiction and nonfiction texts, viewed films, and analyzed historic pictures. The development of these causal relationships also helped students answer the questions they developed prior to reading and organize information learned across the unit. The teacher can then monitor student learning through their daily assignments. For example, he/she can examine students’ reading logs for evidence of their learning so that he/she can then modify the unit when needed. Mildred Taylor’s (1998) book The Friendship is set in the South during the Depression. The story includes young children who observe events in a local store in a small rural community. Early in the book, the children enter the store. One child, Little Man, who is African American, is yelled at by the store owner when he touches a counter. The storeowner accuses Little Man of being dirty and tells him not to touch anything. Little Man is crushed, later telling his siblings he was not dirty at all. Even though this part of the book is short, it highlights a belief of Southern whites that resulted in prejudicial acts. If viewed as a solitary act, then this seems irrelevant—the action of one ignorant individual against a child. Since one of the goals for the unit was to enable students to delve deeply into texts to develop clearer understandings, we developed a prompt to ensure students reflected on this event: “On page 13, Dewberry yells at Little Man, saying, ‘Get them filthy hands off-a-there!’ Why does he do this? Would he say the same thing to a white boy? Why or why not? What does Little Man say to Dewberry?” This prompt facilitated students efforts to understand causal relationships that led up to the Civil Rights Movement. Dewberry, a white man, is motivated by his own misconceptions that the boy’s black skin is dirty. Little Man is mortified that

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the man thinks he is dirty when he is not. This misunderstanding, predicated on a mistaken belief, reveals the potential for conflict. Little Man is a child who is likely to submit to the dictates of an adult. Later in the book, a similar conflict arises between the same store owner and an African American man. Understanding that Little Man is in danger if he protests helps prepare student readers for upcoming text events. At the same time, it also adds one example of prejudice that led up to the Civil Rights Movement. By focusing on this through a log prompt, the teacher is better able to reinforce students’ needs to attend to many events that occur throughout the novel, even if initially they seem minor. Such an accumulation of incidents helps students develop a deeper understanding of the big ideas threading through the unit.3 Another process we wanted to emphasize was to identify multiple perspectives. We achieved this through specific log prompts for students to complete before, during, and after reading. The example above related to Dewberry and Little Man shows how each of these two characters have a different perspective on the little boy’s skin. While that was not the intent of that particular prompt, it still makes this point well. Additional prompts throughout the unit asked students to consider the viewpoints presented of major and minor characters as well as those presented in nonfiction texts. That is, such prompts enabled students to delineate the differences of opinion between Martin Luther King, Jr. and Malcolm X. Both men were leaders during the movement, but they adopted very different perspectives on how to solve the problems inherent in the racism present in the United States. Reading books articulating the perspectives of each man and then responding to the focused prompts helped students understand these varied perspectives. Our fourth process was for students to describe how characters/real people develop within a text. As with the other processes, this was clearly related to content and overlapped with other processes. For example, Taylor’s Mississippi Bridge (1992) presents a young black man who has a job interview in a town far enough away that he has to take a bus from his home. Set in the South during the Depression in the same town as her earlier book, this one also provides descriptions of prejudiced behavior frequently found prior to the Civil Rights Movement. We selected this book because it provided a historic perspective. At the same time, like all good novels, the main character is presented with a problem that will eventually change his life. In this story, Jonas is denied access to the bus just as it is about to leave. He realizes two things. First, if he misses the bus, he will not get the badly needed job. Second, if he tells any white person about the job, he could be beaten because many of them have no jobs either. Faced with this dilemma, he chooses not to say anything and watches white 3At this point, we would like to remind the reader of the caveat we listed above—process and content are related. The above prompt reveals this well. Students cannot respond to the prompt without considering specific events described in the text (content). At the same time, the prompt focuses on a particular part of the text that can support the understanding the process of cause and effect. Therefore, they are best taught together, not only because it will enhance students’ learning, but also because it eases the teacher’s planning by combining process and content in one prompt.

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people fill the bus. On his way home, he becomes the only witness to a tragic accident when the same bus accidentally plunges off the bridge into raging waters. The reader cannot help but wonder, “Will he try to save these people even though they cost him the job and hate him because of his color, or will he leave and let them drown?” His answer reveals his character to the reader. Asking students to reflect on this through a specific prompt prior to their reading, enables them to think through their own feelings and values. Then, when they read to find how the character responds, they can reflect on how they are similar to or different from him. The two writing activities just discussed facilitate the teachers’ goal of having students understand how main characters grow and change in good literature. We identified several other processes across a number of classrooms, but we will not elaborate them here. These included checking for literal comprehension, building critical comprehension, expanding knowledge of story parts, communicating comprehension through writing, and synthesizing ideas. Many of these processes had been focused on earlier in the year, so teachers could focus attention on monitoring them if they taught this unit in the spring.

Content We have already described how content is closely related to processes during instruction. For planning, we identified four content-related concepts we wanted students to understand by the end of the unit: (1) the goals of the Civil Rights Movement, (2) the multiple perspectives on the movement, (3) the multiple perspectives of main characters in novels, and (4) the effect of social events on the development of characters/real people. As with other aspects of our unit, these clearly overlap. We had clear goals for the unit and had identified the processes we wanted to incorporate. With these in mind, we could select texts that furthered these goals and ones that contained content that fit with the standards we were addressing. In our discussion of processes above, we have also revealed some of the content. When planning for integrated instruction, the teacher will also see this overlap and should develop learning activities that enable students to do the same. Connecting Concepts across Texts and Activities While the knowledgeable reader will see obvious connections among these texts, we have learned that many fifth-grade students need additional support to understand the same relationships. This support can take many forms, including the “teachable moment.” Since our unit included a variety of texts, genres, and focuses, we needed another framework to help students connect fiction and nonfiction, particularly related to our goal that students understand main characters and key figures within the movement. For this, we borrowed a list of personality traits from a neighboring district that teachers used to integrate life skills into all curricular areas. We found that this list provided students a framework for under-

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standing the motivations of many characters and participants in Civil Rights Movement. These “life skills” are characteristics the neighboring district deemed desirable for success in life. One teacher that Susan worked with has integrated these qualities into a number of her language arts activities. When helping other teachers plan the unit, Susan thought this list of characteristics could facilitate students’ efforts to understand the variations in the beliefs of both historic figures and fictional characters in the texts students were reading. Therefore, the following list became an integral component of the unit. While it clearly has implications for additional areas of study, it became a successful lens for students to understand the motivations for and actions during the Civil Rights Movement.

Ø Perseverance Ø Organization Ø Effort Ø Curiosity Ø Cooperation Ø Caring Ø Responsibility Ø Common sense Ø Friendship Ø Flexibility Ø Patience Ø Problem solving As students considered key events in the texts they read, teachers reminded them to make note of which personality traits they saw evident in the historic figures and characters in books, films, and pictures. Because of this, students began to make connections between fictional characters and key participants in a historic period. This list helped them begin to understand the distinctive aspects of those individuals who lead others. One good example of this was the essay that opened this chapter. In it, Martine describes the results of her comparing and contrasting Martin Luther King, Jr. and Malcolm X. As she explains her perspective, she mentions some of the “life skills” listed above. For many students, these list provided the vocabulary they needed to express their thinking. We conclude this section with a few reminders. Planning integrated or themed units takes time—time to identify topics, materials, standards, and goals; time to plan; time to implement; and time to modify during implementation. Because the goals are complex, both teachers and students can easily lose sight of them. By working with the principles we outlined, teachers can help contain and manage

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such units. While they are never easy to implement, the depth of learning that results makes teachers want to include them more often. Further, because students are more likely to become engaged and develop deeper understandings, they are motivated to put forth more effort to learn. Both teacher and student success leads to additional themed units. To help elucidate this, we now shift our attention to some examples of students’ work that reveal this understanding.

EVIDENCE OF A SUCCESSFUL UNIT We began this chapter with one paper written by a student after she had read books and speeches and viewed films about Martin Luther King, Jr. and Malcolm X. As a way of comparing and contrasting these two men, she incorporated the personality traits we listed above into her paper. As we now show in more depth, her paper serves as one example of how she met the goals of this unit. Martine’s Final Report One of our objectives for the Civil Rights Movement unit was to have students understand multiple perspectives on the issues and possible solutions at the time. In her paper, Martine expresses a clear understanding that many adults do not have regarding the similarities and differences between Martin Luther King, Jr. and Malcolm X. For example, many understand that both men were concerned most with the rights of African Americans and that both were assassinated, but they do not always understand the philosophical differences. Martin Luther King, Jr. worked for a unified America where all people would be treated equally. He believed this could be accomplished peacefully. In contrast, Malcolm X argued for a separate state for blacks. Further, he believed that violence might be a necessary step in achieving the goal. Even though many adults may not know the distinction, Martine—a second language learner working at the fifth-grade level—does, as her paper reveals. Riley had a history of being a more successful student than Martine. That is, his reading was at grade level, and he completed most assignments on time. He was verbal in class, but not a leader. One of his final activities, though, revealed what he gained from participating in this unit. Imagine a white boy of average build and height, standing in front of a statue of Abraham Lincoln. He holds a microphone in one hand and looks directly into the camera while he says the following without benefit of notes. “Today, August 13, 1963, history has been made. It is something that will stick with us forever—the March on Washington. Over 200,000 Negro and white workers lined hand-in-hand and marched from the Washington Monument to the Lincoln Memorial. They marched one mile, and one mile only,

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with Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. at the head of the procession. He was in full stride, wearing a big smile and holding his head high. After the speeches, this reporter got an exclusive interview with Dr. King and this is what he said. “When I asked him, ‘Why did you march today?’ he said, ‘We marched for jobs and freedom for our people.’ “I asked, ‘How are you going to get jobs and freedom?’ “Dr. King said that he hopes that the Civil Rights Bill will pass. The bill will ban racial discrimination in public and strengthen the government’s ability to enforce desegregation in schools. “Finally, I asked him why President Kennedy was so antsy today. Dr. King said that the president wanted to be sure that there was no violence at the march so that the bill would pass. “I’d like to leave you with a few of Dr. King’s words that children at the turn of the century will be studying.” Riley’s video then shifts to a tape playing King’s speech while he stands quietly listening. As with Martine’s earlier sample, teachers may look at this speech and find many areas that could be stronger. At the same time, close examination reveals particular insights this student gained from participating in the unit. First of all, Riley adopted a historical stance. He began with the date, a common technique, but he did not stop there. He used the historic term referring to African Americans (“Negro”), revealing his understanding of one key result of the movement; a change in language use. In addition, he included historic fact— marching hand-in-hand, the inclusion of whites as well as blacks, and the posture of Martin Luther King, Jr. while marching. These facts reveal a synthesis of information from both written and visual texts, one goal for the unit. Next, he included a fictitious interview between himself and Martin Luther King, Jr. to be able to include King’s ideas in an interesting format. That is, an observer of the march or a participant would never be able to know exactly what King was thinking, but a reporter would have additional access. By adopting this perspective, Riley could incorporate the information he learned by reading about Martin Luther King, Jr. This information included his additional question about why President Kennedy was nervous, thus revealing an alternative perspective on the event. He contrasts this well by describing King as smiling while Kennedy is “antsy.” Since learning about alternative perspectives was one of the key goals for the unit, his teacher was pleased to see Riley include this aspect so seamlessly. Finally, Riley makes reference to historic fact—the need for the Civil Rights Bill to pass. This information reveals his understanding of the tensions between King and Kennedy. King understood that the March on Washington would provide a powerful example of the commitment to this goal. Kennedy knew that any violence might jeopardize his efforts to get the bill passed. In two simple sentences, Riley communicates his understanding

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of this tension. While, at first glance, this oral presentation may seem brief, close analysis reveals that Riley has accomplished many of the goals of the unit. A well-framed, thoroughly planned thematic or integrated unit can enhance learning. Further, students’ literacy learning can be assessed daily or weekly using some of the suggestions in Chapter 4. By engaging students in extensive study on a major topic, the teacher can find subtle and clear literacy needs and strengths. Because of this, we strongly advocate for using such units in the fifth-grade classroom.

FINAL THOUGHTS There are many approaches to guide teachers in their efforts to merge two or more content areas for teaching fifth grade. While there are important distinctions among “thematic,” “integrated,” and “interdisciplinary” approaches, their common goal is to foster deeper understandings of key concepts. Through the development and implementation of well-planned connected units, teachers can increase motivation and engagement (Guthrie & Wigfield, 1997). Because we have both observed increased motivation and engagement firsthand in our own classes and in others, we know it is worth the extra time and effort. At the same time, we realize that the new teacher must fit in with the other teachers. Further, there will be a significant amount of time spent planning nonintegrated units. Therefore, we acknowledge that designing such a unit during the first year of practice may not be reasonable. At the same time, “beginning” does not just refer to one year. In fact, one may feel like a beginner for the first 3 to 5 years teaching. Thus, if you cannot envision such an undertaking in year 1, we understand. However, we hope you attempt it by year 2. The rewards are well worth it!

CHAPTER 7

FINDING RESOURCES FOR PLANNING AND INSTRUCTION

I

n the preceding chapters, we described Jacqueline’s teaching, grounded in years of experience and the knowledge developed in her graduate classes. Because she has a deep understanding of fifth graders as learners and the literacy curriculum, planning instruction is much easier for her than for the beginning teacher. We developed this chapter so that you have access to additional resources as questions arise.

ELEMENTS UNIFYING INSTRUCTION ACROSS THE YEAR One concept guiding Jacqueline’s thinking about her instruction is that her instructional plan must incorporate several elements: (1) content standards, (2) ongoing assessment to monitor students’ needs, and (3) goals. We use these as organizing factors for this chapter. Content Standards Jacqueline recognizes the important role that literacy content standards can play in her instruction. She consults these, not as skills to master, but as guides for assessing students’ needs and planning instruction. Each state has developed content standards that are usually available through the state department of education. In 120

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most situations, states considered the national standards developed by the International Reading Association (www.reading.org) and the National Council of the Teachers of English (www.ncte.org). Teachers can consult either of these websites for information about standards and about state-level chapters of these organizations, which will also have information regarding standards. Further, each state department of education will have a website that is likely to include information about state standards. Local school districts also have standards documents that teachers can consult. Finally, there are a few resources to help teachers develop lessons that are standards-based. For example, one website (www.bced.gov.bc.ca/irp/ elak7/elatoc.htm) is designed for teachers and suggests how to incorporate standards for fifth-grade teaching. Even though it is based in British Columbia, the suggestions can be applied to the IRA/NCTE standards. We recommend that the beginning teacher begin instructional planning by asking about district standards first since these are more likely to align with local materials and goals. If no local standards documents exist, state documents are the next reasonable level before consulting the national standards. Assessment to Monitor Students’ Needs In a time of mounting pressure for students to perform well on standardized tests, it might be hard for the beginning teacher to understand at first why we would argue for additional assessment. We are not referring to more tests to evaluate performance, however, but for the ongoing gathering of information about students’ strengths and limitations so that the teacher can tailor instruction to meet all learners’ needs. Standardized tests are administered annually and are designed to provide feedback on programs, not individual learners. Even if they were helpful for instructional decisions, most test results are not available in a timely way. By the time teachers see the test results, they have moved on to new instructional areas and students’ needs have changed. Teachers need a basis on which to plan the instructional focus. While pretests can provide this information, there are better, less formal ways. Fluency can be evaluated by doing running records, comprehension and critical thinking through discussions and log responses. Teachers can develop checklists to apply while observing students read, write, and discuss texts. In our earlier chapters, we included some examples of the tools Jacqueline uses. There are additional methods that can be found in many resources. Therefore, we have provided the following list of books focusing on general assessments that the beginning teacher can consult when developing his or her own assessments. Black, P., Harrison, C., Lee, C., Marshall, B., & William, D. (2003). Assessment for learning. Maidenhead, Berkshire, UK: Open University Press. Fehring, H. (Ed.). (2003). Literacy assessment. Newark, DE: International Reading Association. Goodwin, A. L. (1997). Assessment for equity and inclusion: Embracing all our children. New York: Routledge.

122 TEACHING LITERACY IN FIFTH GRADE Gupta, K. (1998). A practical guide to needs assessment. San Francisco: Pfeiffer. Johnston, P. (1997). Knowing literacy: Constructive literacy assessment. Portland, ME: Stenhouse. Miller, W. H. (2001) Alternative assessment techniques for reading and writing. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Palomba, C. A., & Banta, T. W. (1999). Assessment essentials: Planning, implementing, improving. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Valencia, S. W., Hiebert, E. H., & Afflerbach, P. P. (1994). Authentic reading assessment. Newark, DE: International Reading Association. Wiggins, G. (1998). Educative assessment. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Because the current emphasis, both nationally and in many other countries, is on standardized measures of achievement, the beginning teacher might be wise to consult texts that discuss some of the strengths and limitations of such measures. While we question the myopic view of assessing student learning that the emphasis on standardized tests reflects, we recognize that they will be part of the American educational landscape for a while. Therefore, the following list includes many texts that may help you more fully understand this current phenomenon. Applebee, A. (1996). Curriculum as conversation. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Newmann, F. (1996). Authentic achievement: Restructuring schools for intellectual quality. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Popham, W. J. (1999). Why standardized tests don’t measure educational quality. Educational Leadership, 56, 8–15. Popham, W. J. (2003, January 8). The debasement of student proficiency. Education Week. Available at www.edweek.org. Sergiovanni, T. (1994). Organizations or communities: Changing the metaphor changes the theory. Educational Administration Quarterly, 30, 214–226. Shepard, L. (2001). The role of classroom assessment in teaching and learning. In V. Richardson (Ed.), Handbook of research on teaching (4th ed., pp. 1066–1101). Washington, DC: American Educational Research Association. Tharp, R. (1997). From at-risk to excellence: Research, theory, and principles for practice. Washington, DC: Center for Applied Linguistics and Center for Research on Education, Diversity, and Excellence. Tharp, R., & Gallimore, R. (1988). Rousing minds to life: Teaching, learning and schooling in social context. New York: Cambridge University Press. Wiggins, G. (1992). Creating tests worth taking. Educational Leadership, 49, 26–33.

Literacy Instructional Goals After consulting the content standards and assessing students’ needs, teachers then develop the instructional goals for a fifth-grade literacy program. These goals are closely related to the literacy needs of the children in the classroom. At the same time, the ultimate goal for the intermediate grades is supporting students’ comprehension of texts and writing ability. Therefore, no matter whether the teacher designs instruction as Jacqueline does through the use of genre study or whether

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she develops her own overall design, the fifth-grade teacher must provide instruction focusing on (1) reading strategies so that children will become better comprehenders of texts, (2) vocabulary development to enhance both reading comprehension and writing of engaging texts, and (3) the writing of both expository and narrative texts. When considering resources for these areas, we have identified these texts as ones that can meet a variety of teachers’ needs.

Reading Comprehension Blachowicz, C., & Ogle, D. (2001). Reading comprehension: Strategies for independent learners. New York: Guilford Press. Block, C. C. (2003). Teaching comprehension: The comprehension process approach. New York: Allyn & Bacon. Harvey, S., & Goudvis, A. (2000). Strategies that work: Teaching comprehension to enhance understanding. Portland, ME: Stenhouse. McLaughlin, M., & Allen, M. B. (2002). Guided comprehension: A teaching model for grades 3–8. Newark, DE: International Reading Association. Outsen, N., & Yulga, S. (2002). Teaching comprehension strategies all readers need: Minilessons that introduce, extend, and deepen reading skills and promote a lifelong love of literature. New York: Scholastic. Sweet, A. P., & Snow, C. E. (Eds). (2003). Rethinking reading comprehension. New York: Guilford Press. Wilhelm, J. (2001). Improving comprehension with think-aloud strategies. New York: Scholastic. Zimmermann, S., & Keene, E. O. (1997). Mosaic of thought. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.

Writing Bright, R. M. (1995). Writing instruction in the intermediate grades: What is said, what is done, what is understood. Newark, DE: International Reading Association. Ermitage, K. (2003). Making the grade: Everything your fifth grader needs to know. Bethpage, NY: Barron’s Educational Series. Glass, K. T. (2004). Curriculum design for writing instruction: Creating standards-based lesson plans and rubrics. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press. Jackson, N. R., & Pillow, P. L. (1999). The reading–writing workshop (grades 1–5). New York: Scholastic. Lola, M. (2003). Writing lessons for the overhead: Grades 5 and up. New York: Scholastic. Schaefer, L. M. (2001). Teaching narrative writing (grades 4–8). New York: Scholastic.

Vocabulary Beck, I. L., McKeown, M. G., & Kucan, L. (2002). Bringing words to life: Robust vocabulary instruction. New York: Guilford Press. Blachowicz, C., & Fisher, P. (2005). Teaching vocabulary in all classrooms (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

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Book Club McMahon, S. I., & Raphael, T. E. (Eds.). (1997). The book club connection: Literacy learning and classroom talk. New York: Teachers College Press. Raphael, T. E., Pardo, L. S., & Highfield, K. (2002). Book club: A literature-based curriculum (2nd ed.). Lawrence, MA: Small Planet Communications.

PLANNING UNITS THAT MERGE CONTENT AREAS In Chapter 6, we describe how we develop integrated units. We also recognized that such instructional plans require significant teacher time for planning and successful implementation. At the same time, we acknowledged that such units prove motivational for us as teachers and for our students. Therefore, we have provided the following list of resources for the new teacher to consult when ready to attempt such instructional units. Integrating the Language Arts Chatton, B., & Decker-Collins, B. L. (1999). Blurring the edges: Integrated curriculum through writing and children’s literature. New York: Heinemann. Short, K. (1996). Learning together through inquiry: From Columbus to integrated curriculum. York, ME: Stenhouse.

Creating Integrated or Interdisciplinary Units Campbell, D. M., & Harris, L. S. (2000). Collaborative theme building: How teachers write integrated curriculum. New York: Allyn & Bacon. Clark, E. T. (1996). Designing and implementing an integrated curriculum: A studentcentered approach. Brandon, VT: Holistic Education Press. Drake, S. M. (1998). Creating integrated curriculum: Proven ways to increase student learning. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press. Erickson, H. L. (2001). Stirring the head, heart and soul: Redefining curriculum and instruction. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press. Freeland, K., & Hammons, K. (1998). Curriculum for integrated learning: A lesson-based approach. Clifton Park, NY: Thomson Delmar Learning. Kellough, R. D. (Ed.). (1995). Integrating language arts and social studies for intermediate and middle school students. New York: Prentice Hall. Mallery, A. L. (1999). Creating a catalyst for thinking: The integrated curriculum. New York: Allyn & Bacon. Snow, M. A., & Brinton, D. M. (Eds.). (1997). The content-based classroom: Perspectives on integrating language and content. New York: Addison-Wesley. Tchudi, S. N., & Lafer, S. (1996). The interdisciplinary teacher’s handbook: Integrated teaching across the curriculum. Portsmouth, NH: Boynton/Cook.

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REVIEWS OF CHILDREN’S LITERATURE At the beginning of Chapter 5, Jacqueline discussed how, during her first year of teaching fifth grade, she did not make a good choice when deciding to teach The Lion, the Witch, and the Wardrobe at the beginning of the year. Clearly, once the teacher gains experience, text selection gets easier—easier than when first starting out, but never easy because there are so many great children’s books available. At the same time, there are books that students may enjoy reading but that may not support the teacher’s instructional goals. Therefore, we suggest the teacher consult journals that regularly review children’s literature so that he can make choices beneficial to his students. The following three journals are ones we recommend:

Ø Book Links, published by the American Library Association. Ø Language Arts, published by the National Council of the Teachers of English.

Ø The Reading Teacher, published by the International Reading Association. ELECTRONIC RESOURCES SUPPORTING LITERACY INSTRUCTION Often websites change, either modifying their addresses or closing completely. For this reason, we hesitated before making recommendations for websites, but many locations can serve as valid resources for the beginning teacher. We have searched through each of the websites listed and found some value in their offerings. Websites Reviewing/Recommending Children’s Literature In addition to the journals listed above, we found these sites that provide information about children’s literature to help teachers make good choices.

Ø www.csusm.edu/csb/

Contains information about children’s books in

Spanish.

Ø dir.yahoo.com/Arts/Humanities/Literature/Genres/Children_s/ Recommended_Reading_Lists/

Lists recommended texts for students.

Ø www.georgesuttle.com/presentations/MSRC/page2.shtml

Lists resources for teachers to help make choices for students’ reading.

Ø www.ucalgary.ca/~dkbrown/guides

Lists research guides to help teachers select quality children’s literature.

Ø www.ucalgary.ca/~dkbrown/journals children’s literature.

Lists journals with reviews of

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Websites with Texts to Download Sometimes, teachers realize that the existing curriculum materials in their district will not meet the instructional goals and/or students’ needs. Further, classroom libraries may not provide good texts for students’ independent reading. Finally, fifth-grade teachers need to teach content-area materials and may find that the textbooks provided are too challenging for their students or that the information included is too sketchy. Many teachers purchase materials themselves to create a collection that better meets the needs of their students. While this is admirable, it takes time, and the beginning teacher may need to supplement classroom materials immediately. For this reason, we also include a list of websites where you can download texts for instruction. Includes several children’s stories. Ø www.ucalgary.ca/~dkbrown/stories Includes television scripts that could be used for Ø simplyscripts.com/tv Readers’ Theatre, for drama activities, or to build fluency.

Ø www.ucomics.com

Online comics, including editorial cartoons related to current events to use for critical thinking related to current events.

Ø www.bartleby.com

Includes several texts, many of which are more appropriate for middle or high school; however, there are poems, essays, and a few short stories that fifth-grade students could read. In addition, the more challenging stories might be appropriate for some of the better readers.

Ø www.governmentguide.com/research_and_education/science/space

A government site with science texts related to space and space travel.

Weekly Reader online. Ø www.weeklyreader.com/homepage.asp Enables the teacher to Ø cobblestonepub.com/pages/freearticles.htm download articles from Cobblestone magazine.

Ø aaronshep.com/indexes/theme.html

Includes a themed index of texts for Readers’ Theatre or shorter drama activities.

Ø www.planetozkids.com/oban/legends.htm

Includes a number of

legends.

Ø www.nationalgeographic.com/grimm/main.html

Sponsored by National Geographic, this site presents 12 Grimms’ fairytales.

Websites with Lesson Plans Clearly, Jacqueline develops her plans based on her knowledge of her students, the curriculum standards, and literacy learning. No published set of lesson plans, even those found in basal reading series, can completely match the needs of both learners and teachers to meet their goals. We realize that planning takes time because

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beginning teachers are learning about their students and the curriculum every day. Therefore, we recognize that having a lesson outline with ideas for instruction can support all teachers, particularly those just entering fifth grade. Hopefully, the district will provide a teaching guide with instructional ideas. At the same time, even with such guides, teachers want to try something new. Therefore, we have included some websites with models of lesson plans. We suggest that each of these be modified so that it meets the needs of the students and facilitates the teacher’s efforts to meet content standards. For this reason, we do not recommend that the plans just be downloaded and implemented, but that they become guides for thoughtful practice.

Ø www.readwritethink.org/

Sponsored by IRA, NCTE, and MarcoPolo, this site includes a number of lesson plans for teachers to implement for reading, writing, and thinking activities.

Ø www.si.umich.edu/CHICO/Harlem/text/photographs_reading.html A lesson on how to read historic photos.

Ø edsitement.neh.gov/

Developed by the National Endowment for the Humanities with lesson plans for literature and language arts. Plans include literature such as teaching haiku, or comparing Cinderella tales, or novel units.

Ø darkwing.uoregon.edu/~leslieob/diamantes.html

Includes examples

of diamante poems with a lesson plan.

Ø www.geocities.com/EnchantedForest/Tower/1217/stures.html A portal to a number of other sites with teaching guides.

Websites for Literature-Based Units Using her prior experience, Jacqueline has developed a number of literature-based units. As with all other lessons, these units are designed with standards and students’ needs in mind. In this limited space, we did not provide a complete outline of any entire unit; therefore, we suggest that you consult the two websites below for guides for such longer units.

Ø projects.edtech.sandi.net/brooklyn/cinderella/

Guides the teacher

through a Cinderella unit.

Ø projects.edtech.sandi.net/grant/historicalfiction/

Focuses on a

historical fiction unit.

Websites for Grammar and Writing We listed information about the specific guides Jacqueline has for her writing program. These are cited in our reference list. In addition to these, we found the following websites promising in helping the novice teacher.

128 TEACHING LITERACY IN FIFTH GRADE

Ø www.wordcentral.com/

Provides dictionary access and allows students to create their own dictionary of words to learn. This would support an individualized spelling/vocabulary program.

Ø www.bbc.co.uk/education/listenandwrite/similes/index.htm

Students can listen to a poem with similes and are then guided on how to create their own.

Ø www.vocabulary.com/rsvp.html#jhcept

Includes puzzles to help

students with word roots.

Ø www.kids-space.org/HPT/1a/11a.html

Supports writing since it includes prompts to guide students when writing a story.

FINAL THOUGHTS Whether it is the first year of teaching or the first year in a new grade level, teachers start with a high level of excitement and enthusiasm for the upcoming year. Within the first few weeks, the realization of just how complicated and multilayered this profession is becomes very clear. The first few years of teaching are exhausting because we are learning so much. In addition, a good teacher is always reflecting on what the students are learning, what needs to be taught, and how he or she can teach the content better. Anyone without classroom experience can never imagine how challenging and rewarding it can be. In this chapter, we have provided a list of potential resources. Many beginning teachers will be too tired each night after preparing for the next day to read many of these resources, so we did not include them to frustrate you. Instead, we provided a long list for ongoing professional growth. We also suggest that teachers collaborate when possible. As we have discovered through the process of writing this book, working with another person and feeding off of his or her ideas makes the process much easier. The same is true in teaching; when teachers collaborate, the lessons become richer and more effective. While we have suggested many books and websites, never overlook a colleague next door, down the hall, or sitting beside you in a graduate class who has experience in teaching, wisdom to share, and knowledge of the community. Becoming an effective teacher takes time and experience. Looking for better resources is an ongoing project that begins the first day and continues throughout one’s career. We sincerely hope what we have described will make the journey an engaging one for both teachers and students.

APPENDIX

BOOK CLUB JOURNAL INFORMATION SHEETS

BOOK CLUB JOURNAL INFORMATION SHEET

DEVELOPING A READING PLAN Name: Book Title: STRATEGY: Mature readers develop a reading plan so that they budget enough time to complete the book within the time frame they have. In our class, we will spend 8 days reading, writing about, and discussing this book. This sheet is in the front of your log so that you can look at your plan and know what you need to read each day to be prepared for class. If you cannot keep up with this schedule for any reason (get sick, have athletic practices, have church, etc.), then you should plan to read ahead or read more each day that you can. You are responsible for coming to class prepared, so you are the only one who can develop this plan.

DETERMINING THE REQUIRED NUMBER OF PAGES EACH DAY How many pages are in your book? What do you get when you divide the number of pages by 8? This is the number of pages you need to read each night for class.

DETERMINING WHAT NEEDS TO BE READ FOR EACH DAY Now, look at your book and divide it into 8 reading days by using the number above as a guide. This means finding divisions that make sense, like the ends of chapters. That will probably mean you will read a few more or a few less pages on any given day, but overall you should read about the same number of pages each day. Finally, if you know now that you will have any events that might keep you from getting your reading finished some night (a basketball game on Tuesday, church on Wednesday, a family party on Monday), plan ahead for when you will complete that reading and note it below.

DEVELOPING YOUR PLAN Now, write out your reading plan below. Reading days

Day of the week

Pages to read

Any scheduled events

Day 1 Day 2 Day 3 Day 4 Day 5 Day 6 Day 7 Day 8 From Teaching Literacy in Fifth Grade by Susan I. McMahon and Jacqueline Wells. Copyright 2007 by The Guilford Press. Permission to photocopy this form is granted to purchasers of this book for personal use only (see copyright page for details).

131

BOOK CLUB JOURNAL INFORMATION SHEET

EXPECTATIONS AND POINT ASSIGNMENT Name: Book Title: Mature readers think about what they read as they are reading. They make pictures in their head, predict what’s coming next, and use context clues to figure out unknown words. Good readers also form personal ideas and opinions about the characters, events, problems, goals, and solutions in the story. For each assigned log entry, I have described what will help you understand this book. Please keep this description in mind as you read and respond to the book. Expectations: You will practice what good readers do as you read this book and write this journal. Record the date and pages each day. Each journal entry should give me enough information to know what you are thinking, so it should be at least 5–7 sentences long. You will be graded on the following: Points assigned for each journal entry: 1. Writing addresses the prompt and shows clear comprehension. 50 points 2. Writing shows evidence of proofreading.

30 points

3. Uses complete sentences at all times.

20 points

From Teaching Literacy in Fifth Grade by Susan I. McMahon and Jacqueline Wells. Copyright 2007 by The Guilford Press. Permission to photocopy this form is granted to purchasers of this book for personal use only (see copyright page for details).

132

BOOK CLUB JOURNAL INFORMATION SHEET

IDENTIFYING “WONDERFUL WORDS” Name: Book Title: FACET OF COMPREHENSION: While reading, mature readers learn new words the author uses in his or her writing. By using context clues, readers understand the meaning of words they have never seen before. Also, some words seem to stand out because they sound funny, create a good description, are confusing, or remind the reader of other words. Remembering these interesting words will help you comprehend the book better. This log asks you to keep track of such words as you read this book. Assessment: 1. Writing addresses the prompt and shows clear comprehension. 50 points 2. Writing shows evidence of proofreading.

30 points

3. Uses complete sentences at all times.

20 points

Prompt: Below, I have listed some interesting words, where I found them in this book, and how this author used them in the book. I also explain why I picked them (new, crazy, descriptive, confusing, I might want to use them again, they remind me of another word). Finally, I will list what the words really mean.

From Teaching Literacy in Fifth Grade by Susan I. McMahon and Jacqueline Wells. Copyright 2007 by The Guilford Press. Permission to photocopy this form is granted to purchasers of this book for personal use only (see copyright page for details).

133

BOOK CLUB JOURNAL INFORMATION SHEET

UNDERSTANDING CHARACTERS Name: Book Title: FACET OF COMPREHENSION: While reading, mature readers keep track of the information the author provides about the main character(s). They make pictures in their head using the author’s description of what the character looks like. They make predictions about what the character will do next, based on what he or she has done or said before. They also pay attention to what other characters say about this character. Good readers form personal ideas and opinions about the characters based on what the author tells them. Doing this will help you comprehend the book better. This entry asks you to consider a character you find interesting and write about him or her. Keep this information in mind while writing your journal. Assessment: 1. Writing addresses the prompt and shows clear comprehension. 50 points 2. Writing shows evidence of proofreading.

30 points

3. Uses complete sentences at all times.

20 points

Prompt: Write about a character you liked or didn’t like or just thought was interesting. Be sure to explain the reasons you selected this character. As you write, think about the strategy described above and include your thoughts about this character’s appearance, actions, ability to get along with others, the reasons you think he or she is interesting or important, and why you did or did not like this character.

From Teaching Literacy in Fifth Grade by Susan I. McMahon and Jacqueline Wells. Copyright 2007 by The Guilford Press. Permission to photocopy this form is granted to purchasers of this book for personal use only (see copyright page for details).

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BOOK CLUB JOURNAL INFORMATION SHEET

REMEMBERING THE ORDER OF EVENTS Name: Book Title: FACET OF COMPREHENSION: Mature readers remember major events in the book and the order of them because the author shows how one event leads to the next ones. This helps the reader understand the actions of the main characters and the meaning the author is trying to communicate. Also, it helps the reader comprehend the book better. This log entry asks you to keep track of main events in the order they are presented in the book. Assessment: 1. Writing addresses the prompt and shows clear comprehension. 50 points 2. Writing shows evidence of proofreading.

30 points

3. Uses complete sentences at all times.

20 points

Prompt: Here are some events in order from the book. Here is why it is important to remember the order in which these things happened and what would change if the events were in a different order.

From Teaching Literacy in Fifth Grade by Susan I. McMahon and Jacqueline Wells. Copyright 2007 by The Guilford Press. Permission to photocopy this form is granted to purchasers of this book for personal use only (see copyright page for details).

135

BOOK CLUB JOURNAL INFORMATION SHEET

AUTHOR’S CRAFT Name: Book Title: FACET OF COMPREHENSION: While reading, mature readers keep in mind that the author is creating all the characters, events, and outcomes. Good authors keep the reader in suspense by adding information slowly. They also provide clues throughout the book to help the reader understand why characters react as they do or why certain events are important. Good authors also create vivid pictures in the reader’s mind because they use descriptive language. Finally, authors might make connections or allusions to other texts. When mature readers keep this in mind, they understand the book better. In this log, you will write about things you found in this book that made you appreciate or dislike this author. Assessment: 1. Writing addresses the prompt and shows clear comprehension. 50 points 2. Writing shows evidence of proofreading.

30 points

3. Uses complete sentences at all times.

20 points

Prompt: Here are things the author did that made me like or dislike the book. I wish I could write like this because. . . . I found some special words, funny language, good descriptions in Chapter . Next time I write, I will. . . . It reminds me of another book I have read because. . . .

From Teaching Literacy in Fifth Grade by Susan I. McMahon and Jacqueline Wells. Copyright 2007 by The Guilford Press. Permission to photocopy this form is granted to purchasers of this book for personal use only (see copyright page for details).

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BOOK CLUB JOURNAL INFORMATION SHEET

VISUALIZATION OR CREATING MENTAL PICTURES OF THE BOOK Name: Book Title: FACET OF COMPREHENSION: While reading, mature readers create mental pictures of what the author describes in the book. These pictures are based on the words that describe the setting and/or characters and their actions. These mental pictures help the reader remember events while reading and the entire book afterward. They also help the reader understand the book better. In this log, you should try to represent the pictures this book prompted in your head. Assessment: 1. Writing addresses the prompt and shows clear comprehension. 50 points 2. Writing shows evidence of proofreading.

30 points

3. Uses complete sentences at all times.

20 points

Prompt: First, write about what you are drawing and why you chose this to draw (favorite part, most exciting part, most interesting part, most descriptive part). Then, do you best to show the picture in your head that developed either while you were reading or afterward.

From Teaching Literacy in Fifth Grade by Susan I. McMahon and Jacqueline Wells. Copyright 2007 by The Guilford Press. Permission to photocopy this form is granted to purchasers of this book for personal use only (see copyright page for details).

137

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REMEMBERING STORY PARTS Name: Book Title: FACET OF COMPREHENSION: During reading, mature readers keep track of important or interesting parts of the story. This helps them remember the sequence of events and details that support them. By remembering these story parts, the reader will comprehend the book better. In this log entry, you will note parts of the book that you will remember and why. Assessment: 1. Writing addresses the prompt and shows clear comprehension. 50 points 2. Writing shows evidence of proofreading.

30 points

3. Uses complete sentences at all times.

20 points

Prompt: Here is the part in the book that I want to share. It is on page . . . and ending with. . . . This is why I think it is special or interesting.

, beginning with

From Teaching Literacy in Fifth Grade by Susan I. McMahon and Jacqueline Wells. Copyright 2007 by The Guilford Press. Permission to photocopy this form is granted to purchasers of this book for personal use only (see copyright page for details).

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BOOK CLUB JOURNAL INFORMATION SHEET

DEVELOPING PERSONAL CONNECTIONS TO THE BOOK Name: Book Title: FACET OF COMPREHENSION: During reading, mature readers make personal connections to the book. For example, the author might describe a character or event that reminds the reader of someone or something in his or her own life. Another example is when the author describes something, like a character, event, or idea, that the reader knows about through reading other books or seeing in movies. These connections help the reader understand and remember the book. In this log, you will record any connections you have made while reading this book. Assessment: 1. Writing addresses the prompt and shows clear comprehension. 50 points 2. Writing shows evidence of proofreading.

30 points

3. Uses complete sentences at all times.

20 points

Prompt: The book reminds me of things in my own life. Here is what happened in the book that made me think about what has happened in my own life. This is why I thought about my own life. (I feel the same as this character because. . . . I have had the same things happen to me, like. . . .). Be sure to describe both the events/characters in the book and the event/person in your life.

From Teaching Literacy in Fifth Grade by Susan I. McMahon and Jacqueline Wells. Copyright 2007 by The Guilford Press. Permission to photocopy this form is granted to purchasers of this book for personal use only (see copyright page for details).

139

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THINKING CRITICALLY ABOUT THE BOOK: CHAPTER CRITIQUE Name: Book Title: FACET OF COMPREHENSION: Both during and after reading, mature readers think about the ideas or information presented. They do this by comparing what they read to other texts or experiences in their own lives. They also analyze whether the information or ideas are logical, reasonable, or appropriate for the genre. (For example, a character in a science fiction text might be able to see through walls, but one in historical fiction could not.) Finally, mature readers will develop an opinion about the book based on all this. By thinking about this while reading and after finishing the book, the reader comprehends the text better. Assessment: 1. Writing addresses the prompt and shows clear comprehension. 50 points 2. Writing shows evidence of proofreading.

30 points

3. Uses complete sentences at all times.

20 points

Prompt: Here is what I really like about the book. This is why I liked it. Here is what I would change if I were the author. This is what I didn’t like.

From Teaching Literacy in Fifth Grade by Susan I. McMahon and Jacqueline Wells. Copyright 2007 by The Guilford Press. Permission to photocopy this form is granted to purchasers of this book for personal use only (see copyright page for details).

140

REFERENCES

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INDEX

“f” following a page number indicates a figure; “t” following a page number indicates a table. Assessments. see also Evaluations Book Club and, 55 of culminating projects, 78–79 early in the school year, 16, 66, 67t, 68–70 novel units and, 98–99 ongoing, 71–78 overview, 65–66 resources for, 121–122 reviewing earlier ones to identify current needs of students, 15 self-assessments of students, 79–80, 81f

B Background knowledge instructional approaches to support, 24 response to reading materials and, 26–27, 41f Backward mapping, 13 Baseline information gathering, 66, 67t, 68–70. see also Assessments “Big ideas” in unit studies, 110–111, 112 “Bleezer’s Ice Cream,” 89 Book Club journal information sheets for, 131–140 novel units and, 94, 95t–96t ongoing assessments and, 72–73 oral language and, 32 overview, 55 resources for, 124 Buddy reading, 62

146

C Capabilities of students, 6 Character development knowledge, 76–77, 134 Characteristics of fifth graders daily oral language (DOL) and, 5–7 overview, 1 planning literacy learning and, 8–11 starting the day and, 2–4 Choice, student classroom environment and, 46–47, 50 culminating projects and, 79 instructional materials and, 56 journal writing and, 76 Cinderella, 19–21, 20t Civil Rights unit example, 106–117, 108t, 117–119 Classroom-based assessments, 71. see also Assessments Classroom management, 46 Collaboration, professional, 128 Community, classroom, 49–50 Comprehension skills Book Club and, 55 DR-TA and, 18–19 instructional approaches to support, 24–25 journal information sheets for, 131–140 love of reading and, 17–18 ongoing assessments and, 74–78 resources for, 123 using graphic organizers to promote, 22–23 variability of among students, 8–9 vocabulary skills and, 33–34

Index Computer use classroom environment and, 48–49 integration of language arts with other content areas and, 108–109 Confidence of students, 6 Connections made during reading culminating projects and, 78–79 engaged learning and, 41f integration of language arts with other content areas and, 113–114 journal information sheets for, 139 oral language skills and, 72 personality traits of historic and fictional characters and, 115–116 Constructive criticism sandwich overview, 91 posting of work and, 52 Content area materials, 23–24, 25–27 Content instruction, 111–115 Content standards drama unit and, 100t example of in inquiry unit, 34–37 incorporating into goals, 13, 14t, 15–16 instructional materials and, 53 integration of language arts with other content areas and, 106–107 needs of students and, 16–31, 17t, 20t novel units and, 93t oral language and, 32 overview, 37 planning instruction and, 12, 120–121 poetry unit and, 83, 84t vocabulary skills and, 32–34 Convention of writing, 28. see also Writing instruction Conversational skills, 72–74. see also Speaking skills Cooperative learning, 45–46. see also Feedback, peer Creative writing assignments, 27–28 Culminating projects assessment and, 78–79 poetry unit example, 83, 84t–85t, 85–86, 87t– 88t, 88–91

D Daily oral language (DOL), 5–7, 57 Daily schedule. see Schedule, daily Decision making, 35–36 Desk arrangements, 45–46, 50–51. see also Environment, classroom Developing Writing and Thinking Skills across the Curriculum, 53

147

Directed reading–thinking activity (DR-TA), 18–21, 20t District-wide curricula standards, 13 DR-TA. see Directed reading–thinking activity (DRTA) Drama unit example, 100–101, 100t, 102t

E Engaged learning example of in inquiry unit, 34–37 journal writing and, 75–78 making connections, 41f overview, 31 Environment, classroom instructional materials and, 51–58, 57–58 introducing the students to, 58 overview, 44–45, 64 physical setup, 45–51 scheduling and, 58–59, 60t, 61–64, 61t Evaluations. see also Assessments drama unit and, 101 early in the school year, 16, 68–69 novel units and, 99 reviewing earlier ones to identify current needs of students, 15 Exploratory talk desk arrangements and, 45–46 novel units and, 99–100 Extemporaneous speech, 11 Extended writing, 28–31

F Feedback, instructional beginning-of-the-year assessments and, 68–69 poetry unit and, 91 posting of work and, 52 Feedback, peer example of in inquiry unit, 36 poetry unit and, 89, 91 writing skills and, 10 Flexibility classroom environment and, 50–51 in scheduling, 58 student-generated instructional materials and, 57 yearly planning and, 59 Fluency skills assessment and, 121 popcorn reading and, 24 variability of among students, 8 The Friendship, 113–114

148 Index G Gender differences among students, 2 Goals in fifth grade content standards and, 16–31, 17t, 20t example of in inquiry unit, 34–37 incorporating content standards into, 13, 14t, 15–16 increased independence, 4 oral language, 32 resources for, 122–124 vocabulary skills and, 32–34 Grading beginning-of-the-year assessments and, 68–69 posting of work and, 52 Grammar instruction, 127–128. see also Skill instruction Graphic organizers example of, 38f, 39f overview, 22–23

Interest, love of reading and, 17–18 International Reading Association (IRA), 13, 121 Internet resources for planning and instruction, 125–128 Internet use integration of language arts with other content areas and, 108–109 overview, 49 Invention of writing, 28. see also Writing instruction

J Journal writing Book Club and, 131–140 ongoing assessments and, 74–78 overview, 27–28, 56–57 response to reading materials and, 26–27

L H “How to Eat a Poem,” 88

I Independence characteristics of fifth graders and, 3–4 instructional materials and, 51–52 Inquiry standards. see Content standards Inquiry unit example, 34–37 Instructional approaches Book Club and, 55 forms used in, 38f–43f instructional materials and, 52–55 integration of language arts with other content areas and, 111–115 poetry unit and, 86, 87t–88t resources for, 120–128 to support readers, 24–25 Instructional materials, 51–58 Instructional planning. see Planning literacy learning Integration of language arts with other content areas example of, 34–37, 117–119 guiding principles, 106–117, 108t overview, 104–105, 119 planning instruction and, 105–106 resources for, 124, 127 Interdisciplinary units. see Integration of language arts with other content areas

Language standards. see Content standards Learning preparation, 2–4 Lesson planning, 126–127. see also Planning literacy learning Library, classroom, 48 Listening skills, 72 Literacy instruction example Civil Rights unit, 106–117, 108t drama unit, 100–101, 100t, 102t novel units, 92–94, 93t, 95t–96t, 97–100 overview, 82–83, 103 poetry unit, 83, 84t–85t, 85–86, 87t–88t, 88–91 Literature standards. see Content standards Love of reading, 17–18

M Media standards. see Content standards Metacognition, 8 Mississippi Bridge, 114–115 Motivation, love of reading and, 17–18 Multisyllabic words, 9

N National Council of the Teachers of English (NCTE), 13, 121 Needs of fifth graders content standards and, 16–31, 17t, 20t example of in inquiry unit, 34–37

Index identifying with prior evaluations, 15 planning literacy learning and, 8–11 resources for assessing, 121–122 Nonverbal communication, 72 Novel units examples, 92–94, 93t, 95t–96t, 97– 100

O Ongoing assessments. see also Assessments novel units and, 98–99 overview, 71–78 Oral language skills drama unit and, 101 example of in inquiry unit, 37 goals regarding, 32 ongoing assessments and, 71–74 variability of among students, 11 Oral language standards. see Content standards

P Paragraph writing instructional approaches and, 25–26 topic sentence construction, 40f Parental involvement, 36–37 Peer-based learning, 45–46 Peer feedback. see Feedback, peer Personality traits of historic and fictional characters, 115–116, 117–119 Persuasive writing forms used in, 42f–43f writing instruction and, 28–31 Planning literacy learning beginning-of-the-year assessments and, 66 characteristics of fifth graders and, 8–11 content standards and, 13, 14t, 15–16 drama unit and, 101, 102t instructional materials and, 52–55 integration of language arts with other content areas, 105–106 novel units and, 92–94, 93t, 95t–96t, 97–99 overview, 103 poetry unit and, 86, 87t–88t resources for, 120–128, 126–127 weekly planning and, 61–62, 61t yearly planning and, 59, 60t, 61 Planning, weekly. see Weekly planning Plot graph example of, 38f, 39f overview, 22–23 Poetry unit example, 83, 84t–85t, 85–86, 87t–88t, 88–91

149

Popcorn reading, 24 Posting of work, 52 Predictions DR-TA and, 18–21, 20t integration of language arts with other content areas and, 113–114 Preparation to learn, 2–4 Prereading activities, 33 Prior knowledge. see Background knowledge Process instruction, 111–115. see also Strategy instruction

R Readers’ Theatre, 100 Reading curriculum materials, 54–55, 55–56 Reading instruction, 70 Reading needs of fifth graders, 8–9 Reading standards. see Content standards Records of students, 15 Research, engagement in, 34–37 Research standards. see Content standards Resources, classroom integration of language arts with other content areas and, 107–110, 108t introducing the students to, 58 overview, 57–58 yearly planning and, 59 Resources for planning and instruction assessment and, 121–122 content standards and, 120–121 electronic resources, 125–128 instructional goals, 122–124 integration of language arts with other content areas and, 124 lesson planning, 126–127 text selection, 125, 125–126 Response to reading materials engaged learning and, 31, 41f integration of language arts with other content areas and, 113–114 journal information sheets for, 137 ongoing assessments and, 74–78 personality traits of historic and fictional characters and, 115–116 writing in journals regarding, 26–27 Responsibility Book Club and, 73 characteristics of fifth graders and, 2–4 love of reading and, 18 Routines characteristics of fifth graders and, 3–4 daily oral language (DOL) and, 5–7 novel units and, 98

150 Index S

U

Scaffolding, 28–29 Schedule, daily characteristics of fifth graders and, 3–4 daily oral language (DOL) and, 5–7 poetry unit and, 86, 87t–88t weekly planning and, 61–62, 61t Scheduling activities, 58–59, 60t, 61–64, 61t. see also Schedule, daily; Weekly planning Self-assessments of students, 79–80, 81f Self-reliance of students, 51–52 Six Traits model, 53–54 Skill instruction, 30–31 Speaking skills ongoing assessments and, 72–74 variability of among students, 11 Spelling instruction, 62–64 Standardized testing overview, 65–66, 121 planning instruction and, 15 Standards, content. see Content standards Start of the day characteristics of fifth graders and, 2–4 daily oral language (DOL) and, 5–7 Step up to Writing, 54 Strategy instruction content areas and, 23–24 goal of, 18–19 integration of language arts with other content areas and, 111–115 self-assessments of students, 80, 81f variability of abilities among students and, 8– 9 Student-generated instructional materials, 56–57 Support, peer, 6

Unit study. see Integration of language arts with other content areas

T Technology resources for planning and instruction, 125–128 Technology standards, 23, 48–49. see also Content standards Technology use classroom environment and, 48–49 integration of language arts with other content areas and, 108–109 Text selection integration of language arts with other content areas and, 107–110, 108t resources for, 125, 125–126 Thematic instruction. see Integration of language arts with other content areas Tone of class, 2–7

V Visualization journal information sheets for, 137 role of in comprehension, 33–34 Vocabulary skills goals regarding, 32–34 journal information sheets for, 133 resources for, 123 variability of among students, 9

W Websites for planning and instruction, 125–128 Weekly planning drama unit and, 102t novel units and, 95t–96t overview, 61–62, 61t poetry unit and, 87t–88t spelling instruction and, 63–64 Wisconsin’s Model of Academic Standards, 13, 14t Word identification skills, 8 Wright Source spelling program, 63 Writer’s Express, 54 Writing, knowledge about, 77–78 Writing instruction beginning-of-the-year assessments and, 68–70 extended writing, 28–31 forms used in, 41f–43f instructional materials and, 53–54, 56 journal writing, 26–27, 27–28 novel units and, 99 resources for, 127–128 response to reading materials and, 26–27 topic sentence construction, 40f variability of abilities among students and, 10 Writing rubrics, 69–70 Writing skills resources for, 123 variability of among students, 10 Writing standards. see Content standards

Y Yearly plan literacy units and, 83, 84t–85t overview, 59, 60t, 61